1788 doctors' riot, Background
By the end of the American Revolution, roughly one fifth of New York City's population was black, most of whom were slaves. Their low social standing allowed slaves' bodies to be buried only outside the city limits. Most often, they were buried in a few plots north of Chambers Street, across the street from the Pauper's Cemetery, often with several bodies to a grave, in a site now marked by the African Burial Ground National Monument, then known as the "Negroes Burying Ground".


1788 doctors' riot, Background
Both cemeteries were close to Columbia College, which housed the city's only school of medicine. Taboos associated with the violation of corpses made it difficult to procure cadavers for dissection and study, and many students and doctors would exhume bodies from the nearby graveyards because of the socially-marginalized status of their occupants. "Resurrection," as body-snatching or grave-robbing was called, was the cheapest, surest way to obtain the remains of the newly deceased, especially in the winter, when bodies decayed more slowly.


1788 doctors' riot, Riot
Because there was then no known method to preserve an entire corpse, thefts were performed hastily, often in winter to slow the rate of decomposition. In the winter of 1788, the number of corpses being exhumed by students increased substantially. The activities of medical students and physicians, who were known colloquially as "Resurrectionists" in the black cemetery, were noticed by a group of freedmen who, on February the 3rd, petitioned the Common Council to take action against it. The petition was largely ignored, and no effort was made to stop the unlicensed exhumations.


1788 doctors' riot, Riot
In April 1788, a group of children were playing outside the New York Hospital, next to a room where a student of the physician Richard Bayley, who was known to exhume corpses from the two cemeteries, was dissecting an arm. Bayley, born and bred in Connecticut, had received his medical education in England, where body-snatching was more common. There were whispers about him "cutting up his patients and performing cruel experiments upon the sick."


1788 doctors' riot, Riot
The student, John Hicks, waved the arm out at the children, telling a boy whose mother had recently died that it belonged to her. The boy ran home and told his father of that. He, after exhuming his wife's coffin and finding it empty, gathered a group of concerned citizens who marched to the hospital and began to mass around the building.


1788 doctors' riot, Riot
The mob eventually broke into the hospital and, after becoming incensed upon finding several bodies in various stages of mutilation, pulled Richard Bayley's assistant Wright Post and a number of his students into the street, where the mayor of New York City, James Duane intervened and ordered them escorted to the jailhouse for protection.


1788 doctors' riot, Riot
A crowd of 2,000 people had gathered, and news spread of the horrors seen in the hospital, leading to widespread rioting, with the few physicians remaining in New York City being forced into hiding. A large group of rioters descended upon Broadway, searching for John Hicks, who was felt by the crowd to be the main source of blame. As they assembled in front of the courthouse and threw rocks, militia and cavalry were called in to repel them. The riot lasted a few days, ceasing when Governor Clinton sent the militia to patrol the streets until a calm environment was ensured.


1788 doctors' riot, Riot
At least three rioters and three militiamen died in the confrontation; some estimate up to 20 dead. The protesters also destroyed all the available human specimens.


1788 doctors' riot, Effects
Public opinion of physicians in New York stood very low for many years, and while some students were brought to trial, Hicks was not among them. Post-mortem dissection was considered an indignity to the dead, and the city fathers even forbade using bodies abandoned in the rougher parts of the city. A year later, in January 1789, a statute was finally put into law in order to codify the proper treatment of corpses, with harsh punishments imposed for those who violated it. Anyone who broke the law would stand on the pillory or be publicly whipped, fined, or imprisoned.


1788 doctors' riot, Effects
The statute also permitted the bodies of executed criminals to be used in dissection "in order that science [might not] be injured by preventing the dissection of proper subjects." "Resurrection men," professionals who used stealth and discretion, were recruited to replace the students and went on to control the supply of cadavers for generations. Throughout the 1700s, British law considered dissection as a worse punishment than death.


1788 doctors' riot, Effects
To discourage dueling, the Massachusetts General Court also imposed dissection as a threat by ruling that anyone who died as a result of a duel would be sentenced to post-mortem dissection and dismemberment. Dissection was seen as perhaps one of the worst things that could happen to a person other than death.


1788 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1788 in Australia.


1788 in Great Britain, Notes
Three non-overlapping twelve-month periods have been drier over England and Wales than calendar year 1788 – August 1784 to July 1785, September 1975 to August 1976 and February 1854 to January 1855.


1788 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1788 to Wales and its people.


1788 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1788.


1788 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1788 in poetry, Works published in English, United Kingdom
This year three works of poetry, all written by women (the Falconars, More and Yearsley), condemn slavery; while Samuel Pratt is an early advocate of animal rights:


1788 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1788 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1788 in science
The year 1788 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1788 in sports
1788 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1788 in the Dutch Republic
The following lists events that happened during 1788 in the Dutch Republic.


1788-L
1788-L is an electronic music producer. He rose to fame in 2018 with a remix of Virtual Self's "Particle Arts" uploaded onto his SoundCloud account. Other releases following this include "Multiverse" (with 4AM) and a remix of Daft Punk's "Rinzler".


1788-L, Career
On 26 January 2018, 1788-L uploaded his debut release, "Replica", on SoundCloud. A digital download release of his song was issued on 2 February 2018. On 9 February 2018 he released a remix of "Particle Arts" by Virtual Self. On 2 March 2018, a remix of Daft Punk's "Rinzler" (from Tron: Legacy) was released, and premiered on Dancing Astronaut. On 30 March 2018, a remix of "Radioactivity" by Kraftwerk was released on all platforms. His debut extended play, Sentience, which comprises four tracks was released on August 24, 2018 through Zeds Dead' label, Deadbeats.


1788-L, Career
1788-L performed his first live show on July, 2018 in Los Angeles, California.


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives election in New Hampshire
New Hampshire law required a winning candidate to receive votes from a majority of voters (16.7% of votes). No candidate won such a majority on the first ballot, so a second ballot was held February 2, 1789.


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
Massachusetts law required a majority vote, necessitating additional votes if no one won a majority. This was necessary in 4 of the districts.


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
The first election in the district was in part a reflection of the rivalry between Hampshire and Berkshire counties. Berkshire was the less populous county, but four of the six candidates who received the most votes - Theodore Sedgwick, William Whiting, Thompson J. Skinner, and William Williams - were residents of the county. The two Hampshire candidates were Samuel Lyman and John Worthington. The first election did not reflect the fact that the two counties were centers of agrarian discontent and of support for Shays's Rebellion.


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
Nor did it reflect the fact that in the state Convention the Hampshire delegates voted 32 to 19 and the Berkshire delegates voted 16 to 6 against ratification of the Constitution. Only Whiting was regarded as a Shaysite and an Anti-Federalist, while the other five men were Federalists - and two of these - Worthington and Williams - had been virtual if not actual Loyalists during the Revolution. The issue of amendments to the Constitution was not raised during the first election in the district, but it became so important in the ensuing elections that Theodore Sedgwick, who opposed amendments, publicly promised to support them before the fifth election, which he won.


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
The only problem was whether Partridge could retain his post of sheriff of Plymouth County and accept a seat in Congress, as he had done in 1779-1782 and 1783-1785. He received a certificate from Governor Hancock on 10 January notifying him of his election. Partridge wrote three letters to the Governor. In the first, which he apparently did not send, he refused the appointment. He accepted in the two following letters but explained that he would not take the seat if he had to give up his post as sheriff (12, 20 January, 23 February).


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
The issue of whether or not a state officeholder could retain a state post and still serve in Congress had been and would be raised in other states. On 12 February Governor Hancock asked his Council for advice about Partridge and about George Leonard, judge of probate in Bristol County, who had been elected to Congress from the Bristol-Dukes-Nantucket District.


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
The Council replied in writing the same day that it was 'inexpedient' for a man to hold the office of judge of probate and a seat in Congress, but that it did not find anything in the state constitution which prevented a sheriff from also being a member of Congress. The Council advised, however, that it would be inexpedient to introduce the practice of sheriffs being absent for long periods although Partridge 'may at present be indulged' and take a seat in Congress 'consistently with the safety of that county' (Council Proceedings, Thursday 12 February, M-Ar).


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
The next day Governor Hancock sent the Council's written reply to the legislature and asked for its advice (13 February, Miscellaneous Legislative Documents, House Files, M-Ar). The two houses appointed a joint committee which wrote a report that was approved and sent to the Governor on Monday, 16 February. The legislature declared that if George Leonard continued to hold the office of judge of probate and also took a seat on Congress, any future legislature would address the Governor authorizing him and the Council to appoint another person judge of probate in Bristol County.


