1798 Pennsylvania's 1st congressional district special election
A special election was held in Pennsylvania's 1st congressional district on October 9, 1798 to fill a vacancy caused by the death of John Swanwick (DR) on August 1, 1798. The election was held on the same day as elections to the 6th Congress.


1798 Pennsylvania's 4th congressional district special election
A special election was held in Pennsylvania's 4th congressional district was held on October 9, 1798 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Samuel Sitgreaves (F), who'd been appointed commissioner to Great Britain under the Jay Treaty. The election was held on the same day as elections to the 6th Congress.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates
The Bahian Conspiracy, also known as Revolt of the Tailors (after the trade of many of the leaders) and recently also called Revolt of Buzios, was a late eighteenth century slave rebellion in the then Captaincy of Bahia, in the State of Brazil. Unlike the Inconfidência Mineira of 1789, it was a separatist movement with a popular base and extensive black participation.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates
The objectives of the rebelling baianos were, according to Clóvis Moura, "much more radical," and the proposal to liberate the slaves was one of the main goals. Its leaders and members included "freed blacks, black slaves, pardo slaves, freed pardos, artisans, tailors; those who were from the most oppressed or discriminated classes of Bahia colonial society". With many slaves living in Bahia, the probability of revolts and rebellions ran high. The elites of the area were frightened that if rebellion or revolts did happen, they would be similar to the Haitian Revolution. Because of the significant participation of Bahia's lower classes, the revolt has also been called “The First Brazilian Social Revolution”.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Background
The revolt's beginnings were established in the city of Salvador by a group of disenfranchised workers seeking to initiate an uprising against Portuguese authority. These marginalized groups resented the Portuguese “for their domination of the country, as well as the apparent wealth that had been accumulated by a handful of free Brazilians”. This revolt was influenced by principles of the Enlightenment and the successful independence movements that resulted . To add to the narrative of civil discontent were the various accusations of corruption and wrongdoing made toward the Relação, Salvador's High Court, which Portuguese authorities failed to properly investigate.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Background
It was during this period characterized by internal and external conflict that a conspiracy of rebellion developed. Current evidence suggests that the initial plot began through conversation in 1797 between Francisco Moniz Barreto, Lucas Dantas d'Amorim Tôrres, and Manuel de Santa Anna. The ideology of the rebellion spread via a forty-four line poem authored by Barreto.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Background
On August 12, 1798 a proclamation was posted to a church door in Salvador, Bahia that read: “Be encouraged People of Bahia because the time of our Liberty is approaching. The time when all will be brothers. The time when all will be equal.” It was this written proclamation with no identified author that brought the conspiracy to the attention of Bahia's authorities.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Background
The conspiracy, largely inspired by the events of the French Revolution, had three specific demands: “full independence, the creation of a republic, racial equality, and the complete abolition of slavery”. The revolt included members of many different racial backgrounds. Poor whites, freed-men, slaves, interracial artisans, and radical members of the upper class were among those who joined in the uprising.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Background
Lucas Dantas do Amorim Tôrres, a mulatto soldier who was captured and tried for his involvement in the revolt, is quoted explaining to the judges during his trial: "We want a republic in order to breathe freely because we live subjugated and because we're colored and we can't advance and if there was a republic there would be equality for everyone." These demands for equality threatened to undermine Brazil's race-based hierarchy for political and social privileges and were swiftly repressed by crown authorities.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Background
At the onset of the revolt in 1798, there was no organized plan of action. According to Manuel Faustino dos Santos Lira, one of the revolt's coconspirators, the goal was to convince the governor to become the president of the new republic through means of minimal violence.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Background
The 1798 Revolt of the Tailors was appropriately named due to the participation of tailors as well as other members of Bahia's skilled workers such as “soldiers, artisans, [and] carpenters”. Most of the rebels were not slaves but free mulattoes who lived in extreme poverty.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Economic and Political Factors
Brazil during the eighteenth century was characterized by revolts taking place in many of its cities, notably Minas Gerais, Pernambuco, and Salvador. The northeastern state of Bahia was the center of Brazil's Afro-Brazilian culture during this period, and hosted a large population of slaves. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, Bahia was experiencing economic decline.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Economic and Political Factors
From as early as 1504, the French were engaged in trade with communities in Bahia. Roughly four years before, Pedro Alvarés Cabral had first landed at Porto Seguro. At first, the French did not choose to establish formal communities within Bahia, instead establishing truchements, which were where residents of France lived in already-established communities in Bahia in order to facilitate trade between the two countries. This trade was based around the French desire for "brazilwood", which could be used to make anything from furniture to dye for cloth. It is, in fact, the cloth industry that made the French want to be involved with the Bahian economy. This later led to the creation of the first French colony in Brazil.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Economic and Political Factors
The truchements started out very friendly, with the French and natives teaching each other their own language and culture. Some Brazilians were even taken to France, where they were warmly welcomed. The relations between the two countries prompted humanists, during the Renaissance, to wonder about the idea of equality in friendship. The French, unlike the Portuguese, allowed the natives to participate in dialogues and create their own speeches. There are also records in France that contain the language of some of the Brazilian natives, and vice versa. Soon enough, the French decided to set up their own colony in Brazil. The way some French citizens justified a colony in Brazil was by pointing out how, along the Brazilian coast, you could find people speaking Portuguese, Spanish, and French, and they seemed to have more favorable relationships with the Frenchmen than they did with the Portuguese.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Economic and Political Factors
João de Deus (a leader in the rebellion), would one day speak of the port in his town, saying that “this port will be free to all Foreign Nations to come and trade, bringing cloth and all merchandise to be exchanged for sugar, tobacco and other crops of the land without need of Portugal”. He said this in hopes that France would be the main country to take advantage of the new trade policy.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors
The four identified leaders of the revolt were Luís Gonzaga dos Virgens, a soldier, João de Deus do Nascimento, a tailor, Lucas Dantas d’Amorim Torres, a soldier, and Manuel Faustino dos Santos Lira, a tailor. All four were mulattoes and poor. There was a second group (white and of high social status) that authorities did not prosecute, and they were Cipriano Barata de Almeida, Francisco Moniz Barreto d’Aragão, and Lieutenants Hermogenes Francisco d’Aguilar and José Gomes de Oliveira Borges.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors
Lieutenant d’Aguilar, Luís Gonzaga and Lucas Dantas were known to have actively attempted to destabilize the military by recruiting members to the revolutionary movement. These efforts were met with some success. Borges and d’Aguilar were assigned to guard M. Larcher, who was a Frenchman allowed to stay in Salvador as long as he agreed to be under military watch. Larcher inspired both d’Aguilar and Borges and their political views. Larcher was the founder of the Knights of Light, a prominent masonic society that was formally established on July 14, 1797. Most of the original propaganda spread from this organization. The full involvement of the Knights of Light cannot be completely traced, though. It is vague in some spots, and has completely disappeared in others.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors
On the 8 of November 1799, the government proceeded to the execution of those sentenced for the beginning of the revolt to capital punishment by hanging, in the following order: soldier Lucas Dantas Amorim Torres, an apprentice tailor Manuel Faustino dos Santos Lira, soldier Luís Gonzaga dos Virgens and master tailor João de Deus Nascimento.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors, Luís Gonzaga dos Virgens
Luís Gonzaga dos Virgens was a soldier and a leader of the rebellion. He was arrested on August 22 for the spreading of propaganda. When he got to prison, he did not confess, but he did say that “the propaganda was an excellent way to initiate the projected revolution because in this way the people would be encouraged and they would become accustomed little by little to the ideas of liberty and independence”. He was part of the five men sentenced to death after the failure of the revolt. The fifth is not included in this list, as his sentence was later reduced due to him not being as prominent a member of the revolt as the rest.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors, João de Deus do Nascimento
João de Deus do Nascimento was a tailor and a leader of the rebellion. He was a strong advocate for free trade, and was against the high taxes and various tributes that the Portugal government had imposed. He was sentenced to death after the failure of the revolt.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors, Lucas Dantas d’Amorim Torres
Lucas Dantas d’Amorim Torres was a soldier and a leader of the rebellion. The meetings to plan for the revolution were usually held at his home, since he was the leader by practicality. He was active within his regiment, constantly spreading propaganda. He was actively, yet quietly, trying to destabilize the military. He was also sentenced to death after the failure of the revolt; he refused his last rites.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors, Manuel Faustino dos Santos Lira
Manuel Faustino dos Santos Lira was a tailor and a leader of the rebellion. He was a critic of the church, due to them defending slavery. He was the third to be sentenced to death after the revolt, and refused his last rites.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors, Cipriano Barata de Almeida
Cipriano Barata de Almeida was a surgeon that graduated from the University of Coimbra; he was a member of the Knights of Light, and spread propaganda throughout the lower classes, despite his own status. For some reason, he tried and was able to convince two people to give up on the conspiracy. He was acquitted after the failure of the revolt, due to his influence in the community.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors, Francisco Moniz Barreto d’Aragão
Francisco Moniz Barreto d’Aragão was a teacher; he was a member of the Knights of Light. He wrote poems supporting the ideologies of independence, equality, liberty, and the importance of reason. He was not in Salvador during the end of the revolt, and therefore did not face any punishment.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors, Hermogenes Francisco d’Aguilar
Hermogenes Francisco d’Aguilar was a Lieutenant in the army, and was assigned to guard M. Larcher. He was a member of the Knights of Light. Along with Torres, he was trying to destabilize the military. He was sentenced to one year in prison after the failure of the revolt.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Main Actors, José Gomes de Oliveira Borges
José Gomes de Oliveira Borges was also a Lieutenant assigned to guard M. Larcher. He was a member of the Knights of Light. He was also sentenced to one year in prison after the failure of the revolt.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Outcomes of the Revolt
It took less than two weeks for authorities to apprehend and charge forty people tied to the revolt. Out of these forty, thirty-six were brought to trial. Of these there was one university graduate, one of noble heritage, two junior officers in the army, eight military men, and the remainder self-employed artisans including ten tailors. Twenty-four of the forty seized were of mulatto heritage and “almost all were native-born Brazilians”. Those tried were charged with conspiring against the Crown, pillaging, and planning to murder government officials. Seventeen of the accused were absolved, four were given prison sentences, eight were exiled to Africa, two slaves involved were sold and discharged from the military, and five were sentenced to death. On November 8, 1799, four leaders of the conspiracy were publicly hanged.


