1792 United States presidential election, Campaign
Although Washington had been considering retiring, both sides encouraged him to remain in office to bridge factional differences. Washington was supported by practically all sides throughout his presidency and gained more popularity with the passage of the Bill of Rights. However, the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists contested the vice-presidency, with incumbent John Adams as the Federalist nominee and George Clinton as the Democratic-Republican nominee. Federalists attacked Clinton for his past association with the anti-Federalists. With some Democratic-Republican electors voting against their nominee George Clinton – voting instead for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr – Adams easily secured re-election.


1792 United States presidential election, Results
At the time, there were 15 states in the United States: the 13 original states and the two recently admitted states of Vermont (March 1791) and Kentucky (June 1792). The Electoral College consisted of 132 electors, with each elector having two votes.


1792 United States presidential election, Results
The Electoral College chose Washington unanimously. John Adams was again elected vice-president as the runner-up, this time getting the vote of a majority of electors. George Clinton won the votes of only Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, his native New York, and a single elector in Pennsylvania. Thomas Jefferson won the votes of Kentucky, newly separated from Jefferson's home state of Virginia. A single South Carolina elector voted for Aaron Burr. All five of these candidates would eventually win election to the offices of president or vice president.


1792 United States presidential election, Results, Popular vote
Source: . . (February 11, 2006). Source (Popular Vote): A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825


1792 United States presidential election, Results, Popular vote
(a) Only 6 of the 15 states chose electors by any form of popular vote. (b) Pre -Twelfth Amendment electoral vote rules obscure the intentions of the voters(c) Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.


1792 United States presidential election, Results, Popular vote by state
Six of the fifteen states chose electors by any form of popular vote. The vote totals of Kentucky and Virginia appear to be lost. Vote totals for 13 of 76 Virginia counties exist.


1792 United States presidential election, Results, Electoral vote
(a) Only 6 of the 15 states chose electors by any form of popular vote, while pre-Twelfth Amendment electoral vote rules obscure the intentions of the voters, and those states that did choose electors by popular vote restricted the vote via property requirements. (b) Two electors from Maryland and one elector from Vermont did not cast votes.


1792 United States presidential election, Electoral college selection
The Constitution, in Article II, Section 1, provided that the state legislatures should decide the manner in which their Electors were chosen. Different state legislatures chose different methods:


1792 United States presidential election in Connecticut
The 1792 United States presidential election in Connecticut took place between November 2 and December 5, 1792, as part of the 1792 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose nine members of the Electoral College, each of whom, under the provisions of the Constitution prior to the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, cast two votes for President.


1792 United States presidential election in Connecticut
Connecticut's nine electors each cast one vote for incumbent George Washington and one for incumbent Vice President John Adams.


1792 United States presidential election in Delaware
The 1792 United States presidential election in Delaware took place between November 2 and December 5, 1792 as part of the 1792 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose three members of the Electoral College, each of whom, under the provisions of the Constitution prior to the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, cast two votes for President.


1792 United States presidential election in Delaware
Delaware's three electors each cast one vote for the incumbent, George Washington, and one vote for John Adams, the incumbent Vice President.


1792 United States presidential election in New Jersey
The 1792 United States presidential election in New Jersey took place between November 2 and December 5, 1792 as part of the 1792 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose seven members of the Electoral College, each of whom, under the provisions of the Constitution prior to the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, cast two votes for President.


1792 United States presidential election in New Jersey
New Jersey's seven electors each cast one vote for incumbent George Washington and one vote for incumbent Vice President John Adams.


1792 United States presidential election in New York
The 1792 United States presidential election in New York took place between November 2 and December 5, 1792 as part of the 1792 United States presidential election. The New York State Legislature chose 12 members of the Electoral College, each of whom, under the provisions of the Constitution prior to the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, cast 2 votes for President.


1792 United States presidential election in New York
New York's 12 electors each cast one vote for incumbent George Washington and one vote for George Clinton in the state's first presidential election. (Although the state had ratified the Constitution to become the eleventh state on July 26, 1788, it did not participate in the first presidential election in 1789 due to the state legislature's being deadlocked.)


1792 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania
The 1792 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania took place as part of the 1792 United States presidential election. Pennsylvania voters chose 15 members of the Electoral College, each of whom, under the provisions of the Constitution prior to the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, cast two votes for President.


1792 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania unanimously voted for nonpartisan candidate and incumbent President George Washington. The total statewide popular vote comprised 3,479 for Federalist electors and 1,097 for Anti- Federalist electors, all of whom were supportive of Washington and all but one of whom supported John Adams, the incumbent Vice President; one elector voted for George Clinton.


1792 United States presidential election in South Carolina
The 1792 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place between November 2 and December 5, 1792 as part of the 1792 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose 8 members of the Electoral College, each of whom, under the provisions of the Constitution prior to the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, cast two votes for President.


1792 United States presidential election in South Carolina
South Carolina's 8 electors each cast 1 vote for the incumbent, George Washington; with 1 exception, each of those electors cast a second vote for Vice President John Adams, the outlier voting for Aaron Burr.


1792 United States presidential election in Vermont
The 1792 United States presidential election in Vermont took place between November 2 and December 5, 1792 as part of the 1792 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose four members of the Electoral College, each of whom, under the provisions of the Constitution prior to the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, cast two votes for President.


1792 United States presidential election in Vermont
Vermont participated in its first ever presidential election, having become the 14th state on March 4, 1791. The state cast three electoral votes for incumbent George Washington and three for the incumbent vice president John Adams; one elector did not cast his votes.


1792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami
The 1792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami resulted from the volcanic activities of Mount Unzen (in the Shimabara Peninsula of Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan) on 21 May. This caused the collapse of the southern flank of the Mayuyama dome in front of Mount Unzen, resulting in a tremendous megatsunami, killing 15,000 people altogether. It was also called Shimabara erupted, Higo affected (島原大変肥後迷惑), (Shimabara means the central mountain of the Shimabara Peninsula) since many people were killed by this tsunami in Higo (Kumamoto Prefecture, situated 20 km (12.4 mi) away across the Ariake Sea).


1792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami, Volcanic activities
Towards the end of 1791, a series of earthquakes occurred on the western flank of Mount Unzen which gradually moved towards Fugen-dake (one of Mount Unzen's peaks). In February 1792, Fugen-dake started to erupt, triggering a lava flow which continued for two months. Meanwhile, the earthquakes continued, shifting nearer to the city of Shimabara. On the night of 21 May, two large earthquakes were followed by a collapse of the eastern flank of Mount Unzen's Mayuyama dome, causing a landslide which swept through the city of Shimabara and into Ariake Bay, triggering a great tsunami.


1792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami, Volcanic activities
Mount Unzen (center) and Mayuyama (right) showing the destruction, recent photo


1792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami, Volcanic activities
Mayuyama of Shimabara Peninsula, from the sea of Shimabara City


1792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami, Megatsunami
It is not known to this day whether the collapse occurred as a result of an eruption of the dome or as a result of the earthquakes. The tsunami struck Higo Province on the other side of Ariake Bay before bouncing back and hitting Shimabara again. Out of an estimated total of 15,000 fatalities, around 5,000 are thought to have been killed by the landslide, around 5,000 by the tsunami across the bay in Higo Province, and a further 5,000 by the tsunami returning to strike Shimabara. The waves reached a height of 330 feet, classing this tsunami as a small megatsunami. At the Osaki-bana point Futsu town, the waves locally grew to a height of 187 ft (57 m) due to the effect of sea bottom topography.


1792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami, Monuments
As of July, 1991, the following monuments have been found.


1792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami, Lake Shirachi
Lake Shirachi is a pond in Shimabara city, Nagasaki Prefecture which was created after the landslide at Mayuyama created by the inpouring of underground water. Its size was first 1 km (south-north) and 300m 400m (east to west), but the production of a water exit river made it smaller and it is now 200 m by 70 m.


1792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami, Tsukumojima (99 Islets)
As a result of the destruction, Tsukumojima or 99 islets or rocks were distributed near Shimabara city. In the same Nagasaki Prefecture, there are 99 islands or Kujūkushima distributed from Sasebo city to Hirado city. These islands are different from Tsukumojima.


1792 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1792 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place throughout September, and resulted in the re-election of Governor Thomas Chittenden to a one-year term.


1792 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Rutland on October 11. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to examine the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council.


