1801 series CPU, Development
The history of this CPU stems from the early 1970s, when the group of engineers in Zelenograd's Special Computing Center, led by D.I. Yuditsky, developed their first 16-bit minicomputer, called Elektronika NC-1. This machine, intended to directly compete with SM EVM series, was first released in 1973 and used the bit slice 4-bit 587 CPU, sometimes called the first Soviet microprocessor ever. Its descendants proved popular and were widely used in various control systems and telecom equipment. However, the bit-slice nature of their CPUs made these machines somewhat unwieldy, especially in military applications, and the need for a single-chip microprocessor was identified.


1801 series CPU, Development
In 1980 the first 1801 CPU intended to fill this niche, K1801VE1, entered production. It was essentially a microcontroller with 256 bytes of on-chip RAM, 2K ROM and other peripheral circuitry, still based on Elektronika NC instruction set, but compatible with a Soviet clone of DEC's Q-Bus that was already adopted as an industry standard — a first sign of things to come. Its peripheral circuits were underutilized by the industry, as it was mostly used as a general-purpose CPU, rather than a microcontroller, so it was decided to simplify the chip, removing unnecessary devices from the die. But by that time its parent organization, the SCC, has already lost in the power games that plagued Soviet industry.


1801 series CPU, Development
By its nature, Soviet industry was an extremely bureaucratic structure, so decision making process was often driven not by technical or economical considerations, but by the results of the games of influence between various organizations and officials. SCC, despite its technical successes and popularity of its designs, was not without its opponents and even enemies. While its staff had an aversion to copying and reverse engineering Western technology, many groups within the Ministry of Electronic Industry argued for it as a quicker and more secure way to meet the needs.


1801 series CPU, Development
These groups eventually prevailed, and in 1976 the SCC was essentially disbanded, its technical base passing to the Angstrem plant while some of its research labs were joined to the Research Institute of Precision Technology (which didn't really need them), and others forming a research arm of the newly formed NPO Scientific Center.


1801 series CPU, Development
This sudden reorganization resulted in the abandonment of the Elektronika NC architecture (it continued only in CNCs based on an NC-1 machine, some of which are used up to this day) and the adoption of the PDP-11 compatibility as a MEI standard, a process sometimes called PDP revolt in Russian literature. Thus, the microcode for the new simplified CPU was redesigned and made compatible with LSI-11 instruction set. The new processor was released in 1982, designated K1801VM1.


1801 series CPU, Development
It was supplemented by the 600-gate KR1801VP1 (Russian: КР1801ВП1) gate array, which was used to implement various support circuitry, 64 Kib KR1801RE2 ROM chip, and 64 Kib K573RF3 EPROM. Together they constituted the first widely used generation of 1801 family. The KR18101VP1 gate array was later manufactured by a number of second sources: Exiton Pavlovsky Posad, SEMZ Solnechnogorsk, and Intermos in Hungary.


1801 series CPU, Technical characteristics
All CPUs in the family were single-chip 16-bit microprocessors based on Electronika NC microarchitecture, however only the first one, the K1801VE1 microcontroller, used the Electronica NC instruction set. Others have an updated microcode implementing the LSI-11 architecture. Various models differed in clock speed, instruction set (the first models lacked the MUL and DIV commands, for example), package and address bus width (the latest models supported 22-bit addressing).


1801 series CPU, Technical characteristics, K1801VM2
It has two different address spaces and the ability to quickly switch between them. They were used in implementing the FIS instruction subset, with instructions processed not in microcode, but as interrupt handlers in shadow ROM.


1801–1802 Massachusetts legislature
The 22nd Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1801 and 1802 during the governorship of Caleb Strong. David Cobb served as president of the Senate and Edward Robbins served as speaker of the House.


1801–1802 Massachusetts's 12th congressional district special election
A special election was held in Massachusetts's 12th congressional district on five occasions between September 25, 1801 and July 29, 1802 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Silas Lee (F) on August 20, 1801, prior to the beginning of the 1st Session of the 7th Congress.


1801–1802 Massachusetts's 12th congressional district special election, Election results, First three ballots
The first three ballots had similar results and were held on September 25 and December 7, 1801 and April 5, 1802


1801–1802 Massachusetts's 12th congressional district special election, Election results, Fourth and fifth ballots
Between the third and fourth ballots Cook and Drummer dropped out while Samuel Thatcher (DR) entered the race, eventually winning. The final two votes were held June 7, 1802 and July 29, 1802


1802
1802 (MDCCCII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1802nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 802nd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 2nd  year of the 19th century, and the  3rd   year of the 1800s decade. As of the start of 1802, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1802 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1802 Connecticut gubernatorial election took place on April 8, 1802. Incumbent Federalist Governor Jonathan Trumbull Jr. won re-election to a fifth full term, defeating Democratic-Republican candidate Ephraim Kirby.


1802 English cricket season
The 1802 English cricket season was the 31st in which matches have been awarded retrospective first-class cricket status and the 16th after the foundation of the Marylebone Cricket Club. The season saw three top-class matches played in the country.


1802 English cricket season, Matches
Three top-class matches were played during the season, two of them staged at Lord's Old Ground and one at Aram's New Ground in Walworth. In one match an England XI played a Surrey side. The other matches were was played between sides assembled by patrons.


1802 English cricket season, Debutants
Players known to have made their first-class debut during the season include:


1802 French constitutional referendum
A referendum ratifying the new constitution of the Consulate, which made Napoleon Bonaparte First Consul for life, was held on 10 May 1802. The official result showed 99.76% of voters in favour of the change. Of seven million eligible voters, 49.45% abstained.


1802 Helvetic Republic constitutional referendum
A constitutional referendum was held in the Helvetic Republic on 25 May 1802. Unlike the constitution approved in 1798, the new constitution, known as the Malmaison constitution, did not provide for any referendums. Non -voters were assumed to have voted in favour of the new constitution, a measure put in place to prevent its rejection. As a result, 72.17% of voters were deemed to be in favour.


1802 Maryland's 2nd congressional district special election
A special election was held in Maryland's 2nd congressional district on March 2, 1802 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Richard Sprigg, Jr. (DR) on December 11, 1801.


1802 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
The 1802 Massachusetts gubernatorial election was held on April 6.


1802 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
Federalist Governor Caleb Strong was re-elected to a third consecutive one-year term in office, defeating Democratic-Republican Elbridge Gerry again for the third time.


1802 New Hampshire gubernatorial election
The 1802 New Hampshire gubernatorial election took place on March 9, 1802. Incumbent Federalist Governor John Taylor Gilman won re-election to a ninth term, defeating Democratic-Republican candidate, former Governor and U.S. Senator John Langdon.


1802 New Hampshire's at-large congressional district special election
A special election was held in New Hampshire's at-large congressional district on August 30, 1802 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Joseph Peirce (F) earlier that year.


1802 North Carolina's 8th congressional district special election
A special election was held in North Carolina's 8th congressional district on October 15, 1802 to fill a vacancy left by the death of Charles Johnson (DR) on July 23, 1802.


1802 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election
The 1802 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election occurred on October 12, 1802. Incumbent Democratic-Republican governor Thomas McKean successfully sought re-election to another term. As occurred in his prior campaign, he defeated U.S. Senator James Ross, a Federalist.


1802 Rhode Island gubernatorial election
The 1802 Rhode Island gubernatorial election was an election held on April 7, 1802 to elect the Governor of Rhode Island. Arthur Fenner, the incumbent Governor and Democratic-Republican candidate, beat the Federalist candidate William Greene with 66.28% of the vote.


1802 South Carolina's 4th congressional district special election
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1802 South Carolina's 4th congressional district special election
A special election was held in South Carolina's 4th congressional district on April 12–13, 1802 to fill a vacancy resulting from the resignation of Thomas Sumter (DR) on December 15, 1801, upon being elected to the Senate.


1802 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
The 1802 election of the Speaker of the House of Commons occurred on 10 February 1802.


1802 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
The incumbent Speaker Sir John Mitford had resigned to take office as Lord Chancellor of Ireland.


1802 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
Charles Abbot was proposed by Sir William Grant, Master of the Rolls, and seconded by William Baker.


1802 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
Despite having no personal opposition to Abbot, Richard Brinsley Sheridan objected to the government's practice of nominating its officials to the speakership, believing that the Commons should make the choice for itself. He proposed Charles Dundas. Lord George Cavendish seconded.


1802 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
Abbot submitted to the will of the House. Dundas sought to decline the office, and requested that Sheridan withdraw the nomination.


1802 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
On the motion "That the Right Hon. Charles Abbot do take the Chair of this House as Speaker," Abbot was elected unanimously.


1802 State of the Union Address
The 1802 State of the Union Address was written by Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, on Wednesday, December 15, 1802. He said, "When we assemble together, fellow citizens, to consider the state of our beloved country, our just attentions are first drawn to those pleasing circumstances which mark the goodness of that Being from whose favor they flow and the large measure of thankfulness we owe for His bounty. Another year has come around, and finds us still blessed with peace and friendship abroad; law, order, and religion at home; good affection and harmony with our Indian neighbors; our burthens lightened, yet our income sufficient for the public wants, and the produce of the year great beyond example."


