1794 Treason Trials, Historical context
The historical backdrop to the Treason Trials is complex; it involves not only the British parliamentary reform efforts of the 1770s and 1780s but also the French Revolution. In the 1770s and 1780s, there was an effort among liberal-minded Members of Parliament to reform the British electoral system. A disproportionately small number of electors voted for MPs and many seats were bought.


1794 Treason Trials, Historical context
Christopher Wyvill and William Pitt the Younger argued for additional seats to be added to the House of Commons and the Duke of Richmond and John Cartwright advocated a more radical reform: "the payment of MPs, an end to corruption and patronage in parliamentary elections, annual parliaments (partly to enable the speedy removal of corrupt MPs) and, preeminently and most controversially, universal manhood suffrage". Both efforts failed and the reform movement appeared moribund in the mid-1780s.


1794 Treason Trials, Historical context
Once the revolution in France began to demonstrate the power of popular agitation, the British reform movement was reinvigorated. Much of the vigorous political debate in the 1790s in Britain was sparked by the publication of Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). Surprising his friends and enemies alike, Burke, who had supported the American Revolution, criticized the French Revolution and the British radicals who had welcomed its early stages.


1794 Treason Trials, Historical context
While the radicals saw the revolution as analogous to Britain's own Glorious Revolution in 1688, which had restricted the powers of the monarchy, Burke argued that the appropriate historical analogy was the English Civil War (1642–1651) in which Charles I had been executed in 1649. He viewed the French Revolution as the violent overthrow of a legitimate government. In Reflections he argues that citizens do not have the right to revolt against their government, because civilizations, including governments, are the result of social and political consensus. If a culture's traditions were challenged, the result would be endless anarchy.


1794 Treason Trials, Historical context
There was an immediate response from the British supporters of the French revolution, most notably Mary Wollstonecraft in her Vindication of the Rights of Men and Thomas Paine in his Rights of Man. In this lively pamphlet war, now referred to as the "Revolution Controversy", British political commentators addressed topics ranging from representative government to human rights to the separation of church and state.


1794 Treason Trials, Historical context
1792 was the "annus mirabilis of eighteenth-century radicalism": its most important texts, such as Rights of Man, were published and the influence of the radical associations was at its height. In fact, it was as a result of the publication of the Rights of Man that such associations began to proliferate. The most significant groups, made up of artisans, merchants and others from the middling and lower sorts, were the Sheffield Society for Constitutional Information, the London Corresponding Society (LCS) and the Society for Constitutional Information (SCI).


1794 Treason Trials, Historical context
But it was not until these groups formed an alliance with the more genteel Society of the Friends of the People that the government became concerned. When this sympathy became known, the government issued a royal proclamation against seditious writings on 21 May 1792. In a dramatic increase compared to the rest of the century, there were over 100 prosecutions for sedition in the 1790s alone. The British government, fearing an uprising similar to the French Revolution, took even more drastic steps to quash the radicals.


1794 Treason Trials, Historical context
They made an increasing number of political arrests and infiltrated the radical groups; they threatened to "revoke the licences of publicans who continued to host politicized debating societies and to carry reformist literature"; they seized the mail of "suspected dissidents"; and they supported groups that disrupted radical events and attacked radicals in the press. Additionally, the British Government initiated the Aliens Act of 1793 in order to regulate the entrance of immigrants into Great Britain. Essentially, the Aliens Act enforced that aliens be recorded upon arrival and register with the local justice of the peace.


1794 Treason Trials, Historical context
Specifically, immigrants were required to give their names, ranks, occupations, and addresses. Overall, the Aliens Act reduced the number of immigrants into Great Britain out of fear that one of them may be an unwanted spy. Radicals saw this period as "the institution of a system of terror, almost as hideous in its features, almost as gigantic in its stature, and infinitely more pernicious in its tendency, than France ever knew".


1794 Treason Trials, Prelude: Trials of Thomas Paine, John Frost and Daniel Isaac Eaton, Thomas Paine
The administration did not immediately begin to prosecute all of its detractors after the proclamation against seditious writings was issued. Although Paine's publisher, J. S. Jordan, was indicted for sedition for publishing the Rights of Man in May 1792, Paine himself was not charged until the royal proclamation was promulgated. Even then, the government did not actively pursue him, apart from spying on him and continuing its propaganda campaign against "Mad Tom".


1794 Treason Trials, Prelude: Trials of Thomas Paine, John Frost and Daniel Isaac Eaton, Thomas Paine
Paine's trial was delayed until December and he fled to France in the intervening months, apparently with the government's blessing, which was more interested in getting rid of such a troublesome citizen than trying him in person. Moreover, afraid that Paine might use his trial as a political platform, the government may not have wanted to prosecute Paine personally.


1794 Treason Trials, Prelude: Trials of Thomas Paine, John Frost and Daniel Isaac Eaton, Thomas Paine
When the trial took place on 18 December 1792, its outcome was a foregone conclusion. The government, under Pitt's direction, had been lambasting Paine in the papers for months and the trial judge had negotiated the prosecution's arguments with them ahead of time. The radical Thomas Erskine defended Paine by arguing that his pamphlet was part of an honorable English tradition of political philosophy that included the writings of John Milton, John Locke and David Hume; he also pointed out that Paine was responding to the philosophical work of an MP, Burke.


1794 Treason Trials, Prelude: Trials of Thomas Paine, John Frost and Daniel Isaac Eaton, Thomas Paine
The Attorney-General argued that the pamphlet was aimed at readers "whose minds cannot be supposed to be conversant with subjects of this sort" and cited its cheap price as evidence of its lack of serious intent. The prosecution did not even have to rebut Erskine's arguments; the jury informed the judge they had already decided Paine was guilty.


1794 Treason Trials, Prelude: Trials of Thomas Paine, John Frost and Daniel Isaac Eaton, John Frost
John Frost was a member of the SCI, a former associate of Pitt, an attorney and a friend of Paine's. On 6 November 1792 he got involved in a dispute with a friend over the French revolution in a tavern and was heard to say "Equality, and No King". This dispute was reported by publicans to government informers. When Frost went to Paris later that month, the government declared him an outlaw and encouraged him to stay in France. Frost, challenging the government to act, returned and surrendered himself to the authorities.


1794 Treason Trials, Prelude: Trials of Thomas Paine, John Frost and Daniel Isaac Eaton, John Frost
Suggestions began to float around, from government and radical sources alike, that the government was embarrassed to prosecute Frost because of his former friendship with Pitt. But on 27 May, he was brought to trial for sedition. Erskine defended Frost, arguing that there was no seditious intent to his statement, his client was drunk, he was in a heated argument, and he was in a private space (the tavern). The Attorney-General contended that Frost "was a man whose seditious intent was carried with him wherever he went". The jury convicted him.


1794 Treason Trials, Prelude: Trials of Thomas Paine, John Frost and Daniel Isaac Eaton, Daniel Isaac Eaton
Daniel Isaac Eaton, the publisher of the popular periodical Politics for the People, was arrested on 7 December 1793 for publishing a statement by John Thelwall, a radical lecturer and debater. Thelwall had made a speech that included an anecdote about a tyrannical gamecock named "King Chanticleer" who was beheaded for its despotism and Eaton reprinted it. Eaton was imprisoned for three months before his trial in an effort to bankrupt him and his family. In February 1794, he was brought to trial and defended by John Gurney.


