1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Election
Müller attributed his defeat to his German background and suspicions that his Christianity was insufficiently orthodox, factors that had been used to influence in particular those voters who were no longer resident members of the university. He had lost, he wrote, because of "calumnious falsehood and vulgar electioneering tactics" Williams wrote in his unpublished autobiography that he had been "favoured by circumstances" and that, unlike Müller, he had been regarded as politically and religiously conservative.


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
Williams was Boden professor until his death in 1899, although he retired from teaching (while retaining the title) in 1887 because of his health. He took as the title for his inaugural lecture "The Study of Sanskrit in Relation to Missionary Work", in keeping with his views as to the role of the chair. Thomas notes that as the East India Company had switched to using English rather than Sanskrit or Persian for its work, "a natural source of students had already dried up not long after the Boden Chair was inaugurated [in 1832]".


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
Williams helped establish the Indian Institute at Oxford, proposing the idea in 1875 and helping to raise funds for the project on his visits to India, and persuaded the university to add a degree course in oriental studies. His publications included translations of plays and grammatical works. He received a knighthood in 1886, and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire in 1887, when he changed his surname to become Sir Monier Monier-Williams.


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
Robinson Ellis was required to attend Williams's lectures despite his low opinions of the new professor's abilities. Williams said that Ellis's "whole demeanour was that of a person who would have welcomed an earthquake or any convulsion of nature which would have opened a way for him to sink out of my sight". Overall, Williams won over most of those who had opposed his election, with the exception of Müller.


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
For Müller, losing the election was "a decisive turning point in his scholarly and intellectual life", according to Chaudhuri. It meant that Müller was never to teach Sanskrit at Oxford, although he remained there until his death in 1900; nor did he ever visit India. Greatly disappointed by not winning the chair, Müller "regularly avoided or snubbed Monier Williams and his family on the streets of Oxford", according to Williams. He was appointed to a chair of comparative philology in 1868, the first Oxford professorship to be established by the university itself without money from royal or private donations.


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
He wrote a letter of resignation in 1875 when the university proposed to award an honorary doctorate to Williams, giving as his reason that he wanted to spend more time studying Sanskrit. Friends attempted to talk him out of it, and the university then appointed a deputy professor to discharge his duties, an honour he greatly appreciated.


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
The Indian historian Rajesh Kochhar, noting the East India Company's support for Müller, commented that "Oxford professors may have had their own reasons for their assessment of him, but the Company and the natives both found him very relevant." Despite his electoral defeat, he enjoyed a high reputation at Oxford and beyond: he "occupied a central role in the intellectual life of the nation", according to Beckerlegge, and was "viewed by the world as a model of academic success" (as Dowling puts it).


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
Dowling considers that "[w]ithin his own lifetime, Müller was discredited as a linguistic scientist" and has "little relevance" to later models of the study of language. In Beckerlegge's opinion, Müller's views about the nature of Christian missionary work showed the difficulty at that time for Christian academics "actively working to promote a more tolerant and even-handed study of other religious traditions".


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
Of the other candidates, Cowell was elected as the first Sanskrit professor at the University of Cambridge in 1867, supported by Müller and others. Griffith was principal of his college from 1861 until 1878 (succeeding Ballantyne); he carried out further work in India after his retirement, and died there. Ballantyne resigned as principal because of health problems and returned to England, where he served as librarian to the India Office (a position that Wilson had held in addition to the professorship) until his death in 1864.


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
The academic Jeremy Dibble (in his biography of the composer John Stainer, a friend of Müller) has written that the election "amply foreshadowed the ensuing battle between contemporary sacred and secular forces in the university, the anachronism of Oxford's systems of academic election and the burning need for reform". The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge Act 1877 continued a process of change imposed by Parliament that had begun in the middle of the 19th century, and empowered a group of commissioners to lay down new statutes for the university and its colleges.


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
The commissioners' powers included the ability to rewrite trusts and directions attached to gifts that were 50 years old or more. The statutes governing the Boden chair were revised by the commissioners in 1882; Joseph Boden's original proselytising purpose was no longer mentioned, nor was the professor to be chosen by Convocation. The commissioners' new statutes for Balliol College in 1881 included a provision that the holder of the Boden professorship was to be appointed as a fellow of the college, creating a link between the chair and Balliol that is still in place.


1860 Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, Subsequent events
As with other professorships, the University Council now makes arrangements for convening a board of electors, upon which Balliol has two representatives, in the event of a vacancy. As of 2017, the Sanskrit professor is Christopher Minkowski, appointed in 2005. His predecessor Richard Gombrich has said that he had to "fight a great battle" in 2004 to ensure that another professor was appointed after he retired, and credited his victory to the university's realisation that it was the last chair in Sanskrit left in the United Kingdom.


1860 Boston mayoral election
The Boston mayoral election of 1860 saw the election of Joseph Wightman, Boston's first mayor from the Democratic Party.


1860 Braidwood colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of Braidwood on 10 August 1860 because of the resignation of Frederick Cooper.


1860 Canterbury colonial by-election
A by-election for the seat of Canterbury in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly was held on 4 February 1860 because of the resignation of Edward Flood.


1860 Chicago mayoral election
In the Chicago mayoral election of 1860, Democrat John Wentworth defeated Republican Walter S. Gurnee.


1860 Chicago mayoral election
Both candidates had served as mayor before and, incidentally, each had previously been mayor under the opposite party affiliation. Gurnee had served two terms as a Democrat, having been elected in 1851 and 1852, Wentworth had previously served one term as a Republican, having been elected in 1857.


1860 Christchurch Country by-elections
The 1860 Christchurch Country by-elections were two by-elections held in the Christchurch Country electorate in Canterbury in April and May 1860 following two resignations.


1860 Christchurch Country by-elections
The Christchurch Country electorate was one of the original 24 electorates used for the 1st New Zealand Parliament in 1853 and existed until the end of the term of the 2nd New Zealand Parliament in 1860. It was a two-member electorate.


1860 Christchurch Country by-elections
The first by-election on 2 April after the resignation of John Ollivier on 21 January 1860 resulted in the election unopposed of Isaac Cookson on 2 April.


1860 Christchurch Country by-elections
The second by-election was held on 21 April after the resignation of John Hall on 10 March and resulted in the election of Charles Hunter Brown. John Ollivier nominated Brown and as he was the only candidate at the nomination meeting, he was thus declared elected unopposed. Brown's election was on 21 April and was gazetted at the end of May.


1860 City of Auckland by-election
The 1860 City of Auckland by-election was a by-election held  on 5 April in the City of Auckland electorate in Auckland during the 2nd New Zealand Parliament.


1860 City of Auckland by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of the incumbent, Thomas Beckham.


1860 City of Auckland by-election
Clark's opponent, Bernard Reynolds, was a member of the Auckland Provincial Council for the Pensioner Settlements.


1860 Colombian presidential election
Presidential elections were held in the Granadine Confederation in 1860, the first under the 1858 constitution. The elections were held during the 1860–62 civil war, but not in the parts of the country controlled by the Liberal Party, and the Liberal Party did not put forward a candidate in the remainder of the country. As a result, the election was a contest between two Conservative Party candidates, Pedro Alcántara Herrán and Julio Arboleda Pombo, with Julio Arboleda Pombo emerging as the winner with 73% of votes.


1860 Colony of Vancouver Island election
A total of 13 members were elected to the Second House of Assembly of Vancouver Island, which sat from March 1, 1860 to February 27, 1863. The members were elected over a number of weeks in January with each constituency holding its election on a different day.


1860 Colony of Vancouver Island election
The election did not have political parties but did feature two factions. One was made up of men connected with the Hudson's Bay Company and close to Governor James Douglas and the other of reformers led by the British Colonist editor Amor De Cosmos. The reform faction lost in most cases and Amor De Cosmos used his newspaper to claim the election was not run fairly. Of particular concern to De Cosmos was that the 'coloured' people voted primarily for the HBC candidates. The information on who is from which faction is from information in the British Colonist, which was not neutral.


1860 Colony of Vancouver Island election, Constituencies
George Hunter Cary, 137Selim Franklin, 106Amor De Cosmos, 91 Reformer


1860 Colony of Vancouver Island election, Constituencies
William Fraser Tolmie, 44 HBCHenry Pering Pellew Crease, 39 HBC resigned October 18, 1861, replaced by Joseph William Trutch on November 26, 1861Alfred Pendrell Waddington, 35 Reformer, resigned October 15, 1861, replaced by James TrimbleJames Yates, 14 ReformerC. A. Bayley, 14 Reformer


1860 Colony of Vancouver Island election, Constituencies
John Sebastian Helmcken,  36 HBCJames Cooper, 22 Reformer resigned July 27, 1860, replaced by Robert BurnabyThomas James Skinner, 21 Ind


1860 Colony of Vancouver Island election, Constituencies
George Tomline Gordon, 27  resigned and was replaced by Thomas Harris March 31, 1862. He resigned on September 9, 1862 and was replaced by William Cocker. James Cooper, 10 – also ran in Esquimalt County and was elected there.


1860 Colony of Vancouver Island election, Constituencies
Augustus Rupert Green, (unknown if he faced an opponent) resigned February 6, 1861, replaced on November 4, 1861, by David Babington Ring


1860 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1860 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 4, 1860. Incumbent governor and Republican nominee William Alfred Buckingham defeated former governor and Democratic nominee Thomas H. Seymour with 50.30% of the vote.