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
But the legislature refused to give advice about George Partridge. It pointed out that sheriffs served during the pleasure of the governor, and (with the advice of his Council) were removable by him at any time. Sheriffs were not removable in any other way except through impeachment by the House and a trial before and conviction by the Senate. Therefore the House and Senate declared that intervention by the legislature was 'neither necessary or proper; and from the conduct and advice of your Council, they see no reason to doubt the wisdom of that constitutional provision' (House and Senate Proceedings, 13, 14, 16 February).


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
It was evident before the elections were completed in Worcester District that a candidate who did not support amendments to the Constitution had no chance of winning. The three leading candidates in the three Worcester District elections were Jonathan Grout, Timothy Paine, and Artemas Ward. Grout, a local leader during the Revolution, had voted against ratification of the Constitution and in 1788 was a member of the legislature. Paine, a prominent officeholder in the county for two decades before the Revolution, had been appointed to the Royal Council in 1774. Unlike most 'mandamus councillors,' he did not become a Loyalist.


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
By 1788 he had regained much of his influence in the town of Worcester. Ward had been appointed commanding general of Massachusetts troops after Lexington and Concord, he remained in charge until George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in July 1775. The popular Ward resigned his commission in April 1776 and returned to state politics.


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
The past records of these three men did not become a public issue until shortly before the third and final election.…AS in the two previous election, the two Worcester newspapers, with one exception, printed nothing until their last issues before the election on 2 March. The exception consisted of two items (one of which supported Timothy Paine) in the Massachusetts Spy on 19 February. Then on 26 February the Massachusetts Spy published five articles. Two of them supported Jonathan Grout, one supported Artemas Ward, one backed Timothy Paine, and the fifth did not mention any names.


1788–1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts
On the same day the American Herald published four items. One supported Grout, one opposed Paine because he had been a mandamus councillor, and the other two items urged that he be elected. The issue of Paine's appointment as a mandamus councillor by the British government in 1774 had been brought up for the first time by the Boston Independent Chronicle, 12 February, and not by the Worcester newspapers. Despite the ambivalence of the newspapers, there was a considerable increase of interest, for the vote almost doubled over the first election on 18 December 1788: from 1,886 to 3,484. Grout was elected Representative by a decisive majority. Artemas Ward, who ran a poor third in each of the three elections, finally defeated Grout in the election to the second Congress in 1791. Paine was elected to the state House of Representatives in 1789.


1788–89 United States elections
The United States elections of 1788–1789 were the first federal elections in the United States following the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788. In the elections, George Washington was elected as the first president and the members of the 1st United States Congress were selected.


1788–89 United States elections
Formal political parties did not exist, as the leading politicians of the day largely distrusted the idea of "factions." However, in the years after the ratification of the Constitution, Congress would become broadly divided by the economic policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, with the Pro-Administration faction supporting those policies. Opposing them was the Anti-Administration faction, which sought a smaller role for the federal government. In these elections, the Pro-Administration faction won majorities in both houses of Congress.


1788–89 United States elections
Meanwhile, General George Washington was elected as the country's first president, while John Adams, who finished with the second largest number of electoral votes, was elected as the first vice president.


1788–89 United States elections, Presidential election
The presidential election of 1788–1789 was the first election of a federal head of state or head of government in United States history. Prior to the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788, the U.S. had been governed under the Articles of Confederation, which provided for a very limited central government; what power that did exist was vested in the Congress of the Confederation, a unicameral legislature consisting of representatives elected by the states. The Congress of the Confederation had elected a president, but this position was largely ceremonial and was not equivalent to the presidency that was established by the United States Constitution.


1788–89 United States elections, Presidential election
Under the U.S. Constitution, the president was chosen by the Electoral College, which consisted of electors selected by each state. Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment, each elector cast two votes; the individual who received the most electoral votes would become president, while the individual who received the second-most electoral votes would become vice president. If no individual received votes from a majority of the electors, or if two individuals tied for the most votes, then the House of Representatives would select the president in a contingent election. Under the Constitution, each state determines its own method of choosing presidential electors; in the 1788–1789 presidential election, many electors were appointed by state legislators, while others were chosen through elections. In the states that did hold elections, suffrage was generally restricted to white men who owned property.


1788–89 United States elections, Presidential election
No party made a nomination for the presidency in the 1788–1789 presidential election, but several individuals vied for electoral votes. After his service in the American Revolutionary War, General George Washington was the first choice of many for president, but Washington was somewhat reluctant to re-enter public service. The American public at large, however, wanted Washington to be the nation's first president. The first U.S. presidential campaign was, to some degree, what today would be called a grassroots effort to convince Washington to accept the office. Alexander Hamilton was one of the most dedicated in his efforts to get Washington to accept the presidency, as he foresaw himself receiving a powerful position in the administration.


1788–89 United States elections, Presidential election
Less certain was the choice for the vice presidency, which contained little definitive job description in the constitution. The only official role of the vice president was as the President of the United States Senate, a duty unrelated to the executive branch. Because Washington was from Virginia, Washington (who remained neutral on the candidates) assumed that a vice president would be chosen from Massachusetts to provide sectional balance between the Northern states and the Southern states.


1788–89 United States elections, Presidential election
In an August 1788 letter, Thomas Jefferson wrote that he considered John Adams, John Hancock, John Jay, James Madison, and John Rutledge to be contenders for the vice presidency. Fearing an electoral college tie that could end with Adams winning the presidency, Alexander Hamilton arranged for several electors to vote for other candidates, including John Jay, who finished with the third most electoral votes.


1788–89 United States elections, Presidential election
On April 6, 1789, the House and Senate, meeting in joint session, counted the electoral votes and certified that Washington had received electoral votes from each of the 69 electors that had cast votes, and thus had been elected president. They also certified that Adams, with 34 electoral votes, had been elected as vice president. The other 35 electoral votes were divided among: John Jay (9), Robert H. Harrison (6), John Rutledge (6), John Hancock (4), George Clinton (3), Samuel Huntington (2), John Milton (2), James Armstrong (1), Benjamin Lincoln (1), and Edward Telfair (1). Only ten of the thirteen states cast electoral votes; North Carolina and Rhode Island did not participate as they had not yet ratified the Constitution, while the New York legislature failed to appoint its allotted electors in time.


1788–89 United States elections, Congressional elections
In 1788 and 1789, there were no political parties, but the major political split was between federalists who favored the ratification of the Constitution and anti-federalists who favored either completely rejecting the Constitution or only ratifying the document after making major changes to it. For example, in the election to represent Virginia's 5th congressional district, James Madison, a federalist who had played a major role in designing and ratifying the Constitution, defeated James Monroe, an anti-federalist who favored major changes to the Constitution. In many elections, local issues and the personal popularity of the candidates played a more important role than positions on the Constitution and other national issues.


1788–89 United States elections, Congressional elections
Retrospectively, political scientists and historians have divided the 1st Congress into members of the Pro-Administration and Anti-Administration factions. The Pro-Administration faction would generally support the centralizing economic policies of the Washington administration and Secretary of State Alexander Hamilton. The Anti-Administration faction generally opposed those policies, instead favoring states' rights and a weaker federal government. The Pro-Administration faction overlapped heavily with both the federalists who favored the ratification of the Constitution and the later Federalist Party, while the Anti-Administration faction overlapped with the anti-federalists and the later Democratic-Republican Party. Using this divide as a lens through which to view the elections, the Pro-Administration faction won majorities in both houses of Congress. Factional alignment would be fluid for much of the Washington administration.


1788–89 United States presidential election
The 1788–89 United States presidential election was the first quadrennial presidential election. It was held from Monday, December 15, 1788, to Saturday, January 10, 1789, under the new Constitution ratified in 1788. George Washington was unanimously elected for the first of his two terms as president, and John Adams became the first vice president. This was the only U.S. presidential election that spanned two calendar years, without a contingent election.


1788–89 United States presidential election
Under the Articles of Confederation, ratified in 1781, the United States had no head of state. Separation of the executive function of government from the legislative was incomplete, as in countries that use a parliamentary system. Federal power, strictly limited, was reserved to the Congress of the Confederation, whose "President of the United States in Congress Assembled" was also chair of the Committee of the States, which aimed to fulfill a function similar to that of the modern Cabinet.


1788–89 United States presidential election
The Constitution created the offices of President and Vice President, fully separating these offices from Congress. The Constitution established an Electoral College, based on each state's Congressional representation, in which each elector would cast two votes for two candidates, a procedure modified in 1804 by the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment. States had varying methods for choosing presidential electors. In five states, the state legislature chose electors. The other six chose electors through some form involving a popular vote, though in only two states did the choice depend directly on a statewide vote in a way even roughly resembling the modern method in all states.


1788–89 United States presidential election
The enormously popular Washington was distinguished as the former Commander of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. After he agreed to come out of retirement, it was known that he would be elected by virtual acclaim; Washington did not select a running mate, as that concept was not yet developed.


