1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Indiana (Special)
First term Democrat James Whitcomb died December 4, 1852 and Democrat Charles W. Cathcart was appointed December 6, 1852, pending a special election to finish the term that would end in 1855.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Iowa
First-term Democrat George Wallace Jones was re-elected to a second term.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Iowa
He received the Democratic nomination on December 20, 1852 by the narrowest of margins: 30 to 29 votes. The general election was held the next day, December 21, in which Jones easily won.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Kentucky
One-term Whig Joseph R. Underwood retired from the class 2 seat and the Know Nothing Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky John Burton Thompson had already been elected early, December 15, 1851, far in advance of the 1853 term.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Louisiana, Louisiana (Regular)
Democrat Solomon W. Downs lost re-election to Whig businessman Judah P. Benjamin in January 1852. Some Whig newspapers thought Benjamin too young and inexperienced at forty, despite his undoubted talent, but the Whig legislative caucus selected him on the second ballot, and he was elected by the legislature.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Louisiana, Louisiana (Special)
First-term Democrat Pierre Soulé was appointed U.S. Minister to Spain and resigned April 11, 1853.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Louisiana, Louisiana (Special)
Former-Democratic congressman and diplomat John Slidell was elected April 28, 1853.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Louisiana, Louisiana (Special)
Slidell would be re-elected in 1858 and serve until he withdrew in 1861.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Maine
First-term Democrat James W. Bradbury retired and the Maine legislature failed to elect his replacement until long after the new Congress began. It wasn't until 1854 that a new senator would be elected.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Massachusetts
Long-time senator Whig John Davis retired. Whig U.S. Secretary of State and former Governor of Massachusetts Edward Everett was elected in 1853.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Massachusetts
Everett was resign just one year into his term due to his distaste dealing with the politics of slavery and abolition.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Michigan
First-term Democrat Alpheus Felch retired. Fellow Democratic congressman  Charles E. Stuart was elected January 11, 1853, over Whig Mayor of Detroit Zachariah Chandler.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Michigan
Stuart only served one term, retiring in 1859. Chandler, meanwhile, would be elected to the other seat and serve for three terms.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Mississippi, Mississippi (Special, Class 1)
Incumbent Democrat Jefferson Davis resigned in 1851 to run for Governor of Mississippi. Democrat John J. McRae was appointed December 1, 1851 to continue Davis's term, pending a special election. Democrat Stephen Adams won the March 17, 1852 special election to finish the term that would continue until 1857.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Mississippi, Mississippi (Special, Class 2)
Incumbent Democrat Henry S. Foote resigned January 8, 1852 to become Governor of Mississippi. Whig Walker Brooke was elected February 18, 1852 to finish the term that would end the following year.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Mississippi, Mississippi (Regular)
The Mississippi legislature failed to elect a replacement for Brooke, and the seat remained vacant until early 1854.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, New Hampshire
Free Soil senator John P. Hale ran for U.S. President, coming in third place in the popular vote, but failing to win any states. He lost to the Democratic fellow-New Hampshire senator Franklin Pierce. He then lost re-election to his senate seat when Democrats took over the New Hampshire legislature in 1852 state elections.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, New Hampshire
Democratic former-senator Charles G. Atherton was returned to the Senate in Hale's place on November 25, 1852.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, New Hampshire
Atherton died from pulmonary tuberculosis in the first year of his term.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, New Hampshire
After Republicans retook the New Hampshire legislature in 1854, Hale was re-elected to finish the term.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, New Jersey, New Jersey (Regular)
Two-term Whig Jacob W. Miller lost re-election to Democratic former-Congressman William Wright.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, New Jersey, New Jersey (Regular)
Wright would lose re-election in 1859 but be returned to the Senate in 1863.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, New Jersey, New Jersey (Special)
First-term Democrat Robert F. Stockton resigned from the Class 1 seat January 10, 1853 to become President of the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, New Jersey, New Jersey (Special)
Democrat John Renshaw Thomson was elected February 11, 1853 over Whig former-senator William L. Dayton to finish the term.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, New Jersey, New Jersey (Special)
Thomson would be re-elected in 1857 to a full term and serve until his death in 1862.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, North Carolina
Long-time Whig Willie Mangum was a candidate for re-election. Although Democratic former-congressman James C. Dobbin was a top choice of the North Carolina Legislature, no candidate received a majority of votes in either house, so the seat was left unfilled.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, North Carolina
The seat would remain vacant until a 1854 special election.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, North Carolina
Dobbin would then be appointed U.S. Secretary of the Navy and Magnum retired from public service.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Rhode Island
The Rhode Island General Assembly failed to elect, so first-term Whig John Hopkins Clarke thereby lost re-election.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Rhode Island
After the term began, Democrat Philip Allen was elected July 20, 1853, to fill the seat. Allen would serve only one term, retiring in 1859.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, South Carolina
Democrat Robert Rhett resigned May 7, 1852 and Democratic judge of the chancery court William F. De Saussure was appointed May 10, 1852 to continue the term, pending a special election. The term would end in March 1853, so there was an election to finish the term and an election to the next term.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, South Carolina, South Carolina (Special)
De Saussure was elected November 29, 1852, just to finish the term.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, South Carolina, South Carolina (Regular)
Democrat Josiah J. Evans was elected December 1, 1852 on the fourth ballot to the next term.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Tennessee
First-term Whig John Bell was re-elected October 29, 1853 on the 49th ballot.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Tennessee
Bell would fall out of favor with the Tennessee legislature over the sectionalism that was rife in the late 1850s and lost their vote for re-election.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Texas
Two-term Democrat Sam Houston — a Texas founder who had served as senator since statehood — was re-elected January 15, 1853.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Texas
Houston would retire at the end of this term in 1859, and be replaced by John Hemphill.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Virginia
First-term Democrat Robert M. T. Hunter was re-elected January 22, 1852.


1852 and 1853 United States Senate elections, Virginia
Hunter would be re-elected again in 1858 and serve until his 1861 expulsion.


1852 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1852 in Australia.


1852 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1852 in Chile.


1852 in New Zealand
The following lists events that happened during 1852 in New Zealand.


1852 in New Zealand, Population
The estimated population of New Zealand at the end of 1852 is 63,100 Māori and 27,633 non-Māori.


1852 in New Zealand, Incumbents, Government and law
With the passing by the Parliament of the United Kingdom of New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 the way is set for New Zealand’s first general election. It will be held on 1 October 1853. (see also 1846).


1852 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1852 in South Africa.


1852 in Switzerland
The following is a list of events, births, and deaths in 1852 in Switzerland.


1852 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1852 to Wales and its people.


1852 in architecture
The year 1852 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.


1852 in birding and ornithology
This article about ornithology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1852 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1852.


1852 in paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1852.


1852 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1852 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1852 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1852 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1852.


