1836 United States presidential election in South Carolina
South Carolina cast 11 electoral votes for the Whig candidate Willie Person Mangum. These electors were chosen by the South Carolina General Assembly, the state legislature, rather than by popular vote.


1836 United States presidential election in Tennessee
The 1836 United States presidential election in Tennessee took place between November 3 and December 7, 1836, as part of the 1836 United States presidential election. Voters chose 15 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1836 United States presidential election in Tennessee
Tennessee voted for Whig candidate Hugh White, a Senator for Tennessee, over Democratic candidate Martin Van Buren. White won Tennessee by a margin of 15.84%.


1836 United States presidential election in Vermont
The 1836 United States presidential election in Vermont took place between November 3 and December 7, 1836, as part of the 1836 United States presidential election. Voters chose seven representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1836 United States presidential election in Vermont
Vermont voted for Whig candidate William Henry Harrison over Democratic candidate Martin Van Buren. Harrison won Vermont by a margin of 19.86%.


1836 United States presidential election in Vermont
This would be the final time a Democratic candidate would carry Essex County until Franklin D. Roosevelt won it 104 years later in 1940.


1836 United States presidential election in Vermont
1836 would stand as the strongest performance for a Democratic candidate in Vermont until 96 years later in 1932, when Franklin D. Roosevelt performed slightly better with 41.08%.


1836 United States presidential election in Vermont
Harrison would later win Vermont again four years later when he successfully defeated Van Buren.


1836 United States presidential election in Virginia
The 1836 United States presidential election in Virginia took place between November 3 and December 7, 1836, as part of the 1836 United States presidential election. Voters chose 23 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1836 United States presidential election in Virginia
Virginia voted for the Democratic candidate, Martin Van Buren, over Whig candidate Hugh White. Van Buren won Virginia by a margin of 13.29%. While Van Buren's national running mate was Richard Mentor Johnson, the Virginia Democratic electors refused to support his candidacy and voted for William Smith of South Carolina.


1836 Wetheral train accident
The Wetheral train accident occurred in England at about 4 p. m. on Saturday 3 December 1836 when a passenger train on the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway was wrongly diverted into a siding at Wetheral, a village close to Carlisle, Cumbria. The train derailed and crushed three people to death.


1836 Wetheral train accident, Description of the accident, Background
The Newcastle & Carlisle Railway opened in sections from March 1835, with the whole line opening to  passengers on 18 June 1838. Lord Carlisle owned extensive coal-mining interests in Cumberland and had built and operated the Brampton Railway connecting his coal mines from the late 1700s. The new Newcastle and Carlisle Railway crossed and connected with the Brampton Railway at Brampton Junction.


1836 Wetheral train accident, Description of the accident, The site
Six or eight miles westwards along the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway from Brampton Junction is the village of Wetheral and a few hundred yards before Wetheral railway station is the hamlet of Great Corby. At Great Corby there was a siding owned by Lord Carlisle that led to coal staithes (where the track was supported above ground level to allow easy transfer of coal from rail wagons into road wagons). The siding was entered from the Brampton Junction (i.e. Newcastle) direction and when travelling from that direction there is quite a steep gradient down to the siding.


1836 Wetheral train accident, Description of the accident, The site
The operation of the point for the siding was the responsibility of an employee of Lord Carlisle (and not the railway company), and part of the responsibility was to make sure the point was left set for the main line, not the siding, once trains had passed onto and away from the siding.


1836 Wetheral train accident, Description of the accident, Approach of the train
At about 4pm on Saturday 3 December 1836, a train was travelling westwards towards Carlisle, drawn by the locomotive SAMSON, with 26 passengers aboard plus a heavy load of goods. About half a mile before the siding the driver shut the locomotive regulator and the train descended the gradient. On reaching a bridge just before the siding, the train driver saw a man upon the line and signalled to him to get out of the way. The driver then saw that the points were set for the siding rather than the main line. He set the locomotive into reverse and he and the fireman leaped off. Because of the downward gradient the train carried on its way unchecked.


1836 Wetheral train accident, Description of the accident, Collision
The train ran onto the siding and onto the staithes. Six empty coal wagons, which were standing there, were struck and driven off the track. The stone pillars of the staithes that supported the track gave way, and the engine fell about eight feet, destroying the whole framework of the staithes. The tender followed. Next to the locomotive was an open horse wagon laden with corn that fell but landed upright. The horse wagon was followed by a laden freight wagon that fell upon the horse wagon.


1836 Wetheral train accident, Description of the accident, Casualties
Although one of the passenger carriages was badly damaged, all the carriages stopped just before falling and stayed upon the tracks. All the passengers escaped without injury except one, who had his hand jammed between broken timbers. Unfortunately, a man named Henry Johnston, a dyer from Warwick on Eden, was on the staithes, and did not have time to get out of the way. He was fatally injured and died the next morning.


1836 Wetheral train accident, Description of the accident, Casualties
Two boys, named Matthew Potts and John Kelsay, aged 14 and 16, had apparently stowed away in the horse wagon and were found crushed to death underneath the wagon that had fallen upon it. It was reported that the head of John Kelsay, "...was crushed quite flat, and presented a frightful spectacle".


1836 Wetheral train accident, Coroner's Inquest
An inquest was held on Monday 12 December 1836. It lasted all day and a great number of witnesses were examined. The jury came to the verdict:


1836 Wetheral train accident, Coroner's Inquest
We find that Henry Johnston, Matthew Potts and John Kelsay came by their deaths accidentally, by reason of the locomotive steam engine called the Samson, and the carriages by which she was followed, running from the proper line of road, and breaking down a staith at Great Corby, such deviation from the right line being caused by the misplacing of certain points or switches at the west end of Corby-bridge ...


1836 Wetheral train accident, Coroner's Inquest
This jury cannot separate without expressing its disapprobation of the conduct of the railway company in not placing their own responsible servants at every turn where such switches are placed, or insisting upon Lord Carlisle, and all others having private depots, giving such security for proper attention to the switches leading to such depots as will give the most perfect security attainable in such a mode of travelling to those whose lives are committed to their charge.


1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections
Elections to the United States House of Representatives for the 25th Congress were held at various dates in different states from July 1836 to November 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections
Though Democrat Martin Van Buren was elected President in November 1836, Democrats lost seats. The newly organizing Whigs benefited from regional candidacies and issues and voter fatigue with outgoing two-term President Andrew Jackson. Jackson, a flamboyant public personality with a record of high-profile leadership and historic military success, often clashed with Congress and the Supreme Court. By comparison, Van Buren, a brilliant partisan organizer and political operative, was less charismatic in looks and demeanor. Voter support for the minor Anti-Masonic and Nullifier parties ebbed, but remained significant. One Independent, John Pope, was elected from Kentucky.


1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections, Special elections
There were special elections in 1836 and 1837 to the 24th United States Congress and 25th United States Congress.


1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections, Special elections, 24th Congress
Note: In some sources, parties are listed as "Democrats" and "Whigs." However, they are listed here as "Jacksonian" and "Anti- Jacksonian" (respectively) to conform to the party names as they were regarded during the 24th United States Congress.


1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections, Arkansas, 24th Congress
The new state of Arkansas was admitted to the Union on June 15, 1836 and elected its sole at-large member August 1, 1836. He was seated December 5, 1836, to finish the term that would end the following March.


1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections, Arkansas, 25th Congress
Arkansas elected its member October 2, 1837, this time for a full term.


1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections, Connecticut
Connecticut went from six at-large seats to six districts for the first time. Elections were held April 3, 1837, after the new term began but before the Congress convened. All incumbents from the at-large district were re-elected in districts.


1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections, Maine
Maine elected its members September 12, 1836, except one district went to multiple ballots later in the year.


1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections, Mississippi
A special election was held in Mississippi on July 17–18, 1837. Its winners were Democrats John F. H. Claiborne and Samuel J. Gholson. The first session of the 25th Congress was a special session beginning on September 4, 1837, extending to October 16. In November, Mississippi held the regular election. Seargent Smith Prentiss, a Vicksburg lawyer and Whig, unexpectedly launched a vigorous, partisan campaign. He and fellow Whig Thomas J. Word won in an upset. Claiborne and Gholson then argued that the July result entitled them to serve full terms.


1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections, Mississippi
With the Whig Party newly organizing, the closely divided House, in which Anti-Masons, Nullifiers, and the Independent tended to align more with Whigs and to oppose Democrats, agreed to hear Prentiss. He spoke for nine hours over three days, packing the gallery, drawing Senators, and earning a national reputation for oratory and public admiration from leading Whigs including Senators Clay and Webster. The Elections Committee then required a third election. Scheduled for April 1838, it confirmed the November result. Both Whigs were seated in May late in the second session, also serving for the third session.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections
The United States Senate elections of 1836 and 1837 were elections that had the Jacksonian coalition emerge as the  Democratic Party, and the Adams, or Anti-Jackson, coalition emerge as the Whig Party