1788–89 United States presidential election
No formal political parties existed, though an informally organized consistent difference of opinion had already manifested between Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Thus, the contest for the Vice-Presidency was open. Thomas Jefferson predicted that a popular Northern leader such as Governor John Hancock of Massachusetts or John Adams, a former minister to Great Britain who had represented Massachusetts in Congress, would be elected vice president. Anti - Federalist leaders such as Patrick Henry, who did not run, and George Clinton, who had opposed ratification of the Constitution, also represented potential choices.


1788–89 United States presidential election
All 69 electors cast one vote for Washington, making his election unanimous. Adams won 34 electoral votes and the vice presidency. The remaining 35 electoral votes were split among 10 candidates, including John Jay, who finished third with nine electoral votes. Three states were ineligible to participate in the election: New York's legislature did not choose electors on time, and North Carolina and Rhode Island had not ratified the constitution yet. Washington was inaugurated in New York City on April 30, 1789, 57 days after the First Congress convened.


1788–89 United States presidential election, Candidates
Though no organized political parties yet existed, political opinion loosely divided between those who had more stridently and enthusiastically endorsed ratification of the Constitution, called Federalists or Cosmopolitans, and Anti- Federalists or Localists who had only more reluctantly, skeptically, or conditionally supported, or who had outright opposed ratification. Both factions supported Washington for president. Limited, primitive political campaigning occurred in states and localities where swaying public opinion might matter. For example, in Maryland, a state with a statewide popular vote, unofficial parties campaigned locally, advertising.


1788–89 United States presidential election, General election
No nomination process existed at the time of planning, and thus, the framers of the Constitution presumed that Washington would be elected unopposed. For example, Alexander Hamilton spoke for national opinion when in a letter to Washington attempting to persuade him to leave retirement on his farm in Mount Vernon to serve as the first President, he wrote that "...the point of light in which you stand at home and abroad will make an infinite difference in the respectability in which the government will begin its operations in the alternative of your being or not being the head of state."


1788–89 United States presidential election, General election
Another uncertainty was the choice for the vice presidency, which contained no definite job description beyond being the President's designated successor while presiding over the Senate. The Constitution stipulated that the position would be awarded to the runner-up in the Presidential election. Because Washington was from Virginia, then the largest state, many assumed that electors would choose a vice president from a northern state. In an August 1788 letter, U.S. Minister to France Thomas Jefferson wrote that he considered John Adams and John Hancock, both from Massachusetts, to be the top contenders.


1788–89 United States presidential election, General election
Jefferson suggested John Jay, John Rutledge, and Virginian James Madison as other possible candidates. Adams received 34 electoral votes, one short of a majority – because the Constitution did not require an outright majority in the Electoral College prior to ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to elect a runner-up as vice president, Adams was elected to that post.


1788–89 United States presidential election, General election
Voter turnout comprised a low single-digit percentage of the adult population. Though all states allowed some rudimentary form of popular vote, only six ratifying states allowed any form of popular vote specifically for presidential electors. In most states only white men, and in many only those who owned property, could vote. Free black men could vote in four Northern states, and women could vote in New Jersey until 1807. In some states, there was a nominal religious test for voting. For example, in Massachusetts and Connecticut, the Congregational Church was established, supported by taxes.


1788–89 United States presidential election, General election
Voting was hampered by poor communications and infrastructure and the labor demands imposed by farming. Two months passed after the election before the votes were counted and Washington was notified that he had been elected president. Washington spent one week traveling from Virginia to New York for the inauguration. Similarly, Congress took weeks to assemble.


1788–89 United States presidential election, General election
As the electors were selected, politics intruded, and the process was not free of rumors and intrigue. For example, Hamilton aimed to ensure that Adams did not inadvertently tie Washington in the electoral vote. Also, Federalists spread rumors that Anti- Federalists plotted to elect Richard Henry Lee or Patrick Henry president, with George Clinton as vice president. However, Clinton received only three electoral votes.


1788–89 United States presidential election, General election, Results, Popular vote
(a) Only six of the 11 states eligible to cast electoral votes chose electors by any form of popular vote. (b) Less than 1.8% of the population voted: the 1790 Census would count a total population of 3.0 million with a free population of 2.4 million and 600,000 slaves in those states casting electoral votes. (c) Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.


1788–89 United States presidential election, General election, Results, Electoral vote
Source: Source (popular vote): A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825


1788–89 United States presidential election, General election, Results, Electoral vote
(a) Only 6 of the 10 states casting electoral votes chose electors by any form of the popular vote. (b) Less than 1.8% of the population voted: the 1790 Census would count a total population of 3.0 million with a free population of 2.4 million and 600,000 slaves in those states casting electoral votes. (c) Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements. (d) As the New York legislature failed to appoint its allotted eight electors in time, there were no voting electors from New York. (e)


1788–89 United States presidential election, General election, Results, Electoral vote
Two electors from Maryland did not vote. (f) One elector from Virginia did not vote and another elector from Virginia was not chosen because an election district failed to submit returns. (g) The identity of this candidate comes from The Documentary History of the First Federal Elections (Gordon DenBoer (ed. ), University of Wisconsin Press, 1984, p. 441). Several respected sources, including the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress and the Political Graveyard, instead show this individual to be James Armstrong of Pennsylvania. However, primary sources, such as the , list only Armstrong's name, not his state. Skeptics observe that Armstrong received his single vote from a Georgia elector. They find this improbable because Armstrong of Pennsylvania was not nationally famous—his public service to that date consisted of being a medical officer during the American Revolution and, at most, a single year as a Pennsylvania judge.


1788–89 United States presidential election, Results by state, Popular vote
The popular vote totals used are the elector from each party with the highest vote totals. The vote totals of Virginia appear to be incomplete.


1788–89 United States presidential election, Results by state, Electoral Vote, New York's lack of electors
Due to feuding political factions, New York's legislative branches could not come to agreement on how Presidential Electors would be chosen. The Anti-federalists (championing the middling-classes and state prerogatives) controlled the Assembly and were resentful that they had been forced by events to agree to ratify the Constitution of the United States of America without amendments. While the Federalists had gone from being conservative patriots during the war to nationalists who, backed by the great landed families and New York City commercial interests, controlled the Senate. Bills on how the state should appoint Presidential Electors were crafted by each of the legislative bodies and rejected by the other body. This was not resolved by January 7, 1789, which was the required date for all presidential Electors to be chosen by the states.


1788–89 United States presidential election, Electoral college selection
The Constitution, in Article II, Section 1, provided that the state legislatures should decide the manner in which their Electors were chosen. State legislatures chose different methods:


1788–89 United States presidential election, Electoral college selection
(a) New York's legislature did not choose electors on time. (b) One electoral district failed to choose an elector.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Connecticut
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in Connecticut took place between December 15, 1788 – January 10, 1789 as part of the 1789 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose seven representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Connecticut
Connecticut, which had become the 5th state on January 9, 1788, unanimously cast its seven electoral votes for George Washington during its first presidential election.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Delaware
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in Delaware took place between December 15, 1788, and January 10, 1789, as part of the 1788–1789 United States presidential election to elect the first President. Voters chose three representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Delaware
Delaware unanimously voted for independent candidate and commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, George Washington. The total vote is composed of 685 for Federalist electors, all of whom were supportive of Washington.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Georgia
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in Georgia took place between December 15, 1788 – January 10, 1789 as part of the 1788–89 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose 5 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Georgia
Georgia, which had become the 4th state on January 2, 1788, unanimously cast its 5 electoral votes for George Washington during its first presidential election.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Maryland
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in Maryland took place between December 15, 1788 and January 10, 1789, as part of the 1788–1789 United States presidential election to elect the first President. Voters chose eight representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President. However, 2 electors would not vote.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Maryland
Maryland unanimously voted for nonpartisan candidate and commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, George Washington. The total vote is composed of 5,539 for Federalist electors and 2,193 for Anti- Federalist electors, all of whom were supportive of Washington.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Massachusetts
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in Massachusetts took place between December 15, 1788 and January 10, 1789, as part of the 1788–1789 United States presidential election to elect the first President. Voters chose 10 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Massachusetts
Massachusetts unanimously voted for independent candidate and commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, George Washington. The total vote is composed of 17,740 for Federalist electors, all of whom were supportive of Washington.


1788–89 United States presidential election in New Hampshire
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in New Hampshire took place between December 15, 1788 and January 10, 1789, as part of the 1788–89 United States presidential election to elect the first President. Voters chose five representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1788–89 United States presidential election in New Hampshire
New Hampshire unanimously voted for independent candidate and commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, George Washington. The total vote is composed of 5,909 for Federalist electors, all of whom were supportive of Washington.