1802 United Kingdom general election
The 1802 United Kingdom general election was the election to the House of Commons of the second Parliament of the United Kingdom. It was the first to be held after the Union of Great Britain and Ireland. The first Parliament had been composed of members of the former Parliaments of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland.


1802 United Kingdom general election
The Parliament of Great Britain held its last general election in 1796. The final election for the Parliament of Ireland was held in 1797.


1802 United Kingdom general election
The first united Parliament was dissolved on 29 June 1802. The new Parliament was summoned to meet on 31 August 1802, for a maximum seven-year term from that date. (The maximum term could be and normally was curtailed, by the monarch dissolving the Parliament, before its term expired.)


1802 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
Tory Prime Minister Henry Addington led a war-time administration of pro-government Whigs and Tories, collectively referred to as the "Addingtonians", in office during part of the Napoleonic Wars.


1802 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
The previous Prime Minister, William Pitt the Younger, had been out of office since 1801. King George III had forced Pitt to resign by refusing to agree to Catholic emancipation (allowing Catholics to sit in Parliament) following the Union. His faction in Parliament was generally supportive of the Addington ministry, but was semi-detached from it.


1802 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
On 25 March 1802 the Treaty of Amiens brought about peace with France, with which Great Britain had been at war since 1792. The international situation remained uneasy and a renewal of war was still possible.


1802 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
In the election the combination of the followers of Addington and Pitt comfortably defeated the Opposition Whigs of Charles James Fox.


1802 United Kingdom general election, Dates of election
At this period there was not one election day. After receiving a writ (a royal command) for the election to be held, the local returning officer fixed the election timetable for the particular constituency or constituencies he was concerned with. Polling in seats with contested elections could continue for many days.


1802 United Kingdom general election, Dates of election
The election took place over a period of almost two months. The time between the first and last contested elections was 5 July to 28 August 1802.


1802 United Kingdom general election, Summary of the constituencies
Monmouthshire (1 County constituency with 2 MPs and one single member Borough constituency) is included in Wales in these tables. Sources for this period may include the county in England.


1802 United Kingdom general election, Summary of the constituencies
Table 2: Number of seats per constituency, by type and country


1802 United States House of Representatives election in Connecticut, Notes
This Connecticut elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1802 United States House of Representatives election in Delaware
The Delaware United States House election for 1802 was held from October 9–20, 1802. The incumbent Representative James A. Bayard Sr. was defeated by the former state representative Caesar Augustus Rodney with 50.11% of the vote and 15 votes.


1802 United States House of Representatives election in Georgia
Georgia gained 2 seats in reapportionment after the 1800 census. Elections were held October 4, 1802.


1802 United States House of Representatives election in Georgia, Notes
This Georgia elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1802 United States House of Representatives election in New Hampshire
New Hampshire increased its apportionment from 4 seats to 5 after the 1800 census.


1802 United States House of Representatives election in New Hampshire, Notes
This New Hampshire elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1802 United States House of Representatives election in Rhode Island, Notes
This Rhode Island elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York
The 1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York were held from April 27 to 29, 1802, to elect 17 U.S. Representatives to represent the State of New York in the United States House of Representatives of the 8th United States Congress.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Background
Ten U.S. Representatives had been elected in April 1800 to a term in the 7th United States Congress beginning on March 4, 1801. Thomas Tillotson and John Bird had resigned their seats, and Theodorus Bailey and John P. Van Ness were elected to fill the vacancies. Van Ness's seat was declared vacant on January 17, 1803. The other nine representatives' term would end on March 3, 1803. The congressional elections were held together with the State elections in late April 1802, about ten months before the term would start on March 4, 1803, and about a year and three months before Congress actually met on October 17, 1803.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
Until the previous elections, there had been ten congressional districts. After the U.S. census of 1800, Congress re-apportioned the seats, and New York's representation was increased to 17. On March 30, 1802, the New York State Legislature re-apportioned the congressional districts.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
Note: There are now 62 counties in the State of New York. The counties which are not mentioned in this list had not yet been established, or sufficiently organized, the area being included in one or more of the abovementioned counties.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
12 Democratic-Republicans and 5 Federalists were elected. The incumbents Smith, Mitchill, Van Cortlandt, Thomas and Van Rensselaer were re-elected; the incumbent Van Ness was defeated.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
Note: The Anti- Federalists called themselves "Republicans." However, at the same time, the Federalists called them "Democrats" which was meant to be pejorative. After some time both terms got more and more confused, and sometimes used together as "Democratic Republicans" which later historians have adopted (with a hyphen) to describe the party from the beginning, to avoid confusion with both the later established and still existing Democratic and Republican parties.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special elections
John Cantine, elected in the 7th D., resigned his seat before the congressional term began. A special election to fill the vacancy was held at the time of the annual State election in April 1803, and was won by Josiah Hasbrouck, of the same party.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special elections
Isaac Bloom, elected in the 6th D., died on April 26, 1803, before Congress met. A special election to fill the vacancy was held in September 1803, and was won by Daniel C. Verplanck, of the same party.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special elections
The House of Representatives of the 8th United States Congress met for the first time at the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C., on October 17, 1803, and Griswold, Hasbrouck, Livingston, McCord, Mitchill, Palmer, Sammons, Sands, Thomas, Van Cortlandt and Verplanck took their seats on this day. Smith took his seat on October 20; Patterson and Root on October 21; Van Rensselaer on October 29; Phelps on November 7; and Tibbits on November 15.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special elections
John Smith, from the 1st D., resigned his seat effective February 22, 1804, after his election to the U.S. Senate. A special election to fill the vacancy was held at the time of the annual State election in April 1804, and was won by Samuel Riker, of the same party. Riker took his seat on November 5, 1804.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special elections
(Note: The vacancy in the 8th Congress and the next term in the 9th Congress were filled at the same election. The candidate with the higher number of votes won the full term, the next best was elected to fill the vacancy. Thus Wickes succeeded Riker on March 4, 1805.)


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special elections
Samuel L. Mitchill, who had been re-elected in the 3rd D. in April 1804 to a third term, beginning on March 4, 1805, resigned his seat on November 22, 1804, after his election to the U.S. Senate. A special election to fill both vacancies (the remainder of his term in the 8th Congress and his seat in the 9th Congress) was held, and were won by George Clinton, Jr., of the same party. Clinton took his seat in the 8th Congress on February 14, 1805, and remained in office after March 4.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania
Elections to the United States House of Representatives in Pennsylvania for the 8th Congress were held October 12, 1802.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Background
In the previous election, 13 Representatives (10 Democratic-Republicans and 3 Federalists) had been elected to the 7th Congress. Two (both Democratic-Republicans) had resigned and were replaced in special elections by others of the same party.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
Pennsylvania gained 5 seats in reapportionment following the 1800 census. In redistricting, the number of districts was reduced from 12 to 11, of which four were plural districts with 11 Representatives between them. Most of the new districts had borders that were very different from the previous districts. The new districts were as follows:


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
Numerous counties had been created between 1800 and 1802 split off from other counties, and several were still administratively attached to other counties.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
Note: Many of these counties covered much larger areas than they do today, having since been divided into smaller counties


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Election results
Twelve incumbents ran for re-election (9 Democratic-Republicans and 3 Federalists) ran for re-election, many in new districts. William Jones (DR) of the 1st district did not run for re-election. Of those who ran for re-election, all 9 Democratic-Republicans were re-elected, and all 3 Federalists lost to Democratic-Republicans. The six open seats were all won by Democratic-Republicans, returning an all-Democratic-Republican delegation to the 8th Congress.


1802 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Special election
William Hoge (DR) of the 10th district resigned October 15, 1804. A special election was held November 2, 1804 to fill the resulting vacancy


1802 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania
The 1802 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania was held on December 14, 1802. Samuel Maclay was elected by the Pennsylvania General Assembly to the United States Senate.


1802 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania, Results
Incumbent Federalist Senator James Ross, who was elected in 1794 and re-elected in 1797, was not a candidate for re-election to another term. The Pennsylvania General Assembly, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate, convened on December 14, 1802, to elect a new Senator to fill the term beginning on March 4, 1803. The results of the vote of both houses combined are as follows:


1802 United States Senate special election in Delaware
The Delaware United States Senate special election for 1802 was held on January 14, 1802. Senator Henry Latimer had resigned after becoming unhappy over the tactics of his political opponents who were still bitter over the circumstances of the contested election in 1792. Samuel White defeated Archibald Alexander, who had previously failed to win gubernatorial and House elections, by 10 votes.


1802 United States Senate special election in New York
The 1802 United States Senate special election in New York was held on February 9, 1802, by the New York State Legislature to elect a U.S. Senator (Class 3) to represent the State of New York in the United States Senate.


1802 United States Senate special election in New York, Background
John Armstrong had been re-elected in January 1801 to a full term (1801–1807), but resigned on February 5, 1802. At the last state election, George Clinton had been elected Governor again, serving now his seventh term, and his Democratic-Republican Party had managed to win a large majority to the Assembly which could outvote the small Federalist Senate majority in a joint ballot. Aaron Burr accused the Clintons later to have hatched a scheme to seat DeWitt Clinton, the governor's nephew, in the U.S. Senate. Burr affirmed that Thomas Tillotson, a brother-in-law of Chancellor Robert R. Livingston like Armstrong, was appointed Secretary of State of New York in 1801 as part of a deal which required Tillotson to procure Armstrong's resignation.