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections
As this election was prior to ratification of the seventeenth amendment, senators were chosen by state legislatures.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Change in composition, As a result of the regular elections
"Hold" means the incumbent lost and the winner was from an affiliated new party, either Anti- Jacksonian to Whig or Jacksonian to Democratic.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Elections seated during the 24th Congress
In these elections, senators were elected to finish terms already in progress either as special elections or as elections to a new state. senators were seated during 1836 or before March 4, 1837; ordered by election date.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Races leading to the 25th Congress
In these regular elections, the winner was seated on March 4, 1837; ordered by state.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Elections during the 25th Congress
In these special elections, the winners were seated in 1837 after March 4; ordered by election date.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Alabama
There were two elections in Alabama in this cycle, both for the same seat.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Alabama, Alabama (Regular)
First-term senator Anti- Jacksonian Gabriel Moore lost re-election in 1837 to Jacksonian John McKinley in 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Alabama, Alabama (Special)
Shortly after the new term started, Jacksonian-now-Democrat John McKinley resigned to become Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. He was replaced by fellow Democrat Clement C. Clay in a June 19, 1837 special election.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Alabama, Alabama (Special)
Clay would serve only until November 15, 1841, when he, too, resigned.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Arkansas
Arkansas became a new state and elected its two senators September 18, 1836.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Arkansas
Jacksonian former Governor of Arkansas Territory William Fulton was elected to the Class 2 seat, with the term ending March 3, 1841.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Arkansas
Jacksonian former delegate Ambrose Sevier was elected  to the Class 3 seat, with the term ending March 3, 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Arkansas
Sevier was also re-elected in 1837 to the next term that would end in 1843.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Louisiana
There were two elections in Louisiana in this cycle, both for the same seat.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Louisiana
Anti - Jacksonian Alexander Porter resigned January 5, 1837 due to ill health.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Louisiana, Louisiana (Special)
Jacksonian Alexandre Mouton was elected January 12, 1837 to finish Porter's term, ending March 3, 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Louisiana, Louisiana (Regular)
Jacksonian Alexandre Mouton was also elected as a Democrat in 1837 (possibly re-elected) to the next term, beginning March 4, 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Maryland
There were two elections in Maryland in this cycle, both for the same seat.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Maryland, Maryland (Special)
Anti - Jacksonian John S. Spence was elected in late 1836 to finish Goldsborough's term, ending March 3, 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Maryland, Maryland (Regular)
Anti - Jacksonian John S. Spence was re-elected as a Democrat in 1837 to the next term, beginning March 4, 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, New York
Silas Wright Jr., had been elected in 1833 to this seat after the resignation of William L. Marcy who had been elected Governor of New York. Wright's term would expire on March 3, 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, New York
At the State election in November 1836, 94 Democrats and 34 Whigs were elected to the Assembly, and seven of the eight State senators elected were Democrats. The 60th New York State Legislature met from January 3 to May 16, 1837, at Albany. The party strength in the Assembly as shown by the election for Speaker was: 80 for Democrat Edward Livingston and 27 for Whig Luther Bradish.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, New York
Wright was re-nominated in a Democratic caucus by a large majority. Silas Wright Jr., was the choice of both the Assembly and the Senate, and was declared elected.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, North Carolina
There were two elections in North Carolina in this cycle, both for the same seat.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, North Carolina, North Carolina (Special)
Jacksonian Robert Strange was elected in late 1836 to finish Mangum's term, ending March 3, 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, North Carolina, North Carolina (Regular)
Jacksonian Robert Strange was also elected as a Democrat in 1836, to the next term, beginning March 4, 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Pennsylvania
The Pennsylvania General Assembly convened on December 14, 1836, to elect a Senator to serve the term beginning on March 4, 1837. The results of the vote of both houses combined are as follows:


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Virginia (Special)
There were three special elections in Virginia in this cycle.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Virginia (Special), Virginia (Special, class 1)
Two-term Anti- Jacksonian (and future President) John Tyler resigned February 29, 1836 due to policial differences and conflict with the Virginia House of Delegates, which had come under control of the rival Jacksonians.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Virginia (Special), Virginia (Special, class 1)
Former Jacksonian senator William C. Rives (who had served in the class 2 seat from December 10, 1832 to February 22, 1834) was elected March 4, 1836 to finish Tyler's term that would end March 3, 1839.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Virginia (Special), Virginia (Special, class 2 1836)
Anti - Jacksonian Benjamin W. Leigh, who had served in the seat since an 1834 special election and re-elected in 1835, resigned July 4, 1836 to return to his private legal practice.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Virginia (Special), Virginia (Special, class 2 1836)
Jacksonian Richard E. Parker was elected December 12, 1836, but he would only remain in the seat for four months.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Virginia (Special), Virginia (Special, class 2 1837)
Parker, now a Democrat, was elected to the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals and so he resigned from the Senate March 13, 1837.


1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections, Virginia (Special), Virginia (Special, class 2 1837)
Fellow Democrat William H. Roane was elected March 14, 1837 to finish the term that would end March 3, 1841.


1836 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1836 in Australia.


1836 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1836 in Chile.


1836 in New Zealand
The following lists events that happened during 1836 in New Zealand.


1836 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1836 in South Africa.


1836 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1836 to Wales and its people.


1836 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1836.


1836 in paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1836.


1836 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1836 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1836 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1836 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1836.


1836 in science
The year 1836 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1836 in sports
1836 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1836 in the United States
Events from the year 1836 in the United States of America. Exceptionally, this page covers not only the history of the United States of America, but also that of the Republic of Texas in 1836.


1837
1837 (MDCCCXXXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1837th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 837th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 37th  year of the 19th century, and the  8th   year of the 1830s decade. As of the start of 1837, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1837 Alabama gubernatorial election
The 1837 Alabama gubernatorial election was an election held on August 7, 1837, to elect the Governor of Alabama. Democratic candidate Arthur P. Bagby beat Anti-Van Buren candidate Samuel W. Oliver with 45.21% of the vote.


1837 Anglesey by-election
The Anglesey by-election, 1837 was a parliamentary by-election held for the House of Commons constituency of Anglesey in North Wales on 23 February 1837.


1837 Anglesey by-election, Vacancy
The by-election was called following the resignation of the sitting member Richard Williams-Bulkeley.


1837 Anglesey by-election, Candidates
The Whigs nominated solicitor William Owen Stanley who was the son of John Stanley, 1st Baron Stanley of Alderley and the younger twin brother of Edward Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley of Alderley.


1837 Belgian general election
Partial legislative elections were held in Belgium on Tuesday 13 June 1837 in which 51 of the 102 seats in the Chamber of Representatives were elected. Voter turnout was 56.0%, although only 24,526 people were eligible to vote. Under the alternating system, Chamber elections were only held in five out of the nine provinces: Antwerp, Brabant, Luxembourg, Namur and West Flanders. The Senate was not up for election.


1837 Belgian general election
This was the last election in which Luxembourg Province included the area of the modern Grand Duchy of Luxembourg; in 1839, under the stipulations of the Treaty of London, a portion of the province's constituency of Diekirch, along with the full constituencies of Luxembourg (roughly equal to modern Luxembourg City) and Grevenmacher, became parts of the independent Grand Duchy of Luxembourg.


1837 Chicago mayoral election
The 1837 Chicago mayoral election was held on May 2, 1837. It was the inaugural Chicago mayoral election, taking place the same year as Chicago's incorporation as a city. Democratic candidate William B. Ogden defeated Whig incumbent Town President John H. Kinzie by a landslide 38.5 point margin.


1837 Chicago mayoral election
Shortly after the election Ogden was sworn in as Chicago's first mayor. This set the precedent of scheduling Chicago's mayoral inauguration for the month of May, a practice which has continued for most of the city's history into the present.


1837 Chicago mayoral election
The election coincided with elections to the Common Council. In addition to winning the mayor's office, Democrats took all 10 seats of the Common Council.


1837 Chicago mayoral election, Campaign
Prominent Chicagoan W. B. Egan had been considered a potential candidate, however he refused to run.


1837 Chicago mayoral election, Campaign
Kinzie was backed by individuals such as Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard.


1837 Chicago mayoral election, Campaign
Chicago had quickly been becoming a stronghold for the Whig Party. To overcome this trend, Democrats Francis Sherman, John Wentworth, and Peter Pruyne convinced William B. Ogden to run on their party's ticket. Wentworth, being editor of the city's Chicago Democrat newspaper, used the paper to support Ogden's candidacy.


1837 Chicago mayoral election, Campaign
Kinzie campaigned on a platform advocating the extension of Chicago's plank roads into the countryside. Ogden ran a more railroad-centric candidacy, believing that the railroads were the lifeline for the city's future.


1837 Chicago mayoral election, Campaign
Making use of his roots in the city, as the son of early settlers, Kinzie's supporters used the slogan "First born of Chicago" to promote him. Kinzie had the backing of old settlers, such as Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard. Detractors of Ogden accused him of being a "transient speculator" whose only aim was to make money off of Chicago before returning to New York. However, this line of attack was rendered ineffective by the fact that, eby this time, eastern newcomers made up a majority of the city's populace.


1837 Chicago mayoral election, Campaign
Kinzie, being popular figure, initially seemed to have an advantage in the election.


1837 Chicago mayoral election, Voting procedure
Voting was done viva voce. Individuals would walk up to a table and orally announce their vote, for all to eavesdrop upon. Each ward had a single polling place.


1837 Chicago mayoral election, Results, Results by ward
Ogden won in every ward, even defeating Kinzie in his own ward by a single vote.


1837 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1837 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 5, 1837. Incumbent governor and Democratic nominee Henry W. Edwards was re-elected, defeating former congressman and Whig nominee William W. Ellsworth with 52.53% of the vote.


1837 Costa Rican Head of State election
In the election of the Head of State of Costa Rica in 1837, Manuel Aguilar Chacón was elected over Braulio Carrillo Colina using the model of indirect suffrage prescribed by the Fundamental Law of the State of Costa Rica. General election among all citizens authorized to vote was held, using public vote, electing a group of electors proportional to the population of the province they represented who then elected the president directly.


1837 Costa Rican Head of State election
However, Aguilar would not end his term when he resigned for health reasons. Carrillo became a dictator until the invasion of Francisco Morazán and his resignation as part of the agreements of the Jocote Pact.


1837 French legislative election
The 1837 general election organized the fourth legislature of the July Monarchy. The election was held on 4 November.


