180th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment PVO, History, World War II
On 1 June, the regiment was sent to the front with the division, which became part of the 3rd Fighter Aviation Corps (IAK) of the North Caucasian Front's 4th Air Army. The 235th IAD and the regiment were moved to the 2nd Air Army's 10th Fighter Aviation Corps on the Voronezh Front on 10 July, with which it entered combat on 21 July, fighting in the Donbass Strategic Offensive. From 24 August to 3 October, the regiment conducted training in the front reserve. The 181st reentered combat on 4 October, fighting in the advance west through Ukraine, and the front became the 1st Ukrainian Front on 20 October. In early 1944, the regiment fought in the Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive.


180th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment PVO, History, World War II
On 5 August 1944, the 10th IAK was transferred to the 8th Air Army in the 4th Ukrainian Front. On 19 August, the regiment was converted into the 180th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment for "exemplary performance of combat missions and displaying courage and heroism." The 235th IAD was also converted into the 15th Guards Fighter Aviation Division. On 27 September, the regiment was reorganized according to shtat 015/364 at Lysiatychi in western Ukraine. On 16 December, the 180th Guards IAP was awarded the Order of the Red Banner for its actions in the capture of Michalovce.


180th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment PVO, History, World War II
It fought in the Prague Offensive in the last days of the war. The regiment left the active army on 11 May 1945 at the end of the war. During the war, the regiment flew 7,695 sorties, reported shooting down 213 enemy aircraft, and destroyed 31 on the ground for a total of 244 destroyed aircraft. This came at a cost of 155 downed aircraft and 64 pilots killed, divided as follows: 25 in aerial combat, 24 failed to return, 2 in air raids and other non-combat losses, and 13 died in crashes and of wounds.


180th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment PVO, History, Cold War and Russian service
Between May and July 1945, the regiment was based at Oberglogau. In July 1945, the 10th IAK was withdrawn to the Carpathian Military District, where it became part of the 14th Air Army, and the regiment moved to Cherlyany. During that year, it was reequipped with the improved Lavochkin La-7. In June 1949, the 15th Guards IAD and the regiment were transferred to the Soviet Air Defence Forces (PVO), becoming part of the 20th Fighter Air Defence Army at Oryol.


180th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment PVO, History, Cold War and Russian service
There, the regiment became one of the first equipped with the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-9, the first of a series of Mikoyan-and-Gurevich jet fighters. In April 1950, the regiment received its first Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s. In October 1950, the 180th Guards IAP was relocated to Tangshan in the People's Republic of China, where it was transferred to the newly formed 20th Fighter Aviation Division PVO. The regiment was stationed there until February 1952, training PLAAF pilots on the now-obsolete MiG-9s and providing air defence for Beijing.


180th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment PVO, History, Cold War and Russian service
In March of that year, the 20th IAD and the 180th were relocated to Veshchevo airfield in Leningrad Oblast. In mid-1953, the regiment moved to the Gromovo, Priozersky District of Leningrad Oblast. The regiment received Yakovlev Yak-25M long-range interceptors in August 1955. In 1961 it became part of the 18th Air Defence Corps after the 20th IAD was disbanded. By a directive of 25 January 1962, the regiment's honorific Stalingrad was removed, but on 29 September 1964 the regiment received the honorific Volgograd in order to preserve its traditions.


180th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment PVO, History, Cold War and Russian service
The regiment was reequipped with the newer Sukhoi Su-15 in March 1969, receiving the Su-15TM variant in June 1978 after the 57th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment at Veshchevo disbanded. Between April 1980 and April 1986, the 180th was directly subordinated to the VVS Leningrad Military District. The regiment then became part of the 54th Air Defence Corps of the 6th Air Defence Army. The regiment replaced its Su-15s with Mikoyan MiG-31 interceptors in June 1988. In November 1990, the regiment, according to Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe data, had 31 MiG-31s. By 2000 it had 28 MiG-31s and was disbanded on 1 July 2002.


180th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment PVO, Commanders
The following officers commanded the regiment during World War II:


180th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)
The 180th Infantry Division (German: 180. Infanterie-Division) was an infantry division of the German Heer during World War II. The unit, at times designated Commander of Reserve Troops X/II (German: Kommandeur der Ersatztruppen X/II), 180th Division (German: 180. Division),  Division No. 180 (German: Division Nr. 180), and Operation Division No. 180 (German: Einsatz-Division Nr. 180), was active between 1939 and 1945.


180th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), History, 1939
The 180th Division, also designated Commander of Reserve Troops X/II, was formed in Bremen in Wehrkreis X on 25 November 1939. The initial command staff assigned to Wehrkreis X, the 170th Division, had been reorganized into a field division and thus needed a replacement in the form of the 180th, which was redesignated Division No. 180 on 21 December 1939. The division's initial commander, appointed on 1 December 1939, was Kurt Woytasch. Woytasch was replaced by Martin Gilbert on 10 January 1940.


180th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), History, 1940
In March 1940, the division consisted of the following elements:


180th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), History, 1942
In January 1942, Gilbert was replaced as divisional commander by Herbert Lemke.


180th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), History, 1943
On 16 August 1943, the division staff was temporarily moved to Verden, a move that was made permanent on 10 January 1944. In December 1943, the division consisted of the following elements:


180th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), History, 1944
On 18 September 1944, the codeword Alarm Küste was given out to German forces in response to several Allied paratrooper landings in the Netherlands, collectively known as Operation Market Garden. The 180th Division, now designated Operation Division No. 180, was moved against the British forces. The division consisted of the following forces, with a strength of at least 8475 personnel:


180th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), History, 1944
The division was also accompanied in combat by Kampfgruppe Fastenau, Battalion Wienke, and the Heavy Flak Detachments 362 and 666. The 180th Division was successful in slowing the Allied XXX Corps long enough to secure German victory at the Battle of Arnhem. It was under command of Bernhard Klosterkemper starting on 27 September 1944. Klosterkemper soon passed command to Martin Gilbert on 1 October. Several parts of the division that were not utilized in combat were later reformed into Division No. 480.


180th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), History, 1944
Following an order on 31 October 1944, Division No. 180 was reformed into the 180th Infantry Division. The 180th Infantry Division initially consisted of the following units:


180th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), History, 1945
Between October 1944 and February 1945, the 180th Infantry Division served under the LXXXVI Army Corps. The division fought in the Venlo area between December 1944 and January 1945, during the Battle of the Bulge. On 15 March 1945, Infantry Division Hamburg was integrated into the 180th Infantry Division. The division ended the war under the LIII Army Corps. After participating in combat against the 2nd British Army in the Battle of Wesel, the 180th Infantry Division was crushed in Operation Varsity in March 1945. The shattered remnants of the divisions were driven back by the Allied forces into the Ruhr Pocket, where the 180th Infantry Division fought its final battle.


180th Mixed Brigade
The 180th Mixed Brigade was a brigade of the People's Army of the Republic that fought in the Spanish Civil War.


180th Mixed Brigade, History
The unit was created on April 30, 1938, on the Andalusia front, being assigned to the 54th Division of the IX Corps. Command fell to Francisco Fervenza Fernández, a veteran of the War in the North.


180th Mixed Brigade, History
On June 12 the brigade was sent along with the rest of the division to the Castellón front, aimed at XYZ line. On July 21 the 180th Mixed Brigade saw combat, resulting in a bitter struggle with the nationalist forces advancing towards Valencia. The 720th battalion distinguished itself especially during these operations. After the beginning of the Battle of the Ebro the fighting subsided. In August 1938, command of the brigade was assumed by Manuel Chaves.


180th Mixed Brigade, History
It did not intervene in any significant capacity for the remainder of the conflict.


180th New York State Legislature
The 180th New York State Legislature, consisting of the New York State Senate and the New York State Assembly, met from January 3, 1973, to May 30, 1974, during the fifteenth  and final year of Nelson Rockefeller's governorship, and during Malcolm Wilson's governorship, in Albany.


180th New York State Legislature, Background
Under the provisions of the New York Constitution of 1938, and the U.S. Supreme Court decision to follow the One man, one vote rule, re-apportioned in 1971 by the Legislature, 60 Senators and 150 assemblymen were elected in single-seat districts for two-year terms. Senate and Assembly districts consisted of approximately the same number of inhabitants, the area being apportioned without restrictions regarding county boundaries.


180th New York State Legislature, Background
At this time there were two major political parties: the Republican Party and the Democratic Party. The Conservative Party and the Liberal Party also nominated tickets.


180th New York State Legislature, Elections
The New York state election, 1972, was held on November 7. The only three statewide elective offices up for election were three seats on the New York Court of Appeals. All three seats were won by Republican judges, two with Conservative endorsement, and one with Liberal endorsement. The approximate party strength at this election, as expressed by the average vote for Judge of the Court of Appeals, was: Republicans 2,847,000; Democrats 2,709,000; Conservatives 425,000; and Liberals 258,000. To date this was the last time a Republican majority was elected to the State Assembly.


180th New York State Legislature, Elections
Of the three women members of the previous legislature, Assemblywoman Mary Anne Krupsak (Dem. ), a lawyer of Amsterdam, was elected to the State Senate; and Assemblywomen Constance E. Cook (Rep.), a lawyer of Ithaca; and Rosemary R. Gunning (Cons. ), a lawyer of Ridgewood, Queens; were re-elected to the Assembly. Karen Burstein, a lawyer of Lawrence, and Carol Bellamy, a lawyer of Brooklyn, were also elected to the State Senate; and Estella B. Diggs, of the Bronx, was also elected to the Assembly.