1852 in science
The year 1852 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1852 in sports
1852 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1853
1853 (MDCCCLIII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1853rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 853rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 53rd  year of the 19th century, and the  4th   year of the 1850s decade. As of the start of 1853, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1853 Alabama gubernatorial election
The 1853 Alabama gubernatorial election took place on August 1, 1853, in order to elect the Governor of Alabama. Democrat John A. Winston won his first term. Henry W. Collier did not run because he was term-limited.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season
The 1853 Atlantic hurricane season featured eight known tropical cyclones, none of which made landfall. Operationally, a ninth tropical storm was believed to have existed over the Dominican Republic on November 26, but HURDAT – the official Atlantic hurricane database – now excludes this system. The first system, Tropical Storm One, was initially observed on August 5. The final storm, Hurricane Eight, was last observed on October 22. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. At two points during the season, pairs of tropical cyclones existed simultaneously. Four of the cyclones only have a single known point in their tracks due to a sparsity of data, so storm summaries for those systems are unavailable.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season
Of the season's eight tropical cyclones, four reached hurricane status. Furthermore, two of those four strengthened into major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The strongest cyclone of the season, the third hurricane, peaked at Category 4 strength with 150 mph (240 km/h) winds. With a minimum barometric pressure of 924 mbar (27.3 inHg), it was the most intense tropical cyclone recorded in the Atlantic basin until the 1924 Cuba hurricane. The hurricane caused 40 fatalities after a brig went missing off the coast of North Carolina. Despite remaining offshore, Tropical Storm Five brought very strong winds to the Mexican city of Veracruz. Hurricane Eight brought strong winds and rough seas to North Florida and Georgia, causing significant damage in the latter.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Tropical Storm One
The barque W.B. Bowen encountered a gale with winds of 60 mph (95 km/h) near 33.5°N, 69.2°W on August 5, which is located about 255 miles (410 km) east of Bermuda. This system would later be listed in HURDAT records as Tropical Storm One. However, due to heavy prevailing weather, further data on this storm is unavailable.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Tropical Storm Two
A publication by meteorologist Ivan R. Tannehill indicates that Tropical Storm Two was centered near Barbados on August 10. However, due its weak nature – maximum sustained winds were only 45 mph (75 km/h) – only a single data point is known of the storm's path.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Three
Meteorologist William C. Redfield first observed the season's third tropical storm south of Cape Verde on August 30, which was the first Cape Verde-type hurricane ever recorded. Initially, the storm moved west-northwestward and gradually strengthened, becoming a hurricane on September 1. Over the next two days, the hurricane intensified significantly and reached Category 2 strength early on September 2.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Three
The system strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane by September 3, attaining its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph (240 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 924 mbar (27.3 inHg) was recorded by the barque Hermann soon thereafter. It was the most intense storm in the Atlantic until the 1924 Cuba hurricane, a Category 5 hurricane with a minimum pressure of 910 mbar (27 inHg). The Great Havana Hurricane of 1846 may have been stronger, though it is discounted because HURDAT records did not begin until the 1851 season.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Three
By September 5, the hurricane curved toward the northwest and began to weaken. Early on September 7, it turned northward and fell to Category 3 intensity, situated about 340 miles (550 km) east of Charleston, South Carolina. The hurricane passed offshore North Carolina later that day, and its outer rainbands produced heavy rainfall along the state's southern coastlines. The brig Albermarle was lost at sea on September 7 with 40 of its crewmen missing; they were later presumed to have drowned. The hurricane recurved east-northeastward and continued to deteriorate steadily, weakening to Category 1 status by September 9. The storm was last observed late on September 10, centered about 525 miles (845 km) north-northwest of Flores Island in the Azores.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Four
The ship Gilbert Gallatin encountered the fourth hurricane of the season on September 8, which was centered about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) east of the third hurricane. Sustained winds were initially observed to have reached 115 mph (185 km/h), indicative of a Category 3 hurricane. Several other ships reportedly encountered this storm as it tracked northeastward. With winds decreasing to 105 mph (165 km/h), it weakened to a Category 2 hurricane on September 10. The storm was last noted by the ship Josephine later that day, while located about 615 miles (990 km) north-northeast of Graciosa in the Azores.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Tropical Storm Five
Tropical Storm Five was reported to have existed on September 21 at 20°N, 95°W, which is located in the Bay of Campeche. The Elize and Crichton encountered a heavy "norther" upon arriving at Veracruz, Veracruz on that day. Although it was centered offshore, very strong winds were reported in Veracruz, possibly induced by the funneling effect from the Sierra Madre Oriental. Further information of this tropical storm is sparse.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Six
The sixth hurricane of the season was first observed as a tropical storm to the southeast of Bermuda on September 26. Initially, the storm headed north-northwestward, before curving north-northeastward on September 27, while bypassing Bermuda. Later that day, the storm strengthened into a hurricane. The brig Samuel and Edward encountered the hurricane on September 2, reporting winds of 80 mph (130 km/h); this was the maximum sustained wind speed associated with the storm. Thereafter, the storm executed a cyclonic loop, which lasted until September 30. It curved northeastward on October 1 and was last noted at 0600 UTC, while located about 590 miles (950 km) northeast of Bermuda.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Tropical Storm Seven
Two separate reports by meteorologists Ivan R. Tannehill and Edward B. Garriott indicate that the seventh tropical storm of the season existed at 15°N, 37°W on September 28, which is located west of Cape Verde. Observations noted that maximum sustained winds reached 60 mph (95 km/h). With only a single data point, no further information is available on this storm.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Eight
The barque Edward reported a hurricane about 50 miles (80 km) north of Grand Bahama on October 19. Several other ships encountered the storm between October 19 and October 20. It moved slowly north-northwestward and gradually strengthened. On October 20, the storm reached maximum sustained winds of 105 mph (165 km/h), making it a Category 2 hurricane. Additionally, ships reported a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar (29.4 inHg). After weakening back to a Category 1 hurricane on October 21, the storm veered east-northeastward, avoiding a landfall in the Southeastern United States. It was last noted on October 22, while centered about 80 miles (130 km) east-southeast of Charleston, South Carolina.


1853 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Eight
Strong winds, combined with tides in Jacksonville, Florida, pushed water over wharfs and onto Bay Street. William Gaston Captain Thomas E. Shaw reported that the gale at Brunswick, Georgia caused significant damage to the town. An engine-house belonging to the Brunswick Railroad Company was flattened, as was a large cotton shed, a blacksmith shop, and a new frame house, and a number of other buildings were damaged. The new railroad wharf was washed away and its remains were floating in the harbor. Offshore, there were numerous shipwrecks, including the schooners W. Mercer, G. W. Pickering, Mary Ann, and the Steamer Planter. Additionally, the schooner James House reported "a perfect hurricane".


1853 California gubernatorial election
The 1853 California gubernatorial election was held on September 7, 1853, to elect the governor of California. Incumbent governor John Bigler successfully ran for reelection, winning over Whig nominee William Waldo in a close race.


1853 Chicago mayoral election
In the 1853 Chicago mayoral election, Charles McNeill Gray defeated Josiah L. James in a landslide, winning by a 54 point margin.


1853 Chicago mayoral election
Incumbent mayor Walter S. Gurnee did not run for reelection.


1853 Chicago mayoral election
Josiah L. James was a businessman in the lumber industry.


1853 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1853 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 6, 1853. Incumbent governor and Democratic Party nominee Thomas H. Seymour defeated former state legislator and Whig nominee Henry Dutton and former state legislator and Free Soil nominee Francis Gillette with 51.01% of the vote.


1853 Connecticut gubernatorial election
Seymour would resign on October 13, 1853, to become Minister to Russia, and Lieutenant Governor Charles H. Pond served as acting governor until the following May.


1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak
The 1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak was a severe outbreak of cholera which occurred in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1853 as part of the third cholera pandemic. It killed about 4,800 people.


1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak, Background
Medical professionals had since the 1840s warned against the dismal sanitary conditions in the city as a combination of a lack of proper sanitary installations and services and increasing overpopulation due to the ban of urban development outside the City Walls.


1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak, Outbreak
The outbreak struck on 11 June 1853 and lasted until October when it faded out. A total of 7,219 infections were reported of whom 4,737 (56,7%) died. From Copenhagen the outbreak spread to the provinces where 24 towns were hit and 1,951 people died.


1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak, Aftermath
The cholera outbreak was a key factor in the decision to decommission Copenhagen's fortifications, although the step was long overdue and had been underway for decades. The cholera outbreak also contributed to the city's decision to build a new cattle market, the so-called Brown Meat District, and a safer municipal water supply.


1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak, Aftermath
It also resulted in several housing developments built by philanthropic organisations to provide healthy homes outside the city centre for people of few means. The Medical Society completed the first stage of the housing development now known as Brumleby in Østerbro in 1857. They are considered Denmark's first example of social housing. The Classenske Fideicommis acquired a three-hectare site in Frederiksberg in 1856 and constructed the Classen Terraces (De Classenske Boliger) between 1866 and 1881.


1853 Costa Rican general election
The Costa Rican general election of 1853 was held on April 4, 1853. President Juan Rafael Mora Porras was re-elected as the sole candidate, who had been elected in 1849 to end the period of José María Castro Madriz.


1853 Costa Rican general election
According to the historian Ivan Molina from this date and for the next four decades the elections would play a secondary role in the selection of the president limited to a symbolic legitimating function. The presidents were chosen through a series of political alliances between the coffee bourgeoisie and the Army until the beginning of the Liberal State of Costa Rica. On the second-degree election Mora received 83 electoral votes and 8 were null.