1837 French legislative election
Louis-Philippe of France dissolved the legislature in the absence of a majority on 2 February 1839.


1837 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase
The 1837 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase was the second of three unofficial annual precursors of a Handicap Steeple-chase, later to become known as the Grand National Steeplechase horse race which took place at Aintree Racecourse near Liverpool on 4 March 1837 and attracted a field of four runners. This race did not carry the prestige of the future Grand Nationals and its status as an official Grand National was revoked some time between 1862 and 1873.


1837 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, Competitors and betting
Four horses lined up for the start of the race for which starting prices are not recorded. The competitors were:


1837 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, The race
All four runners completed the first mile of the race without mishap before The Duke refused a fence beside the bridge over the Leeds and Liverpool Canal; he continued some way behind his three rivals. On the second circuit Dan O'Connell fell and brought down Zanga and The Disowned. While the three riders were attempting to regain their mounts to continue, The Duke came to, and cleared, the same fence, continuing on to secure a long lead.


1837 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, The race
Victory for The Duke was certain after he cleared the final flight of hurdles and he was slowed to a mere trot long before passing the finishing post. The Disowned was remounted to finish second, twelve lengths behind, while Dan O'Connell finished a distance behind in third. Zanga ran loose and did not complete the course.


1837 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, Non-finishers
The race was won in a time of fourteen minutes, beating the previous year's time by five minutes and fifty seconds


1837 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, Aftermath
The race would go on to be regarded as the second running of the Grand National until the mid-1860s when newspapers began omitting the race, and those of 1836 and 1838, from the records of previous winners. This in turn led to a popular, but incorrect, belief that the race was run over a course at Maghull and not Aintree, and became the official view held by Aintree when a board listing the winners of all previous Nationals was erected underneath the stands in 1894, stating that the races of 1837, and 1838 were run at Maghull.


1837 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, Aftermath
Although it is now widely acknowledged that the race was indeed run at Aintree, it is also the official view of Aintree that the races prior to 1839 should not be included as legitimate Grand Nationals and should be regarded more as precursors. As a result, The Duke is not listed in official publications as a dual winner of the race.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic
The 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic spanned 1836 through 1840, but reached its height after the spring of 1837 when an American Fur Company steamboat, the S.S. St. Peter, carried infected people and supplies into the Missouri Valley. More than 17,000 Indigenous people died along the Missouri River alone, with some bands becoming nearly extinct. Having witnessed the effects of the epidemic on the Mandan tribe, fur trader Francis Chardon wrote, "the small-pox had never been known in the civilized world, as it had been among the poor Mandans and other Indians.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic
Only twenty-seven Mandans were left to tell the tale." The Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1839 reported on the casualties: "No attempt has been made to count the victims, nor is it possible to reckon them in any of these tribes with accuracy; it is believed that if [the number 17,200 for the upper Missouri River Indians] was doubled, the aggregate would not be too large for those who have fallen east of the Rocky Mountains."


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, History
Smallpox has afflicted Native Americans since it was carried to the western hemisphere by the Spanish conquerors, with credible accounts of epidemics dating back to at least 1515. Smallpox was particularly deadly in the plains because no one in these communities had  been exposed, and developed immunity before. This is why mortality rates were so high. By the 1730s smallpox had made its way west in Canada and northern United States. The Assiniboine First Nation had controlled much of this territory, but were forced to give it up as their population decreased dramatically.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, History
Along the Missouri River the Arikara population was reduced by half by the end of the 1730s. Other communities that were decimated in the 1730s by smallpox include the Lower Loup, Pawnee of Nebraska, Cherokee, and the Kansa. In short, smallpox in the 1730s devastated Indigenous communities living on the North American plains.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, History
It was found in 1796 that infecting a person with the mild cowpox infection would provide immunity to smallpox. As its use became widespread in Europe its deployment in North America was also praised by Thomas Jefferson as a means for preserving lives. Unfortunately, supply lines for the vaccine were faulty and it was not until the 1830s that a large portion of the Indigenous population was vaccinated, and even here it was limited to beyond the Southwest. Early vaccination efforts by the Hudson's Bay Company were sporadic and unorganized during its monopoly period. Although the HBC recognized the potential of vaccination, understanding that more people meant more fur for them, there was no systematic vaccination program in place until the epidemic was well underway. Some vaccines were sent to trading posts early in the 19th century but were left to collect dust.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, History
The smallpox infection spiked in 1780s, as persisted up to the 1837 epidemic. In what is now Canada, fur trade strengthened communities such as the Mushego Cree, Anishinabe, and Ottawa. The Mandan tribe had previously experienced a major smallpox epidemic in 1780-81 which severely reduced their numbers down to less than a few thousand. Many other bands along the Missouri river suffered smallpox epidemics during 1801-02 and 1831. Sporadic efforts were made to promote vaccination among the Indigenous peoples since the turn of the nineteenth century.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, History
Later, the Indian Removal Act the U.S. Congress took its first step in 1832 to generate public support for vaccination of the Native Americans. But shortly after passage of this congressional act to extend vaccinations to Indians, Secretary Cass stated that no effort would be made "under any circumstances" to send surgeons to vaccinate Indians up the Missouri River beyond the Arickaree tribe. This Great Plains epidemic spanned thousands of miles, reaching California, the northwestern coast and central Alaska before finally subsiding in 1840.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic
The smallpox epidemic is estimated to have killed 17,000 people along the Missouri River. The St. Peter steamboat, traveled up the Missouri River to Fort Union from St. Louis and infected people along the way, marking the beginning of the outbreak. The St. Peter  made it to Leavenworth around April 29. At this time a deckhand showed signs of smallpox. Shortly after three Arikara women joined the ship on their trip back to the Mandan community. Although the women showed signs the infection, they were allowed to return to their village which they then spread to their community.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic
The disease spread to the Mandan people, and was of the most virulent, malignant hemorrhagic form. In July 1837, the Mandan numbered about 2,000; by October that number had dwindled to 23 or 27 survivors by some accounts, 138 by another account, reflecting at least a 93 percent mortality rate. On August 11, Francis Chardon, a trader at Fort Clark, wrote, "I Keep no a/c of the dead, as they die so fast it is impossible," and by the end of the month, "the Mandan are all cut off except twenty-three young and old men."


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic
Once the disease reached Fort Union, there was an effort to prevent its spread, but it would eventually decimate the Assiniboine. Daschuk, Dollar, and Ray all find that there was an effort to keep returning fur traders from entering the fort, but as Dollar finds, returning traders began to get quite aggressive until they were shown an infected boy, as they left they took the disease with them.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic
Halsey wrote, "I sent our interpreter to meet them on every occasion, who represented our situation to them and requested them to return immediately from whence they came however all our endeavors proved fruitless, I could not prevent them from camping round the Fort-they have caught the disease, notwithstanding I have never allowed an Indian to enter the Fort, or any communication between them & the Sick; but I presume the air was infected with it for a half mile..."


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic
Later, a longboat was sent to Fort McKenzie via the Marias River. At Fort McKenzie the disease spread among the Blackfoot people housed there. The epidemic continued to spread into the Great Plains, killing many thousands between 1837 and 1840. In the end, it is estimated that two-thirds of the Blackfoot population died, along with half of the Assiniboines and Arikaras, a third of the Crows, and a quarter of the Pawnees. A trader at Fort Union reported "such a stench in the fort that it could be smelt at a distance of 300 yards", as the bodies were buried in large pits, or tossed into the river, which would have likely contributed to continued infection as body remained infectious after death.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic
There were three major vaccination attempts to stop the spread of smallpox when the epidemic began. Many traders tried to obtain vaccines from the American Fur Company but it was unwilling to heed their requests. The American government made some efforts under the Indian Vaccination Act of 1832. Some did receive vaccines for smallpox, typically ones that were in contact with White Americans, usually in the southern United States. However, the Office of Indian Affairs did not have the network or information needed to vaccinate the plains people quickly, nor did they try establish the needed network.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic
The Hudson Bay Company had the best response. Rumours of the disease spreading prompted traders to act quickly as a reduction in the indigenous population meant a reduction in profit from the furs they brought in. A good information network, a supply of vaccines at posts, and a willingness among all for vaccination meant their efforts were much more successful than American responses. Vaccination performed by Hudson Bay Company workers and trained Indigenous people were critical to limiting the spread of smallpox in Canada. After the epidemic, the Hudson Bay Company implemented a territory wide vaccination program which further reduced smallpox deaths. Unfortunately, as people entered communities to vaccinate against smallpox, they brought with them other diseases that kept mortality rates high.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic
The epidemic altered power structures of impacted nations. The Assinboine and Niitsitapi were not vaccinated and their populations and territory shrank considerably. The disease was particularly deadly among these people because of their denser populations. After being hit by the epidemic, these groups were never able to recover. Ethnic backgrounds also merged as survivors from different communities joined together. As some communities such as the Saulteaux were able to take advantage of vaccination efforts by the HBC they also took advantage of struggling Indigenous groups. The Hudson Bay Company vaccination efforts were focused on populations that produced furs. As result, the Plains Cree and Saulteaux pushed out its borders as others retreated during the epidemic.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic, Responsibility and intentional spread allegations
Scholars typically attribute the spread of smallpox in spring of 1837 to the failure to quarantine the St. Peter. More recent scholarship from Dashuk, whose work on Indigenous relations in western Canada is not afraid to criticize settler people and corporations, argues the spread of smallpox between 1836 and 1840 was unintentional. The start has been linked back to the St. Peter on the Missouri River. In addition, while the AFC responded to the outbreak poorly, encouraging it did not make financial sense.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic, Responsibility and intentional spread allegations
The company profited by an influx of Indigenous people in the early 1830s as it meant more furs for them to trade. Regarding land above the 49th Parallel, as has been shown in this article, the Hudson's Bay Company's response was critical to limiting the epidemic after its outbreak. While specific responsibility for the 1836-40 smallpox epidemic remains in question, scholars have asserted that the epidemic could be tied to a failure to contain the disease once it was discovered on the St. Peter traveling up the Missouri River.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic, Responsibility and intentional spread allegations
Undoubtedly the unwillingness of Captain Pratt to quarantine those suspected of infection lead to thousands of deaths. However, it is impossible to know his true intentions, but it is clear that there was no intent by his company to cause an outbreak. The law calls Pratt's offense criminal negligence. Yet in light of all the deaths, the almost complete annihilation of the Mandans, and the terrible suffering the region endured, the label criminal negligence is benign, hardly befitting an action that had such horrendous consequences."