180th New York State Legislature, Elections
The New York state election, 1973, was held on November 6. The only statewide elective office up for election was the Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals. Republican Charles D. Breitel was elected with Liberal endorsement. One vacancy in the State Senate and five vacancies in the Assembly were filled. Elizabeth Connelly (Dem. ), of Staten Island, was elected to the Assembly.


180th New York State Legislature, Sessions
The Legislature met for the first regular session (the 196th) at the State Capitol in Albany on January 3, 1973; and adjourned sine die on May 28.


180th New York State Legislature, Sessions
Warren M. Anderson (Rep.) was elected Temporary President of the State Senate.


180th New York State Legislature, Sessions
The Legislature met for a special session at the State Capitol in Albany on July 25, 1973; and adjourned sine die on July 31. This session was called to consider the issue of a $3.5 million bond issue to finance the construction of additional public transportation capacities in New York City.


180th New York State Legislature, Sessions
The Legislature met for the second regular session (the 197th) at the State Capitol in Albany on January 9, 1974; and adjourned sine die in the early morning of May 17.


180th New York State Legislature, Sessions
The U.S. Department of Justice found fault with the congressional, senatorial and Assembly districts in Manhattan and Brooklyn under the apportionment of 1971, and ordered a revision to safeguard the rights of minorities.


180th New York State Legislature, Sessions
The Legislature met for another special session at the State Capitol in Albany on May 29, 1974; and adjourned sine die on the next day. This session was called to remap the legislative districts in Manhattan and Brooklyn, and to amend the rent-control law passed during the regular session. The Senate passed Governor Wilson's rent law amendment, but the Assembly did not come to a vote on it.


180th New York State Legislature, Sessions
On July 1, the U.S. Department of Justice accepted the revised districts as passed by the Legislature.


180th New York State Legislature, State Senate, Senators
The asterisk (*) denotes members of the previous Legislature who continued in office as members of this Legislature. Chester J. Straub, Vander L. Beatty, Joseph R. Pisani, Mary Anne Krupsak, Edwyn E. Mason and James T. McFarland changed from the Assembly to the Senate at the beginning of the session.


180th New York State Legislature, State Senate, Senators
Note: For brevity, the chairmanships omit the words "...the Committee on (the)..."


180th New York State Legislature, State Assembly, Assemblymen
The asterisk (*) denotes members of the previous Legislature who continued in office as members of this Legislature. George A. Murphy and John J. LaFalce changed from the Senate to the Assembly at the beginning of the session.


180th New York State Legislature, State Assembly, Assemblymen
Note: For brevity, the chairmanships omit the words "...the Committee on (the)..."


180th Ohio Infantry Regiment
The 180th Ohio Infantry Regiment, sometimes 180th Ohio Volunteer Infantry (or 180th OVI) was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War.


180th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Service
The 180th Ohio Infantry was organized at Camp Chase in Columbus, Ohio September through October 1864 and mustered in for one year service under the command of Colonel Willard Warner.


180th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Service
The regiment was attached to 3rd Brigade, Defenses of Nashville & Chattanooga Railroad, Department of the Cumberland, to January 1865. 1st Brigade, 1st Division, XXIII Army Corps, Army of the Ohio, and Department of North Carolina, to July 1865.


180th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Service
The 180th Ohio Infantry mustered out of service July 12, 1865, at Charlotte, North Carolina.


180th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Detailed service
Left Ohio for Nashville, Tenn., October 15. Moved from Nashville to Decherd, Tenn., October 1864, and performed guard duty on line of the Nashville & Chattanooga Railroad, Right Wing at Decherd, Left Wing at Elk River Bridge, until January 1865. Moved to Nashville, Tenn., January 6; then moved as supply train guard to Columbia, Tenn., January 10. Returned to Nashville and moved to Washington, D.C.; then to North Carolina January 16-February 25. Campaign of the Carolinas March 1-April 26. Advance on Kinston and Goldsboro March 6–21. Battle of Wyse Fork March 8–10. Occupation of Kinston March 14. Occupation of Goldsboro March 21. Advance on Raleigh April 10–14. Occupation of Raleigh April 14. Bennett's House April 26. Surrender of Johnston and his army. Duty at Raleigh, Greensboro and Charlotte, N.C., until July.


180th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Casualties
The regiment lost a total of 91 men during service; 1 officer and 5 enlisted men killed or mortally wounded, 1 officer and 84 enlisted men due to disease.


180th Rifle Division
The 180th Rifle Division was an infantry division of the Soviet Red Army, formed twice.


180th Rifle Division
Poirer and Connor write that it was first formed 1940 in the Baltic Special Military District and became the 28th Guards Rifle Division on 3 May 1942.


180th Rifle Division
The division briefly became the 14th Rifle Division in 1955, then 88th Motor Rifle Division 1957, but became 180th Kiev Red Banner Orders of Suvorov and Kutuzov Motor Rifle Division in 1965 and remained under that title until the 1990s. After 1992 became Ukrainian 27th Mechanized Brigade. The 27th Mechanized Brigade was disbanded, most likely in the early 2000s.


180th Rifle Division, First formation
The 180th Rifle Division was first formed during August and September 1940 in the Baltic Special Military District. It was part of the 22nd Territorial Rifle Corps (Estonian) and was composed of Estonian People's Force personnel. It was commanded by Major General Richard Tomberg, the former commander of the Estonian Air Force. On 3 June 1941, Major General Ivan Missan replaced Tomberg in command. On 22 June 1941, it was based in Võru, which was in the rear area. While moving forward, it was attacked by German aircraft.


180th Rifle Division, First formation
The division entered combat on 26 June against the LVI Panzer Corps, which was attacking the 27th Army in the Daugava region. On 9 July, the division and its parent formation, the 22nd Rifle Corps, were transferred from the 27th Army to the 11th Army. It fought in defensive battles, making counterattacks in Soltsy, Porkhov and Novorzhev. In August it had retreated back to the Staraya Russa area. In September 1941, the division fought in the Demyansk Defensive Operation. It then fought in the Demyansk Pocket in early 1942. On 3 May 1942, the division became the 28th Guards Rifle Division for its actions.


180th Rifle Division, Second formation
The second formation of the division was created at Cherepovets in June 1942 from the 41st Rifle Brigade. It fought at Kiev, Târgu Frumos, and Budapest. The division was part of the 53rd Army of the 2nd Ukrainian Front in May 1945. During the war, the division was awarded the honorific Kiev for its actions during the 1943 capture of Kiev. It was awarded the Order of the Red Banner, the Order of Suvorov 2nd class and the Order of Kutuzov 2nd class.


180th Rifle Division, Postwar
In 1955, it became the 14th Rifle Division. On 17 May 1957, the 88th Motor Rifle Division was activated from the 14th Rifle Division in Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, part of the 14th Army. On 19 February 1962, the 276th Separate Equipment Maintenance and Recovery Battalion was activated along with the 244th Separate Missile Battalion.


180th Rifle Division, Postwar
On 17 November 1964, the 88th Motor Rifle Division became the 180th Motor Rifle Division, restoring its World War II numbering. In 1967, the 14th Army became the 14th Guards Army. On 15 November 1972, the 1303rd Separate Anti-Tank Artillery Battalion was activated along with a separate Reactive Artillery Battalion. In 1980, the Separate Motor Transport Battalion became the 1041st Separate Material Supply Battalion. During the same year, the 136th Artillery Regiment absorbed the reactive artillery battalion. During the Cold War, the division was maintained at 16% strength.


180th Rifle Division, Postwar
On 1 December 1989, the division was ordered to become the 5775th Weapons and Equipment Storage Base, but this was appears to have been delayed to at least 1991. In 1990, CFE treaty data showed the division had 61 T-64 tanks, 13 T-54 tanks and 12  BM-21 Grad multiple rocket launchers, among other equipment. In January 1992, the storage base was taken over by Ukraine.


180th Rifle Division, Postwar
It became the 27th Separate Mechanized Brigade and was subordinated to the 1st Airmobile Division. The brigade was disbanded in 2004.


180th Rifle Division, Composition
The 180th Rifle Division's first formation included the following units.


180th Rifle Division, Composition
The 180th Motor Rifle Division's second formation was composed of the following units.


180th Rifle Division, Composition
The 180th Motor Rifle Division was composed of the following units in 1988.


180th Street station (IRT Third Avenue Line)
180th Street was a local station on the demolished IRT Third Avenue Line in the Bronx, New York City. It was opened on July 1, 1901, and was one of three stations built when the line was extended to Fordham Plaza. It had three tracks and two side platforms. The next stop to the north was 183rd Street. The next stop to the south was Tremont Avenue–177th Street. The station closed on April 29, 1973.


180th Street–Bronx Park station
180th Street–Bronx Park was the former terminal station for the IRT White Plains Road Line of the New York City Subway, in the West Farms neighborhood of the Bronx.


180th Street–Bronx Park station, History
The initial segment of the IRT White Plains Road Line opened on November 26, 1904 between 180th Street–Bronx Park and Jackson Avenue. Initially, trains on the line were served by elevated trains from the IRT Second Avenue Line and the IRT Third Avenue Line. Once the connection to the IRT Lenox Avenue Line opened on July 10, 1905, trains from the newly opened IRT subway ran via the line.


180th Street–Bronx Park station, History
The line was originally intended to extend farther north but was changed into a terminal during construction due to protests stating that the trains running over Bronx Park would be bad for animals in the Bronx Zoo. The line's extension is the reason for the S-curve north of the West Farms Square–East Tremont Avenue station. After the line's extension to 238th Street in 1917, and then Wakefield–241st Street in 1920, the Bronx Park spur was considered redundant.