1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates, Outcomes of the Revolt
"The plot and resultant repression demonstrates the divergent goals that previously silent social groups were bringing to the foreground, and the importance of class position in determining the depth of commitment of individual insurgents."


1798 State of the Union Address
John Adams' Second State of the Union Address was delivered on Saturday, December 8, 1798, in the Congress Hall of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Adams compares the sickness affecting various coastal cities in 1797 to the dispensations of the Tribulation. He called upon the Congress to pass public health laws to prevent the spread of disease through interstate commerce. He also suggests the establishment of "a system which, while it may tend to preserve the general health, may be compatible with the interests of commerce and the safety of the revenue."


1798 State of the Union Address
Adams attributes the subsidence of disease to the Divine Providence of the Supreme Being. He notes the enthusiasm and nationalism of Americans in dealing with foreign aggression; notably from France by sea and Spain by land through illegal garrisons in the southern U.S. frontiers.


1798 State of the Union Address, French aggression
Adams begins his address by solemnly expressing his doubts concerning negotiations in Paris, accusing France of insincerity. In 1796 the French Directory rejected Charles Cotesworth Pinckney as the United States Minister Plenipotentiary to France. The Directory passed a decree in January 1797 allowing the "capture and condemnation neutral vessels and their cargoes if any portion of the latter are of British fabric or produce," essentially justifying the already institutionalized impressment of American sailors by the French Navy in international waters. Adams refers to the decree as an, "unequivocal act of war on the commerce of the nations it attacks," and states that if the U.S. has the means it can "reconcile nothing with their interest and honor but a firm resistance."


1798 State of the Union Address, French aggression
Adams expresses a need to invigorate and extend the U.S. measure of defense, alluding to the United States Navy, in light of French conduct. Adams parallels his pugnacious comments by confirming his desire for an amicable end to hostilities and insistence that preparation for war is the only way to insure peace. Another ambassador will not be sent to France without, "more determinate assurances that he would be received," because his rejection would be an, "act of humiliation." Before Adams is willing to restore formal relations, France must end depredations and pay reparations for past grievances, "heretofore inflicted on our commerce."


1798 State of the Union Address, French aggression
The necessity of maritime protection through a navy is formally expressed and exalted through the statements, "no country ever experienced more sudden and remarkable advantages from any measure of policy than we have derived from the arming for our maritime protection and defense," and "We ought...to...increase of our Navy to a size sufficient to guard our coast and protect our trade."


1798 State of the Union Address, Demarcation of Spanish–American border
The illegal Spanish garrisons in the Natchez and Walnut Hills, mentioned in Adams' previous address, have been evacuated. Two commissioners, one from the United States and one from Spain, outline the 31st degree of north latitude, the border between the United States and Spain.


1798 State of the Union Address, Demarcation of Spanish–American border
Southern Indians, most likely Natchez, are preventing official demarcation of the border, either for personal reasons or through clandestine Spanish encouragement. Adams decides that maintaining a commissioner in remote areas of the nation is not worth the cost and states that the commissioner should be recalled.


1798 United States House of Representatives election in Connecticut, Notes
This Connecticut elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1798 United States House of Representatives election in Delaware
The Delaware United States House election for 1798 was held on October 2, 1798. The incumbent Representative James A. Bayard Sr. won reelection.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New Jersey
Elections to the United States House of Representatives in New Jersey for the 6th Congress were held October 10, 1798.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New Jersey, Background
All previous elections had been held on an at-large basis. Five Federalists had been elected in the previous election. For this election, New Jersey switched, for the first time, to using districts.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New Jersey, Election results
Three incumbents ran for re-election, of whom, two of whom lost to Democratic-Republicans. The incumbents Jonathan Dayton (F) and Thomas Sinnickson (F) did not run for re-election. In the districts with no incumbents, one was won by a Democratic-Republican and the other by a Federalist, for a net gain of 3 seats by the Democratic-Republicans


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New York
The 1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New York were held from April 24 to 26, 1798, to elect ten U.S. Representatives to represent the State of New York in the United States House of Representatives of the 6th United States Congress.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Background
Ten U.S. Representatives had been elected in December 1796 to a term in the 5th United States Congress beginning on March 4, 1795. Their term would end on March 3, 1799. After three winter elections (January 1793, December 1794 and December 1796), the New York State Legislature moved the congressional elections back to be held together with the State elections in late April (like in 1790), about ten months before the term would start on March 4, 1799, and about a year and a half before Congress actually met on December 2, 1799.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
On January 27, 1789, the New York State Legislature had divided the State of New York into six congressional districts which were not numbered. On December 18, 1792, the Legislature divided the State into ten districts, which were still not numbered. On March 27, 1797, the Legislature re-apportioned the districts, taking into account the new counties which had been created in the meanwhile, and for the first time the districts were numbered.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
Note: There are now 62 counties in the State of New York. The counties which are not mentioned in this list had not yet been established, or sufficiently organized, the area being included in one or more of the abovementioned counties.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
6 Democratic-Republicans and 4 Federalists were elected. Of the incumbents, Havens, Livingston, Van Cortlandt, Elmendorf and Glen were re-elected; Brooks and Williams were defeated; and Hezekiah L. Hosmer, John E. Van Alen and James Cochran did not run for re-election.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
Note: The Anti- Federalists called themselves "Republicans." However, at the same time, the Federalists called them "Democrats" which was meant to be pejorative. After some time both terms got more and more confused, and sometimes used together as "Democratic Republicans" which later historians have adopted (with a hyphen) to describe the party from the beginning, to avoid confusion with both the later established and still existing Democratic and Republican parties.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath
The House of Representatives of the 6th United States Congress met for the first time at Congress Hall in Philadelphia on December 2, 1799, and nine representatives took their seats on this day.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Special election
Jonathan N. Havens, who had been re-elected to a third term, died on October 25, 1799, shortly before Congress met. A special election to fill the vacancy was held in the 1st District in December 1799, and was won by John Smith, of the same party as Havens. Smith took his seat on February 27, 1800.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in North Carolina, Notes
This North Carolina elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania
Elections to the United States House of Representatives in Pennsylvania for the 6th Congress were held October 9, 1798


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Background
Thirteen Representatives (7 Democratic-Republicans and 6 Federalists) had been elected in 1796. One seat had changed from Federalist to Democratic-Republican in a special election in 1797. Two more seats, one held by a Democratic-Republican and one by a Federalist, had become vacant in August, 1798, and were still vacant at the time of the 1798 elections


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
Pennsylvania was divided into 12 districts, one of which (the 4th) was a plural district, with 2 Representatives. These districts remained in use until redistricting after the Census of 1800.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
The counties that made up the 5th district did not border each other. That district was therefore made up of two separate pieces rather than being a single contiguous entity


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Congressional districts
Note: Many of these counties covered much larger areas than they do today, having since been divided into numerous counties. The boundaries of the districts are based on the counties' 1790 borders.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Election results
There were two vacancies and 11 incumbents at the time of the 1798 elections. The two vacancies were filled by special elections held at the same time as the general election. Blair McClenachan (DR) of the 2nd district and William Findley (DR) of the 11th district did not run for re-election. The remaining 9 incumbents (5 Democratic-Republicans and 4 Federalists) ran for re-election. 8 Democratic-Republicans and 5 Federalists were elected, a net increase of 1 seat for the Democratic-Republicans over the 1796 elections.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Special election
Thomas Hartley (F) of the 8th district died on December 21, 1800. A special election was held January 15, 1801 to fill the vacancy.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in Rhode Island
Rhode Island used at-large districts, but elected the candidates on separate tickets instead of using a general ticket.


1798 United States House of Representatives elections in Vermont
Majority vote required to win, necessitating a run-off election in the 1st (Western) district.


1798 United States Senate special elections in New York
In 1798, there were two special elections for the U.S. Senate from New York:


1798 United States elections
The 1798 United States elections occurred in the middle of Federalist President John Adams's term. Members of the 6th United States Congress were chosen in this election. The election took place during the First Party System. The election saw no significant partisan change, with the Federalists keeping control of both houses of Congress.


1798 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1798 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place throughout September, and resulted in the re-election of Isaac Tichenor to a one-year term.


1798 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Vergennes on October 11. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to examine the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council.


1798 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the popular election, Isaac Tichenor was chosen for a second one-year term. In the election for lieutenant governor, the voters selected Paul Brigham for a third one-year term. The freemen also re-elected Samuel Mattocks as treasurer, his twelfth one-year term. Vote totals were reported in local newspapers as follows.