1794 Treason Trials, Prelude: Trials of Thomas Paine, John Frost and Daniel Isaac Eaton, Daniel Isaac Eaton
Gurney argued that the comment was an indictment of tyranny in general or of Louis XVI, the king of France, and announced his dismay that anyone could think that the author meant George III. "Gurney went so far as to cheekily suggest that it was the Attorney-General who was guilty of seditious libel; by supplying those innuendos he, not Eaton or Thelwall, had represented George III as a tyrant." Everyone laughed uproariously and Eaton was acquitted; the membership of the radical societies rocketed.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794
The radical societies were briefly enjoying an upsurge in membership and influence. In the summer of 1793 several of them decided to convene in Edinburgh to decide on how to summon "a great Body of the People" to convince Parliament to reform, since it did not seem willing to reform itself. The government viewed this assembly as an attempt to set up an anti-parliament. In Scotland, three leaders of the convention were tried for sedition and sentenced to fourteen years of service in Botany Bay.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794
Such harsh sentences shocked the nation and while initially the societies believed that an insurrection might be necessary to resist such an overbearing government, their rhetoric never materialized into an actual armed rebellion. Plans were made by some of the societies to meet again if the government became more hostile (e.g. if they suspended habeas corpus). In 1794, a plan was circulated to convene again, but it never got off the ground.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794
The government, frightened however, arrested six members of the SCI and 13 members of the LCS on suspicion of "treasonable practices" in conspiring to assume "a pretended general convention of the people, in contempt and defiance of the authority of parliament, and on principles subversive of the existing laws and constitution, and directly tending to the introduction of that system of anarchy and confusion which has fatally prevailed in France". Over thirty men were arrested in all. Of the people arrested were Thomas Hardy, secretary of the LCS; the linguist John Horne Tooke; the novelist and dramatist Thomas Holcroft (arrested in October); the Unitarian minister Jeremiah Joyce; writer and lecturer John Thelwall; bookseller and pamphleteer Thomas Spence; and silversmith and, later, historian John Baxter.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794
After the arrests, the government formed two secret committees to study the papers they had seized from the radicals' houses. After the first committee report, the government introduced a bill in the House of Commons to suspend habeas corpus; thus, those arrested on suspicion of treason could be held without bail or charge until February 1795.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794
In June 1794 the committee issued a second report, asserting that the radical societies had been planning at least to "over-awe" the sovereign and Parliament by the show of "a great Body of the People" if not to overthrow the government and install a French-style republic. They claimed that the societies had attempted to assemble a large armoury for this purpose, but no evidence could be found for it. They were charged with an assortment of crimes, but seditious libel and treason were the most serious.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794
The government propagated the notion that the radicals had committed a new kind of treason, what they called "modern" or "French" treason. While previous defendants had tried to replace one king with another from another dynasty, these democrats wanted to overthrow the entire monarchical system and remove the king entirely. "Modern French treason, it seemed, was different from, was worse than, old-fashioned English treason." The treason statute, that of the Act of Edward III from 1351, did not apply well to this new kind of treason.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794
The Attorney-General Sir John Scott, who would prosecute Hardy and Horne Tooke, "decided to base the indictment on the charge that the societies had been engaged in a conspiracy to levy war against the king, that they intended to subvert the constitution, to depose the King, and put him to death; and for that purpose, and 'with Force and Arms', they conspired to excite insurrection and rebellion" (emphasis in original).


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794
Initially the men were confined to the Tower of London, but they were moved to Newgate prison. Those charged with treason faced the brutal punishment of hanging, drawing and quartering if convicted: each would have been "hanged by the neck, cut down while still alive, disembowelled (and his entrails burned before his face) and then beheaded and quartered". The entire radical movement was also on trial; there were supposedly 800 warrants that were ready to be acted upon when the government won its case.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794, Thomas Hardy
Hardy's trial was first; his wife had died while he was in prison, generating support for him among the populace. Thomas Erskine, defending again, argued that the radicals had proposed nothing more than the Duke of Richmond (now an anti-reformer) had in the 1780s and "their plan for a convention of delegates was borrowed from a similar plan advanced by Pitt himself". The government could provide no real evidence of an armed insurrection. The Attorney-General's opening statement lasted nine hours, leading the former Lord Chancellor Lord Thurlow to comment that "there was no treason".


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794, Thomas Hardy
Treason must be "clear and obvious"; the great legal theorist Edward Coke had argued that treason was to be determined "not upon conjecturall  [sic] presumptions, or inferences, or strains of wit, but upon good and sufficient proof". Part of Erskine's effective defence was to dismiss the prosecution's case, as it was based on "strains of wit" or "imagination" (a play on words of the statute itself). He claimed, as he had in the earlier trials, that it was the prosecution that was "imagining the king's death" rather than the defence.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794, Thomas Hardy
His cross-examination of the prosecution's spies also helped demolish their case; he "cross-examined these witnesses in a tone of contemptuous disbelief and managed to discredit much of their evidence". After a nine-day trial, which was exceptionally long for the time, he was acquitted. The foreman of the jury fainted after delivering his verdict of not guilty, and the crowd enthusiastically carried Hardy through the streets of London.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794, Thomas Hardy
In his speeches, Erskine emphasized that the radical organizations, primarily the London Corresponding Society and the Society for Constitutional Information, were dedicated to a revolution of ideas, not a violent revolution—they embodied the new ideals of the Enlightenment. Erskine was helped in his defence by pamphlets such as William Godwin's Cursory Strictures on the Charge Delivered by Lord Chief Justice Eyre to the Grand Jury, 2 October 1794.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794, John Horne Tooke
John Horne Tooke's trial followed Hardy's, in which Pitt was forced to testify and admit that he had attended radical meetings himself. Throughout the trial Horne Tooke "combined the affectation of boredom with irreverent wit". One observer noted that when asked by the court if he would be tried "by God and his Country", he "eyed the court for some seconds with an air of significancy few men are so well able to assume, and shaking his head, emphatically answered 'I would be tried by God and my country, but—!'" After a long trial, he too was acquitted.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794, John Horne Tooke
All of the other members of the SCI were released after these two trials, as it became obvious to the government that they would not gain any convictions.


1794 Treason Trials, Treason Trials of 1794, John Thelwall
John Thelwall was tried last; the government felt forced to try him because the loyalist press had argued that his case was particularly strong. While awaiting trial, he wrote and published poetry indicting the entire process. During Thelwall's trial, various members of the London Corresponding Society testified that Thelwall and the others had no concrete plans to overthrow the government, and that details of how reform was to be achieved were an "afterthought". This undermined the prosecution's claims that the society was responsible for fomenting rebellion. Thelwall was also acquitted, after which the rest of the cases were dismissed.


1794 Treason Trials, Trial literature
All of these trials, both those from 1792 and those from 1794, were published as part of an 18th-century genre called "trial literature". Often, multiple versions of famous trials would be published and since the shorthand takers were not always precise, the accounts disagree. Moreover, the accounts were sometimes altered by one side or another. Importantly, those in the courtroom knew that their words would be published. In Scotland, one of the accused ringleaders of the plot said: "What I say this day will not be confined within these walls, but will spread far and wide." Indeed, the government may have resisted trying Paine until he had left the country because of the notorious power of his pen.


1794 Treason Trials, Aftermath
Although all of the defendants of the Treason Trials had been acquitted, the administration and the loyalists assumed they were guilty. Secretary at War William Windham referred to the radicals as "acquitted felon[s]" and William Pitt and the Attorney-General called them "morally guilty". There was widespread agreement that they got off because the treason statute was outdated.


1794 Treason Trials, Aftermath
When, in October 1795, crowds threw refuse at the king and insulted him, demanding a cessation of the war with France and lower bread prices, Parliament passed the "gagging acts" (the Seditious Meetings Act and the Treasonable Practices Act, also known as the "Two Acts"). Under these new laws, it was almost impossible to have a public meeting and speech at such meetings was severely curtailed. As a result of these legislative acts, societies that were not directly involved with the Treason Trials, like the Society of the Friends of the People, disbanded.


1794 Treason Trials, Aftermath
British "radicalism encountered a severe set-back" during these years, and it was not until a generation later that any real reform could be enacted. The trials, although they were not government victories, served the purpose for which they were intended—all of these men, except Thelwall, withdrew from active radical politics as did many others fearful of governmental retribution. Few took their place.


1794 United States House of Representatives election in Delaware
The Delaware United States House election for 1794 was held on October 4, 1794. The current Representative Henry Latimer was defeated after a rematch with John Patten.


1794 United States House of Representatives election in Georgia
One of the Georgia incumbents was re-elected and the other lost.


1794 United States House of Representatives election in New Hampshire
Under New Hampshire law a majority of voters (12.5% of votes) was required for election. Only three candidates achieved a majority, and so a run-off election was held for the fourth seat.


1794 United States House of Representatives election in New Jersey
Only one of the five New Jersey incumbents were re-elected.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in New York
The 1794 United States House of Representatives elections in New York were held on December 12, 1794, to elect ten U.S. Representatives to represent the State of New York in the United States House of Representatives of the 4th United States Congress.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Background
Ten U.S. Representatives had been elected in January 1793 to a term in the 3rd United States Congress beginning on March 4, 1793. One representative, Silas Talbot (10th D.), had accepted in June 1794 an appointment to the United States Navy, and thus vacated his seat. No special election was called to fill the vacancy. The other nine representatives' term would end on March 3, 1795.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
On January 27, 1789, the New York State Legislature had divided the State of New York into six congressional districts which were not numbered. On December 18, 1792, the Legislature divided the State into ten districts, which were still not numbered, taking into account the new counties created in 1791. The congressional districts remained at this election the same as at the previous election, only inside the Tenth District a new county, Onondaga, was created in 1794.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
Note: There are now 62 counties in the State of New York. The counties which are not mentioned in this list had not yet been established, or sufficiently organized, the area being included in one or more of the abovementioned counties.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
6 Democratic-Republicans and 4 Federalists were elected. Thomas Tredwell, the incumbent from the 1st District, had moved to Plattsburgh and ran for re-election in the 7th District, but was defeated by the local incumbent John E. Van Alen. Of the other incumbents, Watts was defeated; Glen, Gilbert, Bailey and Van Cortlandt were re-elected; and Peter Van Gaasbeck and James Gordon did not run for re-election.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
Note: The Anti- Federalists called themselves "Republicans." However, at the same time, the Federalists called them "Democrats" which was meant to be pejorative. After some time both terms got more and more confused, and sometimes used together as "Democratic Republicans" which later historians have adopted (with a hyphen) to describe the party from the beginning, to avoid confusion with both the later established and still existing Democratic and Republican parties.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath
The House of Representatives of the 4th United States Congress met for the first time at Congress Hall in Philadelphia on December 7, 1795, and nine of the ten representatives took their seats on this day. Only John Hathorn arrived late, and took his seat on December 17.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania
Elections to the House of Representatives in Pennsylvania for the Fourth Congress were held on October 14, 1794.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Background
Thirteen Representatives, 8 Anti-Administration (Democratic-Republican) and 5 Pro-Administration (Federalist), had been elected in the previous election on an at-large basis, the last time that Pennsylvania elected all of its representatives at-large. Ten incumbents (6 Anti-Administration and 4 Pro-Administration) ran for re-election.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
For the 1794 elections, Pennsylvania divided itself into 12 districts, one of which (the 4th) was a plural district, with 2 Representatives. These districts remained in use until redistricting after the Census of 1800.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
The counties that made up the 5th district did not border each other. That district was therefore made up of two separate pieces rather than being a single contiguous entity