180th Street–Bronx Park station, History
On March 1, 1951, the Board of Transportation announced a plan to implement express service along the White Plains Road Line between 241st Street and Third Avenue–149th Street using the middle third track. New signaling, including the installation of block signals, was to be installed on the local tracks, in addition to the installation of signals on the express track at the cost of $3.5 million. In addition, it was announced that a flyover to the Dyre Avenue Line would be built, allowing for through-service, and eliminating the need to transfer at East 180th Street.


180th Street–Bronx Park station, History
The final key element to the improvement plan was the elimination of the at-grade junction north of the West Farms Square station, which was a major bottleneck, by closing the spur to 180th Street–Bronx Park. To make up for the loss of service, an escalator would be added at the West Farms Square station at 178th Street and Boston Road. The station was closed and abandoned on August 4, 1952. The station and associated elevated structure were later torn down.


180th Street–Bronx Park station, Station layout
The station used a Spanish solution layout. It had two tracks, an island platform and two side platforms. The tracks ended at bumper blocks at the north end of the platforms.


180th Tunnelling Company
The 180th Tunnelling Company was one of the tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers created by the British Army during World War I. The tunnelling units were occupied in offensive and defensive mining involving the placing and maintaining of mines under enemy lines, as well as other underground work such as the construction of deep dugouts for troop accommodation, the digging of subways, saps (a narrow trench dug to approach enemy trenches), cable trenches and underground chambers for signals and medical services.


180th Tunnelling Company, Background
By January 1915 it had become evident to the BEF at the Western Front that the Germans were mining to a planned system. As the British had failed to develop suitable counter-tactics or underground  listening devices before the war, field marshals French and Kitchener agreed to investigate the suitability of forming  British mining units. Following consultations between the Engineer-in-Chief of the BEF, Brigadier George Fowke, and the mining specialist John Norton-Griffiths, the War Office formally approved the tunnelling company scheme on 19 February 1915.


180th Tunnelling Company, Background
Norton-Griffiths ensured that tunnelling companies numbers 170 to 177 were ready for deployment in mid-February 1915. In the spring of that year, there was constant underground fighting in the Ypres Salient at Hooge, Hill 60, Railway Wood, Sanctuary Wood, St Eloi and The Bluff which required the deployment of new drafts of tunnellers for several months after the formation of the first eight companies. The lack of suitably experienced men led to some tunnelling companies starting work later than others.


180th Tunnelling Company, Background
The number of units available to the BEF was also restricted by the need to provide effective counter-measures to the German mining activities. To make the tunnels safer and quicker to deploy, the British Army enlisted experienced coal miners, many outside their nominal recruitment policy. The first nine companies, numbers 170 to 178, were each commanded by a regular Royal Engineers officer. These companies each comprised 5 officers and 269 sappers; they were aided by additional infantrymen who were temporarily attached to the tunnellers as required, which almost doubled their numbers.


180th Tunnelling Company, Background
The success of the first tunnelling companies formed under Norton-Griffiths' command led to mining being made a separate branch of the  Engineer-in-Chief's office under Major-General S.R. Rice, and the appointment of an 'Inspector of Mines' at the GHQ Saint-Omer office of the Engineer-in-Chief. A second group of tunnelling companies were formed from Welsh miners from the 1st and 3rd Battalions of the Monmouthshire Regiment, who were attached to the 1st Northumberland Field Company of the Royal Engineers, which was a Territorial unit. The formation of twelve new tunnelling companies, between July and October 1915, helped to bring more men into action in other parts of the Western Front.


180th Tunnelling Company, Background
Most tunnelling companies were formed under Norton-Griffiths' leadership during 1915, and one more was added in 1916. On 10 September 1915, the British government sent an appeal to Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand to raise tunnelling companies in the Dominions of the British Empire. On 17 September, New Zealand became the first Dominion to agree the formation of a tunnelling unit. The New Zealand Tunnelling Company arrived at Plymouth on 3 February 1916 and was deployed to the Western Front in northern France. A Canadian unit was formed from men on the battlefield, plus two other companies trained in Canada and then shipped to France. Three Australian tunnelling companies were formed by March 1916, resulting in 30 tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers being available by the summer of 1916.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history
180th Tunnelling Company was formed at Labuissiere in August 1915, and moved into the Vermelles sector. From its formation in until the end of the war the company served under Fourth Army.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Battle of Loos
180th Tunnelling Company was engaged in constructing saps and trenches, in addition to much carrying work, during the Battle of Loos (25 September – 14 October 1915).


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Givenchy
180th Tunnelling Company then moved to the Givenchy area, and relieved there in early 1916 by 255th Tunnelling Company.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Hohenzollern Redoubt
The Hohenzollern Redoubt near Loos-en-Gohelle in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France was the site of intense and sustained fighting between German and Allied forces. After an earlier British attack in October 1915, extensive tunnelling had been conducted by the Germans during the winter of 1915–1916; due to the nature of the clay covering and chalk below ground, mine explosions threw up high lips around mine craters, which became good observation points. It had been calculated that the German mining effort was six weeks more advanced than the British effort.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Hohenzollern Redoubt
170th Tunnelling Company began work for a mining attack on the Hohenzollern Redoubt on 14 December 1915. By the end of the month, it was in the process of sinking six shafts. Two sections of 180th Tunnelling Company were then attached to 170th Tunnelling Company, and the miners began another three shafts. Mining was carried out in the clay layer to distract the Germans from other mine workings in the chalk.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Hohenzollern Redoubt
The British tunneling effort over the winter gradually overtook the German mining operation and a plan was made to destroy the German galleries. By late February 1916, 170th Tunnelling Company had driven deep galleries through the chalk between 49–61 metres (161–200 ft) to within  9.1 metres (30 ft) of the German front-line trenches, where four mines were placed underneath the shallower galleries dug by the Germans. An infantry attack was prepared by the 12th Division for 2 March.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Hohenzollern Redoubt
The four mines would counter the German advantage in observation from Fosse 8 and possibly lead to the destruction of the German gallery system. Chamber A was loaded with 7,000 pounds (3,200 kg) of ammonal, Chamber B with 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) of blastine and 4,000 pounds (1,800 kg) of ammonal and Chamber C with a charge of 10,550 pounds (4,790 kg).


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Hohenzollern Redoubt
170th Tunnelling Company produced a forecast of the effect of the mines, in which mines A and B were predicted to make craters 100 feet (30 m) wide, 35 feet (11 m) deep and that Crater C to be 130 feet (40 m) wide and 35 feet (11 m) deep. The fourth, smaller mine had been planted under the side of Crater 2. At 5:45 p.m., the mines were sprung, which made crater lips from which the German trenches could be seen.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Hohenzollern Redoubt
The explosion of the four mines (the largest yet sprung by the British) on 2 March was followed up by an attack of the British infantry. The new craters, A, B and C, older craters 1–5 and Triangle Crater were occupied and 170th Tunnelling Company destroyed German mine entrances found in the Triangle Crater. German counter-attacks retook Triangle Crater on 4 March and from 7–14 March skirmishing took place during heavy snowstorms and bitter cold. 170th Tunnelling Company eventually got into the German gallery system from a British tunnel and were able to demolish the system on 12 March, which relieved the threat of another German mine attack.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Hohenzollern Redoubt
On 18 March, five German mines detonated short of the British lines at 6:15 p.m., after which the Germans pushed back the British to the old front line. A counter-attack was organised, and the craters re-captured. The Germans retired and drove new galleries through the clay layer on top of the chalk, which could be dug more quietly and contributed to the surprise of the German mine explosions. By the time that the crater fighting died down, both sides held the near sides of the craters.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Hohenzollern Redoubt
The British exploded another mine on 19 March and the Germans two mines in the Quarries on 24 March. British mines were blown on 26 and 27 March, 5, 13, 20, 21 and 22 April; German mines were exploded on 31 March, 2, 8, 11, 12 and 23 April. Each explosion was followed by infantry attacks and consolidation of the mine lips.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, March 1918
In March 1918, the 180th Tunnelling Company acted as emergency infantry, fighting a defensive action near Ronssoy before withdrawing to Hamelet. 180th Tunnelling Company did much work in Albert during the great advance to victory, repairing all kinds of works and removing unexploded charges and mines.


180th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, March 1918
180th Tunnelling Company did the same in Epehy in November 1918.


180th Tunnelling Company, Further reading
An overview of the history of 180th Tunnelling Company is also available in Robert K. Johns, Battle Beneath the Trenches: The Cornish Miners of 251 Tunnelling Company RE, Pen & Sword Military 2015 (ISBN 978-1473827004), p. 221


180th meridian
The 180th meridian or antimeridian is the meridian 180° both east and west of the Prime Meridian, with which it forms a great circle dividing the earth into the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. It is common to both east longitude and west longitude. It mostly passes through the open waters of the Pacific Ocean, but passes across land in Russia, Fiji, and Antarctica. This meridian is used as the basis for the International Date Line, but the latter deviates from it to maintain date consistency within the territories of Russia, the United States, Kiribati, Fiji and New Zealand.


180th meridian
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 180th meridian passes through:


180th meridian
The meridian also passes between (but not particularly close to):


180th meridian
The only place where roads cross this meridian, and where there are buildings very close to it, is in Fiji.


