1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Chronology of the eruption
The 1815 Tambora eruption is the largest observed eruption in recorded history, as shown in Table 1. The explosion was heard 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) away, and ash fell at least 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) away.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Aftermath
On my trip towards the western part of the island, I passed through nearly the whole of Dompo and a considerable part of Bima. The extreme misery to which the inhabitants have been reduced is shocking to behold. There were still on the road side the remains of several corpses, and the marks of where many others had been interred: the villages almost entirely deserted and the houses fallen down, the surviving inhabitants having dispersed in search of food. ...


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Aftermath
Since the eruption, a violent diarrhoea has prevailed in Bima, Dompo, and Sang'ir, which has carried off a great number of people. It is supposed by the natives to have been caused by drinking water which has been impregnated with ashes; and horses have also died, in great numbers, from a similar complaint.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Aftermath
—Lt. Philips, ordered by Sir Stamford Raffles to go to Sumbawa.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Aftermath
All vegetation on the island was destroyed. Uprooted trees, mixed with pumice ash, washed into the sea and formed rafts up to five kilometres (three miles) across. Between 1 and 3 October the British ships Fairlie and James Sibbald encountered extensive pumice rafts about 3,600 kilometres (2,200 mi) west of Tambora. Clouds of thick ash still covered the summit on 23 April. Explosions ceased on 15 July, although smoke emissions were observed as late as 23 August. Flames and rumbling aftershocks were reported in August 1819, four years after the event.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Aftermath
A moderate-sized tsunami struck the shores of various islands in the Indonesian archipelago on 10 April, with a height of up to 4 m (13 ft) in Sanggar around 22:00. A tsunami of 1–2 m (3–7 ft) in height was reported in Besuki, East Java, before midnight, and one of 2 m (7 ft) in height in the Molucca Islands. The total death toll has been estimated to be around 4,600.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Aftermath
The eruption column reached the stratosphere at an altitude of more than 43 kilometres (141,000 ft). The coarser ash particles settled out one to two weeks after the eruptions, but the finer ash particles stayed in the atmosphere from a few months to a few years at altitudes of 10–30 kilometres (33,000–98,000 ft). Longitudinal winds spread these fine particles around the globe, creating optical phenomena. Prolonged and brilliantly coloured sunsets and twilights were seen frequently in London between 28 June and 2 July 1815 and 3 September and 7 October 1815. The glow of the twilight sky typically appeared orange or red near the horizon and purple or pink above.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Aftermath
The estimated number of deaths varies depending on the source. Zollinger (1855) puts the number of direct deaths at 10,000, probably caused by pyroclastic flows. On Sumbawa, 18,000 starved to death or died of disease. About 10,000 people on Lombok died from disease and hunger. Petroeschevsky (1949) estimated that about 48,000 people were killed on Sumbawa and 44,000 on Lombok. Stothers in 1984 and several other authors have accepted Petroeschevsky's claim of 88,000 deaths in total. However, a 1998 journal article authored by J. Tanguy and others claimed that Petroeschevsky's figures were unfounded and based on untraceable references.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Aftermath
Tanguy's revision of the death toll was based on Zollinger's work on Sumbawa for several months after the eruption and on Thomas Raffles's notes. Tanguy pointed out that there may have been additional victims on Bali and East Java because of famine and disease. Their estimate was 11,000 deaths from direct volcanic effects and 49,000 by post-eruption famine and epidemic diseases. Oppenheimer wrote that there were at least 71,000 deaths in total. Reid has estimated that 100,000 people on Sumbawa, Bali, and other locations died from the direct and indirect effects of the eruption.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Disruption of global temperatures
During the northern hemisphere summer of 1816, global temperatures cooled by 0.53 °C (0.95 °F). This very significant cooling directly or indirectly caused 90,000 deaths. The eruption of Mount Tambora was the most significant cause of this climate anomaly. While there were other eruptions in 1815, Tambora is classified as a VEI-7 eruption with a column 45 km (148,000 ft) tall, eclipsing all others by at least one order of magnitude.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Disruption of global temperatures
The VEI is used to quantify the amount of ejected material, with a VEI-7 being 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi). Every index value below that is one order of magnitude (meaning, ten times) less. Furthermore, the 1815 eruption occurred during a Dalton Minimum, a period of unusually low solar radiation. Volcanism plays a large role in climate shifts, both locally and globally. This was not always understood and did not enter scientific circles as fact until Krakatoa erupted in 1883 and tinted the skies orange.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Disruption of global temperatures
The scale of the volcanic eruption will determine the significance of the impact on climate and other chemical processes, but a change will be measured even in the most local of environments. When volcanoes erupt, they eject carbon dioxide (CO2), water, hydrogen, sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, and many other gases. (Meronen et al. 2012) CO2 and water are greenhouse gases, comprising 0.0394 percent and 0.4 percent of the atmosphere, respectively. Their small proportion disguises their significant role in trapping solar insolation and reradiating it back to Earth.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Disruption of global temperatures, Global effects
The 1815 eruption released SO2 into the stratosphere, causing a global climate anomaly. Different methods have estimated the ejected sulphur mass during the eruption: the petrological method; an optical depth measurement based on anatomical observations; and the polar ice core sulfate concentration method, using cores from Greenland and Antarctica. The figures vary depending on the method, ranging from 10 to 120 million tonnes.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Disruption of global temperatures, Global effects
In the spring and summer of 1815, a persistent "dry fog" was observed in the northeastern United States. The fog reddened and dimmed the sunlight, such that sunspots were visible to the naked eye. Neither wind nor rainfall dispersed the "fog". It was identified as a stratospheric sulfate aerosol veil. In summer 1816, countries in the Northern Hemisphere suffered extreme weather conditions, dubbed the "Year Without a Summer". Average global temperatures decreased by about 0.4 to 0.7 °C (0.7 to 1.3 °F), enough to cause significant agricultural problems around the globe.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Disruption of global temperatures, Global effects
On 4 June 1816, frosts were reported in the upper elevations of New Hampshire, Maine, Vermont, and northern New York. On 6 June 1816, snow fell in Albany, New York and Dennysville, Maine. On 8 June 1816, the snow cover in Cabot, Vermont was reported still to be 46 cm (18 in)  deep. Such conditions occurred for at least three months and ruined most agricultural crops in North America. Canada experienced extreme cold during that summer. Snow 30 cm (12 in) deep accumulated near Quebec City from 6 to 10 June 1816.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Disruption of global temperatures, Global effects
The second-coldest year in the Northern Hemisphere since around 1400 was 1816, and the 1810s are the coldest decade on record. That was the consequence of Tambora's 1815 eruption and possibly another VEI-6 eruption in late 1808. The surface temperature anomalies during the summer of 1816, 1817, and 1818 were −0.51 °C (−0.92 °F), −0.44 °C (−0.79 °F), and −0.29 °C (−0.52 °F), respectively. Parts of Europe also experienced a stormier winter.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Disruption of global temperatures, Global effects
This climate anomaly has been blamed for the severity of typhus epidemics in southeast Europe and along the eastern Mediterranean Sea between 1816 and 1819. The climate changes disrupted the Indian monsoons, caused three failed harvests and famine, and contributed to the spread of a new strain of cholera that originated in Bengal in 1816. Many livestock died in New England during the winter of 1816–1817. Cool temperatures and heavy rains resulted in failed harvests in Britain and Ireland. Families in Wales travelled long distances as refugees, begging for food.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Disruption of global temperatures, Global effects
Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat, and potato harvests. The crisis was severe in Germany, where food prices rose sharply, and demonstrations in front of grain markets and bakeries, followed by riots, arson, and looting, took place in many European cities. It was the worst famine of the 19th century.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Effects of volcanism
Volcanism affects the atmosphere in two distinct ways: short-term cooling caused by reflected insolation and long-term warming from increased CO2 levels. Most of the water vapor and CO2 is collected in clouds within a few weeks to months because both are already present in large quantities, so the effects are limited. It has been suggested that a volcanic eruption in 1809 may also have contributed to a reduction in global temperatures.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
By most calculations, the eruption of Tambora was at least a full order of magnitude (10 times) as large as that of Mount Pinatubo in 1991. (Graft et al. 1993) An estimated 1,220 m (4,000 ft) of the top of the mountain collapsed to form a caldera, reducing the height of the summit by a third. Around 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) of rock was blasted into the air. (Williams 2012). Toxic gases also were pumped into the atmosphere, including sulfur that caused lung infections. (Cole-Dai et al. 2009)