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
Note: Many of these counties covered much larger areas in 1794 than they do today, having since been divided into numerous counties


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Election returns
Ten incumbents (6 Democratic-Republicans and 4 Federalists) ran for re-election. The incumbents James Armstrong (F), from the 9th district, William Montgomery (DR) from the 11th district, and John Smilie (DR) from the 12th district did not run for re-election. Smilie would later return to the House in 1798, where he would remain until his death in 1812. Of the ten who ran for re-election, 6 (4 Democratic-Republicans and 2 Federalists) were re-elected. A total of 9 Democratic-Republicans and 4 Federalists were elected, a net gain of one seat for the Democratic-Republicans over the previous election.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Election returns
Election results are unavailable from the 5th, 7th, 8th, and 11th districts, and are incomplete for the 9th.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Election returns
In the 4th district, John Richards (DR) disputed the official returns (shown above) which showed himself in 3rd place and James Morris (DR) in 2nd. The Governor of Pennsylvania only issued certification for Samuel Sitgreaves (F). On July 10, 1795, before the House could act on the dispute, Morris died. The House voted Richards the legitimate winner of 2nd place, with the revised vote totals being 1,791 for Richards and 1,688 for Morris


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Special elections
Daniel Hiester (DR), re-elected to the 5th district, resigned on July 1, 1796. A special election was held on October 11, 1796 (the same day as the 1796 general elections) to fill the resulting vacancy. Hiester would later be elected to Maryland's 4th congressional district in 1800


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in Rhode Island
Rhode Island elected its two members at-large on separate tickets.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina
Only one of the five South Carolina incumbents were re-elected.


1794 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina
Electoral data are only available for the 1st and 5th district of South Carolina's 6 districts at the time of the elections of 1794.


1794 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania
The 1794 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania was held on March 31, 1794. James Ross was elected by the Pennsylvania General Assembly to the United States Senate.


1794 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania, Background
The Anti-Administration Albert Gallatin had been elected to the United States Senate by the General Assembly, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate, in February 1793. In February 1794, the United States Senate challenged his eligibility for holding the office under the citizenship requirement and he was subsequently removed from office on February 28, 1794.


1794 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania, Results
Following the removal of Sen. Albert Gallatin from office after his eligibility was successfully challenged, the Pennsylvania General Assembly convened on March 31, 1794, to elect a new Senator to fill the vacancy. The results of the vote of both houses combined are as follows:


1794 United States elections
The 1794 United States elections occurred in the middle of President George Washington's second term. Members of the 4th United States Congress were chosen in this election. Tennessee was admitted as a state during the 4th Congress. The election took place at the beginning of the First Party System, with the Democratic-Republican Party and Federalist Party emerging as political parties, succeeding the anti-administration faction and the pro-administration faction.


1794 United States elections
In the House, the Democratic-Republicans picked up a small number of seats, increasing their majority. However, Federalist Jonathan Dayton was elected Speaker of the House, defeating Frederick Muhlenberg, who had a less clear partisan affiliation.


1794 United States elections
In the Senate, the Federalists picked up a moderate number of seats, increasing their majority.


1794 United States elections
Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his presidency.


1794 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1794 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place throughout September, and resulted in the re-election of Governor Thomas Chittenden to a one-year term.


1794 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Rutland on October 9. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to examine the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council. The body met to count the votes on the morning of October 10.


1794 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for governor, Thomas Chittenden, who had been governor from 1778 to 1789, and again starting in 1790, was re-elected for a one-year term. The freemen also re-elected Samuel Mattocks as treasurer, his eighth one-year term.


1794 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the election for lieutenant governor, no candidate received a majority. In keeping with the Vermont Constitution, the Assembly was required to choose. On the afternoon of October 10, the body elected Jonathan Hunt. Hunt declined the appointment and the Assembly adjourned. On the morning of October 11, Hunt agreed to accept the position and took the oath of office.


1794 Vermont gubernatorial election
The names of candidates and balloting totals for statewide offices were not recorded. According to a contemporary newspaper article, Chittenden won by a majority of several hundred votes.


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections
Elections to the United States House of Representatives for the 4th Congress were held on various dates in each state between August 25, 1794 (New Hampshire), and September 5, 1795 (Kentucky). The election was held during President George Washington's second term.


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections
In the second election for the House of Representatives with organized political parties, the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson, once again defeated the Federalist Party, led by Alexander Hamilton, and slightly increased their majority. These new wins by the Democratic-Republicans can mostly be attributed to the popularity of Jeffersonian ideas of agrarian democracy in the Western territories of the United States.


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections, Election summary
During this period, each state fixed its own date for a congressional general election. Elections took place both in the even-numbered year before and in the odd-numbered year when a Congress convened. In some states, the congressional delegation was not elected until after the legal start of the Congress (on the 4th day of March in the odd-numbered year).


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections, Special elections
There were special and late elections to the 3rd and 4th Congresses in 1794 and 1795.


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections, Delaware
Only two candidates are recorded for Delaware's congressional election in 1794, suggesting that the voting procedure in place for the first three Congresses for two candidates had been changed.


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
Massachusetts redistricted between the 3rd and 4th Congress, dividing itself into 14 districts. The 12th-14th districts were in the District of Maine (the modern State of Maine). A majority was required for election. Additional ballots were required in five districts due to the majority requirement not being met on the first ballot.


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections, New Hampshire
Under New Hampshire's electoral laws, a majority of voters (12.5% of votes) was required for election. Only three candidates achieved a majority, and so a run-off election was held for the fourth seat.


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections, New York
New York's districts were not numbered at the time, but were later numbered retroactively.


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania once again divided itself into districts instead of electing representatives at-large, as it had for the 3rd Congress. The state divided intself into 12 districts, one of which (the 4th) had two seats. Pennsylvania would continue to use one or more plural districts until 1842.


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections, South Carolina
Electoral data are only available for the 1st and 5th district of South Carolina's 6 districts at the time of the elections of 1794.


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections, South Carolina
Representative-elect Barnwell of the 2nd district declined to serve. A special election was held to fill the resulting vacancy, electing Wade Hampton (Democratic-Republican).


1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections, Vermont
Vermont law required a majority for election to Congress, with a second election to be held if the first did not return a majority. Run-off elections were required in both districts.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections
The United States Senate elections of 1794 and 1795 were elections that had the formation of organized political parties in the United States, with the Federalist Party emerging from the Pro Administration coalition, and the Democratic-Republican Party emerging from the Anti-Administration coalition.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections
As these elections were prior to ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment, Senators were chosen by state legislatures.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Change in composition, Before the elections
Note: There were no political parties in the 3rd Congress. Members are informally grouped here into factions of similar interest, based on an analysis of their voting record.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Change in composition, Beginning of the next Congress
Seven senators who were considered "Anti-Administration" became Democratic-Republicans and eleven "Pro-Administration" became Federalists.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Race summaries
Except if/when noted, the number following candidates is the whole number vote(s), not a percentage.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Special elections during the 3rd Congress
In these special elections, the winner was seated before March 4, 1795; ordered by election date.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Races leading to the 4th Congress
In these regular elections, the winner was seated on March 4, 1795; ordered by state.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Delaware (Special)
The Delaware special election was held February 7, 1795. Incumbent Senator George Read had resigned to take the position of Chief Justice of the Delaware Supreme Court. Henry Latimer defeated the former Governor of Delaware, Governor of Pennsylvania and Continental Congressmen from Delaware and Pennsylvania by one vote.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania (Regular)
Incumbent Federalist Robert Morris, who was elected in  1788, was not a candidate for re-election to another term. The Pennsylvania General Assembly convened on February 26, 1795, to elect a senator for the term beginning March 4, 1795.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Virginia
Even though neither of Virginia's incumbent's terms were up, both resigned in 1794, leading to two special elections.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Virginia, Virginia (Special, class 1)
Future-president James Monroe resigned March 27, 1794 to become U.S. Minister to France.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Virginia, Virginia (Special, class 1)
Stevens Thomson Mason was elected November 18, 1794 and would become a Democratic-Republican in the next Congress.