180th meridian, Software representation problems
Many geographic software libraries or data formats project the world to a rectangle; very often this rectangle is split exactly at the 180th meridian. This often makes it non-trivial to do simple tasks (like representing an area, or a line) over the 180th meridian. Some examples:


180° Rule (film)
180° Rule (Persian: خط فرضی, romanized: Khate Farzi) is a 2020 Iranian film directed and screenplayed by Farnoosh Samadi and isstarring by Sahar Dolatshahi, Pejman Jamshidi, Azita Hajian, Hasan Pourshirazi, Amirreza Ranjbaran, Sadaf Asgari, Mohammad Heidari and Aylin Jahed. The film premiered at the 2020 Toronto International Film Festival, and received an award at 65th Valladolid International Film Festival for the Best Film of Meeting Point section also received two Crystal Simorgh award nominations for the "Best Sound Effects" for Amir Hossein Ghasemi and "Best Supporting Actress" for Azita Hajian at the 39th Fajr International Film Festival.


181
Year 181 (CLXXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aurelius and Burrus (or, less frequently, year 934 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 181 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.


181 (number)
181 (one hundred [and] eighty-one) is the natural number following 180 and preceding 182.


181 BC
Year 181 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Cethegus and Tamphilus (or, less frequently, year 573 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 181 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.


181 Eucharis
Eucharis (minor planet designation: 181 Eucharis) is a large, slowly rotating main-belt asteroid that was discovered by French astronomer Pablo Cottenot on February 2, 1878, from Marseille Observatory. It was his only asteroid discovery. This object was named after Eucharis, a Greek nymph.


181 Eucharis
In the Tholen classification system, it is categorized as a stony S-type asteroid, while the Bus asteroid taxonomy system lists it as an Xk asteroid. Photometric observations of this asteroid at the Goat Mountain Astronomical Research Station in Rancho Cucamonga, California during 2007 gave a light curve with a leisurely rotation period of 52.23 ± 0.05 hours.


181 Eucharis
This object is the namesake of a family of 149–778 asteroids that share similar spectral properties and orbital elements; hence they may have arisen from the same collisional event. All members have a relatively high orbital inclination.


181 Fremont
181 Fremont is an 803-foot (245 m) mixed-use skyscraper in the South of Market District of San Francisco, California. The building, designed by Heller Manus Architects, is located adjacent to the Transbay Transit Center and 199 Fremont Street developments. 181 Fremont is owned and operated by Jay Paul Company. Jay Paul Company is the sole owner and developer of the project. The entire office portion of the building has been leased to Facebook to house its San Francisco office and Instagram division.


181 Fremont, Design
The slender mixed-use tower, developed initially by SKS Investments, rises 700 ft (210 m) to the roof with 55 floors of offices and residential condominiums. A parapet/mechanical screen reaches to 745 ft (227 m), and a spire brings the total height to 802.5 ft (244.6 m).


181 Fremont, Design
The tower will contain 432,000 sq ft (40,100 m2) of office space on the lower 35 floors (from 3 to 38), and 67 condominiums on the upper 16 floors (from 41 to 57). The 39th floor will contain residential amenities and a two-story open air terrace. Mechanical spaces would be on floors 2 and 40. The building will have a direct connection to the rooftop park atop the adjacent Salesforce Transit Center from the 7th floor.


181 Fremont, Design
Upon completion, the tower was the tallest mixed-use building in San Francisco, surpassing the nearby Millennium Tower, and the 2nd-tallest in the Western United States. It was also the third tallest building in the city after the Transamerica Pyramid and the Salesforce Tower. 181 Fremont joins several other buildings designed to catalyze the San Francisco Transbay development area.


181 Fremont, History
In 2007, SKS originally proposed 181 Fremont Street as a 66 floor, 900-foot (274 m) tall mixed-use skyscraper, with 140 residential units and 500,000 square feet (46,452 m2) of office space. However, the developers reduced the height of the project to comply with the parcel's 700-foot (213 m) height limit, as detailed in the Transbay Center District Plan approved in 2012. Still, this height limit is twice as high as the previous restriction. The tower's design was approved in December 2012, and the development site was subsequently put on the market by SKS Investments.


181 Fremont, History
On March 29, 2013, Jay Paul Company announced that it acquired the development from SKS Investments and planned "to immediately commence construction" with completion expected in the second quarter of 2015. According to Bloomberg, the building will cost US$375 million to construct, including land acquisition costs. Demolition of the existing structures began in August 2013, with tower construction expected to begin in November. Official groundbreaking ceremonies took place on November 12, 2013, and the luxury residences were officially named Park 181. The name was later changed to simply 181 Fremont Residences. Jay Paul Company announced that the building would cost US$500 million to construct and is scheduled to open in early 2017. On September 20, 2017, it was reported that Facebook would lease the entire office portion of the building to form a new San Francisco office.


181 Fremont, History
Feb 1, 2017 - Installation of roof decorative structure in progress, window glass significantly complete on office floors.


181 Union City–New York
The 181 Union City-New York is a bus route operated by New Jersey Transit in the U.S. states of New Jersey and New York. Buses head north from the Bergenline Avenue Hudson-Bergen Light Rail station in Union City along Bergenline Avenue, Woodcliff Avenue, and Palisade Avenue (Hudson Palisades) to Fort Lee via West New York, Guttenberg, North Bergen, Fairview, and Cliffside Park, and cross the George Washington Bridge to the George Washington Bridge Bus Station in Upper Manhattan.


181 Union City–New York, History
The route continued to operate along the old streetcar route to Hoboken Terminal until April 8, 2006, about 1.5 months after the Bergenline Avenue station of the Hudson-Bergen Light Rail opened. In order to "take advantage of the light rail system's reliability and convenience", the 181 was truncated to the station, where passengers can transfer to the light rail line or to the 89 (which was rerouted along the old 181 route) to reach Hoboken.


181 West Madison Street
181 West Madison Street is a skyscraper located in Chicago managed and leased by MB Real Estate. Built in 1990, the building is 680 feet (207 m) tall and contains 50 floors. It is architect Cesar Pelli's first and only completed tower in the city.


181 West Madison Street
The glassy office tower's most distinctive feature is its recessed crown. The top of the building is illuminated white at the corners, as well as other various colors depending on the holiday.


181 West Madison Street
In 1989, the same combination of developer (Miglin-Beitler Developments) and architect envisioned the Miglin-Beitler Skyneedle nearby. The 2,000 foot (610 m) and 125-story building would have been the tallest skyscraper in the world if completed, but plans were scrapped because of a sluggish real estate market.


181 series
The 181 series (181系) (and the earlier 151 and 161 series variants) was a Japanese limited express electric multiple unit (EMU) type operated by Japanese National Railways (JNR).


181 series, Variants
The 151 series trains were introduced in 1958 on Kodama limited services on the Tokaido Main Line. 161 series trains were introduced in 1959 on Toki limited services on the Joetsu Line. Some 151 and 161 series cars were subsequently modified to become 181 series alongside newly built 181 series cars.


181 series, Variants
A JNR 181 series train on an Azusa service in January 1975


181 series, Preserved examples
KuHa 181 1 (formerly Kuha 151 1) preserved outside the Kawasaki Heavy Industries factory in Kobe


181 series, Preserved examples
KuHa 181 45 preserved at Niitsu in May 2007 before being moved to the Railway Museum


181 series, Preserved examples
KuHa 181 45 preserved at the Railway Museum in Saitama in 2015


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney
181-187 Hay Street,also known as the  Corporation Building or Municipal Building,  is a heritage-listed former council chambers located at 181-187 Hay Street, in the Haymarket district of Sydney, Australia. It was built from 1893. The property is owned by City of Sydney and was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney
The building is home to the 4A Centre for Contemporary Asian Art.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, History
The "Eora people" was the name given by the British colonisers to the Aboriginal people who inhabited the area around Sydney around 1788. Central Sydney is therefore often referred to as "Eora country". Within the City of Sydney local government area, the traditional owners are the Cadigal and Wangal bands of the Eora. There is no written record of the name of the language spoken and currently there are debates as whether the coastal peoples spoke a separate language "Eora" or whether this was actually a dialect of the Dharug language. Remnant bushland in places like Blackwattle Bay retain elements of traditional plant, bird and animal life, including fish and rock oysters.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, History
With British settlement of the Sydney region, the Gadigal and Wangal people were decimated, but there are descendants still living in Sydney today, and Aboriginal people from across the state have been attracted to suburbs such as Pyrmont, Balmain, Rozelle, Glebe, and Redfern since the 1930s. Changes in government legislation in the 1960s provided freedom of movement, enabling more Aboriginal people to choose to live in Sydney.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, History
In 1892 it was proposed that "the old Corporation stores at the Haymarket is to be removed and give place to a building which will unite in character the markets adjacent." Primarily the new building was to provide "good lavatory accommodation" to cater for increased market activity in the area as well as some small retail outlets and offices. Indications of this combined use are still evident. The building is one of the very few remaining public toilets built in this period.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, History
The contract for the construction of the new building, designed by George McRae, was let on 16 February 1893 to Daniel McInnes. This was around the same time that the construction of the Queen Victoria Building, also by McRae, was commenced. The New Corporation building was completed in 1895. In 1913 the adjacent Belmore markets were converted to the "Hippodrome" (later Capitol Theatre) and the original terracotta features were relocated to the first floor.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, History
During the 1920s as the market use ceased, shop fronts were inserted into the openings in the facade of 181-187 Hay Street and in 1935 the original awning was replaced with the present structure. The early awning was colonnaded with cast iron supports and was constructed under a separate contract in 1894. Following a fire in 1974, the roof covering was replaced with metal sheeting and since that time numerous alterations have taken place to the interior and exterior including the demolition of the central stairs and the removal of first floor partitions. The corner of the building under the tower has also been removed and new stairs and concrete floors have been inserted.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, Description
181-187 Hay Street is a rare example of Federation Anglo-Dutch style commercial architecture (pre-dating the Federation period by some years) with its intricate detailing and richly textured façade. Located in the Haymarket area of the City of Sydney, the building has its own distinctive architectural features using colourful terracotta, sandstone and red brick detailing and flamboyant forms and motifs.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, Description
he external detail is largely intact, with openings having been infilled from the 1920s onwards and an awning being replaced in 1935, but the interiors have undergone significant changes with only some elements surviving. The building occupies a corner site, fronting three streets, giving it a visual prominence in the area and the major corner is surmounted by a small round tower with conical roof. It forms a key part of the precinct with the Capitol Theatre and the Haymarket Chambers, which reflect Sydney's social and architectural heritage around the turn of the century.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, Description, Physical condition
The original building was predominantly loadbearing brick and timber construction, but various alterations have changed internal materials with the introduction of reinforced concrete floors, concrete stairs and the removal of dividing walls on the upper level. Internal features of significance include: timber-panelled encasement of the early roller shutter, internal detail of the skylight (now concealed), and original cast iron columns. The building appears to have been damaged by fire in the 1970s, which apparently affected the roof and internal finishes. Intrusive elements include a post-1970s fitout and other alterations.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, Heritage listing
The Corporation building is within a recognised Heritage Streetscape. The building is of historic, aesthetic, and social significance as a rare surviving example of a small scale, flamboyant Federation Anglo-Dutch style building, characterised by intricate brick detailing and stylised design motifs. With the Haymarket Chambers, Capitol Theatre, and Palace Hotel, it forms a significant historic precinct of Victorian and Edwardian buildings of consistent character and scale, reflecting the period's growth and prosperity in relation to the markets, the railway terminus, and nearby large scale retail centres such as Anthony Hordern and Company. With the Capitol Theatre, the Corporation Building is a surviving element of the Belmore Market Precinct and a very fine example of market architecture from the late Victorian period.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, Heritage listing
The building is an early and important work of the City Architect, George McRae, who designed a number of buildings throughout the city including the Queen Victoria Building.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, Heritage listing
181-187 Hay Street was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.