1798 Watts
1798 Watts, provisional designation 1949 GC, is a stony asteroid and binary system from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 7 kilometers in diameter.


1798 Watts
It was discovered on 4 April 1949, by IU's Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn, Indiana, United States. The asteroid was named for American astronomer Chester Burleigh Watts. Its small minor-planet moon has a period of 26.96 hours.


1798 Watts, Orbit and classification
Watts is a member of the Flora family, a large group of stony S-type asteroids in the inner main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9–2.5 AU once every 3 years and 3 months (1,192 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 6° with respect to the ecliptic. Watts was first observed and identified as 1934 VS at Yerkes Observatory in 1934, extending the body's observation arc by 15 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1798 Watts, Physical characteristics, Spectral type
In the SMASS classification, Watts is characterized as a common stony S-type asteroid. It is also classified as a LS-type by PanSTARRS's photometric survey.


1798 Watts, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Watts measures 6.63 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.276 and 0.294. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from 8 Flora, the largest member and namesake of this asteroid family – and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 12.9.


1798 Watts, Physical characteristics, Moon and lightcurve
In February 2017, a rotational lightcurve of Watts was obtained from photometric observations by . Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 3.5060 hours with a low brightness amplitude of 0.06 magnitude, indicating that the body has a spheroidal shape (U=n.a. ).


1798 Watts, Physical characteristics, Moon and lightcurve
During the photometric observations, a minor-planet moon was discovered, making Watts a binary asteroid. The satellite of the synchronous binary has an orbital period of 26.96 hours.


1798 Watts, Naming
This minor planet was named in honour of American astronomer Chester Burleigh Watts (1889–1971), a graduate of Indiana University. He worked at the United States Naval Observatory for 44 years, making distinguished contributions in the field of positional astronomy and pioneered in the field of automation of transit circle observations, which led to results of the highest systematic accuracy. From the late 1940 until 1963 he meticulously mapped every feature on the marginal zone of the Moon. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 15 June 1973 (M.P.C. 3508).


1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections
Elections to the United States House of Representatives for the 6th Congress took place in 1798 and 1799, the earliest in New York in April 1798, and the latest in Tennessee in August 1799, after the official start of the 6th Congress on March 4, 1799, but before the start of the first session of this Congress in Philadelphia on December 2, 1799. It was the last congressional session before the move to the new capital at Washington, D.C.


1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections
President John Adams, a Federalist elected two years prior in the election of 1796, remained popular during a time of national economic growth, and the Federalists made a modest gain of three seats at the expense of the opposition Democratic-Republicans, the party of Vice President and future President Thomas Jefferson. This resulted in an increased Federalist majority in the House, 60-46 seats.


1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections
The Federalist party squandered its popularity by passing a series of controversial new laws in the summer of 1798, including the Naturalization Act of 1798 and the Alien and Sedition Acts. Their passage seriously injured the chances of President Adams and Federalist congressional candidates in the elections of 1800.


1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections
The House that met during this Congress would ultimately elect Thomas Jefferson over Aaron Burr in the presidential election of 1800.


1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections, Special elections
There were special elections in 1798 and 1799 during the 5th United States Congress and 6th United States Congress.


1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
Massachusetts required a majority for election. This was not met in the 5th district and 7th district necessitating additional ballots in those districts.


1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections, New Jersey
New Jersey switched to district representation for this election. The districts were not numbered at the time, but are retroactively numbered here as 1–5. New Jersey would go back to an at-large district the following election.


1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections, New York
Between the 1796 and 1798 elections, New York re-districted. This marked the first time that its districts were numbered.


1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections, Rhode Island
Rhode Island used at-large districts, but elected the candidates on separate tickets instead of using a general ticket.


1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections, Vermont
Majority vote required to win, necessitating a run-off election in the 1st (Western) district.


1798 and 1799 United States Senate elections
The United States Senate elections of 1798 and 1799 were held at the middle of President John Adams's administration and had no net change in political control of the Senate.


1798 and 1799 United States Senate elections
As these elections were prior to ratification of the seventeenth amendment, Senators were chosen by state legislatures.


1798 and 1799 United States Senate elections, Race summaries
Except if/when noted, the number following candidates is the whole number vote(s), not a percentage.


1798 and 1799 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Special elections during the 5th Congress
In these special elections, the winner was seated before March 4, 1799; ordered by election date.


1798 and 1799 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Races leading to the 6th Congress
In these regular elections, the winner was seated on March 4, 1799; ordered by state.


1798 and 1799 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Special elections during the 6th Congress
In this special election, the winner was seated after March 4, 1799, the beginning of the next Congress.


1798 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1798 in Australia.


1798 in Belgium
Events in the year 1798 in the Belgian Departments of France. The French First Republic had annexed the Austrian Netherlands and Prince-bishopric of Liège (predecessor states of modern Belgium) in 1795 and had reorganised the territory as the nine departments Dyle, Escaut (department), Forêts, Jemmape, Lys, Meuse-Inférieure, Deux-Nèthes, Ourthe, and Sambre-et-Meuse.


1798 in Belgium
The year 1798 corresponds to the period from 12 Nivôse of Year VI to 11 Nivôse of Year VII in the French Republican Calendar.


1798 in Great Britain
Events from the year 1798 in Great Britain. (See also 1798 in Ireland, then a separate kingdom although under the same monarch.)


1798 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1798 to Wales and its people.


1798 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1798.


1798 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1798 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1798 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1798 in science
The year 1798 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1798 in sports
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by BHGbot (talk | contribs) at 17:05, 18 June 2020 (WP:BHGbot 6 (List 5): eponymous category first, per MOS:CATORDER; WP:GENFIXES). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1798 in sports
1798 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1798 – The First Year of Liberty
1798 – The First Year of Liberty is an album of traditional Irish songs relating to the 1798 rebellion by the United Irishmen. All songs are sung by Frank Harte and some are accompanied on bouzouki, guitar and occasional bodhrán by Donal Lunny.


1798 – The First Year of Liberty
The album was released in 1998 to commemorate the bicentenary of the events and is accompanied by a detailed booklet about the rebellion and each of the songs on the album.


1798 – The First Year of Liberty
'The booklet, as well as containing a concise account of the rising, has biographies of all the leaders of the 1798 rebellion, and a handsome cover illustration. It has a substantial bibliography for those seeking further enlightenment, and it makes a useful complement to the more orthodox histories thereby listed. In fact, it tells us what orthodox histories do not tell us; what those who suffered made of the events of 1798.'


1798–1799 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
Massachusetts required a majority for election. This was not met in the 5th district and 7th district necessitating additional ballots in those districts.


1799
1799 (MDCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1799th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 799th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 99th  year of the 18th century, and the  10th  and last year of the 1790s decade. As of the start of 1799, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1799 English cricket season
The 1799 English cricket season was the 28th in which matches have been awarded retrospective first-class cricket status and the 13th after the foundation of the Marylebone Cricket Club. The season saw four top-class matches played in the country.


1799 English cricket season
A cricket club was formed at Seringapatam in south India after the successful British siege.


1799 English cricket season, Matches
Just four top-class matches were played during the season, three of them featuring sides styled at least in part as Surrey XIs.


1799 English cricket season, First mentions
Players who made their first-class cricket debuts in 1799 included:


1799 French Directory election
The French Directory election of 1799 was held between 9 and 16 April 1799 to elect one-third of the Council of Five Hundred in addition to the Council of Elders and any vacant seats.


1799 French Directory election, Context
Following the Coup of 11 May 1798 (22 Floréal year VI in the Republican calendar), the small Jacobin minority led by Generals Jean-Antoine Marbot and Jean-Baptiste Jourdan harassed the Directory, with the occasional support of directorial deputies exasperated by the encroachments of the executive. The opposition to the Jacobins continues to grow with the deteriorating situation of the War of the Second Coalition. In messidor, they manage to form a small coalition government, forming a majority in the Council of the Five Hundred to refuse the Directory to complete the court of cessation, even if the Council of Elders voted in their prerogative.


1799 French Directory election, Context
After the loss of Italy, the Minister of War, Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer, was accused of (what would be considered corruption today) and was brought before a commission of inquiry. It was on this occasion that Lucien Bonaparte asserts himeself in the political scene and a leader of the opponents of the left, though not a devoted Jacobin.


1799 French Directory election, Context
In this context, the Director does not dare to organise and election under the same pressure it had felt in the 1798 election. If the council was to be seen as promoting the election of candidates of the government, the policy of appeasement and peace could continue.


1799 French Directory election, Election
During the electoral processes, 27 departments experienced splits from the 25 in the 1798 election, and the assemblies were less troubled than the last election. Participation in the election however, fell to just 11.5% of the national vote, against 20% of the vote in 1798. In Alsace for instance, the vote fell from 30% to just 15%. Of the 79 members supported by the government, 43 are beaten. This also the case for the 39 of the 64 new official candidates for government. In addition, out of 44 candidates recommended by one or other directors, only 6 were elected.


1799 French Directory election, Election
Unlike the 1798 election, the Council validates majority assemblies in the departments which have experienced a split, except in Deux-Nèthes, where the elections are cancelled because the required turnout is not met. This "non-election" also occurs in Bouches-du-Rhône, where many irregularities are noted by the local assemblies.


1799 French Directory election, Results
The 1799 election ended with a massive victory for the left-wing republican Montagnards. However, the Royalist parties, the Clichy Club (moderate constitutionalists) and Ultra-Royalists (absolute monarchists) won almost half of the seats within the council. The Extreme Left Group (Groupe de Extrême-Gauche) also won their first group of seats in the election.