1860 Constitutional Union Convention
The 1860 Constitutional Union National Convention met on May 9, 1860 in Baltimore, Maryland. It was the only national convention ever held by the Constitutional Union Party, which was organized largely by former Whig Party members from the Southern United States who opposed secession. The convention nominated former Senator John Bell of Tennessee for president and former Secretary of State Edward Everett of Massachusetts for vice president.


1860 Constitutional Union Convention
Bell won the presidential nomination on the second ballot of the convention, defeating Everett, Governor Sam Houston of Texas, Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, former Governor William Alexander Graham of North Carolina, Associate Justice John McLean of Ohio, and several other candidates. In the 1860 presidential election, Bell and Everett finished third in the electoral vote and fourth in the popular vote.


1860 Constitutional Union Convention, Background
After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, the Whigs collapsed due to divisions over slavery. Many Northern Whigs shifted to the new Republican Party, while many Southern Whigs joined the American Party, or "Know Nothings." By 1859, the Know Nothing movement had collapsed, but some former Southern Whigs who refused to join their long-time rivals in the Democratic Party had organized themselves into the "Opposition Party." Several of this party's supporters, among them Knoxville Whig editor William Brownlow, former vice presidential candidate Andrew Jackson Donelson, and California attorney Balie Peyton sought to launch a third-party presidential ticket.


1860 Constitutional Union Convention, Background
In May 1860, disgruntled ex-Whigs and disenchanted moderates from across the country convened in Baltimore, where they formed the Constitutional Union Party. The party's platform was very broad and made no mention of slavery. While there were several candidates for the party's presidential nomination, the two frontrunners were Bell and Sam Houston.


1860 Constitutional Union Convention, Candidates
Bell led the initial round of balloting with 68 votes to Houston's 59, with more than a dozen other candidates splitting the remainder. Houston's military endeavors had brought him national renown, but he reminded the convention's Clay Whigs of their old foe Andrew Jackson. On May 10, Bell received 138 votes to Houston's 69, and was declared the candidate. The vice presidential nomination went to Edward Everett of Massachusetts, who had served as president of Harvard University and as Secretary of State in the Fillmore administration.


1860 Costa Rican general election
The 1860 general election in Costa Rica was held one year after the previous elections in which Juan Rafael Mora Porras was re-elected. However, Mora was deposed months after his reelection and one of the coup leaders, José María Montealegre Fernández, assumed power. Montealegre immediately called for elections and a Constituent Assembly. The Moristas postulated Manuel Mora Fernández, relative of Juan Rafael, without success.


1860 County of Hawke by-election
The County of Hawke by-election of 1860 was a by-election held in the County of Hawke electorate during the 2nd New Zealand Parliament, on 26 April 1860.


1860 County of Hawke by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of incumbent MP James Ferguson on 10 March 1860, and was won unopposed by Thomas FitzGerald. A nomination meeting was held on 26 April 1860. FitzGerald was proposed and seconded. Another person (Richard John Duncan) was proposed, but no seconder was found. A third person (William Colenso) was proposed and seconded, but declared that he didn't want to stand. The returning officer advised that Colenso could not withdraw once he had been seconded. After addressing the electors, a show of hands was called for, and the returning officer declared the result to be in favour of FitzGerald. One of the attendees then proposed a formal vote, but this was not seconded. The returning officer thus declared FitzGerald duly elected.


1860 Democratic National Conventions
The 1860 Democratic National Conventions were a series of presidential nominating conventions held to nominate the Democratic Party's candidates for president and vice president in the 1860 election. The first convention, held from April 23 to May 3 in Charleston, South Carolina, failed to nominate a ticket, while two subsequent conventions, both held in Baltimore, Maryland in June, nominated two separate presidential tickets.


1860 Democratic National Conventions
Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois entered the Charleston convention as the front-runner for the presidential nomination, and while he won a majority on the first presidential ballot of the convention, the convention rules required a two-thirds majority to win the nomination, with Douglas's adherence to the Freeport Doctrine regarding slavery in the territories engendering strong opposition from many Southern delegates: opponents of Douglas's nomination spread their support among five major candidates, including former Treasury Secretary James Guthrie of Kentucky and Senator Robert M. T. Hunter of Virginia. After 57 ballots over 10 days, in which Douglas consistently won a majority but failed to reach the two-thirds required, the Charleston convention adjourned.


1860 Democratic National Conventions
The Democratic convention reconvened in Baltimore on June 18, but many Southern delegates either boycotted the convention or walked out in protest after the convention adopted a platform in which it pledged to abide by the decision of the Supreme Court of the United States upon questions of Constitutional Law regarding slavery. While Douglas was nominated for president on the second ballot (the 59th ballot overall), Senator Benjamin Fitzpatrick of Alabama was nominated for vice president, but he refused the nomination: he was replaced by former Governor Herschel Vespasian Johnson of Georgia.


1860 Democratic National Conventions
The boycotting Southern Democrats and those who had walked out held their own separate convention and adopted a pro-slavery platform, nominating Vice President John C. Breckinridge for president, and Senator Joseph Lane of Oregon for vice president. While Douglas and Breckinridge received a combined 47.62% of the popular vote in the 1860 presidential election, they lost the election to Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
The 1860 Democratic National Convention convened at South Carolina Institute Hall (destroyed in the Great Fire of 1861) in Charleston, South Carolina, on April 23, 1860. Since Charleston was the most pro-slavery city in the U.S. at the time, the galleries at the convention were packed with pro-slavery spectators.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
The front-runner for the nomination was Douglas, who was considered a moderate on the slavery issue. With the 1854 Kansas–Nebraska Act, he advanced the doctrine of popular sovereignty: allowing settlers in each Territory to decide for themselves whether slavery would be allowed—a change from the flat prohibition of slavery in most Territories under the Missouri Compromise, which the South had welcomed. However, the Supreme Court’s ensuing 1857 'Dred Scott' decision declared that the Constitution protected slavery in all Territories.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
Douglas was challenged for his Senate seat by Abraham Lincoln in 1858, and narrowly won re-election, after the Lincoln-Douglas debates, by professing the Freeport Doctrine, a de facto rejection of Dred Scott, with militant Southern "Fire-Eaters", such as William Yancey of Alabama, opposing him as a traitor. Many of them openly predicted a split in the party and the election of Republican front-runner William H. Seward.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
Urged by Yancey, the delegations from seven Deep South states (Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, and Florida) met in a separate caucus before the convention. They reached a tentative consensus to "stop Douglas" by imposing a pro-slavery party platform which he could not run on if nominated.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
The "Fire-eater" majority on the convention's platform committee, chaired by William Waightstill Avery of North Carolina, produced an explicitly pro-slavery , endorsing Dred Scott and Congressional legislation protecting slavery in the territories. Northern Democrats refused to acquiesce, as Dred Scott was extremely unpopular in the North, and the Northerners said they could not carry a single state with that platform.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
That would end Democrat hopes of retaining the White House, as no previous candidate had won the presidency without winning either New York or Pennsylvania, and only four (John Adams in 1796, James Madison in 1812, John Quincy Adams in 1824, and James Buchanan in 1856) had been elected without winning both.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
On 30 April, the convention (by a vote of 165 to 138) adopted the minority (Northern) platform, which omitted these planks, and 50 Southern delegates walked out of the convention in protest: the entire Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas delegations, three of the four delegates from Arkansas, and one of the three delegates from Delaware.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
These delegates gathered at St. Andrews Hall on Broad Street and declared themselves the real convention as the Institute Hall convention proceeded to nominations. The dominant Douglas forces believed their path was now clear.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
Six major candidates were nominated at the convention: Douglas, former Treasury Secretary James Guthrie of Kentucky, Senator Robert M. T. Hunter of Virginia, Senator Joseph Lane of Oregon, former Senator Daniel S. Dickinson of New York, and Senator Andrew Johnson of Tennessee.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
While Douglas led on the first ballot, receiving 145½ of 253 votes cast, convention rules at the time required a two-thirds vote to win the nomination. Further to this, convention chairman Caleb Cushing further ruled that this was two-thirds of the whole membership, not just two-thirds of those present and voting.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
This ruling meant Douglas needed 202 votes (or 56½ more votes), or 80% of the remaining 253 delegates, and also would have required several of the remaining Southern delegates to vote for Douglas, who they vehemently opposed.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention
Consequently, the convention held 57 ballots, and though Douglas led on all of them, he never received more than 152½ votes. On the 57th ballot, Douglas received 151½ votes, still 50½ votes short of the nomination, though far ahead of Guthrie, who was second with 65½. On 3 May, the delegates voted to adjourn the convention, and reconvene in Baltimore six weeks later.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Charleston convention, Presidential candidates
A few votes went to former Senator Isaac Toucey of Connecticut and Senator James Pearce of Maryland, while Senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi (the future Confederate President) received one vote on over fifty ballots from Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts. Ironically, during the Civil War, Butler became a Union general, and Davis ordered him hanged as a criminal if ever captured.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Baltimore convention
The Democrats re-convened at the Front Street Theater (destroyed in the Great Baltimore Fire of 1904) in Baltimore, Maryland on 18 June. The resumed convention's first business was to decide whether to re-admit the delegates who had walked out of the Charleston session, or to seat replacement delegates who had been named by pro-Douglas Democrats in some states: other delegates had boycotted the Baltimore convention.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Baltimore convention
The credentials committee's majority report recommended re-admitting all delegates except those from Louisiana and Alabama, while the minority report recommended re-admitting some of the Louisiana and Alabama delegates as well. After the committee's majority report was adopted 150-100½, and new Louisiana and Alabama delegates were seated, 56 delegates - most of those remaining from the South, and a scattering of delegates from northern and far western states - all walked out of the convention in protest.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Baltimore convention, Presidential balloting
After the convention resumed voting on a nominee, Douglas received 173½ of 190½ votes cast on the first ballot (the 58th overall), and 181½ votes of 194½ votes cast on the second ballot (the 59th overall).