1792 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for governor, Thomas Chittenden, who had been governor from 1778 to 1789, and again starting in 1790, was re-elected for a one-year term. In the election for lieutenant governor, Peter Olcott was re-elected to a third one-year term. The freemen also re-elected Samuel Mattocks as treasurer, his sixth one-year term. The names of candidates and balloting totals for statewide offices were not recorded.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections
Elections to the United States House of Representatives for the 3rd Congress were held in 1792 and 1793, coinciding with the re-election of George Washington as President. While Washington ran for president as an independent, his followers (more specifically, the supporters of Alexander Hamilton) formed the nation's first organized political party, the Federalist Party, whose members and sympathizers are identified as pro-Administration on this page. In response, followers of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison created the opposition Democratic-Republican Party, who are identified as anti-Administration on this page. The Federalists promoted urbanization, industrialization, mercantilism, centralized government, and a broad interpretation of the United States Constitution. In contrast, Democratic-Republicans supported the ideal of an agrarian republic made up of self-sufficient farmers and small, localized governments with limited power.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections
Despite nearly unanimous support for Washington as a presidential candidate, Jeffersonian ideas edged out Hamiltonian principles at the ballot box for congressional candidates, with the Democratic-Republicans taking 24 seats more than they had prior to the organization of their political movement. Most of the increase was due to the addition of new seats in Western regions as a result of the United States census of 1790. Dominated by agrarian culture, these Western territories offered strong support to Democratic-Republican congressional candidates. As a result, they secured a thin majority in the legislature.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Election summaries
•In this period, each state fixed its own date for a congressional general election, a In this period, each state fixed its own date for a congressional general elections early as August 1792 (in New Hampshire and Rhode Island) and as late as September 1793 (in Kentucky). In some states, the congressional delegation was not elected until after the legal start of the Congress (on the 4th day of March in the odd-numbered year), but as the first session of Congress typically began in November or December, the elections took place before Congress actually met. The 3rd Congress first met on December 2, 1793.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Election summaries
These were the first elections held after reapportionment following the first census. Thirty-six new seats were added, with 1 state losing 1 seat, 3 states having no change, and the remaining 11 states gaining between 1 and 9 seats. This was the first apportionment based on actual census data, the apportionment for the 1st and 2nd Congresses being set by the Constitution using estimated populations.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Special elections
There were special elections in 1792 and 1793 during the 2nd and 3rd United States Congresses.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Connecticut
Connecticut gained two seats in reapportionment following the 1790 census.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Connecticut
Three special elections followed the 1792 elections in Connecticut after Representatives-elect Sturges and Huntington resigned before the start of Congress and Mitchell was elected to the Senate.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Delaware
Delaware's apportionment did not change following the 1790 census. As in the 1st and 2nd Congresses, each voter cast votes for two separate candidates, at least one of whom had to be from a different county as the voter.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Georgia
Following the 1790 census, Georgia's apportionment was decreased from 3 seats to 2 (the only state whose representation decreased after the census). Georgia switched from separate districts to at-large seats.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Maryland
Maryland increased from 6 to 8 representatives after the 1790 census. The previous mixed district/at-large system was replaced with a conventional district system.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
Following the 1790 Census, Massachusetts's representation increased from eight to fourteen Representatives and was redistricted into four plural districts, plus a single at-large district. The 4th district covered the District of Maine (the modern-day State of Maine). The plural districts were concurrent tickets rather than a single general ticket, though the 1st and 2nd districts appeared to have also had a general ticket alongside the more specific tickets.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
As before, a majority was required for election, in those districts where a majority was not achieved, additional ballots were required.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, New Hampshire
New Hampshire increased from 3 seats to 4 seats after the 1790 census.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, New Jersey
Following the 1790 census, New Jersey's apportionment increased from 4 to 5 seats.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, New York
Due to re-apportionment following the 1790 census, New York's congressional delegation grew from 6 to 10. Three incumbents ran for re-election, two of whom won, and the other three incumbents retired. With the increase following re-apportionment, this left seven open seats.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, North Carolina
Following the 1790 census, North Carolina's apportionment increased from 5 to 10 seats.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania switched from using districts to electing its representatives on an at-large basis for the 3rd Congress, just as it had done for the 1st Congress. This would be the last time that Pennsylvania would elect all of its Representatives at-large. Due to re-apportionment following the 1790 census, Pennsylvania's delegation increased from 8 representatives to 13.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Rhode Island
Rhode Island gained a second representative from the results of the 1790 census. Rhode Island did not divide itself into districts, but elected two at-large representatives.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, South Carolina
South Carolina gained one representative as a result of the 1790 census, increasing from 5 to 6.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Vermont
Vermont had no apportionment in the House of Representatives before 1790 census because it was not admitted to the Union until 1791. Vermont's election laws at the time required a majority to win election to the House of Representatives. If no candidate won a majority, a runoff election was held, which happened in the 1st district.


1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections, Virginia
Virginia gained nine representatives from the 1790 census, and in addition, the old 2nd district was lost after its territory became the new State of Kentucky. There were, therefore, ten new districts created for the 3rd Congress.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections
The United States Senate elections of 1792 and 1793 were elections of United States Senators that coincided with President George Washington's unanimous re-election. In these elections, terms were up for the ten senators in class 2.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections
Formal organized political parties had yet to form in the United States, but two political factions were present: The coalition of Senators who supported George Washington's administration were known as the Pro-Administration Party, and the Senators against him as the Anti-Administration Party. As these elections were prior to ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment, Senators were chosen by state legislatures.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Change in composition
Note: There were no political parties in this Congress. Members are informally grouped into factions of similar interest, based on an analysis of their voting record.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Change in composition, Beginning of the next Congress
Two Pro-Administration senators (Benjamin Hawkins of North Carolina and John Langdon of New Hampshire) changed to Anti-Administration.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Change in composition, Beginning of the next Congress
The vacant seat in Pennsylvania was filled February 28, 1793 by an Anti-Administration senator.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Race summaries
Except if/when noted, the number following candidates is the whole number vote(s), not a percentage.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Elections during the 2nd Congress
In these elections, the winner was seated before March 4, 1793; ordered by election date.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Races leading to the 3rd Congress
In these regular elections, the winner was seated on March 4, 1793; ordered by state.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Election in 1793 during the 3rd Congress
In this special election, the winner was seated after March 4, 1793, the beginning of the next Congress.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Georgia
One-term Anti- Federalist William Few was defeated by fellow Anti-Federalist, James Jackson. Jackson won 24 votes in the Georgia House of Representatives and 11 in the State Senate for a combined total of 35. Few won 3 in the House and 2 in the Senate for a combined total of 5. Jackson took office as a member of the 3rd United States Congress on March 4, 1793. He would later resign in 1795 to run for his state's legislature.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Kentucky
Incumbent John Brown, who had previously been elected in a special election was easily reelected with no opposition and 100% of votes from the legislators.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, New Hampshire
Incumbent U.S. Senator Paine Wingate was not reelected. The New Hampshire General Court instead elected Federalist Samuel Livermore, a U.S. Representative, to the seat. Livermore, like his fellow senator, John Langdon, would go on to serve as President Pro-Tempore during this term.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, North Carolina
Pro -Administration Samuel Johnston lost re-election to Anti-Administration Alexander Martin for the class 2 seat. The other senator, Benjamin Hawkins, switched his support from Pro- to Anti-Administration.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Pennsylvania (Special)
There was a special election on February 28, 1793 for the Class 1 seat from Pennsylvania. Incumbent William Maclay's term had ended on March 3, 1791, but the legislature failed to elect a successor due to a disagreement on the procedure to be followed in the election.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Pennsylvania (Special)
The seat remained vacant until Albert Gallatin was elected by the Pennsylvania General Assembly to the seat during this election.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Pennsylvania (Special)
Upon agreement between the two houses of the Pennsylvania General Assembly, the House of Representatives and the Senate, regarding the procedure to elect a new Senator, an election was finally held on February 28, 1793. The results of the vote of both houses combined are as follows:


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Pennsylvania (Special)
On February 28, 1794, the Senate determined that Gallatin did not satisfy the citizenship requirement for service and he was removed from office. He later went on to serve in the U.S. House of Representatives. Gallatin was replaced in the Senate by a special election in 1794.


1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections, Virginia
Anti -Administration senator Richard Henry Lee resigned October 8, 1792, just before the March 3, 1793 end of term. Anti -administration John Taylor of Caroline was elected October 18, 1792 to finish Lee's term and then re-elected in 1793 to the next term.


1792 contract rifle
The 1792 contract rifle is not a specific model of gun, rather it is a modern way to categorize a collection of rifles bought by the United States government in that year. United States 1792 contract rifles are Pennsylvania-Kentucky Rifles with a 42-inch octagon barrel in .49 caliber, with a patch box built into the buttstock. What distinguishes them from civilian rifles is that they were bought by the government under military contract.