1799 French Directory election, Results
The 1799 election would end up being the last parliamentary election in France until the May 1815 legislative election.


1799 Koussevitzky
1799 Koussevitzky (prov. designation: 1950 OE) is an asteroid of the Eos family from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 18 kilometers (11 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 25 July 1950, by astronomers at Indiana University during the Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory in Indiana, United States. The K-type asteroid has a rotation period of 6.3 hours. It was named for Russian conductor Serge Koussevitzky.


1799 Koussevitzky, Orbit and classification
According to several HCM-analyses by Zappalà, Mothé-Diniz, as well as Milani and Knežević, Koussevitzky is a core member the Eos family (606), the largest asteroid family of the outer main belt consisting of nearly 10,000 asteroids. However, in a more recent HCM-analysis by Nesvorný, Koussevitzky is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population.


1799 Koussevitzky, Orbit and classification
It orbits the Sun in the outer asteroid belt at a distance of 2.7–3.4 AU once every 5 years and 3 months (1,923 days; semi-major axis of 3.03 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 11° with respect to the ecliptic. The asteroid was first observed as 1929 QD at Simeiz Observatory in August 1929. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Goethe Link in July 1950.


1799 Koussevitzky, Naming
This minor planet was named in memory of Russian-born Serge Koussevitzky (1874–1951), long-time music director and conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. The asteroid's name was proposed by astronomer Frank K. Edmondson of Indiana University on the occasion of Serge Koussevitzky's centenary of the birth on 26 July 1974. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 January 1974 (M.P.C. 3569).


1799 Koussevitzky, Physical characteristics
In the SMASS classification, Koussevitzky is a stony K-type asteroid, typical for members of the Eos family. The asteroid has also been characterized as an L-type by Pan-STARRS.


1799 Koussevitzky, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In June 2013, a rotational lightcurve of Koussevitzky was obtained from photometric observations by Brian Warner at the Palmer Divide Station (U82) in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 6.318±0.005 hours with a brightness variation of 0.40 magnitude (U=3). Alternative period determinations of 6.325, 6.328 and 6.329 hours were made by astronomers at the University of Iowa using its Rigel Telescope at the Iowa Robotic Observatory (857) in Arizona, by French amateur astronomer René Roy, and by staff members of the Palomar Transient Factory in California, respectively (U=x2/3-/2).


1799 Koussevitzky, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Koussevitzky measures between 17.88 and 23.26 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.1426 and 0.241. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.1506 and a diameter of 18.82 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3.


1799 New Hampshire gubernatorial election
The 1799 New Hampshire gubernatorial election took place on March 12, 1799. Incumbent Federalist Governor John Taylor Gilman won re-election to a sixth term.


1799 New Hampshire's at-large congressional district special election
A special election was held in New Hampshire's at-large congressional district on November 18, 1799 to replace a vacancy caused by Peleg Sprague (F) declining to serve in the 6th Congress.


1799 New Hampshire's at-large congressional district special election, Election result
Sheafe took his seat with the rest of the 6th Congress when the 1st session began on December 2, 1799


1799 New York's 1st congressional district special election
A special election was held in New York's 1st congressional district December 27–29, 1799 to fill a vacancy left by the death of Jonathan N. Havens (DR) on October 25, 1799.


1799 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election
The 1799 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election was between two candidates. Incumbent governor Thomas Mifflin was not running. The race was between Federalist U.S. Senator James Ross and Democratic-Republican Thomas McKean. The retired Chief Justice of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, McKean was a Federalist and a Mifflin ally, as both supported strong state executive power but rejected the domestic policies of the national government.


1799 State of the Union Address
The 1799 State of the Union Address was given to the United States Congress, on Tuesday, December 3, 1799, by the second president of the United States, John Adams. He said, "the return of health, industry, and trade to those cities which have lately been afflicted with disease, and the various and inestimable advantages, civil and religious, which, secured under our happy frame of government, are continued to us unimpaired, demand of the whole American people sincere thanks to a benevolent Deity for the merciful dispensations of His providence." It was the last address to be given at Congress Hall, Philadelphia.


1799 Tennessee gubernatorial election
The 1799 Tennessee gubernatorial election took place from August 1–2, 1799. The Democratic-Republican incumbent John Sevier won another term almost unanimously against scattering opponents.


1799 United States House of Representatives elections in Kentucky, Notes
This Kentucky elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1799 United States House of Representatives elections in Virginia, Notes
This Virginia elections-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1799 Vendée earthquake
The 1799 Vendée earthquake (French: Séisme de 1799 dans le Marais breton-vendéen) or  Bouin earthquake was an earthquake of magnitude 6.4 that struck the region on 25 January 1799 (6 Pluviôse of year VII in the French Republican calendar) with aftershocks on the following days. Its epicenter was located at a depth of 24 km in the Bay of Bourgneuf at the level of the island of Bouin. Shocks of intensity 7-8 were felt throughout the west of France.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Location
The earthquake of 25 January 1799 was located in the Marais Breton marshland, a wetland located on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean which marks the limit between the two former French provinces of Brittany and Poitou and extends over the two departments of Loire-Atlantique and Vendée in the French region of Pays de la Loire.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Location
The epicenter was located at sea, in the bay of Bourgneuf, between Barbâtre at the entrance to the island of Noirmoutier and Bouin on the mainland. The most significant damage occurred in Bouin, Machecoul, Bois-de-Céné, La Garnache, Beauvoir-sur-Mer and Barbâtre areas.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Location
The earthquake was felt all along the coast, as far as Vannes in the north and La Rochelle in the south, and up to a distance of one hundred and fifty to two hundred kilometres inland. The Grand-Ouest of France was shaken from Brittany to Normandy, from Berry to Anjou and Touraine, from Limousin to Poitou, from Saintonge to Aunis and Bordelais, in Auvergne, in the Morvan and as far as Île-de-France.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Location
...the spire of the steeple, all in dressed stone, built with cement, is about to fall...


1799 Vendée earthquake, Location
The castle of Gilles de Retz at Machecoul burned during the War in the Vendée.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Characteristics
The earthquake of 25 January 1799 is one of the major events of the Grand-Ouest of France.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Characteristics
By its magnitude and intensity of VIII, maximum for the Armorican Massif, it constitutes the most important earthquake recorded to date in this region and it is one of the six historic earthquakes to have had destructive effects in metropolitan France along with those from Basel near the French border (intensity IX-X) in 1356, Bagnères-de-Bigorre (intensity VIII-IX) in 1660, Remiremont (intensity VIII) in 1682, from the Ligurian sea off the Côte d'Azur (intensity X) in 1887 and Lambesc (intensity IX) in 1909 that of Arette (intensity VIII-IX) in 1967 being the first earthquake with destructive effect in mainland France to be documented by instrumental seismicity.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Characteristics
The 6 Pluviose of the Year VII of the Republic, around 4 am, the population of the Vendée was suddenly awakened by the earthquake that would add its ruins to those of a region already hit by the War in the Vendée still nearby and by the harsh climatic conditions of the winter of 1799.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Characteristics
In Bouin the duration of the tremor was a "half-minute" and its direction from south to north.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Characteristics
Several recent studies have made it possible to estimate the magnitude at 6.4 and the depth at 24 km, estimates adopted by the Bureau of Geological and Mining Research.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Characteristics
The intensity was of the order of VII-VIII at the epicenter, the centre of the tremor not being located in the heart of the marshland as initially advanced but more to the west, at sea, in the bay of Bourgneuf. In the hardest hit area, the earthquake is estimated to have reached intensity VIII due to the lower resistance of the sediments making up the marsh, which locally amplified the seismic movement. Intensity decreases with increasing distance but remained significant in Nantes and Les Sables-d'Olonne (VI-VII), La Rochelle, Ile d'Oléron and Belle-Île-en-Mer(VI). It was still V-IV in Tours, Guernsey, Vannes, Châteauroux, Rennes and Limoges and weaker (III) but still felt in Paris, Bordeaux or Caen.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Characteristics
Several aftershocks occurred in the sector of Bouin and Machecoul, on 27 and 28 January, then on 5 and 6 February. The variations in the movement of the waters of the region demonstrate that the earthquake was indeed underwater and that it may have given rise to a tsunami.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Probable cause
The collision between the Aquitaine and Armorican tectonic plates gave birth in the Carboniferous era to the Hercynian basement of the Armorican massif creating faults oriented north-west, south-east, which go from the Pointe du Raz to Nantes and the Landes de Lanvaux to Angers and extend south of the Loire estuary. These shear fractures are at the origin of grabens which are accentuated during the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic, and fill up with sediments that may be more than 100 m thick in the deepest ditches. They are still active in the Quaternary and their replay explains the earthquakes of the south of the Loire and more particularly those of the Vendée.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Probable cause
The municipalities where the greatest damage was reported (Bouin, Machecoul) are close to these fractures, as are the localities where the earthquake was felt with force even if the damage was less ( Champtoceaux, Beauvoir-sur-Mer, Saint-Gilles-Croix-de-Vie, Nantes, La Brière, Tiffauges, and, further on, La Flèche). The epicenter was located on the continental shelf off the island of Noirmoutier, in Bourgneuf bay. The earthquake caused a large wave felt in Belle-Île-en-Mer , La Rochelle and in the Loire Valley.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Damage
In some villages, Bouin and Machecoul in particular, the shock was so violent that many houses cracked or collapsed.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Damage
In Bouin there were two types of constructions, those of the town, built on a hard limestone hillock in the middle of the marshes and constructed from stones extracted from the hill itself and those of the marsh, built on mudflats - far more fragile buildings which could not be repaired after the shocks. About 6-8% of the total number of houses were close to ruin (14 collapsed and 150 damaged). These were probably the most fragile. Lightweight constructions were not, however, the only buildings affected by the earthquake, as one testimony reports: "the spire of the steeple, all in dressed stone, built with cement, is on the verge of falling".