1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections, Virginia, Virginia (Special, class 2)
Henry Tazewell was elected November 18, 1794 and would become a Democratic-Republican in the next Congress.


1794 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1794 in Australia.


1794 in Belgium
Events of the year 1794 in the Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège (predecessor states of modern Belgium).


1794 in France
The following lists events that happened during 1794 in the French Republic.


1794 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1794 to Wales and its people.


1794 in architecture
The year 1794 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.


1794 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1794.


1794 in paleontology
Paleontology, palaeontology or palæontology (from Greek: paleo, "ancient"; ontos, "being"; and logos, "knowledge") is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because mankind has encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1794.


1794 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1794 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1794 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1794 in science
The year 1794 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1794 in sports
1794 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1794 razees
In 1794, three 64-gun third-rate ships were cut down to 44-gun fifth-rate frigates with a primary armament of 24-pounder guns, in a process known as razeeing. This was in response to rumours then circulating of very large French frigates supposed to be under construction. By Admiralty Order of 11 August 1794, two 64-gun ships of the Intrepid class - Anson and Magnanime - were to be cut down by one deck level. By a subsequent Admiralty Order of 8 September 1794, a third 64-gun ship - the Indefatigable of the Ardent class - which had been launched but never commissioned in 1784, was similarly to be cut down.


1794 razees
The conversion retained the primary armament of twenty-six 24-pounder guns on the gun deck (but this deck became the upper deck rather than the lower deck), while the secondary armament became eight 12-pounder guns and four 32-pounder carronades on the quarter deck, and four 12-pounder guns and two 32-pounder carronades on the forecastle; the complement was reduced to 310 men.


1794–1795 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
Massachusetts redistricted between the 3rd and 4th Congress, dividing itself into 14 districts. The 12th-14th districts were in the District of Maine (the modern state of Maine). A majority was required for election. Additional ballots were required in five districts due to the majority requirement not being met on the first ballot.


1794–1795 United States House of Representatives elections in Vermont
Vermont law required a majority for election to Congress, with a second election to be held if the first did not return a majority. Run-off elections were required in both districts.


1795
1795 (MDCCXCV) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1795th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 795th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 95th  year of the 18th century, and the  6th   year of the 1790s decade. As of the start of 1795, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1795 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special election
A special election was held in Connecticut's at-large congressional district on April 13, 1795, to fill a vacancy left by Jonathan Trumbull, Jr. (F)'s election to the Senate.


1795 Delaware gubernatorial election
The 1795 Delaware gubernatorial election was held on October 6, 1795.


1795 Delaware gubernatorial election
Incumbent Federalist Governor Joshua Clayton was not eligible for re-election under the Delaware Constitution of 1792.


1795 Delaware gubernatorial election
Federalist nominee Gunning Bedford Sr. defeated Democratic-Republican nominee Archibald Alexander with 52.34% of the vote.


1795 Delaware gubernatorial election, Bibliography
This Delaware elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1795 English cricket season
The 1795 English cricket season was the 24th in which matches have been awarded retrospective first-class cricket status and the ninth after the foundation of the Marylebone Cricket Club. The season saw 19 top-class matches played in the country.


1795 English cricket season, Matches
A total of 19 top-class matches were played during the season. These included matches played by teams from Kent, Hampshire, Middlesex and Surrey as well as Oldfield Cricket Club from Berkshire which played the last of its matches given first-class status.


1795 English cricket season, Matches
The season saw first-class matches played for the first time at Bowman's Lodge, where Hampshire teams twice played an England side, Dandelion Paddock, where Sir Horatio Mann's XI played three matches, and Penenden Heath, which saw Kent play and England XI in the only first-class match played on the ground. Windmill Down at Hambledon saw its final first-class match.


1795 English cricket season, Matches
One match, played between teams organised by the Earl of Winchilsea and Richard Leigh began in July at Stoke Down, Alresford and was completed the following year. The match was unfinished after three days with Leigh's team requiring another 36 runs for victory. Usually teams would have aimed to complete matches as quickly as possible at a later date and an extra days play was scheduled for 17 August. This did not take place ad the match was completed on 28 June 1796.


1795 French Directory election
The French elections of 1795 were held from 12 October to 4 November 1795 (20 Vendémiaire to 13 Brumaire Year IV) Constitution of the Year III. The elections elected the fifth member of the French Directory, the new collective government of France, and renewed 150 deputies (one-third) of the French Council of Five Hundred. The rest of the Corps législatif ("Legislative Body") remained unelected, as expressed by the Constitution. There was a census suffrage, so only 30,000 citizens voted.


1795 French Directory election
The election was narrowly won by the Thermidorians, a faction which managed to win both the directorial and parliamentary majority. The election served as an alarm signal for the Republican political forces, as the monarchists, in a landslide, obtained 87 out of 161 elected seats inside the Legislative Body, as well a sympathizer Director: General Lazare Carnot, formerly a Jacobin and revolutionary chief. The threat of a return to monarchy, and possibly to the Ancien Régime, finally led to the republican Coup of 18 Fructidor in 1797, which expelled the monarchist opposition from the Legislative Body and banned the royalist circles.


1795 French referendums
Two referendums were held in France on 6 September 1795: one adopting the Constitution of the Year III establishing the Directory, and another on the Two-Thirds Decree reserving two-thirds of the seats in the new Council of Five Hundred and Council of Ancients for former members of the National Convention.


1795 French referendums, Constitutional Referendum
The official result was more than 95% in favor of the new constitution.


1795 French referendums, Two-Thirds Decree Referendum
Of the seven million eligible voters, only 4.49% of voters cast valid votes.


1795 New Jersey's at-large congressional district special election
A special election was held in New Jersey's at-large congressional district on January 11, 1795 to fill a vacancy in the Third Congress left by the death of Abraham Clark (P) on September 15, 1794.


1795 New Jersey's at-large congressional district special election, Election results
Kitchell took his seat in the Congress on January 29, 1795


1795 New York gubernatorial election
The 1795 New York gubernatorial election was held in April 1795 to elect the Governor and Lieutenant Governor of New York.


1795 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The Federalist Party nominated Chief Justice of the United States John Jay who had been their nominee in 1792 and lost in a controversial and narrow election. They nominated state senator Stephen Van Rensselaer for Lieutenant Governor.


1795 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The Democratic-Republican Party nominated Chief Justice of the New York Supreme Court Robert Yates. They nominated former U.S. representative William Floyd for Lieutenant Governor.


1795 New York gubernatorial election, Results
The Federalist ticket of Jay and Van Rensselaer was elected.


1795 North Carolina's 4th congressional district special election
A special election was held in North Carolina's 4th congressional district on August 4, 1795 to fill a vacancy left by the death of Alexander Mebane (DR) on July 5, 1795, before the start of the 1st session of the 4th Congress.


1795 North Carolina's 4th congressional district special election, Election results
Complete results are not available, the below results are based on incomplete returns


1795 North Carolina's 4th congressional district special election, Election results
Tatom took his seat at the start of the 4th Congress, on December 7, 1795. Tatom subsequently resigned at the end of the 1st session, on June 1, 1796 necessitating a second special election in the same district.


1795 South Carolina's 2nd congressional district special election
A special election was held in South Carolina's 2nd congressional district January 19-20, 1795 to fill a vacancy left by Representative-election John Barnwell (F) declining to serve the term for which he'd been elected.


1795 United States Senate election in New York
The 1795 United States Senate election in New York was held on January 27, 1795 by the New York State Legislature to elect a U.S. Senator (Class 3) to represent the State of New York in the United States Senate.


1795 United States Senate election in New York, Background
In July 1789, Philip Schuyler and Rufus King had been elected to the U.S. Senate. King had drawn the long term which would expire on March 3, 1795.


1795 United States Senate election in New York, Background
At the State election in April 1794, Federalist majorities were elected to both houses of the 18th New York State Legislature which met from January 6 to 14 at Poughkeepsie, New York, and from January 20 to April 9, 1795, at New York City.


1795 United States Senate election in New York, Result
King's name was proposed for re-election in the Senate, and passed narrowly with 12 Yeas and 11 Nays.


1795 United States Senate election in New York, Result
In the Assembly, two alternatives were proposed: State Senator Thomas Tillotson and Judge John Lawrence.