181-187 Hay Street, Sydney, Tenants
The Corporation Building has been the home of the 4A Centre for Contemporary Asian Art since 2000.


1810
1810 (MDCCCX) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1810th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 810th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 10th  year of the 19th century, and the  1st   year of the 1810s decade. As of the start of 1810, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1810 (book)
1810 is an Argentine book of history, written by historian Felipe Pigna. It was written in 2010, in the context of the Bicentennial of Argentina, and it aims to explain the direct and indirect causes of the May Revolution. Its other title is La otra historia de nuestra Revolución fundadora and it was published in 2010 in Buenos Aires by Editorial Planeta (ISBN 978-950-49-2288-9)


1810 (book)
It was ranked as the best sold non-fiction book in April, 2010.


1810 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special election
A special election was held in Connecticut's at-large congressional district on September 17, 1810 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Samuel W. Dana (F) in May, 1810 after being elected to the Senate.


1810 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special election, Election results
Ebenezer Huntington had also run for a seat in the 12th Congress, but lost. He took his seat in the 11th Congress on October 11, 1810


1810 Crete earthquake
The 1810 Crete earthquake occurred at 22:15 on 16 February. It caused great destruction in Heraklion, some damage from Malta to northern Egypt and was felt from central Italy to Syria. 2,000 fatalities were reported from Candia (Heraklion).


1810 Crete earthquake, Tectonic setting
The Hellenic arc is an arcuate tectonic feature related to the subduction of the African Plate beneath the Aegean Sea Plate. It is one of the most active seismic zones in western Eurasia and has a history of large earthquakes that also affect Egypt. Large earthquakes with epicentres near Crete and to the north of the island are typically intermediate depth events located at the subducting plate interface. Such events are often M>7, but due to their depths cause relatively little damage for their size, while being very widely felt.


1810 Crete earthquake, Damage
The earthquake caused severe damage in Heraklion and northeastern Crete. Damage was also reported from islands in the south Aegean, Cairo, Rosetta, Alexandria in northern Egypt and on Malta. Reports of the collapse of part of the Temple of Amon at Siwa Oasis in 1811 have been also been attributed to the 1810 event, rather than a separate earthquake, which is now regarded as a 'spurious event'.


1810 Crete earthquake, Characteristics
The earthquake was widely felt, and recorded from as far away as Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, central Italy and various parts of North Africa. The main shock is reported to have lasted for two minutes in Malta.


1810 Crete earthquake, Characteristics
There are reports of a tsunami, with waves being recorded in the harbours of Malta and Alexandria and nearby canals, although these have more the character of seiches.


1810 Delaware gubernatorial election
The 1810 Delaware gubernatorial election was held on October 2, 1810.


1810 Delaware gubernatorial election
Incumbent Federalist Governor George Truitt was not eligible for re-election under the Delaware Constitution of 1792.


1810 Delaware gubernatorial election
Democratic-Republican nominee Joseph Haslet defeated Federalist nominee Daniel Rodney with 50.49% of the vote.


1810 Delaware gubernatorial election, Bibliography
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1810 English cricket season
1810 was the 24th season of cricket in England since the foundation of Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). William Ward made his debut in important matches and The Bs were dismissed for a total of only 6.


1810 Epimetheus
1810 Epimetheus /ɛpɪˈmiːθiːəs/, provisional designation 4196 P-L, is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 8 kilometers in diameter.


1810 Epimetheus
It was discovered on 24 September 1960, by Dutch astronomer couple Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten, and Dutch–American astronomer Tom Gehrels during the Palomar–Leiden survey at Palomar Observatory in California, United States. It was later named after Epimetheus from Greek mythology.


1810 Epimetheus, Classification and orbit
The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family, one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0–2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,211 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic.


1810 Epimetheus, Classification and orbit
The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation, as the previous identifications, 1942 FS and 1950 SC, made at Johannesburg and Uccle in 1942 and 1950, respectively, remained unused.


1810 Epimetheus, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
Two divergent rotational lightcurves of Epimetheus were obtained from photometric observations. They gave a rotation period of 10.9 and 28.6 hours with both having a brightness variation of 0.04 magnitude (U=2/2).


1810 Epimetheus, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Epimetheus measures 7.7 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.27, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from 8 Flora, the largest member and namesake of its orbital family – and calculates a diameter of 8.2 kilometers, based on an absolute magnitude of 12.6.


1810 Epimetheus, Survey designation
The survey designation "P-L" stands for Palomar–Leiden, named after Palomar Observatory and Leiden Observatory, which collaborated on the fruitful Palomar–Leiden survey in the 1960s. Gehrels used Palomar's Samuel Oschin telescope (also known as the 48-inch Schmidt Telescope), and shipped the photographic plates to Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten at Leiden Observatory where astrometry was carried out. The trio are credited with the discovery of several thousand minor planets.


1810 Epimetheus, Naming
This minor planet is named for the Titan in Greek mythology, Epimetheus, who opened Pandora's box, which contained all the illnesses and ailments of mankind (also see 55 Pandora). Epimetheus is also a moon of Saturn, which was discovered by Voyager 1 in 1980. Epimetheus is the brother of Prometheus after whom the minor planet 1809 Prometheus was named. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3935).


1810 House Tax Hartal
The House Tax Hartal of 1810–11 was an occasion of nonviolent resistance to protest a tax in parts of British India, with a particularly noteworthy example of hartal (a form of general strike) in the vicinity of Varanasi.


1810 House Tax Hartal, Background
In 1810 the government attempted to extend a house tax that was in effect in Calcutta to other areas in Eastern India: Varinasi, Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.


1810 House Tax Hartal, Background
Inflation, crop failures, and widespread poverty made the tax especially difficult to bear.


1810 House Tax Hartal, Background
Various non-governmental civil society groups in Varanasi met to decide on a course of opposition to the tax, and eventually decided on a hartal which included a general strike.


1810 House Tax Hartal, Hartal
Everything was at a stand: the dead bodies were cast unceremoniously into the river, because there were none to perform the obsequial rites; and the very thieves refrained from the exercise of their vocation, although the shops and houses were left without protection…


1810 House Tax Hartal, Hartal
The protesters gathered in a mass protest near the European occupation government authority buildings outside of town, and were joined by people from neighboring towns, in numbers variously estimated at more than two hundred thousand or between twenty and thirty thousand people. They presented a petition to the magistrate asking for the repeal of the tax. Meanwhile they remained peaceably assembled throughout the days, returning to their homes at night, from December 26, 1810 to January 8, 1811. They explained this tactic in their petition thusly:


1810 House Tax Hartal, Hartal
The manner and custom in this country, from time immemorial, is this: that, whenever any act affecting every one generally, is committed by the Government, the poor, the aged, the infirm, the women, all forsake their families and their homes, expose themselves to the inclemency of the seasons and to other kinds of inconveniencies, and make known their affliction and distress, that the Government, which is more considerate than our parents, may observe their condition and extend indulgence to its subjects.


1810 House Tax Hartal, Hartal
The tax collector commented on the nonviolent resistance strategy in this way:


1810 House Tax Hartal, Hartal
At present open violence does not seem their aim, they seem rather to vaunt their security in being unarmed in that a military force would not use deadly weapons against such inoffensive foes. And in this confidence they collect and increase, knowing that the civil power cannot disperse them, and thinking that the military will not.


1810 House Tax Hartal, Hartal
The protest began to flag, but was revitalized by government intransigence (it declared the protest assembly illegal on January 13, 1811). The protesters organized a march to Calcutta to present the Governor-General with their demands, but this petered out and they instead presented their petition through more ordinary bureaucratic channels.