1802 United States Senate special election in New York, Background
At the State election in April 1801, the Democratic-Republican Party won a large majority in the Assembly, and half of the 12 State Senate seats up for renewal. The 25th New York State Legislature met from January 26 to April 5, 1802, at Albany, New York.


1802 United States Senate special election in New York, Candidates
State Senator DeWitt Clinton ran as the candidate of the Democratic-Republican Party.


1802 United States Senate special election in New York, Result
Clarkson was nominated by the Senate, Clinton by the Assembly. The Legislature then proceeded to a joint ballot, and Clinton was elected. This was the first time that a joint ballot was necessary to choose between the nominees of different majorities in the houses of the Legislature.


1802 United States Senate special election in New York, Aftermath
Clinton took his seat on February 23, 1802, but resigned on November 4, 1803, and Armstrong was appointed by Governor Clinton to re-take his former seat. In February 1804, a special election was held by the State Legislature to fill both seats in the U.S. Senate and, either due to a mistake or to give Armstrong two more years to serve, Armstrong was then elected to the Class 1 seat (term 1803-1809), and John Smith to the Class 3 seat (term 1801-1807) on which Clinton and Armstrong had sat.


1802 United States Senate special election in New York, Aftermath
Armstrong set a record that still stands after more than 200 years, presenting four different credentials to take a seat in the U.S. Senate within as many years, being three times elected and once appointed. Armstrong resigned his seat again on June 30, 1804 after his appointment as U.S. Minister to France.


1802 United States elections
The 1802 United States elections occurred in the middle of Democratic-Republican President Thomas Jefferson's first term, during the First Party System. Members of the 8th United States Congress were chosen in this election. Democratic-Republicans picked up several seats in both chambers of Congress, solidifying their control over the House and Senate.


1802 United States elections
In the House, 36 seats were added following the 1800 census. Democratic-Republicans gained many seats, increasing their majority.


1802 United States elections
In the Senate, Democratic-Republicans won major gains, increasing their previously-narrow majority.


1802 United States gubernatorial elections
United States gubernatorial elections were held in 1802, in 12 states, concurrent with the House and Senate elections.


1802 United States gubernatorial elections
Six governors were elected by popular vote and six were elected by state legislatures.


1802 United States gubernatorial elections
In Georgia, a special election was held following the resignation of incumbent Governor Josiah Tattnall.


1802 United States gubernatorial elections
In New Jersey, three tied ballots were taken in October and November, resulting in no choice of Governor. The Vice-President of the Executive Council, John Lambert, served the term as acting Governor.


1802 United States gubernatorial elections
In North Carolina, the winner of the ordinary election, John B. Ashe, died before taking office. A special election was then held.


1802 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1802 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place throughout September, and resulted in the re-election of Isaac Tichenor to a one-year term.


1802 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Burlington on October 14. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to examine the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council.


1802 Vermont gubernatorial election
The committee examined the votes, which showed that Isaac Tichenor was chosen for a sixth one-year term. In the election for lieutenant governor, the voters selected Paul Brigham for a seventh one-year term. Benjamin Swan was elected to a third one-year term as treasurer. According to contemporary newspaper accounts, the vote totals for governor were as follows.


1802 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for lieutenant governor, the vote totals were reported as: Paul Brigham, 7,184; Arad Hunt, 2,249; Zebina Curtis, 252; Scattering, 465.


1802 Vrancea earthquake
The 1802 Vrancea earthquake occurred in the Vrancea Mountains of today's Romania (then Moldavia) on 26 October [O.S. 14 October] 1802, on St. Paraskeva's Day. With an estimated intensity of 7.9 on the moment magnitude scale, it is the strongest earthquake ever recorded in Romania and one of the strongest in European history. It was felt across an area of more than two million square kilometers in Eastern Europe and the Balkans, from Saint Petersburg to the Aegean Sea.


1802 Vrancea earthquake
In Bucharest, the earthquake had an estimated intensity of VIII–IX on the Mercalli scale. It toppled church steeples and caused the Cotroceni Monastery to collapse. Numerous fires broke out, mainly from overturned stoves. In the Ottoman Empire (today's Bulgaria), the cities of Ruse, Varna and Vidin were almost completely destroyed. The force of the earthquake cracked walls as far north as Moscow.


1802 Vrancea earthquake
The main quake was followed by a series of aftershocks, of which the largest had a magnitude of 5.5.


1802 Vrancea earthquake, Damage and casualties
The main shock hit Bucharest between noon and 1 p.m. The earthquake was felt for about 10 minutes and was so violent that all chimneys in the city collapsed. Numerous historical monuments were destroyed, including St. Nicholas Church, Cotroceni Monastery and the 54-meter-high Colțea Tower. The Greek chronicler Dionysius Fotino reported that Prince Constantine Ypsilantis moved with his family to the Văcărești Monastery because his palace was severely damaged. However, despite the massive damage to buildings, only four deaths were reported: a Jewish woman and her baby, an itinerant merchant killed when Colțea Tower collapsed, and one other victim. The death toll may have been so low because the houses were built far apart and surrounded by large yards and gardens, so the buildings' vibrations did not propagate. Also, the building materials—mostly shingle and timber—were light.


1802 Vrancea earthquake, Damage and casualties
In Iași, the walls of princely courts fell, and many churches and monastery towers collapsed. In Suceava, the Armenian Church steeple cracked, while in Pașcani, cracks appeared in the walls of St. Archangels Church. Other religious buildings damaged during the earthquake include the Princely Church of the Assumption in Bârlad and Cașin Monastery in Bacău.


1802 Vrancea earthquake, Damage and casualties
Brașov and its surroundings, including the city's Black Church, were severely affected. According to local chronicles, in the village of Bod, more than 50 houses and several churches were damaged or destroyed. In Feldioara, a column of water rose several meters into the air from a crack caused by the earthquake. Buildings collapsed in Sibiu, including the city's Catholic church.


1802 Vrancea earthquake, Damage and casualties
Constantine Ypsilantis entering the church of Radovan (on his way to Bucharest)


1802 Vrancea earthquake, Damage and casualties
Constantinople and neighboring provinces also suffered extensive damage. Initially, it was thought that Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, had been completely destroyed. A letter from Petrovaradin described particular devastation in the Galata district, Topkapı Palace, the Hagia Sophia and the Edirne bazaar. The main shock and subsequent aftershocks lasted up to 30 minutes.


1802 Vrancea earthquake, Damage and casualties
At 1:30 p.m., violent tremors were felt in what is now Ukraine. The aftershocks, six in total, lasted three minutes and were so strong that masonry buildings in Kiev and Lviv were shaken and the city bells began to ring. The Gentleman's Magazine reported damage in Moscow: "the walls were cracked, the windows were shattered and vaults fell".


1802 Vrancea earthquake, Damage and casualties
Anatolie Drumea, an academic from Chișinău, wrote in a letter that a nanny was walking a little boy in a stroller in the courtyard of the Lomonosov University library when, at 1:53 p.m., "the statues began to fall" and the stone benches were overturned. The boy was the future Russian poet Alexander Pushkin.


1802 Vrancea earthquake, Restoration of Bucharest
After the earthquake, Constantine Ypsilantis ordered the immediate restoration of Bucharest. To prevent masons and craftsmen from profiting from the disaster, he set maximum wages for their work. Bucharest was rebuilt within a few years, although some buildings and structures were never restored to their pre-earthquake state.


1802 Vrancea earthquake, Restoration of Bucharest
Several earthquakes occurred in subsequent years, but they caused comparatively little damage. One, on 15 June 1803, affected Bucharest's water system and rendered many pumps unusable. Three other major earthquakes occurred in 1804 and 1812.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections
Elections to the United States House of Representatives for the 8th Congress were held at various dates in each state, from April 26, 1802 (in New York) to December 14, 1803 (in New Jersey) during Thomas Jefferson's first term in office. It was common in the early years of the United Congress for some states to elect representatives to a Congress after it had already convened. In the case of the 8th Congress, the representatives from New Jersey were only elected after its first meeting on October 17, 1803.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections
The membership of the House increased significantly as a result of population gains revealed in the United States Census of 1800. The greatest growth was in territories that constituted the western regions of the country at the time, a tremendous boost for Democratic-Republican candidates. Nearly all of the new seats created in reapportionment after the 1800 census went to Democratic-Republicans, closely aligned as they were with the agrarian interests of Western farmers. As a result, the Democratic-Republicans won the largest proportion of seats that either they or the competing Federalists had ever been able to secure in any earlier Congress, a supermajority greater than two-thirds of the total number.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, Election summaries
These elections were the first following reapportionment after the 1800 Census. Thirty-five new seats were added in reapportionment, with three states having no change in apportionment, and thirteen states gaining between 1 and 7 seats. One further seat was added for the new state of Ohio, which is included in this table below.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, Special elections
There were special elections in 1802 and 1803 during the 7th United States Congress and 8th United States Congress.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, Georgia
Georgia gained 2 seats in reapportionment after the 1800 census. It elected its representatives October 4, 1802 at-large on a general ticket.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, Kentucky
Kentucky gained 4 seats to 6 in reapportionment after the 1800 census.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, Maryland
Maryland gained 1 seat in reapportionment after the 1800 census. Rather than increasing the number of districts, however, Maryland made the Maryland 5 a plural district with 2 seats.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
Massachusetts increased 3 seats to 17 in reapportionment after the 1800 census. Massachusetts law at the time required a majority for election to an office, which requirement was not met in the 6th district, requiring two additional ballots.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, New Hampshire
New Hampshire increased its apportionment from 4 seats to 5 after the 1800 census.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, New Jersey
New Jersey increased its apportionment from 5 seats to 6 after the 1800 census.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, New Jersey
The Federalists did not run any official candidates in 1802, but a few Federalists did receive scattered votes.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, New York
New York's apportionment increased from 10 seats to 17 seats after the 1800 census. The state was subsequently redistricted. 11 open seats were available due to the increase in apportionment and retirement of incumbents.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, North Carolina
North Carolina increased its apportionment from 10 to 12 seats after the 1800 census.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania increased its apportionment from 13 to 18 seats after the 1800 census. The state was re-districted from 12 into 11 districts, four of which were plural districts.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, South Carolina
South Carolina increased its apportionment from 6 seats to 8 after the 1800 census.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, Tennessee
Tennessee increased its apportionment from 1 seat to 3 seats after the 1800 census.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, Vermont
Vermont increased its apportionment from 2 seats to 4 after the 1800 census. Vermont law at the time required a majority of votes to win an office, which frequently necessitated additional ballots.