1799 Vendée earthquake, Damage
The observations made at Machecoul are quite comparable. Here too, it was especially the fragile buildings of the marshes that seem to be the most affected. Most of the houses damaged during the civil war had only been repaired temporarily and were all the more weakened.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Damage
Damage was also noted in La Garnache, 6 km northeast of Challans, in the Bois-de-Céné marsh area, in Barbâtre, a town which, partly destroyed by the earthquake, lost its title of municipality and was united in Noirmoutier, and Bourgneuf-en-Retz. The unique case of a house destroyed in Champtoceaux in Maine-et-Loire, a village on the left bank of the Loire about 25 kilometers upstream from Nantes was also  reported.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Damage
In the Marais, the towns of Noirmoutier, Beauvoir-sur-Mer and Saint-Gilles-Croix-de-Vie strongly felt the tremors without any damage being reported however. In the neighbouring areas of the Marais, fairly detailed information on the effects of the earthquake was reported for Nantes , Saint-Lyphard en Brière, Tiffauges , around the Lac de Grand-Lieu, near the Temple but also for the municipalities of the neighbouring departments like Vannes and Josselin in Morbihan, Le Mans, La Flèche, La Ferté-Bernard in Sarthe, Angers, Beaufort-en-Vallée in Maine-et-Loire, Rennes, La Guerche in Ille-et-Vilaine, La Rochelle in Charente-Maritime.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Damage
Significant water movements are indicated by letters and newspaper articles: flooding, submersion of dykes, strong wave shaking boats, abnormal rises of rivers, etc., south of the Loire as near Bouin (submersion of dykes and wave), in Bourgneuf (waves and land transport), in La Rochelle (wave) as well as in the north of the Loire as in Nantes (waves), in Brière near Saint-Nazaire (water movements) or again at Belle-Île-en-Mer (dyke submersion).


1799 Vendée earthquake, Damage
Some of the water movements, in particular floods and abnormal rises in rivers, are of dubious cause. They could equally be explained by a sudden thaw removing the ice dams in the rivers reported a few weeks earlier as by a tidal wave. Other observations, made just after the earthquake (strong wave shaking the boats, submersion of the dikes), are more convincing. They seem to show that the epicenter of the earthquake was at sea and not around Bouin as first thought. This wave and these submersions could be due to a tsunami.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Consequences on the local economy
Beyond the destruction of buildings and superstructures, the more or less long-term consequences of the earthquake on the local economy were reported in particular to the central administration of Loire-Inférieure by the municipal administration of Herbignac which indicates the 1st March 1799 (11 Ventose year VII) that the population of the municipalities of La Briere in St-Hyphard and Herbignac that "... usually draw clods which are used for heating the township and still supply all the surrounding townships and allow them to live for two thirds of the year” showed losses caused by the earthquake.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Consequences on the local economy
Likewise, the municipal administration of Machecoul pointed out that if the owners succeeded in partially re-establishing the crops destroyed by the civil war, they had not yet derived any benefit from it at the date of the earthquake and that "the lowlands both in the upper and lower marshes of the municipality de Machecoul will not yet produce anything this year, these lands have been under water for more than two months, the wheat will be rotten like last year”.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Informing the authorities
The Commissioners of the Directory such as Sieur Mignon, Commissioner of the Executive Board for the canton of Bouin, informed the "Citizen Minister" of the event. The central administration of Loire-Inférieure was quickly warned of the significant damage suffered in the town of Machecoul.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Informing the authorities
From the coast and up to a distance of one hundred and fifty to two hundred kilometers inland, the earthquake created such a commotion that the central administration near all the departments close to the earthquake did not fail to inform the Minister of the Interior, from Nantes, Laval, Le Mans, Tours, Poitiers, Châteauroux, Fontenay-le-Comte, Châteaubriant, etc.<


1799 Vendée earthquake, Press coverage
The local press, Le Publicateur de Nantes, La Feuille Nantes, Les Étrennes de Nantes, L'Ami de la liberté, La Feuille du jour, etc. recount the event over several days, relayed by the national press, Le Bien Informé, La Gazette nationale, Les Annales de la République. In this period of development of the written press, these pages are important sources of information for future seismology when the original records are lost: they indeed publish the testimonies and the communiques of the authorities, directly or with the hindsight and analysis of their own.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Testimonials
The writings which relate the effects of the earthquake are marked by the proximity of the Vendée War which ravaged the region, and must be considered in this historical framework. The letters from the local administrators describe the damage most accurately and precisely. Newspapers can provide additional insight, but their information should be examined with caution.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Other earthquakes in the region
No other example of an earthquake of such magnitude has been identified in the area The only tremors recorded are minor and were noted on the island of Noirmoutier (23 August 1747, 5 February 1833, 15 October 1945 and 22 June 2005) and Bourgneuf-en-Retz (7 April 1767). On the Atlantic coast near the marsh, however, approaching tremors were noted at Vannes (intensity VII) on 9 January 1930, in Quimper (intensity VII) on 2 January 1959 and on the island of Oléron (intensity VII), 7 September 1972.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Contemporary projections
Bouin, like all the communes of the Vendée and the 146 communes of the south of Loire-Atlantique, is classified in seismicity zone 3 (moderate risk).


1799 Vendée earthquake, Contemporary projections
The authors of the 2016 Geological and Mining Research Bureau study report “Impact of the 1799 earthquake on current buildings in the departments of Loire-Atlantique (44) and Vendée (85)”, modelled the 1799 earthquake in the contemporary setting of the two departments.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Contemporary projections
They estimated damage of the order of 10,000 to 12,000 uninhabitable buildings would occur, i.e. a much larger consequence than at the time due to the urbanisation that has since taken place and in particular on poor quality land on which would reproduce, on buildings constructed before the implementation of the 2011 building regulations, the known effects on the mudflats of the Marais Breton in 1799.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Contemporary projections
In 2019, Caroline Kaub proposed in her thesis to “characterise the geometry of possible plio-Quaternary and potentially active faults in this region, with a particular interest in the Machecoul fault, bordering the sedimentary basins of the Breton Marsh and the Bay of Bourgneuf and potential candidate for the Vendéen earthquake of 1799 [suggesting] that the plio-Quaternary sedimentation of the sea and land basins south of the Machecoul fault could be controlled by this fault probably inherited from the Eocene [and in providing] a bundle of clues making it possible to link the Machecoul fault to the rupture of the Vendéen earthquake of 1799”.


1799 Vendée earthquake, Contemporary projections
The Bouin earthquake is the reference earthquake for the Blayais Nuclear Power Plant.


1799 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1799 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place throughout September, and resulted in the re-election of Isaac Tichenor to a one-year term.


1799 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Windsor on October 10. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to examine the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council.


1799 Vermont gubernatorial election
On October 11, the committee examined the votes, which showed that Isaac Tichenor was chosen for a third one-year term. In the election for lieutenant governor, the voters selected Paul Brigham for a fourth one-year term. The freemen also re-elected Samuel Mattocks as treasurer, his thirteenth one-year term. Vote totals were reported in local newspapers as follows.


1799 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1799 in Australia.


1799 in Canada, Historical documents
Chief Joseph Brandt gets intelligence from Delaware about French attempts to recruit "Southern and Western Indians" to invade Canada


1799 in Canada, Historical documents
Joseph Brant explains how former Lieut. Gov. Simcoe obstructed rights promised Six Nations by Gov. Haldimand, and asks for redress


1799 in France
This article lists events from the year 1799 in France


1799 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1799 to Wales and its people.


1799 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1799.


1799 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1799 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1799 in poetry, Deaths
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1799 in science
The year 1799 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below.


1799 in sports
1799 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1799–1800 papal conclave
The 1799–1800 papal conclave followed the death of Pope Pius VI on August 29, 1799, and led to the selection as pope of Barnaba Niccolò Maria Luigi Chiaramonti, who took the name Pius VII, on March 14, 1800. This conclave was held in Venice and was the last to take place outside Rome. This period was marked by uncertainty for the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church following the invasion of the Papal States and abduction of Pius VI under the French Directory.


1799–1800 papal conclave, Historical context, Pope Pius VI
Pius VI's reign had been marked by tension between his authority and that of the European monarchs and other institutions, both secular and ecclesiastical. This was largely due to his moderate liberal and reforming pretences. At the beginning of his pontificate he promised to continue the work of his predecessor, Pope Clement XIV, in whose 1773 brief Dominus ac Redemptor the dissolution of the Society of Jesus was announced. Pro -Jesuit powers remained in support of Pius, thinking him secretly more inclined to the Society than Clement. The Archduchy of Austria proved a threat when its ruler, Emperor Joseph II, made internal reforms which conflicted with some of the power of the Papacy. Further, German archbishops had shown independence at the 1786 Congress of Ems, but were soon brought into line.