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Baltimore convention, Presidential balloting
After a rollcall following the second ballot, it was realized that there were only 194½ delegates present, meaning there were insufficient delegates for Douglas to receive 202 votes as per Cushing's earlier ruling.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Baltimore convention, Presidential balloting
After the delegates unanimously voted to rescind this, it was declared by acclamation that Douglas had received the required two-thirds of the votes cast, and was therefore nominated.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Baltimore convention, Presidential balloting, Vice-Presidential balloting
Senator Benjamin Fitzpatrick of Alabama was the only candidate for the Vice Presidential nomination: William C. Alexander of New Jersey was withdrawn when it was mentioned he would not allow his name to be presented as a candidate.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Baltimore convention, Presidential balloting, Vice-Presidential balloting
While Fitzpatrick received 198½ votes, he later refused the nomination, something that has only happened thrice (the other occasions were Silas Wright (D) in 1844 and Frank Lowden [R] in 1924).


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Baltimore convention, Presidential balloting, Vice-Presidential balloting
Since the Conventions concluded with no vice-presidential candidate being nominated, Douglas offered the nomination to former Senator and Governor Herschel V. Johnson of Georgia, which Johnson accepted.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, “Breckinridge Democrats” convention
The Southern Democrats who had walked out of or boycotted the convention, with their allies, reconvened at the Maryland Institute in Baltimore. This rival convention adopted a radical pro-slavery platform, and nominated Breckinridge for president.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Consequences
After the break-up of the Charleston convention, many of those present stated that the Republicans were now certain to win the 1860 Presidential election.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Consequences
In the general election, the actual division in Democratic popular votes did not directly affect any state outcomes except California, Oregon, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. Of these states, only California and Oregon were free states, and although both were carried by Republican nominee Abraham Lincoln they combined for only seven of Lincoln’s 180 electoral votes. The latter three states were slave states that were carried by neither Douglas, Breckinridge nor Lincoln but by John Bell, nominee of the Constitutional Union Party. Composed mainly of former Whigs and Know-Nothings, the Constitutional Union Party attempted to ignore the slavery issue in favor of preserving the Union.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Consequences
Even if California, Oregon and every state carried by Douglas, Breckinridge or Bell had been carried by a single Presidential nominee, Lincoln would still have had a large majority of electoral votes. However, the split in the Democratic Party organization was a serious handicap in many states, especially Pennsylvania, and almost certainly reduced the aggregate Democratic popular vote. Pennsylvania’s 27 electoral votes were especially decisive in ensuring a Republican victory – had Lincoln failed to carry that state combined with any other free state, he could not have obtained a majority of electoral votes, forcing a contingent election in the House of Representatives.


1860 Democratic National Conventions, Consequences
James M. McPherson suggested in Battle Cry of Freedom that the “Fire-eater” program of breaking up the convention and running a rival ticket was deliberately intended to bring about the election of a Republican as President, and thus trigger secession declarations by the slave-owning states. Whatever the “intent” of the fire-eaters may have been, doubtless many of them favored secession, and the logical, probable, and actual consequence of their actions was to fragment the Democratic party and thereby virtually ensure a Republican victory.


1860 Dunedin Country by-election
The Dunedin Country by-election 1860 was a by-election held in the multi-member Dunedin Country electorate during the 2nd New Zealand Parliament. The by-election was caused by the resignation of incumbent MP William Cargill. The nomination meeting was held on 28 March and as Thomas Gillies was the only person proposed, he was declared elected unopposed.


1860 Dunedin Country by-election, Background
The Dunedin Country electorate was one of the original 24 parliamentary electorates of New Zealand from 1853, and it was one of the two-member electorates. From the 1855 election, the electorate was represented by William and John Cargill, a father and son team. Cargill Jr. was one of many members of the House of Representatives who resigned prior to the second session of the 2nd New Zealand Parliament; the house had not been convened in 1857. In the resulting 1858 Dunedin Country by-election, he was replaced by John Parkin Taylor.


1860 Dunedin Country by-election, Background
Cargill Sr. rarely spoke in the house and found travel to parliament in Auckland difficult. Regarded as the father of Otago, he had also been the first Superintendent of Otago Province. In July 1859, he announced "that it has been his feeling for some time past, under a sense of advancing years, to retire from the Superintendency". He did retire at the next provincial election in November 1859. Cargill senior resigned from the House of Representatives on 12 December 1859.


1860 Dunedin Country by-election, Results
The returning officer, John Gillies, set the date of the nomination meeting for 28 March 1860, and if an election would become necessary, this was to be held on 11 April. John Richard Jones proposed and Charles Kettle seconded Thomas Gillies, the son of the returning officer. As this was the only person proposed, Gillies Jr. was declared elected unopposed.


1860 Dunedin Country by-election, Results
Gillies represented the Dunedin Country electorate until the end of the term; parliament was dissolved on 5 November 1860 and the Dunedin Country electorate was abolished. Gillies was instead elected as a representative of the Bruce electorate in 1861. William Cargill died on 6 August 1860, less than a year after his resignation from parliament.


1860 Dutch general election
Partial general elections were held in the Netherlands on 12 and 26 June 1860 to elect 37 of the 72 seats in the House of Representatives.


1860 East Macquarie colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of East Macquarie on 10 May 1860 because of the resignation of Thomas Hawkins.


1860 East Moreton colonial by-election
The East Moreton colonial by-election, 1860 was a by-election held on 27 October 1860 in the electoral district of East Moreton for the Queensland Legislative Assembly.


1860 East Moreton colonial by-election, History
On 29 September 1860, Henry Buckley, member for East Moreton, resigned. Thomas Warry won the resulting by-election on 27 October 1860.


1860 East Sydney colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of East Sydney on 20 January 1860 because Charles Cowper had resigned from parliament on 26 October 1859, but was re-elected at the resulting by-election, having been nominated without his consent.


1860 Grand National
The 1860 Grand National was the 22nd renewal of the world-famous Grand National horse race that took place at Aintree near Liverpool, England, on 7 March 1860.


1860 Great Meteor
The 1860 Great Meteor procession occurred on July 20, 1860. It was a unique meteoric phenomenon reported from locations across the United States. American landscape painter Frederic Church saw and painted a spectacular string of fireball meteors cross the Catskill evening sky, an extremely rare Earth-grazing meteor procession. It is believed that this was the event referred to in the poem Year of Meteors, 1859-60, by Walt Whitman. In 2010, 150 years later, it was determined to be an Earth-grazing meteor procession.


1860 Grey and Bell by-election
The 1860 Grey and Bell by-election was a by-election held on 28 May during the 2nd New Zealand Parliament in the Taranaki electorate of Grey and Bell.


1860 Grey and Bell by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of the incumbent MP Charles Brown.


1860 Grey and Bell by-election, Notes
This New Zealand election-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1860 Honduran presidential election
Presidential elections were held in Honduras in 1860. The result was a victory for José Santos Guardiola, who became the first president elected solely on the basis of the popular vote.


1860 Honduran presidential election, Results
The elections were a contest between conservative incumbent José Santos Guardiola and his liberal vice president José María Lazo Guillén. Guardiola was elected with 90% of the vote.


1860 Honduran presidential election, Aftermath
Following the elections, the General Chamber elected Victoriano Castellanos as Vice President. Guardiola and Castellanos took office on 7 February.


1860 Hunter colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of Hunter on 25 April 1860 because of the resignation of Richard Jones.


1860 Illinois gubernatorial election
The 1860 Illinois gubernatorial election was the twelfth election for this office. Republican governor William Henry Bissell died early in his term, and incumbent governor John Wood did not seek re-election. Former Democratic Congressman and former Clerk of the U.S. House James C. Allen was the Democratic nominee. A Number of third-party candidates ran as well; none received over one percent of the vote. At this time in Illinois history the Lieutenant Governor was elected on a separate ballot from the governor. This would remain the case until the adoption of the 1970 constitution.


1860 Indiana gubernatorial election
The 1860 Indiana gubernatorial election was held on October 1, 1860. Republican nominee Henry Smith Lane defeated Democratic nominee Thomas A. Hendricks with 51.89% of the vote.


1860 Liverpool Plains colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of Liverpool Plains on 10 August 1860 because of the resignation of Andrew Loder.


1860 Liverpool Town Council election
Elections to Liverpool Town Council were held on Thursday 1 November 1860. One third of the council seats were up for election, the term of office of each councillor being three years.


1860 Liverpool Town Council election, Election result
Because only three of the sixteen seats were contested, these statistics should be taken in that context.


1860 Londonderry City by-election
The Londonderry City by-election of 1860 was held on 2 April following the 13 March 1860 death of the incumbent, the Liberal Party's Sir Robert Ferguson. Ferguson had held the seat since 1830 and had received significant support from the Catholic segment of the constituency. The Liberal Party's candidate Samuel MacCurdy Greer had counted on this support transferring to him, however the Irish Conservative Party's candidate William McCormick, who employed a significant number of Catholic workers, managed to split the Catholic vote. The Liberal Party's Presbyterian support had also been adversely affected by their defeat to the Tories in Londonderry County in 1857, which led many to withdraw from politics.


1860 Londonderry City by-election
The election resulted in a narrow victory for McCormick, with a 19-vote majority. He held the seat until his retirement at the 1865 United Kingdom general election.