1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections, Virginia
Virginia increased its apportionment from 19 to 22 seats after the 1800 census. Virginia's congressional delegation remained the largest of any state, but would lose this distinction permanently after the Census of 1810. Elections were held over three days in April 1803.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections
The United States Senate elections of 1802 and 1803 were elections for the United States Senate which had the Democratic-Republican Party assume an overwhelming control thereof.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections
As these elections were prior to ratification of the seventeenth amendment, Senators were chosen by state legislatures.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, Change in composition, Before the elections
Accounting for the 1802 special elections in New York, Rhode Island, and South Carolina.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, Race summaries
Unless noted, the number following candidates is the whole number vote(s), not a percentage.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Special elections during the 7th Congress
In these special elections, the winner was seated before March 4, 1803; ordered by election date.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Races leading to the 8th Congress
In these regular elections, the winner was seated on March 4, 1803; ordered by state.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Special elections during the 8th Congress
In this special election, the winner was seated in 1803 after March 4.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Early race leading to the Congress-after-next
In this regular election, the winner was seated on March 4, 1805; ordered by state.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, New Jersey, New Jersey (Regular)
The New Jersey legislature failed to elect by the March 4, 1803 beginning of the term.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, New Jersey, New Jersey (Special)
The governor appointed Democratic-Republican John Condit September 1, 1803 to continue the term. Condit was then unanimously elected November 3, 1803 to finish the term. No vote totals were recorded.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, New York, New York (Special)
Democratic-Republican John Armstrong Jr., who had held the class 3 seat since 1801, resigned February 5, 1802 and Democratic-Republican DeWitt Clinton was elected February 23, 1802 to finish the term. Clinton, however, resigned November 4, 1803 and Armstrong was appointed December 8, 1803 to his old seat.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, New York, New York (Regular)
Federalist Gouverneur Morris lost re-election to the class 1 seat to Democratic-Republican Theodorus Bailey in 1803.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, Ohio
Ohio joined the Union in 1803. New Democratic-Republican senators were elected April 1, 1803. Official records indicate that John Smith and Thomas Worthington were elected, and that Smith received the "long" term, while Worthington received the "short" one. They do not indicate if there were other candidates, or what the vote totals were.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, Vermont
Federalist Senator Nathaniel Chipman lost re-election to Democratic-Republican Israel Smith. Smith received 102 votes in the Vermont House of Representatives and 9 from the Governor and Council. Spencer received 75 votes from the House and 4 from the Governor and Council.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, Virginia
There were two elections to the same seat as the newly-re-elected senator died at the beginning of the next term.


1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections, Virginia, Virginia (Special)
Mason died May 10, 1803, having just begun the new term. Democratic-Republican John Taylor was appointed but chose not to run to finish the term. Democratic-Republican Abraham B. Venable was elected December 7, 1803 as the unanimous choice of the Virginia General Assembly. No vote totals were recorded.


1802 in Argentina
In 1802, the territory that would later become Argentina was part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, part of the Spanish Empire.


1802 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1802 in Australia.


1802 in Austria
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by BHGbot (talk | contribs) at 17:11, 18 June 2020 (WP:BHGbot 6 (List 5): fixed sort key; WP:GENFIXES). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1802 in Chile
The following lists of events that happened during 1802 in Chile.


1802 in Chile, Events
1802 - Bernardo O'Higgins returns to Chile and becomes a gentleman farmer.


1802 in New Zealand
There are no known visits by sealers this year as they concentrate on Bass Strait. However Charles Bishop and George Bass call at Dusky Sound in the Venus where they spend fourteen days stripping iron from the hulk of Captain Brampton's old ship the Endeavour, to barter in Tahiti for pork before returning to Sydney in November. There are several British whalers operating off the north-east coast, only one of which is certainly known to have landed (at the Bay of Islands). There are an unknown number of American whalers also in the area but as they do not usually call at Port Jackson their activities, including where, if at all, they land, are largely unknown.


1802 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1802 in South Africa.


1802 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1802 to Wales and its people.


1802 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1802.


1802 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1802 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1802 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1802 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1802.


1802 in science
The year 1802 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1802 in sports
1802 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1802 in the United States
Events from the year 1802 in the United States, many came to Congress.


1802–1803 Massachusetts legislature
The 23rd Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1802 and 1803 during the governorship of Caleb Strong. David Cobb served as president of the Senate and John Coffin Jones served as speaker of the House.


1802–1803 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
Massachusetts increased 3 seats to 17 in reapportionment after the 1800 census. Massachusetts law at the time required a majority for election to an office, which requirement was not met in the 6th district, requiring two additional ballots.


1802–1803 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, Notes
This Massachusetts elections–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1802–1803 United States House of Representatives elections in Vermont
Vermont increased its apportionment from 2 seats to 4 after the 1800 census. Vermont law at the time required a majority of votes to win an office, which frequently necessitated additional ballots.


1802–1803 United States House of Representatives elections in Vermont, Notes
This Vermont elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1803
1803 (MDCCCIII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1803rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 803rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 3rd  year of the 19th century, and the  4th   year of the 1800s decade. As of the start of 1803, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1803 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1803 Connecticut gubernatorial election took place on April 14, 1803. Incumbent Federalist Governor Jonathan Trumbull Jr. won re-election to a sixth full term, defeating Democratic-Republican candidate Ephraim Kirby in a re-match of the previous year's election.


1803 English cricket season
1803 was the 17th season of cricket in England since the foundation of Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). Thomas Howard made his debut in important matches.


1803 English cricket season, Further reading
This article about an English cricket season is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1803 Gatton by-election
The 1803 Gatton by-election was a by-election to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom that took place on 24 January 1803.


1803 Gatton by-election
The parliamentary borough of Gatton was a notorious "rotten" or pocket borough "in the pocket" of the Lord of the Manor of Gatton, who at that time was Sir Mark Wood. It had, at most, seven voters - all tenants of Wood. At the 1802 general election, "Wood returned himself and his brother-in-law [James] Dashwood". Both were members of William Pitt the Younger's faction of the Tory Party. At Pitt's request, shortly after the election, Dashwood vacated his seat so as to make way for Philip Dundas.


1803 Gatton by-election, Result
Dundas was to be elected in a simple formality, returned uncontested. This was complicated, however, when "Joseph Clayton Jennings, a barrister and reformer, arrived on the scene", making it unexpectedly a contested election, and found a person who claimed to be entitled to vote in his favour. A voter was therefore also brought in for Dundas. Dashwood, acting as the returning officer, rejected the ballot for Jennings, and Dundas was duly elected with one vote.


1803 Gatton by-election, Result
Dundas left for India two years later, causing another by-election, wherein Wood procured the seat for William Garrow - another reformist barrister, who won it uncontested and thereby made his entry in Parliament.


1803 Georgia's at-large congressional district special election
A special election was held in Georgia's at-large congressional district on October 3, 1803 to fill a vacancy caused by the resignation, before the start of the 8th Congress, of John Milledge (DR), who had been elected Governor of Georgia.


1803 Georgia's at-large congressional district special election, Election results
Bryan took his seat with the rest of the 8th Congress at the start of the 1st session.


1803 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
The 1803 Massachusetts gubernatorial election was held on April 4.


1803 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
Federalist Governor Caleb Strong was re-elected to a fourth consecutive one-year term in office, defeating Democratic-Republican Elbridge Gerry again for the fourth time.


1803 New Hampshire gubernatorial election
The 1803 New Hampshire gubernatorial election took place on March 8, 1803. Incumbent Federalist Governor John Taylor Gilman won re-election to a tenth term, defeating Democratic-Republican candidate, former Governor and U.S. Senator John Langdon in a re-match of the previous year's election.


1803 New York's 6th congressional district special election
A special election was held in New York's 6th congressional district September 14–16, 1803 to fill a vacancy left by the death of Isaac Bloom (DR) on April 26, 1803, after the start of the 8th Congress, but before the first session began.