1799–1800 papal conclave, Historical context, Pope Pius VI
At the outbreak of the French Revolution Pius was compelled to see the independent Gallican Church suppressed, the pontifical and ecclesiastical possessions in France confiscated, and an effigy of himself burnt by the populace at the Palais Royal. The murder of the republican agent Hugo Basseville in the streets of Rome (January 1793) gave new ground of offence; the papal court was charged with complicity by the French Convention, and Pius threw in his lot with the First Coalition against the French First Republic.


1799–1800 papal conclave, Historical context, The State of the See
In 1796 Napoléon Bonaparte invaded the Italian Peninsula, defeated the papal troops and occupied Ancona and Loreto. He did not continue and conquer Rome, as the French Directory ordered, being aware that this would not win favour among the French and Italian populations. Pius sued for peace, which was granted at Tolentino on February 19, 1797. The Treaty of Tolentino transferred Romagna to Bonaparte's newly formed Cispadane Republic (founded in December 1796 out of a merger of Reggio, Modena, Bologna and Ferrara) in a hope that the French would not further pursue the Papal lands. Several reforms were made in the French-controlled regions, where much property of the Church was confiscated.


1799–1800 papal conclave, Historical context, The State of the See
Some factors led to the complete occupation of Rome by the French. Firstly, the entrance of the Russian army into Northern Italy pushed the French back. Secondly, on December 28, 1797, in a riot created by some Italian and French revolutionists, the French general Mathurin-Léonard Duphot of the French embassy was killed and a new pretext furnished for invasion.


1799–1800 papal conclave, Historical context, The State of the See
Louis Alexandre Berthier marched to Rome, entered it unopposed on February 13, 1798, and, proclaiming a Roman Republic, demanded of the pope the renunciation of his temporal authority. His actions were at the direction of the French Government, at that time the Directory. Upon the Pope's refusal he was taken prisoner, and on February 20 was escorted from the Vatican to Siena, and thence to the Certosa near Florence.


1799–1800 papal conclave, Historical context, The State of the See
The French declaration of war against Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany led to Pius' removal, though by this time deathly ill, by way of Parma, Piacenza, Turin and Grenoble to the citadel of Valence, where he died six weeks later, on August 29, 1799. Napoleon was not directly involved. He was in the Near East, and did not return to France until November, 1799, where he conducted the coup-d'état of November 9 (18 Brumaire).


1799–1800 papal conclave, The Conclave
With the loss of the Vatican and the pope's other temporal power, the cardinals were left in a remarkable position. All had been expelled from the city of Rome by the French occupying authorities. They were forced to hold the conclave in Venice. This followed an ordinance issued by Pius VI in 1798, which established that when a conclave could not be held in Rome it would be held in the city with the greatest number of cardinals.


1799–1800 papal conclave, The Conclave
The Benedictine San Giorgio Monastery in Venice was chosen as the location for the conclave, and the voting would be held in its night chapel. The city, along with other northern Italian lands, was held by the Archduchy of Austria, whose ruler Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, agreed to defray the costs of the conclave. Since the Secretary of the College of Cardinals was unable to leave Rome to attend, the cardinals elected, in an almost unanimous vote, Msgr. Ercole Consalvi as Secretary in his place. Consalvi would prove an influential figure in the election.


1799–1800 papal conclave, The Conclave
The conclave began on November 30, 1799, and the assembled cardinals could not overcome a stalemate between Bellisomi and Mattei until March 1800. Thirty-four Cardinals were present at the start, with the late appearance in conclave on December 10 of Cardinal Franziskus Herzan von Harras, who was also the imperial plenipotentiary of Francis II. He bore the Imperial commands, the first of which was to get Cardinal Alessandro Mattei elected Pope. Strangely, by December 28, 1799, Cardinal Herzan had not yet presented his credentials as Imperial plenipotentiary to the College of Cardinals, and thus had no special status.


1799–1800 papal conclave, The Conclave
Cardinal Carlo Bellisomi, the Bishop of Cesena, seemed a viable candidate (papabile), with some eighteen committed votes. His unpopularity among the Austrian faction, however, who preferred Cardinal Alessandro Mattei, the Archbishop of Ferrara, subjected Bellisomi to the "virtual veto", since the Mattei faction had sufficient numbers to deny Bellisomi a canonically required two-thirds vote.


1799–1800 papal conclave, The Conclave
The conclave considered a third possible candidate, Cardinal Hyacinthe Sigismond Gerdil CRSP but Austria had rejected him from before the beginning of the Conclave as too old—he was eighty-two. As the conclave was in the third month Cardinal Maury, who supported neither Bellisomi nor Mattei, suggested  Gregorio Barnaba Chiaramonti, OSB Cassin., the Bishop of Imola.


1799–1800 papal conclave, The Conclave
In the middle of February, both Herzan and Maury independently calculated that Chiaramonti had about twelve supporters. On March 11, a frank private conversation took place between Cardinal Antonelli and Cardinal Herzan, in which each frankly admitted that the candidacies of Calcagni, Bellisomi, Gerdil, Mattei, and Valenti were failures. During the conversation Cardinal Dugnani appeared and suggested that Chiaramonti might be considered; numbers of supporters of Mattei were willing to go over to him. On March 12, the Spanish agent, Cardinal Francisco Lorenzana, received news from Madrid that he had permission to formally exclude Cardinal Mattei. It was unnecessary to do so, of course, since Bellisomi's supporters had already given him the virtual veto. On March 14, with the support of the active and influential Conclave secretary Consalvi, Cardinal Chiaramonti was elected.


1799–1800 papal conclave, The Conclave
Chiaramonti was, at the time, the bishop of Imola in the Subalpine Republic. He had stayed in place after the assumption of his diocese by Bonaparte's army in 1797 and famously made a speech in which he stated that good Christians could make good democrats, a speech described as "Jacobin" by Bonaparte himself. Though he could not save ecclesiastical reform and confiscation under the new rule, he did prevent the church being dissolved, unlike that in France.


1799–1800 papal conclave, The Conclave
Due to its temporary siting in Venice, the Papal coronation was hurried. Having no papal treasures on hand the noblewomen of the city manufactured the famous papier-mâché papal tiara. It was adorned with their own jewels. Chiaramonti was declared Pope Pius VII and crowned on March 21 at the monastery church of S. Giorgio.


1799–1800 papal conclave, A new pope
By the Battle of Marengo on June 14, 1800, the French regained Northern Italy from the forces of Austria. Following this promotion, Bonaparte decided to recognise the new Pope and restored the Papal States to those borders set out at Tolentino.


1799–1800 papal conclave, A new pope
The new Pope headed for Rome, which he entered to the pleasure of the population on July 3. Fearing further invasion he decreed the Papal States should remain neutral between Napoleonic Italy in the north and the Kingdom of Naples in the south. At the time the latter was ruled by Ferdinand III of Sicily/Ferdinand IV of Naples, a member of the House of Bourbon.


1799–1800 papal conclave, A new pope
Ercole Consalvi, the Secretary of the Conclave, was created a Cardinal on August 11, and became the Secretary of State of His Holiness. On July 15 France officially re-recognised Catholicism as its majority (not state) religion in the Concordat of 1801, and the Church was granted a measure of freedom with a Gallician constitution of the clergy. The Concordat further recognised the Papal States and that which it had confiscated and sold during the occupation of the area. In 1803 the reinstatement of the Papal States was made official by the Treaty of Lunéville.


1799–1800 papal conclave, A new pope
Napoleon pursued secularisation of smaller, independent lands and, through diplomatic pressure, the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire (1806). The relations between the Church and the First French Empire declined following the Pope's refusal to divorce Jérôme Bonaparte and Elizabeth Patterson in 1805. The newly crowned Emperor of the French restarted his expansionist policies and assumed control over Ancona, Naples (following the Battle of Austerlitz, making his brother Joseph Bonaparte its new monarch), Pontecorvo and Benevento.


1799–1800 papal conclave, A new pope
The changes angered the pope, and following his refusal to accept them, Napoleon, in February 1808, demanded he subsidise France's military conflict with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The pope again refused, leading to further confiscations of territory such as Urbino, Ancona and Macerata. Finally in 1809, on May 17, the Papal states were formally annexed to the First French Empire and Pius VII was taken to the Château de Fontainebleau.


179th (2/4th London) Brigade
The 179th (2/4th London) Brigade was a formation of the British Army during the First World War. It was assigned to the 60th (2/2nd London) Division and served in the Middle East. Raised by Colonel, later Brigadier-General, Ned Baird.


179th (2/4th London) Brigade, Formation
In June 1918 three battalions (2/14th, 2/15th and 2/16th) were replaced by


179th Airlift Wing
The 179th Airlift Wing (179 AW) is a unit of the Ohio Air National Guard, stationed at Mansfield Lahm Air National Guard Base, Mansfield, Ohio. If activated to federal service with the United States Air Force, the Wing is gained by the Air Mobility Command (AMC).


179th Airlift Wing, Overview
The 179th utilizes the C-130H Hercules to provide direct airlift support to the United States Army and ancillary airlift support to other branches of the U.S. armed forces. The primary mission of the unit is to deliver time sensitive/mission critical supplies the "last tactical mile", as well as to provide airlift capabilities in support of homeland defense operations.