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic, Responsibility and intentional spread allegations
Another frequently recounted story is that an Indian sneaked aboard the St. Peter and stole a blanket from an infected passenger, thus starting the epidemic. The many variations of this account have also been criticized by both historians and contemporaries as fiction; a fabrication intended to assuage the guilt of white settlers. "The blanket affair was created afterward and is not to be credited", notes B. A. Mann.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic, Responsibility and intentional spread allegations
Some scholars have argued that the spread of the 1836-40 epidemic was intentional. These include Ann F. Ramenofsky in 1987 and Ward Churchill in 1992. According to Ramenofsky, "Variola Major can be transmitted through contaminated articles such as clothing or blankets. In the nineteenth century, the U. S. Army sent contaminated blankets to Native Americans, especially Plains groups, to control the Indian problem."


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic, Responsibility and intentional spread allegations
Churchill also asserted that in 1837 at Fort Clark the United States Army deliberately infected Mandan Indians by distributing blankets that had been exposed to smallpox, but he additionally alleged that the blankets were taken from a military infirmary in St. Louis, that smallpox vaccine was withheld from the Indians, and that an army doctor had advised the infected Indians to disperse, further spreading the disease and causing over 100,000 deaths.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic, Responsibility and intentional spread allegations
After an investigation of Churchill's writings and sources by the University of Colorado at Boulder, their Standing Committee concluded, "We do not find academic misconduct with respect to his general claim that the U.S. Army deliberately spread smallpox to Mandan Indians at Fort Clark in 1837, using infected blankets. Early accounts of what was said by Indians involved in that situation and certain native oral traditions provide some basis for that interpretation." Churchill was criticized, however, for not properly citing his more extreme details and not mentioning "native oral sources in any of his published essays about Fort Clark."


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic, Responsibility and intentional spread allegations
So great was the distrust of the settlers that the Mandan chief Four Bears denounced the white man, whom he had previously treated as brothers, for deliberately bringing the disease to his people. After losing his wife and children to smallpox, and acquiring the affliction himself, he gave his final speech to the Arikara and Mandan tribes imploring them to "rise all together and not leave one of them alive", before dying on July 30, 1837.


1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, Epidemic, Responsibility and intentional spread allegations
The idea that smallpox was intentionally spread in 1837 has been disputed: 'While acknowledging the "politicization" of the topic and evidence of other outrages committed against Native American tribes in times past, this study examines the different versions of the "smallpox blankets" episode published by Churchill between 1994 and 2003. The "preponderance of evidence" standard of proof strongly indicates that Churchill fabricated events that never occurred-- namely the U.S. Army's alleged distribution of smallpox infested blankets to the Mandan Indians in 1837. The analysis additionally reveals that Churchill falsified sources to support his fabricated version of events, and also concealed evidence in his cited sources that actually disconfirms, rather than substantiates, his allegations of genocide.'


1837 Liverpool Town Council election
Elections to Liverpool Town Council were held on Wednesday 1 November 1837. One third of the council seats were up for election, the term of office of each councillor being three years.


1837 Maine gubernatorial election
The 1837 Maine gubernatorial election took place on September 11, 1837. Incumbent Democratic Governor Robert P. Dunlap did not run for re-election.


1837 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
The 1837 Massachusetts gubernatorial election was held on November 13.


1837 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
Incumbent Whig Governor Edward Everett was re-elected to a third term in office, defeating Democrat Marcus Morton.


1837 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
The campaign was dominated by the Panic of 1837, which was blamed on President Martin Van Buren and erased much of the gains made by the Democratic Party in the decade prior. Van Buren's call for a system of independent treasuries was unpopular in the state.


1837 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
Francis Baylies and Richard Fletcher also took active part in the Whig campaign, attacking former President Andrew Jackson and President Van Buren for causing the panic with their attacks on the national bank.


1837 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
Morton declined to take any active role in the campaign. Nonetheless, the Whig Atlas assailed him as a "political" judge and called for his impeachment and removal from the bench. Democrats countered the Whig campaign by linking the Boston banking interests and Governor Everett to Masonic influence.


1837 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
On November 11, Whigs held a rally at Faneuil Hall with national leaders including Daniel Webster, John Bell, William J. Graves, Joseph R. Underwood and Ogden Hoffman.


1837 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
This was also among the first elections in Massachusetts to feature slavery as an issue. Late in the campaign, William Ellery Channing joined the anti-slavery cause with an epistle against the annexation of Texas, arguing that it was a theft of Mexican territory, an extension of the slave system, and risked angering Great Britain by threatening their position in the Caribbean. He appealed to Henry Clay and Governor Everett to abandon pro-business orientation toward the plantation system. Morton, by contrast, had been among the most anti-slavery members of the Democratic Party. Benjamin F. Hallett of the Advocate soon thereafter published a review of Everett's 1826 declaration in favor of the slave system and contrasted it to Morton's 1827 declaration in opposition to slavery.


1837 Massachusetts legislature
The 58th Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1837 during the governorship of Edward Everett. Horace Mann served as president of the Senate and Julius Rockwell served as speaker of the House.


1837 Michigan gubernatorial election
The 1837 Michigan gubernatorial election was held from November 6, 1837 to November 7, 1837. Incumbent Democrat Stevens T. Mason defeated Whig nominee Charles C. Trowbridge with 51.29% of the vote.


1837 Naval Air Squadron
1837 Naval Air Squadron (1837 NAS) was a Naval Air Squadron of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm.


1837 Naval Air Squadron, References, Bibliography
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1837 Newfoundland general election
The 1837 Newfoundland general election was held in 1837 to elect members of the 2nd General Assembly of Newfoundland in Newfoundland Colony. The results of the previous election had been set aside by Henry John Boulton after he discovered some of the writs from the previous election had not been marked with the official seal. A number of Liberal reformers who had been elected in 1836 did not run for reelection. However, reformers continued to dominate the assembly.


1837 Osita
1837 Osita (prov. designation: 1971 QZ1) is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 7 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 16 August 1971, by American astronomer James Gibson at the Yale–Columbia Southern Station of the Leoncito Astronomical Complex in Argentina, who named it after his wife Ursula ("Osita").


1837 Osita, Orbit and classification
The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family, one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.0–2.4 AU once every 3 years and 3 months (1,196 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. Osita was first identified as 1962 XQ at Goethe Link Observatory in 1962, extending the body's observation arc by 9 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1837 Osita, Physical characteristics
PanSTARRS's large-scale survey also classified Osita as a rare AQ-type, having intermediate spectral characteristics of an A and Q type asteroid.


1837 Osita, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In February 2006, a rotational lightcurve of Osita was obtained from photometric observation by French amateur astronomer René Roy, giving a well-defined rotation period of 3.81880 hours with a brightness variation of 0.48 magnitude (U=3). Photometric observations in the R-band at the Palomar Transient Factory in October 2011, gave a concurring period of 3.8186 hours and an amplitude of 0.59 magnitude (U=2). A third period of 3.81880 hours was derived from a large international data-mining collaboration in February 2016 (U=n.a. ).


1837 Osita, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Osita measures between 7.53 and 7.94 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.194 and 0.216.


1837 Osita, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from 8 Flora, the largest member and namesake of this orbital family – and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 12.9.


1837 Osita, Naming
This minor planet was named by the discoverer for his wife Ursula ("Osita" is the Spanish equivalent). She volunteered as an assistant and actively participated in the observations by measuring or reducing more than 150 positions of comets and minor planets. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3935).


1837 Pennsylvania's 3rd congressional district special election
On June 29, 1837, a special election was held in Pennsylvania's 3rd congressional district to fill a vacancy left by the death of Francis J. Harper (D) on March 18, 1837.


1837 Pennsylvania's 3rd congressional district special election, Election results
Naylor had been narrowly defeated in the 1836 election for the 3rd district. He took his seat on September 4, 1837, at the start of the 1st session of the 25th Congress


1837 Poonch Revolt
The 1837 Poonch Revolt, also known as the 1837 Poonch Rebellion, was a revolt in the princely state of Poonch against the Dogra dynasty's rulers Dhian Singh and Raja Gulab Singh. The rebellion was led by the Sudhan tribe under their head-man, Sardar Shams Khan Sudhan, and his close accomplices, Mali Khan and Sabz Ali Khan.


1837 Poonch Revolt
In 1837, after Hari Singh Nalwa's death in the Battle of Jamrud, the Sudhan tribe of Poonch, together with other tribes and Pahari-speaking people, rose in revolt. The insurgency was led by Shams Khan, chief of the Sudhan tribe and former confidential follower of Dhian Singh. The betrayal of Shams Khan Sudhan against the regime was taken personally, and Gulab Singh was given the task of suppressing the rebellion.