1795 United States Senate election in New York, Aftermath
Rufus King was appointed U.S. Minister to Great Britain, and resigned from the U.S. Senate on May 23, 1796. A special election to fill the vacancy was held in November 1796.


1795 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania
The 1795 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania was held on February 26, 1795. William Bingham was elected by the Pennsylvania General Assembly to the United States Senate.


1795 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania, Results
Incumbent Federalist Robert Morris, who was elected in 1788, was not a candidate for re-election to another term. The Pennsylvania General Assembly, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate, convened on February 26, 1795, to elect a new Senator to fill the term beginning on March 4, 1795. The results of the vote of both houses combined are as follows:


1795 United States Senate special election in Delaware
The Delaware United States Senate special election for 1795 was held on March 16, 1795. The former Senator George Read had resigned to take the position of Chief Justice of the Delaware Supreme Court. Henry Latimer defeated the former governor of Delaware, governor of Pennsylvania and Continental Congressmen from Delaware and Pennsylvania by one vote.


1795 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1795 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place throughout September, and resulted in the re-election of Governor Thomas Chittenden to a one-year term.


1795 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Windsor on October 8. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to examine the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council.


1795 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for governor, Thomas Chittenden, who had been governor from 1778 to 1789, and again starting in 1790, was re-elected for a one-year term. In the election for lieutenant governor, Jonathan Hunt was reelected to a second one-year term.


1795 Vermont gubernatorial election
The freemen also re-elected Samuel Mattocks as treasurer, his ninth one-year term. The names of candidates and balloting totals for statewide offices were not recorded.


1795 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1795 in Australia.


1795 in France
Events from the year 1795 in the French First Republic.


1795 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1795 to Wales and its people.


1795 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1795.


1795 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1795 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1795 in poetry, Deaths
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1795 in science
The year 1795 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1795 in sports
1795 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1795–1820 in Western fashion
Fashion in the period 1795–1820 in European and European-influenced countries saw the final triumph of undress or informal styles over the brocades, lace, periwigs and powder of the earlier 18th century. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, no one wanted to appear to be a member of the French aristocracy, and people began using clothing more as a form of individual expression of the true self than as a pure indication of social status.


1795–1820 in Western fashion
As a result, the shifts that occurred in fashion at the turn of the 19th century granted the opportunity to present new public identities that also provided insights into their private selves. Katherine Aaslestad indicates how "fashion, embodying new social values, emerged as a key site of confrontation between tradition and change."


1795–1820 in Western fashion
For women's dress, the day-to-day outfit of the skirt and jacket style were practical and tactful, recalling the working-class woman. Women's fashions followed classical ideals, and stiffly boned stays were  abandoned in favor of softer, less boned corsets. This natural figure was emphasized by being able to see the body beneath the clothing. Visible breasts were part of this classical look, and some characterized the breasts in fashion as solely aesthetic and sexual.


1795–1820 in Western fashion
In Britain, the era of Regency in England covered the years when King George III was deemed unfit to rule and his son, the Prince of Wales ruled England as Prince Regent before his accession as King George IV. But the broadest definition of the period, characterized by trends in fashion, architecture, culture, and politics, begins with the French Revolution of 1789 and ends with Queen Victoria's rise to power.


1795–1820 in Western fashion
The names of popular people who lived in this time are still famous: Napoleon I Bonaparte and Josephine, Madame Récamier, Jane Austen, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron, Beau Brummell, Lady Emma Hamilton, Queen Louise of Prussia and her husband and many more. Beau Brummell introduced trousers, perfect tailoring, and unadorned, immaculate linen as the ideals of men's fashion.


1795–1820 in Western fashion
In Germany, republican city-states relinquished their traditional, modest, and practical garments and started to embrace the French and English fashion trends of short-sleeved chemise dresses and Spencer jackets. American fashion trends emulated French dress, but in a toned-down manner with shawls and tunics to cope with the sheerness of the chemise. However, in Spain, members of the Aristocracy, as well as citizens of the lower class, united and rebelled against French enlightenment ideals and fashion by dressing as majas and majos to contain their Spanish pride.


1795–1820 in Western fashion
By the end of the eighteenth century, a major shift in fashion was taking place that extended beyond changes in mere style to changes in philosophical and social ideals. Prior to this time, the style and traditions of the "Ancien Régime" prevented the conceptualization of "the self". Instead, one's identity was considered malleable; subject to change depending on what clothes one was wearing. However, by the 1780s, the new, "natural" style allowed one's inner self to transcend their clothes.


1795–1820 in Western fashion
During the 1790s, there was a new concept of the internal and external self. Before this time, there had only been one self, which was expressed through clothing. When going to a masquerade ball, people wore specific clothing, so they could not show their individuality through their clothing. Incorporated in this new "natural" style was the importance of ease and comfort of one's dress. Not only was there a new emphasis on hygiene, but also clothing became much lighter and more able to be changed and washed frequently.


1795–1820 in Western fashion
Even upper-class women began wearing cropped dresses as opposed to dresses with long trains or hoops that restricted them from leaving their homes. The subsequent near stasis of the silhouette inspired volumes of new trims and details on heavily trimmed skirts back into fashion. In the Regency years, complicated historic and orientalist elements provided lavish stylistic displays as such details were a vigorous vehicle for conspicuous consumption given their labor-intensive fabrications, and therefore a potent signifier of hierarchy for the upper classes who wore the styles. This kind of statement was particularly noticeable in profuse trimmings, especially on skirts where unrestrained details were common, along with cut edge details and edge trims.


1795–1820 in Western fashion
Women's fashion was also influenced by male fashion, such as tailored waistcoats and jackets to emphasize women's mobility. This new movement toward practicality of dress showed that dress became less of a way to solely categorize between classes or genders; dress was meant to suit one's personal daily routine. It was also during this time period that the fashion magazine and journal industry began to take off. They were most often monthly (often competing) periodicals that allowed men and women to keep up with the ever-changing styles.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Influence of Industrial Revolution on fashion
In the late 18th century, clothes were mostly sold by individual shopkeepers who were often the artisans who made the goods. Customers usually lived in the same neighborhood as the shops and the shops would gain popularity by their customers' word-of–mouth recommendation, with the exception of warehouses (i.e., any retail on wholesale), where goods being sold were not necessarily made in the shop. However, things started to change during the transition to the 19th century. People sought efficiency and variety; under the influence of the Industrial Revolution, improved transportation and introduction of machines in manufacturing allowed fashion to develop at an even faster pace.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Influence of Industrial Revolution on fashion
The first sewing machine emerged in 1790, and later, Josef Madersperger began developing his first sewing machine in 1807, presenting his first working machine in 1814. The introduction of the sewing machine sped up garment production. However, it had no widespread social impact until the 1840s, and clothing was entirely made by hand in the period to 1820. Meanwhile, advanced spinning, weaving and cotton-printing techniques developed in the 18th century had already brought cheaper, widely available washable fabrics. These durable and affordable fabrics became popular among the larger population. These techniques were further developed by the introduction of machines.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Influence of Industrial Revolution on fashion
Before, accessories like embroidery and lace were manufactured on a small and limited scale by skilled craftsmen and sold in their own shops; in 1804, a machine for embroidering was constructed by John Duncan, and people started producing these essential accessories in factories and dispatching the products to shops throughout the country. These technical developments in clothing production allowed a greater variety of styles; rapid changes in fashion also became possible.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Influence of Industrial Revolution on fashion
The Industrial Revolution bridged Europe and America with regards to travel. When Louis Simond first arrived in America, he was struck by the mobility of the population and frequency of people made trips to the capital, writing "you meet nowhere with those persons who never were out of their native place, and whose habits are wholly local — nobody above povertywho has not visited London once in his life; and most of those who can, visit once a year.' New canals and railways not only transported people, but created national and even broader markets by transporting goods manufactured in factories at great distances. The rise of industry throughout the Western world increased garment production and people were encouraged to travel more widely and purchase more goods than ever before.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Influence of Industrial Revolution on fashion
Communication was also improved in this era. New ideas about fashion were conveyed by little dolls dressed in the latest style, newspapers, and illustrated magazines; for example, La Belle Assemblée, founded by John Bell, was a British women's magazine published from 1806 to 1837. It was known for its fashion plates of contemporary fashions, demonstrating ways for women to dress and create ensembles.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
In this period, fashionable women's clothing styles were based on a high, under the bust waistline, only called the Empire silhouette in the 20th century — dresses were closely fitted to the torso just under the bust, falling loosely below. In different contexts, such styles are now commonly called "Directoire style" (referring to the Directory government of France during the second half of the 1790s), "Empire style" (referring to Napoleon's 1804–1814/1815 empire, and often also to his 1800–1804 "consulate"), or "Regency" (loosely used to refer to various periods between the 18th century and the Victorian). Empire silhouette and Directoire style were not used at the time these styles were worn.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
These 1795–1820 fashions were quite different from the styles prevalent during most of the 18th century and the rest of the 19th century when women's clothes were generally tight against the torso from the natural waist upwards, and heavily full-skirted below (often inflated by means of hoop skirts, crinolines, panniers, bustles, etc.). Women's fashion around this time started to follow classical ideals, inspired by the ancient Greek and Roman style with its gracious, loosely falling dresses that were gathered or just accentuated over the natural waist under the bust. For women, heavily boned stays  gave way to a celebration of the natural form. Bodices were short with waistlines falling just below the bust. Fashion fabrics such as cotton muslin were light to the point of being sheer, however, printed heavier cottons, wools and other textiles were also popular.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
Inspired by neoclassical tastes, 'undress' was the style of the day, casual and informal. It was the type of gown a woman wore from morning until noon or later depending on her social engagements of the day. The short-waisted dresses sported soft, loose skirts and were often made of white, almost transparent muslin, which was easily washed and draped loosely like the garments on Greek and Roman statues. Since the fabric clung to the body, revealing what was underneath, it made nudity à la grecque a centerpiece of public spectacle. Satin was sometimes worn for evening wear. '