179th Airlift Wing, History
On 15 October 1962, the Ohio Air National Guard's 164th Tactical Fighter Squadron was authorized to expand to a group level and the 179th Tactical Fighter Group was established by the National Guard Bureau, with the 164th TFS becoming the group's flying squadron. Other squadrons assigned into the group were the 179th Headquarters, 179th Material Squadron (Maintenance), 179th Combat Support Squadron, and the 179th USAF Dispensary.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command
Equipped with F-84F Thunderstreaks, the new group was assigned to the Ohio ANG 121st Tactical Fighter Wing at Lockbourne AFB, Ohio. The 179th TFG was tasked with a tactical fighter-bomber mission to augment the Tactical Air Command (TAC).


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command
The squadron continued normal peacetime training throughout the 1960s. Individual squadron members volunteered for duty during the Vietnam War, however the 164th was not federalized in 1968 as the F-84Fs were not considered front line combat aircraft. In February 1972, the squadron retired its Thunderstreaks and converted to the F-100 Super Sabre as a result of the American draw-down from the Vietnam War.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, Tactical Airlift
The squadron flew the F-100s until the winter of 1976 when the 179th was transferred from Tactical Air Command to Military Airlift Command (MAC) on 5 January. At this time, the unit converted to the C-130B Hercules and received a complement of eight aircraft. With the change of equipment, the unit was designated a Tactical Airlift Group. Upgrade to the C-130H was completed in 1991.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, Tactical Airlift
The 179th Airlift Group was active during 1991 Gulf War providing airlift support throughout the Continental United States and Europe. Portions of the 179th were activated during Desert Shield/Storm and served in the US, Europe and Saudi Arabia.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, Tactical Airlift
In March 1992, the 179th adopted the USAF Objective Wing organization and became simply the 179th Airlift Group (179 AG) and the 164th as the 164th Airlift Squadron (164 AS). On 1 June of that year, Military Airlift Command was inactivated as part of the Air Force restructuring after the end of the Cold War. Air Mobility Command (AMC) initially became the gaining major command for the 179th, although on 1 October 1993, it was moved to Air Combat Command (ACC) along with the other C-130 units.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, Tactical Airlift
With the Air National Guard in the post-Cold War era providing nearly 50% of the USAF's tactical airlift capability, the 179th Airlift Group supported combat and humanitarian operations and exercises around the world, beginning in July 1992 as part of Operation Provide Promise; a humanitarian relief operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav War. Ongoing until 1996 airlift units delivered food, medicine, and supplies and evacuating over 1,300 wounded people from the region. It the longest running humanitarian airlift in history.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, Tactical Airlift
In late 1992, the 179th began airlifting personnel, equipment and supplies to Somalia as part of Operation Restore Hope. The Air Force enlisted Air National Guard units being charged with carrying out United Nations Security Council Resolution 794: to create a protected environment for conducting humanitarian operations in the southern half of Somalia.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, Tactical Airlift
The 179th was also engaged in Operation Uphold Democracy (19 September 1994 – 31 March 1995) providing airlift support to United States military forces in Hati during its military intervention designed to remove the military regime installed by the 1991 Haitian coup d'état that overthrew the elected President Jean-Bertrand Aristide.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, Tactical Airlift
On 11 October 1995, in accordance with the Air Force One Base-One Wing directive, the 179th Airlift Group was expanded and changed in status to the 179th Airlift Wing (179 AW). Under the Objective Wing organization, the 164th Airlift Squadron was assigned to the 179th Operations Group. Support groups to the wing were the 179th Maintenance Group, 179th Mission Support Group and the 179th Medical Group.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, Tactical Airlift
In mid-1996, the Air Force, in response to budget cuts, and changing world situations, began experimenting with Air Expeditionary organizations. The Air Expeditionary Force (AEF) concept was developed that would mix Active Duty Regular Air Force, Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard elements into a combined force. Instead of entire permanent units deploying as "Provisional" as in the 1991 Gulf War, Expeditionary units are composed of "aviation packages" from several wings, including active duty Air Force, the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National Guard (ANG), would be married together to carry out the assigned deployment rotation.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, Tactical Airlift
In December 1996, the 164th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron (164 EAS) was first formed from 179th personnel and aircraft and deployed to Pisa Airport, Italy in support of Operation Joint Guard. It assisted in providing logistical support to NATO-led multinational peacekeeping force in Bosnia and Herzegovina which was tasked with upholding the Dayton Peace Agreement. This ongoing commitment continued until 1998. Other Air Expeditionary Force deployments in the late 1990s included Operation Joint Endeavor, Operation Joint Forge and Operation Shining Hope, all addressing the Yugoslavian crises of the era.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, After September 11
After the events of 11 September 2001 the 164th EAS has been activated on several occasions, initially providing logistic support for Air Force fighter squadrons engaged in Combat Air Patrols over major cities during Operation Noble Eagle in late 2001 and 2002. The EAS has seen duty in Afghanistan as part of Operation Enduring Freedom and Iraq as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, After September 11
Pursuant to 2005 BRAC Recommendations, DoD recommended to close Mansfield-Lahm Municipal Airport Air National Guard Station, Ohio. The 179th Airlift Squadron would distribute its eight C-130H aircraft to the Air Force Reserve Command's 908th Airlift Wing at Maxwell AFB, Alabama (four aircraft), and the active duty Air Force's 314th Airlift Wing at Little Rock AFB, Arkansas (four aircraft).


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, After September 11
Flying-related Expeditionary Combat Support (ECS) would moves to the Kentucky Air National Guard's 123rd Airlift Wing at Louisville Air National Guard Base, Kentucky (aerial port) and the Ohio Air National Guard's 180th Fighter Wing at Toledo Air National Guard Base, Ohio (fire fighters). However, due to the base's superior record and recommendations for reconsideration by state and local officials, the base was incorporated into the Ohio Air National Guard's future by receiving a bridge mission of flying the C-21 Learjet operational support airlift (OSA) aircraft mission until it became operational in the C-27J Spartan.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, After September 11
On 20 July 2008, the 179 AW continued its growth by the standing up of the 200th Red Horse (Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy Operational Repair Squadron Engineers) detachment. The Mansfield base has been assigned with 200 RED HORSE personnel and another 200 assigned to Port Clinton. A new building across the airfield was to be constructed to house the detachment with an approximated completion date in 2010.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, After September 11
The 179 AW, along with the 175th Wing of the Maryland Air National Guard, was the first unit to train and deploy the C-27J Spartan in 2010. Airmen from the 179th Airlift Wing made Air National Guard history 26 July 2011, by deploying in support of Operation Enduring Freedom for the first time with the C-27J Spartan, one of the Air Force's newest aircraft.


179th Airlift Wing, History, Tactical Air Command, After September 11
This joint mission was conducted with aircrew from the 164th Airlift Squadron, a subordinate unit of the 179th Airlift Wing, and Soldiers from the Oklahoma and Georgia Army National Guard, working in conjunction with the 159th Combat Aviation Brigade (159th CAB), from Fort Campbell, Kentucky, in direct support of the U.S. Army for airlift and airdrop operations. The 179 AW made history with a nine-month overseas rotation, as opposed to the typical four-to-six-month Air National Guard deployment schedule. Due to budget constrained force structure changes within the Air Force eliminating all C-27s, the 179 AW's C-27s were retired and the 179th began transitioning back to the C-130 in May 2013.


179th Battalion (Cameron Highlanders of Canada), CEF
The 179th (Cameron Highlanders of Canada) Battalion, CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War. Based in Winnipeg, Manitoba, the unit began recruiting during the winter of 1915/16 in that city. After sailing to England in October 1916, the battalion was absorbed into the 17th Reserve Battalion on October 21, 1916. The battalion was disbanded on 17 July 1917. The 179th (Cameron Highlanders of Canada) Battalion, CEF had one Officer Commanding: Lieut-Col. J. Y. Reid.


179th Battalion (Cameron Highlanders of Canada), CEF
The battalion is perpetuated by The Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders of Canada.