1792 contract rifle, History
Before the United States military used standardized weapons with interchangeable parts, it bought rifles that are difficult to distinguish from their civilian equivalent. The process was similar to today, in which the government requests weaponry of certain specifications and then finds a manufacturer to build them. In 1792 there was a need for rifles, and a contract was drawn-up with Lancaster, Pennsylvania gunsmiths to deliver rifles.


1792 contract rifle, History
In January 1792, Henry Knox, the Secretary of War for the period, authorized former General Edward Hand to contract with manufacturers for the rifles. The rifles were to be delivered in units of 100 as quickly as possible. He told General Hand that the contract was for 500 rifles, but that he was willing to extend it to 1,000.


1792 contract rifle, History
The 1792 contract specified rifles with a 44 1/2 inch barrel in .47 caliber. That was modified to a 42-inch barrel in .49 caliber, with a well-seasoned maple stock and a flintlock with a fly. Eleven different gunsmiths took the contract on, delivering 1,476 rifles between April 1792 and December 1792. A second contract for the same weapon took place in 1794. Seventeen gunsmiths delivered 2,000 rifles by November 1794.


1792 contract rifle, History
These military- or militia-issued rifles were of civilian style, and it has been very difficult for collectors to identify them from this contract. However, the military issued them to regular troops and militias and called them back to the arsenals as needed. Edward Flanagan, who wrote a paper on the 1792 and 1807 contract rifles, stated that he believed that the weapons were marked by the US government, a lesson learned from gun thefts during the Revolutionary War. He pointed to a "US" stamp on the barrel of a weapon known to have been a contract rifle.


1792 contract rifle, History
A second contract rifle has been identified, the 1807 Contract Rifle, which has different specifications than the weapons of 1792 and 1794.


1792 contract rifle, History, Lewis and Clark
Before their exploratory trip, the Lewis and Clark Expedition obtained rifles from the Harper's Ferry Arsenal. The US Army's website mentions the procurement of the rifles, saying that there were 300 of the 1792 or 1794 contract rifles at the arsenal at that time. The Army site also refers to modern speculation that the changes Lewis had made to the contract rifles (adding sling swivels, shortening the barrel further to 33-36 inches and reboring them to a larger caliber), led to the design of the US Model 1803, created six months later.


1792 half disme
The 1792 half disme (pronounced "deem") is an American silver coin with a face value of five cents which was minted in 1792. Although it is subject to debate as to whether this was intended to be circulating coinage or instead an experimental issue, President George Washington referred to it as "a small beginning" and many of the coins eventually were released into circulation. It is widely (although not universally) considered the first United States coinage struck under authority of the Coinage Act of 1792.


1792 half disme, Origins
When speaking to the House of Representatives in November 1792, President Washington mentioned the "want of small coins in circulation" and stated that he had begun work on establishing a U.S. Mint and that some half dismes had been produced already. At this point, most of the personnel had been hired, but the Mint's buildings and machinery were not yet ready. As a result, the half dismes, which had been struck in or around July 1792, were produced using the private facilities of local craftsman John Harper, although under the auspices of official Mint personnel. In his personal log book, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson recorded the receipt of 1,500 specimens on July 13.


1792 half disme, Origins
Because of President Washington's connection with these early coins, numismatic folklore holds that the portrait on the obverse is that of First Lady Martha Washington and that some of the coins were struck using melted-down silverware from the Washington household. However, there is no solid evidence for either of these assertions. To the contrary, evidence uncovered from Thomas Jefferson's memorandum book shows that he provided "75 (Mexican) Silver Dollars" and received the first 1,500 half dismes. He then spent those coins on his trip home to Monticello.


1792 half disme, Production, rarity, and value
Although the exact number is not known, it is believed that between 2,000 and 3,500 specimens were produced. Approximately 10% of these survive today; one expert estimated between 250 and 400 half dismes exist, and most appear to have been used in circulation for some time. An about uncirculated (AU55 on the Sheldon coin grading scale) 1792 half disme was auctioned for $138,000 on July 24, 2004. A specimen strike from the Starr collection, graded MS67 by PCGS, sold for $1,322,500 on April 26, 2006. The highest numerically graded piece, an NGC MS68, sold for $1,500,000 by private treaty transaction in 2007.


1792 half disme, Production, rarity, and value
Although nearly all 1792 half dismes were produced in a silver alloy, a unique pattern piece in copper is also known.


1792 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1792 in Australia.


1792 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1792 to Wales and its people.


1792 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1792.


1792 in literature, Events
unknown date – Henry Walton Smith and his wife Anna set up a newsagent's business in London that will become the bookselling chain WHSmith.


1792 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1792 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1792 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1792 in science
The year 1792 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1792 in sports
1792 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1792–1793 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
Following the 1790 Census, Massachusetts's representation increased from eight to fourteen Representatives and was redistricted into four plural districts, plus a single at-large district. The 4th district covered the District of Maine (the modern-day State of Maine). The plural districts were concurrent tickets rather than a single general ticket, though the 1st and Massachusetts 2s appear to have also had a general ticket alongside the more specific tickets.


1792–1793 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
As before, a majority was required for election, in those districts where a majority was not achieved, additional ballots were required.


1793
1793 (MDCCXCIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1793rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 793rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 93rd  year of the 18th century, and the  4th   year of the 1790s decade. As of the start of 1793, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1793
The French Republic introduced the French Revolutionary Calendar starting with the year I.


1793 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special elections
Three special elections were held in Connecticut's at-large congressional district in 1793 to fill vacancies caused by the resignation, prior to the start of the 3rd Congress, of three Representatives-elect.


1793 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special elections, First special election
The first special election was held on April 8, 1793 after Jonathan Sturges (P) declined to serve the term for which he'd been elected


1793 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special elections, Second special election
Benjamin Huntington (P) also resigned his seat before the start of Congress and was replaced by Jonathan Ingersoll in a special election held September 16, 1793


1793 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special elections, Third special election
A pair of openings lead to a two-seat special election: 1. Member-elect Jonathan Ingersoll declined to serve from the September special election; and 2. Member-elect Stephen M. Mitchell declined to serve from the general election when he was appointed to the U.S. Senate.


1793 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special elections, Third special election
A third election was held for their replacements, with the top two winning seats in the 3rd Congress: Joshua Coit (Pro-Administration) and Zephaniah Swift (Pro-Administration).


1793 English cricket season
The 1793 English cricket season was the 22nd in which matches have been awarded retrospective first-class cricket status and the seventh after the foundation of the Marylebone Cricket Club. The season saw 17 top-class matches played in the country.


1793 English cricket season, Matches
A total of 17 top-class matches were played during the season. These included matches played by teams from Berkshire, Essex, Kent, Middlesex and Surrey as well as a combined Surrey and Sussex side. Berkshire played the last of their three first-class fixtures, a match followed a month later by Oldfield's first first-class match featuring the same eleven players who had played for Berkshire.


1793 English cricket season, First mentions
A number of players made their first appearances in first-class matches during the season, including:


1793 French constitutional referendum
The French Constitution of 1793 was approved by a referendum in the summer of 1793. It was held via universal male suffrage, with voting on different days in different departments, in some cases after the result was proclaimed in Paris on 9 August 1793. While most voters abstained, of those who voted, 99.41% majority approved. The events took place during the French revolution and the Constitution never came into effect.


1793 French constitutional referendum, Outcome
French voters approved the French Constitution of 1793 with an official result of 99.41% of those voting in favor, although voter turnout was under 30%.


1793 Maryland's 2nd congressional district special election
A special election was held in Maryland's 2nd congressional district on January 7, 1793 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Joshua Seney (A) on December 6, 1792 to accept a judicial appointment.


1793 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election
The 1793 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election occurred on November 5, 1793. Incumbent Democratic-Republican governor Thomas Mifflin sought re-election to another term, defeating Federalist candidate and U.S. Representative Frederick Muhlenberg. Muhlenberg only won two counties: York and Bedford. However, Mifflin's 2-1 vote margin was down from his 10-1 victory margin in the 1790 gubernatorial election.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic
During the 1793 yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia, 5,000 or more people were listed in the official register of deaths between August 1 and November 9. The vast majority of them died of yellow fever, making the epidemic in the city of 50,000 people one of the most severe in United States history. By the end of September, 20,000 people had fled the city, including congressional and executive officials of the federal government. Most did not return until after the epidemic had abated in late November.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic
The mortality rate peaked in October, before frost finally killed the mosquitoes and brought an end to the outbreak. Doctors tried a variety of treatments, but knew neither the origin of the fever nor that the disease was transmitted by mosquitoes (this information was not verified until the late nineteenth century).