1788–89 United States presidential election in New Jersey
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in New Jersey took place between December 15, 1788 – January 10, 1789 as part of the 1789 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose six representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1788–89 United States presidential election in New Jersey
New Jersey, which had become the 3rd state on December 18, 1787, unanimously cast its 6 electoral votes for George Washington during its first presidential election.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania took place on January 7, 1789, as part of the 1788–89 United States presidential election to elect the first President. Voters chose 10 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania unanimously voted for nonpartisan candidate and commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, George Washington. The total vote is composed of 6,711 for Federalist electors and 672 for Anti- Federalist electors, all of whom were supportive of Washington.


1788–89 United States presidential election in South Carolina
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place between December 15, 1788 – January 10, 1789 as part of the 1789 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose 7 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1788–89 United States presidential election in South Carolina
South Carolina, which had become the 8th state on May 23, 1788, unanimously cast its seven electoral votes for George Washington during its first presidential election.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Virginia
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in Virginia took place between December 15, 1788 and January 10, 1789, as part of the 1788–1789 United States presidential election to elect the first President. Voters chose 12 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President. However, one elector did not vote and another elector was not chosen because an election district failed to submit returns, resulting in only 10 electoral votes being submitted.


1788–89 United States presidential election in Virginia
Virginia unanimously voted for nonpartisan candidate and commander-in-chief of the Continental Army George Washington. The total popular vote is composed of 3,040 for Federalist electors and 1,293 for Anti- Federalist electors, all of whom were supportive of Washington.


1789
1789 (MDCCLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1789th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 789th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 89th  year of the 18th century, and the  10th  and last year of the 1780s decade. As of the start of 1789, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1789 Conspiracy
The 1789 Conspiracy was a plot in Sweden in 1789, with the purpose of deposing Gustav III of Sweden, and place his brother Charles XIII of Sweden on the throne. The plot was instigated by a group of consirators at the royal court, consisting of among others the king's sister-in-law, Charles' spouse Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp, the king's youngest brother Prince Frederick Adolf, Duke of Östergötland, and Charles' favorite Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm.


1789 Conspiracy
The plot was influenced by the opposition of the nobility against Gustav III because of the Union and Security Act during the Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790), and the plan was to convince Charles to act as the central figure and symbol of this opposition. The plot was discontinued because Charles, when informed, refused to participate in it. The plot was never officially exposed and did not result in any legal action.


1789 Dobrovolsky
1789 Dobrovolsky (prov. designation: 1966 QC) is a Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 8 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 19 August 1966, by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in Nauchnyj on the Crimean peninsula. The asteroid was named after cosmonaut Georgy Dobrovolsky.


1789 Dobrovolsky, Orbit and classification
Dobrovolsky is a member of the Flora family, a large group of stony S-type asteroids in the inner main-belt. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.8–2.6 AU once every 3 years and 3 months (1,203 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.19 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic. First identified as 1936 KK at Johannesburg, the body's first used observation was taken at Nice Observatory in 1943, when Dobrovolsky was identified as 1943 SG, extending its observation arc by 23 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1789 Dobrovolsky, Naming
This minor planet was named in honor of Ukrainian–Soviet cosmonaut Georgy Dobrovolsky, commander of the Soyuz 11 spacecraft, who died on 30 June 1971 during the vehicle's return to Earth after completing the flight program of the first manned orbital station, Salyut. The subsequently numbered minor planets 1790 Volkov and 1791 Patsayev were named in honour of his dead crew members.


1789 Dobrovolsky, Naming
The names of all three cosmonauts are also engraved on the plaque next to the sculpture of the Fallen Astronaut on the Moon, which was placed there during the Apollo 15 mission, containing the names of eight American astronauts and six Soviet cosmonauts, who had all died in service. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 July 1972 (M.P.C. 3296).


1789 Dobrovolsky, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
The so-far best rated rotational lightcurve of Dobrovolsky was obtained from photometric observations by American astronomer Brian A. Skiff in March 2011. It gave a rotation period of 4.812 hours with a brightness variation of 0.13 magnitude (U=3). Other lightcurves were obtained by Claes-Ingvar Lagerkvist (in 1973) and at the Palomar Transient Factory (in 2014), giving a period of 5.8, 4.800 and 4.8111 hours, respectively (U=2/2/2). An international study from February 2016, published a modeled period of 4.811096 hours (U=n.a. ).


1789 Dobrovolsky, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Dobrovolsky measures 7.92 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.185 (best result), while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from 8 Flora, the largest member and namesake of its family – and calculates a diameter of 9.85 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 12.2.


1789 English cricket season
The 1789 English cricket season was the 18th in which matches have been awarded retrospective first-class status and the third after the foundation of Marylebone Cricket Club. It featured 14 top-class matches.


1789 English cricket season
The French Revolution escalated after the Storming of the Bastille on 14 July when cricket patron John Frederick Sackville, 3rd Duke of Dorset, was the British ambassador in Paris. Dorset was reportedly planning a goodwill visit to France by an England team, but the crisis forced him to return home and the venture was cancelled before the team could leave England.


1789 English cricket season, Matches
A total of 14 top-class matches were played during the season and involved teams from each of Essex, Hampshire, Kent, Middlesex and Surrey. An England side took part in three matches, two against the Hampshire XI and one against the Kent XI while a Gentlemen of England side played against the Middlesex XI. There were two matches between teams from West Kent and East Kent and a team from Hornchurch Cricket Club hosted MCC in August. A match between teams named A to M and N to Z was played at Lord's Old Ground.


1789 English cricket season, Proposed visit to Paris by an England team
The British ambassador to France, the Duke of Dorset, a leading patron of cricket, planned the formation of an England team to visit Paris on a goodwill tour and play matches there in August. The team, captained by William Yalden, reportedly assembled in London and travelled to Dover on 10 August where, unexpectedly, they met the Duke himself coming the other way. He was returning to England following the escalation of the French Revolution and the venture was cancelled. According to John Major in More Than A Game, "the whole story is nonsense".


1789 English cricket season, Proposed visit to Paris by an England team
On 16 July, two days after the Storming of the Bastille, Dorset had written to Foreign Secretary Francis Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds, about the crisis and had warned other British residents to leave Paris so, Major contends, he would hardly have invited a cricket team to come to France at such a time.


1789 English cricket season, Proposed visit to Paris by an England team
Dorset is known to have left Paris on 8 August. He did not return and was temporarily replaced by his Embassy Secretary, Lord Robert Stephen FitzGerald, as Minister Plenipotentiary. New credentials were delivered by his official successor, Earl Gower, on 20 June 1790. Dorset's credentials were terminated on 29 June 1790. If the venture had gone ahead, it would have been the first-ever international cricket tour but, instead, it became the first to be cancelled for political reasons.


1789 New Hampshire's at-large congressional district special election
A special election was held in New Hampshire's at-large congressional district on June 22, 1789 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of Representative-Elect Benjamin West, who had declined to serve. This was the first special election in the history of the United States House of Representatives.


1789 New York gubernatorial election
The 1789 New York gubernatorial election was held in April 1789 to elect the Governor and the Lieutenant Governor of New York.


1789 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
Incumbent George Clinton and justice of the New York Supreme Court Robert Yates, both members of the Anti-Administration faction, ran for Governor.


1789 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
Incumbent Pierre Van Cortlandt was the only candidate for Lieutenant Governor.


1789 New York gubernatorial election, Results
Clinton and Van Cortlandt were elected Governor and Lieutenant Governor respectively.


1789 Rhode Island gubernatorial election
The 1789 Rhode Island gubernatorial election was an uncontested election held on April 1, 1789 to elect the Governor of Rhode Island. John Collins, the incumbent Governor, was the sole candidate and so won with 100% of the vote.


1789 Sydney smallpox outbreak
In April 1789, Sydney, Australia, experienced one of its most violent outbreaks of smallpox when the disease swept through aboriginal and colonial Australians on the coast. The outbreak began in early March with the first cases appearing in a tribes living near Port Jackson. Aboriginal communities had no preexisting immunity to smallpox, and suffered mortality rates of around 70%.


1789 Sydney smallpox outbreak, Smallpox in Sydney
Aboriginal tribes on Arnhem Land first contracted smallpox when they made infectious contact with fishermen from southeast Asia. Governor Arthur Philip estimated that around half of the aboriginal population around Sydney harbor died in the outbreak.


1789 United States House of Representatives election in Delaware
The Delaware United States House election for 1789 was held on January 7, 1789. The former Continental Congressman John Vining won the election and became Delaware`s first Representative to the House of Representatives.


1789 United States House of Representatives election in New Jersey
The election of all four representatives was contested, but the records that explained the precise grounds on which the election was contested have been lost due to the burning of Washington in the War of 1812. It is known to have related to questions of regularity and procedure. All four representatives' elections were ruled valid.