1837 Poonch Revolt
After defeating the insurgents in Hazara and the Murree hills, Gulab Singh stayed at Kahuta and promoted disunion among the insurgents. His forces were sent to subdue the insurgents. Shams Khan Sudhan and his nephew were betrayed, and they were decapitated as they slept, while the lieutenants were captured, flayed alive, and put to death.


1837 Poonch Revolt
Contemporary British commentators stated that the local population suffered immensely. Many rebels were captured and treated vengefully; their hands and feet were severed by axes, while the skin of Mali Khan and Sabz Ali Khan, two of Shams's close accomplices, were peeled off their bodies, and their heads were hung on gallows in a crossroad as a warning to others. The chief rebel's head was cut off.


1837 State of the Union Address
The 1837 State of the Union Address was given by the eighth president of the United States, Martin Van Buren, on December 5, 1837. It was presented to the 25th United States Congress by a clerk, because it was not yet the custom for the president to deliver it himself. He began with, "We have reason to renew the expression of our devout gratitude to the Giver of All Good for His benign protection. Our country presents on every side the evidences of that continued favor under whose auspices it, has gradually risen from a few feeble and dependent colonies to a prosperous and powerful confederacy."


1837 Surat fire
In April 1837, the fire broke out in the Indian city of Surat which was then under British East India Company. It resulted in more than 500 deaths and destruction of 9737 houses in an area of 93⁄4 miles. It was the most destructive fire in the history of Surat.


1837 Surat fire, Fire
Surat was under British East India Company in 1837. During the summer, on 24 April 1837, Monday, at 5pm, a house of one of the leading Parsis in Machhalipith neighbourhood was caught on fire. A jar of boiling pitch had been spilt and some of the wood work of the house was caught in flames. The neighbours had refused to allow water from their wells to extinguish the fire. The fire quickly spread to neighbouring houses which were densely packed and had timber frameworks and wooden eaves overhanging the narrow streets.


1837 Surat fire, Fire
Within a few hours, the fire spread to an area of three miles due to heavy wind from the north. At night, the large masses of smoke lit by the fire was visible from a distance of twenty to thirty miles. On 25 April, at daybreak, the fire spread to other direction due to wind from the southwest. At noon, about 2 pm, the fire was at its height. The fire declined thereafter and ended in the morning on 26 April. The fire had destroyed houses in an area of 93⁄4 miles, about three fourth of the city.


1837 Surat fire, Damage
Apart from more than 500 people who died in the fire, more 49 dead were found; including seven people who died due to change of the direction of fire on 25 April, 32 people who died while saving their property and 10 people who had tried to save themselves by jumping in a pond or well.


1837 Surat fire, Damage
The total economic loss could not be estimated. Total 9373 houses were destroyed. Of them, 6250 were in the city and 3123 in the suburbs. Placing average cost of house at ₹500, total loss amounted ₹4,686,500.


1837 Surat fire, Relief
The British Government granted ₹50,000 for relief while and private donors collected ₹125,000 in Bombay. GB£1,000 were collected in London for relief work.


1837 Surat fire, Aftermath
After fire, Surat was affected by a heavy flood in August 1837. Due to these disasters, Parsi, Jain and Hindu traders moved to Bombay. Later Bombay became the major port of the west coast of India surpassing Surat. The city was continued to be affected by several fires in subsequent years.


1837 United Kingdom general election
The 1837 United Kingdom general election was triggered by the death of King William IV and produced the first Parliament of the reign of his successor, Queen Victoria. It saw Robert Peel's Conservatives close further on the position of the Whigs, who won their fourth election of the decade.


1837 United Kingdom general election
The election marked the last time that a Parliament was dissolved as a result of the demise of the Crown. The dissolution of Parliament six months after a demise of the Crown, as provided for by the Succession to the Crown Act 1707, was abolished by the Reform Act 1867.


1837 United States Senate election in New York
The 1837 United States Senate election in New York was held on February 7, 1837, by the New York State Legislature to elect a U.S. Senator (Class 3) to represent the State of New York in the United States Senate.


1837 United States Senate election in New York, Background
Silas Wright, Jr., had been elected in 1833 to this seat after the resignation of William L. Marcy who had been elected Governor of New York. Wright's term would expire on March 3, 1837.


1837 United States Senate election in New York, Background
At the State election in November 1836, 94 Democrats and 34 Whigs were elected to the Assembly, and seven of the eight State Senators elected were Democrats. The 60th New York State Legislature met from January 3 to May 16, 1837, at Albany. The party strength in the Assembly as shown by the election for Speaker was: 80 for Democrat Edward Livingston and 27 for Whig Luther Bradish.


1837 United States Senate election in New York, Candidates
The incumbent U.S. Senator Silas Wright, Jr., was re-nominated in a Democratic caucus by a large majority.


1837 United States Senate election in New York, Result
Silas Wright, Jr., was the choice of both the Assembly and the Senate, and was declared elected.


1837 United States Senate election in New York, Aftermath
Wright continued in the U.S. Senate, was re-elected in 1843, and remained in office until November 1844 when he resigned after his election as Governor of New York.


1837 Valdivia earthquake
The 1837 Valdivia earthquake struck south-central Chile on November 17. Together with earthquakes in 1575 and 1737 the earthquake is among the historical predecessors to the great 1960 earthquake. The rupture zone was roughly from Valdivia to the south. It was felt in the cities of Concepción, Valdivia and Ancud. The earthquake was also felt by the crew whaling ships in Guafo Island and Chonos Archipelago. Various landslides were triggered in Chiloé and people are reported to have been thrown to the ground in Valdivia. In contrast in Concepción the shakings were moderate.


1837 Valdivia earthquake
As reported in various coastal localities the ground rose as result of the earthquake. Decades later while surveying southern Chile’s coasts Francisco Vidal Gormaz was told of islands that been submerged and some that had emerged as a consequence of the earthquake. The earthquake caused a tsunami that struck Hawaii, what is now French Polynesia and Japan.


1837 Valdivia earthquake
In Japan the tsunami flooded rice fields, destroyed salmon traps and broke into salt evaporation ponds causing significant economic losses.


1837 generation
The 1837 generation (Spanish: Generación del '37) was an Argentine intellectual movement named after the date a literary hall with most of its members was established. Influenced by the new romantic ideas, they rejected the cultural Spanish heritage of the country. They did not acknowledge any national roots in the indigenous peoples or the period of European colonization, focusing instead on the Revolution as the birth of the country, as it gave them freedom, the possibility to behave as free people. They considered themselves "sons of the May Revolution", they were born shortly after it, and wrote some of the earliest Argentine literary works.


1837 generation
The group established a literary hall in 1837 in Buenos Aires, hence the name. This Salón Literario closed six months after it was created because of the reiterated warnings from the government.


1837 generation
Initially, they claimed to be neutral in the Argentine Civil Wars, they wrote works biased against the federal governor Juan Manuel de Rosas (such as El Matadero by Esteban Echeverría or Facundo by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento) because Rosas was the Buenos Aires government of that time, but they were also against the former Unitarian governments, with whom they didn't agree in their absolutist manners that were considered by them as a mere restoration of the manners of the Spanish colony.


1837 generation
Their efforts to install a full democratic Republic and guarantee civil rights by means of a peaceful propaganda were vain and shortly after that they ended up exiled or assassinated. After Rosas was overthrown in 1852, their writings inspired the first Argentine Constitution in 1853, and their persons promoters of the Organización Nacional, the articulation and organization of the political divisions, infrastructure and institutions of the country, that in its final form didn't was federal nor unitarian but a balance of both.


1837 generation
They were called "unitarians" in a loose sense and by Rosas propaganda.


1837 generation
Some notable members of this generation were Esteban Echeverría, Juan Bautista Alberdi, Juan María Gutiérrez, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento who was president between 1868 and 1874, Miguel Cané (senior), Bartolomé Mitre, Andrés Lamas, Antonio Somellera, Vicente Fidel López, Carlos Tejedor, Juan Bautista Peña, Florencio Varela, Juan Cruz Varela, José Mármol, José Rivera Indarte (Buenos Aires), Quiroga Rosas, Antonino Aberastain, Santiago Cortínez (San Juan), Benjamín Villafañe, Félix Frías (Tucumán), Francisco Álvarez, Paulino Paz, Enrique Rodríguez, Avelino Ferreyra, Ramón Ferreyra (Córdoba), Juan Thompson (Corrientes).


1837 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1837 in Australia.


1837 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1837 in Chile.


1837 in Denmark, Births
18 March — Marie Christine Björn, ballet dancer (born 1763)


1837 in New Zealand
The following lists events that happened during 1837 in New Zealand.


1837 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1837 in South Africa.


1837 in Spain
Events from the year 1837 in the Kingdom of Spain.


1837 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1837 to Wales and its people.


1837 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1837.


1837 in paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1837.


1837 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1837 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1837 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1837 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1837.


1837 in science
The year 1837 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1837 in sports
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by BHGbot (talk | contribs) at 18:48, 18 June 2020 (WP:BHGbot 6 (List 5): eponymous category first, per MOS:CATORDER; WP:GENFIXES). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1837 in sports
1837 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1837 in the United Kingdom
Events from the year 1837 in the United Kingdom. This marks the beginning of the Victorian era.


1837 in the United States
Events from the year 1837 in the United States of America.


1838
1838 (MDCCCXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1838th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 838th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 38th  year of the 19th century, and the  9th   year of the 1830s decade. As of the start of 1838, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1838 Chicago mayoral election
The 1838 Chicago mayoral election saw Whig nominee Buckner Morris defeat Democrat William Jones by an 8.5 point margin.


1838 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1838 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 4, 1838. Former congressman and Whig nominee William W. Ellsworth was elected, defeating former speaker of the Connecticut House of Representatives and Democratic nominee Seth Preston Beers with 54.14% of the vote.