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic
The mayor and a committee of two dozen organized a fever hospital at Bush Hill and other crisis measures. The assistance of the Free African Society was requested by the city and readily agreed to by its members. Parties mistakenly assumed that people of African descent would have the same partial immunity to the new disease as many had to malaria, which was typically the most common source of fever epidemics during the summer months. Black nurses aided the sick, and the group's leaders hired additional men to take away corpses, which most people would not touch. But blacks in the city died at the same rate as whites, about 240 altogether.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic
Some neighboring towns refused to let refugees in from Philadelphia, for fear they were carrying the fever. Major port cities such as Baltimore and New York had quarantines against refugees and goods from Philadelphia, although New York sent financial aid to the city.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Beginnings
In the spring of 1793, French colonial refugees, some with slaves, arrived from Cap Français, Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). The 2,000 immigrants were fleeing the slave revolution in the north of the island. They crowded the port of Philadelphia, where the first yellow fever epidemic in the city in 30 years began in August. It is likely that the refugees and ships carried the yellow fever virus and mosquitoes. The virus is transmitted by mosquito bites. Mosquitoes easily breed in small amounts of standing water. The medical community and others in 1793 did not understand the role of mosquitoes in the transmission of yellow fever, malaria, and other diseases.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Beginnings
In the ports and coastal areas of the United States, even in the northeast, the months of August and September were considered the "sickly season," when fevers were prevalent. In the South, planters and other people wealthy enough usually left the Low Country during this season. Natives thought that newcomers especially had to undergo a "seasoning" and were more likely to die of what were thought to be seasonal fevers in their early years in the region. In 1793 Philadelphia was the temporary capital of the United States, and the government was due to return in the fall. President George Washington left the city for his Mount Vernon estate.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Beginnings
The first two people to die of yellow fever in early August in Philadelphia were both recent immigrants, one from Ireland and the other from Saint-Domingue. Letters describing their cases were published in a pamphlet about a month after they died. The young doctor sent by the Overseers of the Poor to treat the Irish woman was perplexed, and his treatment did not save her.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Beginnings
A 2013 book by Billy G. Smith, professor of history at Montana State University, makes a case that the principal vector of the 1793 plague in Philadelphia (and other Atlantic ports) was the British merchant ship Hankey, which had fled the West African colony of Bolama (an island off West Africa, present day Guinea-Bissau) the previous November. It trailed yellow fever at every port of call in the Caribbean and eastern Atlantic seaboard.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared
After two weeks and an increasing number of fever cases, Dr. Benjamin Rush, a doctor's apprentice during the city's 1762 yellow fever epidemic, saw the pattern; he recognized that yellow fever had returned. Rush alerted his colleagues and the government that the city faced an epidemic of "highly contagious, as well as mortal... bilious remitting yellow fever." Adding to the alarm was that, unlike with most fevers, the principal victims were not the very young or very old. Many of the early deaths were teenagers and heads of families in the dockside areas. Believing that the refugees from Saint-Domingue were carrying the disease, the city imposed a quarantine of two to three weeks on immigrants and their goods, but was unable to enforce it as the epidemic increased its reach.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared
Then the largest city in the US, with around 50,000 residents, Philadelphia was relatively compact and most houses were within seven blocks of its major port on the Delaware River. Docking facilities extended from Southwark south of the city to Kensington to the north. Cases of fever clustered at first around the Arch Street wharf. Rush blamed "some damaged coffee which putrefied on the wharf near Arch Street" for causing the fevers. Soon cases appeared in Kensington. As the port was critical to the state's economy, the Pennsylvania governor, Thomas Mifflin, had responsibility for its health.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared
He asked the port physician, Dr. James Hutchinson, to assess conditions. The doctor found that 67 of about 400 residents near the Arch Street wharf were sick, but only 12 had "malignant fevers." Alarmed by what Rush and others told him, Mayor Matthew Clarkson asked the city's medical society, the College of Physicians, to meet and advise the city's government and citizens how to proceed.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared
Rush later described some early cases: On August 7, he treated a young man for headaches, fever and vomiting, and on the 15th treated his brother. On the same day a woman he was treating turned yellow. On the 18th a man in the third day of a fever had no pulse, was cold, clammy, and yellow, but he could sit up in his bed. He died a few hours later. On the 19th a woman Rush visited died within hours. Another physician said five persons within sight of her door died. None of those victims was a recent immigrant.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared
The College published a letter in the city's newspapers, written by a committee headed by Rush, suggesting 11 measures to prevent the "progress" of the fever. They warned citizens to avoid fatigue, the hot sun, night air, too much liquor, and anything else that might lower their resistance. Vinegar and camphor in infected rooms "cannot be used too frequently upon handkerchiefs, or in smelling bottles, by persons whose duty calls to visit or attend the sick."


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared
They outlined measures for city officials: stopping the tolling of church bells and making burials private; cleaning streets and wharves; exploding gunpowder in the street to increase the amount of oxygen. Everyone should avoid unnecessary contact with the sick. Crews were sent to clean the wharves, streets and the market, which cheered those remaining in the city. Many of those who could, left the city.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared
Elizabeth Drinker, a married Quaker woman, kept a journal for years; her account from August 23 through August 30 tells the quickening story of the spread of the disease in the city and the rising toll of deaths. She also describes the many people leaving the city.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared, Temporary hospitals
Like all hospitals of that time, the Pennsylvania Hospital did not admit patients with infectious diseases.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared, Temporary hospitals
The Guardians of the Poor took over Bush Hill, a 150-acre estate farther outside the city, whose owner William Hamilton was in England for an extended stay. Vice President John Adams had recently rented the main house, so yellow fever patients were placed in the outbuildings. Nurses were hired to treat patients, under orders by young physicians from the city, who were to visit on a daily basis.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared, Temporary hospitals
The end of August was not historically a busy time in the city. Many families who could afford to, or who had relatives in the countryside, lived elsewhere during that hot month. Beginning in September, shipments generally increased with the arrival of fall goods from Britain. In 1793, the Federal Congress was not scheduled to resume session until November, but the Pennsylvania Assembly met in the first week of September. Founded by the Quaker William Penn, the city was the center of Quaker life in the United States. The Yearly Meeting of the Society of Friends was scheduled to be held in the third week of September.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared, Panic and refugees
Between the college's advisory on August 25 and the death of Dr. Hutchinson from yellow fever on September 7, panic spread throughout the city; more people fled. Between August 1 and September 7, 456 people died in the city; 42 deaths were reported on September 8. An estimated 20,000 people left the city through September, including national leaders. The daily death toll remained above 30 until October 26. The worst seven-day period was between October 7 and 13, when 711 deaths were reported.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared, Panic and refugees
Some neighboring towns had patrols on the roads to prevent entry by refugees. The major ports of Baltimore and New York prevented refugees from entering, and quarantined them and goods from Philadelphia for weeks.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared, Panic and refugees
The publisher Mathew Carey published a short pamphlet later in the fall in which he described the changes that had occurred in the life of the city:


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Epidemic declared, Panic and refugees
"Those who ventured abroad, had handkerchiefs or sponges impregnated with vinegar of camphor at their noses, or smelling-bottles full of the thieves’ vinegar. Others carried pieces of tarred rope in their hands or pockets, or camphor bags tied round their necks.... People hastily shifted their course at the sight of a hearse coming towards them. Many never walked on the footpath, but went into the middle of the streets, to avoid being infected in passing by houses wherein people had died. Acquaintances and friends avoided each other in the streets, and only signified their regard by a cold nod. The old custom of shaking hands fell in such general disuse, that many shrunk back with affright at even the offer of a hand. A person with crape [mourning crepe], or any appearance of mourning, was shunned like a viper."


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Black nurses
The College of Physicians' advisory implied the fever was contagious and people should avoid contact with its victims although "duty" required that they be cared for. Yet in families, when the person with the fever was a mother or father, they could forbid their children from coming near them. Rush knew of Dr. John Lining's observation during the 1742 yellow fever epidemic in Charleston, South Carolina, that African slaves appeared to be affected at rates lower than whites; he thought they had a natural immunity. Writing a short letter to the newspapers under the pseudonym "Anthony Benezet," a Quaker who had provided schooling for blacks, Rush suggested that the city's people of color had immunity and solicited them "to offer your services to attend the sick to help those known in distress."


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Black nurses
Richard Allen and Absalom Jones recalled their reaction to the letter in a memoir they published shortly after the epidemic:


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Black nurses
Early in September, a solicitation appeared in the public papers, to the people of colour to come forward and assist the distressed, perishing, and neglected sick; with a kind of assurance, that people of our colour were not liable to take the infection. Upon which we and a few others met and consulted how to act on so truly alarming and melancholy occasion.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Black nurses
After some conversation, we found a freedom to go forth, confiding in Him who can preserve in the midst of a burning fiery furnace, sensible that it was our duty to do all the good we could to our suffering fellow mortals. We set out to see where we could be useful. The first we visited was a man in Emsley's alley, who was dying, and his wife lay dead at the time in the house, there were none to assist but two poor helpless children. We administered what relief we could, and applied to the overseers of the poor to have the woman buried. We visited upwards of twenty families that day—they were scenes of woe indeed! The Lord was plentiful to strengthen us, and removed all fear from us...