1860 Londonderry City by-election, Background
Londonderry City, a one-seat borough constituency, had been represented in the House of Commons of the British Parliament by Sir Robert Ferguson, 2nd Baronet since the 1830 United Kingdom general election. Ferguson, who represented first the Whig and then the Liberal Party, died on 13 March 1860, triggering a by-election. Ferguson had been unopposed in all five elections held in the constituency since 1841.


1860 Londonderry City by-election, Candidates
The Irish Conservative Party's candidate was William McCormick, a Donegal-born engineering contractor. He arrived in Londonderry in 1840 as an entrepreneur during a land reclamation project on Lough Swilly. McCormick was popular as he had intervened to save local railway lines running to Coleraine and Enniskillen and employed hundreds of local people. There were two Liberal Party candidates Samuel MacCurdy Greer and George Skipton. Greer was born in County Londonderry and represented the county constituency as a Radical between the 1857 and 1859 general elections. Skipton was a resident of Beech Hill in Londonderry. All of the candidates were prominent in the municipal life of Londonderry.


1860 Londonderry City by-election, Results
The electorate comprised freemen of the city, houseowners with property rated at a value in excess of £10 per year and occupiers of properties rated at £8 or more per year.


1860 Londonderry City by-election, Results
Ferguson had been largely apolitical and had received the support of the Catholic population. However the majority of constituents were Protestants (around 37% Presbyterians and 22% Episcopalians) and, with a weakening of Liberal support in the city following Ferguson's death, from 1860 the Conservative Party entered a period of dominance. The Presbyterians had supported Greer at the 1857 by-election for Londonderry County but the victory of Tory landlord-nominee James Johnston Clark led to the withdrawal of many Presbyterians from politics. McCormick, many of whose employees were Catholic, campaigned heavily for support from this segment of the population. This was successful in splintering the Catholic vote, which Greer had thought he could count on. Skipton had hoped to attract support from across all groups in the city, but because of strong denominational ties in the constituency only received a handful of votes.


1860 Londonderry City by-election, Results
McCormick won the election, held on 2 April, with 327 votes compared to 309 for Greer and 82 for Skipton. An election petition was made against the result but the House of Commons committee declared the result as valid on 8 June 1860. McCormick chose to serve only one term, retiring on 11 July 1865 with the dissolution of parliament ahead of the 1865 United Kingdom general election.


1860 Maltese general election
General elections were held in Malta on 24 January 1860.


1860 Maltese general election, Background
The elections were held under the 1849 constitution, which provided for an 18-member Government Council, of which ten members would be appointed and eight elected.


1860 Maltese general election, Results
A total of 3,343 people were registered to vote, of which 3,044 cast votes, giving a turnout of 91%.


1860 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
The 1860 Massachusetts gubernatorial election was held on November 6. Incumbent Republican Governor Nathaniel Banks did not run for re-election to a fourth term. He was succeeded by Republican John Albion Andrew, a radical abolitionist.


1860 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, Republican convention, Campaign
Incumbent Governor Nathaniel Banks, a moderate on the slavery issue, supported Congressman Henry L. Dawes as his successor. To give Dawes the greatest possible advantage at the state convention, Banks delayed his retirement announcement as long as possible. However, party chairman William Claflin leaked the news to U.S. Senator Charles Sumner, an abolitionist and supporter of John Albion Andrew. Sumner sprang the Andrew campaign into gear before Banks announced his retirement, allowing them to get the jump on Dawes.


1860 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, Republican convention, Campaign
Two additional candidates joined the race: Ensign H. Kellogg and John Z. Goodrich. Both hailed from Berkshire County, like Dawes, and their campaigns may have eaten into his regional support there. By the time the convention opened, Andrew was the strong favorite.


1860 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, Republican convention, Results
The Republican State Convention was held in Worcester on August 29.


1860 Michigan gubernatorial election
The 1860 Michigan gubernatorial election was held on November 6, 1860. Republican nominee Austin Blair defeated Democratic nominee John S. Barry with 56.69% of the vote.


1860 Missouri gubernatorial election
The 1860 Missouri gubernatorial election was held on August 6, 1860, and resulted in a victory for the Democratic nominee, Claiborne Fox Jackson. Jackson defeated the nominee of the Constitutional Union Party, Sample Orr, and Southern "Brekenridge" Democrat Former Gov. Hancock Lee Jackson to become the fifteenth governor of Missouri. Republican James B. Gardenhire also ran in the election, but received a negligible number of votes.


1860 Missouri gubernatorial election
Before the next election in 1864, three men would serve as Governor of Missouri: first, Claiborne Fox Jackson until his defection to the Confederacy in July 1861, then Hamilton Rowan Gamble until his death in January 1864, and finally Lt. Gov Willard Preble Hall.


1860 Morpeth colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of Morpeth on 7 August 1860 because Edward Close resigned. Close later stated that he resigned because it had been a lengthy session of parliament, marked by a contest for power between Charles Cowper, William Forster and John Robertson in which nothing was done.


1860 New South Wales colonial election
The 1860 New South Wales colonial election was held between 6 December and 24 December 1860. This election was for all of the 72 seats in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly and it was conducted in 52 single-member constituencies, six 2-member constituencies and two 4-member constituencies, all with a first past the post system. Suffrage was limited to adult white males. This was the first election after the separation of Queensland in December 1859.


1860 New South Wales colonial election
The previous parliament of New South Wales was dissolved on 10 November 1860 by the Governor, Sir William Denison, on the advice of the Premier, John Robertson.


1860 New South Wales colonial election
There was no recognisable party structure at this election; instead the government was determined by a loose, shifting factional system. Although Robertson won the election, he relinquished the premiership to Charles Cowper to concentrate on passing land reform bills as Secretary of Lands.


1860 New South Wales colonial election, Results
New South Wales colonial election, 6 December 1860 – 24 December 1860 Legislative Assembly << 1859–1864–65 >>


1860 New York state election
The 1860 New York state election was held on November 6, 1860, to elect the governor, the lieutenant governor, a Canal Commissioner, and an Inspector of State Prisons, as well as all members of the New York State Assembly. Besides, the question of Negro suffrage was asked, and was answered in the negative with 197,503 votes for and 337,984 against it.


1860 New York state election, History
William Kelly was the candidate of the majority faction of the Democratic Party which supported Stephen A. Douglas for President.


1860 New York state election, History
The "Breckinridge and Lane Democratic" state convention met on August 8 at Syracuse, New York, Henry S. Randall presided. James T. Brady (a Tammany man from New York City who had run for Attorney General on the Hard ticket in 1853) was nominated for Governor on the first ballot (vote:Brady 99, O'Connor 8, Greene C. Bronson 3, Brown 2, Lawrence 1, Kemble 1, Gideon J. Tucker 1). Henry K. Viele was nominated on the first ballot (vote: Viele 57, Edward Tompkins 56). The incumbent John M. Jaycox was re-nominated for Canal Commissioner by acclamation. Robert W. Allen was nominated for Prison Inspector on the first ballot. After the nominations, Daniel S. Dickinson made a speech. Brady accepted the nomination in a letter dated on August 14.


1860 New York state election, Result
The whole Republican ticket was elected, an average of about 50,000 votes ahead of the combined Democratic vote. The incumbents Morgan and Campbell were re-elected. The incumbents Jaycox and Rhodes were defeated.


1860 New York state election, Result
93 Republicans and 35 Democrats were elected for the session of 1861 to the New York State Assembly.


1860 New York suffrage referendum
A referendum on black suffrage was held in New York in 1860. Voters were asked whether universal suffrage for black men 21 years of age and older should be introduced. At the time, black voters were required to meet certain property-owning criteria. Black men who owned the required amount of property could still vote in the state, and many did vote in the referendum.


1860 New York suffrage referendum
The referendum question failed, with 64% voting against the change, and property restrictions to vote were maintained for blacks.


1860 New York suffrage referendum
The referendum was most heavily supported by voters in Upstate New York. The Five Boroughs of New York City, as well as most of the area around the city, voted against the proposed amendment.


1860 Northern Division by-election
The 1860 Northern Division by-election was a by-election held  on 23 May in the Northern Division electorate in Auckland during the 2nd New Zealand Parliament.


1860 Northern Division by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of the incumbent, Thomas Henderson.


1860 Northern Division by-election
Henderson was the only nomination for the by-election, so was declared (re)elected unopposed. He had resigned because he was not able to go down the Assembly Session in Wellington, which was summoned for 3 May, as his partner Mr Macfarlane was absent and was not expected back by that date. So he had resigned as he wanted Auckland to be "fully represented". But the Assembly was postponed and his business partner had returned. He was "requested to resume his seat" and had consented.


1860 Omata by-election
The 1860 Omata by-election was a by-election held  on 16 April in the Omata electorate in Taranaki during the 2nd New Zealand Parliament.


1860 Omata by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of the incumbent, Alfred William East.


1860 Omata by-election
Richmond was the only nomination, so was declared elected unopposed.


1860 Open Championship
The 1860 Open Championship was a golf competition held at Prestwick Golf Club, in Ayrshire, Scotland. It is now regarded as the first Open Championship. Until his death in 1859, Allan Robertson was regarded as top golfer in the world. The Open Championship was created to determine his successor. Eight golfers contested the event, with Willie Park, Sr. winning the championship by 2 shots from Tom Morris, Sr.