1803 New York's 7th congressional district special election
A special election was held in New York's 7th congressional district April 26–28, 1803 to fill a vacancy caused by the resignation of Representative-elect John Cantine (DR)


1803 New York's 7th congressional district special election, Election results
Hasbrouck took office with the rest of the 8th Congress at the start of the 1st Session.


1803 Tennessee gubernatorial election
The 1803 Tennessee gubernatorial election took place from August 4–5, 1803. In 1801 Sevier was forced leave office as he had reached his three consecutive term limit and in 1803 ran against the incumbent governor, Roane, and defeated him with 57.93% of the vote. This was the first gubernatorial election that did not unanimously elect a governor.


1803 United States House of Representatives election in New Jersey
New Jersey increased its apportionment from 5 seats to 6 after the 1800 census.


1803 United States House of Representatives election in New Jersey
The Federalists did not run any official candidates in 1802, but a few Federalists did receive scattered votes.


1803 United States House of Representatives election in Tennessee
Tennessee increased its apportionment from 1 seat to 3 seats after the 1800 census.


1803 United States House of Representatives elections in Kentucky
Kentucky gained 4 seats to 6 in reapportionment after the 1800 census.


1803 United States House of Representatives elections in Maryland
Maryland gained 1 seat in reapportionment after the 1800 census. Rather than increasing the number of districts, however, Maryland made the Maryland 5 a plural district with 2 seats.


1803 United States House of Representatives elections in Maryland, Notes
This Maryland elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1803 United States House of Representatives elections in North Carolina
North Carolina increased its apportionment from 10 to 12 seats after the 1800 census.


1803 United States House of Representatives elections in North Carolina, Notes
This North Carolina elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1803 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina
South Carolina increased its apportionment from 6 seats to 8 after the 1800 census.


1803 United States House of Representatives elections in Virginia
Virginia increased its apportionment from 19 to 22 seats after the 1800 census. Virginia's congressional delegation remained the largest of any state, but would lose this distinction permanently after the Census of 1810. Elections were held over three days in April 1803.


1803 United States Senate election in Massachusetts
The 1803 United States Senate election in Massachusetts was held in February 1803.


1803 United States Senate election in Massachusetts
Incumbent Senator Jonathan Mason, who had been elected to fill the unexpired term of Benjamin Goodhue, did not run for a full term in office. The Massachusetts General Court deliberated and elected State Senator and former diplomat John Quincy Adams, son of former President John Adams, on the fourth ballot.


1803 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Background
Benjamin Goodhue was elected Senator from Massachusetts in 1796. However, he resigned and retired from politics in 1800. In his place, the legislature elected State Senator Jonathan Mason. When Mason's term expired in 1803, he declined to stand for re-election.


1803 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election, Senate ballot
The Senate ratified the choice of Adams on a single unanimous ballot.


1803 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Aftermath
Adams served one term in the Senate, though he would resign months early after the Federalist legislature prematurely voted not to award him a second term. Adams quickly drifted away from the Federalist Party, partly over his differences with Pickering.


1803 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Aftermath
After joining the Democratic-Republicans, he would go on to serve as Secretary of State and later as President of the United States from 1825 to 1829.


1803 United States Senate election in New York
The 1803 United States Senate election in New York was held on February 1, 1803, by the New York State Legislature to elect a U.S. Senator (Class 1) to represent the State of New York in the United States Senate.


1803 United States Senate election in New York, Background
Gouverneur Morris had been elected in 1800 to complete the term (1797-1803) after Philip Schuyler (1797-98), John Sloss Hobart (1798), William North (1798) and James Watson (1798-1800) had occupied the seat. Morris's term would expire on March 3, 1803.


1803 United States Senate election in New York, Background
At the State election in April 1802, the Democratic-Republican Party won a large majority to the Assembly, and all 8 State Senate seats up for renewal. The 26th New York State Legislature met from January 25 to April 6, 1803, at Albany, New York.


1803 United States Senate election in New York, Candidates
The assemblymen of the Democratic-Republican Party met in caucus on January 31. Assemblyman John Woodworth received 45 votes and Congressman Theodorus Bailey 30. Woodworth was nominated as the party's candidate, but State Senator Matthias B. Tallmadge, Bailey's brother-in law, was not satisfied with this nomination. Tallmadge persuaded a part of the Democratic-Republican members to vote for Bailey, abandoning the caucus nominee.


1803 United States Senate election in New York, Candidates
The incumbent Gouverneur Morris ran for re-election as the candidate of the Federalist Party candidate, but in the morning of February 1, before the Legislature met, a State Senate caucus was held and Tallmadge combined with Abraham Van Vechten, the leader of the Federalists, to support Bailey.


1803 United States Senate election in New York, Result
On the first ballot in the State Senate, Woodworth received a plurality over Bailey and Morris, for whom all Federalist voted, but no candidate received a majority of the votes. Thereupon a resolution was offered to nominate Bailey, and was carried by the vote of 16 Senators, including 6 Federalists. John Woodworth was nominated by the Assembly. The Legislature then proceeded to a joint ballot, and Bailey was elected in a tight vote by the Democratic-Republican Tallmadge faction and the Federalists.


1803 United States Senate election in New York, Aftermath
Bailey resigned on January 16, 1804, after his appointment as Postmaster of New York City. In February 1804, a special election was held by the State Legislature to fill both seats in the U.S. Senate and, either due to a mistake or to give Armstrong two more years to serve, the incumbent appointed Class 3 Senator John Armstrong was elected to the Class 1 seat (term 1803-1809) to succeed Bailey, and John Smith to the Class 3 seat (term 1801-1807) to succeed Armstrong.


1803 United States gubernatorial elections
United States gubernatorial elections were held in 1803, in 12 states.


1803 United States gubernatorial elections
Seven governors were elected by popular vote and five were elected by state legislatures.


1803 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1803 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place throughout September, and resulted in the re-election of Isaac Tichenor to a one-year term.


1803 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Westminster on October 13. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to examine the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council.


1803 Vermont gubernatorial election
The committee examined the votes, which showed that Isaac Tichenor was chosen for a seventh one-year term. In the election for lieutenant governor, the voters selected Paul Brigham for an eighth one-year term. Benjamin Swan was elected to a fourth one-year term as treasurer. According to contemporary newspaper accounts, the vote totals for governor were as follows.


1803 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for lieutenant governor, the vote totals were reported as: Paul Brigham, 7,700; Thomas Leverett, 2,803; Lewis R. Morris, 153; Scattering, 414.


1803 Vermont gubernatorial election
The results for treasurer were: Benjamin Swan, 8,328; Scattering, 353.


1803 Zwicky
1803 Zwicky, prov. designation: 1967 CA, is a stony Phocaea asteroid and binary system from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 6 February 1967, by Swiss astronomer Paul Wild at Zimmerwald Observatory near Bern, Switzerland. It was later named after Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky. The discovery of a 2.5-kilometer sized companion was announced on 8 March 2021.


1803 Zwicky, Classification and orbit
Zwicky is a member of the Phocaea family (701), an asteroid family with two thousand members, named after their largest member, 25 Phocaea. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.8–2.9 AU once every 3 years and 7 months (1,316 days; semi-major axis of 2.35 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.25 and an inclination of 22° with respect to the ecliptic. It was first identified as 1931 DL at Lowell Observatory in 1931, extending the body's observation arc by 36 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1803 Zwicky, Naming
This minor planet was named after Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky (1898–1974), who was a professor at Caltech and a pioneer in many fields, most notably in the study of galaxy clusters and supernovas, in high-energy astrophysics, and in developing jet propulsion for spacecraft and airplanes. He was the first to infer the existence of unseen matter and coined the term Dark matter. The lunar crater Zwicky is also named in his honour. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 18 April 1977 (M.P.C. 4156).


1803 Zwicky, Physical characteristics
Zwicky is a bright, stony S-type asteroid, in line with the overall spectral type for members of the Phocaea family.


1803 Zwicky, Physical characteristics, Lightcurves
In July 2018, a rotational lightcurve of Zwicky was obtained from photometric observations by the TESS-team which gave a rotation period of (2.73364±0.00005) hours and an amplitude of (0.06±0.01) magnitude (U=2). Observations by Tom Polakis, who also discovered a satellite (see below) determined a very similar period of (2.7329±0.0002) hours with a brightness variation of (0.105±0.035) (U=2). These more recent result are replacing a previous observation from March 2003, of a fragmentary lightcurve by French amateur astronomer Laurent Bernasconi that gave a tentative period of 27.1 hours and an amplitude of 0.08 (U=1).


1803 Zwicky, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Zwicky measures between 9.20±0.24 and 9.934±0.080 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.337 and 0.259±0.038, respectively. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for Phocaea asteroids of 0.23, and calculates a diameter of 10.06 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.2. The WISE team also published an alternative mean-diameters of (8.03±1.37) and (10.229±0.082) kilometers with a corresponding albedo of (0.35) and (0.2466).


1803 Zwicky, Physical characteristics, Satellite
Photometric observations at the Command Module Observatory (V02) by Tom Polakis on 21 February 2021 revealed, that Zwicky has a satellite in its orbit. The moon has a diameter of approximately 2.50 kilometers, or 26% of that of its primary, and an orbital period of 28.46 hours.


1803 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1803 in Australia.