1810 House Tax Hartal, Result
The protest was successful in convincing the government to repeal the house tax. The following year, a more limited version of the tax was instituted in three cities, but the assessment and spending of the tax was placed in the hands of Indian representatives. That reformed tax did not provoke vigorous protests.


1810 Maryland's 4th congressional district special election
A special election was held in Maryland's 4th congressional district on October 1, 1810 to fill a vacancy in the 11th Congress left by the resignation, on May 14, 1810, of the previous incumbent, Roger Nelson (DR). This election was held at the same time as the general election for the 12th Congress.


1810 Maryland's 4th congressional district special election, Election results
Ringgold also won election to the 12th Congress. He took his seat in the 11th Congress on December 7, 1810


1810 Maryland's 7th congressional district special election
A special election was held in Maryland's 7th congressional district to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of John Brown (DR) to accept a position as clerk of the county court of Queen Anne's County. Brown had earlier been re-elected to the 12th Congress, thus, his resignation created vacancies in both the 11th and 12th Congresses. Unusually, a single ballot was used for both vacancies. This was the first of at least three examples of this sort of dual-vacancy being filled with one ballot.


1810 Maryland's 7th congressional district special election, Election results
Robert Wright took his seat December 3, 1810 at the start of the Third Session of the 11th Congress.


1810 Massachusetts' 10th congressional district special election
A special election was held in Massachusetts's 10th congressional district on October 8, 1810, to have Joseph Allen (F) fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Jabez Upham (F).


1810 Massachusetts' 10th congressional district special election, Election results
Allen took his seat on December 13, 1810, and left in the new year.


1810 Massachusetts's 11th congressional district special election
A special election was held in Massachusetts's 11th congressional district on October 8, 1810 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of William Stedman (F) on July 16, 1810.


1810 New Jersey's at-large congressional district special election
A special election was held in New Jersey's at-large congressional district on October 30, 1810 to fill a vacancy left in the 11th Congress by the death of James Cox (DR) on September 12, 1810.


1810 New York gubernatorial election
The 1810 New York gubernatorial election was held in April 1810 to elect the Governor and Lieutenant Governor of New York.


1810 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The Democratic-Republican Party nominated incumbent Daniel D. Tompkins. They nominated incumbent John Broome for Lieutenant Governor.


1810 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The Federalist Party nominated state senator Jonas Platt. They nominated former Adjutant General of New York Nicholas Fish for Lieutenant Governor.


1810 New York gubernatorial election, Results
The Democratic-Republican ticket of Tompkins and Broome was elected. Broome would pass away 4 months later necessitating a special election.


1810 New York's 2nd congressional district special election
A special election was held in New York's 2nd congressional district April 24–26, 1810 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of William Denning (DR), who had never actually served.


1810 Spanish general election
General elections to the special Cortes of Cádiz were held in Spain in 1810. At stake were all 276 seats in the Cortes of Cádiz – which served as a parliamentary Regency after Ferdinand VII was deposed by Napoleon.


1810 Spanish general election, History
During the first years of the Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814) the popular revolts of the Spanish people were accompanied by the creation of provincial and local defense "Juntas". Those juntas assumed national sovereignty, forming their own local and regional governing bodies. These juntas aimed to defend against the French invasion and fill the power vacuum, refusing to recognize José I Bonaparte as their legitimate king. The juntas were mainly composed of military personnel, representatives of the high clergy, officials and professors.


1810 Spanish general election, History
In September 1808 the local and provincial juntas ceded their power to the Supreme Central Government Junta of the Kingdom, which led the war against the French and was recognized as the legitimate government of Spain by the United Kingdom and other anti-Napoleonic countries. The Supreme Junta summoned an extraordinary meeting of the Cortes of Cádiz, a revolutionary act, since the right to call for a meeting of the Cortes was exclusive to the crown.


1810 Spanish general election, History
After an intense debate in the Supreme Junta it was decided that the Cortes of Cádiz would be unicameral, elected by census suffrage (only those with a certain level of income could vote) and indirect. The Cortes met for the first time in the last major Spanish foothold during the Peninsular War, Cádiz, on the Isla de León, on September 24, 1810.


1810 Spanish general election, Constituencies
A majority voting system was used for the election, with 32 multi-member constituencies and 2 single-member constituencies. Spanish America had 29 representatives.


1810 State of the Union Address
The 1810 State of the Union Address was given during the first term of President James Madison, the fourth president of the United States. It was given on Wednesday, December 5, 1810 in Washington, D.C. It was "concerning the commercial intercourse between the United States and Great Britain and France and their dependencies having invited in a new form a termination of their edicts against our neutral commerce." It was addressed to the Senate and House of Representatives, it was given right before the War of 1812 began. It was given to the 11th United States Congress, which contains both Houses.


1810 United States House of Representatives election in Ohio
Ohio elected its member October 9, 1810. This was the last election in which Ohio had a single at-large district. Due to rapid population growth in the state, the at-large district had become disproportionately populous by this point.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in Kentucky, Notes
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1810 United States House of Representatives elections in Maryland, Notes
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1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York
The 1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York were held from April 24 to 26, 1810, to elect 17 U.S. Representatives to represent the State of New York in the United States House of Representatives of the 12th United States Congress. At the same time, a vacancy was filled in the 11th United States Congress.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Background
17 U.S. Representatives had been elected in April 1808 to a term in the 11th United States Congress beginning on March 4, 1809. William Denning never took his seat, and eventually resigned, leaving a vacancy in the 2nd District. The other 16 representatives' term would end on March 3, 1811. The congressional elections were held together with the State elections in late April 1810, about ten months before the term would start on March 4, 1811, and about a year and a half before Congress actually met on November 4, 1811.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
After the U.S. census of 1800, New York's representation in the House was increased to 17 seats. On March 30, 1802, the New York State Legislature had re-apportioned the congressional districts, dividing New York County seemingly at random into two districts. After the election of one Democratic-Republican and one Federalist in 1802, the Dem.-Rep. majority in the State Legislature gerrymandered the two districts together in an Act passed on March 20, 1804, so that two congressmen would be elected on a general ticket by the voters of both districts, assuring the election of two Democratic-Republicans. On April 8, 1808, the State Legislature re-apportioned the districts again, separating the 2nd and the 3rd District, and creating two districts with two seats each to be filled on a general ticket: the 2nd and the 6th.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
Due to the double-seat districts, there were then only 15 districts; the 16th and 17th were eliminated.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
The districts remained the same as at the previous elections in 1808. Only four new counties were created inside some districts: in the 5th D., Sullivan Co. was split from Ulster Co.; in the 7th D., Schenectady Co. was split from Albany Co.; in the 8th D., Franklin Co. was split from Clinton Co.; and in the 15th D., Niagara Co. was split from Genesee Co.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
Note: There are now 62 counties in the State of New York. The counties which are not mentioned in this list had not yet been established, or sufficiently organized, the area being included in one or more of the abovementioned counties.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
12 Democratic-Republicans and 5 Federalists were elected to the 12th Congress, and one Democratic-Reopublican to fill the vacancy in the 11th Congress. The incumbents Sage, Emott, Livingston, Sammons, Gold, Tracy and Porter were re-elected. Mitchill was elected to fill the vacancy, and to succeed himself in the next Congress.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
Note: The Anti- Federalists called themselves "Republicans." However, at the same time, the Federalists called them "Democrats" which was meant to be pejorative. After some time both terms got more and more confused, and sometimes used together as "Democratic Republicans" which later historians have adopted (with a hyphen) to describe the party from the beginning, to avoid confusion with both the later established and still existing Democratic and Republican parties.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special election
Samuel L. Mitchill took his seat in the 11th United States Congress on December 4, 1810.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special election
The House of Representatives of the 12th United States Congress met for the first time at the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C., on November 4, 1811, and 16 representatives took their seats on this day. Only Paulding arrived later, and took his seat on November 28, 1811.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special election
Robert Le Roy Livingston resigned his seat on May 6, 1812. A special election to fill the vacancy was held in the former 6th district (the districts had been re-apportioned in the meanwhile) at the next congressional election in December 1812, and was won by Thomas P. Grosvenor, of the same party. Grosvenor took his seat on January 29, 1813.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in North Carolina, Notes
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1810 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania
Elections to the United States House of Representatives in Pennsylvania were held October 9, 1810 for the 12th Congress. The Federalists were in decline in Pennsylvania at this time. In six of the eleven districts there were no Federalist candidates.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Background
Eighteen Representatives had been elected in 1808, 16 Democratic-Republicans and 2 Federalists. One Democratic-Republican resigned and was replaced by another Representative from the same party, so that there was still a 16-2 division. Four of the Democratic-Republicans and two of the Federalists were "quids", a short-lived alliance of moderate Democratic-Republicans and Federalists. That was the last year in which the quids as a movement existed.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
Pennsylvania was divided into 11 districts, of which four were plural districts with 11 Representatives between them, with the remaining 7 Representatives elected from single-member districts. The districts were:


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
Note: Many of these counties covered much larger areas than they do today, having since been divided into smaller counties


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Election results
Fifteen incumbents (14 Democratic-Republicans and 1 Federalist) ran for re-election, of whom ten were re-elected. The incumbents John Ross (DR) of the 2nd district, Robert Jenkins (F) of the 3rd district and Matthias Richards (DR) also of the 3rd district did not run for re-election. Two seats changed from Federalist to Democratic-Republican control and one seat changed from Democratic-Republican to Federalist control, for a net loss of 1 seat by the Federalists. In the 1st district, there was a split between three "New School" and one "Old School" Democratic-Republicans, which split the Democratic-Republican vote enough to allow one of the three seats in that district to be won by a Federalist.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Post-Election
All 18 Representatives elected in October appeared in Washington at the start of the 12th Congress. John Smilie (DR) of the 9th district died December 30, 1812. Abner Lacock (DR) of the 11th district resigned February 24, 1813 after being elected to the Senate. Both had been re-elected to the 13th Congress, and both districts were left vacant for the remainder of the 12th Congress.