1860 Open Championship
Prestwick Golf Club organised the event, "to be played for by professional golfers". Golf clubs in Scotland and England were invited to name and send up to three of their best players to compete. The contest was over three rounds of the twelve-hole links course. The prize for winning was the Challenge Belt; a player winning the belt three successive years would keep it. "Cawdies, i.e. Professional Players, not Keepers of Links" were eligible and had to produce a certificate of respectability from their club. George Daniel Brown was the only Englishman to play in the event.


1860 Open Championship
James Ogilvie Fairlie was the principal organizer of this inaugural Open Championship. In a proposed competition for a "Challenge Belt", Fairlie sent out a series of letters to Aberdeen, Blackheath, Bruntsfield, Carnoustie Panmure, Dirleton Castle, Innerleven, Montrose, North Berwick, Perth, Musselburgh and St. Andrews (as noted in Prestwick Golf Club Archive), inviting a player known as a "respectable caddie" to represent each of the clubs in a tournament to be held on 17 October 1860.


1860 Open Championship
The pairings were Tom Morris, Sr. (Prestwick) and Robert Andrew (Perth), Willie Park Sr. (Musselburgh) and Alexander Smith (Bruntsfield), William Steel (Bruntsfield) and Charlie Hunter (Prestwick St Nicholas), George Daniel Brown (Blackheath) and Andrew Strath (St Andrews).


1860 Oxford evolution debate
The 1860 Oxford evolution debate took place at the Oxford University Museum in Oxford, England, on 30 June 1860, seven months after the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. Several prominent British scientists and philosophers participated, including Thomas Henry Huxley, Bishop Samuel Wilberforce, Benjamin Brodie, Joseph Dalton Hooker and Robert FitzRoy.


1860 Oxford evolution debate
The debate is best remembered today for a heated exchange in which Wilberforce supposedly asked Huxley whether it was through his grandfather or his grandmother that he claimed his descent from a monkey. Huxley is said to have replied that he would not be ashamed to have a monkey for his ancestor, but he would be ashamed to be connected with a man who used his great gifts to obscure the truth.


1860 Oxford evolution debate
One eyewitness suggests that Wilberforce's question to Huxley may have been "whether, in the vast shaky state of the law of development, as laid down by Darwin, any one can be so enamoured of this so-called law, or hypothesis, as to go into jubilation for his great great grandfather having been an ape or a gorilla? ", whereas another suggests he may have said that "it was of little consequence to himself whether or not his grandfather might be called a monkey or not."


1860 Oxford evolution debate
The encounter is often known as the Huxley–Wilberforce debate or the Wilberforce–Huxley debate, although this description is somewhat misleading. Rather than being a formal debate between the two, it was actually an animated discussion that occurred after the presentation of a paper by John William Draper of New York University, on the intellectual development of Europe with relation to Darwin's theory (one of a number of scientific papers presented during the week as part of the British Association's annual meeting). Although Huxley and Wilberforce were not the only participants in the discussion, they were reported to be the two dominant parties. No verbatim account of the debate exists. There is considerable uncertainty regarding what Huxley and Wilberforce actually said, and subsequent accounts were subject to distortion.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Background
The idea of transmutation of species was very controversial in the first half of the nineteenth century, seen as contrary to religious orthodoxy and a threat to the social order, but welcomed by Radicals seeking to widen democracy and overturn the aristocratic hierarchy. The scientific community was also wary, lacking a mechanistic theory.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Background
The anonymous publication of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation in 1844 brought a storm of controversy, but attracted a wide readership and became a bestseller. At the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting at Oxford in May 1847, the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce used his Sunday sermon at St. Mary's Church on "the wrong way of doing science" to deliver a stinging attack obviously aimed at its author, Robert Chambers, in a church "crowded to suffocation" with archaeologists, geoscientists, astronomers, chemists, physicists, and biologists. The scientific establishment also remained skeptical, but the book had convinced a vast popular audience.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Background
Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published on 24 November 1859 to wide debate and controversy. The influential biologist Richard Owen wrote a negative anonymous review of the book in the Edinburgh Review, and coached Wilberforce, who also wrote an anonymous 17,000-word review in the Quarterly Review.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Background
Thomas Huxley, one of the small group with whom Darwin had shared his theory before publication, emerged as the main public champion of evolution. He wrote a favourable review of "Origin" in The Times in December 1859, along with several other articles and a lecture delivered at the Royal Institution in February 1860.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Background
The reaction of many orthodox churchmen was hostile, but their attention was diverted in February 1860 by a much greater furore over the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal theologians. Amongst them, the Reverend Baden Powell had already praised evolutionary ideas, and in his essay he commended "Mr. Darwin's masterly volume" for substantiating "the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Background
The controversy was at the centre of attention when the British Association for the Advancement of Science (often referred to then simply as "the BA") convened their annual meeting at the new Oxford University Museum of Natural History in June 1860. On Thursday 28 June, Charles Daubeny read a paper "On the final causes of the sexuality in plants, with particular reference to Mr. Darwin's work ..." Owen and Huxley were both in attendance, and a debate erupted over Darwin's theory.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Background
Owen spoke of facts which would enable the public to "come to some conclusions ... of the truth of Mr. Darwin's theory", and repeated an anatomical argument which he had first presented in 1857, that "the brain of the gorilla was more different from that of man than from that of the lowest primate particularly because only man had a posterior lobe, a posterior horn, and a hippocampus minor." Huxley was convinced this was incorrect, and had researched its errors. For the first time he spoke publicly on this point, and "denied altogether that the difference between the brain of the gorilla and man was so great" in a "direct and unqualified contradiction" of Owen, citing previous studies as well as promising to provide detailed support for his position.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Background
Wilberforce agreed to address the meeting on Saturday morning, and there was expectation that he would repeat his success at scourging evolutionary ideas as at the 1847 meeting. Huxley was initially reluctant to engage Wilberforce in a public debate about evolution, but, in a chance encounter, Robert Chambers persuaded him not to desert the cause. The Reverend Baden Powell would have been on the platform, but he had died of a heart attack on 11 June.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
Word spread that Bishop Samuel Wilberforce, known as "Soapy Sam" (from a comment by Benjamin Disraeli that the Bishop's manner was "unctuous, oleaginous, saponaceous"), would speak against Darwin's theory at the meeting on Saturday 30 June 1860. Wilberforce was one of the greatest public speakers of his day and, according to Bryson, "more than a thousand people crowded into the chamber; hundreds more were turned away." Darwin himself was too sick to attend.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
The discussion was chaired by John Stevens Henslow, Darwin's former mentor from Cambridge. It has been suggested that Owen arranged for Henslow to chair the discussion "hoping to make the expected defeat of Darwin the more complete". The main focus of the meeting was supposed to be a lecture by New York University's John William Draper, "On the Intellectual Development of Europe, considered with reference to the views of Mr. Darwin and others, that the progression of organisms is determined by law". By all accounts, Draper's presentation was long and boring. After Draper had finished, Henslow called on several other speakers, including Benjamin Brodie, the President of the Royal Society, before it was Wilberforce's turn.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
In a letter to his brother Edward, the ornithologist Alfred Newton wrote:


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
In the Nat. Hist. Section we had another hot Darwinian debate ... After [lengthy preliminaries] Huxley was called upon by Henslow to state his views at greater length, and this brought up the Bp. of Oxford ... Referring to what Huxley had said two days before, about after all its not signifying to him whether he was descended from a Gorilla or not, the Bp. chafed him and asked whether he had a preference for the descent being on the father's side or the mother's side?


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
This gave Huxley the opportunity of saying that he would sooner claim kindred with an Ape than with a man like the Bp. who made so ill a use of his wonderful speaking powers to try and burke, by a display of authority, a free discussion on what was, or was not, a matter of truth, and reminded him that on questions of physical science 'authority' had always been bowled out by investigation, as witness astronomy and geology. A lot of people afterwards spoke ... the feeling of the meeting was very much against the Bp.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
According to Lucas, "Wilberforce, contrary to the central tenet of the legend, did not prejudge the issue", but he is in a minority on this, as Jensen makes clear. Wilberforce criticised Darwin's theory on ostensibly scientific grounds, arguing that it was not supported by the facts, and he noted that the greatest names in science were opposed to the theory. Nonetheless, Wilberforce's speech is generally only remembered today for his inquiry as to whether it was through his grandmother or his grandfather that Huxley considered himself descended from a monkey.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
According to a letter written 30 years later to Francis Darwin, when Huxley heard this he whispered to Brodie, "The Lord hath delivered him into mine hands". Huxley's own contemporary account, in a letter to Henry Dyster on September 9, 1860, makes no mention of this remark. Huxley rose to defend Darwin's theory, finishing his speech with the now-legendary assertion that he was not ashamed to have a monkey for his ancestor, but he would be ashamed to be connected with a man who used great gifts to obscure the truth. Later retellings indicate that this statement had a tremendous effect on the audience, and Lady Brewster is said to have fainted.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
Reliable accounts indicate that although Huxley did respond with the "monkey" retort, the remainder of his speech was unremarkable. Balfour Stewart, a prominent scientist and director of the Kew Observatory, wrote afterward that, "I think the Bishop had the best of it." Joseph Dalton Hooker, Darwin's friend and botanical mentor, noted in a letter to Darwin that Huxley had been largely inaudible in the hall:


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
Well, Sam Oxon got up and spouted for half an hour with inimitable spirit, ugliness and emptiness and unfairness ... Huxley answered admirably and turned the tables, but he could not throw his voice over so large an assembly nor command the audience ... he did not allude to Sam's weak points nor put the matter in a form or way that carried the audience.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
It is likely that the main point is accurate, that Huxley was not effective in speaking to the large audience. He was not yet an accomplished speaker and wrote afterward that he had been inspired as to the value of oration by what he witnessed in that meeting.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
Next, Henslow called upon Admiral Robert FitzRoy, who had been Darwin's captain and companion on the voyage of the Beagle twenty-five years earlier. FitzRoy denounced Darwin's book and, "lifting an immense Bible first with both hands and afterwards with one hand over his head, solemnly implored the audience to believe God rather than man". He was believed to have said: "I believe that this is the Truth, and had I known then what I know now, I would not have taken him [Darwin] aboard the Beagle."