1838 Constitution of Serbia
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by M Todorovic (talk | contribs) at 18:23, 18 December 2019. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1838 Constitution of Serbia
The Constitution of 1838, often called the Turkish constitution (Serbian: Турски устав / Turski ustav; because it was issued in the form of a sultan firman), was a constitution of the Principality of Serbia from 1838 until 1869. Through this, the Ottoman Empire wanted to show that Serbia was subservient to it. Although the new constitution was less liberal than the preceding Sretenje Constitution, Serbian prince Miloš Obrenović did not want to rule under it, so he abdicated in favor of his son Milan Obrenović.


1838 Constitution of Serbia, Background
The people of Serbia often rebelled against Miloš's autocratic and frequently brutal rule. Following one such rebellion, Mileta's rebellion, he agreed to adopt the very liberal Sretenje Constitution (Candlemas Constitution) in 1835, which abolished serfdom, granted freedom of speech and the press, and reduced the prince's power. The move was opposed by neighboring Austria, the ruling Ottoman Empire and Russia. It is believed that the three great empires saw the Sretenje Constitution as a danger to their own autocratic systems of government. Metternich's Austria particularly ridiculed the fact that Serbia had its own flag and ministry of foreign affairs. Miloš was glad to abolish the Sretenje Constitution at the demand of Russia and Turkey.


1838 Constitution of Serbia, Background
Prince Miloš Obrenović changed his way of ruling upon the abolition of the Sretenje Constitution. He stopped acting as supreme judge and abolished monopoly of the salt trade. The Constitution of 1838 was carried out by the Russian Empire, Ottoman Empire and Austrian Empire. The Russian envoy handed "basis" for the constitutional organization of Serbia. According to him, the constitution should contain only administrative provisions, because the hatt-i sharif of 1830 granted political rights for the Principality of Serbia. Russia requested to maintain the Council, through which it could put pressure on the prince.


1838 Constitution of Serbia, Aftermath
Although the new constitution was less liberal then its predecessor, prince Miloš Obrenović did not want to rule under it, so he abdicated on June 13, 1839, in favor of his son Milan Obrenović. Milan died less than a month later and was succeeded by his brother Mihailo Obrenović. In 1842 his first reign came to a halt when he was overthrown by a rebellion led by Toma Vučić-Perišić, which enabled the Karađorđević dynasty to accede to the Serbian throne. The most influential men in Serbia after that were Vučić-Perišić and Ilija Garašanin of the Defenders of the Constitution.


1838 Coronation Honours
The 1838 Coronation Honours were appointments by Queen Victoria to various orders and honours on the occasion of her coronation on 28 June 1838. The honours were published in The London Gazette on 20 July and 24 July 1838.


1838 Coronation Honours
The recipients of honours are displayed here as they were styled before their new honour, and arranged by honour, with classes (Knight, Knight Grand Cross, etc.) and then divisions (Military, Civil, etc.) as appropriate.


1838 Druze attack on Safed
The 1838 Druze attack on Safed began on July 5, 1838, during the Druze revolt against the rule of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. Tensions had mounted as the Druze captured an Egyptian garrison outside of Safed. The local Safed militia of several hundred was heavily outnumbered by the Druze, and the city was gripped in despair as the militia eventually abandoned the city and the Druze rebels entered the city on July 5.


1838 Druze attack on Safed
The Druze rebels  and a Muslim mob descended on the Jewish quarter of Safed and, in scenes reminiscent of the Safed plunder four years earlier, spent three days attacking Jews, plundering their homes and desecrating their synagogues. Some Jews ended up leaving the town, moving south to Jerusalem and Acre. Among them was Israel Beck, whose printing press had been destroyed a second time.


1838 Druze attack on Safed, Prelude
By the 19th-century, the Galilean city of Safed comprised a major Jewish center. It had become a kabbalistic centre during the 16th-century, reaching a size of about 15,000 at its peak. Despite the decline through the 17th and 18th centuries, by the 1830s there were still around 3,500-4,000 Jews living there, comprising at least half the population.


1838 Druze attack on Safed, Prelude
The Jews of Safed had been subjected to a prolonged attack in 1834 during the Peasants' Revolt: Over 5,000 Arab peasant rebels had launched a revolt protesting against legislation imposed by the new Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali and some had used the uprising as an opportunity to attack the Jews. After several months, the Egyptians managed to crush the rebellion and regain control of the county and the Jews of Safed began to rehabilitate themselves.


1838 Druze attack on Safed, Prelude
Not long after, Safed was again the scene of devastation when in 1837 a strong earthquake resulted in thousands of deaths and the destruction of many buildings. The northern, Jewish section of the town was almost entirely destroyed. By 1838, the tense relationship between the fellahin and the Egyptian overlords was again mounting and a full-scale Druze revolt erupted in January. In summer of 1838, the Druze captured a heavily outnumbered Egyptian garrison outside Safed.


1838 Druze attack on Safed, The attack
The Jewish population relied on the protection of an Arab governor against the Druze. Dr. Elizer Loewe wrote in his diary:


1838 Druze attack on Safed, The attack
According to Loewe, the mayor and his militia fled the city, and the Jews became Open prey for the ravenous rebels. The Druze rebels were joined by Muslim mob and they looted the Jewish quarters, as the Druze rebels thought the Jews possessed hidden treasures and local Muslims encouraged them to attack. The plunder lasted for 3 days.


1838 Druze attack on Safed, The attack
During the course of the attack, some Jews were assisted by friendly Arabs. One Arab by the name of Muhammed Mustafa, had helped protect them, lending them money and providing them with food and clothing. This time, Ibrahim Pasha's response was more swift, and after a few days things returned to normal.


1838 Druze revolt
The 1838 Druze revolt was a Druze uprising in Syria against the authority of Ibrahim Pasha and effectively against the Egypt Eyalet, ruled by Muhammad Ali. The rebellion was led by Druze clans of Mount Lebanon, with an aim to expel the Egyptian forces, under Ibrahim Pasha considering them as infidels. The revolt was suppressed with a bitter campaign by Pasha, after a major Druze defeat in the Wadi al-Taym, and the Egyptian rule effectively restored in Galilee and Mount Lebanon with a peace agreement signed between the Egyptians and Druze leaders on July 23, 1838. Among the major sites of violence was the city of Safed, where the Jewish community was  attacked by Druze rebels in early July 1838.


1838 Druze revolt, Background
The tensions between the Druze and the Egyptians had been mounting since the 1834 Syrian Peasant Revolt (1834). The ruling classes of the region resented Egyptian authority and the Druze in particular resisted the rule of Ibrahim Pasha, who personally considered the Druze as heretics and oppressed them. What sparked the revolt itself, however, was the conscription decree of the Egyptian army.


1838 Druze revolt, Revolt
The first reports of the Druze uprising came in January 1838. Some 400 troops, led by Ali Agha al-Busayli, governor of Hauran, attacked the Druzes in Tha'la, and suffered the first defeat, as Ali and a large number of his troops were killed. The Egyptian troops, dispatched from Damascus were slaughtered by Druze peasants during the night. Later, a second force of 6,000 regulars was sent, requiring the Druze to reorganize for more serious fighting. The Egyptian army, led by Muhammad Pasha forced the Druze to withdraw but, exhausted from traversing the mountainous terrain, were repelled by the Druze fighters near Smaid. A new Egyptian force, led by Minikly Pasha, Egyptian Minister of War, and Sharif Pasha was again defeated by some 2,000 Druze insurgents.


1838 Druze revolt, Revolt
The successive defeats prompted Ibrahim Pasha to arrive from Aleppo by himself. Ibrahim recruited loyal Albanians and recalled reinforcements from Hama, Acre and Aleppo, creating an army which according to British officials counted some 15,000 men. The force blockaded the Lajat field north of Hauran, while Sharif Pasha began negotiations with the insurgents. The Druze refused to lay down their weapons, but concerned with the size of the amounting armies, tried to enlist additional forces to support the revolt from across Syria and Lebanon. The attempt was largely unsuccessful, and effectively failed.


1838 Druze revolt, Revolt
In early April, Shibli al-Aryan attempted to secure more fighters from the supportive villages and succeeded in raising some 8,000 fighters. Soon, the Druze of Mount Lebanon began streaming to join the rebel ranks, and from April it seemed the rebellion incorporated the entire Druze community. The main roads were cut by the Druze, disrupting the Egyptian army supplies. At this point, Ibrahim Pasha ordered Emir Bashir Shihab II, his ally, to send 1,000 men to Wadi al-Taym, where the clashes erupted on April 7. The Egyptian army was commanded by Ahmad Bek, consisting of an infantry regiment, 300 Bedouins and 500 irregulars, which succeeded to overwhelm the Druzes with 33 dead, scores wounded and four taken prisoner. Egyptian losses were 13 killed, 65 wounded.


1838 Druze revolt, Revolt
Following the defeat by Ahmad Bek, Shibli occupied Rashayya and killed its governor, while Druze volunteers kept flowing in to join his forces. Another reinforcement of 4,000 men was requested by Ibrahim Pasha from Bashir Shihab II, and arrived under the command of Bashir's son. Joined by two sheikhs from Mount Lebanon—Hasan Junbalat and Nasir ad-Din al-Imad—the Druze fighters were led into Wadi Bakka, where on July 4 they suffered a decisive defeat, losing some 640 men including al-Imad.


1838 Druze revolt, Revolt
In early July, tensions still mounted as the Druze captured an Egyptian garrison outside of Safed. The local Safed militia of several hundred was heavily outnumbered by the Druze, and the city was gripped in despair as the militia eventually abandoned the city and the Druze rebels entered the city on July 5. The resulting plunder by the Druze rebels, which targeted the Jewish community, lasted for three days. Much of the local population sought refuge in Acre.