1803 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1803 in Chile.


1803 in Chile, Events, March
March 3-5: The Parliament of Negrete convenes. It is considered the last great parliament of the colonial period in Chile.


1803 in New Zealand
There is a lessening of the sealing rush at Bass Strait as the rookeries become thinner, and as a result sealers return to Dusky Sound and explore the surrounding coast. Little of the movements of these ships is actually recorded as a veil of secrecy still surrounds their activities while the various ships try to make the most of any discoveries before the competition arrives. They occasionally meet local Māori but little information regarding these encounters survives. There are again around half a dozen whalers off the north-east coast of New Zealand, a few of which call into the Bay of Islands. The first Māori to join a whaling ship, and possibly the first to leave New Zealand in 10 years, does so early in the year.


1803 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1803 in South Africa.


1803 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1803 to Wales and its people.


1803 in architecture
The year 1803 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.


1803 in art, Awards
The Prix de Rome is expanded in 1803 to include musical composition as a category.


1803 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1803.


1803 in literature, Births
Unknown date – Evan Bevan, Welsh writer of satirical verse (died 1866)


1803 in paleontology
Paleontology, palaeontology or palæontology (from Greek: paleo, "ancient"; ontos, "being"; and logos, "knowledge") is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because mankind has encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1803.


1803 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1803 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1803 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1803 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1803.


1803 in science
The year 1803 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1803 in sports
1803 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1803–1804 Massachusetts legislature
The 24th Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1803 and 1804 during the governorship of Caleb Strong. David Cobb served as president of the Senate and Harrison Gray Otis served as speaker of the House.


1804
1804 (MDCCCIV) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1804th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 804th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 4th  year of the 19th century, and the  5th   year of the 1800s decade. As of the start of 1804, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane
The 1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane was the most severe hurricane in Georgia since 1752, causing over 500 deaths and at least $1.6 million (1804 USD) in damage throughout the Southeastern United States. Originating near Antigua on 3 September, it initially drifted west-northwestward, soon nearing Puerto Rico. Throughout its existence in the Caribbean Sea, the hurricane damaged, destroyed, and capsized numerous ships, and at Saint Kitts, it was considered to be the worst since 1772. By 4 September, the storm arrived at the Bahamas and turned northward before approaching the coast of northern Florida on 6 September.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane
The hurricane eventually came ashore along the coastline of Georgia and South Carolina while producing mostly southeasterly winds. A severe gale was noted in New England later that month, on 11 and 12 September, although it was likely not the same system as that which had passed through the Caribbean and southeastern United States earlier that month.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane
The hurricane produced a wide swath of damage along its path, especially in Georgia and South Carolina. Maritime losses along the coastlines of both states were significant, with numerous ships damaged or destroyed. Crop damage, especially to rice, cotton, and corn, was also considerable, with impending harvests ruined by the hurricane's arrival. Strong winds and heavy rainfall inundated streets, residences, and fields, and also toppled chimneys, fences, and cracked windows across the region. Wharves, struck by stranded boats, endured significant damage as well. Dozens of residences and other structures were destroyed or rendered uninhabitable due to inundation or collapse. Notably, Aaron Burr, then attempting to flee authorities, visited St. Simons Island in Georgia during the hurricane, later returning to Hampton and giving a detailed account of the hurricane's effects. Damage in Savannah, Georgia, totaled $500,000, compared to $1,000,000 at Charleston, South Carolina.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Meteorological history
The 1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane was first sighted on 3 September as it swept past Saint Barthélemy, Saint Kitts, and Antigua, drifting toward the west-northwest and soon approaching Puerto Rico and the Turks and Caicos Islands. The storm reached the Bahamas while turning northward on 4 September, nearing the northern Floridan coast by 6 September. It remained offshore on 7 September, gradually approaching the coast throughout the day, and eventually made landfall that evening along the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Meteorological history
Observations in Savannah, Georgia, indicated north-to-northeast winds throughout 8 September, though other reports recorded northeast-to-easterly gusts; at Charleston, South Carolina, however, winds, initially northeast-to-east, curved southeastward later in the storm. Little information exists on the hurricane's whereabouts between North Carolina and New England, with a single report at Norfolk, Virginia of east-northeasterly winds veering east-to-east-southeast from 7 to 9 September, suggesting the disturbance's passage west of there. A severe gale arrived in New England on 11 and 12 September, though the long pause between the departure of the hurricane from the Carolinas and its arrival in the northeastern United States evidences the possibility that the two systems may have been unrelated.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Georgia
The hurricane of 1804 was the first since 1752 to strike Georgia with such strength. Damage to ships was considerable, especially offshore Georgia. Betsy was stripped of its freight and somewhat damaged, Phoebe ran aground at Tybee Island, Liberty perished with its crew killed, Patsy nearly sank, and Experiment capsized. At the time the hurricane struck, Aaron Burr, hiding from federal officials, was taking refuge at St. Simons Island on the property of John Couper, though was unable to return to Hampton due to deteriorating conditions.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Georgia
Upon the passage of the storm's eye, Burr fled back to the residence of Pierce Butler at Hampton. In an account of the hurricane, Burr recorded strong winds, which destroyed several outhouses and uprooted numerous trees at St. Simon's, with the storm later cracking windows, toppling chimneys, and flooding the house; in the town proper, he discovered many local roads were obstructed. Nineteen slaves owned by Butler drowned, while Couper suffered $100,000 (1804 USD) in losses alone, with cabins housing over a hundred slaves destroyed. Many other local planters experienced similar difficulties. Seawater inundated and ruined several acres of cotton around the Horton House plantation at Jekyll Island, devaluing the year's harvest by 20 percent; similar losses were endured by other rice, cotton, and corn farmers along the coast.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Georgia
At Broughton Island, orders were given to transfer slaves away from a rice barn upon indications of a storm's arrival; however, efforts to do so were not undertaken promptly, and more than seventy slaves drowned, leading the plantation owner to sell the property following financial losses. Similar events transpired at St. Catherines Island, where two slaves died. At Darien, meanwhile, a tannery was destroyed, and flood waters ruined its tanning baths.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Georgia
At Sunbury, intense winds and high waves uprooted trees and wrecked three houses, of which two were newly built, and five slaves died after being impaled by flying wreckage or drowning. The hurricane also ruined most boats under the possession of plantation owners, and also devastated crops, storage houses, stables, and slave residences. Meanwhile, at Cockspur Island, Fort Greene was obliterated with all its buildings destroyed and thirteen men killed. Muskets, canisters, bars of lead upward of 300 lb (140 kg), and cannons weighing 4,800 lb (2,200 kg) littered the island, which was completely inundated during the storm.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Georgia
The fort was never rebuilt; Fort Pulaski was later built in its former location. Meanwhile, at Wilmington Island, one house collapsed and swaths of farmland were flooded. North-to-northeast winds surrounded Hutchinson Island, producing tides 7 to 10 ft (2.1 to 3.0 m) above normal, submerging rice crops, sweeping away plantation buildings, and drowning nearly a hundred slaves.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Georgia
The hurricane's effects were especially severe in the city of Savannah, where winds incessantly gusted northeast-to-north for 17 consecutive hours. The hurricane's storm surge overcame sand bars, sweeping into bays, rivers, wharves, and any areas below an elevation of 10 ft (3.0 m). Droplets of sea spray mixed with rain, apparently giving it a saline taste, while particles of sand were lifted from the shore to the upper floors of 30 ft (9.1 m)-tall houses.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Georgia
By the storm's peak, all vessels in the city harbor were damaged to some degree by the storm, while it also inflicted damage to nearly all residences in the city's southern sector. A gunboat was swept 7 mi (11 km) from its original position and landed in a faraway field. The steeple of the Presbyterian Meeting House in the city toppled and portions of a wall of the Christ Episcopal Church caved in. The local courthouse was also damaged, shingles were torn off of a jail roof, and a tobacco house was unroofed.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Georgia
Two children were crushed to death in one house, one individual was killed by a falling chimney at another. Maritime losses were observed throughout the city; Mary struck a wharf near Fort Wayne, Thomas Jefferson came aground at Hunter and Minis's Wharf, General Jackson slammed into McCradie's Wharf, Liberty capsized near Howard's Wharf, and Minevra was driven ashore at Coffee House Wharf. Numerous other wharves were damaged as a result of similar accidents, and at some wharves, vessels became stacked upon each other. Fish and poultry markets, as well as businesses along the wharves, disintegrated into the Savannah River.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Georgia
Timber, cotton, tobacco, liquor, sugar, and produce was also strewn along the bluff. Overall, eighteen vessels were capsized in Savannah throughout the course of the hurricane. Many smaller vessels were apparently "cracked like egg shells," floating in waters paralleling the bluff, which itself was strewn with "serpents, turtles, [and] marsh-birds". Damage in the city totaled at least $500,000 (1804 USD).