1853 Dutch general election
General elections were held in the Netherlands on 17 May 1853. They followed the dissolution of the House of Representatives as a result of a government crisis caused by the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy.


1853 Dutch general election
The result of the elections was a defeat for Prime Minister Johan Rudolph Thorbecke and his liberals. Only the province of Groningen and Twente remained a liberal stronghold. The conservative Van Hall-Donker Curtius cabinet thus received ample support in the House of Representatives and Floris Adriaan van Hall became Prime Minister. However, the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy that had caused the government crisis was not reversed, although the Roman Catholic Church was restricted in its freedom of movement by the introduction of the Law on Church Societies.


1853 Dutch general election, Background
During the Constitutional Reform of 1848, the Catholic Church was allowed to determine ecclesiastical divisions within the Netherlands in the context of the separation of church and state. In 1853 this law was applied, and Pope Pius IX divided the Netherlands into five dioceses, including an archdiocese in Utrecht. Among the Dutch Protestants, there was much dislike of this action, which culminated in the April movement.


1853 Dutch general election, Background
The submission of the complaints by the April movement to King William III led to a crisis between the king and the Thorbecke I cabinet, which felt that the king had answered the April movement too positively and had not been sufficiently neutral. As a result, the cabinet resigned and the House of Representatives was dissolved.


1853 Dutch general election, Background
According to the then electoral law, this was an exceptional situation: normally half the House was elected every two years, and not the House as a whole.


1853 Grand National
The 1853 Grand National was the 15th renewal of the world-famous Grand National horse race that took place at Aintree near Liverpool, England, on 2 March 1853.


1853 Greek legislative election
Parliamentary elections were held in Greece on 23 September 1853. Supporters of Antonios Kriezis won a majority of the 138 seats. Kriezis remained Prime Minister.


1853 Liberian general election
Presidential elections were held in Liberia in 1853. The result was a victory for incumbent President Joseph Jenkins Roberts.


1853 Liverpool Town Council election
Elections to Liverpool Town Council were held on Thursday 1 November 1853. One third of the council seats were up for election, the term of office of each councillor being three years.


1853 Liverpool Town Council election, Aldermanic Elections
On 9 November 1853, the term of office of eight aldermen who were elected on 9 November 1847 expired.


1853 Liverpool Town Council election, Aldermanic Elections
The following were elected as Aldermen by the council on 9 November 1853 for a term of office of six years.


1853 Liverpool Town Council election, By Elections, No. 11, Abercromby, November 1853
Caused by Councillor Richard Cardwell Gardner (Conservative, elected 1 November 1853) being elected as an alderman on 9 November 1853.


1853 Liverpool Town Council election, By Elections, No. 8, Pitt Street, November 1853
Caused by Councillor Thomas Toulmin (Conservative, elected 1 November 1852) being elected as an alderman on 9 November 1853.


1853 Liverpool Town Council election, By Elections, No. 15, South Toxteth, November 1853
Caused by Councillor Samuel Holme (Conservative, elected 1 November 1853) being elected as an alderman on 9 November 1853.


1853 Liverpool by-election
The 1853 Liverpool by-election was held due to the previous election of two Conservative MPs being declared void. It resulted in the election of the Conservative MPs Charles Turner and Thomas Horsfall.


1853 Maryland independence referendum
An independence referendum was held in the Maryland Colony on 31 January 1853. Only 122 people voted in the referendum, all in favor of independence.


1853 Maryland independence referendum, Background
The Maryland State Colonization Society was established in Maryland in the United States in 1830. The group established the Maryland Colony in Africa on 22 February 1834. After Liberia declared independence in 1847, the desire for independence also grew in Maryland, and the settlers presented a petition to the authorities for a referendum.


1853 Maryland independence referendum, Aftermath
Following the referendum, elections were held for a Constitutional Council in February 1854, a new constitution was approved in a referendum in March 1854, and Maryland declared independence as the Republic of Maryland on 8 June 1854.


1853 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
The 1853 Massachusetts gubernatorial election was held on November 14.


1853 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
Whig Governor John H. Clifford declined to run for a second term in office. Emory Washburn won the race to succeed him. Because no candidate received a majority of the vote, the legislature selected Washburn as the winner.


1853 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
Washburn was the last governor selected by the legislature; the popular majority requirement was eliminated in 1855. This was also the last election in which the Free Soil Party was a major factor; it was effectively supplanted by the Republican Party in 1854.


1853 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, Legislative vote
The Massachusetts House of Representatives certified the popular returns on January 9. Emory Washburn was the first candidate nominated for Governor with 187 votes. On a second ballot, Bradford Wales was nominated with 156 votes. In the Senate, Washburn defeated Wales with 29 out of 30 votes.


1853 Massachusetts legislature
The 74th Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1853 during the governorship of John H. Clifford. Charles Henry Warren served as president of the Senate and George Bliss served as speaker of the House.


1853 McElroy
1853 McElroy, provisional designation 1957 XE, is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 21 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 15 December 1957, by the Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn, Indiana, United States, and named for American biochemist William D. McElroy.


1853 McElroy, Orbit and classification
McElroy orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.9–3.2 AU once every 5 years and 4 months (1,958 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.05 and an inclination of 16° with respect to the ecliptic.


1853 McElroy, Orbit and classification
It was first identified as 1930 YP at Lowell Observatory in 1930. However the observation remained unused and the body's observation arc begins with its official discovery in 1957.


1853 McElroy, Physical characteristics
McElroy is characterized as a generic X-type and carbonaceous C-type asteroid by the Lightcurve Data Base and by PanSTARRS' photometric survey, respectively.


1853 McElroy, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
Between 2004 and 2011, three rotational lightcurves of McElroy were obtained at Brian Warner's Palmer Divide Observatory and at the Palomar Transient Factory, respectively. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period between 8.016 and 8.026 hours with a brightness variation of 0.18–0.30 magnitude (U=3-/2/2).


1853 McElroy, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, McElroy measures between 17.47 and 24.07 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.197 to 0.304.


1853 McElroy, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.194 and a diameter of 20.89 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 10.8.


1853 McElroy, Naming
This minor planet was named in honor of American biochemist William David McElroy (1917–1999), chairman of the biology department at Johns Hopkins University during the 1950s and 1960s, later director of the National Science Foundation (NSF) in the early 1970s and chancellor of the University of California at San Diego from until 1980.


1853 McElroy, Naming
During his tenure as director of NSF the U.S. government decided to fund the Very Large Array, now officially known as the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 August 1980 (M.P.C. 5450).


1853 Naval Air Squadron
1853 Naval Air Squadron (1853 NAS) was a Naval Air Squadron of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm.


1853 Naval Air Squadron, References, Bibliography
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1853 Naval Air Squadron, References, Bibliography
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1853 New Jersey gubernatorial election
The 1853 New Jersey gubernatorial election was held on November 1, 1853. Democratic nominee Rodman M. Price defeated Whig nominee Joel Haywood with 52.60% of the vote.


1853 New York state election
The 1853 New York state election was held on November 8, 1853, to elect the Secretary of State, the State Comptroller, the Attorney General, the State Treasurer, the State Engineer, two Judges of the New York Court of Appeals, a Canal Commissioner, an Inspector of State Prisons and the Clerk of the Court of Appeals, as well as all members of the New York State Assembly and the New York State Senate.


1853 New York state election, Background
After the split of the Democratic Party in 1848 over the slavery question, a large part of the Barnburner faction, who had joined the Free Soil Party, returned to the Democratic Party and re-united with the Hunkers. During the following years, the Hunkers split over the question of reconciliation with the Barnburners. The Hards were against it, denying the Barnburners to gain influence in the Party. The Softs favored reconciliation with the intention of maintaining enough strength to win the elections.


1853 New York state election, Background
Both Hards and Softs favored a compromise on the slavery question: to maintain the status quo and to leave the decision to the local population in new Territories or States if they want slavery or not, as expressed in the Kansas–Nebraska Act. The Barnburners were against the permission of slavery in new Territories or States, but were now the minority in the party.


1853 New York state election, Nominations
The Free Democratic, or Independent Democratic, Party was the radical anti-slavery faction of the disbanding Free Soil Party, which advocated the immediate abolition of slavery. Their State convention was held on August 31 in Syracuse.