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
Volcanic ash was over 100 cm (40 in) deep within 75 km (45 mi) of the eruption, while areas within a 500 km (300 mi) radius saw a 5 cm (2 in) ash fall, and ash could be found as far away as 1,300 kilometres (810 mi). The ash burned and smothered crops, creating an immediate shortage of food in Indonesia. (Cole-Dai et al. 2009) The ejection of these gases, especially hydrogen chloride, caused the precipitation to be extremely acidic, killing much of the crops that survived or were rebudding during the spring. The food shortages were compounded by the Napoleonic wars, floods, and cholera. Its energy release was equivalent to about 33 gigatons of TNT.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
The ash in the atmosphere for several months after the eruption reflected significant amounts of solar radiation, causing unseasonably cool summers that contributed to food shortages. China, Europe, and North America had well-documented below normal temperatures, which devastated their harvests. The monsoon season in China and India was altered, causing flooding in the Yangtze Valley and forcing thousands of Chinese to flee coastal areas. (Granados et al. 2012) The gases also reflected some of the already-decreased incoming solar radiation, causing a 0.4 to 0.7 °C (0.7 to 1.3 °F) decrease in global temperatures throughout the decade.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
An ice dam formed in Switzerland during the summers of 1816 and 1817, earning 1816 the title "Year without a Summer". The winter months of 1816 were not much different from previous years, but the spring and summer maintained the cool-to-freezing temperatures. The winter of 1817, however, was radically different, with temperatures below −34 °C (−30 °F) in central and northern New York, which were cold enough to freeze lakes and rivers that were normally used to transport supplies.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
Both Europe and North America suffered from freezes lasting well into June, with snow accumulating to 32 cm (13 in) in August, which killed recently planted crops and crippled the food industry. The length of the growing seasons in parts of Massachusetts and New Hampshire were less than 80 days in 1816, resulting in harvest failures. (Oppenheimer 2003) Visually unique sunsets were observed in western Europe, and red fog was observed along the eastern coast of the U.S. These unique atmospheric conditions persisted for the better part of 2.5 years. (Robock 2000)


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
Scientists have used ice cores to monitor atmospheric gases during the cold decade (1810–1819), and the results have been puzzling. The sulfate concentrations found in both Siple Station, Antarctica and central Greenland bounced from 5.0 in January 1816 to 1.1 in August 1818. This means that 25–30 teragrams of sulfur were ejected into the atmosphere, most of which came from Tambora, followed by a rapid decrease through natural processes. Tambora caused the largest shift in sulfur concentrations in ice cores for the past 5,000 years.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
Estimates of the sulfur yield vary from 10 teragrams (Black et al. 2012) to 120 teragrams (Stothers 2000), with the average of the estimates being 25–30 teragrams. The high concentrations of sulfur could have caused a four-year stratospheric warming of around 15 °C (27 °F), resulting in a delayed cooling of surface temperatures that lasted for nine years. (Cole-Dai et al. 2009) This has been dubbed a "volcanic winter", similar to a nuclear winter because of the overall decrease in temperatures and abysmal farming conditions.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
Climate data have shown that the variance between daily lows and highs may have played a role in the lower average temperature because the fluctuations were much more subdued. Generally, the mornings were warmer because of nightly cloud cover and the evenings were cooler because the clouds had dissipated. There were documented fluctuations of cloud cover for various locations that suggested it was a nightly occurrence and the sun killed them off, much like a fog. The class boundaries between 1810–1830 without volcanically perturbed years was around 7.9 °C (14.2 °F).


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
In contrast, the volcanically perturbed years (1815–1817) had a change of only around 2.3 °C (4.1 °F). This meant that the mean annual cycle in 1816 was more linear than bell shaped and 1817 endured cooling across the board. Southeastern England, northern France, and the Netherlands experienced the greatest amount of cooling in Europe, accompanied by New York, New Hampshire, Delaware, and Rhode Island in North America.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
The documented rainfall was as much as 80 percent more than the calculated normal with regards to 1816, with unusually high amounts of snow in Switzerland, France, Germany, and Poland. This is again contrasted by the unusually low precipitations in 1818, which caused droughts throughout most of Europe and Asia. (Auchmann et al. 2012) Russia had already experienced unseasonably warm and dry summers since 1815 and this continued for the next three years. There are also documented reductions in ocean temperature near the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Impact of the eruption
This seems to have been an indicator of shifted oceanic circulation patterns and possibly changed wind direction and speed. (Meronen et al. 2012)Taking into account the Dalton Minimum and the presence of famine and droughts predating the eruption, the Tambora eruption accelerated or exacerbated the extreme climate conditions of 1815. While other eruptions and other climatological events would have led to a global cooling of about 0.2 °C (0.4 °F), Tambora increased on that benchmark substantially.


1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Comparison of selected volcanic eruptions
Source: Oppenheimer (2003), and Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program for VEI.


1815 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1815 in Australia.


1815 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1815 in Chile.


1815 in Chile, Incumbents
Royal Governor of Chile: Mariano Osorio (-26 December), Francisco Marcó del Pont (26 December)


1815 in New Zealand
The first Christian mission is established at Rangihoua. The Hansen family, the first non-missionary family also settles there. Samuel Marsden explores the Hauraki Gulf and travels to within sight of Tauranga Harbour. The first book in Māori is published in Sydney. The first European is born in New Zealand.


1815 in New Zealand
Visits by sealing ships begin to decline; they are now sealing almost exclusively at the Macquarie and Campbell Islands and travel either via the east coast of New Zealand (calling at the Bay of Islands en route for refreshments) or via the southern fjords/Foveaux Strait/Stewart Island (stopping for refreshments in either/both directions).


1815 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1815 in South Africa.


1815 in Sri Lanka
1815 in Sri Lanka marks the turn from the Kandyan period to the British Ceylon period, when the Kingdom of Kandy was disestablished and the creation of British Ceylon as the sole polity on the island.


1815 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1815 to Wales and its people.


1815 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1815.


1815 in paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1815.


1815 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1815 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1815 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1815 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1815.


1815 in science
The year 1815 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1815 in sports
1815 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1815 in the United Kingdom
Events from the year 1815 in the United Kingdom. 1815 marks the end of years of war between the United Kingdom and France when the Duke of Wellington wins a decisive victory over Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. Fighting in the War of 1812 between the UK and the United States also ceases, peace terms having been agreed at the end of 1814. The year also sees the introduction of the Corn Laws which protect British land owners from cheaper foreign imports of corn.


1815 in the United States
Events from the year 1815 in the United States. As news slowly spread of the Treaty of Ghent (1814) ending the War of 1812, battles between American and British forces continued in the early months of the year.


1815–1816 Massachusetts legislature
The 36th Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1815 and 1816 during the governorship of Caleb Strong. John Phillips served as president of the Senate and Timothy Bigelow served as speaker of the House.


1816
1816 (MDCCCXVI) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1816th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 816th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 16th  year of the 19th century, and the  7th   year of the 1810s decade. As of the start of 1816, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1816
This year was known as the Year Without a Summer, because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, possibly the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815, causing severe global cooling, catastrophic in some locations.


1816 Delaware gubernatorial election
The 1816 Delaware gubernatorial election was held on October 1, 1816. Incumbent Federalist Governor Daniel Rodney was unable to seek re-election due to term limits. Former State Representative John Clark ran as the Federalist nominee, and narrowly defeated Democratic-Republican nominee Manaen Bull to hold the office for his party.


1816 Delaware gubernatorial election, Bibliography
This Delaware elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1816 French legislative election
The 1816 French general election organized the first legislature of the Second Restoration. The election was held on 25 September and 4 October.


1816 French legislative election
All electors elected three-fifths of all deputies in the first round. In the second round, the most heavily taxed voted again to elect the remaining two-fifths of deputies.


1816 Georgia's at-large congressional district special election
In December 1816, a special election was held in Georgia's at-large district to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Alfred Cuthbert (DR) on November 9. Cuthbert himself had been elected in a special election in 1813.


1816 Georgia's at-large congressional district special election, Election results
Cook took his seat in Congress on January 23, 1817.


1816 Guatemala earthquake
The 1816 Guatemala earthquake occurred at 15:30 UTC on 22 July. It had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 to 7.75 on the Mw and a maximum perceived intensity of IX (Violent) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It was caused by movement on the Chixoy-Polochic Fault. The area affected by shaking up to intensity VII (Very strong) was at least 13,000 km2. At least 23 deaths were reported. The discovery of this earthquake 175 years after it occurred was based on study of historical documents, and is notable for showing that this portion of Guatemala, previously believed by many planners to be of low seismic risk, has experienced, and is at further risk of, very large earthquakes.


1816 Indiana gubernatorial election
The 1816 Indiana gubernatorial election took place on August 5, 1816, under the provisions of the recently ratified Constitution of Indiana. It was the first gubernatorial election in the State of Indiana. Jonathan Jennings, the longtime U.S. territorial delegate from Indiana and president of the state's constitutional convention, defeated Thomas Posey, the incumbent territorial governor, with 56.9% of the vote. The election was held concurrently with elections for lieutenant governor and members of the Indiana General Assembly.