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, South Carolina
Tides in South Carolina rose 9 ft (2.7 m) above normal, causing the May River to top its banks, flooding cotton and rice fields, and sweeping plantations' cotton storage houses and slave cabins away. Inundation also occurred at various offshore locations, including Daufuskie Island, where five slaves drowned. Bridges and roadways at Beaufort, South Carolina were flooded and carried away by high tides, while high tides of up to 5 ft (1.5 m) flooded farmland, ruining fields of cotton and produce. Strong gusts knocked down chimneys and damaged the town's Baptist church.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, South Carolina
Cotton farmland and African slave prices fell 30 percent in the region following the storm's passage. All residences at Bay Point Island were destroyed, having been driven out to sea. The storm's salt water storm surge rendered thirty barrels of rice aboard Guilelmi, which ran ashore at Saint Helena Island, worthless, while Collector came aground at Lady's Island. Copious rainfall caused the Pocotaligo, Stony, and Huspa creeks to overflow. From Sheldon to Motley, the storm flooded creeks and rivers, inundating rice and cotton fields, with the saline water destroying the year's harvest. Roads and causeways inundated under flood waters were rendered unusable, and numerous animals were also killed in the flood.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, South Carolina
The hurricane's effects were severe in the city of Charleston, where the storm produced northeasterly winds and heavy rainfall. The bulwark of the fort at nearby James Island was destroyed, and the palisades of the fort at Castle Pinckney were wrecked at the mouth of Charleston's harbor. The hurricane also swept vessels aground into marshes and wharves between Gadsden's Wharf and South Bay along the Cooper River. Several wharves—Pritchard's, Cochran's, Beale's, Craft's, and William's—were struck by vessels and consequently severely damaged. Montserrat, Mary, Birmingham Packet, Amazon, and Orange all endured some degree of damage.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, South Carolina
Three vessels and Mary collided with Governor's Bridge, which was impaired as a result; two vessels and Favorite slammed into Faber's Wharf, while Concord filled with water at Prioleau's Wharf, resulting in the loss of 50 tierces of rice. A counting and scale house was separated from its foundation after being struck by Lydia within the vicinity of Blake's Wharf, while the African slave boat Christopher capsized at Geyer's Wharf, with all aboard escaping safely. Four slaves drowned after a boat overturned in the Ashley River.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, South Carolina
High waters enveloped wharves, and neighboring stores collapsed or were washed away, with rice and cotton falling into the water. A breakwater near South Bay disintegrated and a nearby home's chimney toppled, resulting in one death. Homes were inundated, and residents along South Bay consequently fled their dwellings. The hurricane's storm surge also permeated locations along then-new East Bay Street, as well as buildings on Lamboll and Water streets; Meeting Street sank below 2 ft (0.61 m)-high flood waters. High winds, meanwhile, tore off roofs, dislodged trees, and toppled fences.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, South Carolina
To the north of Charleston, at Sullivan's Island, the storm rendered 15 to 20 houses uninhabitable; although the island was mostly inundated, many residences were saved, encircled by dunes, and several men rescued women and children. Overall, only one death was recorded on the island. The Pee Dee and Black rivers gradually rose throughout the day, eventually spilling their banks. Meanwhile, at Georgetown, high tides flooded wharves and submerged streets and businesses, destroying corn, salt, and other goods. Turtles and fish were killed, and at the Sampit River, two individuals drowned attempting to cross. A rice harvest equivalent to ten thousand barrels was ruined by high tides and torrential rain within the vicinity of Georgetown. Damage in the city reached $1,000,000 (1804 USD), and overall, the 1804 hurricane was responsible for more than 500 deaths in the southeastern United States.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Elsewhere
At Saint Kitts, the hurricane destroyed approximately one hundred ships in the local harbor—all that were stationed there—while heavy rainfall drove houses to sea. An additional 56 of the 58 boats at Saint Barthélemy were lost, 58 were wrecked at Antigua, and 26 of 28 were ruined at Dominica. Damage to shipping was also severe on the Windward Islands, several vessels were lost in western Puerto Rico, and another 44 vessels were destroyed at Saint Thomas after the storm's passage. Among these vessels included a 64-gun storeship HMS De Ruyter was washed ashore and broke apart, resulting in one death, and HMS Drake, a 16-gun sloop-of-war, which came aground on a shoal off of Nevis. At Saint Kitts, the hurricane was considered to be the worst since 1772.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Elsewhere
Although high waves and severe northeasterly gusts were noted from 6 to 7 September 1804 at St. Augustine, Florida and eight of the nine vessels in the local port were rendered unfit for use, the town proper largely escaped damage.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Elsewhere
In North Carolina, the hurricane blew down trees as far as 100 mi (160 km) inland, and copious rainfall isolated Scotland Neck. Around the mouth of the Cape Fear River, the vessel Wilmington Packet ran aground at Bald Point.


1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane, Impact, Elsewhere
In the New England gale possibly related to the Antigua–Charleston hurricane, several ships sank in Boston's harbor, while at Salem, the South Church's steeple was toppled.


1804 Chebotarev
1804 Chebotarev (prov. designation: 1967 GG) is a stony background asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 10 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 6 April 1967, by Russian astronomer Tamara Smirnova at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in Nauchnyj on the Crimean peninsula. The asteroid was named after Soviet astronomer G. A. Chebotarev.


1804 Chebotarev, Orbit and classification
The stony S-type asteroid orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.4–2.5 AU once every 3 years and 9 months (1,367 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.02 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. Chebotarev was first identified as 1938 QL at Yerkes Observatory in 1938, extending the body's observation arc by 29 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1804 Chebotarev, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In February 2004, a rotational lightcurve of Chebotarev was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer Laurent Bernasconi. It gave a well-defined rotation period of 4.026 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.41 magnitude (U=3).


1804 Chebotarev, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Chebotarev measures 9.15 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has a high albedo of 0.501, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 10.79 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 12.2.


1804 Chebotarev, Naming
This minor planet was named in honor of G. A. Chebotarev (1913–1975), who was a professor and the director of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy as well as president of IAU's Commission 20, (Positions & Motions of Minor Planets, Comets & Satellites). He is known for his work on celestial mechanics of asteroids, comets and satellites. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 January 1974 (M.P.C. 3569).


1804 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1804 Connecticut gubernatorial election took place on April 12, 1804. Incumbent Federalist Governor Jonathan Trumbull Jr. won re-election to a seventh full term, defeating Democratic-Republican candidate William Hart.


1804 Connecticut gubernatorial election, Notes
This Connecticut elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1804 Delaware gubernatorial election
The 1804 Delaware gubernatorial election was held on October 2, 1804.


1804 Delaware gubernatorial election
Incumbent Democratic-Republican Governor David Hall was not eligible for re-election under the Delaware Constitution of 1792.


1804 Delaware gubernatorial election
Federalist nominee Nathaniel Mitchell defeated Democratic-Republican nominee Joseph Haslet with 52.02% of the vote.


1804 Delaware gubernatorial election, Bibliography
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1804 English cricket season
1804 was the 18th season of cricket in England since the foundation of Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). The first Eton v Harrow match may have been played at Lord's Old Ground.


1804 French constitutional referendum
A referendum concerning the establishment of the French Empire was held in France in November 1804. The officially announced result showed a nearly unanimous French electorate approving the change in Napoleon Bonaparte's status from First Consul to Emperor of the French. About seven million voters were called to participate, of which 47.2% did.


1804 Haiti massacre
The 1804 Haiti massacre was carried out against the French population and French Creoles (or Franco-Haitians) remaining in Haiti following the Haitian Revolution, by soldiers, mostly former slaves, under orders from Jean-Jacques Dessalines. He had decreed that all suspected of conspiring in the acts of the expelled army should be put to death. From early January 1804 until 22 April 1804, squads of soldiers moved from house to house throughout Haiti, torturing and killing entire families. Between 3,000 and 5,000 people were killed.


1804 Haiti massacre
Nicholas A. Robins and Adam Jones describe the massacre as a "genocide of the subaltern", in which an oppressed group uses genocidal means to destroy their oppressors. Throughout the early-to-mid nineteenth century, the events of the massacre were well known in the United States. In addition, many refugees had come to the U.S. from Saint-Domingue, settling in New Orleans, Charleston, New York, Baltimore and other coastal cities. These events polarized Southern U.S. public opinion on the question of the abolition of slavery.


1804 Haiti massacre, Background, Slavery
Henri Christophe's personal secretary, who was a slave for much of his life, attempted to explain the incident by referencing the cruel treatment of black slaves by white slaveholders in Saint-Domingue:


1804 Haiti massacre, Background, Slavery
Have they not hung up men with heads downward, drowned them in sacks, crucified them on planks, buried them alive, crushed them in mortars? Have they not forced them to consume faeces? And, having flayed them with the lash, have they not cast them alive to be devoured by worms, or onto anthills, or lashed them to stakes in the swamp to be devoured by mosquitoes? Have they not thrown them into boiling cauldrons of cane syrup? Have they not put men and women inside barrels studded with spikes and rolled them down mountainsides into the abyss? Have they not consigned these miserable blacks to man eating-dogs until the latter, sated by human flesh, left the mangled victims to be finished off with bayonet and poniard?


1804 Haiti massacre, Background, Haitian Revolution
In 1791, a man of Jamaican origin named Boukman became the leader of the enslaved Africans held on a large plantation in Cap-Français. In the wake of the French Revolution, he planned to massacre all the French living in Cap-Français. On 22 August 1791, the enslaved Africans descended on Le Cap, where they destroyed the plantations and executed all the French who lived in the region. King Louis XVI was accused of indifference to the massacre, while the slaves seemed to think the king was on their side. In July 1793, the French in Les Cayes were massacred.