1853 New York state election, Nominations
The Democratic state convention met in September in Syracuse. Two chairmen, one Hard and one Soft, were elected who sat one beside the other and commenced proceedings ignoring each other. After some ensuing confusion, the Hards moved out, convened elsewhere, and nominated a state ticket. The Softs and Barnburners nominated their own ticket. Only the nominees for the two judgeships of the Court of Appeals were nominated jointly by Hards and Softs.


1853 New York state election, Nominations
The Whig state convention met on October 5 in Syracuse. Benjamin F. Bruce was Temporary Chairman until the choice of Ex-Governor Washington Hunt to preside over the convention. James M. Cook was nominated for Comptroller on the first ballot (vote: Cook 88, Spaulding 29, Josiah B. Williams 8). Elias W. Leavenworth was nominated for Secretary of State on the first ballot (vote: Leavenworth 82, Samuel J. Wilkin 41, Spaulding 3). Elbridge G. Spaulding was nominated for Treasurer on the first ballot (vote: Spaulding 82, Jeremiah Ellsworth 19, Epenetus Crosby 11, Myron H. Clark 10).


1853 New York state election, Nominations
Ogden Hoffman was nominated for Attorney General on the third ballot (first ballot: Daniel Ullmann 49, Hoffman 45, Roscoe Conkling 27, J. M. Van Cott 4, Thompson 3; second ballot: Hoffman 56, Ullmann 54, Conkling 16, blank 1; third ballot: Hoffman 74, Ullmann 48, Conkling 5, blank 1). Cornelius Gardinier was nominated for Canal Commissioner on the second ballot (first ballot: Gardinier 30, David S. Wright 28, Ebenezer Blakely 19, Samuel P. Russell 16, Thomas Clowes 13, Ogden N. Chapin 13; second ballot: Gardinier 75, Blakely 19, Wright 18, Russell 5, Clowes 3, Chapin 1, Peabody 1, blank 1).


1853 New York state election, Nominations
Thomas Kirkpatrick was nominated for Inspector of State Prisons on the third ballot (first ballot: Kirkpatrick 22, Henry Underwood 21, Josiah T. Everest 14, Norwood Bowne 13, Alexander H. Wells 9, A. F. Crocker 9, Henry Bradley 9, Abner Baker 7, Benjamin Squire 7, William Lyons 6, Epenetus Crosby 5, Joseph Garling House 5; second ballot: Kirkpatrick 55, Underwood 45, Bowne 17, Everest 11; third ballot: Kirkpatrick 70, Underwood 60). John T. Clark was nominated for State Engineer by acclamation.


1853 New York state election, Nominations
Benjamin F. Harwood was nominated for Clerk of the Court of Appeals on the first ballot (vote: Harwood 62, E. P. Cole 22, A. T. McCarty 10, J. T. Lamport 8, P. Smith 5, Robinson 2). George Wood was nominated for a full term as Judge of the Court of Appeals on the second vote (88 ayes, 20 noes) after William Rockwell had been rejected in the first vote. Joseph Mullin was nominated for the short term by acclamation.


1853 New York state election, Results
Due to the split of the Democratic Party, almost the whole Whig ticket was elected. Only the jointly nominated Democratic judges of the Court of Appeals, Ruggles and Denio, were elected. The incumbent Ruggles was re-elected, the incumbent Mather was defeated.


1853 New York state election, Results
23 Whigs, 7 Hards and 2 Softs were elected to a two-year term (1854–55) in the New York State Senate.


1853 New York state election, Results
78 Whigs, 24 Hards, 24 Softs and 2 Free Democrats were elected for the session of 1854 to the New York State Assembly.


1853 New Zealand general election
The 1853 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of the New Zealand Parliament's 1st term. It was the first national election ever held in New Zealand, although Parliament did not yet have full authority to govern the colony, which was part of the British Empire at that time. Elections for the first provincial councils and their Superintendents were held at the same time.


1853 New Zealand general election, Background
The New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, established a bicameral New Zealand Parliament, with the lower house (the House of Representatives) being elected by popular vote. Votes were to be cast under a simple FPP system, and the secret ballot had not yet been introduced.


1853 New Zealand general election, Background
To qualify as a voter, one needed to be male, to be a British subject, to be at least 21 years old, to own a certain value of land, and to not be serving a criminal sentence. One of the candidates elected (on 27 August, for Christchurch Country) was a landowner, but at 20 years and 7 months was not yet 21: he was James Stuart-Wortley.


1853 New Zealand general election, Background
At the time of the 1853 elections, there were no political parties in New Zealand. As such, all candidates were independents.


1853 New Zealand general election, The election
In the 1853 elections, election day was different in each seat. The first seat to be elected was Bay of Islands on 14 July, and the final election day was on 1 October. Hugh Carleton (Bay of Islands) was the first MP ever elected in New Zealand (though he was elected unopposed), so he liked to be called the Father of the House.


1853 New Zealand general election, The election
There were 5,849 people registered to vote. The number of electoral districts was 24, and some districts elected multiple MPs. The total number of seats was 37. Some parts of the colony were not part of any district, and did not have representation in Parliament.


1853 New Zealand provincial elections
The 1853 New Zealand provincial elections were the first elections in New Zealand to elect members and superintendents to the newly created Provinces of New Zealand. The elections were held between July and September 1853, at the same time as the 1853 New Zealand general elections for the central government, which were held between July and October. The provincial elections had higher voter turnouts than the general elections, with the elections for provincial superintendents (where they were contested) having the highest voter turnout.


1853 New Zealand provincial elections, Results, Provincial councils, Auckland
The Auckland Provincial Council was originally made up by 24 members from six electorates: City of Auckland (6), Suburbs of Auckland (4), Pensioner Settlements (4), Northern Division (4), Southern Division (4), and Bay of Islands (2).


1853 New Zealand provincial elections, Results, Provincial councils, New Plymouth
The New Plymouth Provincial Council (with the province later known as Taranaki Province) was originally made up by nine members from three electorates:Town of New Plymouth (2), Grey and Bell (4), and Omata (3).


1853 New Zealand provincial elections, Results, Provincial councils, Wellington
The Wellington Provincial Council was originally made up by eighteen members from five electorates: City of Wellington (7), Wellington Country (3), Hutt (4), Wairarapa and Hawke's Bay (2), and Wanganui and Rangitikei (2).


1853 New Zealand provincial elections, Results, Provincial councils, Nelson
The Nelson Provincial Council was originally made up by fifteen members from seven electorates: Town of Nelson (5), Waimea East (2), Waimea South (2), Wairau (2), Motueka and Massacre Bay (2), Waimea West (1), and Suburban Districts (1).


1853 New Zealand provincial elections, Results, Provincial councils, Canterbury
The Canterbury Provincial Council was originally made up by twelve members from four electorates: Town of Christchurch (3), Christchurch Country District (4), Town of Lyttelton (3), and Akaroa (2). In Akaroa, there was a draw for second place between Rev. William Aylmer and William Sefton Moorhouse. The returning officer gave his vote to Aylmer; Moorhouse had a week earlier been elected to the House of Representatives beating Rhodes.


1853 New Zealand provincial elections, Results, Provincial councils, Otago
The Otago Provincial Council was originally made up by nine members from two electorates: Town of Dunedin (3) and Dunedin Country District (6).


1853 Norwegian parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in Norway in 1853. As political parties were not officially established until 1884, all those elected were independents. The number of seats in the Storting was increased from 106 to 107. Voter turnout was 45.4%, although only 5.1% of the country's population was eligible to vote.


1853 Philadelphia mayoral election
The Philadelphia mayoral election of 1853 saw the reelection of Charles Gilpin to a fourth consecutive term.


1853 Philadelphia mayoral election
This would ultimately be the last mayoral election before Philadelphia's county-city consolidation. It would also be the last held for a single-year term as Philadelphia mayor.


1853 Philadelphia mayoral election, Electoral system
Beginning in 1839, the city operated under a mixed electoral system. Citizens voted for mayor in a general election. If a candidate receive a majority of the vote, they would be elected mayor. However, if no candidate received a majority, the City Council would select a mayor from the top-two finishers.


1853 Providence and Worcester head-on collision
On August 12, 1853, a head-on collision occurred on a single track between Providence, Rhode Island and Worcester, Massachusetts. The collision resulted in 14 deaths and is considered to be the first photographed major train accident.