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
The last speaker of the day was Hooker. According to his own account, it was he and not Huxley who delivered the most effective reply to Wilberforce's arguments: "Sam was shut up—had not one word to say in reply, and the meeting was dissolved forthwith" Ruse claims that "everybody enjoyed himself immensely and all went cheerfully off to dinner together afterwards".


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
It is said that during the debate, two Cambridge dons happened to be standing near Wilberforce, one of whom was Henry Fawcett, the recently blinded economist. Fawcett was asked whether he thought the bishop had actually read the Origin of Species. "Oh no, I would swear he has never read a word of it", Fawcett reportedly replied loudly. Wilberforce swung round to him scowling, ready to recriminate, but stepped back and bit his tongue on noting that the protagonist was the blind economist. (See p. 126 of Janet Browne (2003) Charles Darwin: The Power of Place.)


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Debate
Notably, all three major participants felt they had had the best of the debate. Wilberforce wrote that, "On Saturday Professor Henslow ... called on me by name to address the Section on Darwin's theory. So I could not escape and had quite a long fight with Huxley. I think I thoroughly beat him." Huxley claimed "[I was] the most popular man in Oxford for a full four & twenty hours afterwards." Hooker wrote that "I have been congratulated and thanked by the blackest coats and whitest stocks in Oxford." Wilberforce and Darwin remained on good terms after the debate.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Legacy
Summary reports of the debate were published in The Manchester Guardian, The Athenaeum and Jackson's Oxford Journal. A more detailed report was published by the Oxford Chronicle. Both sides immediately claimed victory, but the majority opinion has always been that the debate represented a major victory for the Darwinians.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Legacy
Though the debate is frequently depicted as a clash between religion and science, the British Association at the time had a number of clergymen occupying high positions (including Presidents of two of its seven sections) In his speech to open the annual event, the President of the Association (Lord Wrottesley) concluded his talk by saying "Let us ever apply ourselves to the task, feeling assured that the more we thus exercise, and by exercising improve our intellectual faculties, the more worthy shall we be, the better shall we be fitted to come nearer to our God."


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Legacy
Therefore, a case could be made for saying that for the many clerics in the audience, the underlying conflict was between traditional Anglicanism (Wilberforce) and liberal Anglicanism (Essays and Reviews). On the other hand, Oxford academic Dr Diane Purkiss says the debate "was really the first time Christianity had ever been asked to square off against science in a public forum in the whole of its history".


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Legacy
Many of the opponents of Darwin's theory were respected men of science: Owen was one of the most influential British biologists of his generation; Adam Sedgwick was a leading geologist; Wilberforce was a Fellow of the Royal Society (though at that time about half of the Fellows were well-placed amateurs). While Darwin himself was a gentleman scholar of independent financial means, key disciples like Huxley and Hooker were professionals, and they concentrated on the advance of scientific knowledge, and were determined not to be baulked by religious authority. Their kind of science was to grow and flourish, and ultimately to become autonomous from religious tradition.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Legacy
The debate has been called "one of the great stories of the history of science" and it is often regarded as a key moment in the acceptance of evolution. However, at the time it received only a few passing references in newspapers, and Brooke argues that "the event almost completely disappeared from public awareness until it was resurrected in the 1890s as an appropriate tribute to a recently deceased hero of scientific education". The contemporary accounts of the participants were largely replaced by a somewhat embellished version (see the much later insertion of Huxley's remark to Brodie, for example). The great popularity of the anecdote in the 20th century was largely due to shifting attitudes towards evolution and anachronistic re-interpretation of the actual events.


1860 Oxford evolution debate, Legacy
The debate marked the beginning of a bitter three-year dispute between Owen and Huxley over human origins, satirised by Charles Kingsley as the "Great Hippocampus Question", which concluded with the defeat of Owen and his backers. The debate was the inspiration for, and is referenced in, the play Darwin in Malibu by Crispin Whittell. A commemorative pillar marks the 150th anniversary of the debate.


1860 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election
The 1860 Pennsylvania gubernatorial was held on October 9, almost one month before Presidential election. Andrew Curtin of the newly formed Republican Party won the governor's mansion over Democrat Henry Donnel Foster.


1860 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, Campaign
As in most of the county, the growing tension over the expansion of slavery was the dominant electoral issue. Although outgoing Governor William F. Packer had been lauded for expanding public education and for aiding the state's iron and glass industries through tough economic times, his reputation was tainted by a strong connection to President James Buchanan. Nonetheless, the state Democratic Party remained strong, and, despite the national split, leadership united behind Foster. By contrast, the Republicans, which had participated in only one prior gubernatorial election, was marked by division. Although Abraham Lincoln was emerging as the party's presidential candidate, state party bosses had hoped to nominate Simon Cameron; it took some time for the party establishment to unify around Curtin, a Lincoln supporter, and his campaign got off to somewhat of a slow start.


1860 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, Campaign
Although both candidates discussed similar issues in their campaign, particularly public education and industrial development, local issues were totally overshadowed by the impending threat of war. While Democrats, who backed the Stephen A. Douglas and the Northern plank of their national party almost unanimously, rallied hard behind Foster, the problems with the party's national machinery caught up with their candidate. Curtin, a powerful speaker, was able to convince voters that choosing the Republican line was the only way to keep the nation from division, a message that allowed him to achieve a narrow victory.


1860 Philadelphia mayoral election
The Philadelphia mayoral election of 1860 saw the reelection of Alexander Henry.


1860 Philadelphia mayoral election
This was the first Philadelphia mayoral election won by the then-young Republican Party. Henry had previously been elected as a member of the "People's Party".


1860 Portuguese legislative election
The Portuguese legislative election, 1860 was held on 1 January.


1860 Portuguese legislative election, Notes and references
This Portuguese elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1860 Queensland colonial election
Elections were held in the Australian state of Queensland between 27 April 1860 to 11 May 1860 to elect the members of the state's Legislative Assembly.


1860 Queensland colonial election, Key dates
Due to problems of distance and communications, it was not possible to hold the elections on a single day.


1860 Republican National Convention
The 1860 Republican National Convention was a presidential nominating convention that met from May 16 to May 18 in Chicago, Illinois. It was held to nominate the Republican Party's candidates for president and vice president in the 1860 election. The convention selected former Representative Abraham Lincoln of Illinois for president and Senator Hannibal Hamlin of Maine for vice president.


1860 Republican National Convention
Entering the 1860 convention, Senator William H. Seward of New York was generally regarded as the front-runner, but Lincoln, Governor Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, former Representative Edward Bates of Missouri, and Senator Simon Cameron of Pennsylvania all commanded support from a significant share of delegates. Seward led on the first ballot but fell short of a majority, while Lincoln finished in a strong second place. Cameron's delegates shifted to Lincoln on the second ballot, leaving Lincoln essentially tied with Seward. Lincoln clinched the nomination on the third ballot after consolidating support from more delegates who had backed candidates other than Seward.


1860 Republican National Convention
Hamlin was nominated on the second vice presidential ballot, defeating Cassius Clay of Kentucky and several other candidates.


1860 Republican National Convention
The ticket of Lincoln and Hamlin went on to win the 1860 general election. After taking office in 1861, Lincoln appointed all four of his major opponents for the nomination to his cabinet.


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Background
By 1860 the dissolution of the Whig Party in America had become an accomplished fact, with establishment Whig politicians, former Free Soilers, and a certain number of anti-Catholic populists from the Know Nothing movement flocking to the banner of the fledgling anti-slavery Republican Party. While 1856 Republican presidential nominee John C. Frémont had met with failure, party gains were made throughout the Northern United States as the sectional crisis over slavery intensified.


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Background
Party leaders sought to hold their 1860 nominating convention in the burgeoning Middle Western trade center of Chicago, then a city of some 110,000 people. The city had no sufficiently large meeting hall, so an appropriation was made for a temporary wood-frame assembly hall – known as the "Wigwam" – to seat ten thousand delegates, guests, and observers. The rapidly designed and constructed building proved well fit for the purpose, featuring excellent lines of sight and stellar acoustics, allowing even an ordinary speaker to be heard throughout the room.


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Background
The Convention commanded the interest and attention of a multitude of curious citizens who crowded the "Wigwam" to the rafters. Delegations were seated by state and the gathering was virtually devoid of Southern participation, with no delegations attending from the slave states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Florida.


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Background
Delegation voting strength was loosely based upon the size of each state's congressional delegation, subject to some modification by the Credentials Committee, with the Northeastern delegations of New York (70), Pennsylvania (54), Massachusetts (26), and New Jersey (14) constituting the largest regional block, surpassing the Midwestern states of Ohio (46), Indiana (26), Illinois (22), and Iowa (8). Some 86 votes were apportioned to the six states of New England. Slave and border states with substantial delegations under the rules (but with small actual party organizations) included Kentucky (23), Virginia (23), and Missouri (18). The total of all credentialed delegate votes was 466.