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
Half Dress' is thought of as how one would dress when going out during the day or meeting with guests.' Full Dress' was what a lady wore to formal events, day or night. ' Evening Dress' was only appropriate at evening affairs. Thus during the 1795–1820 period, it was often possible for middle- and upper-class women to wear clothes that were not very confining or cumbersome, and still be considered decently and fashionably dressed.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
Among middle- and upper-class women there was a basic distinction between "morning dress" (worn at home in the afternoons as well as mornings) and evening attire — generally, both men and women changed clothes in preparation for the evening meal and possible entertainments to follow. There were also further gradations such as afternoon dress, walking dress, riding habits, traveling dress, dinner dress, etc.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
In the Mirror of Graces; or the English Lady's Costume, published in London in 1811, the author ("a Lady of Distinction") advised:


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
In the morning the arms and bosom must be completely covered to the throat and wrists. From the dinner-hour to the termination of the day, the arms, to a graceful height above the elbow, may be bare; and the neck and shoulders unveiled as far as delicacy will allow.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
A Lady of Distinction also advised young ladies to wear softer shades of color, such as pinks, periwinkle blue, or lilacs. The mature matron could wear fuller colors, such as purple, black, crimson, deep blue, or yellow.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
Many women of this era remarked upon how being fully dressed meant the bosom and shoulders were bare, and yet being under-dressed would mean one's neckline went right up to one's chin.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Silhouette
Due to the importance of showing social status, the fashion industry was very much influenced by society during the Regency era. One's position was determined by the person's wealth, etiquette, family status, intelligence, and beauty. Women financially and socially relied on their husbands. The only socially-acceptable activities in which women could participate centered around social gatherings and fashion, the most important component of which was attending evening parties. These parties helped to build relationships and connection with others. As etiquette dictated different standards of attire for different events, afternoon dress, evening dress, evening full dress, ball dress, and different types of dresses were popular.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Silhouette
Women's fashion in the Regency era started to change drastically. It popularized the empire silhouette, which featured a fitted bodice and high waist. This "new natural style" emphasized the beauty of the body's natural lines. Clothing became lighter and easier to care for than in the past. Women often wore several layers of clothing, typically undergarments, gowns, and outerwear. The chemise, the standard undergarment of the era, prevented the thin, gauzy dresses from being fully transparent. Outerwear, such as the spencer and the pelisse, were popular.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Silhouette
The empire silhouette was created in the late 18th century to about the early 19th century and referred to the period of the First French Empire. This adoption had been linked with France's Relation and adopted of Greek and Roman principles. The style was often worn in white to denote as high social status. Josephine Bonaparte was one of the figureheads for the Empire waistline, with her elaborated and decorated Empire line dresses. Regency women followed the Empire style along with the same trend of raised waistlines as French styles, even when their countries were at war.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Silhouette
Starting from the 1780s and early 1790s, women's silhouette became slimmer and the waistlines crept up. After 1795, waistlines rose dramatically and the skirt circumference was further reduced. A few years later, England and France started to show the focus of the high waist style and this led to the creation of Empire style.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Silhouette
The style began as part of Neoclassical fashion, reviving styles from Greco-Roman art which showed women wearing loose-fitting rectangular tunics known as peplos which were belted under the bust, providing support for women and a cool, comfortable outfit especially in a warm climate. The empire silhouette was defined by the waistline, which was positioned directly under the bust. The Empire silhouette was the key style in women's clothing during the Regency era.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Silhouette
The dresses were usually light, long, and fit loosely, they were usually in white and often sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice which strongly emphasized thin hem and tied around the body. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red but with a decorated border in portraits, helped in colder weather and was apparently lain around the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favored. The dresses had a fitted bodice and it gave a high-waist appearance.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Silhouette
The style had waxed and waned in fashion for hundreds of years. The shape of the dresses also helped to lengthen the body's appearance. The clothing can also be draped to maximize the bust. Lightweight fabrics were typically used to create a flowing effect. Also, ribbon, sash, and other decorative features were used to highlight the waistline. The empire gowns were often with a low neckline and short sleeves and women usually wore them as evening dresses. On the other hand, day gowns had a higher neckline and long sleeves. The chemisette was a staple for fashionable ladies. Although there were differences between day dresses and evening dresses, the high waistline was not changed.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
During this period, the classical influence extended to hairstyles. Often masses of curls were worn over the forehead and ears, with the longer back hair drawn up into loose buns or Psyche knots influenced by Greek and Roman styles. By the later 1810s, front hair was parted in the center and worn in tight ringlets over the ears. Adventurous women like Lady Caroline Lamb wore short cropped hairstyles "à la Titus", the Journal de Paris reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig à la Titus", a layered cut usually with some tresses hanging down.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
In the Mirror of Graces, a Lady of Distinction writes,


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
Now, easy tresses, the shining braid, the flowing ringlet confined by the antique comb, or bodkin, give graceful specimens of the simple taste of modern beauty. Nothing can correspond more elegantly with the untrammeled drapery of our newly-adopted classic raiment than this undecorated coiffure of nature.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
Conservative married women continued to wear linen mob caps, which now had wider brims at the sides to cover the ears. Fashionable women wore similar caps for morning (at home undress) wear.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
For the first time in centuries, respectable but daringly fashionable women would leave the house without a hat or bonnet, previously something often associated with prostitutes. However, most women continued to wear something on their head outdoors, though they were beginning to cease to do so indoors during the day (as well as for evening wear). The antique head-dress, or Queen Mary coif, Chinese hat, Oriental-inspired turban, and Highland helmet were popular. As for bonnets, their crowns and brims were adorned with increasingly elaborate ornamentations, such as feathers and ribbons. In fact, ladies of the day embellished their hats frequently, replacing old decorations with new trims or feathers.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
Artist Rolinda Sharples wears her hair in a mass of curls; her mother wears a sheer indoor cap, c. 1820.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
Mme Seriziat wears a straw bonnet trimmed with green ribbon over a lace mob cap, 1795 (painting by Jacques-Louis David)