1853 Providence and Worcester head-on collision, Background
The Providence and Worcester Railroad line was on a single track. Engineers would base their travels off of time tables that were provided, as well as keep track of time on their own watches. By using this method, strict time schedules ensured the line was clear for individual trains to pass by. One train would wait in the siding for the allotted time to pass, after which, it was assumed that the tracks were clear.


1853 Providence and Worcester head-on collision, Incident
The train bound for Providence had reached its double-track siding and waited the necessary five minute span. After which, the engineer proceeded to go back onto the single track. The Worcester-bound train had not reached the siding yet. At a blind curve, the two trains collided, resulting in a boiler explosion and telescoping of the first cars on the Providence-bound excursion.


1853 Providence and Worcester head-on collision, Aftermath
Fourteen people were killed and seventeen severely injured in the collision. It was revealed the Worcester-bound engineer was behind schedule and had attempted to make up time by traveling at full speed. The accident was immediately photographed and would later be published in Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper on August 27, 1853.


1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak
The 1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak was a severe outbreak of cholera which occurred in Stockholm, Sweden in 1853 as part of the third cholera pandemic. It killed about 3,000 people.


1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak
It was the second cholera epidemic in Stockholm, and the first one since the 1834 Stockholm cholera outbreak, which had been the first in the city. The epidemics of 1834 and 1853 were also the biggest cholera outbreaks in Stockholm, as both of them resulted in about 3.000 deaths.


1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak, History
At the time, it was not known what caused cholera. However, there were theories that the epidemics were affected by poor hygiene. In this period, the latrine and waste systems in Stockholm were handled by private entrepreneurs and were in very bad condition, and the drinking water was not filtered. In 1859, Stockholm inaugurated its own central system for tending to the latrine and waste of the city, which radically improved the hygiene in Stockholm, a reform which was reportedly influenced by the 1853 outbreak. In 1861, Stockholm proceeded by also inaugurating its first water works for the filtering and cleansing of the city's drink water, a reform which resulted in fewer deaths by cholera in the city.


1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak, History
The 1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak was not the last cholera outbreak in Stockholm. On the contrary: from 1853 onward, it returned almost every year until it finally disappeared in 1894. However, it was never again as bad as it had been in the first two outbreaks of 1834 and 1853, and the deaths and the number of infected became smaller each time until the last time in 1894.


1853 Straffan rail accident
The Straffan Rail Disaster occurred on 5 October 1853, when a goods train ran into the back of a stationary passenger train one-quarter mile (400 m) south of Straffan station in County Kildare.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Background
The Great Southern and Western Railway line from Dublin to Cork had only been in operation six years when 18 people died in what is still Ireland's third-worst railway tragedy, having only been surpassed by the Armagh rail disaster of 1889 (80 killed) and the Ballymacarrett rail crash of 1945 (23 killed).


1853 Straffan rail accident, Events
At 6:20 pm on 5 October 1853, the piston rod on a locomotive snapped, stranding the newly introduced noon express train from Cork 975 yards (892 m) south of Straffan Station, towards Baronrath, in a dense fog and gathering twilight. There were a total of 45 passengers in the two first- and three second-class carriages.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Events
Edward Croker Barrington, a solicitor for the company, who was a passenger on the train, directed the fireman, John O’Hara, to signal a warning to a 20-wagon goods train which had been passed in Portarlington and was approaching from behind, so that it might push the train into Dublin. O'Hara was gone 15 minutes when the goods train was seen approaching and, reassured, some of the passengers got back on their train.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Events
However, the goods train crashed into the stationary carriages at full speed, smashing through the first-class carriage at the back of the train, overturning the second-class carriage, shearing the roof off another carriage, and driving the rest one-quarter mile (400 m) the other side of Straffan Station, reduced to "a heap of ruins".


1853 Straffan rail accident, Events
William Hutchinson from Clownings was one of the first on the scene, having gone to the railway line investigate the stalled train. Dr Geoghegan tended the injured, and Edward Kennedy, who was hunting nearby, helped summon aid. The injured were kept in the station house, and three orphaned children were brought to Lyons House.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Inquest and enquiry
The inquest was performed initially at Straffan station house and adjourned to Barry’s Hotel at Thirteenth Lock.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Inquest and enquiry
The victims came from Cork, Mallow, Kenmare, Birr, Laois, Kildare and Dublin, and included Jesse Hall from County Kildare, Daniel and Anastasia McSwiney of Kenmare, TW Jelly of Straboe, John Egan of Birr, Emma Pack of Birr, Kate Hamilton Haimes, (the wife of a mill owner from Mallow, originally identified from a note in her pocket by her maiden name, Kate Smith), Christopher McNally, a solicitor of Dublin, Claire Kirwan from 82 Lwr Abbey St in Dublin, Margaret Leathley from 62 Eccles St in Dublin, Joseph Sherwood a servant boy of the household of Richard Stokes, Cherry Agnes Knapp from London, Margaret Palmer, a cousin of Mrs Knapp, William Bateman a solicitor from Cork, Mrs Latham Blacker from London and four children. A total of £27,000 compensation was paid to victims, the equivalent of €2.37m today.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Inquest and enquiry
The unionist Dublin Evening Mail alleged that the bodies of the dead and the dying were plundered by local people, an allegation disproved by the inquest and condemned by the rival Freeman’s Journal: "The people did not plunder the dead and dying but, on the contrary, assisted with the greatest alacrity and to the utmost of their power." The only criticism at the inquest was of a carter named Connor, from Celbridge, who refused to carry the wounded until he was given half a crown.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Inquest and enquiry
The inquiry found that no warning was given by either red light or detonators. The fireman, John O’Hara, the engine driver, James Gass, and the guard of the luggage train, James Prey, were arrested.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Inquest and enquiry
Commenting on the accident, an editorial in The Times of London called for clockwork event recorders to be carried in locked boxes on all trains in the United Kingdom.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Folklore: The Ghost Story
According to Ireland's Own, the Wexford weekly magazine which reports the supernatural, the site of the crash has been haunted by a man with a red lamp ever since.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Allingham Poem
Nor hour nor distance heeds;With heat and roar and whistle shrill,On through the dusk it speeds.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Allingham Poem
Our friends in Dublin city gay,Expectant name our names;"The fog is out to-night," they say,And stir the kindly flames.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Allingham Poem
Oh! chiller than October's touchIs freezing many a smile! Terror and mortal torments clutchWhat love expects the while.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Allingham Poem
Love's self, however true and warm,Might fail to recogniseThe dear, the well-remember'd form,If set before its eyes


1853 Straffan rail accident, Allingham Poem
'Mong twisted metal, splinter'd wood,Half buried in the ground,'Mong heaps of limbs crush'd up in blood,Must wife, child, friend he found.


1853 Straffan rail accident, Allingham Poem
No hostile cannonade, or mine,Perform'd the cruel wrong;Through peaceful fields they sped to join


1853 Texas gubernatorial election
The 1853 Texas gubernatorial election was held on August 1, 1853 to elect the Governor of Texas.


1853 Texas gubernatorial election
Incumbent Governor Peter Hansborough Bell did not run for a third term. The election was won by Elisha M. Pease, who received 37% of the vote.


1853 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1853 Vermont gubernatorial election took place on September 6. The same three candidates who ran for governor of Vermont in 1852 ran again in 1853: Whig and incumbent Erastus Fairbanks, Democratic candidate John S. Robinson, and Lawrence Brainerd, the nominee of the Free Soil Party. The results showed that Fairbanks had received 43.9 percent of the vote, with Robinson receiving 38.5 percent, and Brainerd 17.6 percent.


1853 Vermont gubernatorial election
Because no candidate received a majority, the Vermont Constitution required the contest to be settled by the Vermont General Assembly. In the October 27 voting, 119 to 121 votes were necessary for a choice, depending on how many members of the Vermont Senate and Vermont House of Representatives took part in each ballot. On the 20th ballot, with 120 votes required for a choice, enough Brainerd supporters voted for Robinson to give Robinson the win with 120 votes. Fairbanks received 104, and Brainerd received 7. Robinson took the oath of office and began a one-year term on October 28.