1816 Indiana gubernatorial election
At the time of the election, the Democratic-Republican Party was dominant nationally following the War of 1812, and the politics of the new state were conducted on a nonpartisan basis. Geographic factionalism and the personal reputation of the candidates provided the ammunition with which the campaign would be fought. In spite of this, the campaign was spirited: of the barely more than 12,000 eligible voters, more than 9,000 cast ballots in the gubernatorial election.


1816 Indiana gubernatorial election
Jennings was well known to the voting public, having represented the Indiana Territory in the United States Congress for more than half a decade. A resident of Clark County, he was associated with the Eastern faction in territorial politics and a leading opponent of slavery. In a campaign typical of the era, he presented his visits with voters as personal in nature in order to avoid the appearance of electioneering. Posey, the incumbent, was unpopular and, due to his absence from the territorial capital in Corydon, lacked the necessary political connections to wage an effective campaign. On election day, Jennings defeated Posey handily by a margin of well over 1,000 votes.


1816 Indiana gubernatorial election, Results, Results by county
The official election returns appear to have been lost. The Vincennes Western Sun in its editions of August 17 and 24, 1816 gives the returns of four of the state's fifteen counties as follows.


1816 Kentucky's 1st congressional district special election
In April 1816, James Clark (DR), of Kentucky's 1st district, resigned his seat to accept a position as circuit court judge. A special election was held for his replacement.


1816 Kentucky's 1st congressional district special election, Election results
Fletcher took his seat on December 2, at the start of the second session of the 14th Congress.


1816 Louisiana gubernatorial election
The 1816 Louisiana gubernatorial election was the second gubernatorial election to take place after Louisiana achieved statehood. Under Article III Sec 2 of the 1812 Constitution of the State of Louisiana the Governor was elected in two steps. On the first Monday in July, eligible voters went to the polls and voted. The returns were sent to the President of the Louisiana State Senate. On the second day of the session of the Louisiana State Legislature, the Louisiana House of Representatives and Senate met in joint session and voted between the top two candidates. The candidate who received a majority in General Assembly became governor.


1816 Maryland's 3rd congressional district special election
A special election was held in Maryland's 3rd congressional district in 1816 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Alexander C. Hanson (F) upon being elected to the United States Senate.


1816 Maryland's 5th congressional district special elections
The 1816 special elections for Maryland's 5th congressional district were to fill two separate vacancies. The 5th district was a plural district, with two seats. Both seats were vacated, the first by Representative Nicholas R. Moore (DR) in 1815, before the 14th Congress even met, and the second by Rep. William Pinkney (DR) on April 18, 1816 after being named Minister to Russia.


1816 Maryland's 5th congressional district special elections, Election results, January election
The first special election was held on January 27, 1816 to replace Moore.


1816 Maryland's 5th congressional district special elections, Election results, January election
Smith took his seat in the 14th Congress on February 4, 1816.


1816 Maryland's 5th congressional district special elections, Election results, September election
The second election was held on September 3 to fill the vacancy left by Pickney's resignation.


1816 Maryland's 5th congressional district special elections, Election results, September election
Little took his seat on December 2, 1816, at the start of the Second Session.


1816 Massachusetts's 11th congressional district special election
A special election was held in Massachusetts's 11th congressional district on August 26, 1816, to fill a vacancy left by the death of Elijah Brigham (F) on February 22, 1816.


1816 Massachusetts's 11th congressional district special election, Election results
Adams took his seat December 2, 1816 and was also elected in the November elections.


1816 New York gubernatorial election
The 1816 New York gubernatorial election was held in April 1816 to elect the Governor and Lieutenant Governor of New York. Governor Tompkins had received the nomination of the Congressional Caucus for Vice President as James Monroe's running-mate. Senator King would receive the votes for President of those Federalist Electors chosen that fall.


1816 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The Democratic-Republican Party nominated incumbent Daniel D. Tompkins. They nominated incumbent John Tayler for Lieutenant Governor.


1816 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The Federalist Party nominated U.S. senator Rufus King. They nominated state senator George Tibbits for Lieutenant Governor.


1816 New York's 20th congressional district special election
On June 4, 1816, after being defeated for re-election, Enos T. Throop (DR) of New York's 20th district resigned his seat. A special election was held in September of that year to fill the vacancy left for the remainder of the 14th Congress


1816 New York's 21st congressional district special election
A special election was held in New York's 21st congressional district April 30-May 2, 1816 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Peter B. Porter (DR) on January 23, 1816 after being appointed a Commissioner under the Treaty of Ghent. The special election was held at the same time as the general elections to the 15th Congress in New York.


1816 North Carolina's 6th congressional district special election
On December 15, 1815, having been elected to the Senate, Nathaniel Macon (DR) of North Carolina's 6th district resigned. To fill the vacancy left in North Carolina's representation for the 14th Congress, a special election was held on January 22, 1816.


1816 North Carolina's 6th congressional district special election, Election results
Edwards took his seat on February 7, 1816, during the First Session of the 14th Congress.


1816 North Carolina's 8th congressional district special election
On April 16, 1816, Richard Stanford (DR) of North Carolina's 8th district died in office. A special election was held to fill the resulting vacancy


1816 North Carolina's 8th congressional district special election, Election results
Dickens took his seat December 2, 1816, at the start of the Second Session of the 14th Congress.


1816 Ohio's 1st congressional district special election
In April, 1816, John McLean (DR) of Ohio's 1st district resigned. A special election was called to fill the resulting vacancy.


1816 Pennsylvania's 9th congressional district special election
On October 8, 1816, a special election was held in Pennsylvania's 9th district, the second special election in that district in the 14th Congress. The reason for the special election was Thomas Burnside (DR)'s resignation to accept a judicial appointment in April of that year. Burnside himself had been elected to the seat in the previous special election.


1816 Pennsylvania's 9th congressional district special election, Election results
Maclay took his seat December 3, 1816, at the start of the 2nd session of the 14th Congress


1816 State of the Union Address
The 1816 State of the Union Address was the last annual address given by President James Madison, the fourth president of the United States.


1816 State of the Union Address, History
It was given on Tuesday, December 3, 1816. It was read in Washington, D.C, addressed to both houses of Congress. It was the 26th address given, given to the 14th United States Congress. The United States House of Representatives and Senate were addressed.


1816 State of the Union Address, Description
To open the speech, Madison acknowledges the recent agricultural shortfall brought on by the Year Without a Summer:


1816 State of the Union Address, Description
In reviewing the present state of our country, our attention cannot be withheld from the effect produced by peculiar seasons; which have very generally impaired the annual gifts of the Earth, and threaten scarcity in particular districts.


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, International affairs
Madison then sets the stage with the recent conclusion of two wars, and the attendant "invigoration of industry." First, the "peace in Europe," referring to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815 and the beginning of what would be called the Pax Britannica. Second, the conclusion of the War of 1812, ushering in the period in the United States that would be called the Era of Good Feelings.


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, International affairs
Despite the peaceful era, Madison regrets the weakness of American industry and international trade, noting that a "depression is experienced by particular branches of our manufactures, and by a portion of our navigation."


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, International affairs
Nevertheless, Madison asserts that "we remain in amity with foreign powers," albeit with the qualification that an American ship was attacked by a Spanish one in the Gulf of Mexico, and that the state of affairs with Algiers is "not known." (But the relations with the other Barbary states have "undergone no change.")


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, International affairs
As to the North American continent, Madison sees overall "tranquillity" in the affairs with Indians, happily promoting "civilization."


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, International affairs
I am happy to add, that the tranquillity which has been restored among the Tribes themselves, as well as between them and our own population, favor the resumption of the work of civilization, which had made an encouraging progress among some Tribes; and that the facility is encreasing, for extending that divided and individual ownership, which exists now in moveable property only, to the soil itself, and of thus establishing in the culture and improvement of it; the true foundation for a transit from the habits of the Savage; to the arts and comforts of social life.


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, Domestic affairs
Madison then recommends reorganization of the militia, and urges progress on other domestic matters, including a standardization of weights and measures, establishing a university in Washington, DC, reform of the criminal justice system, enforcement against importing slaves, and reform of the executive branch bureaucracy.


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, Domestic affairs
Madison next addresses finances, noting a surplus of some nine million dollars in the treasury for 1816—that is, the difference between $47 million in revenue, and $38 million in expenditure. (The national nevertheless had over $100 million in debt.) Madison encourages reform of the monetary system to smooth the handling of the government's finances:


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, Domestic affairs
for the interests of the community at large, as well as for the purposes of the Treasury, it is essential that the nation should possess a currency of equal value, credit, and use, wherever it may circulate.