179th Fighter Squadron
The 179th Fighter Squadron (179 FS) is a unit of the Minnesota Air National Guard 148th Fighter Wing located at Duluth Air National Guard Base, Minnesota. The 179th is equipped with the General Dynamics F-16C Fighting Falcon.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, Training in the United States
The squadron was first organized as the 393d Fighter Squadron at Hamilton Field, California, on 15 July 1943, as one of the original squadrons of the 367th Fighter Group. Several members of its initial cadre were former Flying Tigers with prior combat experience. It was not until late August, however, that the group received its first Bell P-39 Airacobra. After building up its strength, the squadron moved in October to Santa Rosa Army Air Field, California.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, Training in the United States
In December group headquarters and the squadron moved to Oakland Municipal Airport, while the other squadrons of the group were at other locations in northern California. The squadron moved temporarily to Tonopah Army Air Field, Nevada, where it performed dive bombing and gunnery training. Training accidents with the Bell P-39 Airacobra cost several pilots their lives. In January 1944, as it prepared for overseas movement, the 393d was beefed up with personnel from the 328th and 368th Fighter Groups. The squadron staged through Camp Shanks, and sailed for England aboard the SS Duchess of Bedford. The "Drunken Duchess" docked at Greenock, Scotland on 3 April and the group was transported by train to its airfield at RAF Stoney Cross, England.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
Having trained on single engine aircraft, the squadrons's pilots were surprised to find Lockheed P-38 Lightnings sitting on Stoney Cross's dispersal pads. Only members of the advance party had any experience flying the Lightning. These pilots had flown combat sorties with the 55th Fighter Group. The change from single engine to twin engine aircraft required considerable retraining for both pilots and ground crew.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
Although some pilots entered combat with as little as eight hours of flying time on the P-38, in late April the squadron was reinforced by pilots who had trained on the Lightning in the States and were more experienced on the type. However, the lack of instrument training in the P-38 took its toll on the 393d as weather, not enemy action, caused the loss of pilots and airplanes.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
On 9 May, the squadron flew its first combat mission, a fighter sweep over Alençon. For the remainer of the month, the unit flew fighter sweeps, bomber escort and dive bombing, missions and suffered its first combat losses.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
On D-Day and the next three days the squadron flew missions maintaining air cover over shipping carrying invasion troops. These missions continued for the next three days. The 393d and other P-38 units stationed in England were selected for these missions with the expectation that the distinctive silhouette of the Lightning would prevent potential friendly fire incidents by anti-aircraft gunners mistaking them for enemy fighters. Shortly after the Normandy invasion, on 12 June, the 367th Group was selected to test the ability of the P-38 to carry a 2,000 lb bomb under each wing. The selected target was a railroad yard, and results were mixed. However, on this mission, the squadron scored its first air-to-air victory when Lts James Pinkerton and James Mason teamed up to shoot down a Messerschmitt Me 410 flying near the assigned target.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
By mid June German ground forces had withdrawn to defend a perimeter around Cherbourg, a major port whose capture had become more important to the allies with the destruction of Mulberry A, one of the artificial harbors constructed near the Normandy beachhead. An attack by VII Corps on 22 June was to be preceded by low level bombing and strafing attack by IX Fighter Command. Briefed by intelligence to expect a "milk run" The 394th flew at low altitude through what turned out to be a heavily defended area. Within two to three minutes after beginning the attack the squadron lost five pilots. Seven group pilots were killed in action. Nearly all surviving aircraft received battle damage and the entire 367th Group was out of action for several days.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
Ninth Air Force moved its medium bomber forces to bases closer to the Continent in July, so they would be able to strike targets near the expanding front in France. The 387th Bombardment Group was moved to Stoney Cross, forcing the 394th to vacate their station and move the short distance to RAF Ibsley. From Ibsley the group struck railroads, marshaling yards, and trains to prevent enemy reinforcements from reaching the front during Operation Cobra, the Allied breakthrough at Saint-Lô in July 1944.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
Starting on 19 July, the 367th Group's forward echelon crossed the English Channel to take up stations in Normandy. Group headquarters shared Beuzeville Airfield with the 371st Fighter Group, while the 393d Squadron was at Cricqueville Airfield, advanced landing grounds made from pierced steel planking. After the breakout of ground forces in the Saint-Lô area, the squadron concentrated on close air support of General Patton's Third Army. In late August, the squadron attacked German Seventh Army convoys which, to prevent being surrounded, were withdrawing eastward from the Falaise pocket. Five convoys and 100 Tiger Tanks were destroyed on one day.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
On 22 August the group attacked three Luftwaffe airfields near Laon. The 392d Fighter Squadron dive bombed and destroyed two hangars on one airfield but were jumped by twelve Focke-Wulf Fw 190s as they completed their attack. Eighteen Messerschmitt Me 109s and Fw 190s engaged the 393d as it reformed from its dive bomb run. After bombing its target, the 394th Fighter Squadron turned to reinforce the 392d. The squadrons of the 367th Group claimed fourteen enemy aircraft in total against a loss of one Lightning.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
The 393d received a Distinguished Unit Citation when it returned to the Laon area three days later. That day, the 367th Group attacked Luftwaffe airfields at Clastres, Péronne and Rosières-en-Haye through an intense flak barrage. The group then engaged more than thirty Focke-Wulf 190 fighters that had just taken off. Group claims were 25 enemy aircraft destroyed, one probably destroyed and 17 damaged against the loss of 6 group aircraft. Then, despite a low fuel supply, the unit strafed a train and convoy after leaving the scene of battle. Captain Larry Blumer of the 393d destroyed five enemy aircraft becoming an ace on one mission. In the afternoon the squadron conducted a long range fighter sweep of more than 800 miles to airfields in the Dijon-Bordeaux area.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
As Allied forces moved forward across France the squadron began leap-frogging to new bases. In early September they relocated at Peray Airfield, but moved again a week later to Clastres Airfield. From Clastres The 393d supported Operation Market-Garden by escorting troop carrier aircraft and attacking flak positions. For its attacks that fall, the squadron was cited in the Order of the Day by the Belgium Army.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
In late October, as Ninth Air Force brought its medium bombers to bases in France, the 393d was bumped from its station for the second time by the 387th Bombardment Group, when it moved to Juvincourt Airfield, north of Reims. Juvincourt was a former Luftwaffe base with permanent facilities, in contrast to the advanced landing grounds where the squadron had been based since moving to France. The squadron attacked German strong points to aid the Allied push against the Siegfried Line throughout the fall of 1944.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, P-38 transition and combat operations from England
The German Ardennes Offensive occurred as the holidays approached. A planned move to a field in Belgium was canceled. During the Battle of the Bulge, the 394th, after escorting C-47s on a resupply drop to encircled troops at Bastogne, conducted an armed reconnaissance of the Trier area. The group was engaged by Fw 190s and a 40-minute air battle ensued in which the group claimed eight destroyed, two probably destroyed and nine damaged.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, Transition to the P-47 Thunderbolt
Early in 1945 a desire to standardize the fighter-bombers in Ninth Air Force, the squadron transitioned into Republic P-47 Thunderbolts. Pilots flew Lightings on combat missions while training at the same time with the Thunderbolt. The 393d was the first squadron of the 367th Group to fly a combat missions with the P-47s. Using the Thunderbolt the squadron was again cited in a Belgium Army Order of the Day, earning the Belgian Fourragere.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, Transition to the P-47 Thunderbolt
The 393d received a second Distinguished Unit Citation for action on 19 March 1945. The 367th Group's target was the headquarters of Field Marshal Kesselring, the German Commander-ln-Chief, West, at Ziegenburg near Bad Nauheim, Germany. Aircraft of the leading 394th Fighter Squadron would attack at low level to achieve surprise, carrying a 1,000-pound bomb under each wing. The P-47s of the 392d Fighter Squadron would be similarly armed, but would dive bomb from a higher altitude. The bombs were equipped with time-delay fuses intended to crack the concrete roofs of the bunker.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, Transition to the P-47 Thunderbolt
The 393d carried napalm intended to seep into the bunkers and burn what remained. The attack was scheduled for a time that intelligence reports indicated would find senior staff and commanders at lunch, the only time they would not be in the reinforced tunnels underneath the castle that housed the headquarters. The target was located in mountainous terrain well defended by antiaircraft artillery. Moreover, to avoid alerting the Germans to the pending attack, photographic reconnaissance aircraft had avoided the area, so detailed target photography was not available.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, Transition to the P-47 Thunderbolt
The day of the attack the castle was concealed by ground haze which caused the 394th Fighter Squadron to stray off course at the last minute, preventing them from executing the attack as planned and reducing the element of surprise. Although senior German officers reached the underground bunkers and survived the attack, the group reduced the military complex to ruins, disrupting communications and the flow of intelligence at a critical time.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, Transition to the P-47 Thunderbolt
The squadron struck tanks, trucks, flak positions, and other objectives in support of the assault across the Rhine late in March and the final allied operations in Germany. It was commended by the commanding generals of XII Corps and the 11th Armored Division for the close air support the unit provided for their commands. On 10 April the squadron moved to Eschborn Airfield on the northwest side of Frankfurt, Germany. The 393d flew its last combat mission, a defensive patrol, one year after entering combat on 8 May. During its combat tour, the squadron was credited with 22.5 air-to-air victories over enemy aircraft.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, Return to the United States and inactivation
All hostilities ceased the following day, exactly one year after the squadron became operational. On 4 June, the 367th Group led a flyby for General Weyland. On 1 July it was announced the 393d was to redeploy to the Pacific Theater after it was re-equipped with and trained with long range P-47Ns in preparation for Operation Downfall, the invasion of Japan. The squadron moved to Camp Detroit in France then to a staging area near Marseille. Here it boarded two ships, the USS General C. G. Morton, and the USNS John Ericsson (T-AO-194).


179th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II, Return to the United States and inactivation
When Japan surrendered, the Morton was diverted to Newport News, Virginia, while the Ericcson sailed for Staten Island, New York. Following leave for everyone, the few personnel that remained in the squadron after transfers and discharges reassembled at Seymour Johnson Field, North Carolina, on 2 November and the 393d was inactivated there on 7 November 1945.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, Minnesota Air National Guard
The wartime 393d Fighter Squadron was redesignated the 179th Fighter Squadron and was allotted to the National Guard on 24 May 1946. It was organized at Duluth Municipal Airport and was extended federal recognition on 17 September 1948. The squadron was equipped with North American F-51D Mustangs and was assigned to the 133d Fighter Group at Wold-Chamberlain Field, Minneapolis.


179th Fighter Squadron, History, Minnesota Air National Guard, Korean War activation
On 1 March 1951, the 179th was federalized and brought to active duty due to the Korean War. Shortly after activation it was redesignated the 179th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron and became part of Air Defense Command. On active duty it assumed an air defense mission and initially remained assigned to the 133d Fighter-Interceptor Group at Duluth Municipal Airport. However, ADC experienced difficulty under the existing wing base organizational structure in deploying its fighter squadrons to best advantage. As a result, in February 1952 the 133d Group was inactivated and the squadron was reassigned to the 31st Air Division. The squadron was inactivated and returned to the control of the State of Minnesota on 1 December 1952.