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Georgia
Georgia had a mixed at-large/district system for the 1st Congress. Representatives were elected at-large, but for three district-based seats.


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Maryland
The 1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Maryland were held from December 15, 1788, to January 10, 1789, to elect the six U.S. Representatives from the state of Maryland, one from each of the state's six congressional districts. The elections coincided with the 1788–89 U.S. presidential election, as well as other elections to the House of Representatives, elections to the United States Senate and various state and local elections.


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in Maryland
Maryland had a mixed district/at-large system similar to Georgia's. Under Maryland law, "candidates were elected at-large but had to be residents of a specific district with the statewide vote determining winners from each district."


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in New York
The 1789 United States House of Representatives elections in New York were held on March 3 and 4, 1789, to elect 6 U.S. Representatives to represent the State of New York in the 1st United States Congress.


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Background
The United States Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, and then ratified by the States. On July 8, 1788, the Congress of the Confederation passed a resolution calling the first session of the 1st United States Congress for March 4, 1789, to convene at New York City and the election of U.S. Senators and U.S. Representatives in the meanwhile by the States. New York ratified the U.S. Constitution on July 26, 1788 by a very slim margin.


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
On January 27, 1789, the New York State Legislature divided the State of New York into six congressional districts which were not numbered.


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Congressional districts
Note: There are now 62 counties in the State of New York. The counties which are not mentioned in this list had not yet been established, or sufficiently organized, the area being included in one or more of the abovementioned counties.


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
Three Federalists and three Anti- Federalists (later known as the Democratic-Republicans) were elected.


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
Note: This was the first time political parties appeared in the United States. Before the question of establishing a federal government, or not, arose, all candidatures had been personal. Now, politicians aligned in two opposing groups: First those in favor of the establishment of a federal government and those against it, and then - after the federal government had been indeed established - those who supported it and those who did not. The first group are generally known as the Federalists, or (as a group in Congress) the "Pro-Administration Party."


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Result
The second group at first were called the Anti-Federalists, or (as a group in Congress) the "Anti-Administration Party", but soon called themselves "Republicans." However, at the same time, the Federalists called them "Democrats" which was meant to be pejorative. After some time both terms got more and more confused, and sometimes used together as "Democratic Republicans" which later historians have adopted (with a hyphen) to describe the party from the beginning, to avoid confusion with both the later established and still existing Democratic and Republican parties.


1789 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Aftermath
The 1st United States Congress had convened at Federal Hall in New York City on March 4, 1789, without any members from the State of New York, and without a quorum in either Senate or House. The first day with a quorum in the House was April 1. The representatives elected in and near New York City took their seats soon after the election. The upstate representatives needed some time to arrive, and Peter Silvester took his seat on April 22, John Hathorn on April 23, and Jeremiah Van Rensselaer on May 9. Their term ended on March 3, 1791. In April 1790, all six representatives ran for re-election: Floyd, Hathorn and Van Rensselaer (all Dem.-Rep.) were defeated; Laurance, Benson and Silvester (all Fed.) were re-elected.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York
The 1789 United States Senate election in New York was held in July 1789 to elect two U.S. Senators to represent the State of New York in the United States Senate. It was the first such election, and before the actual election the New York State Legislature had to establish the proceedings how to elect the senators.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Background
The United States Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, and then ratified by the States. On July 8, 1788, the Congress of the Confederation passed a resolution calling the first session of the First United States Congress for March 4, 1789, and the election of U.S. Senators and U.S. Representatives in the meanwhile by the States. New York ratified the U.S. Constitution on July 26, 1788.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Legislation
In February and March 1789, the 12th New York State Legislature (term 1788-89) debated at length "An act for prescribing the times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators of the United States of America, to be chosen in this State" but the Anti- Federalist Assembly majority and the Federalist Senate majority could not agree, and they adjourned on March 3, without having elected U.S. Senators. Both sides expected to win the State election in April.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Legislation
On June 4, Governor George Clinton called an extra session of the State Legislature to convene on July 6 at City Hall in Albany, New York. At the State election in April 1789, for a term beginning on July 1, a large Federalist majority had been elected to the New York State Assembly (65 members), estimated by State Senator James Duane at 42 to 22. The New York State Senate (24 members) continued with a slim Federalist majority.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Legislation
The 13th New York State Legislature (term 1789-90) convened on July 6, and on July 11 passed "An act directing the manner of electing Senators to represent this State in the Senate of the United States," which required the election to be made by "concurrent vote" of both houses of the Legislature. This meant, if only one U.S. Senator was to be elected, that each house nominated a candidate, and if both houses nominated the same person ("concurred"), the nominee was elected.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Legislation
If the Assembly nominated one, the Senate another, then the Senate's nominee was voted upon in the Assembly and the Assembly's nominee in the Senate; if none of the nominees was accepted by the other house, the proceedings started at the beginning. If two U.S. Senators were to be elected, and Assembly and Senate chose different nominees, then the Assembly should elect one of the two Senate nominees, and the Senate one of the two Assembly nominees, effectively leaving one seat to be filled by each house of the Legislature.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Legislation
On July 13, the law was submitted to the Council of Revision. On July 15, the Council objected to the law in two points:


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Legislation
Thus the law was vetoed, and the State Legislature was left to fill the seats without written rules. In practice, the Assembly and the Senate separately took a vote, and if the winner in both houses was the same, he was declared elected. If Assembly and Senate chose different persons, the houses met for a joint ballot, which occurred for the first time in 1802.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Election and aftermath
On July 16, after the Council of Revision had vetoed the law, State Senator Philip Schuyler and Assemblyman Rufus King, two Federalists, were appointed to the U.S. Senate by a joint resolution of both houses of the State Legislature. King took his seat on July 25, and drew the lot for Class 3, his term expiring on March 3, 1795. Schuyler took his seat on July 27, and drew the lot for Class 1, his term expiring on March 3, 1791.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Election and aftermath
The 1st United States Congress convened at New York City, as did the regular session of the New York State Legislature in January 1790. Schuyler retained his seat in the State Senate while serving concurrently in the U.S. Senate. Schuyler was also elected on January 15 a member of the State's Council of Appointments which consisted of the Governor of New York, and four State Senators elected annually by the State Assembly.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Election and aftermath
On January 27, the New York State Legislature resolved that it was "incompatible with the U.S. Constitution for any person holding an office under the United States government at the same time to have a seat in the Legislature of this State", and that if a member of the State Legislature was elected or appointed to a federal office, the seat should be declared vacant upon acceptance. Thus U.S. Senator Schuyler, Federal Judge James Duane and Congressmen John Hathorn and John Laurance vacated their seats in the State Senate.


1789 United States Senate elections in New York, Election and aftermath
On April 3, John Cantine, a member of the Council of Appointments, raised the question if Schuyler, after vacating his State Senate seat, was still a member of the Council. Philip Livingston, another member, held that once elected a member could not be expelled in any case. On April 5, Governor Clinton asked the State Assembly for a decision, but the latter refused to do so, arguing that it was a question of law, which could be pursued in the courts. Schuyler thus kept his seat in the Council of Appointments until the end of the term.


1789 Vermont Republic gubernatorial election
The Vermont Republic gubernatorial election of 1789 took place in September. Though incumbent Governor Thomas Chittenden won a plurality of the popular vote over his main competitor, Vermont Supreme Court Chief Justice Moses Robinson, the Vermont Constitution required that the legislature choose if no candidate won a majority.


1789 Vermont Republic gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Westminster on October 8 to count the votes of the freemen for governor of the Republic of Vermont, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council. Joseph Marsh was easily re-elected as lieutenant governor, and Samuel Mattocks was chosen for another term as treasurer.


1789 Vermont Republic gubernatorial election
For the first time since the founding of the Vermont Republic in 1778, Chittenden found himself in political difficulty. Shortly before the election, he had granted Ira Allen title to the town of Woodbridge (now Highgate) but had neglected to first obtain the approval of the governor's council. Chittenden was accused of malfeasance for supposedly favoring a clique led by the Allen family with respect to land grants.