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, Peroration
Finally, Madison takes the opportunity to reflect on his years of service in government, thanking the citizens for their "support" and asserting that he is leaving the nation in a prosperous and peaceful state.


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, Peroration
I can indulge the proud reflection, that the American people have reached in safety and success their fortieth year, as an independent nation; that for nearly an entire generation, they have had experience of their present constitution, the offspring of their undisturbed deliberations and of their free choice; that they have found it to bear the trials of adverse as well as prosperous circumstances; to contain in its combination of the federate and elective principles, a reconcilement of public strength with individual liberty, of national power for the defence of national rights, with a security against wars of injustice, of ambition or of vain glory, in the fundamental provision which subjects all questions of war to the will of the nation itself, which is to pay its costs, and feel its calamities.


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, Peroration
Furthermore, Madison notes that the young nation has room to grow across the continent.


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, Peroration
At the end of the speech, focusing on world peace, Madison hopes for a government that:


1816 State of the Union Address, Description, Peroration
seeks, by appeals to reason, and by its liberal examples, to infuse into the law which governs the civilised world, a spirit which may diminish the frequency or circumscribe the calamities of war, and meliorate the social and beneficent relations of peace: A Government, in a word, whose conduct within and without, may bespeak the most noble of all ambitions, that of promoting peace on Earth, and good will to man.


1816 United States House of Representatives election in Delaware, Notes
This Delaware elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1816 United States House of Representatives election in Indiana
The newly created state of Indiana elected its sole member of the U.S. House of Representatives in August 1816, in advance of statehood, to represent Indiana's at-large congressional district.


1816 United States House of Representatives election in Indiana
Democratic-Republican William Hendricks was elected with 80.2% of the vote over Allen Thom who received 19.7% of the vote.


1816 United States House of Representatives election in Indiana
The state was admitted December 11, 1816 and the new member was admitted on that day to the 14th Congress which would end March 3, 1817.


1816 United States House of Representatives election in Indiana
Hendricks was re-elected August 4, 1817 to the 15th Congress.


1816 United States House of Representatives election in New Hampshire, Notes
This New Hampshire elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1816 United States House of Representatives election in Vermont
Vermont elected its members September 3, 1816, replacing its six Federalists with six Democratic-Republicans.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in Kentucky, Notes
This Kentucky elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York
The 1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York were held from April 23 to 25, 1816, to elect 27 U.S. Representatives to represent the State of New York in the United States House of Representatives of the 15th United States Congress. At the same time, a vacancy was filled in the 14th United States Congress.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Background
27 U.S. Representatives had been elected in April 1814 to a term in the 14th United States Congress beginning on March 4, 1815. Representative-elect Benjamin Pond died on October 6, 1814, and Asa Adgate was elected in April 1815 to fill the vacancy. Jonathan Fisk resigned his seat in March 1815, and James W. Wilkin was elected in April 1815 to fill the vacancy. John Adams and William S. Smith had been declared elected, and credentials issued by the Secretary of State of New York, but did not take or claim their seats.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Background
In December 1815, Erastus Root and Westel Willoughby, Jr. contested the former's elections, and were seated. Peter B. Porter resigned his seat on January 23, 1816, leaving a vacancy in the 21st District. The other 26 representatives' term would end on March 3, 1817. The congressional elections were held together with the State elections in late April 1816, about ten months before the term would start on March 4, 1817, and about a year and a half before Congress actually met on December 1, 1817.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
The districts remained the same as at the previous elections in 1814.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
Note: There are now 62 counties in the State of New York. The counties which are not mentioned in this list had not yet been established, or sufficiently organized, the area being included in one or more of the abovementioned counties.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
22 Democratic-Republicans and 5 Federalists were elected to the 15th Congress; and one Democratic-Republican to fill the vacancy in the 14th Congress. The incumbents Townsend, Irving, Wendover, Wilkin, Taylor, Savage and Comstock were re-elected; the incumbents Lovett, Throop and Brooks were defeated.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
Note: The Anti- Federalists called themselves "Republicans." However, at the same time, the Federalists called them "Democrats" which was meant to be pejorative. After some time both terms got more and more confused, and sometimes used together as "Democratic Republicans" which later historians have adopted (with a hyphen) to describe the party from the beginning, to avoid confusion with both the later established and still existing Democratic and Republican parties.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special elections
After being defeated for re-election, Enos T. Throop resigned his seat on June 4, 1816. A special election to fill the vacancy was held in September 1816, and was won by Daniel Avery, of the same party. Avery took his seat in the 14th United States Congress on December 3, 1816.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special elections
Archibald S. Clarke took his seat in the 14th Congress on December 2, 1816.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special elections
Henry B. Lee, elected in the 4th District, died on February 18, 1817, before his congressional term began. A special election to fill the vacancy was held at the time of the annual State election in April 1817, and was won by James Tallmadge, Jr., of the same party.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath and special elections
The House of Representatives of the 15th United States Congress met for the first time at the Old Brick Capitol in Washington, D.C., on December 1, 1817, and 26 representatives took their seats. Only David A. Ogden arrived later, and took his seat on January 8, 1818.


1816 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina, Notes
This South Carolina elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1816 United States elections
The 1816 United States elections elected the members of the 15th United States Congress. Mississippi and Illinois were admitted as states during the 15th Congress. The election took place during the First Party System. The Democratic-Republican Party controlled the Presidency and both houses of Congress, while the Federalist Party provided only limited opposition. The election marked the start of the Era of Good Feelings, as the Federalist Party became nearly irrelevant in national politics after the War of 1812 and the Hartford Convention.


1816 United States elections
In the Presidential election, Democratic-Republican Secretary of State James Monroe easily defeated Federalist Senator Rufus King of New York. Monroe faced a more difficult challenge in securing his party's nomination, but was able to defeat Secretary of War William H. Crawford in the Democratic-Republican congressional nominating caucus. The Federalists never again fielded a presidential candidate.


1816 United States elections
In the House, Democratic-Republicans won major gains, and continued to dominate the chamber.


1816 United States elections
In the Senate, Democratic-Republicans picked up a moderate number of seats, increasing their already-dominant majority.


1816 United States presidential election
The 1816 United States presidential election was the eighth quadrennial presidential election. It was held from November 1 to December 4, 1816. In the first election following the end of the War of 1812, Democratic-Republican candidate James Monroe defeated Federalist Rufus King. The election was the last in which the Federalist Party fielded a presidential candidate.


1816 United States presidential election
As President James Madison chose to retire after serving two terms, the Democratic-Republicans held a congressional nominating caucus in March 1816. With the support of Madison and former President Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State Monroe defeated Secretary of War William H. Crawford to win his party's presidential nomination. Governor Daniel D. Tompkins of New York won the Democratic-Republican vice presidential nomination, continuing the party's tradition of balancing a presidential nominee from Virginia with a vice presidential nominee from either New York or New England. The Federalists did not formally nominate a ticket, but Senator King of New York emerged as the de facto Federalist candidate.


1816 United States presidential election
The previous four years of American politics were dominated by the effects of the War of 1812. Its drawn outcome and the peace concluded in 1815 were satisfactory to the American people, and the Democratic-Republicans received credit for the results. Federalists were discredited by having opposed the war and by radical rhetoric from New England Federalists at the Hartford Convention. Also, President Madison had adopted certain measures favored by Federalists, including a national bank and protective tariffs. The Federalists had little to campaign on, and Monroe easily won the Electoral College, carrying 16 of the 19 states.


1816 United States presidential election, Nominations, Democratic-Republican Party nomination, Declined to run
James Monroe was the favorite candidate of both former President Jefferson and retiring President Madison. However, Monroe faced stiff competition from Secretary of War William H. Crawford of Georgia. Also, there was widespread sentiment, especially in New York, that it was time to end the Virginia dynasty of presidents, resulting in Daniel D. Tompkins and Simon Snyder, the governors of New York and Pennsylvania respectively, briefly considering running for the nomination. But Monroe's long record of service at home and abroad made him a fitting candidate to succeed Madison.


1816 United States presidential election, Nominations, Democratic-Republican Party nomination, Declined to run
Crawford never formally declared himself a candidate, because he believed that he had little chance against Monroe and feared such a contest might deny him a place in the new cabinet. Tompkins and Snyder realized they had even less chance of beating Monroe to the nomination, and instead positioned themselves to run for the vice-presidency. Still, Crawford's supporters posed a significant challenge to Monroe.


1816 United States presidential election, Nominations, Democratic-Republican Party nomination, Declined to run
In March 1816, Democratic-Republican congressmen in caucus nominated Monroe for President and Tompkins for Vice President. Monroe defeated Crawford for the nomination by a vote of 65 to 54, while Tompkins defeated Snyder by a wider margin of 85 votes to 30.