1804 Haiti massacre, Background, Haitian Revolution
Despite the French proclamation of emancipation, the blacks sided with the Spanish who came to occupy the region. In July 1794, Spanish forces stood by while the black troops of Jean-François massacred the French whites in Fort-Dauphin.


1804 Haiti massacre, Background, Haitian Revolution
Philippe Girard writes that genocide was openly considered as a strategy by both sides in the conflict. White forces sent by Napoleon Bonaparte committed massacres but were defeated before they could accomplish genocide, while an army under Jean-Jacques Dessalines, composed mainly of former slaves, was able to wipe out the white Haitian population.


1804 Haiti massacre, Background, Haitian Revolution
Girard describes five main factors leading to the massacre, which he describes as a genocide: (1) Haitian soldiers were influenced by the French Revolution to justify murder and large-scale massacres on ideological grounds; (2) economic interests motivated French planters to want to quell the uprising, as well as influencing former slaves to want to kill the planters and take ownership of the plantations; (3) a slave revolt had been ongoing for more than a decade, and was itself a reaction to a century of brutal colonial rule, making violent death commonplace and therefore easier to accept; (4) the massacre was a form of class warfare in which former slaves were able to take revenge against their former masters; and (5) the last stages of the war became a racial conflict pitting Whites against Blacks and Mulattoes, in which racial hatred, dehumanization, and conspiracy theories all facilitated genocide.


1804 Haiti massacre, Background, Haitian Revolution
Dessalines came to power after France's defeat and subsequent evacuation from what was previously known as Saint-Domingue. In November 1803, three days after Rochambeau's forces surrendered, Dessalines ordered the execution of 800 French soldiers who had been left behind due to illness during the evacuation. He did guarantee the safety of the remaining white civilian population. However, Jeremy Popkin writes that statements by Dessalines such as "There are still French on the island, and still you considered yourselves free," spoke of a hostile attitude toward the remaining white minority.


1804 Haiti massacre, Background, Haitian Revolution
Rumors about the white population suggested that they would try to leave the country to convince foreign powers to invade and reintroduce slavery. Discussions between Dessalines and his advisers openly suggested that the white population should be put to death for the sake of national security. Whites trying to leave Haiti were prevented from doing so.


1804 Haiti massacre, Background, Haitian Revolution
On 1 January 1804, Dessalines proclaimed Haiti an independent nation. Dessalines later gave the order to all cities in Haiti that all whites should be put to death. The weapons used should be silent weapons such as knives and bayonets rather than gunfire, so that the killing could be done more quietly, and avoid warning intended victims by the sound of gunfire and thereby giving them the opportunity to escape.


1804 Haiti massacre, Massacre
During February and March, Dessalines traveled among the cities of Haiti to assure himself that his orders were carried out. Despite his orders, the massacres were often not carried out until he visited the cities in person.


1804 Haiti massacre, Massacre
The course of the massacre showed an almost identical pattern in every city he visited. Before his arrival, there were only a few killings, despite his orders. When Dessalines arrived, he first spoke about the atrocities committed by former white authorities, such as Rochambeau and Leclerc, after which he demanded that his orders about mass killings of the area's white population should be put into effect. Reportedly, he ordered the unwilling to take part in the killings, especially men of mixed race, so that the blame should not be placed solely on the black population. Mass killings took place on the streets and on places outside the cities.


1804 Haiti massacre, Massacre
In parallel to the killings, plundering and rape also occurred. Women and children were generally killed last. White women were "often raped or pushed into forced marriages under threat of death."


1804 Haiti massacre, Massacre
Dessalines did not specifically mention that the white women should be killed, and the soldiers were reportedly somewhat hesitant to do so. In the end, however, the women were also put to death, though normally at a later stage of the massacre than the adult males. The argument for killing the women was that whites would not truly be eradicated if the white women were spared to give birth to new Frenchmen.


1804 Haiti massacre, Massacre
Before his departure from a city, Dessalines would proclaim an amnesty for all the whites who had survived in hiding during the massacre. When these people left their hiding place however, most (French) were killed as well. Many whites were, however, hidden and smuggled out to sea by foreigners. However, there were notable exceptions to the ordered killings. A contingent of Polish defectors were given amnesty and granted Haitian citizenship for their renouncement of French allegiance and support of Haitian independence. Dessalines referred to the Poles as "the White Negroes of Europe", as an expression of his solidarity and gratitude.


1804 Haiti massacre, Massacre
In Port-au-Prince, only a few killings had occurred in the city despite the orders. After Dessalines arrived on 18 March, the number of killings escalated. According to a merchant captain, about 800 people were killed in the city, while about 50 survived. On 18 April 1804, Dessalines arrived at Cap-Haïtien. Only a handful of killings had taken place there before his arrival, but the killings escalated to a massacre on the streets and outside the city after his arrival.


1804 Haiti massacre, Massacre
As elsewhere, the majority of the women were initially not killed. Dessalines's advisers, however, pointed out that the white Haitians would not disappear if the women were left to give birth to white men, and after this, Dessalines ordered that the women should be killed as well, with the exception of those who agreed to marry non-white men. Sources created at the time stated that 3,000 people were killed in Cap-Haïtien; Philippe Girard writes that this figure was unrealistic as in the post-evacuation of the French people the settlement had only 1,700 white people.


1804 Haiti massacre, Massacre
One of the most notorious of the massacre participants was Jean Zombi, a mulatto resident of Port-au-Prince who was known for his brutality. One account describes how Zombi stopped a white man on the street, stripped him naked, and took him to the stair of the Presidential Palace, where he killed him with a dagger. Dessalines was reportedly among the spectators; he was said to be "horrified" by the episode. In Haitian Vodou tradition, the figure of Jean Zombi has become a prototype for the zombie.


1804 Haiti massacre, Aftermath, Effects in Haiti
By the end of April 1804, some 3,000 to 5,000 people had been killed and the white Haitians were practically eradicated, excluding a select group of whites who were given amnesty. The spared consisted of the Polish ex-soldiers who were given Haitian citizenship for helping black Haitians in fights against white colonialists; a small group of German colonists invited to the north-west region before the revolution; and a group of medical doctors and professionals. Reportedly, also people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.


1804 Haiti massacre, Aftermath, Effects in Haiti
Dessalines did not try to hide the massacre from the world. In an official proclamation of 8 April 1804, he stated, "We have given these true cannibals war for war, crime for crime, outrage for outrage. Yes, I have saved my country, I have avenged America." He referred to the massacre as an act of national authority. Dessalines regarded the elimination of the white Haitians an act of political necessity, as they were regarded as a threat to the peace between the black and the free people of color. It was also regarded as a necessary act of vengeance. Dessalines' secretary Boisrond-Tonnerre stated, "For our declaration of independence, we should have the skin of a white man for parchment, his skull for an inkwell, his blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen!"


1804 Haiti massacre, Aftermath, Effects in Haiti
Dessalines was eager to assure that Haiti was not a threat to other nations. He directed efforts to establish friendly relations also to nations where slavery was still allowed.


1804 Haiti massacre, Aftermath, Effects in Haiti
In the 1805 constitution, all citizens were defined as "black". The constitution also banned white men from owning land, except for people already born or born in the future to white women who were naturalized as Haitian citizens and the Germans and Poles who got Haitian citizenship. The massacre had a long-lasting effect on the view of the Haitian Revolution. It helped to create a legacy of racial hostility in Haitian society.


1804 Haiti massacre, Aftermath, Effects in Haiti
Girard writes in the book Paradise Lost that "Despite all of Dessalines' efforts at rationalization, the massacres were as inexcusable as they were foolish." Trinidadian historian C. L. R. James concurred with this view in his breakthrough work The Black Jacobins, writing that "the unfortunate country... was ruined economically, its population lacking in social culture, [and] had its difficulties doubled by this massacre". James wrote that the massacre was "not policy but revenge, and revenge has no place in politics".


1804 Haiti massacre, Aftermath, Effects in Haiti
Philippe Girard writes "when the genocide was over, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent." Citing Girard, Nicholas A. Robins and Adam Jones describe the massacre as a "genocide of the subaltern" in which a previously disadvantaged group used a genocide to destroy their previous oppressors.


1804 Haiti massacre, Aftermath, Effect on American society
At the time of the U.S. Civil War, a major pretext for Southern whites, most of whom did not own slaves, to support slave-owners (and ultimately fight for the Confederacy) was fear of a genocide similar to the Haitian Massacre of 1804. The failed experiments in Haiti and Jamaica were explicitly referred to in Confederate discourse as a reason for secession. The slave revolt was a prominent theme in the discourse of southern political leaders and had influenced U.S. public opinion since the events took place. Historian Kevin C. Julius writes:


1804 Haiti massacre, Aftermath, Effect on American society
As abolitionists loudly proclaimed that "All men are created equal", echoes of armed slave insurrections and racial genocide sounded in Southern ears. Much of their resentment towards the abolitionists can be seen as a reaction to the events in Haiti.


1804 Haiti massacre, Aftermath, Effect on American society
In the run-up to the U.S. presidential election of 1860, Roger B. Taney, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, wrote "I remember the horrors of St. Domingo" and said that the election "will determine whether anything like this is to be visited upon our own southern countrymen."