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Black nurses
In order the better to regulate our conduct, we called on the mayor the next day, to consult with him on how to proceed, so as to be the most useful. The first object he recommended was a strict attention to the sick, and the procuring of nurses. This was attended to by Absalom Jones and William Gray; and, in order that the distressed might know where to apply, the mayor advised that upon application to them they would be supplied.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Black nurses
Soon after, the mortality increased, the difficulty of getting a corpse taken away, was such, that few were willing to do it, when offered great rewards. The black people were looked to. We then offered our services in the public papers, by advertising that we would remove the dead and procure nurses. Our services were the production of real sensibility—we sought not fee nor reward, until the increase of the disorder rendered our labour so arduous that we were not adequate to the service we had assumed.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Black nurses
Allen noted in his account that because of the increase in mortality, he and Jones had to hire five men to assist them in removing corpses, as most people avoided the sick and the dead. In a September 6 letter to his wife, Rush said that the "African brethren ... furnish nurses to most of my patients." Despite Rush's theory, most of the city's people of color, who were born in North America, were not immune to the fever.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Black nurses
Many of the slaves in Charleston in 1742 could have gained immunity before having been transported from Africa, by having been exposed to yellow fever in a mild case. People who survived one attack gained immunity. A total of 240 blacks died in Philadelphia, in proportion to their population at the same rate as whites.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversy over treatment
Given the limited resources and knowledge of the times, the city's response was credible. The medical community did not know the natural history of yellow fever, a viral infection spread by the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Efforts to clean the city did not defeat the spread of the fever, as the mosquitoes bred in clean water as well as in dirty water. Philadelphia's newspapers continued to publish during the epidemic, and through the doctors and others tried to understand and combat the epidemic. On September 7, Dr. Adam Kuhn, who had studied medicine at the University of Uppsala in Sweden, advised patients to treat symptoms as they arose.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversy over treatment
Rush claimed that he had tried Kuhn's and Steven's stimulating remedies but that his patients still died. He recommended other treatments, including purging and bloodletting, and published his theories. The hope offered by any of these treatments was soon dashed when it became clear that they did not cure the disease, and the doctors' competing claims demoralized patients.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversy over treatment
In his 1794 account of the epidemic, Mathew Carey noted that other doctors claimed to have used calomel (a mercury compound) before Rush and that "its efficacy was great and rescued many from death." Carey added that the "efficacy of bleeding, in all cases not attended with putridity, was great." Rush taught the African-American nurses how to bleed and purge patients. Allen and Jones wrote that they were thankful that "we have been the instruments, in the hand of God, for saving the lives of hundreds of our suffering fellow mortals." Rush's brand of medicine became the standard American treatment for fevers in the 1790s and was widely used for the next 50 years.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversy over treatment
Dr. Mark Chesterfield also suggested training prisoners to perform the dangerous jobs of collecting the dead and transporting the sick, but the idea met with great controversy and was abandoned. Dr. Chesterfield later fell victim to the sickness and died as the result of excessive bloodletting at the hands of Dr. Benjamin Rush.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversy over treatment
Rush's claim that his remedies cured 99 out of 100 patients has led historians and modern doctors to ridicule his remedies and approach to medical science. Some contemporaries also attacked him. The newspaper editor William Cobbett attacked Rush's therapies and called him a Sangrado, after a character in Gil Blas, who bled patients to death. In 1799 Rush won a $5,000 libel judgment against Cobbett.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Government responses to crisis
The responses of the various levels of government in the city varied. The Federal government had no authority to act and Congress had not been in session since June. President Washington and his cabinet continued to meet until he left the city on September 10 for his scheduled vacation, a period that included laying the cornerstone on September 18 of the new US Capitol to be built in the City of Washington, the designated capital. Employees of the Treasury Department, who collected customs and worked on the country's financial system, worked throughout the epidemic; the post office also stayed open.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Government responses to crisis
The state legislature cut short its September session after a dead body was found on the steps of State House. Governor Mifflin became ill and was advised by his doctor to leave. The city's banks remained open. But, banking operations were so slowed by the inability of people to pay off notes because of disruptions from the epidemic that banks automatically renewed notes until the epidemic ended.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Government responses to crisis
The mayor Matthew Clarkson organized the city's response to the epidemic. Most of the Common Council members fled, along with 20,000 other residents. People who did not leave Philadelphia before the second week in September could leave the city only with great difficulty, and they faced road blocks, patrols, inspections and quarantines. On September 12, Clarkson summoned fellow citizens interested in helping the Guardians of the Poor. They formed a committee to take over from the Guardians and address the crisis.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Government responses to crisis
On the 14th, Clarkson was joined by 26 men, who formed committees to reorganize the fever hospital, arrange visits to the sick, feed those unable to care for themselves, and arrange for wagons to carry the sick to the hospital and the dead to Potter's Field. The Committee acted quickly: after a report of 15-month-old twins being orphaned, two days later the committee had identified a house for sheltering the growing number of orphans. As noted above, Richard Allen and Absalom Jones offered the services of members of the Free African Society to the committee.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Government responses to crisis
When the Mayor's Committee inspected the Bush Hill fever hospital, they found the nurses unqualified and arrangements chaotic. "The sick, the dying, and the dead were indiscriminately mingled together. The ordure and other evacuations of the sick, were allowed to remain in the most offensive state imaginable... It was, in fact, a great human slaughter-house." On September 15, Peter Helm, a barrel maker, and Stephen Girard, a merchant and shipowner born in France, volunteered to personally manage the hospital and represent the Mayor's Committee.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Government responses to crisis
They made rapid improvements in hospital operations: bedsteads were repaired and more brought from the prison so patients would not have to lie on the floor. A barn was adapted as a place for convalescing patients. On September 17, the managers hired 9 female nurses and 10 male attendants, as well as a female matron. They assigned the 14 rooms to separate male and female patients. With the discovery of a spring on the estate, workers were organized to have clean water pumped into the hospital. Helm and Girard informed the Committee that they could accommodate more than the 60 patients then under their care, and soon the hospital had 140 patients.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Government responses to crisis
Girard found that the intermittent visits by four young physicians from the city added to the confusion about patient treatment. He hired Jean Devèze, a French doctor with experience treating yellow fever in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). Devèze cared only for the patients at the hospital, and he was assisted by French apothecaries. Devèze admired Girard's fearlessness in his devotion to the patients. In a memoir published in 1794, Devèze wrote of Girard:


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Government responses to crisis
I even saw one of the diseased ... [ discharge] the contents of his stomach upon [him]. What did Girard do? ... He wiped the patient's cloaths, comforted [him] ... arranged the bed, [and] inspired with courage, by renewing in him the hope that he should recover. —From him he went to another, that vomited offensive matter that would have disheartened any other than this wonderful man.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Government responses to crisis
News that patients treated at the hospital were recovering encouraged many people to believe that medicine was gaining control of the fever. But, it soon became clear that mortality at the hospital remained high; about 50% of those admitted died.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Reactions by other cities
As the death toll in the city rose, officials in neighboring communities and major port cities such as New York and Baltimore established quarantines for refugees and goods from Philadelphia. New York established a "Committee appointed to prevent the spreading and introduction of infectious diseases in this city", which set up citizen patrols to monitor entry to the city. Stage coaches from Philadelphia were not allowed in many cities. Havre de Grace, Maryland, for example, tried to prevent people from Philadelphia from crossing the Susquehanna River to Maryland. Neighboring cities did send food supplies and money; for example, New York City sent $5000 to the Mayor's Committee.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Reactions by other cities
Woodbury and Springfield, New Jersey; Chester, Pennsylvania and Elkton, Maryland, were among towns that accepted refugees. President Washington corresponded with members of his cabinet on where to assemble if the epidemic prevented Congress from meeting as scheduled in December. Washington decided to hold the cabinet in early November in Germantown, at that time an independent town ten miles from the heart of Philadelphia.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Carey's accusations
In his 1793 account of the epidemic, Mathew Carey contrasted the sacrifices of men like Joseph Inskeep, a Quaker who served on the Mayor's Committee and also visited the sick, with the selfishness of others. When Inskeep contracted the fever, he asked for the assistance of a family whom he had attended when several of its members were sick. They refused. He died, which might well have happened even if they had aided him. Carey reported their refusal.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Carey's accusations
He published rumors of greed, especially by landlords who threw convalescing tenants into the street to gain control of their flats. While he praised Richard Allen and Absalom Jones for their work, he suggested that blacks had caused the epidemic, and that some black nurses had charged high fees and even stolen from those for whom they cared.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Carey's accusations
Allen and Jones quickly wrote a pamphlet to defend the people of color in the crisis. The historian Julie Winch believes they wanted to defend their community, knowing how powerful Carey was, and wanting to maintain the reputation of their people in the aftermath of the epidemic. The men noted that the first nurses from the Free African Society had worked without any pay. As the mortality rate increased, they had to hire men to get anyone to deal with the sick and dying. They recounted that