1838 Druze revolt, Revolt
Subsequently, Shibli moved to southern Wadi al-Taym, where he was attacked by the Christian fighters of Emir Bashir, led by his son Emir Khalil. The attack was unsuccessful, and the Druze succeeded in withstanding the pressure until July 17, when Egyptian reinforcements crushed them at Shebaa. Shibli and 1,500 of his men fled to Mount Hermon, while most of the insurgents in Hauran surrendered and were granted amnesty.


1838 Druze revolt, Agreement
The critical points to end the rebellion were the water war, engaged by Egyptian forces upon the Druze population and the effective defeat of the main insurgent force in Wadi al-Taym. It persuaded Druze leaders to negotiate peace with Ibrahim Pasha. Sheikh Hasan al-Bitar of Rashaya and the Christian Jiris Abu ad-Dibs mediated the agreement, whereby Ibrahim Pasha agreed to give amnesty to insurgents and to put the Druze into forced labor in lieu of exemption from conscription, in return for the surrender of Druze arms and those seized from Egyptians. The agreement was signed on July 23, 1838.


1838 Druze revolt, Agreement
At first, the Druze willingly surrendered their arms, but it soon became clear, that those were not the arms that had been used in the fighting, prompting Ibrahim Pasha to send his officers with a demand for an immediate surrender of the entire Druze arsenal. The process continued slowly, and lasted until August.


1838 Druze revolt, Aftermath
Small groups of insurgents still refused to lay their weapons, including Shibli in Mount Hermon and sheikh Husain Abu Asaf in Lajat. Shibli eventually fled to Baalbek, but forced into hiding, he finally surrendered to the Egyptians. When Shibli met Ibrahim Pasha, he proposed his services as an irregular, and was accepted into Egyptian service. Shibli was later sent out of the country, appointed to Sinar. Apparently, Shibli was still in service of Ibrahim by late 1840, when Egyptians began evacuating Syria and Lebanon. The last 100 Druze rebels in Lajat were joined by another 400 Druze insurgents by 1839, and were reportedly devastated a village near Hasbaya. The dominance of Ibrahim Pasha over Ottoman Syria diminished with the 1840 agreement, which was signed during the Second Egyptian-Ottoman War (1839-1841).


1838 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase
The 1838 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase was the last of three unofficial annual precursors of a Handicap Steeple-chase, later to become known as the Grand National Steeplechase Horse race which took place at Aintree Racecourse near Liverpool on Monday 5 March 1838 and attracted a field of only three runners. This race did not carry the prestige of the future Grand Nationals and its status as an official Grand National was revoked some time between 1862-1873.


1838 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, Competitors and betting
Three competitors faced the starter and were quoted as follows.


1838 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, The race
The race was relatively incident free. Scamp refused when leading on the first circuit and The Duke looked set to record a third consecutive victory, entering the race course proper with a good lead over Sir William. The dual winner tired rapidly and was first passed by Sir William and then also by Scamp to finish last of the three with Sir William winning by a distance of forty yards in a time of fifteen minutes, a minute slower than the previous year.


1838 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, Aftermath
For many years after this event the race was regarded as the third running of the Grand National by racegoers and pressmen alike, however this stance began to change during the 1860s when national newspapers began listing the former winners of the National back only as far as 1839. When the official honours board at Aintree was erected in 1894 it stated that the race of 1838 was run at a nearby course in Maghull and that the winner was a horse named Sir Henry, ridden by Mr Olliver against nine rivals.


1838 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, Aftermath
Racing returns from this period show that racing at Maghull ceased in 1835 and that there was no horse in training in 1838 named Sir Henry. The only jockey named Olliver in racing at the time was Tom Olliver and on the date of the race he was riding at St Albans.


1838 Grand Liverpool Steeplechase, Aftermath
For over a century the detail recorded on the honours board was accepted as fact until evidence was presented to show the real events of the 1838 Great Liverpool chase. While it is now accepted among the majority of racing writers that the 1838 race was indeed run at Aintree and not Maghull it is still the official view that the lack of prestige in the race prior to 1839 warrants its continued omission from being declared an official Grand National.


1838 Harrow rail accident
The Harrow train accident 1838 occurred on the afternoon of Tuesday 7 August 1838. Thomas Port, a railway guard, fell from a train on the London and Birmingham Railway near to Harrow, Middlesex, England. He was dragged under the carriages and had both legs partially severed. Despite attempts to save his life, he died later that day from severe blood loss.


1838 Harrow rail accident, Historical background
The first part of the London to Birmingham Railway opened between Euston Station and Hemel Hempstead on 20 July 1837, and then on to Bletchley in time for Queen Victoria's coronation on 28 June 1838. The whole railway was officially fully opened on 17 September 1838.


1838 Harrow rail accident, Description of the accident
Thomas Port was employed as a guard by the London and Birmingham Railway.


1838 Harrow rail accident, Description of the accident
At that time train operation was still largely based upon the standards of British stagecoach practice and Port's normal travelling location aboard the train was in an outside seat at roof level. It was part of his duty to undertake ticket checks to make sure second class passengers were not sitting in first class carriages. This task required that once the train was underway he would climb down to move along the step boards on the outside of the carriages so he could check the tickets through the door windows.


1838 Harrow rail accident, Description of the accident
On the day of his death, 7 August 1838, the train had left Euston Station at 5pm. About 10 miles (16 km) from Euston and 1¼ miles (2 km) from Harrow the train was travelling at full speed, about 30 mph (50 km/h). As Port attempted to step from one carriage to the next, he slipped and fell under the train. His legs were run over, crushing and partially severing them.


1838 Harrow rail accident, Description of the accident
One of the other guards saw the injured Port lying on the tracks in great pain, and indicated to the driver to stop the train immediately. Emergency first aid was given by two doctors who were travelling on the train and then Port was put back aboard and taken to Harrow. Here the doctors fully amputated both his legs in an attempt to cauterise the bleeding, but Port died from a severe loss of blood within 3 hours of the accident.


1838 Harrow rail accident, Description of the accident
Thomas Port "left a father, a mother, several brothers and sisters, and a wife and two children to lament his loss."


1838 Harrow rail accident, Coroner's inquisition
It was reported that "the unfortunate deceased started with the Denbigh Hall five o-clock train on Tuesday last from the station at Euston grove, and having arrived within a mile and a quarter of Harrow, as was the usual custom, he dismounted from his seat for the purpose of collecting from the passengers what is termed the 'excess fares.' …


1838 Harrow rail accident, Coroner's inquisition
In the performance of this duty the deceased was engaged on Tuesday, which compelled him to pass from one carriage to the other by the steps, and when in the act of placing his foot on one of them, at the time the train was proceeding at upwards of thirty miles an hour, his foot slipped between the wheels, which as they successivley passed over, dragged his legs in, crushing them inch by inch up to one of his knees and above the other."


1838 Harrow rail accident, Coroner's inquisition
The jury felt that it was dangerous to require a guard to perform such a duty while the train was travelling at full speed, but returned a verdict of Accidental Death.


1838 Harrow rail accident, Gravestone
Thomas Port is buried in the churchyard of St Mary's Church, Harrow on the Hill. His gravestone has the following inscription:


1838 Illinois gubernatorial election
The 1838 Illinois gubernatorial election was the sixth quadrennial election for this office. Democrat Thomas Carlin was elected by a bare majority of the voters in a close election. He defeated Cyrus Edwards, the brother of former governor Ninian Edwards for the office.


1838 Iowa Council election
In the 1838 Iowa Territory Council elections, electors selected councilors to serve in the first Iowa Territory Council. All 13 members of the Territory Council were elected. Councilors served one-year terms.


1838 Iowa Council election
The Iowa Territory existed from July 4, 1838, until December 28, 1846, when Iowa was admitted to the Union as a state. At the time, the Iowa Territory had a Legislative Assembly consisting of an upper chamber (i.e., the Territory Council) and a lower chamber (i.e., the Territory House).


1838 Iowa Council election
Following the organization of the first Territory Council, Whig Councilor Jesse B. Browne of Lee County was chosen as the President of the Territory Council. Democrats held a majority of seats in the first Iowa Territory Council following the 1838 general election with seven seats to Whigs' six seats.


1838 Jesuit slave sale
In 1838, 272 men, women, and children were sold by the Maryland Jesuits; a portion of the proceeds was used to pay the debts of Georgetown College (now Georgetown University), also run by the Jesuits. The slaves had lived on plantations belonging to the Jesuits in Maryland, and they were sold to Henry Johnson and Jesse Batey. The sale price was $115,000, equivalent to $2,794,859 in 2020. Of the $25,000 down-payment, $17,000 was used to pay down building debt that Thomas F. Mulledy, the provincial superior who orchestrated the sale, had accrued as president of Georgetown College.


1838 Jesuit slave sale
The slaves sold by the Jesuits were part of the West Oak and Chatham Plantations, in Louisiana, both of which would later change ownership. None of the terms for the sale, directed from the Catholic Church leadership in Rome, were met. These terms included that there be no familial separation, that the proceeds not be used to pay debt or the operating expenses of the college, and that the religious practice of the enslaved people be supported. In 1848, the Jesuit James Van de Velde wrote to Mulledy about his concerns over the lack of religious instruction received by the slaves sold to Henry Johnson, and urged Mulledy to contribute funds for the construction of a chapel.


1838 Jesuit slave sale
Many descendants of these enslaved people (sometimes known as the "GU272") presently live in and around Maringouin, Louisiana.