1816 United States presidential election, Nominations, Federalist Party candidates
In hopes of uniting with disaffected Democratic-Republicans, as they had in the previous election, the Federalists initially planned to hold their own congressional nominating caucus after that of the Democratic-Republicans. With the end of the war and the nomination of Monroe, the Federalists abandoned their hopes of another fusion ticket, and the demoralized party failed to formally nominate a candidate.


1816 United States presidential election, Nominations, Federalist Party candidates
Senator Rufus King of New York, who had been the party's 1804 and 1808 vice presidential nominee, and who had been nominated for president by a dissident faction of the party in 1812, eventually emerged as the de facto Federalist candidate. Several Federalists would receive electoral votes for vice president, with former Senator John Eager Howard of Maryland receiving the most votes.


1816 United States presidential election, General election, Dispute about Indiana
On February 12, 1817, the House and Senate met in joint session to count the electoral votes for president and vice president. The count proceeded without incident until the roll came to the last state to be counted, Indiana. At that point, Representative John W. Taylor of New York objected to the counting of Indiana's votes. He argued that Congress had acknowledged the statehood of Indiana in a joint resolution on December 11, 1816, whereas the ballots of the Electoral College had been cast on December 4, 1816.


1816 United States presidential election, General election, Dispute about Indiana
He claimed that at the time of the balloting, there had been merely a Territory of Indiana, not a State of Indiana. Other representatives contradicted Taylor, asserting that the joint resolution merely recognized that Indiana had already joined the Union by forming a state constitution and government on June 29, 1816. These representatives pointed out that both the House and Senate had seated members from Indiana who had been elected prior to the joint resolution, which would have been unconstitutional had Indiana not been a state at the time of their election. Representative Samuel D. Ingham then moved that the question be postponed indefinitely. The House agreed almost unanimously, and the Senate was brought back in to count the electoral votes from Indiana. The issue had no bearing on the final result.


1816 United States presidential election, General election, Results
When the votes were counted, Monroe had won all but three of the nineteen states. King thought that a Monroe victory was inevitable, and did not seriously contest the election.


1816 United States presidential election, General election, Results
Each of the three states that were won by King voted for a different person for vice president. Massachusetts electors voted for former United States Senator (and future Governor) John Eager Howard of Maryland. Delaware chose a different Marylander, sitting United States Senator Robert Goodloe Harper. Connecticut split its vote between James Ross of Pennsylvania and Chief Justice John Marshall.


1816 United States presidential election, General election, Results
Maryland did not choose its electors as a slate; rather, it divided itself into electoral districts, with each district choosing one elector. Three of Maryland's eleven districts were won by Federalist electors. However, these electors did not vote for King or for a Federalist vice president, instead casting blank votes as a protest.


1816 United States presidential election, General election, Results
Source (Popular Vote): A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825


1816 United States presidential election, General election, Results
(a) Only 10 of the 19 states chose electors by popular vote. (b) Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements. (c) One Elector from Delaware and three Electors from Maryland did not vote.


1816 United States presidential election, Results by state
Elections in this period were vastly different from modern day Presidential elections. The actual Presidential candidates were rarely mentioned on tickets and voters were voting for particular electors who were pledged to a particular candidate. There was sometimes confusion as to who the particular elector was actually pledged to. Results are reported as the highest result for an elector for any given candidate. For example, if three Monroe electors received 100, 50, and 25 votes, Monroe would be recorded as having 100 votes. Confusion surrounding the way results are reported may lead to discrepancies between the sum of all state results and national results.


1816 United States presidential election, Results by state
The Federalist parties of New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Virginia did not provide a slate of electors, and as such Monroe was virtually unopposed in these states (though trivial Federalist electors received a handful of votes in New Jersey and Virginia).


1816 United States presidential election, Results by state
Tennessee cast votes but they have been lost to time.


1816 United States presidential election in Connecticut
The 1816 United States presidential election in Connecticut took place between November 1 to December 4, 1816, as part of the 1816 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose nine representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1816 United States presidential election in Connecticut
During this election, Connecticut cast its nine electoral votes to Federalist Party candidate Rufus King of New York. Nevertheless, Democratic Republican candidate and Secretary of State James Monroe won the election nationally.


1816 United States presidential election in Connecticut
With King's victory in the state, Connecticut became one of the only three states to vote for the Federalists, with the other two being neighboring Massachusetts and Delaware.


1816 United States presidential election in Connecticut
Although John Eager Howard was selected as King's running mate, Connecticut split its votes for Vice President between James Ross of Pennsylvania and Chief Justice John Marshall.


1816 United States presidential election in Indiana
The 1816 United States presidential election in Indiana took place between November 1 to December 4, 1816, as part of the 1816 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose three representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1816 United States presidential election in Indiana
During this election, Indiana voted in its first presidential election and cast its three electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and Secretary of State James Monroe.


1816 United States presidential election in Indiana
When the House and Senate met in joint session to count the electoral votes for President and Vice President on February 12, 1817. The count proceeded without incident until the roll came to the last state to be counted, which happened to be Indiana. At that point, Representative John W. Taylor of New York objected to the counting of Indiana's votes. He argued that Congress had acknowledged the statehood of Indiana in a joint resolution on December 11, 1816, whereas the ballots of the Electoral College had been cast on December 4, 1816.


1816 United States presidential election in Indiana
He claimed that at the time of the balloting, there had been merely the Indiana Territory, not a State of Indiana. Other representatives contradicted Taylor, asserting that the joint resolution merely recognized that Indiana had already joined the Union by forming a state constitution and government on June 29, 1816. These representatives pointed out that both the House and Senate had seated members from Indiana who had been elected prior to the joint resolution, which would have been unconstitutional had Indiana not been a state at the time of their election. Representative Samuel D. Ingham then moved that the question be postponed indefinitely. The House agreed almost unanimously, and the Senate was brought back in to count the electoral votes from Indiana.


1816 United States presidential election in Louisiana
The 1816 United States presidential election in Louisiana took place between November 1 to December 4, 1816, as part of the 1816 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose three representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1816 United States presidential election in Louisiana
During this election, Louisiana cast its three electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and Secretary of State James Monroe.


1816 United States presidential election in New Jersey
The 1816 United States presidential election in New Jersey took place between November 1 to December 4, 1816, as part of the 1816 United States presidential election. The state chose eight representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1816 United States presidential election in New Jersey
During this election, New Jersey cast its eight electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and Secretary of State James Monroe.


1816 United States presidential election in New York
The 1816 United States presidential election in New York took place between November 1 to December 4, 1816, as part of the 1816 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose 29 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1816 United States presidential election in New York
During this election, New York cast its 29 electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and Secretary of State James Monroe.


1816 United States presidential election in Ohio
The 1820 United States presidential election in Ohio took place between November 1 and December 4, 1816, as part of the 1816 United States presidential election. Voters chose 8 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1816 United States presidential election in Ohio
Ohio elected Democratic-Republican candidate James Monroe over Federalist candidate Rufus King. Monroe won Ohio by a margin of 69.74%.


1816 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania
The 1816 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania took place as part of the 1816 United States presidential election. Voters chose 25 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1816 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania voted for the Democratic-Republican candidate, James Monroe, over the Federalist candidate, Rufus King. Monroe won Pennsylvania by a margin of 18.66%.


1816 United States presidential election in South Carolina
The 1816 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place between November 1 to December 4, 1816, as part of the 1816 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose 11 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1816 United States presidential election in South Carolina
During this election, South Carolina cast its 11 electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and Secretary of State James Monroe.


1816 United States presidential election in Tennessee
The 1816 United States presidential election in Tennessee took place as part of the 1816 United States presidential election. Voters chose eight representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1816 United States presidential election in Tennessee
Tennessee voted for the Democratic-Republican candidate, James Monroe, over the Federalist candidate, Rufus King.


1816 United States presidential election in Vermont
The 1816 United States presidential election in Vermont took place between November 1 to December 4, 1816, as part of the 1816 United States presidential election.


1816 United States presidential election in Vermont
During this election, Vermont's state legislature chose eight members of the Electoral College who would all vote for Democratic-Republican candidate and Secretary of State James Monroe for President and Governor Daniel D. Tompkins of New York for Vice President.


1816 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1816 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place in September and October, and resulted in the election of Jonas Galusha to a one-year term.


1816 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Montpelier on October 10. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to review the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council. The committee determined that incumbent Jonas Galusha had defeated Samuel Strong, a major general of the state militia and a former member of the Vermont House to win a one-year term.