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Undergarments
Fashionable women of the Regency era wore several layers of undergarments. The first was the chemise, or shift, a thin garment with tight, short sleeves (and a low neckline if worn under evening wear), made of white cotton and finished with a plain hem that was shorter than the dress. These shifts were meant to protect the outer-clothes from perspiration and were washed more frequently than outer clothes.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Undergarments
In fact, washerwomen of the time used coarse soap when scrubbing these garments, then plunged them in boiling water, hence the absence of color, lace, or other embellishments, which would have faded or damaged the fabric under such rough treatment. Chemises and shifts also prevented the transparent muslin or silk dresses from being too revealing.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Undergarments
The next layer was a pair of stays or corset (more lightly boned). While high-waisted classical fashions required no corset for the slight of figure, most ordinary women still wore some kind of bust support, although the aim was to look as if they were not. The disappearance of the corset or stays has been much exaggerated by writers on the Regency period. There were some experiments to produce garments which would serve the same functions as a modern brassiere. (In the Mirror of Graces, a "divorce" was described as an undergarment that served to separate a woman's breasts.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Undergarments
Made of steel or iron that was covered by a type of padding, and shaped like a triangle, this device was placed in the center of the chest.) "Short stays" (corsets extending only a short distance below the breasts) were often worn over the shift or chemise (not directly next to the skin), and "long stays" (corsets extending down towards the natural waist) were worn by women trying to appear slimmer than they were or who needed more support. The English wore these more than the French, but even such long stays were not primarily intended to constrict the waist, in the manner of Victorian corsets.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Undergarments
The final layer was the petticoat, which was the name for any skirt worn under the gown and could be a skirt with a bodice, a skirt attached over the torso by tapes, or a separate skirt. These petticoats were often worn between the underwear and the outer dress and were considered part of the outer clothing, not underwear.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Undergarments
The lower edge of the petticoat was intended to be seen since women would often lift their outer dresses to spare the relatively delicate material of the outer dress from mud or damp (so exposing only the coarser and cheaper fabric of the petticoat to risk). Often exposed to view, petticoats were decorated at the hem with rows of tucks or lace, or ruffles.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Undergarments
"Drawers" (large, flowy 'shorts' with buttons at the crotch) were only occasionally worn at this time. Women had no underwear under their dresses.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Undergarments
Stockings (hosiery), made of silk or knitted cotton, were held up by garters below the knee until suspenders were introduced in the late 19th century and were often of a white or pale flesh color.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Outerwear and shoes
During this time period, women's clothing was much thinner than in the eighteenth century so warmer outerwear became important in fashion, especially in colder climates. Coat-like garments such as pelisses and redingotes were popular, as were shawls, mantles, mantelets, capes, and cloaks. The mantelet was a short cape that was eventually lengthened and made into a shawl. The redingote, another popular example, was a full-length garment resembling a man's riding coat (hence the name) in style, that could be made of different fabrics and patterns.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Outerwear and shoes
Throughout the period, the Indian shawl was the favored wrap, as houses and the typical English country house were generally draughty, and the sheer muslin and light silk dresses popular during this time provided less protection. Shawls were made of soft cashmere or silk or even muslin for summer. Paisley patterns were extremely popular at the time.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Outerwear and shoes
Short (high-waisted) jackets called spencers were worn outdoors, along with long-hooded cloaks, Turkish wraps, mantles, capes, Roman tunics, chemisettes, and overcoats called pelisses (which were often sleeveless and reached down as far as the ankles). These outer garments were often made of double sarsnet, fine Merino cloth, or velvets, and trimmed with furs, such as swan's down, fox, chinchilla, or sable. On May 6, 1801, Jane Austen wrote her sister Cassandra, "Black gauze cloaks are worn as much as anything."


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Outerwear and shoes
Thin, flat fabric (silk or velvet), or leather slippers were generally worn (as opposed to the high-heeled shoes of much of the 18th century).


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Outerwear and shoes
Metal pattens were strapped on shoes to protect them from rain or mud, raising the feet an inch or so off the ground.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Accessories
Gloves were always worn by women outside the house. When worn inside, as when making a social call, or on formal occasions, such as a ball, they were removed when dining. About the length of the glove, A Lady of Distinction writes:


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Accessories
If the prevailing fashion be to reject the long sleeve, and to partially display the arm, let the glove advance considerably above the elbow, and there be fastened with a draw-string or armlet. But this should only be the case when the arm is muscular, coarse, or scraggy. When it is fair, smooth, and round, it will admit of the glove being pushed down to a little above the wrists.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Accessories
Longer gloves were worn rather loosely during this period, crumpling below the elbow. As described in the passage above, "garters" could fasten longer gloves.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Accessories
Reticules held personal items, such as vinaigrettes. The form-fitting dresses or frocks of the day had no pockets, thus these small drawstring handbags were essential. These handbags were often called buskins or balantines. They were rectangular in shape and was worn suspended by a woven band from a belt placed around the figure above the waist.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Accessories
Parasols (as shown in the illustration) protected a lady's skin from the sun and were considered an important fashion accessory. Slender and light in weight, they came in a variety of shapes, colors, and sizes.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Accessories
Fashionable ladies (and gentlemen) used fans to cool themselves and to enhance gestures and body language. Made of paper or silk on sticks of ivory and wood, and printed with oriental motifs or popular scenes of the era, these ubiquitous accessories featured a variety of shapes and styles, such as pleated or rigid. An information sheet from the Cheltenham Museum describes fans and their use in body language and communication (click and scroll to page 4).


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
By the mid-1790s, neoclassical clothing had come into fashion in France. Several influences had combined to bring about this simplification in women's clothing: aspects of Englishwomen's practical country outdoor-wear leaked up into French high fashion, and there was a reaction in revolutionary France against the stiffly boned corsets and brightly colored satins and other heavy fabrics that were in style in the Ancien Régime (see 1750–1795 in fashion). But ultimately, Neo-classicism was adopted for its association with classical republican ideas [with reference to Greece, rather than republican Rome, which was now considered politically dangerous]. This renewed fascination of the classical past was encouraged by the recent discoveries of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and would likely have not been possible outside such a specific geographic and historical setting that allowed the idea of the past made present to become paramount.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
Along with the influences of the Pompeii and Herculaneum excavations, several other factors came together to popularize neoclassical dress. Starting in the early 1790s, Emma Hamilton began her performances of attitudes, something that was considered by contemporaries as entirely new. These attitudes were based loosely on the ancient practice of pantomime, though Emma's performances lacked masks and musical accompaniment. Her performances created a fusion between art and nature; art came alive and her body became a type of art.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
As an aid to her performances of tragic mythological and historical figures, Emma wore the clothing á la grecque that would become popular in mainstream France in the coming years. A simple light-colored chemise made from thin, flowing material was worn and gathered with a narrow ribbon under the breasts. Simple cashmere shawls were used as headdresses or to give more fullness to the drapery of the chemise.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
They also helped to prevent broken lines in the performance so that the outstretched arms were always connected with the body, escalating the effect of fluid movement, and oftentimes, a cape or a cloak was worn to emphasize the lines of the body in certain poses. This highlighted the continuity of surface of line and form in the body of the performer to emphasize the unity, simplicity, and continuously flowing movement from one part of the body to the next. The hair was worn in a natural, loose, and flowing fashion.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
All of these properties blended together to allow an extensive play of light and shadow to reveal and accent certain parts of the body during the performance while covering others. Emma was highly capable in her attitudes, and the influence of her dress spread from Naples to Paris as wealthy Parisians took the Grand Tour.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
There is also some evidence that the white muslin shift dress became popular after Thermidor through the influence of prison dress. Revolutionary women such as Madame Tallien portrayed themselves in this way because it was the only clothing they possessed during their time in prison. The chemise á la grecque also represented the struggle for representation of the self and the stripping down of past cultural values.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
Also, a simplification of the attire worn by preteen girls in the 1780s (who were no longer required to wear miniature versions of adult stays and panniers) probably paved the way for the simplification of the attire worn by teenage girls and adult women in the 1790s. Waistlines became somewhat high by 1795, but skirts were still rather full, and neoclassical influences were not yet dominant.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
It was during the second half of the 1790s that fashionable women in France began to adopt a thoroughgoing Classical style, based on an idealized version of ancient Greek and Roman dress (or what was thought at the time to be ancient Greek and Roman dress), with narrow clinging skirts.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
Some of the extreme Parisian versions of the neoclassical style (such as narrow straps which bared the shoulders, and diaphanous dresses without sufficient stays, petticoats, or shifts worn beneath) were not widely adopted elsewhere, but many features of the late-1790s neoclassical style were broadly influential, surviving in successively modified forms in European fashions over the next two decades.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
With this Classical style came the willingness to expose the breast. With the new iconography of the Revolution as well as a change in emphasis on maternal breast-feeding, the chemise dress became a sign of the new egalitarian society. The style was simple and appropriate for the comfort of a pregnant or nursing woman as the breasts were emphasized and their availability was heightened. Maternity became fashionable and it was not uncommon for women to walk around with their breasts exposed. Some women took the "fashionable maternity" a step further and wore a "six-month pad" under their dress to appear pregnant.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Directoire (1795–1799)
White was considered the most suitable color for neoclassical clothing (accessories were often in contrasting colors). Short trains trailing behind were common in dresses of the late 1790s.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Empire (1800–1815)
During the first two decades of the 19th century, fashions continued to follow the basic high-waisted empire silhouette, but in other respects, neoclassical influences became progressively diluted. Dresses remained narrow in the front, but fullness at the raised back waist allowed room to walk. Colors other than white came into style, the fad for diaphanous outer fabrics faded (except in certain formal contexts), and some elements of obviously visible ornamentation came back into use in the design of the dress (as opposed to the elegant simplicity or subtle white-on-white embroidery of the dress of ca. 1800).