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Daily affairs
With the convention called to order on May 16, former U.S. Representative David Wilmot of Pennsylvania was elected temporary chairman of the gathering. He had been the author in 1848 of the Wilmot Proviso which would have banned slavery from new states incorporated into the Union. Upon his election, Wilmot delivered the keynote speech to the Convention, in which he declared that:


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Daily affairs
A great sectional and aristocratic party, or interest, has for years dominated with a high hand over the political affairs of this country. That interest has wrested, and is now wresting, all the great powers of this government to the one object of the extension and nationalization of slavery. It is our purpose, gentlemen, it is the mission of the Republican Party and the basis of its organization, to resist this policy of a sectional interest.... It is our purpose and our policy to resist these new constitutional dogmas that slavery exists by virtue of the constitution wherever the banner of the Union floats.


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Daily affairs
Organizational tasks filled the rest of the first day's activities, including the appointment of a Credentials Committee and a Resolutions Committee. There were no contested seats although a delegation purporting to represent the state of Texas was ruled ineligible by the Credentials Committee. A Platform Committee was also named, including one delegate from every state and territory in attendance. This committee began its work at once and completed its task with a report on the evening of the second day, May 17.


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Platform
The reading of the platform, as drafted by the Platform Committee chaired by Judge William Jessup of Pennsylvania, was received with stormy applause and an immediate move followed to adopt the document unanimously and without amendments. An effort followed to amend the platform after adoption with insertion of famous language from the Declaration of Independence that "All men are created equal; and they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights..." This Amendment was initially rejected by the convention, prompting a walkout by its proposer, long time Ohio Congressman Joshua Reed Giddings. The matter was hastily reconsidered by the Convention, and with the addition of the amendment the disgruntled Mr. Giddings returned to his seat, crisis resolved.


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Platform
The 1860 Republican platform consisted of 17 declarations of principle, of which 10 dealt directly with the issues of free soil principles, slavery, the Fugitive Slave Act, and the preservation of the Union, while the remaining 7 dealing with other issues.


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Platform
Clauses 12 through 16 of the platform called for a protective tariff, enactment of the Homestead Act, freedom of immigration into the United States and full rights to all immigrant citizens, internal improvements, and the construction of a Pacific railroad.


1860 Republican National Convention, History, Platform
In addition to the preservation of the Union, all five of these additional promises were enacted by the Thirty-seventh Congress and implemented by Abraham Lincoln or the presidents who immediately succeeded him.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
The convention met in mid-May, after the Democrats had been forced to adjourn the 1860 Democratic National Convention in Charleston, South Carolina, without a nominee and had not yet re-convened in Baltimore, Maryland. With the Democrats in disarray and with a sweep of the Northern states possible, the Republicans were confident of victory. Senator William H. Seward of New York was generally expected to get the nomination.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
The Republican National Convention met in mid-May 1860, after the Democrats had been forced to adjourn their convention in Charleston. With the Democrats in disarray and a sweep of the Northern states possible, the Republicans felt confident going into their convention in Chicago. William H. Seward from New York was considered the front-runner, followed Salmon P. Chase from Ohio, and Missouri's Edward Bates. Abraham Lincoln from Illinois, was lesser known, and was not considered to have a good chance against Seward. Seward had been governor and senator of New York, was from firm Whig backgrounds, and was a very able politician. Also running were John C. Frémont, William L. Dayton, Cassius M. Clay, and Benjamin Wade, who might be able to win if the convention deadlocked.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
As the convention developed, however, it was revealed that frontrunners Seward, Chase, and Bates had each alienated factions of the Republican Party. Seward had been painted as a radical, and his speeches on slavery predicted inevitable conflict, which spooked moderate delegates. He also was firmly opposed to nativism, which further weakened his position. He had also been abandoned by his longtime friend and political ally Horace Greeley, publisher of the influential New-York Tribune.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
Chase, a former Democrat, had alienated many of the former Whigs by his coalition with the Democrats in the late 1840s. He had also opposed tariffs demanded by Pennsylvania, and even had opposition from his own delegation from Ohio. However, Chase's firm antislavery stance made him popular with the radical Republicans. But what he had in policy he lacked in charisma and political acumen.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
The conservative Bates was an unlikely candidate, but found support from Horace Greely, who sought any chance to defeat Seward, whom he now had a bitter feud with. Bates outlined his positions on the extension of slavery into the territories and equal constitutional rights for all citizens, positions that alienated his supporters in the border states and Southern conservatives, while German Americans in the party opposed Bates because of his past association with the Know Nothings.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
Into this mix came Lincoln. Lincoln was not unknown; he had gained prominence in the Lincoln–Douglas debates, and had served as a house representative from Illinois. He had been quietly eyeing a run since the Lincoln-Douglas debates in 1858, ensuring that the debates were widely published, and that a biography of himself was published. He gained great notability with his February 1860 Cooper Union speech, which may have ensured him the nomination. He had not yet announced his intentions to run, but it was superb speech.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
Delivered in Seward's home state, and attended by Greely, Lincoln used the speech to show that the Republican party was a party of moderates, not crazed fanatics as the South and Democrats claimed. Afterwards, Lincoln was in much demand for speaking engagements. As the convention approached, Lincoln did not campaign very actively, as the "office was expected to seek the man". So it did at the Illinois state convention, a week before the national convention.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
Young politician Richard Oglesby had secretly found several fence rails from the Hanks-Lincoln farm that Lincoln may have split as a youngster, and paraded them into the convention with a banner that proclaimed Lincoln to be "The Rail Candidate" for President. Lincoln received a thunderous ovation, surpassing the expectations of him and his political allies.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
Even with such support from his home state, Lincoln faced a difficult task if he was to win the nomination. He set about ensuring that he was the second choice of most delegates, realizing that the first round of voting at the convention was unlikely to produce a clear winner. He engineered that the convention would happen in Chicago, which would be inherently friendly to the Illinois based Lincoln. He also made sure that the Illinois delegation would vote as a bloc for him. Lincoln did not attend the convention in person, and left the task of delegate wrangling to his friends Leonard Swett, Ward Hill Lamon, and David Davis.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
During the night of May 17–18, they worked frantically to win anti-Seward delegates for Lincoln. They showed that Lincoln already had the most support after Seward, which persuaded some. They also made a deal with Simon Cameron of Pennsylvania, who recognized that he had no chance of winning the nomination himself. Cameron controlled the Pennsylvania delegation, and he offered to trade his support for the promise of a cabinet position for himself and control of Federal patronage in Pennsylvania. Lincoln did not want to make any such deal; from Springfield, he telegraphed to Davis "I authorize no bargains and will be bound by none". Despite this restriction, Davis reached an understanding with Cameron, which eventually led to Cameron's appointment as Secretary of War.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts
The next day (May 18), when voting for the nomination began, Seward led on the first ballot with Lincoln a distant second. But on the second ballot, the Pennsylvania delegation switched to Lincoln, as well as some other delegates, putting him in a near-tie with Seward. Lincoln's combination of a moderate stance on slavery, long support for economic issues, his western origins, and strong oratory proved to be exactly what the delegates wanted in a president. On the third ballot on May 18, Lincoln secured the nomination overwhelmingly. Senator Hannibal Hamlin from Maine was nominated for vice-president, defeating Cassius M. Clay. Hamlin was surprised by his nomination, saying he was "astonished" and that he "neither expected nor desired it."


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts, President
Among other accounts, an article, entitled "The Four Votes", published in the May 19, 1860, edition of the Chicago Press and Tribune attests that after seeing how close Lincoln was to the 234 votes needed, Robert K. Enos, a member of the Ohio delegation, was responsible for getting three fellow Ohio delegates to announce after the close of the third ballot that they were shifting their four votes to Lincoln, giving him sufficient votes to win the nomination. This triggered an avalanche towards Lincoln on the fourth ballot, with a final count of 349 votes for Lincoln out of 466 cast.


1860 Republican National Convention, Ballot counts, Vice President
Senator Hannibal Hamlin of Maine was nominated for vice president, defeating Cassius M. Clay of Kentucky.


1860 South Australian colonial election
Colonial elections were held in South Australia from 9 March to 3 April 1860. All 36 seats in the South Australian House of Assembly were up for election.


1860 South Australian colonial election
Since the inaugural 1857 election, no parties or solid groupings had been formed, which resulted in frequent changes of the Premier. If for any reason the incumbent Premier of South Australia lost sufficient support through a successful motion of no confidence at any time on the floor of the house, he would tender his resignation to the Governor of South Australia, which would result in interested members declaring their intent to run for the vacant position. A parliamentary ballot would then take place, resulting in the member with the most votes being sworn in by the Governor as the next Premier.


1860 South Australian colonial election
Informal groupings began and increased government stability occurred from the 1887 election. The United Labor Party would be formed in 1891, while the National Defence League would be formed later in the same year.


1860 St Leonards colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of St Leonards on 2 May 1860 because Edward Sayers resigned.


1860 State of the Union Address
The 1860 State of the Union Address was written by James Buchanan, the 15th president of the United States. It was read on Monday, December 3, 1860, to both houses of the 36th United States Congress, by a clerk. He stated, "Why is it, then, that discontent now so extensively prevails, and the Union of the States, which is the source of all these blessings, is threatened with destruction?" He spoke on the eve of the American Civil War.


1860 State of the Union Address, The verdict
"The long-continued and intemperate interference of the Northern people with the question of slavery in the Southern States has at length produced its natural effects. The different sections of the Union are now arrayed against each other, and the time has arrived, so much dreaded by the Father of his Country, when hostile geographical parties have been formed."