1816 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the election for lieutenant governor, the legislature's canvassing committee determined that incumbent Paul Brigham had attained a majority over former lieutenant governor William Chamberlain to win election to a one-year term. According to a contemporary newspaper article, the vote totals were: Brigham, 17,124 (55.1%); Chamberlain 13,934 (44.9%).


1816 Vermont gubernatorial election
Benjamin Swan was elected to a one-year term as treasurer, his seventeenth. Swan, a Federalist was also endorsed by the Democratic-Republicans, and so was effectively unopposed for reelection. According to a contemporary newspaper account, he received 27,248 votes (99.8%), with 44 (0.2%) scattering.


1816 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for governor, the results of the popular vote were reported as follows.


1816 Virginia's 18th congressional district special election
On July 4, 1816, Representative Thomas Gholson, Jr. (DR) of Virginia's 18th district died in office. A special election was held to fill the resulting vacancy on October 10, 21–23, and 28, 1816 (each of the three districts within the 18th district held their election on a different day).


1816 Virginia's 18th congressional district special election, Election results
Nelson took his seat on December 4, 1816, at the start of the 2nd session of the 14th Congress.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections
Elections to the United States House of Representatives for the 15th Congress were held at various dates in different states between April 1816 and August 1817.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections
The Democratic-Republican Party entered the election with a large majority, yet made sizable gains, helping trigger the virtually nonpartisan Era of Good Feelings under new President James Monroe, elected in 1816.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections
Two major events combined to help eliminate the declining Federalist Party from meaningful contention. First, the War of 1812 had concluded in 1815 with a feeling of national pride and relief, with the small American military fighting the much more powerful British forces to a draw punctuated by General Andrew Jackson's dramatic victory at the Battle of New Orleans. Federalists had opposed the risky but ultimately successful war, with some New England Federalists advocating radical measures at the Hartford Convention. Second, the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in present-day Indonesia, itself the most powerful in recorded history and following other major eruptions, temporarily disrupted global climate. The effects severely damaged the agricultural economy of New England, where Federalist support was strongest, causing privation, popular discontent, and mass emigration westward.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Election summaries
Mississippi was admitted as a state in 1817 during the 15th Congress, adding one seat.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Special elections
There were special elections in 1816 and 1817 to the 14th United States Congress and 15th United States Congress.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Indiana
Indiana elected its member August 4, 1817, having just elected him just the year before to the new seat.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
Massachusetts's electoral law required a majority for election. In five districts this was not met on the first election, requiring additional trials to be held.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
District numbers differed between source used and elsewhere on Wikipedia; district numbers used elsewhere on Wikipedia used here.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Mississippi
Mississippi was admitted as a state on December 10, 1817 from the western half of the former Mississippi Territory (the eastern half became Alabama Territory) It elected its first representative to Congress August 4–5, 1817.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, New York
New York elected its members April 23 to 25, 1816.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Vermont
Vermont elected its members September 3, 1816, replacing its six Federalists with six Democratic-Republicans.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Non-voting delegates
There were three territories with the right to send delegates during at least part of the 15th Congress.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Non-voting delegates
Illinois Territory also only existed during the 1st Session, as it was admitted to the Union as the State of Illinois on December 3, 1818.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Non-voting delegates
Mississippi Territory only existed during the first few months of the 15th Congress, but did not elect a delegate, since it was admitted to the Union as a state a few days into the 1st Session of the 15th Congress.


1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections, Non-voting delegates
There were two elections held for the delegate from Missouri Territory. The first was contested by Rufus Easton on the grounds of electoral fraud. This election was declared void, and a second election was held on August 4, 1817. It was won without controversy by John Scott, who took his seat on December 8, 1817.


1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections
The United States Senate elections of 1816 and 1817 were elections for the United States Senate that had the Democratic-Republican Party gain a net of two seats from the admission of a new state, and which coincided with the presidential election.


1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections
As these elections were prior to ratification of the seventeenth amendment, Senators were chosen by state legislatures.


1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Elections during the preceding Congress
In these special and general elections, the winners were seated during 1816 or before March 4, 1817; ordered by election date.


1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Races leading to the next Congress
In these general elections, the winners were seated March 4, 1817; ordered by state.


1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Elections during the next Congress
In three special elections and two general elections, the winners were elected in 1817 after March 4; ordered by election date.


1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections, Indiana
The new state of Indiana elected its first two senators, both Democratic-Republicans, James Noble and Waller Taylor. The election was held November 8, 1816 in advance of Indiana's December 11, 1816 admission as a state. In the election legislators cast a single ballot and the first and second place candidates were deemed elected.


1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections, Mississippi
The new state of Mississippi elected its first two senators, both Democratic-Republicans, Walter Leake and Thomas H. Williams. Two separate elections were held in which each senator was elected.


1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections, Mississippi
First Senator (Class 1)(5th ballot, date and previous ballots unknown)


1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections, Mississippi
Second Senator (Class 2)(4th ballot, date and previous ballots unknown)


1816 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1816 in Australia.


1816 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1816 in Chile.


1816 in New Zealand
The following lists events that happened during 1816 in New Zealand.


1816 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1816 in South Africa.


1816 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1816 to Wales and its people.


1816 in architecture
The year 1816 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.


1816 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1816.


1816 in paleontology
Paleontology, palaeontology or palæontology (from Greek: paleo, "ancient"; ontos, "being"; and logos, "knowledge") is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because mankind has encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1816.


1816 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1816 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1816 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1816 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1816.


1816 in science
The year 1816 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1816 in sports
1816 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1816–1817 Massachusetts legislature
The 37th Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1816 and 1817 during the governorship of John Brooks. John Phillips served as president of the Senate and Timothy Bigelow served as speaker of the House.


1816–1817 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
Massachusetts's electoral law required a majority for election. In five districts this was not met on the first election, requiring additional trials to be held.


1816–1817 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, Notes
This Massachusetts elections–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1817
1817 (MDCCCXVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1817th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 817th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 17th  year of the 19th century, and the  8th   year of the 1810s decade. As of the start of 1817, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1817 Chilean independence referendum
A referendum on Chile's independence was held on 15 November 1817. After the Battle of Chacabuco, Bernardo O'Higgins was appointed director supremo. He held a plebiscite to test the popular will. This independence proposal passed with a large majority. His political program confirmed, O'Higgins's administration declared independence on 16 February 1818.


1817 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special election
A special election was held in Connecticut's at-large district in 1817 to fill two vacancies in the 15th Congress, both of which had occurred before the start of that Congress. The vacancies were left by the death of members-elect Sylvanus Backus (F) on February 15, 1817 and Charles Dennison (F) who declined the seat.


1817 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special election, Election results
As there were two vacancies in an at-large district, the top two candidates were elected to represent Connecticut.


1817 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special election, Election results
Huntington and Terry took their seats with the rest of the 15th Congress.


1817 French legislative election
The 1817 French partial election took place on 20 September 1817, during the Second Restoration, to choose delegates to the Chamber of Deputies. It was the first of three elections (the others coming in 1818 and 1819) under a new law that called for legislative elections to be held annually in one-fifth of the nation's departments.


1817 French legislative election
The election was a clear defeat for the Ultras, who lost all their seats. Until then confined to a few individuals, the liberals, led by the banker Jacques Laffitte, constituted a second opposition group at the left of the Government.


1817 Katanga
1817 Katanga, provisional designation 1939 MB, is a stony Phocaea asteroid in from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 16 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 20 June 1939, by English-born South African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Johannesburg Observatory in South Africa. It is named for the Katanga Province.


1817 Katanga, Orbit and classification
The S-type asteroid is a member of the Phocaea family, a smaller population of asteroids with similar orbital characteristics named after their largest member, 25 Phocaea. Katanga orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.9–2.8 AU once every 3 years and 8 months (1,334 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.19 and an inclination of 26° with respect to the ecliptic. Katanga's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation in 1939, as its first observation made at Heidelberg Observatory in 1928, remained unused (1928 KD).


1817 Katanga, Lightcurves
In April 2008, a rotational lightcurve of Katanga was obtained from photometric observations by American astronomer Brian D. Warner at his Palmer Divide Observatory in Colorado. It gave a rotation period of 8.481 hours with a brightness variation of 0.30 magnitude (U=3). The quality of this result supersedes two periods previously obtained by astronomers Stefano Sposetti and Glenn Malcolm in May and June 2001, respectively (U=2/2).


1817 Katanga, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Katanga measures between 9.76 and 15.90 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.133 and 0.353. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.242 and a diameter of 16.28 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.1.


1817 Katanga, Naming
This minor planet was named after the Katanga Province, a rich mining region in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 February 1980 (M.P.C. 5183).