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Regency (1815–1820) gallery
This era signaled the loss of any lingering neoclassical, pseudo-Grecian styles in women's dress. This decline was especially evident in France due to the Emperor Napoleon's suppression of trade in the fabrics used in neoclassical dress. While waistlines were still high, they were beginning to drop slightly. Larger and more abundant decoration, especially near the hem and neckline foreshadowed greater extravagance in the coming years. More petticoats were being worn, and a stiffer, more cone-shaped skirt became popular. Stiffness could be supplemented by layers of ruffles and tucks on a hem, as well as corded or flounced petticoats. Sleeves began to be pulled, tied, and pinched in ways that were more influenced by romantic and gothic styles than neoclassical. Hats and hairstyles became more elaborate and trimmed, climbing higher to balance widening skirts.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
This period saw the final abandonment of lace, embroidery, and other embellishments from serious men's clothing outside of formalized court dress—it would not reappear except as an affectation of Aesthetic dress in the 1880s and its successor, the "Young Edwardian" look of the 1960s. Instead, cut and tailoring became much more important as an indicator of quality. This transformation can be attributed in part to an increased interest in antiquity stemming from the discovery of classical engravings, including the Elgin Marbles.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
The figures depicted in classical art were viewed as an exemplar of the ideal natural form, and an embodiment of Neoclassical ideas. The style in London for men became more and more refined and this was due to the influence of two things: the dandy and the romantic movement. The dandy (a man who placed high importance on personal aesthetics and hobbies but wanted to seem totally nonchalant about it) arguably emerged as early as the 1790s. Dark colors were all but mandatory.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
(Dark doesn't necessarily mean dreary though; many items, particularly vests and coats were cut from rich, vivid fabrics.) Blue tailcoats with gold buttons were everywhere. White muslin shirts (sometimes with ruffles on the neck/sleeves) were extremely popular. Breeches were officially on their way out, with pants/trousers taking their place. Fabrics in general were becoming more practical silk and more wool, cotton, and buckskin. Therefore, in the 18th century, the dress was simplified and greater emphasis was put on tailoring to enhance the natural form of the body.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
This was also the period of the rise of hair wax for styling men's hair, as well as mutton chops as a style of facial hair.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
Breeches became longer—tightly fitted leather riding breeches reached almost to the boot tops—and were replaced by pantaloons or trousers for fashionable streetwear. The French Revolution is largely responsible for altering the standard male dress. During the revolution, clothing symbolized the division between the upper classes and the working-class revolutionaries. French rebels earned the nickname sans-culottes, or "the people without breeches," because of the loose floppy trousers they popularized.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
Coats were cutaway in front with long skirts or tails behind, and had tall standing collars. Lapels were not as large as they had been in years before and often featured an M-shaped notch unique to the period.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
Shirts were made of linen, had attached collars, and were worn with stocks or wrapped in a cravat tied in various fashions. Pleated frills at the cuffs and the front opening went out of fashion by the end of the period.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
Waistcoats were high-waisted, and squared off at the bottom, but came in a broad variety of styles. They were often double-breasted, with wide lapels and stand collars. Around 1805 large lapels that overlapped those of the jacket began to fall out of fashion, as did the 18th-century tradition of wearing the coat unbuttoned, and gradually waistcoats became less visible. Shortly before this time waistcoats were commonly vertically striped but by 1810 plain white waistcoats were increasingly fashionable, as did horizontally striped waistcoats. High-collared waistcoats were fashionable until 1815, then collars were gradually lowered as the shawl collar came into use toward the end of this period.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
Overcoats or greatcoats were fashionable, often with contrasting collars of fur or velvet. The garrick, sometimes called a coachman's coat, was a particularly popular style, and had between three and five short caplets attached to the collar.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
Boots, typically Hessian boots with heart-shaped tops and tassels were a mainstay in men's footwear. After the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, Wellington boots, as they were known, became the rage; tops were knee-high in front and cut lower in back. The jockey boot, with a turned-down cuff of lighter colored leather, had previously been popular but continued to be worn for riding. Court shoes with elevated heels became popular with the introduction of trousers.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
The clothes-obsessed dandy first appeared in the 1790s, both in London and Paris. In the slang of the time, a dandy was differentiated from a fop in that the dandy's dress was more refined and sober. The dandy prided himself in "natural excellence" and tailoring allowed for exaggeration of the natural figure beneath fashionable outerwear.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
In High Society: A Social History of the Regency Period, 1788–1830, Venetia Murray writes:


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
Other admirers of dandyism have taken the view that it is a sociological phenomenon, the result of a society in a state of transition or revolt. Barbey d'Aurevilly, one of the leading French dandies at the end of the nineteenth century, explained:


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
In Regency London dandyism was a revolt against a different kind of tradition, an expression of distaste for the extravagance and ostentation of the previous generation, and of sympathy with the new mood of democracy.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
Beau Brummell set the fashion for dandyism in British society from the mid-1790s, which was characterized by immaculate personal cleanliness, immaculate linen shirts with high collars, perfectly tied cravats, and exquisitely tailored plain dark coats (contrasting in many respects with the "maccaroni" of the earlier 18th century).


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
Brummell abandoned his wig and cut his hair short in a Roman fashion dubbed à la Brutus, echoing the fashion for all things classical seen in women's wear of this period. He also led the move from breeches to snugly tailored pantaloons or trousers, often light-colored for day and dark for the evening, based on working-class clothing adopted by all classes in France in the wake of the Revolution. In fact, Brummel's reputation for taste and refinement was such that, fifty years after his death, Max Beerbohm, wrote:


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
In certain congruities of dark cloth, in the rigid perfection of his linen, in the symmetry of his glove with his hand, lay the secret of Mr Brummell's miracles.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
Not every male aspiring to attain Brummel's sense of elegance and style succeeded, however, and these dandies were subject to caricature and ridicule. Venetia Murray quotes an excerpt from Diary of an Exquisite, from The Hermit in London, 1819:


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
Took four hours to dress; and then it rained; ordered the tilbury and my umbrella, and drove to the fives' court; next to my tailors; put him off after two years tick; no bad fellow that Weston...broke three stay-laces and a buckle, tore the quarter of a pair of shoes, made so thin by O'Shaughnessy, in St. James's Street, that they were light as brown paper; what a pity they were lined with pink satin, and were quite the go; put on a pair of Hoby's; over-did it in perfuming my handkerchief, and had to recommence de novo; could not please myself in tying my cravat; lost three quarters of an hour by that, tore two pairs of kid gloves in putting them hastily on; was obliged to go gently to work with the third; lost another quarter of an hour by this; drove off furiously in my chariot but had to return for my splendid snuff-box, as I knew that I should eclipse the circle by it.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
Marquis de Lafayette (1757–1834) wearing a powdered wig tied in a queue that was a common piece of men's dress by c. 1795.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, The rise of the dandy
Marquis de Lafayette depicted in later years of his life, dressed according to the fashion of the 1820s.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
During this period, younger men of fashion began to wear their hair in short curls, often with long sideburns. In 1795, Pitt's hair powder tax effectively ended the fashion for wigs and powder, and new styles like the Brutus and the Bedford Crop became fashionable. Older men, military officers, and those in conservative professions such as lawyers, judges, physicians, and servants retained their wigs and powder. Formal court dress also still required powdered hair.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
Tricorne and bicorne hats were still worn, but the most fashionable hat was tall and slightly conical; this would soon, however, be displaced by the top hat and reign as the only hat for formal occasions for the next century.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Children's fashion
Both boys and girls wore dresses until they were about four or five years old, when boys were "breeched", or put into trousers.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Revival of Directoire/Empire/Regency fashions
During the first half of the Victorian era, there was a more or less negative view of women's styles of the 1795–1820 period. Some people would have felt slightly uncomfortable to be reminded that their mothers or grandmothers had once promenaded about in such styles (which could be considered indecent according to Victorian norms), and many would have found it somewhat difficult to really empathize with (or take seriously) the struggles of a heroine of art or literature if they were being constantly reminded that she was wearing such clothes.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Revival of Directoire/Empire/Regency fashions
For such reasons, some Victorian history paintings of the Napoleonic wars intentionally avoided depicting accurate women's styles (see example below), Thackeray's illustrations to his book Vanity Fair depicted the women of the 1810s wearing 1840s fashions, and in Charlotte Brontë's 1849 novel Shirley (set in 1811–1812) neo-Grecian fashions are anachronistically relocated to an earlier generation.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Revival of Directoire/Empire/Regency fashions
Later in the Victorian period, the Regency seemed to retreat to an unthreateningly remote historical distance, and Kate Greenaway and the Artistic Dress movement selectively revived elements of early 19th century fashions. During the late Victorian and Edwardian periods, many genre paintings, sentimental valentines, etc. contained loose depictions of 1795–1820 styles (then considered to be quaint relics of a bygone era). In the late 1960s / early 1970s, there was a limited fashion revival of the Empire silhouette.


1795–1820 in Western fashion, Revival of Directoire/Empire/Regency fashions
In recent years, 1795–1820 fashions are most strongly associated with Jane Austen's writings, due to the various movie adaptations of her novels. There are also some Regency fashion "urban myths", such as that women dampened their gowns to make them appear even more diaphanous (something which was certainly not practiced by the vast majority of women of the period).


1796
1796 (MDCCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1796th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 796th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 96th  year of the 18th century, and the  7th   year of the 1790s decade. As of the start of 1796, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.