1789 Vermont Republic gubernatorial election
As a result of the controversy, On October 9, the legislature chose Robinson, the first time Chittenden had not been elected governor. Robinson served a one-year term, but the controversy over the Woodbridge land grant abated, and Chittenden was returned to office in 1790.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election
The first election for Virginia's 5th congressional district took place on February 2, 1789, for a two-year term to commence on March 4 of that year. In a race that turned on the candidates' positions on the need for amendments (the Bill of Rights) to the recently ratified U.S. Constitution, James Madison defeated James Monroe for a place in the House of Representatives of the First Congress. It is the only congressional election in U.S. history in which two future presidents opposed each other.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election
The race came about when former governor Patrick Henry and other Anti- Federalists in the Virginia General Assembly, who had opposed the state's ratification of the Constitution, sought to defeat Madison, who had been a strong advocate for ratification, and who wanted to become a member of the new House of Representatives; they had already defeated him in the legislative election to choose Virginia's first U.S. senators. They put forward Monroe, a young but experienced politician who was a war hero wounded at the 1776 Battle of Trenton, as a candidate for the seat. Monroe did not seek the contest, but once drafted campaigned vigorously. Despite bitterly cold weather, the two candidates debated outdoors; traveling after one such meeting, Madison suffered frostbite on his face.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election
Although Madison had earlier stated that amendments to the Constitution were not necessary, during the campaign he took the position that they were, but should be proposed by Congress, rather than by an Article V Convention that Anti- Federalists such as Monroe and Henry supported. Madison won the election comfortably, to the satisfaction of his supporters such as President-elect George Washington. The race did not affect Madison's friendship with Monroe, who was elected to the Senate in 1790, and who would serve as Madison's Secretary of State and succeed him as president in 1817.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Background
James Madison was born on March 16, 1751 (March 5, 1750, Old Style), at the Belle Grove plantation near Port Conway, Virginia. He grew up on his parents' estate of Montpelier, and was involved in politics from a young age, serving on the local Committee of Safety at age 23. He represented Orange County in the Fifth Virginia Convention of 1776. After service on the Virginia Council of State, where he forged a lifelong friendship with Governor Thomas Jefferson, he was elected to the Second Continental Congress becoming its youngest member.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Background
In the following years, he became a strong advocate of closer ties between the states, and when in 1784 he returned home and became a member of the Virginia House of Delegates (the lower house of the Virginia General Assembly, the state legislature), he helped defeat a plan by Patrick Henry to impose taxes to support the Christian religion. He was one of Virginia's delegates to the Constitutional Convention in 1787, and helped persuade General George Washington to be its chair, which gave the convention the moral authority to propose a new plan of government. He was the originator of the Virginia Plan that became the basis of the federal government proposed by the convention.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Background
James Monroe was born April 28, 1758, in Westmoreland County, Virginia, the son of prosperous planters, Spence Monroe and Elizabeth Jones Monroe. By 1774, the year he entered the College of William & Mary, both his parents had died. In early 1776, he joined the Virginia militia and became an officer in the Continental Army, later that year being severely wounded at the Battle of Trenton. He left Continental service in 1779, and was made a colonel in the state militia. After the war, Monroe studied law under Jefferson and was elected to the House of Delegates in 1782, and to the Congress of the Confederation in New York in 1783, where he sought to expand the powers of that body.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Background
In 1784, Madison was told by Jefferson that Monroe wanted to begin a correspondence with him, beginning a relationship that would last until Monroe's death in 1831. The two men differed over whether their state should ratify the Constitution at the Virginia Ratifying Convention, with Madison in favor and Monroe against. Opponents deemed the proposed national government to be too powerful, and many wanted a second constitutional convention in order to place limits on it. Despite their efforts, Virginia narrowly ratified the Constitution on June 25, 1788. Monroe, like Jefferson, believed that there needed to be a Bill of Rights protecting fundamental liberties from infringement by the new federal government.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
Ratification had not been a major issue in the Virginia legislative elections of 1788, since it was expected to be decided by the Ratifying Convention that had just been chosen by the voters. When the General Assembly convened in October 1788, though, it had a majority of Anti- Federalist members, and was led by Henry, a member of the House of Delegates for Prince Edward County. Henry sought to avenge the Anti- Federalist defeat at the Ratifying Convention, and also believed Madison would not seek amendments, or would do so in a lukewarm fashion.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
On October 31, the General Assembly re-elected Madison to his seat in the lame-duck Confederation Congress, a body that would cease to exist with the coming of the new federal government. Henry's motives in allowing this are uncertain, with some historians stating it was to keep Madison in New York, far from the elections for Congress taking place in Virginia.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
Historian Chris DeRose hypothesizes that Madison's seat there was his if he wanted it, and his acceptance meant that he expected to remain in New York (where the new Congress would convene) and win his seat in Virginia without needing to campaign. The Anti- Federalists were not seeking to prevent the Federal government from coming into existence as some Federalists alleged, for they could have blocked the necessary bills for elections for Congress and for presidential electors, but they were determined to have members of their faction elected to those posts.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
Madison, who sought election to the House of Representatives, yielded to Washington and the Federalist minority in the legislature and allowed his name to be put forward in the legislature's election for Virginia's two U.S. senators—until 1913, senators were elected by the state legislatures. Henry nominated two Anti-Federalists, Richard Henry Lee and William Grayson, while Madison was the sole Federalist named. Henry told the General Assembly that Madison was "unworthy of the confidence of the people" and that his election "would terminate in producing rivulets of blood throughout the land". Henry's nominees were elected, Lee with 98 votes and Grayson with 86, while the defeated Madison gained 77.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
The General Assembly turned its attention to dividing the state into congressional districts. Madison's home county, Orange, was placed in a district with seven others, five of which had elected representatives to the Ratifying Convention who had opposed ratification, while Orange and one other had voted in favor and one county's delegation had split its vote. The General Assembly required that candidates live in the district, a qualification not found in the federal Constitution. Fauquier County, closely associated with Orange both geographically and economically, had supported ratification, but was excluded despite the efforts of Federalists.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
Despite some stating that Henry had contrived a district in which Madison was sure to be defeated, Thomas Rogers Hunter in a journal article examined the question, and concluded, "the district was compact and bounded on all sides by natural geographic features. Simply put, Patrick Henry did not attempt to gerrymander James Madison out of a seat in the first U.S. Congress." Virginia's 5th congressional district consisted of the counties of Albemarle, Amherst, Culpeper, Fluvanna, Goochland, Louisa, Orange and Spotsylvania. Some of these counties were later divided, so the district that Madison contested also included the present-day counties of Greene, Madison, Nelson and Rappahannock.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
French Strother, a long-time Virginia legislator from Culpeper County who had opposed ratification at the Virginia Convention, was solicited as a candidate to oppose Madison, but declined. William Cabell, of Amherst County, was also considered as an Anti- Federalist candidate but Monroe was selected instead. Both Strother and Cabell threw their support behind Monroe. A resident of Spotsylvania County, Monroe was reluctant to run against his friend Madison, but was probably encouraged by Henry, George Mason and other Anti-Federalists, though discouraged by his uncle, Joseph Jones.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
His service in the Revolutionary War, and his political service after it, were electoral assets. Monroe wrote to Jefferson after the election, "those to whom my conduct in publick life has been acceptable, press'd me to come forward in this Govt. on its commencement; and that I might not lose an opportunity of contributing my feeble efforts, in forwarding an amendment of its defects, nor shrink from the station those who confided in me [would] wish to place me, I yielded."


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
Monroe's reluctance clashed with his ambition and desire for honorable public service, and as his biographer, Tim McGrath, put it, "He truly did not want to run against his friend, but who could refuse Patrick Henry?" David O. Stewart, in his book on Madison's key relationships, takes another perspective: "A simpler explanation is more credible: Monroe disagreed with Madison over whether, how, and how soon the Constitution should be amended, and he thought he just might win the race."


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
The selection of Monroe was enough to worry Washington: "Sorry indeed should I be if Mr. Madison meets the same fate in the district of which Orange composes a part as he has done in the [General] Assembly and to me it seems not at all improbable." Others were less concerned; Alexander Hamilton of New York wrote to Madison that if he was defeated, "I could console myself ... from a desire to see you in one of the Executive departments".


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
Federalist Henry Lee wrote to him, "I profess myself pleased with your exclusion from the senate & I wish it may so happen in the lower house [in which case] you will be left qualified to take part in the administration, which is the place proper for you". Nevertheless, Henry Lee believed Madison would win, calling Monroe "the beau".