1853 Vermont gubernatorial election
Robinson was the only Democrat elected governor of Vermont until the election of Philip H. Hoff in 1962.


1853 Wisconsin gubernatorial election
The 1853 Wisconsin gubernatorial election was held on November 4, 1853. Democratic candidate William A. Barstow won the election with 55% of the vote, winning his first term as Governor of Wisconsin. Barstow defeated Free Soil Party candidate Edward D. Holton and Whig candidate Henry S. Baird.


1853 Wisconsin gubernatorial election, Democratic Party
William A. Barstow was a resident of Waukesha County, and had previously served as Wisconsin's Secretary of State. Before Wisconsin became a state, he was instrumental in creating Waukesha County from what had been the western half of Milwaukee County.


1853 Wisconsin gubernatorial election, Democratic Party
The Wisconsin Democratic Party Convention was held in Janesville in September 1853. Barstow did not intend to seek the nomination for Governor, and, in fact, was supporting A. Hyatt Smith for the nomination. Nevertheless, Barstow's popularity resulted in him receiving five votes on the first ballot, and after Smith deadlocked with Jairus C. Fairchild for seven ballots, Smith withdrew his name and instead endorsed Barstow. Barstow received the nomination on the 13th ballot.


1853 Wisconsin gubernatorial election, Free Soil Party
Edward D. Holton was a resident of Milwaukee. He was a businessman and banker, interested in building a railroad to stretch from Milwaukee to the Mississippi River. He was an avowed abolitionist, first as a member of the Liberty Party, and then its successor the Free Soil Party. He was also a supporter of temperance legislation in Wisconsin.


1853 Wisconsin gubernatorial election, Whig Party
Henry S. Baird was a resident of Green Bay, and was said to be the first practicing lawyer in the Wisconsin Territory. He had served as Attorney General of the Wisconsin Territory, appointed by Territorial Governor Henry Dodge, and served on the Territorial Council. He was a delegate to Wisconsin's first Constitutional Convention.


1853 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1853 in Australia.


1853 in Australia, Events
This was a year of intense political agitation by miners on the Victorian goldfields.


1853 in Canada
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by BHGbot (talk | contribs) at 19:30, 18 June 2020 (WP:BHGbot 6 (List 5): eponymous category first, per MOS:CATORDER; WP:GENFIXES). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1853 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1853 in Chile.


1853 in Iran
The following lists events that have happened in 1853 in the Qajar dynasty.


1853 in New Zealand
The following lists events that happened during 1853 in New Zealand.


1853 in New Zealand
The old provinces of New Munster and New Ulster are abolished and replaced by the Provinces of New Zealand. The first general election is held marking a major step on the way to self-government.


1853 in New Zealand, Population
The estimated population of New Zealand at the end of 1853 is 61,850 Māori and 29,600 non-Māori.


1853 in New Zealand, Incumbents, Government and law
New Zealand's first general election, held on 1 October. The House of Representatives has 37 elected members, and 14 members are appointed to the first Legislative Council. The 1st Parliament opens on 24 May 1854


1853 in New Zealand, Incumbents, Government and law
The first Speaker of the House is not elected until Parliament opens on 24 May 1854. There is neither an official Prime Minister/Premier/Colonial Secretary or Finance Minister/Colonial Secretary until after the 2nd New Zealand Parliament is formed after the 1855 election. (see also 1st New Zealand Parliament).


1853 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1853 in South Africa.


1853 in Switzerland
The following is a list of events, births, and deaths in 1853 in Switzerland.


1853 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1853 to Wales and its people.


1853 in architecture
The year 1853 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.


1853 in birding and ornithology
Birds described in 1853 include white-thighed swallow, black oropendola, black-breasted barbet,  butterfly coquette, carunculated caracara, Fraser's eagle-owl, oriole whistler, ornate flycatcher, Philippine megapode, three-wattled bellbird, yellow-breasted racket-tail


1853 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1853.


1853 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1853 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1853 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1853 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1853.


1853 in science
The year 1853 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1853 in sports
1853 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1853-54 Australian cricket season
1853-54 was the third season of First-class cricket in Australia. There was only one first-class match played, Tasmania v Victoria in Launceston, Tasmania.


1854
1854 (MDCCCLIV) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1854th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 854th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 54th  year of the 19th century, and the  5th   year of the 1850s decade. As of the start of 1854, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1854 Argentine presidential election
The Argentine presidential election of 1854 was held on 20 February  to choose the first president of the Argentine Confederation for the period 1854-1860. Justo José de Urquiza was elected president by a wide margin.


1854 Argentine presidential election
It was the first presidential election after the unification of the country in 1852, after Justo José de Urquiza defeated Juan Manuel de Rosas at the Battle of Caseros on 3 February 1852. The State of Buenos Aires seceded on 11 September 1852 and did not participate in elections until 1862.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season
The 1854 Atlantic hurricane season featured five known tropical cyclones, three of which made landfall in the United States. At one time, another was believed to have existed near Galveston, Texas in September, but HURDAT – the official Atlantic hurricane database – now excludes this system. The first system, Hurricane One, was initially observed on June 25. The final storm, Hurricane Five, was last observed on October 22. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. No tropical cyclones during this season existed simultaneously. One tropical cyclone has a single known point in its track due to a sparsity of data.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season
Of the season's five tropical cyclones, three reached hurricane status. Furthermore, one of those strengthened into a major hurricane, which is Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The strongest cyclone of the season, the third hurricane, peaked at Category 3 strength with 125 mph (205 km/h) winds. After making landfall near the Georgia-South Carolina border, the storm caused 26 fatalities and extensive damage in the area. Hurricane Four caused four deaths and approximately $20,000 (1854 USD) in damage after striking the coast of Texas. Hurricane One also caused moderate damage in Texas.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane One
A tropical storm was first observed in the Gulf of Mexico on June 25, while located about 240 miles (390 km) south-southwest of Marsh Island, Louisiana. It headed westward and strengthened into a hurricane about 12 hours later. Peaking with maximum sustained winds 80 mph (130 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 982 mbar (29.0 inHg), the storm maintained this intensity until making landfall in South Padre Island, Texas at 1200 UTC on June 26. It quickly weakened inland and fell to tropical storm strength about six hours later. The system continued in a west-northwestward direction over northern Mexico, until dissipating in a rural area of Coahuila on June 27.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane One
This system brought near tropical storm-force winds to Texas as far north as Galveston. Brazos Island experienced the brunt of this storm, where winds blew a "perfect hurricane". Many buildings in the area lost their roofs or were moved by the winds. Additionally, a cistern at the Quartermaster’s Department was destroyed. The coast of Texas was also impacted by storm surge, with several bath houses washed away at Lavaca. Precipitation in the region was generally light, peaking at 6.63 inches (168 mm) at Fort Ringgold, which is near modern-day Rio Grande City.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Tropical Storm Two
The ships Highflyer and Osceola encountered a "very violent" gale on August 23, while located at 33.0°N,  55.0°W, which is about 565 miles (910 km) east-northeast of Bermuda. A sustained wind speed of 70 mph (110 km/h) was recorded, indicative of a strong tropical storm. No further information is available of this storm. However, the barque Pilgrim experienced a severe gale on August 29, which may have been the extratropical remnants of this system.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Three
The Coastal Hurricane of 1854 or The South Carolina Hurricane of 1854 closely duplicated the path of the famous 1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane. The brig Reindeer sighted a hurricane about 25 miles (40 km) east of Hope Town in The Bahamas on September 7. With winds of 125 mph (205 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 938 mbar (27.7 inHg), this was the strongest tropical cyclone of the season. It moved northwestward and weakened slightly on September 8. Later that day at 2000 UTC, the hurricane made landfall near St. Catherines Island, Georgia with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h).