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Carey's accusations
the great prices paid did not escape the observation of that worthy and vigilant magistrate, Matthew Clarkson, mayor of the city, and president of the committee. He sent for us, and requested we would use our influence to lessen the wages of the nurses. But on informing him of the cause, i.e. that of the people over-bidding one another, it was concluded unnecessary to attempt any thing on that head; therefore it was left to the people concerned.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Carey's accusations
Allen and Jones noted that white nurses also profited and stole from their patients. "We know that six pounds was demanded by and paid to a white woman, for putting a corpse into a coffin; and forty dollars was demanded and paid to four white men, for bringing it down the stairs." Many black nurses served without compensation:


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Carey's accusations
"A poor black man, named Sampson, went constantly from house to house where distress was, and no assistance, without fee or reward. He was smitten with the disorder, and died. After his death his family were neglected by those he had served. Sarah Bass, a poor black widow, gave all the assistance she could, in several families, for which she did not receive any thing; and when any thing was offered her, she left it to the option of those she served."


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Response of churches
Church clergy continued to hold services, which helped keep up residents' morale. Rev. J. Henry C. Helmuth, who led the city's German Lutheran congregation, wrote A Short Account of the Yellow Fever in Philadelphia for the Reflecting Christian. He also left a diary. On September 16 he reported that his church was "very full" the day before. In one week in October, 130 members of his congregation were buried. On October 13, he wrote in his diary:


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Response of churches
Preached to a large gathering about Jes.26,1. I showed that Philadelphia a very blessed city—the Lord is among us and especially in our congregation. I proved this with examples of dead and still living people. Baptized a child. Announced that I could not be with the corpses, that the sick should be reported to me in the morning so that I could visit them in the afternoon.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Response of churches
The Yearly Meeting of the Society of Friends at the Arch Street Meeting House drew 100 attendees, most from outside the city. The meetinghouse is not far from the waterfront where the epidemic had started. In their Yearly Epistle following the meeting, the Friends wrote that to have changed the time or place of the meeting would have been a "haughty attempt" to escape "the rod" of God, from which there was no escape. The Quaker John Todd, who attended the meeting, contracted the fever and died of it. His young widow, Dolley Payne Todd, later married James Madison, a Virginia congressman whom she met in Philadelphia and who later was elected as US president.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, End of the epidemic
Doctors, preachers, and laymen all looked to the coming of autumn to end the epidemic. At first they hoped a seasonal "equinoctial gale," or hurricane, common at that time of year, would blow away the fever. Instead, heavy rains in late September seemed to correlate with a higher rate of cases. Residents next anticipated freezing temperatures at night, which they knew were associated with ending fall fevers, but not why this was so. By the first two weeks of October, which was the peak of the crisis, gloom pervaded the city.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, End of the epidemic
Most churches had stopped holding services, and the post office moved out of the area of the highest number of cases. The market days continued, and bakers continued to make and distribute bread. Several members of the Mayor's Committee died. African-American nurses had also begun dying of the fever. Carts took ill victims to Bush Hill and the dead to burial grounds. Doctors also suffered illness and death, and fewer were available to care for patients. Three of Rush's apprentices and his sister died; he was too sick to leave his house. Such news cast doubts on Rush's methods, but none of those victims had submitted to his harsh treatment.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, End of the epidemic
Those refugees from Saint-Domingue who thought they had immunity used the streets freely, but few other residents did. Those who had not escaped the city tried to wait out the epidemic in their homes. When the Mayor's Committee took a quick census of the dead, they found that the majority of victims were poor people, who died in homes located in the alleys, behind the main streets where most of the business of city was conducted.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, End of the epidemic
On October 16, after temperatures cooled, a newspaper reported that "the malignant fever has very considerably abated." Stores began to reopen October 25, many families returned, and the wharves were "once more enlivened" as a London-based ship arrived with goods. The Mayor's Committee advised people outside the city to wait another week or 10 days before returning. In the belief that the epidemic was related to bad air, the Committee published directions for cleaning houses which had been closed up, recommending that they be aired for several days with all windows and doors open. "Burning of nitre will correct the corrupt air which they may contain. Quick lime should be thrown into the privies and the chambers whitewashed." On the 31st, a white flag was hoisted over Bush Hill with the legend, "No More Sick Persons Here."


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, End of the epidemic
But, after some warm days, fever cases recurred. The white flag had to be struck. Finally on November 13, stagecoaches resumed service to the north and south. A merchant reported that the streets were "in an uproar and rendered the wharves impossible by reason of the vast quantities of wine, sugar, rum, coffee, cotton & c. The porters are quite savvy and demand extravagantly for anything they do." On November 14, the Mayor's Committee recommended purifying houses, clothing and bedding, but said that anyone could come to the city "without danger from the late prevailing disorder."


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Lists of the dead
An official register of deaths listed 4044 people as dying between August 1 and November 9, 1793 based on grave counts, so the total was probably higher. City officials, medical and religious leaders, and newspaper publishers reported the number and names of victims, based on the minutes of the Mayor's Committee. The Appendix of the on-line edition of Minutes lists the names of all the patients admitted to Bush Hill hospital, as well as the disposition of their cases. The publisher Mathew Carey released his history of the epidemic just weeks after its end. He listed the names of the dead at the back of the book, which is one reason it was a bestseller. While Devèze did not reveal his patients' names in describing his treatments, Rush named his patients in his memoir.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic
The end of the epidemic did not end the controversies among the city's doctors, who disagreed about causes and treatment. Hearing rumors that colleagues were going to try to get him expelled from the College of Physicians, Rush resigned and formed a new medical society. Many of the city's younger doctors joined him. Rush's promotion of his remedies and attacks on others were strongly criticized by the medical community.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Cause
Merchants worried more about Rush's theory that the fever arose from the filth of Philadelphia and was not imported from the West Indies. They did not want the port's reputation to suffer permanently. Doctors used his treatments while rejecting his etiology of the disease. Others deprecated his therapies, such as Dr. Devèze, but agreed that the fever had local origins. Devèze had arrived on the refugee ship from Saint-Domingue, which many accused of having carried the disease, but he thought it healthy. The doctors did not understand the origin or transmittal of the disease. Historians believe it was carried by refugees from Saint-Domingue, where it was endemic, and transmitted by mosquitoes between infected and healthy persons.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
Dr. Kuhn advised drinking wine, "at first weaker wines, such as claret and Rhenish; if these cannot be had, Lisbon or Madeira diluted with rich lemonade. The quantity is to be determined by the effects it produces and by the state of debility which prevails, guarding against its occasioning or encreasing  the heat, restlessness or delirium." He placed "the greatest dependence for the cure to the disease, on throwing cool water twice a day over the naked body.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
The patient is to be placed in a large empty tub, and two buckets full of water, of the temperature 75 or 80 degrees Fahrenheit's thermometer, according to the state of the atmosphere, are to be thrown on him." The water treatment was also advocated by Dr. Edward Stevens, who in mid-September claimed it had cured Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, of the fever.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
Rush searched the medical literature for other approaches. Benjamin Franklin had given him letters sent by Dr. John Mitchell, related to treating patients during a 1741 yellow fever outbreak in Virginia. (Franklin never published the letters.) Mitchell noted that the stomach and intestines filled with blood and that these organs had to be emptied at all costs. "On this account," Mitchell argued, "an ill-timed scrupulousness about the weakness of the body is of bad consequences in these urging circumstances.... I can affirm that I have given a purge in this case, when the pulse has been so low that it can hardly be felt, and the debility extreme, yet both one and the other have been restored by it."