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Selection of candidates
Former Confederation congressman Edward Carrington wrote to Madison, assuring him that he need not seek election in another district, "each County [in the Fifth District] will have several active Characters in your behalf," and there was "every reason to think your Election will be tolerably safe at home". Madison disliked electioneering, but realized he would have to campaign hard to win the race. The Fifth District race would be the only congressional election in history to oppose two future U.S. presidents.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Issues
The largest issue in the campaign was the question of a Bill of Rights protecting personal freedoms as amendments to the Constitution. Madison's view had been that these were unnecessary as the Federal government had only limited power and that in any event, the new government should be allowed to operate for a time before changes were made to the Constitution. To take such a stance in the campaign would be political suicide, and Madison recognized that there was widespread support for such amendments.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Issues
But he felt it to be important that Congress proposed them, believing that route to be a quicker, easier, and safer means of passage than an Article V convention, which was favored by the Anti- Federalists such as Monroe. Nevertheless, he was skeptical about the effect of such amendments, calling them "parchment barriers", ineffective if the Federal government was determined to bypass them. He told the voters that if elected, he would work diligently for the passage of a Bill of Rights.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Issues
Although Monroe was unwilling to indulge in negative campaigning against his friend Madison, supporters of his such as Henry and Cabell did not feel so bound, and a number of pamphlets and letters were published against Madison, alleging that he supported direct taxation of individuals by the Federal government (he had supported including such a power in the Constitution for use in time of war or other need) and that he had pronounced the Constitution perfect and not in need of any change (he had admitted there were imperfections in it, but had not initially supported amending it with a Bill of Rights). Madison's earlier stances made it easy to depict him in this light.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Issues
Madison's pledge to support a Bill of Rights if elected left the question of direct taxation as the major difference between them. Monroe believed the power of the Federal government to directly tax the citizens to be not only unnecessary, but injurious to American liberty. He felt the government could raise money by tariffs, by the sale of public lands, or by borrowing. Madison responded that were the Federal government unable to tax citizens directly, tariffs would be the major source of revenue, and this would disproportionately hurt the South, which had few manufactures and imported heavily from overseas. He also stated that having federal taxes paid in each state would help bind the nation together as giving each a financial stake in the Union's success.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
Madison had been in New York, helping to wrap up the affairs of the old Congress of the Confederation. He received letters from other parts of Virginia from those who believed the residency requirement unconstitutional, offering to have him run there, but he preferred to run in his home district, and he declined. A trip to Virginia on horseback or in a carriage would be personally hard on Madison, then suffering from a bad case of hemorrhoids.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
On December 8, 1788, he wrote to Jefferson (who was in Paris) that he would return to Virginia to campaign for his election, a decision prompted in part by warnings from Virginians that he could not win without personally fighting for the seat. He arrived at Washington's plantation, Mount Vernon, on December 18, for a visit that lasted until he returned home to Orange County and his estate, Montpelier, just after Christmas. From the time Madison arrived in Virginia, the weather was unusually cold and snowy; the candidates often had to speak in freezing conditions, and the last weekend before the election saw 10 inches (250 mm) of snow.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
Aware he was not an orator of Henry's quality, Madison launched a letter-writing campaign, advocating for the new Constitution; though initially taken by surprise, Monroe also set out his positions in letters. It was Madison's intent, in writing to key citizens in each community, both to enlist support, and have the recipients circulate the letters locally or publish them in local newspapers. For Monroe's part, according to DeRose, he "poured himself into the campaign with frenetic energy, determined to campaign everywhere, to personally engage voters, and to make liberal use of his pen to correspond with community leaders.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
From the first days of the race, Monroe wrote letter after letter to voters and mailed them to a county's prominent Anti-Federalists, who would then distribute them personally to the intended recipients." Strother wrote a letter in support of Monroe, calling him "a man who possesses great abilities integrity and a most amiable Character ... Considering him as being able to render his Country Great Services on this important occasion".


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
On January 7, 1789, Virginians chose electors who would vote for the first U.S. president. The districts for this were not coextensive with congressional districts, since Virginia was entitled to 12 electors but only 10 congressmen. Still, six of the counties in the Fifth District were in the same district for choosing an elector, and the race featured a Federalist and Anti-Federalist, though both were pledged to vote for Washington for president. Goochland and Louisa counties were not in that electoral district, but Buckingham County was. The Federalist, Edward Stevens, was elected, and outpolled his opponent within the Fifth District, but both parties took hope from the result, with the Anti- Federalists cheered by the fact that Stevens had easily taken Spotsylvania County, where the local favorite Monroe would presumably do better.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
The candidates sought to appeal to the local religious communities, of which the Baptists were the most influential. That community had taken the position that the Constitution did not provide sufficient protection for their religious liberty.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
Madison wrote to one of their clergymen, George Eve, on January 2, 1789, stating that "it is my sincere opinion that the Constitution ought to be revised, and that the first Congress meeting under it, ought to prepare and recommend to the states for ratification, the most satisfactory provisions for all essential rights, particularly the rights of conscience [religion] in the fullest latitude, the freedom of the press, trials by jury, security against general warrants, etc." Eve became a powerful advocate for Madison against Monroe surrogates who sought the endorsement of Baptist congregations for their candidate. Madison's pledge of support for amendments defused much of the Anti- Federalist anger against him.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
The two men were quite friendly with each other, and decided to travel together between debates, riding from courthouse to courthouse, making speeches before large crowds. These debates showed the physical contrast between the tall, athletic Monroe, who had a full head of brown hair, and the short, slender Madison and his receding hairline. They often rode together, ate together, and lodged in the same room.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
In 18th century Virginia, Court Day, a different day in each local county, was not only an opportunity for lawyers and judges to try cases, but a social gathering, including fairs, markets, and other events. The candidates addressed those present, sometimes speaking for hours to the largest crowds they were likely to find during the campaign.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
On January 14, Madison reported to Washington that he had "pursued my pretensions much farther than I had premeditated; having not only made great use of epistolary means [letter writing], but actually visited two Counties, Culpeper & Louisa, and publicly contradicted the erroneous reports propagated agst. me". Henry Lee wrote to Washington three days later, "Mr Madison is gaining ground fast but still he is involved in much doubt & difficulty. Powerful & active supporters appear in every county for him—his presence has done good & will do more."


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Campaign
The debate that DeRose deemed perhaps the most significant of the race took place one evening at the Hebron Lutheran Church in Culpeper (today in Madison County). The Lutherans, like the Baptists, had been persecuted in America, and generally voted as a bloc to maximize their influence. Monroe and Madison attended the worship service, after which there was musical entertainment featuring fiddles. They and the congregation then went outside, and the two candidates debated on the front porch as the congregation stood in the bitter cold, with snow on the ground, likely for hours. Riding away afterwards, likely home to Montpelier, Madison suffered a frostbitten nose. In his old age, former president Madison would tell the story of that night, and point to the left side of his nose, saying he had battle scars.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Election
White males who were 21 years of age or older and who owned 50 acres (20 ha) of unimproved land or half that with a house were eligible to vote in the Fifth District. Approximately 5,189 voters formed the district's electorate. Per the 1790 census, there were 11,231 free white males age over 16 in the district, so about half of free white men were able to vote. The total population (including women, slaves and children) of the district was 91,007, so the electorate made up less than 6% of the total population, and perhaps 12–15% of those aged over 21.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Election
There was no secret ballot in Virginia elections in 1789; voters entered the local courthouse and publicly declared their votes, to be recorded by a clerk. The elections were administered by county sheriffs, normally the senior justice of the peace who had not already served in that capacity. Due to the bitterly cold weather in the Fifth District, the sheriffs in some counties extended voting beyond February 2, allowing more voters to reach their county courthouse. This was not authorized by Virginia law, but had also occurred in the voting for presidential electors the previous month.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Election
To get out the vote, Madison's supporters sent wagons around to transport voters to the polls. They brought one very old man from a distance, and he listened to them talk and asked if the Monroe spoken of was the son of Spence Monroe, formerly of Westmoreland County. On being told he was, the man declared he would vote for James Monroe, for "I do not know James Madison", but Spence Monroe had once fed him, clothed him and sheltered him.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Election
Once the polls closed, the local sheriff went to the door of the courthouse and proclaimed the result. It took time for complete results to be compiled; partial returns were printed in newspapers. On February 10, the sheriffs of the eight counties of the Fifth District met at Albemarle's courthouse, as the county first named in the election statute, to certify the results. Their returns indicated that Madison won the election with 1,308 votes to 972 for Monroe.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Election
In Madison's home county of Orange, he received 216 votes to Monroe's 9, in Culpeper 256 to Monroe's 103; he won Albemarle County by 69 votes and Louisa by 104. Madison had given considerable attention to Orange, apparently spending the day of the polls there despite the urgings of some supporters to base himself for the day in a more populous county, and two-thirds of his margin of victory came from Orange. Strong Baptist support for Madison there contributed to the outcome. Madison had been able to hold down the margin in strongly Anti- Federalist Amherst to 246–145 for Monroe, who also took his home county of Spotsylvania by 74 votes, Fluvanna by 21 and Goochland by 1 vote.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Election
The Baptists favored Madison due to his record of support for religious liberty. Washington congratulated Madison on the "respectable majority of the suffrages of the district for which you stood." Monroe stated of Madison, "It would have given me concern to have excluded him."