1817 Massachusetts's 1st congressional district special election
A special election was held August 26, 1817 in Massachusetts's 1st congressional district to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Representative-elect James Lloyd (F) before the beginning of the 15th Congress.


1817 New York gubernatorial election
The 1817 New York gubernatorial election was held in April/May 1817 to elect the Governor and Lieutenant Governor of New York.


1817 New York gubernatorial election, History
Governor Daniel D. Tompkins was elected Vice President of the United States in November 1816; he resigned in February 1817. Article XVII of the New York State Constitution of 1777 said that "...as often as the seat of government shall become vacant, a wise and descreet freeholder of this State shall be, by ballot, elected governor,...,which elections shall be always held at the times and places of choosing representatives in assembly..." This meant that, whenever a vacancy occurred, the Lieutenant Governor did not succeed to the governor's office but administrated the state only until the end of the yearly term of the New York State Assembly on June 30, the successor being elected in April.


1817 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The Democratic-Republican Party nominated former Lieutenant Governor DeWitt Clinton. They nominated acting Governor John Tayler for Lieutenant Governor.


1817 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
Though he did not run, the Tammany organization, which opposed Clinton, distributed ballots in New York City with the name of former Secretary of State of New York Peter Buell Porter, and a few were cast.


1817 New York's 4th congressional district special election
On September 16, 1816, Representative-elect Henry B. Lee (DR) of New York's 4th district died before the start of the 15th Congress, to which he'd been elected. A special election was held prior to the beginning of the first session of Congress to fill the resulting vacancy.


1817 New York's 4th congressional district special election, Special election
Tallmadge took his seat on December 1, at the start of the First Session of the 15th Congress.


1817 Norwegian parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in Norway in 1817. As political parties were not officially established until 1884, all those elected were independents.


1817 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election
The 1817 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election occurred on October 14, 1817. Incumbent Democratic-Republican governor Simon Snyder was not a candidate for re-election. Simon's preferred successor, State Treasurer William Findlay, was nominated as the Democratic Republican candidate by a caucus of legislative leaders. Conversely, U.S. Representative Joseph Hiester was chosen as a candidate by the Democratic Republicans' first popular nominating convention; he additionally gained the endorsement of the declining Federalists.


1817 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election
The two men ran starkly different campaigns. Findlay sought to continue aggressive policies of infrastructural investment and economic intervention while maintaining the patronage system for governmental employment. Hiester, a former Revolutionary War captain, called for a reduction in spending, an expansion in liberal economic policies, and an investigation into corruption in state government. Findlay was ultimately victorious by an approximately six point margin, as his dominance in the state's rural counties counteracted support for Hiester in the cities.


1817 Pennsylvania's 10th congressional district special election
In the 1816 elections in Pennsylvania, David Scott (DR) won one of the two seats in the 10th district, but resigned before the 15th Congress began, having been appointed judge of the court of common pleas. A special election was held on October 14, 1817 to fill the resulting vacancy.


1817 Pennsylvania's 10th congressional district special election, Election results
Murray took his seat on December 1, 1817, at the start of the 1st session of the 15th Congress


1817 Santiago del Estero earthquake
The 1817 Santiago del Estero earthquake took place in the province of Santiago del Estero, Argentina, on 4 July at about 05:30 PM. It was estimated to be 7.0 on the Richter magnitude scale. Its epicenter was at , at a depth of 30 km.


1817 Santiago del Estero earthquake
The earthquake was felt with grade VIII in the Mercalli intensity scale in the provincial capital Santiago del Estero, where it caused grave damage.


1817 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
The 1817 election of the Speaker of the House of Commons occurred on 2 June 1817.


1817 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
The incumbent Speaker Charles Abbot had resigned due to ill health.


1817 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
Charles Manners-Sutton was proposed by Sir John Nicholl and seconded by E. J. Littleton.


1817 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
Charles Williams-Wynn was proposed by William Dickinson and seconded by Sir Matthew White Ridley.


1817 Speaker of the British House of Commons election
On the motion "That the Right Honourable Charles Manners Sutton do take the chair of this House as Speaker," Manners-Sutton was elected by 312 votes to 152 (Hansard gives the votes against as 150).


1817 United States House of Representatives election in Mississippi
Mississippi was admitted as a state on December 10, 1817 from the western half of the former Mississippi Territory (the eastern half became Alabama Territory). It elected its first representative to Congress August 4–5, 1817.


1817 United States House of Representatives elections in North Carolina, Notes
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1817 United States House of Representatives elections in Tennessee, Notes
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1817 United States House of Representatives elections in Virginia, Notes
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1817 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1817 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place in September and October, and resulted in the election of Jonas Galusha to a one-year term.


1817 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Montpelier on October 9. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to review the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council. The committee determined that incumbent Jonas Galusha had defeated U.S. Senator Isaac Tichenor to win a one-year term.


1817 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the election for lieutenant governor, the legislature's canvassing committee determined that incumbent Paul Brigham had attained a majority over former lieutenant governor William Chamberlain to win election to a one-year term. According to a contemporary newspaper article, the vote totals were: Brigham, 13,307 (63.2%); Chamberlain 7,748 (36.8%).


1817 Vermont gubernatorial election
Benjamin Swan was elected to a one-year term as treasurer, his eighteenth. Swan, a Federalist was also endorsed by the Democratic-Republicans, and so was effectively unopposed for reelection. According to contemporary newspaper articles, Swan received 16,962 votes, and no votes were recorded for any other candidates.


1817 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for governor, the results of the popular vote were reported as follows.


1817 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1817 in Australia.


1817 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1817 in Chile.


1817 in Chile, Incumbents
Royal Governor of Chile: Francisco Marcó del Pont (-February 12)


1817 in Ireland
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by BHGbot (talk | contribs) at 17:47, 18 June 2020 (WP:BHGbot 6 (List 5): eponymous category first, per MOS:CATORDER; WP:GENFIXES). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1817 in New Zealand
The following lists events that happened during 1817 in New Zealand.


1817 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1817 in South Africa.


1817 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1817 to Wales and its people.


1817 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1817.


1817 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1817 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1817 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1817 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1817.


1817 in science
The year 1817 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1817 in sports
1817 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1817–1818 Massachusetts legislature
The 38th Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1817 and 1818 during the governorship of John Brooks. John Phillips served as president of the Senate and Timothy Bigelow served as speaker of the House. On February 10, 1818, the General Court issued the corporate charter for the Suffolk Bank to a group of the Boston Associates (including Patrick Tracy Jackson and Daniel Pinckney Parker).