1854 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Three
Early on September 9, it weakened to a Category 1 hurricane, then a tropical storm several hours later. Thereafter, the storm accelerated northeastward and re-emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Virginia Beach, Virginia on September 10. The system re-strengthened, becoming a hurricane again on September 11. It eventually began to weaken again while moving rapidly eastward and was last noted about 515 miles (830 km) southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Three
Gales were reported in Florida, including as far south as St. Augustine. In Georgia, the entire coast suffered significant impacts, with damage more severe from St. Simons northward. About 110 acres (45 ha) of rice crops were destroyed, equivalent to a loss of approximately 6,000 bushels. Between Savannah, Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina, "extraordinary tides" were reported. Hutchinson Island, Georgia was completely submerged, while there was significant inundation in eastern Savannah. Storm surge also brought coastal flooding to much of South Carolina, from Beaufort to Georgetown. Wind damage in that area was mainly confined to downed trees.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Three
However, in Charleston, South Carolina, a two-story wooden building was destroyed and there was slight to moderate damage to other structures, limited to roofs and the destruction of fences. This hurricane compared similarly to hurricanes that struck Charleston in 1752, 1783, 1804, 1811, and 1822 in flooding and strength. Throughout the United States, this storm resulted in at least 26 fatalities.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Four
Reports first indicated a hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico on September 18, while centered about 110 miles (180 km) south-southwest of Cameron, Louisiana. The storm drifted west-northwestward with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h), equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane. The lowest barometric pressure estimate was 965 mbar (28.5 inHg). At 2100 UTC on September 18, the storm made landfall near Freeport, Texas at the same intensity. It weakened to a Category 1 hurricane early on the following day. The system further weakened to a tropical storm at 1200 UTC on September 19. Re -curving northeastward, the storm persisted until dissipating over eastern Texas on September 20.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Four
The steamship Louisiana reported that a gale struck Matagorda, Texas with "unparalleled fury", with nearly all buildings and vessels in the area destroyed. Several vessels also capsized near Galveston, including the Nick Hill and Kate Ward. Within the city of Galveston, merchants, businesses, and houses suffered significant water damage due to an 8 feet (2.4 m) storm surge. Cotton and sugar cane crops throughout the area were ruined. The storm caused at least four deaths, with several more occurring later due to a yellow fever outbreak. Damage in the region totaled approximately $20,000.


1854 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Tropical Storm Five
The barque Southerney observed a tropical storm on October 20, while located about 460 miles (740 km) north-northwest of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The storm strengthened slowly while heading northward, until peaking with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) on October 21. The storm then began to re-curve northeastward. Early on October 22, it passed near Bermuda, though no impact was reported on the island. Several hours later, this system was last noted about 365 miles (585 km) east-northeast of Bermuda.


1854 Belgian general election
Partial general elections were held in Belgium on 13 June 1854. In the elections for the Chamber of Representatives the Liberal Party and Catholics won 54 seats each. Voter turnout was 61%, although only 45,884 people were eligible to vote.


1854 Belgian general election
Under the alternating system, elections were only held in five out of the nine provinces: Antwerp, Brabant, Luxembourg, Namur and West Flanders.


1854 Boston mayoral election
The Boston mayoral election of 1854 saw the reelection of incumbent mayor Jerome V. C. Smith.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
The Broad Street cholera outbreak (or Golden Square outbreak) was a severe outbreak of cholera that occurred in 1854 near Broad Street (now Broadwick Street) in the Soho district of the City of Westminster, London, England, and occurred during the 1846–1860 cholera pandemic happening worldwide. This outbreak, which killed 616 people, is best known for the physician John Snow's study of its causes and his hypothesis that germ-contaminated water was the source of cholera, rather than particles in the air (referred to as "miasma").


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
This discovery came to influence public health and the construction of improved sanitation facilities beginning in the mid-19th century. Later, the term "focus of infection" started to be used to describe sites, such as the Broad Street pump, in which conditions are good for transmission of an infection. Snow's endeavour to find the cause of the transmission of cholera caused him to unknowingly create a double-blind experiment.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Background
In the mid-19th century, the Soho district of London had a serious problem with filth due to the large influx of people and a lack of proper sanitary services: the London sewer system had not reached Soho. Cowsheds, slaughter houses and grease-boiling dens lined the streets and contributed animal droppings, rotting fluids and other contaminants to the primitive Soho sewer system. Many cellars had cesspools underneath their floorboards, which formed from the sewers and filth seeping in from the outside. Since the cesspools were overrunning, the London government decided to dump the waste into the River Thames, contaminating the water supply. London had already suffered from a "series of debilitating cholera outbreaks". These included outbreaks in 1832 and 1849 which killed a total of 14,137 people.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Competing theories of cholera
Preceding the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, physicians and scientists held two competing theories on the causes of cholera in the human body: miasma theory and germ theory. The London medical community debated between these causes for the persistent cholera outbreaks in the city. The cholera-causing bacterium Vibrio cholerae was isolated in 1854, but the finding did not become well known and accepted until decades later.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Competing theories of cholera, Miasma theory
Miasma theorists concluded that cholera was caused by particles in the air, or "miasmata", which arose from decomposing matter or other dirty organic sources. "Miasma" particles were thought to travel through the air and infect individuals, and thus cause cholera. Dr William Farr, the commissioner for the 1851 London census and a member of the General Register's Office, believed that miasma arose from the soil surrounding the River Thames. It contained decaying organic matter which contained miasmatic particles and was released into the London air. Miasma theorists believed in "cleansing and scouring, rather than through the purer scientific approach of microbiology". Farr later agreed with Snow's germ theory following Snow's publications.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Competing theories of cholera, Germ theory
In contrast, the germ theory held that the principal cause of cholera was a germ cell that had not yet been identified. Snow theorized that this unknown germ was transmitted from person to person by individuals ingesting water. John Simon, a pathologist and the lead medical officer for London labeled Snow's germ theory as "peculiar".


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Competing theories of cholera, Germ theory
This doctrine is, that cholera propagates itself by a 'morbid matter' which, passing from one patient in his evacuations, is accidentally swallowed by other persons as a pollution of food or water; that an increase of the swallowed germ of the disease takes place in the interior of the stomach and bowels, giving rise to the essential actions of cholera, as at first a local derangement; and that 'the morbid matter of cholera having the property of reproducing its own kind must necessarily have some sort of structure, most likely that of a cell.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Competing theories of cholera, Germ theory
Even though Simon understood Snow's theory, he questioned its relation to the cause of cholera.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
The Broad Street outbreak was an effect rather than a cause of the epidemic. Snow's conclusions were not predominantly based on the Broad Street outbreak, as he noted that he hesitated to come to a conclusion based on a population that had predominantly fled the neighborhood and redistributed itself. He feared throwing off results of the study.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
From a mathematics perspective, John Snow's innovation was focusing on death rates in districts served by two water companies which drew water from the River Thames, rather than basing it on data from victims of the Broad Street pump (which drew water from a well). Snow's work also led to a far greater health and safety impact than the removal of the Broad Street pump handle. Deactivating the pump "hardly made a dent in the citywide cholera epidemic, which went on to claim nearly 3,000 lives".


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
Snow was skeptical of the prevailing miasma theory, which held that diseases such as cholera or the Black Death were caused by pollution or a noxious form of "bad air". The germ theory was not established at this point (Louis Pasteur did not propose it until 1861). Snow did not understand the mechanism by which disease was transmitted, but the evidence led him to believe that it was not due to breathing foul air. Based on the pattern of illness among residents, Snow hypothesized that cholera was spread by an agent in contaminated water. He first published his theory in 1849, in an essay titled "On the Mode of Communication of Cholera". In 1855 he published a second edition, including a more elaborate investigation of the effect of the water supply in the 1854 Soho outbreak.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
The cholera epidemic of 1849–1854 was also related to the water supplied by companies in London at the time. The main players were the Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company, and the Lambeth Waterworks Company. Both companies provided water to their customers that was drawn from the River Thames, which was highly contaminated with visible and invisible products and bacteria. Dr Hassall examined the filtered water and found it contained animal hair, among other foul substances. He made the remark that:


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
It will be observed, that the water of the companies of the Surrey Side of London, viz., the Southwark, Vauxhall, and Lambeth, is by far the worst of all those who take their supply from the Thames


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
Other companies, such as the New River Company and Chelsea Company, were observed to have better filtered water; few deaths occurred in the neighborhoods which they supplied. These two companies not only obtained their water from cleaner sources than the Thames, but they filtered the water and treated it until there were no obvious contaminants.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
As mentioned above, Snow is known for his influence on public health, which arose after his studies of the cholera epidemic. In attempting to figure out who was receiving impure water in each neighborhood, what is now known as a double-blind experiment fell right into his lap. He describes the conditions of the situation in his essays:


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
In many cases a single house has a supply different from that on either side. Each company supplies both rich and poor, both large houses and small; there is no difference in the condition or occupation of the persons receiving the water of the different companies...