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
After experimenting, Rush decided that a powder of ten grains of calomel (mercury) and ten grains of the cathartic drug jalap (the poisonous root of a Mexican plant, Ipomoea purga, related to the morning glory, which was dried and powdered before ingesting) would create the desired elimination he was seeking. Since the demand for his services was so great, he had his assistants make as many of his powders in pill form as they could.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
On September 10, he published a guide to treating the fever: "Dr. Rush's Directions for Curing and Treating the Yellow Fever", outlining a regimen of self-medication. At the first sign of symptoms, "more especially if those symptoms be accompanied by a redness, or faint yellowness in the eyes, and dull or shooting pains about the region of the liver, take one of the powders in a little sugar and water, every six hours, until they produce four or five large evacuations from the bowels..." He urged that the patient stay in bed and "drink plentifully" of barley or chicken water.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
Then after the "bowels are thoroughly cleaned," it was proper to take 8 to 10 ounces of blood from the arm if, after purging, the pulse was full or tense. To keep the body open he recommended more calomel or small doses of cream of tartar or other salts. If the pulse was weak and low, he recommended camomile or snakeroot as a stimulant, and blisters or blankets soaked in hot vinegar wrapped around the lower limbs.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
To restore the patient he recommended "gruel, sago, panada, tapioca, tea, coffee, weak chocolate, wine whey, chicken broth, and white meats, according to the weak or active state of the system; the fruits of the season may be eaten with advantage at all times." The sick room should be kept cool and vinegar should be sprinkled around the floor.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
Rush's therapy was generalized as "purge and bleed," and as long as the patient remained debilitated, Rush urged further purging and bleeding. Not a few of his patients became comatose. The calomel in his pills soon brought on a state of constant salivation, which Rush urged patients to attain to assure a cure. A characteristic sign of death was black vomit, which salivation seemed to ward off. Since he urged purging at the first sign of fever, other doctors began seeing patients who suffered severe abdominal distress. Autopsies after their death revealed stomachs destroyed by such purges.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
Unlike other doctors, Devèze did not offer advice in the newspapers during the epidemic. He later discussed treatment in his memoir, which included 18 case studies and descriptions of several autopsies. While he deprecated Rush's harsh purgatives and "heroic" bleeding, he moderately bled patients and also used medicines to evacuate the bowels. Like Rush, he thought poisons had to be "abstracted" in severely debilitated patients. Instead of purges, he used blisters to raise welts on the skin. Unlike Kuhn, he did not favor baths. He preferred to apply heat, using hot bricks on hands or feet.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Controversies over the epidemic, Differing courses of treatment during the epidemic
He strongly discounted the traditional treatment for severe fevers, which was to wrap patients in blankets, give them camomile tea or Madeira, and try to bring on sweats. He preferred "acidulated" water to the use of Peruvian bark as many patients found the bark distasteful. He thought the use of opium very helpful.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
The Governor created a middle path: he ordered the city to be kept clean and the port policed to prevent infected ships, or those from the Caribbean, from docking until they had gone through a period of quarantine. The city suffered additional yellow fever epidemics in 1797, 1798, and 1799, which kept the origin and treatment controversies alive.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
Some of the city's clergy suggested the epidemic was a judgment from God. Led by the Quakers, the religious community petitioned the state legislature to prohibit theatrical presentations in the state. Such entertainment had been banned during the Revolution and had only recently been authorized. After an extensive debate in the newspapers, the State Assembly denied the petition.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
The recurrences of yellow fever kept discussions about causes, treatment and prevention going until the end of decade. Other major ports also had epidemics, beginning with Baltimore in 1794, New York in 1795 and 1798, and Wilmington and Boston in 1798, making yellow fever a national crisis. New York doctors finally admitted that they had had an outbreak of yellow fever in 1791 that killed more than 100 people. All the cities that suffered epidemics continued to grow rapidly. The widespread recognition that the epidemics were based along the waterfront meant that cities grew more rapidly in outlying areas, but that was also where land was available at lower cost. Families who could afford it planned to vacate the port cities during the sick season.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
During the epidemic of 1798, Benjamin Rush commuted daily from a house just outside the city, near what is now 15th and Columbia streets, to the new city fever hospital, where as chief doctor he treated fever victims. The civic responses to the 1798 epidemics in Philadelphia and New York were more complex than the efforts of the 1793 Mayor's Committee. For instance, Philadelphia forced evacuation of certain neighborhoods and placed refugees in supervised camps. After the epidemic, the city inspected all houses and destroyed those it deemed unhealthy.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
American doctors did not identify the vector of yellow fever until the late nineteenth century. In 1881 Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor, argued that mosquito bites caused yellow fever; he credited Rush's published account of the 1793 epidemic for giving him the idea. He said that Rush had written: "Mosquitoes (the usual attendants of a sickly autumn) were uncommonly numerous..." In the late 1880s, Finlay's theories were confirmed in Cuba by experiments of the US Medical Army Corps under direction of Dr. Walter Reed, in which subjects allowed themselves to be bitten by infected mosquitoes and were found to develop the disease.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
In the first week of September 1793, Dr. William Currie published a description of the epidemic and an account of its progress during August. The publisher Mathew Carey had an account of the epidemic for sale in the third week of October, before the epidemic had ended. He accused blacks of causing the epidemic and black nurses of overcharging patients and taking advantage of them.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
The reverends Richard Allen and Absalom Jones of the Free African Society published their own account rebutting Carey's attacks; by that time Carey had already published the fourth edition of his popular pamphlet. Allen and Jones noted that some blacks had worked for free, that they had died at the same rate as whites from the epidemic, and that some whites had also overcharged for their services.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
Currie's work was the first of several medical accounts published within a year of the epidemic. Dr. Benjamin Rush published an account more than 300 pages long. Two French doctors, Jean Devèze and Nassy, published shorter accounts. Clergymen also published accounts; the most notable was by the Lutheran minister J. Henry C. Helmuth. In March 1794, the Mayor's Committee published its minutes. (Letters written during the epidemic, which in some cases expressed the last sentiments of victims, were preserved by many families and have been a source for scholars in various archives.)


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
The rapid succession of other yellow fever epidemics in Philadelphia and elsewhere in the northeastern United States inspired many accounts of the efforts to contain, control and cope with the disease. Rush wrote accounts of the 1797, 1798, and 1799 epidemics in Philadelphia. He revised his account of the 1793 epidemic to eliminate reference to the disease being contagious. He varied his cures. In 1798 he was appointed as the chief doctor at the fever hospital. The mortality rate that year was roughly the same as it had been at Bush Hill in 1793, despite radical difference between the therapies used.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
Noah Webster, then a notable New York newspaper publisher, joined two doctors in publishing the Medical Repository, a magazine that collected accounts of fever epidemics throughout the nation. Webster used this data in his 1798 book, suggesting that the nation was being subjected to a widespread "epidemic constitution" in the atmosphere that might last 50 years and make deadly epidemics almost certain. Yellow fever epidemics became seen as a national crisis. When in 1855 a French doctor published an 813-page history of yellow fever in Philadelphia, covering outbreaks from 1699 to 1854, he devoted only a few pages to the 1793 epidemic.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
General 20th-century US histories, such as the 10-volume Great Epochs in American History, published in 1912, used short excerpts from Carey's account. The first history of the epidemic to draw on more primary sources was J. H. Powell's Bring Out Your Dead (1949), but he did not use the personal letters, which are largely held by Quaker colleges in the area. While Powell did not write a scholarly history of the epidemic, his work reviewed its historical importance. Since the mid-twentieth century, scholars have studied aspects of the epidemic, first in papers. For example, Martin Pernick's "Politics, Parties, and Pestilence: Epidemic Yellow Fever in Philadelphia and the Rise of the First Party System," developed statistical evidence to show that Republican doctors generally used Rush's therapies and Federalist doctors used Kuhn's.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Aftermath
Scholars celebrated the 200th anniversary of the epidemic with the publication of papers on various aspects of the epidemic. A 2004 paper in the Bulletin of the History of Medicine reexamined Rush's use of bleeding.


1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Representation in other media
Several novels and short stories have explored the Philadelphia epidemic, including the following:


1793 State of the Union Address
The 1793 State of the Union Address was given by George Washington, the first president of the United States. It was given in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania at Congress Hall. Washington stood before the 3rd United States Congress on Tuesday, December 3, 1793, and said, "While on the one hand it awakened my gratitude for all those instances of affectionate partiality with which I have been honored by my country, on the other it could not prevent an earnest wish for that retirement from which no private consideration should ever have torn me." He ended with, "Permit me to bring to your remembrance the magnitude of your task. Without an unprejudiced coolness the welfare of the Government may be hazarded; without harmony as far as consists with freedom of sentiment its dignity may be lost."