1810 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina, Notes
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1810 United States House of Representatives elections in Vermont, Notes
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1810 United States census
The United States census of 1810 was the third census conducted in the United States. It was conducted on August 6, 1810. It showed that 7,239,881 people were living in the United States, of whom 1,191,362 were slaves.


1810 United States census
The 1810 census included one new state: Ohio. The original census returns for the District of Columbia, Georgia, Mississippi, New Jersey, and Ohio were lost or destroyed over the years. Most of Tennessee's original forms were also lost, other than Grainger and Rutherford counties.


1810 United States census
This was the first census in which New York was ranked as the most populous state if excluding West Virginia from Virginia. Otherwise this would be the last census with Virginia ranked as the most populous state. This would also be the last census until 1860 in which Philadelphia was ranked as the second-most populous city.


1810 United States census, Census questions
The 1810 census form contained the following information (identical to the 1800 census):


1810 United States census, Note to researchers
Census taking was not yet an exact science. Before 1830, enumerators lacked pre-printed forms, and some drew up their own, resulting in pages without headings. Some enumerators did not tally their results. As a result, census records for many towns before 1830 are idiosyncratic. This is not to suggest that they are less reliable than subsequent censuses, but that they may require more work on the part of the researcher.


1810 United States census, Data availability
No microdata from the 1810 population census are available, but aggregate data for small areas, together with compatible cartographic boundary files, can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System.


1810 United States elections
The 1810 United States elections occurred in the middle of Democratic-Republican President James Madison's first term, during the First Party System. Members of the 12th United States Congress were chosen in this election. During the 12th Congress, Louisiana joined the union. Democratic-Republicans continued to control both chambers of Congress.


1810 United States elections
In the House, Democratic-Republicans picked up a moderate number of seats, increasing their already-dominant majority.


1810 United States elections
In the Senate, Democratic-Republicans won a small number of seats, increasing their commanding majority.


1810 United States gubernatorial elections
United States gubernatorial elections were held in 1810, in 13 states, concurrent with the House and Senate elections.


1810 United States gubernatorial elections
Eight governors were elected by popular vote and five were elected by state legislatures.


1810 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1810 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place throughout September, and resulted in the election of Jonas Galusha to a one-year term.


1810 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Montpelier on October 11. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to examine the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council.


1810 Vermont gubernatorial election
The committee's examination of the votes showed that Jonas Galusha defeated former Governor Isaac Tichenor to win election to a second one-year term. In the election for lieutenant governor, the voters selected Paul Brigham for a one-year term, his fifteenth. Benjamin Swan was elected to his eleventh one-year term as treasurer.


1810 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for treasurer, the vote totals were not recorded. According to an October 1810 newspaper article, Swan was unopposed.


1810 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the lieutenant governor's contest, one Vermont newspaper recorded the vote totals as: Paul Brigham (Democratic-Republican), 12,261 (62.6%); Lewis R. Morris (Federalist), 6,378 (32.6%); scattering, 938 (4.8%).


1810 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for governor, a contemporary newspaper article reported the results as follows.


1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections
Elections to the United States House of Representatives for the 12th Congress were held at various dates in different states between April 1810 and August 1811 during President James Madison's first term.


1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections
One newly elected Representative, Henry Clay, also was elected Speaker.


1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections
With the repeal of the Embargo Act of 1807, the economy improved. The opposition Federalists lost voter support and the Democratic-Republicans recovered a supermajority.


1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections, Special elections
There were special elections in 1810 and 1811 to the 11th United States Congress and 12th United States Congress.


1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
Massachusetts held its elections November 5, 1810. Massachusetts law required a majority for election. This was not met in the 15th district necessitating a second election on April 1, 1811.


1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections, New Hampshire
New Hampshire law required a candidate to receive votes from a majority of voters (10%). In the initial election, only two candidates won a majority, so a second election was held in April 1811 for the remaining three seats, after the congressional term began but before the Congress formally convened. The data from the source used give majorities to all the top five candidates, suggesting that the data are incomplete.


1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections, New Jersey
The Federalists ran no official ticket in 1810, but votes were received for various Federalists in some counties.


1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections, Ohio
This was the last election in which Ohio had a single at-large district. Due to rapid population growth in the state, the at-large district had become disproportionately populous by this point.


1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections, Non-voting delegates
There were five territories with the right to send non-voting delegates to the 12th Congress. Two of them, Illinois Territory and Missouri Territory elected their first representative near the end of the 12th Congress in 1812, while Orleans Territory's seat remained vacant until the territory was admitted as the State of Louisiana.


1810 and 1811 United States Senate elections
The United States Senate elections of 1810 and 1811 were elections that had the Democratic-Republican Party maintain their majority in the United States Senate. The minority Federalists had gone into the elections with such a small share of Senate seats (8 out of 34, or 23.5%) that, had they won all of the elections, they would still not have reached a majority.


1810 and 1811 United States Senate elections
As these elections were prior to ratification of the seventeenth amendment, Senators were chosen by state legislatures.


1810 and 1811 United States Senate elections, Race summaries
Except if/when noted, number following candidates is whole number votes.


1810 and 1811 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Special elections during the 11th Congress
In these special elections, the winners were seated during 1810 or before March 4, 1811; ordered by election date.


1810 and 1811 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Races leading to the 12th Congress
In these regular elections, the winner was seated on March 4, 1811 (except where noted due to late election); ordered by state.


1810 and 1811 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Special elections during the 12th Congress
In these special elections, the winners were seated in 1811 after March 4; ordered by election date.


1810 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1810 in Australia.


1810 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1810 in Chile.


1810 in Chile, Incumbents
Royal Governor of Chile: Francisco Antonio García Carrasco(-July 16), Mateo de Toro Zambrano (July 16-September 18)


1810 in New Zealand
There is a drastic decline in the number of ships visiting New Zealand from the previous year. An economic depression starts in New South Wales as a result of the escalation of war in Europe and the consequent reduction in the number of convicts being transported. In March news of the Boyd massacre reaches Port Jackson and a punitive expedition is sent to New Zealand and bombards the village of the incorrectly blamed chief, Te Pahi. After this the few whaling ships (possibly only 5) that later head for New Zealand usually prefer to avoid landing, especially in the Bay of Islands.


1810 in New Zealand
Sealing in Foveaux Strait declines as the rookeries are exhausted. With the discovery of Campbell Island at the beginning of the year, and Macquarie Island in the middle of the year, by the same sealing ship, sealers transfer their attention there. If they stop off in New Zealand it is usually in Foveaux Strait.


1810 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1810 in South Africa.


1810 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1810 to Wales and its people.


1810 in architecture
The year 1810 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.


1810 in birding and ornithology
Ongoing eventsAlexander Wilson Ornithology of America (1808–1814) Species described in 1810 include the American tree sparrow, the pine siskin, the blue-headed vireo, the mourning warbler and the marsh wren.


1810 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1810.


1810 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1810 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1810 in poetry, Deaths
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1810 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1810.


1810 in science
The year 1810 in science and technology included many events, some of which are listed here.


1810 in sports
1810 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1810s
The 1810s (pronounced "eighteen-tens") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1810, and ended on December 31, 1819.


1810s
The decade was opened with a very hostile political climate around the world. Napoleon was invading France's neighbours in efforts to build a French Empire, causing a chain of global-scaled conflicts known as the Napoleonic Wars. Here, France's Napoleonic empire saw its rise and fall through events such as Napoleon's attempts to conquer Russia, the War of 1812 (spillover to America), and the Battle of Waterloo (Napoleon's ultimate defeat). Imperialism began to encroach towards African and Asian territories through trade, as the United States saw mass-scaled migration that headed westward towards the American frontier (mostly through the opening of the Oregon Trail.)


1810s, Politics and wars, Napoleonic Wars
In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent. On the continent, the British and Portuguese remained restricted to the area around Lisbon and to besieged Cadiz. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a more stable alliance with Austria and of providing the Emperor with an heir. As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw and the Kingdom of Italy. Territories allied with the French included: the Kingdom of Spain, the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Kingdom of Naples, the Principality of Lucca and Piombino, and Napoleon's former enemies, Prussia and Austria. Denmark–Norway also allied with France in opposition to Great Britain and Sweden in the Gunboat War.


1810s, Politics and wars, Napoleonic Wars
The French invasion of Russia of 1812 was a turning point, which reduced the French and allied invasion forces (the Grande Armée) to a tiny fraction of their initial strength and triggered a major shift in European politics, as it dramatically weakened the previously dominant French position on the continent. After the disastrous invasion of Russia,  a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and a number of German States, and the rebels in Spain and Portugal united to battle France in the War of the Sixth Coalition.


1810s, Politics and wars, Napoleonic Wars
Two-and-a-half million troops fought in the conflict and the total dead amounted to as many as two million. This era included the battles of Smolensk, Borodino, Lützen, Bautzen, and the Dresden. It also included the epic Battle of Leipzig in October, 1813 (also known as the Battle of Nations), which was the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, which drove Napoleon out of Germany.