1860 Swiss federal election
Federal elections were held in Switzerland on 28 October 1860. Despite large losses, the Radical Left remained the largest group in the National Council, winning 64 of the 120 seats.


1860 Swiss federal election, Electoral system
The 120 members of the National Council were elected in 49 single- and multi-member constituencies; there was one seat for every 20,000 citizens, with seats allocated to cantons in proportion to their population. The elections were held using a three-round system; candidates had to receive a majority in the first or second round to be elected; if it went to a third round, only a plurality was required. Voters could cast as many votes as there were seats in their constituency. In six cantons (Appenzell Innerrhoden, Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Glarus, Nidwalden, Obwalden and Uri), National Council members were elected by the Landsgemeinde.


1860 Swiss federal election, Results, National Council, Summary
Voter turnout was highest in the Canton of Schaffhausen (where voting was compulsory) at 86.4% and lowest in the Canton of Zürich at 8.9%.


1860 Town of Brisbane colonial by-election
The Town of Brisbane colonial by-election, 1860 was a by-election held on 8 December 1860 in the electoral district of Town of Brisbane for the Queensland Legislative Assembly.


1860 Town of Brisbane colonial by-election, History
On 17 October 1860, Henry Jordan, member for Town of Brisbane, resigned. Robert Cribb won the resulting by-election on 8 December 1860.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election
The Town of Christchurch by-election in 1860 was triggered by the resignation of Richard Packer as the Member of the House of Representatives for the Town of Christchurch electorate, and occurred during the term of the 2nd New Zealand Parliament. The previous representative of the electorate, the politician Henry Sewell, had returned after three years in England and the general expectation was that Sewell would be the sole contender for election. The Lyttelton Times wrote several provocative editorials, generally endorsing Sewell for his obvious ability, but criticising him for not publicly talking about his policies and plans.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election
Sewell eventually arranged a public meeting the evening prior to nomination day; this was the only public meeting during the election campaign. After a lengthy address, which was favourably received by the Lyttelton Times, a second contender for the office put his name forward at that meeting: the publican Michael Hart. Sewell, a former premier and one of New Zealand's most senior politicians at the time, was successful against the political novice Hart.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Candidates
Henry Sewell had first come to New Zealand as the deputy chairman (a paid position) of the Canterbury Association in February 1853. The Association was in financial crisis and Sewell was instrumental in resolving the debt issues for Canterbury Province. In August 1853 Sewell stood in New Zealand's first general election, winning the Town of Christchurch electorate, which he represented in the 1st New Zealand Parliament. Sewell was re-elected in the 1855 election and also elected onto the Canterbury Provincial Council for the Lyttelton electorate in 1855. In May 1856, he became New Zealand's first Premier. He resigned from Parliament later in 1856 but remained an unofficial member of Parliament's executive and returned to England on ministerial duties. Sewell returned to New Zealand in early 1859 and again took up a previous role as Colonial Treasurer. By all accounts, Sewell was a senior politician.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Candidates
Michael Hart arrived in Lyttelton with his wife and their two sons on the Cressy on 27 December 1850, one of the First Four Ships reaching Canterbury. Before he came out to New Zealand, he had been a plumber. Hart founded the White Hart on the corner of High and Cashel Streets, the first hotel in Christchurch. The hotel opened on 15 November 1851, less than a year after the organised settlement of Christchurch. In December 1852, Hart catered for 150 guests who had assembled to farewell John Robert Godley, the founder of Canterbury who returned to England after his short stay in the colony. A well-known man, Hart had no political experience; he was never elected onto the Canterbury Provincial Council.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Campaign
After Sewell's resignation from Parliament in 1856, Richard Packer won the resulting 1856 by-election. Packer resigned from Parliament on 28 December 1859, triggering the 1860 by-election. The resignation was announced to the public via a statement in the Canterbury Standard, a newspaper published by Joseph Brittan. This was accompanied by a brief statement by Sewell, offering himself for election again. Hart accused Packer of having been a locum tenens (i.e. a place holder) for Sewell.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Campaign
In an editorial, the Lyttelton Times welcomed Sewell's intention of representing the electorate again, but criticised him for the briefness of his statement. The newspaper's expectation was that Sewell should publicly state what his policies were, and not just rely on his past representation in Parliament. On 7 January 1860, Sewell placed an advertisement in the Lyttelton Times, inviting electors to a meeting at the Mechanics' Institute next to the Christchurch Town Hall on Friday, 13 January.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Campaign
In an editorial on 11 January, the Lyttelton Times implied that Sewell's election was a foregone conclusion; no other candidates having come forward, so Sewell would simply be declared elected on nomination night. The editorial urged Sewell to address the issue of improved education when he again represented Christchurch in Parliament. On 14 January, the Lyttelton Times repeated and increased its criticism of Sewell's policies and plans being unknown to the public, and it talked of the option of rejecting Sewell. An editorial said of Sewell: "a thick impenetrable haze has hitherto enveloped his relations with the public."


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Campaign
In 1860, the Lyttelton Times was still based in Lyttelton (the newspaper only moved to Christchurch in 1863) and was a bi-weekly. When it went to print after the meeting in the Town Hall the previous night, the editorial expressed disappointment that they could not report on the meeting called by Sewell.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Campaign
This ongoing criticism caused Sewell to provide his own report to the Lyttelton Times of the meeting with electors. The editor compared this report with the one supplied by their own reporter and, containing no substantial differences, decided to print Sewell's account in the next edition on 18 January. The editorial defended the newspaper's critical stance: "We disclaim all hostile feelings against Mr. Sewell ... we have not decided to thwart but to understand him." The editor welcomed Sewell's detailed address and expressed general satisfaction with Sewell's statements. By finally addressing the electors, Sewell "removed the only objection urged against him."


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Campaign
The meeting on 17 January was crowded. Many attendees were not electors, as franchise was attached to land ownership in excess of £50, or yearly rental over £10, and the resulting roll was only about 160 names long, including absentee owners in England. There had been rumours beforehand that somebody would come forward to oppose Sewell. William Thomson was elected to chair the meeting.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Campaign
Sewell spoke at length about various issues: that he should be elected because of the service that he had given Canterbury as their representative when in financial crisis, that he even delayed his departure to England to resolve the issues, that he had no conflict of interest with the steam ship company that provided New Zealand's postal service with England, that he did not have land holdings in the North Island more valuable than holdings in Canterbury, that he gave qualified support to the Lyttelton Rail Tunnel project and he gave his reasons for leaving the Stafford Ministry so soon after his return to the colony last year.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Campaign
He disagreed with Stafford's government on some issues. The two most important disagreements were land policy, where Sewell wanted the land revenue to be retained by the provincial governments, rather than the southern provinces pay a high proportion of their revenue to enable purchase of land in the north, and native policy, where Sewell predicted that the land policy being pursued would result in strong conflict with Māori; in fact, the First Taranaki War started in March 1860.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Campaign
As a solution, Sewell suggested the possible separation of the North Island and the South Island into separate countries; this was the first time, as far as the editor of the Lyttelton Times was aware, that such a suggestion had been made in public by a politician. The politician who is today known to have favoured separation is Julius Vogel, and he started campaigning for this idea in 1862. The Lyttelton Times argued, against the objection of many, that such an idea had merit for further consideration.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Background, Campaign
After Sewell had spoken, Michael Hart briefly addressed those present. He announced himself as a candidate and vouched his support for the Lyttelton Rail Tunnel project.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Nomination
The nomination meeting was held on 18 January at the Town Hall. The returning officer, John Hall, read the writ. Richard Packer proposed Sewell as a candidate, and William Wilson seconded this. Hart was proposed by Mr Sutcliffe and seconded by Mr Rees. Both Sewell and Hart then spoke. Sewell stressed the importance of electing the right person, with reference to his experience and Hart being an unknown quantity. Hart argued that it was his right to put himself forward.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Nomination
Whilst Hart could not say that he received his qualifications from Oxford or Cambridge, he had obtained his "knowledge from the university of common sense". He further argued that he was as able as Packer, whom he regarded as a locum tenens for Sewell. He criticised Sewell for not residing in Christchurch.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Nomination
The returning officer, John Hall, after no other candidate came forward, asked for a show of hands and declared it to be in favour of Sewell, upon which Hart demanded a poll. Hall declared that the poll be held at the Town Hall the following day (19 January), from 9 am to 4 pm.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Results
110 votes were cast in the election. At the time, voting was done by the elector telling the election official his choice of candidate (the secret ballot was introduced in 1871) and as a tally was being kept by interested parties, the result was immediately known. Sewell won the election by 77 votes to 33.


1860 Town of Christchurch by-election, Results
Sewell served until the end of the term in November 1860. At the end of the session, he was dissatisfied with the actions of his former fellow Government ministers and did not seek re-election. Instead, he was appointed Registrar-General of Lands by Edward Stafford. In August 1861, he was appointed to the New Zealand Legislative Council so that he could become part of the 2nd Fox Ministry as Attorney-General.


1860 United States House of Representatives election in Florida
The 1860 United States House of Representatives election in Florida was held on Monday, October 1, 1860 to elect the single United States Representative from the state of Florida, one from the state's single at-large congressional district, to represent Florida in the 37th Congress. The election coincided with the elections of other offices, including the presidential election, gubernatorial election, and various state and local elections.


1860 United States House of Representatives election in Florida
The winning candidate would serve a two-year term in the United States House of Representatives from March 4, 1861, to March 4, 1863.


1860 United States House of Representatives election in Florida
Hilton was never seated in Congress, however, as Florida had seceded from the Union before his term began.