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Aftermath and assessment
After the election, Madison wrote to Jefferson, "It was my misfortune to be thrown into a contest with our friend, Col. Monroe. The occasion produced considerable efforts among our respective friends. Between ourselves, I have no reason to doubt that the distinction was duly kept in mind between political and personal views, and that it has saved our friendship from the smallest diminution." He wrote in later years, "Perhaps there never was another instance of two men brought so often, and so directly at points [of disagreement], who retained their cordiality towards each other unimpaired through the whole.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Aftermath and assessment
We used to meet in days of considerable excitement, and address the people on our respective sides; but there never was an atom of ill will between us." Within ten weeks of the election, the two were exchanging friendly letters, and Monroe purchased for Madison four tickets in the Fredericksburg Academy lottery, one of which won. According to Stewart, "Barely thirty years old, Monroe had time to make his way. Losing to the prominent Madison was no disgrace."


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Aftermath and assessment
In the House of Representatives, Madison introduced and guided to passage the amendments that became known as the Bill of Rights. He broke with Washington over the administration's policies, and allied with Jefferson, helping gain the latter's election to the presidency, and became his Secretary of State in 1801. He succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809. Although defeated for Congress, Monroe's frequent court appearances as a lawyer kept him in the public eye in Virginia. In 1790, after Grayson's death, the General Assembly elected him to the U.S. Senate. He served thereafter in a number of offices, including, twice, Governor of Virginia, and in 1811 Madison named Monroe as Secretary of State. Monroe was elected president in succession to Madison in 1816, taking office the following year.


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Aftermath and assessment
Early Monroe biographer George Morgan wrote, "There have been hundreds of exciting congressional races, but was there ever another quite as curious as this?" Hunter stated, "Unlike most congressional elections, this one had significant ramifications, for had Monroe been victorious, our ultimate constitutional framework might have been quite different ... had it not been for Madison's tireless efforts, twelve would-be amendments—including what we now know as the Bill of Rights—would probably not have passed the First Congress in September 1789 and been sent to the states for ratification".


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Aftermath and assessment
Harlow Giles Unger, in his biography of Monroe, wrote, "By supporting the most important Antifederalist demand and pledging to sponsor a bill of rights in the First Congress, Madison had extended a hand of compromise to moderate Antifederalists and effectively separated them from Patrick Henry's radicals, who sought to emasculate the new central government."


1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election, Aftermath and assessment
According to DeRose, "no residents of a U.S. congressional district have ever had a better selection of candidates since the 5th District of Virginia in the election of 1789." He commented, though, that had the Anti- Federalist Monroe been victorious, he would not have been able to persuade the Federalist majority in Congress to pass amendments, as did the Federalist leader Madison, and without such, ultimately the Union would have failed. DeRose wrote, "The high-stakes battle between two Founding Fathers would forever alter the trajectory of the young nation."


1789 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1789 in Australia.


1789 in Belgium
Events in the year 1789 in the Austrian Netherlands and Prince-bishopric of Liège (predecessor states of modern Belgium).


1789 in France
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by Monkbot (talk | contribs) at 18:46, 11 January 2021 (Task 18 (cosmetic): eval 1 template: hyphenate params (1×); cvt lang vals (1×);). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1789 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1789 to Wales and its people.


1789 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1789.


1789 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1789 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1789 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1789 in science
The year 1789 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1789 in sports
1789 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1789 in the United States
Events from the year 1789 in the United States. The Articles of Confederation, the agreement under which the nation's government had been operating since 1781, was superseded by the Constitution in March of this year.


1789: Les Amants de la Bastille
1789: Les Amants de la Bastille is a French stage musical with music by Dove Attia, Laurent Delort, Louis Delort, Rod Janois, Jean-Pierre Pilot, Benoit Poher, William Rousseau and Olivier Schultheis as well as lyrics by Attia and Vincent Baguian and a book by Attia and François Chouquet. It had its debut on 10 October 2012 at Palais des Sports de Paris. An accompanying double CD album was also successful in the French SNEP charts.


1789: Les Amants de la Bastille, Synopsis
In the spring of 1789, France is devastated by famine. The French people begin to rise in unrest against the ruling French king Louis XVI. Ronan, a young peasant, leads a revolt marching to Paris after his father's death (killed by Count Lazare de Peyrolles), where he encounters Olympe, an assistant governess of the children of Marie Antoinette of Austria. The two fall in love during the tumultuous stirrings of the French Revolution, their romance playing out amid encounters with major Revolutionary figures such as Georges Jacques Danton, Maximilien de Robespierre and Camille Desmoulins. After they are separated, Ronan and Olympe find each other again on 14 July 1789 in the course of the assault on the Bastille prison— an encounter that seals their destiny even as a new era begins.


1789: Les Amants de la Bastille, Performances
As a pre-launch, the musical was performed on 29 September 2012.


1789: Les Amants de la Bastille, Performances
The main role of Ronan had been entrusted initially to Matthieu Carnot. When Carnot suffered from vocal cord problems and had to undergo an operation, his role was given to  Louis Delort, a finalist in France's The Voice: la plus belle voix competition. Carnot ended up with a lesser role as Lazare, Count of Peyrol.


1789: Les Amants de la Bastille, Performances
Sébastien Agius, the winner of the inaugural season of X Factor in France in 2009, plays the role of Maximilien de Robespierre.


1789: Les Amants de la Bastille, Discography, Singles
"Ça ira mon amour," performed by Rod Janois, became the debut single from the show. A music video was released in October 2011. A collector's edition was made available on 2 January 2012. The follow-up single, "Pour la peine," was sung by the musical's ensemble and was released on 27 February 2012, and its music video was released on 2 March 2012. The music video for a third song, "Je veux le monde", performed by Nathalia, was made available in May 2012, followed by a fourth release, "Tomber dans ses yeux," performed by Louis Delort and Camille Lou.


1789: Les Amants de la Bastille, DVD
A 2-DVD set of the December 18, 2012 performance was released on November 6, 2013 in France.


1789–1822 List of United States House of Representatives elections
This provides a summary of the results of elections to the United States House of Representatives from the first election held variably in 1788 or 1789 (different states held elections at different times) to 1822. This time period corresponds to the First Party System of the United States. For more detailed results of each election, see the main page for that election. Information about the popular vote in early elections is not available as records of the popular vote were not kept. Parties with a majority in the House of Representatives are shown in bold.


178P/Hug–Bell
178P/Hug–Bell is a periodic comet in the Solar System. It was discovered by Northeast Kansas Amateur Astronomers' League members Gary Hug and Graham Bell and is thought to be the first periodic comet to be discovered by amateurs. It was declared a comet less than two days after its initial discovery, after having its course confirmed on previous images.


178P/Hug–Bell
Hug-Bell's orbital period is about seven years; its orbit is eccentric, though less so than many comets. Hug-Bell's orbit lies entirely outside the orbit of Mars, but at its aphelion overlaps in solar distance with the orbit of Jupiter. Because it never comes closer to the Sun than about 2 AU, it is never expected to be a very bright comet, with a typical perihelion magnitude of 18-19.


178th (2/1st Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire) Brigade
The 178th (2/1st Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire) Brigade was an infantry brigade of the British Army. The brigade saw active service during the First and the Second World Wars.


178th (2/1st Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire) Brigade, First World War
The brigade was raised during the First World War. It was formed as a Territorial Force duplicate of the 139th (1/1st Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire) Brigade originally from those men in the Territorial Force who had agreed, at the outbreak of war, to not serve overseas. Assigned to the 59th (2nd North Midland) Division, the brigade saw service on the Western Front. The brigade saw service at Passchendaele, Cambrai and during Operation Michael, part of the German spring offensive.


178th (2/1st Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire) Brigade, Second World War
The brigade number was reactivated again in the later stages of the Second World War as the 178th Infantry Brigade. The brigade was formed on 21 April 1945 in the United Kingdom, shortly before Victory in Europe Day and the end of the war in Europe, for the reception and retraining of personnel who were returning from fighting overseas, who were temporarily unfit from wounds suffered or other medical causes. The brigade was assigned to 45th Division, and disbanded on 11 August 1945.


178th Assault Field Regiment, Royal Artillery
178th Assault Field Regiment, Royal Artillery, was a British Army unit during World War II. Formed as a conventional field artillery regiment in 1942, it was sent to Burma where it was given a range of specialist roles, ranging from operating tracked self-propelled guns to manning light howitzers parachuted into jungle clearings. After the Japanese surrender, it saw action in the Allied Occupation of Java before disbanding in late 1946.


178th Assault Field Regiment, Royal Artillery, Organisation
178th Field Regiment was formed in the Royal Artillery (RA) on 29 January 1942 in the West Country with the following organisation:


178th Assault Field Regiment, Royal Artillery, Organisation
On 15 May 1942 the new regiment was assigned to 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division, which was being re-assembled in Western Command after  a period of service in Iceland. However, on 28 December the regiment left the division and (together with its Signal Section of the Royal Corps of Signals and Light Aid Detachment of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers) came under direct control of the War Office preparatory to embarking for service overseas in March 1943.