1810s, Politics and wars, Napoleonic Wars
The final stage of the War of the Sixth Coalition, the defense of France in 1814, saw the French Emperor temporarily repulse the vastly superior armies in the Six Days Campaign. Ultimately, the Allies occupied Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons. Napoleon was exiled to Elba. Also in 1814, Denmark–Norway was defeated by Great Britain and Sweden and had to cede the territory of mainland Norway to the King of Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel.


1810s, Politics and wars, Napoleonic Wars
Napoleon shortly returned from exile, landing in France on March 1, 1815, marking the War of the Seventh Coalition, heading toward Paris while the Congress of Vienna was sitting. On March 13, seven days before Napoleon reached Paris, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw; four days later the United Kingdom, Russia, Austria and Prussia, members of the Seventh Coalition, bound themselves to put 150,000 men each into the field to end his rule. This set the stage for the last conflict in the Napoleonic Wars, the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, the restoration of the French monarchy for the second time and the permanent exile of Napoleon to the distant island of Saint Helena, where he died in May 1821.


1810s, Politics and wars, Spanish American wars of independence
Spain in the 1810s was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a massively destructive "war of independence" ensued, driven by an emergent Spanish nationalism. Already in 1810, the Caracas and Buenos Aires juntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain and sent ambassadors to the United Kingdom. The British blockade against Spain had also moved most of the Latin American colonies out of the Spanish economic sphere and into the British sphere, with whom extensive trade relations were developed. The remaining Spanish colonies had operated with virtual independence from Madrid after their pronouncement against Joseph Bonaparte.


1810s, Politics and wars, Spanish American wars of independence
The Spanish government in exile (Cortes of Cádiz) created the first modern Spanish constitution. Even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna (where Spain was represented by Pedro Gómez Labrador, Marquis of Labrador) would cement international support for the old, absolutist regime in Spain.


1810s, Politics and wars, Spanish American wars of independence
King Ferdinand VII, who assumed the throne after Napoleon was driven out of Spain, refused to agree to the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 on his accession to the throne in 1814. The Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. When Ferdinand's rule was restored, these juntas were cautious of abandoning their autonomy, and an alliance between local elites, merchant interests, nationalists, and liberals opposed to the abrogation of the Constitution of 1812 rose up against the Spanish in the New World.


1810s, Politics and wars, Spanish American wars of independence
The arrival of Spanish forces in the American colonies began in 1814, and was briefly successful in restoring central control over large parts of the Empire. Simón Bolívar, the leader of revolutionary forces in New Granada, was briefly forced into exile in British-controlled Jamaica, and independent Haiti. In 1816, however, Bolivar found enough popular support that he was able to return to South America, and in a daring march from Venezuela to New Granada (Colombia), he defeated Spanish forces at the Battle of Boyacá in 1819, ending Spanish rule in Colombia.


1810s, Politics and wars, Spanish American wars of independence
Venezuela was liberated June 24, 1821, when Bolivar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on the Battle of Carabobo. Argentina declared its independence in 1816 (though it had been operating with virtual independence as a British client since 1807 after successfully resisting a British invasion). Chile was retaken by Spain in 1814, but lost permanently in 1817 when an army under José de San Martín, for the first time in history, crossed the Andes Mountains from Argentina to Chile, and went on to defeat Spanish royalist forces at the Battle of Chacabuco in 1817.


1810s, Politics and wars, Spanish American wars of independence
Spain would also lose Florida to the United States during this decade. First, in 1810, the Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain, and was quickly annexed by the United States. Later, in 1818, the United States invaded Florida, resulting in the Adams-Onís Treaty, wherein Spain ceded the rest of Florida to the United States.


1810s, Politics and wars, Spanish American wars of independence
In 1820, Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Central America still remained under Spanish control. Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, resistance to Spanish rule had largely been confined to small guerrilla bands in the countryside. King Ferdinand was still dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it. A large expedition was assembled in Cadiz with the aim of reconquest. However, Ferdinand's plans would be disrupted by Liberal Revolution, and Ferdinand was eventually forced to give up all of the New World colonies, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico.


1810s, Politics and wars, War of 1812
In 1812, the United States declared war on Britain in the War of 1812. The U.S. reasons for war included the humiliation in the "Chesapeake incident" of 1807, continued British impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy, restrictions on trade with France, and arming hostile American Indians in Ohio and the western territories. United States President James Madison signed a declaration of war on June 18, 1812.


1810s, Politics and wars, War of 1812
The United States conducted two failed invasion attempts in 1812, first by General William Hull across the Detroit River into what is now Windsor, Ontario, and a second offensive at the Niagara peninsula. A major American success came in 1813, when the American Navy destroyed the British fleet on Lake Erie, and forced the British and their American Indian allies to retreat back toward Niagara. They were intercepted and destroyed by General William Henry Harrison at the Battle of the Thames in October 1813. Tecumseh, the leader of the tribal confederation, was killed, and his Indian coalition disintegrated.


1810s, Politics and wars, War of 1812
At sea, the powerful Royal Navy blockaded much of the coastline, conducting frequent raids. The most famous episode was a series of British raids on the shores of Chesapeake Bay, including an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the White House, the Capitol, the Navy Yard, and other public buildings, in the "Burning of Washington" in 1814.


1810s, Politics and wars, War of 1812
Once Napoleon was defeated in 1814, France and Britain became allies and Britain ended the trade restrictions and the impressment of American sailors. Running out of reasons for war and stuck in a military stalemate, the two countries signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814. News of the peace treaty took two months to reach the U.S., during which fighting continued. In this interim, the British made one last major invasion, attempting to capture New Orleans, but were decisively defeated with very heavy losses by General Andrew Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815. The ending of the war opened a long era of peaceful relations between the United States and the British Empire.


1810s, Politics and wars, 1804–1813 Russo-Persian War
The 1804–1813 Russo-Persian War was one of the many wars between the Persian Empire and Imperial Russia, and was well underway at the beginning of the decade. In 1810, the Persians scaled up their efforts late in the war, declaring a holy war on Imperial Russia. However, Russia's superior technology and tactics ensured a series of strategic victories. Even when the French were in occupation of the Russian capital Moscow, Russian forces in the south were not recalled but continued their offensive against Persia, culminating in Pyotr Kotlyarevsky's victories at Aslanduz and Lenkoran, in 1812 and 1813 respectively. Upon the Persian surrender, the terms of the Treaty of Gulistan ceded the vast majority of the previously disputed territories to Imperial Russia. This led to the region's once-powerful khans being decimated and forced to pay homage to Russia.


1810s, Politics and wars, Concert of Europe
By 1815, Europe had been almost constantly at war. During this time, the military conquests of France had resulted in the spread of liberalism throughout much of the continent, resulting in many states adopting the Napoleonic code. Largely as a reaction to the radicalism of the French Revolution, the victorious powers of the Napoleonic Wars resolved to suppress liberalism and nationalism, and revert largely to the status quo of Europe prior to 1789.


1810s, Politics and wars, Concert of Europe
The result was the Concert of Europe, also known as the "Congress System". It was the balance of power that existed in Europe from 1815 until the early 20th century. Its founding members were the United Kingdom, Austrian Empire, Russian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia, the members of the Quadruple Alliance responsible for the downfall of the First French Empire; in time France became established as a fifth member of the concert. At first, the leading personalities of the system were British foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh, Austrian chancellor Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich and Tsar Alexander I of Russia.


1810s, Politics and wars, Concert of Europe
The Kingdom of Prussia, Austrian Empire and Russian Empire formed the Holy Alliance with the expressed intent of preserving Christian social values and traditional monarchism. Every member of the coalition promptly joined the Alliance, save for the United Kingdom.


1810s, Politics and wars, Concert of Europe
Among the meetings of the Powers in the latter part of the 1810s were the Congresses of Vienna (1814–1815), Aix-la-Chappelle (1818), and Carlsbad (1819).


1810s, Science and technology, Steamboats
The 1810s continued a trend of increasing commercial viability of steamboats in North America, following the early success of Robert Fulton and others in the preceding years. In 1811 the first in a continuously operating line of river steamboats left the dock at Pittsburgh to steam down the Ohio River to the Mississippi and on to New Orleans. Inventor John Stevens' boat, the Juliana, began operation as the first steam-powered ferry October 11, 1811, with service between New York, and Hoboken, New Jersey. John Molson's PS Accommodation was the first steamboat on the St. Lawrence and in Canada.


1810s, Science and technology, Steamboats
Unlike Fulton, Molson did not show a profit. Molson had also two paddle steamboats "Swiftsure" of 1811 and "Malsham" of 1813 with engines by B&W. The experience of these vessels, especially that they could now offer a regular service, being independent of wind and weather, helped make the new system of propulsion commercially viable, and as a result its application to the more open waters of the Great Lakes was next considered. That idea went on hiatus due to the War of 1812.


1810s, Science and technology, Steamboats
In a 25-day trip in 1815, the Enterprise further demonstrated the commercial potential of the steamboat with a 2,200-mile voyage from New Orleans to Pittsburgh. In 1817, a consortium in Sackets Harbor, New York, funded the construction of the first US steamboat, Ontario, to run on Lake Ontario and the Great Lakes, beginning the growth of lake commercial and passenger traffic.


1810s, Science and technology, Steamboats
The first commercially successful steamboat in Europe, Henry Bell's Comet of 1812, started a rapid expansion of steam services on the Firth of Clyde, and within four years a steamer service was in operation on the inland Loch Lomond, a forerunner of the lake steamers still gracing Swiss lakes. On the Clyde itself, within ten years of Comet's start in 1812 there were nearly fifty steamers, and services had started across the Irish Sea to Belfast and on many British estuaries.