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York
The 1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York were held in January 1793, to elect 10 U.S. Representatives to represent the State of New York in the United States House of Representatives.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Background
Six U.S. Representatives had been elected in April 1790 to a term in the 2nd United States Congress beginning on March 4, 1791. One representative-elect had died in May 1790, and a representative had been elected in April 1791 to fill the vacancy. Their term would end on March 3, 1793.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Background
State elections in New York were at that time held during the last week of April, which meant that the State election preceding the beginning of the next congressional term was held more than ten months in advance, although the regular session of Congress was scheduled to convene only on the first Monday in December. Nevertheless, the New York Legislature had chosen in 1790 to have the congressional elections held that early, in case there might be a special session to convene at an earlier date. However, in 1792, Congress re-apportioned the seats, and New York's representation was increased from six to ten. This required a re-apportionment of congressional districts in the State which was enacted only in December 1792, and the elections were held only in January 1793.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
On January 27, 1789, the New York State Legislature had divided the State of New York into six congressional districts which were not numbered. On December 18, 1792, the Legislature divided the State into ten districts, which were still not numbered, taking into account the new counties created in 1791.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
Note: There are now 62 counties in the State of New York. The counties which are not mentioned in this list had not yet been established, or sufficiently organized, the area being included in one or more of the abovementioned counties.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
7 Federalists and 3 Anti- Federalist (later known as the Democratic-Republicans) were elected. The incumbents Tredwell and Gordon were re-elected; the incumbent Schoonmaker was defeated; and the incumbents John Laurance, Egbert Benson and Peter Silvester did not run for re-election.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
Note: At this time political parties were still very new in the United States. Politicians aligned in two opposing groups: Those supporting the federal government and those opposing it. The first group are generally known as the Federalists, or (as a group in Congress) the "Pro-Administration Party." The second group at first were called the Anti-Federalists, or (as a group in Congress) the "Anti-Administration Party", but soon called themselves "Republicans." However, at the same time, the Federalists called them "Democrats" which was meant to be pejorative. After some time both terms got more and more confused, and sometimes used together as "Democratic Republicans" which later historians have adopted (with a hyphen) to describe the party from the beginning, to avoid confusion with both the later established and still existing Democratic and Republican parties.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath
The House of Representatives of the 3rd United States Congress met for the first time at Congress Hall in Philadelphia on December 2, 1793, and nine of the ten representatives took their seats on this day. Only Thomas Tredwell arrived later, and took his seat on December 13.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath
On December 6, Henry K. Van Rensselaer contested the election of John E. Van Alen, alleging several irregularities to have happened in the towns of Stephentown and Hoosick, and in the area of the Manor of Rensselaerswyck. Van Rensselaer's petition was rejected on December 24 by the House, confirming Van Alen's election.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath
On June 5, 1794, President Washington chose Silas Talbot one of the first six captains of the newly established United States Navy. Talbot vacated his seat upon his appointment to the Navy, but Democratic-Republican Governor George Clinton declined to call e special election, in which another Federalist would have been elected, and the seat remained vacant until the end of the term on March 3, 1795.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in North Carolina
Following the 1790 census, North Carolina's apportionment increased from 5 to 10 seats.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina
South Carolina gained one representative as a result of the 1790 census, increasing from 5 to 6.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in Vermont
Vermont had no apportionment in the House of Representatives before 1790 census because it was not admitted to the Union until 1791. Vermont's election laws at the time required a majority to win election to the House of Representatives. If no candidate won a majority, a runoff election was held, which happened in the 1st district.


1793 United States House of Representatives elections in Virginia
Virginia gained nine representatives from the 1790 census, and in addition, the old 2nd district was lost after its territory became the new State of Kentucky. There were, therefore, ten new districts created for the 3rd Congress.


1793 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania
The 1793 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania was held on February 28, 1793. Albert Gallatin was elected by the Pennsylvania General Assembly to the United States Senate.


1793 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania, Background
Due to the initial staggering of United States Senate terms, the Class I seat held by William Maclay became vacant upon the expiration of Maclay's term on March 4, 1791. He had served since March 4, 1789, after being elected by the State Assembly in 1788. The election of a new Senator to succeed Maclay in 1791 was delayed due to a disagreement on the procedure to be followed in the election. The seat remained vacant until Albert Gallatin's election to the seat during this election.


1793 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania, Results
Upon agreement between the two houses of the Pennsylvania General Assembly, the House of Representatives and the Senate, regarding the procedure to elect a new Senator, an election was finally held on February 28, 1793. The results of the vote of both houses combined are as follows:


1793 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania, Results
On February 28, 1794, the United States Senate determined that Gallatin did not satisfy the citizenship requirement to serve in the Senate. He was subsequently removed from office. He later went on to serve in the United States House of Representatives. Gallatin was replaced in the Senate by another special election in the State Assembly in 1794.


1793 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1793 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place throughout September, and resulted in the re-election of Governor Thomas Chittenden to a one-year term.


1793 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Rutland on October 10. On October 11, the Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to examine the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council.


1793 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for governor, Thomas Chittenden, who had been governor from 1778 to 1789, and again starting in 1790, was re-elected for a one-year term. In the election for lieutenant governor, Peter Olcott was re-elected to a fourth one-year term. The freemen also re-elected Samuel Mattocks as treasurer, his seventh one-year term. The names of candidates and balloting totals for governor were recorded as detailed below.


1793 Zoya
1793 Zoya, provisional designation 1968 DW, is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 9 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 28 February 1968, by Russian astronomer Tamara Smirnova at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in Nauchnyj, on the Crimean peninsula, and named after World War II partisan Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya.


1793 Zoya, Orbit and classification
Zoya is a member of the Flora family, a large group of stony S-type asteroids in the inner main-belt. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.0–2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,211 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.10 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic.


1793 Zoya, Orbit and classification
First identified as 1932 MC at Johannesburg, Zoya's first used observation was taken at Uccle Observatory in 1933, when it was identified as 1933 UV, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 35 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1793 Zoya, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In May 2008, a rotational lightcurve of Zoya was obtained from photometric observations taken by astronomer James W. Brinsfield (G69), giving a rotation period of 5.753 hours with a brightness variation of 0.40 magnitude (U=2+), superseding a previous period of 7.0 hours obtained by Claes-Ingvar Lagerkvist in 1978 (U=2). Modeled lightcurves published in 2016, gave a period of 5.751872 and 5.75187, respectively (U=n.a. ).


1793 Zoya, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Zoya measures 8.35 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.334, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from 8 Flora, the largest member and namesake of this asteroid family – and calculates a diameter of 9.41 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 12.3.


1793 Zoya, Naming
This minor planet was named in memory of Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya (1923–1941), Hero of the Soviet Union, partisan who died at the age of 18 during World War II in the Great Patriotic War. The minor planets 2072 Kosmodemyanskaya and 1977 Shura were named in honour of her mother and brother. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 July 1972 (M.P.C. 3297).


1793 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1793 in Australia.


1793 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1793 to Wales and its people.


1793 in architecture
The year 1793 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.


1793 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1793.


1793 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1793 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1793 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1793 in science
The year 1793 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1793 in sports
1793 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1794
1794 (MDCCXCIV) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1794th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 794th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 94th  year of the 18th century, and the  5th   year of the 1790s decade. As of the start of 1794, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1794 English cricket season
The 1794 English cricket season was the 23rd in which matches have been awarded retrospective first-class cricket status and the eighth after the foundation of the Marylebone Cricket Club. The season saw 16 top-class matches played in the country.


1794 English cricket season, Matches
A total of 16 top-class matches were played during the season. These included matches played by teams from Kent, Middlesex and Surrey as well as Oldfield Cricket Club from Berkshire which played in five first-class matches, four of them against MCC.


1794 English cricket season, First mentions
Cricket is first known to have been played in Shropshire in 1794. A number of players made first-class debuts, including:


1794 Maryland's 2nd congressional district special election
A special election was held in Maryland's 2nd congressional district on May 5, 1794 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of John Francis Mercer (A) on April 13, 1794


1794 Maryland's 3rd congressional district special election
A special election was held in Maryland's 3rd congressional district on December 8, 1794 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Uriah Forrest (P) on November 8 of the same year.


1794 Maryland's 3rd congressional district special election, Election results
Edwards took his seat in the 3rd Congress on January 2, 1795.


1794 South Carolina's 5th congressional district special election
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by GoldRingChip (talk | contribs) at 18:15, 13 April 2020 (→References:  Special). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1794 South Carolina's 5th congressional district special election
A special election was held in South Carolina's 5th congressional district on October 13–14, 1794 to fill a vacancy left by the death of Alexander Gillon (A) on October 6, 1794.


1794 Treason Trials
The 1794 Treason Trials, arranged by the administration of William Pitt, were intended to cripple the British radical movement of the 1790s. Over thirty radicals were arrested; three were tried for high treason: Thomas Hardy, John Horne Tooke and John Thelwall. In a repudiation of the government's policies, they were acquitted by three separate juries in November 1794 to public rejoicing. The treason trials were an extension of the sedition trials of 1792 and 1793 against parliamentary reformers in both England and Scotland.