1838 Jesuit slave sale
In April 2019, two-thirds of Georgetown students voted to establish a semesterly fee to fund reparations for descendants of the 272 enslaved people. The non-binding resolution was presented to the university for the approval of its board of directors.


1838 Jesuit slave sale, Context prior to sale
Georgetown College (later known as Georgetown University) was founded by John Carroll, the Bishop of Baltimore, in 1789. In 1829, Thomas F. Mulledy was appointed the President of Georgetown College.


1838 Jesuit slave sale, Legacy
National revelations of this connection were reported in a 2016 article in The New York Times. A discussion is ongoing addressing the question of reconciliation of the university and the descendants; an internal working group at Georgetown recommended that the university offer "the same consideration [they] give members of the Georgetown community in the admissions process" to the descendants. In response to these issues, descendant groups have formed, including the GU 272 Descendants Association.


1838 Jesuit slave sale, Legacy, Building renamings
After the revelation around the slave sale gained wider publicity, the university decided to rename two buildings that bore the names of two Jesuits at Georgetown who had played significant roles in the 1838 sale, Thomas Mulledy and William McSherry. In November 2015, Mulledy Hall was renamed Freedom Hall and McSherry Hall was renamed Remembrance Hall as temporary measures while other names were being considered. In 2017, the two buildings were rededicated in the names of Isaac Hawkins, the first slave listed in the 1838 sale document, and Anne Marie Becraft, a free woman of color who established a school in Georgetown for black girls.


1838 Jesuit slave sale, Legacy, Building renamings, Isaac Hawkins Hall
Isaac was an enslaved man born around 1773 and is believed to have been baptized in 1777. Historical records do not provide a family name, so his descendants' surname Hawkins was assigned to him. Before the sale he lived on the Jesuits' White Marsh plantation near present-day Bowie, Maryland, and went on to have at least five children that survived to adulthood. He was 65 years old at the time of the sale in 1838.


1838 Jesuit slave sale, Legacy, Building renamings, Isaac Hawkins Hall
Most of his family members were also sold and were sent to Louisiana; his son Patrick arrived on the Katherine Jackson, and his grandson Cornelius was sent to Louisiana as well. His name does not appear on bills of sale from the 1850s that include his descendants, so Isaac is assumed to have died before then. Isaac has living descendants as of 2017.


1838 Jesuit slave sale, Legacy, Building renamings, Isaac Hawkins Hall
Isaac was chosen to represent the entire group for the building renaming because his name was first on the list of enslaved people sold. Georgetown historian Maurice Jackson said, "We thought if we take the name of the first person, in which some ways he becomes representative of the other enslaved black people sold". The building and an adjacent one had been built around 1833 and 1904, and housed Jesuits until 2004. After ten years of vacancy, they were renovated as student housing and opened in 2015.


1838 Jesuit slave sale, Legacy, Building renamings, Isaac Hawkins Hall
In the February 5, 2019, episode of PBS's Finding Your Roots, actress S. Epatha Merkerson was revealed to be a descendant of Isaac Hawkins.


1838 Jesuit slave sale, Gallery
Frank Campbell, one of the slaves sold in 1838, pictured c.1900


1838 Jesuit slave sale, Gallery
Map of Jesuit stations in Maryland from the 17th to the 19th centuries


1838 Jesuit slave sale, Gallery
Slave manifest of the Katherine Jackson, the vessel used to transport slaves sold by Georgetown College to New Orleans in 1838


1838 Liverpool Town Council election
Elections to Liverpool Town Council were held on Wednesday 1 November 1838. One third of the council seats were up for election, the term of office of each councillor being three years.


1838 Liverpool Town Council election
The terms "Whig" and "Reformer" are used interchangeably, although the local press at the time referred exclusively to "Reformers".


1838 Liverpool Town Council election, Aldermanic Elections
On 9 November 1838, the term of office of eight of the sixteen aldermen expired.


1838 Liverpool Town Council election, Aldermanic Elections
The following were elected as Aldermen until 9 November 1844.


1838 Louisiana gubernatorial election
The 1838 Louisiana gubernatorial election was the eighth gubernatorial election to take place after Louisiana achieved statehood. Under Article III Sec 2 of the 1812 Constitution of the State of Louisiana the Governor was elected in two steps. On the first Monday in July, eligible voters went to the polls and voted. The returns were sent to the President of the Louisiana State Senate. On the second day of the session of the Louisiana State Legislature, the Louisiana House of Representatives and Senate met in joint session and voted between the top two candidates. The candidate who received a majority in General Assembly became governor.


1838 Maine gubernatorial election
The 1838 Maine gubernatorial election took place on September 10, 1838. Incumbent Whig Governor Edward Kent was defeated for re-election by Democratic candidate John Fairfield.


1838 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
The 1838 Massachusetts gubernatorial election was held on November 12.


1838 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
Incumbent Whig Governor Edward Everett was re-elected to a fourth term in office, defeating Democrat Marcus Morton.


1838 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
The Whigs presented a united front in opposition to "Van Burenism." Alongside Governor Everett, the campaign was led by Senator Daniel Webster, who Whigs identified as the key Washington opponent to Van Buren. Behind the scenes, however, there was a growing divide between supporters of William Henry Harrison for President in 1840, including Webster, and those who supported Henry Clay, like Abbott Lawrence.


1838 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
As it had in 1837, the Whig Atlas assailed Morton as an "office-seeking" judge  who was "false to the spirit of the Constitution." The Atlas once more called for his impeachment, arguing that he was "annually tucking up his Judicial robes for a bout at political fisticuffs" and could not rule impartially. The journal also attacked new Collector of Boston George Bancroft and Benjamin F. Hallett as exercising "imperial control over the total Loco Focoism of the state."


1838 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
The Democratic campaign was led by Bancroft, who focused the effort on a radical declaration of financial principles. He attempted to recruit John Quincy Adams to the campaign, arguing that as a national bank was now out of the question, "old Federalists and Whigs" should join with Democrats against the state banking system. Adams did not respond.


1838 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
The Democrats once again pressed the issue of anti-Masonry, arguing that no member of the soon-defunct Anti-Masonic Party could join with the Whigs in support of the "overbearing despotism of Nicholas Biddle's Bank when... Antimasonry 'plumed itself on equal rights and free privileges among all,' and uniformly denounced corporate dictation or supremacy."


1838 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
During the campaign, future U.S. Senator Isaac C. Bates allegedly led a gang of Northampton Whigs in serial assaults against Mr. Munn, a local Democratic newspaper editor. Whig "disorganizers" were also alleged in Gloucester, where Robert Rantoul Jr. claimed that fisherman returning from months at sea for the election were misinformed that Joseph S. Cabot was the Democratic nominee for Congress, causing a large number of votes erroneously cast in his name.


1838 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Results
Everett defeated Morton for the fourth consecutive year, but the margin narrowed from its peak in 1837. The overall turnout reached a record of 93,941, with nearly all of the gains going to Morton. The result may have been attributable to Massachusetts's rapid recovery from the Panic of 1837, which was the major theme of the Whig campaign against Van Buren.


1838 Massachusetts legislature
The 59th Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1838 during the governorship of Edward Everett. Myron Lawrence served as president of the Senate and Robert Charles Winthrop served as speaker of the House.


1838 Massachusetts legislature
The governor spoke to the members on January 9, 1838.


1838 Massachusetts legislature
"In February 1838, Angelina Grimké became the first woman in U.S. history to address the members of an American legislative body when she spoke to the members of the Massachusetts Legislature. Her subject was the demand for the immediate end of the slave trade in Washington, D.C."


1838 Massachusetts legislature
In 1838, temperance activists pushed the Massachusetts legislature to pass a law restricting the sale of alcohol in quantities less than fifteen gallons.


1838 Mormon War
The 1838 Mormon War, also known as the Missouri Mormon War, was a conflict between Mormons and non-Mormons in Missouri from August to November 1838, the first of the three "Mormon Wars".


1838 Mormon War
Members of the Latter Day Saint movement, founded by Joseph Smith, had gradually migrated from New York to northwestern Missouri since 1831, mainly settling in Jackson County, where tensions with non-Mormon residents led to episodes of anti-Mormon violence. The Mormons were evicted from Jackson County in 1833 and resettled in new counties nearby, where tensions grew again and attempts to evict them resumed. On August 6, 1838, the war began following a brawl at an election in Gallatin, resulting in increased organized violence between Mormons and non-Mormons backed by the Missouri Volunteer Militia in northwestern Missouri.


1838 Mormon War
The Battle of Crooked River in late October led to Lilburn Boggs, the Governor of Missouri, issuing the Missouri Executive Order 44, ordering the Mormons to leave Missouri or be killed. On November 1, 1838, Smith surrendered at Far West, the church's headquarters, ending the war. Smith was charged for treason but escaped custody and fled to Illinois with the remainder of the estimated 10,000 Missouri Mormons, establishing the new settlement of Nauvoo.


1838 Mormon War
During the conflict, 22 people were killed (three Mormons and one non-Mormon at Battle of Crooked Creek, one Mormon prisoner fatally injured while in custody, and 17 Mormons at Haun’s Mill), and an unknown number of non-combatants died due to exposure and hardship as a result of being expelled from their homes in Missouri. All of the conflicts in the Mormon War occurred in a corridor 100 miles (160 km) to the east and northeast of Kansas City.


1838 Mormon War, Background
Shortly after what Mormons consider to be the restoration of the gospel in 1830, Smith stated that he had received a revelation that the Second Coming of Christ was near, that the City of Zion would be near the town of Independence in Jackson County, Missouri, and that his followers were destined to inherit the land held by the current settlers.


1838 Mormon War, Background
If ye are faithful, ye shall assemble yourselves together to rejoice upon the land of Missouri, which is the land of your inheritance, which is now the land of your enemies.