1817–1824 cholera pandemic
The first cholera pandemic (1817–1824), also known as the first Asiatic cholera pandemic or Asiatic cholera, began near the city of Calcutta and spread throughout South and Southeast Asia to the Middle East, eastern Africa and the Mediterranean coast. While cholera had spread across India many times previously, this outbreak went further; it reached as far as China and the Mediterranean Sea before subsiding. Millions of people died as a result of this pandemic, including many British soldiers, which attracted European attention. This was the first of several cholera pandemics to sweep through Asia and Europe during the 19th and 20th centuries. This first pandemic spread over an unprecedented range of territory, affecting almost every country in Asia.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Origin and initial spread
The name cholera had been used in previous centuries to describe illnesses involving nausea and vomiting. Today, cholera specifically describes illness caused by the Vibrio cholerae bacteria. There are numerous examples of epidemics prior to 1817 which are suspected as being cholera. In the sixth century BCE cholera-like symptoms were described by an Indian text. Indeed, descriptions of a disease in India from as far back as 2,500 years ago describe an illness reminiscent of cholera.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Origin and initial spread
Greek physician Hippocrates wrote about an illness resembling cholera about 2,400 years ago, as did Roman physician Galen roughly 500 years later in the 2nd century. In the 16th century, an outbreak of acute diarrhea was reported to have occurred in the East Indies by the Dutch. A similar outbreak was recorded in 1669 in China. However, there is not evidence of "true Asiatic Cholera" prior to 1781, in which the first well-documented epidemic occurred. Having begun in southern India, it would later spread to eastern India and eventually Sri Lanka. Cholera was endemic to the lower Ganges River.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Origin and initial spread
At festival times, pilgrims frequently contracted the disease there and carried it back to other parts of India on their returns, where it would spread, then subside. The first cholera pandemic started similarly, as an outbreak that was suspected to have begun in 1817 in the town of Jessore. Some epidemiologists and medical historians have suggested that it spread globally through a Hindu pilgrimage, the Kumbh Mela, on the upper Ganges River. Earlier outbreaks of cholera had occurred near Purnia in Bihar, but scholars think these were independent events. In 1817, cholera began spreading outside the Ganges Delta. By September 1817, the disease had reached Calcutta on the Bay of Bengal and quickly spread to the rest of the subcontinent. By 1818 the disease broke out in Bombay, on the west coast.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Spread beyond India
After spreading beyond India, the first cholera pandemic hit other parts of Asia and the African coast the hardest. It would not be until later epidemics of cholera that it would ravage Europe and the Americas.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Spread beyond India
In March 1820, the disease was identified in Siam, in May 1820 it had spread as far as Bangkok and Manila; in July the outbreak torched Vietnam; in spring of 1821 it reached Java, Oman, and Anhai in China; in 1822 it was found in Japan, in the Persian Gulf, in Baghdad, in Syria, and in the Transcaucasus; and in 1823 cholera reached Astrakhan, Zanzibar, and Mauritius.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Spread beyond India
When the epidemic reached Russia and specifically Astrakhan, their response was to formulate an anti-Cholera program in 1823. This program was headed by a German physician by the name of Dr. Rehmann. The Anti- Cholera program inspired the creation of a medical-administration board by Tsar Alexander I that inspired similar medical administration across Europe.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Spread beyond India
In 1824, transmission of the disease ended. Some researchers believe that may have been due to the cold winter of 1823–1824, which would have killed the bacteria in the water supplies.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Spread beyond India
The spread of the first cholera pandemic was closely linked to warfare and trade. According to economic history professor Donato Gómez-Diaz, "[advances] in commercial exchange and navigation contributed to cholera’s dispersion." Navy and merchant ships carried people with the disease to the shores of the Indian Ocean, from Africa to Indonesia, and north to China and Japan. During the Ottoman-Persian War of 1821–1823, cholera would affect both armies in what is modern-day Armenia. Hindu pilgrims spread cholera within the subcontinent, as had happened many times previously, and British troops carried it overland to Nepal and Afghanistan. In 1821, British troops spread cholera to Oman after becoming infected with it in India.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Total deaths
The total deaths from the epidemic remain unknown. Scholars of particular areas have estimated death tolls. For instance, some estimate that Bangkok might have suffered 30,000 deaths from the disease. In Semarang, Central Java, 1,225 people died in eleven days in April 1821. In total, over 100,000 people died as a result of cholera on Java during the first pandemic. Also in 1821, Basra, Iraq saw 18,000 deaths in less than a month's time. In the same year, it is estimated that up to 100,000 deaths occurred in Korea. Vietnamese royal archives recorded 206,835 people died from the disease. In the southwest of the Mekong Delta, the outbreak swept through the constructing Vĩnh Tế Canal, killing thousand of workers (most of them Cambodians) and triggered a Cambodian uprising in later that year. The well-known novelist Nguyễn Du died contracting the disease.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Total deaths
As for India, the initially reported mortality rate was estimated to be 1.25 million per year, placing the death toll at around 8,750,000. However, this report was certainly an overestimation as David Arnold writes: "The death toll in 1817–21 was undoubtedly great, but there is no evidence to suggest that it was as uniformly high as Moreau de Jonnès presumed. [ ...] Statistics collected by James Jameson for the Bengal Medical Board showed mortality in excess of 10,000 in several districts. [


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Total deaths
...] Although reporting was sketchy, for the Madras districts as a whole the mortality during the height of the epidemic appears to have been around 11 to 12 per 1,000. If this figure were applied to the whole of India, with a population of some 120–150 million, the total number of deaths would have been no more than one or two million."


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Racism and xenophobia
According to historian Samuel Kohn, epidemics in antiquity often brought people of a society together. However, some diseases such as cholera produced rather the opposite, triggering blame and even violence against those perceived as being from regions infected with the disease. Often times, fear of cholera outbreaks would lead to increased racial tensions. The cholera pandemic's origin in India led to a rise in anti-Asian sentiment, especially towards Indian people and culture, in the West during the initial outbreak and following more outbreaks decades later.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Racism and xenophobia
The disease was subsequently associated with Asia and South Asia, in particular, was seen as in some way to blame for cholera. Derision towards Indian cultural practices, especially Hindu pilgrimages, and hygiene following the initial outbreak were reported. Speaking about the anti-Asian sentiment that rose after the outbreak, British historian David Arnold wrote that "the Indian origins of cholera and its almost global dissemination from Bengal made the disease a convenient symbol for much that the west feared or despised about a society so different from its own".


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, Racism and xenophobia
Medical professionals of the time were also noted for relying on moral judgments and generalizations of Indian people on pilgrimages. The sanitary commissioner of Bengal, David Smith, wrote that "the human mind can scarcely sink lower than it has done in connection with the appalling degeneration of idol-worship at Pooree". During the outbreak, the colonial authorities launched inquiries into the medical conditions of South Asian people on pilgrimages and eventually classified pilgrims as a "dangerous class" due their belief that many pilgrims were infected with cholera, placing them under surveillance. Historian Christopher Hamlin noted that European physicians attempted to distinguish the "new" strain of Asiatic cholera from the "old" strain, and that evidence for a Bengali origin of the pandemic were often based on 19th-century accounts which were "steeped in biases" against Hindu and Indian culture in general.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, The Years After 1824
In the years after the pandemic subsided in many areas of the world, there were still small outbreaks, and pockets of cholera remained. In the period from 1823 to 1829, the first cholera outbreak remained outside of much of Europe. Its spread into Europe in the years after the initial outbreak started with the spread of the bacterium to the Russian empire yet again. Historians theorize that the spread back into Europe was largely to due to its movement in the Russian river system.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, The Years After 1824
This movement of the virus in the rivers of Russia allowed cholera to reach England by 1832, and the Americas shortly afterword. The bacterium also was theorized to have spread into England from British soldiers returning home after tours of duty in India, many of them serving in the Bombay Army which was stationed where the pandemic broke out. Special deputations from the west traveled to Russia to observe the Russian response and formulate a plan to deal with these pocketed outbreaks.


1817–1824 cholera pandemic, The Years After 1824
Reports from this committee of scientists were bleak, with a Dr. Rauch proclaiming that, "the cholera will not be cured by nature's powers alone without the help of art...". The conclusion of Dr. Rauch's findings was that no one standardized method was the key to controlling an outbreak. By 1835, these pockets of the bacterium claimed hundreds of thousands of lives. This timeline from 1826 to 1837 is widely described as the second cholera pandemic. One of the seven main cholera pandemics in history, extending into the modern day.


1818
1818 (MDCCCXVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1818th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 818th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 18th  year of the 19th century, and the  9th   year of the 1810s decade. As of the start of 1818, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1818 Brahms
1818 Brahms, provisional designation 1939 PE, is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 6 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 15 August 1939, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany. The asteroid was named after composer Johannes Brahms.


1818 Brahms, Orbit and classification
Brahms orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.8–2.6 AU once every 3 years and 2 months (1,163 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. Brahms was first identified as A904 RE at the discovering observatory in 1904, extending the body's observation arc by 35 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1818 Brahms, Physical characteristics
As of 2017, Brahms effective size, albedo and spectral type, as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown. Based on a magnitude-to-diameter conversion, its generic diameter is between 5 and 11 kilometer for an absolute magnitude of 13.8, and an assumed albedo in the range of 0.05 to 0.25. Since asteroids in the inner main-belt are typically of stony rather than carbonaceous composition, with albedos of 0.20 or higher, Brahms's diameter can be estimate to measure around 6 kilometers, as the higher its albedo (reflectivity), the lower the body's diameter at a constant absolute magnitude (brightness).


1818 Brahms, Naming
This minor planet is named for the German composer Johannes Brahms (1833–1897). The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3935).


1818 Chilean constitutional referendum
A referendum on Chile's provisional constitution was held on 23 October 1818. The provisional constitution, which was successfully adopted, was written by the legislative council at  Bernardo O'Higgins's request. The resulting document included 141 articles. It established a Director Supremo with an unlimited term of office who would appoint all judges, governors, offices and secretaries. The Director Supremo could also appoint five members and five alternate members in the senate. The Senate was granted some limited power to veto actions of the Director Supremo. This provisional constitution also established three provinces with governors, and specified that Catholicism was the only legal religion. This provisional document was approved, but was replaced with a permanent constitution in 1822.


1818 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1818 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 9, 1818. Incumbent governor and Toleration Party candidate Oliver Wolcott Jr. was re-elected, defeating congressman and Federalist Party candidate Timothy Pitkin with 86.32% of the vote.


1818 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special election
In 1818, Uriel Holmes (F) of Connecticut's at-large district resigned from the House. A special election was held to fill the resulting vacancy.


1818 Connecticut's at-large congressional district special election, Election results
Gilbert took his seat November 16, 1818 at the start of the Second Session.


1818 Illinois gubernatorial election
The 1818 Illinois gubernatorial election was the first election for governor in Illinois history. Shadrach Bond was the only serious candidate and won almost unanimously.