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
As there is no difference whatever either in the houses or the people receiving the supply of the two Water Companies, or in any of the physical conditions with which they are surrounded, it is obvious that no experiment could have been devised which would more thoroughly test the effect of water supply on the progress of Cholera than this, which circumstances placed ready made before the observer. The experiment too, was on the grandest scale.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
No fewer than three hundred thousand people of both sexes, of every age and occupation, and of every rank and station, from gentlefolks down to the very poor, were divided into two groups without their choice, and, in most cases, without their knowledge; one group being supplied water containing the sewage of London, and amongst it, whatever might have come from the cholera patients, the other group having water quite free from such impurity.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Investigation by John Snow
Snow went on to study the water contents from each home through a test performed on each sample. In this way, it could be deduced from which supplier the home was receiving their water. He concluded that it was indeed impure water from the big companies that allowed the spread of cholera to progress rapidly. He went on to prove his theory through the observation of prisons in London, finding that cholera ceased in these places only a few days after switching to cleaner water sources.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
On 31 August 1854, after several other outbreaks had occurred elsewhere in the city, a major outbreak of cholera occurred in Soho. Snow, the physician who eventually linked the outbreak to contaminated water, later called it "the most terrible outbreak of cholera which ever occurred in this kingdom."


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
Over the next three days, 127 people on or near Broad Street died. During the next week, three quarters of the residents had fled the area. By 10 September, 500 people had died and the mortality rate was 12.8 percent in some parts of the city. By the end of the outbreak, 616 people had died.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
Many of the victims were taken to the Middlesex Hospital, where their treatment was superintended by Florence Nightingale, who briefly joined the hospital in early September in order to help with the outbreak. According to a letter from Elizabeth Gaskell, "She herself [Nightingale] was up night and day from Friday afternoon (Sept. 1) to Sunday afternoon, receiving the poor creatures (chiefly fallen women of that neighbourhood - they had it the worst) who were being constantly brought in - - undressing them - putting on turpentine stupes, et cetera, doing it herself to as many as she could manage".


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
By talking to local residents (with the help of Reverend Henry Whitehead), Snow identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (now Broadwick Street) at Cambridge Street. Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a sample of the water from this Broad Street pump water did not conclusively prove its danger, his facts about the patterns of illness and death among residents in Soho persuaded the St James parish authorities to disable the well pump by removing its handle.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
Although this action has been popularly reported as ending the outbreak, the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline, as explained by Snow:


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
There is no doubt that the mortality was much diminished, as I said before, by the flight of the population, which commenced soon after the outbreak; but the attacks had so far diminished before the use of the water was stopped, that it is impossible to decide whether the well still contained the cholera poison in an active state, or whether, from some cause, the water had become free from it.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
Snow later used a dot map to illustrate how cases of cholera occurred around this pump. Snow's efforts to connect the incidence of cholera with potential geographic sources was based on creating what is now known as a Voronoi diagram. He mapped the locations of individual water pumps and generated cells which represented all the points on his map which were closest to each pump. The section of Snow's map representing areas in the city where the closest available source of water was the Broad Street pump included the highest incidence of cholera cases.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
Snow also performed a statistical comparison between the Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company, and a waterworks at Seething Wells (owned by the Lambeth Waterworks Company) that was further upriver and hence had cleaner water; he showed that houses supplied by the former had a cholera mortality rate 14 times that of those supplied by the latter.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
Regarding the decline in cases related to the Broad Street pump, Snow said:


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
It will be observed that the deaths either very much diminished, or ceased altogether, at every point where it becomes decidedly nearer to send to another pump than to the one in Broad street. It may also be noticed that the deaths are most numerous near to the pump where the water could be more readily obtained.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
There was one significant anomaly—none of the workers in the nearby Broad Street brewery contracted cholera. As they were given a daily allowance of beer, they did not consume water from the nearby well. During the brewing process, the wort (or un-fermented beer) is boiled in part so that hops can be added. This step killed the cholera bacteria in the water they had used to brew with, making it safe to drink.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
Snow showed that the Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of the Thames and delivering it to homes, resulting in an increased incidence of cholera among its customers. Snow's study is part of the history of public health and health geography. It is regarded as the founding event of epidemiology.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly all the deaths had taken place within a short distance of the [Broad Street] pump. There were only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly nearer to another street-pump. In five of these cases the families of the deceased persons informed me that they always sent to the pump in Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that of the pumps which were nearer. In three other cases, the deceased were children who went to school near the pump in Broad Street ...


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
With regard to the deaths occurring in the locality belonging to the pump, there were 61 instances in which I was informed that the deceased persons used to drink the pump-water from Broad Street, either constantly or occasionally ...


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
The result of the inquiry then was, that there had been no particular outbreak or prevalence of cholera in this part of London except among the persons who were in the habit of drinking the water of the above-mentioned pump-well.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of St. James's parish, on the evening of Thursday, the 7th September, and represented the above circumstances to them. In consequence of what I said, the handle of the pump was removed on the following day.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
It was discovered later that this public well had been dug 3 feet (0.9 m) from an old cesspit that had begun to leak faecal bacteria. Waste water from washing nappies, used by a baby who had contracted cholera from another source, drained into this cesspit. Its opening was under a nearby house that had been rebuilt further away after a fire and a street widening. At the time there were cesspits under most homes. Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
At the same time, an investigation of cholera transmission was being conducted in Deptford. Around 90 people died within a few days in that town, where the water was known to be clean, and there had been no previous outbreaks of cholera. Snow was informed that the water had recently turned impure. Residents were forced to let the water run for a while before using it, in order to let the sudsy, sewer-like water run until it was clear.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
Snow, finding that the water the residents were using was not different from the usual water from their pump, determined that the outbreak must be caused by a leak in the pipes that allowed surrounding sewage and its contaminants to seep in to the water supply. This scenario was similar to that of the Broad Street outbreak. The incoming water was being contaminated by the increasing levels of sewage, coupled with the lack of proper and safe plumbing.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broad Street outbreak
After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the Broad Street pump handle. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterwards they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant indirectly accepting the oral-faecal method of transmission of disease, which was too unpleasant for most of the public to contemplate.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Snow's post-outbreak evaluation
Snow's analysis of cholera and cholera outbreaks extended past the closure of the Broad Street pump. He concluded that cholera was transmitted through and affected the alimentary canal within the human body. Cholera did not affect either the circulatory or the nervous system and there was no "poison in the blood...in the consecutive fever...the blood became poisoned from urea getting into the circulation". According to Snow, this "urea" entered the blood through kidney failure. (Acute kidney failure is a complication of cholera.)


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Snow's post-outbreak evaluation
Therefore, the fever was caused by kidney failure, not by a poison already present in the subject's bloodstream. Popular medical practices, such as bloodletting, could not be effective in such a case. Snow also argued that cholera was not a product of Miasma. "There was nothing in the air to account for the spread of cholera". According to Snow, cholera was spread by persons ingesting a substance, not through atmospheric transmittal. Snow cited a case of two sailors, one with cholera and one without. Eventually the second became sick as well from accidentally ingesting bodily fluids of the first.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Involvement of Henry Whitehead
The Reverend Henry Whitehead was an assistant curate at St. Luke's church in Soho during the 1854 cholera outbreak.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Involvement of Henry Whitehead
A former believer in the miasma theory of disease, Whitehead worked to disprove false theories. He was influenced by Snow's theory that cholera spreads by consumption of water contaminated by human waste. Snow's work, particularly his maps of the Soho area cholera victims, convinced Whitehead that the Broad Street pump was the source of the local infections. Whitehead joined Snow in tracking the contamination to a faulty cesspool and the outbreak's index case (the baby with cholera).


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Involvement of Henry Whitehead
Whitehead's work with Snow combined demographic study with scientific observation, setting an important precedent for epidemiology.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Board of Health
The Board of Health in London had several committees, of which the Committee for Scientific Inquiries was placed in charge of investigating the cholera outbreak. They were to study the atmospheric environment in London; however, they were also to examine samples of water from several water companies in London. The committee found that the most contaminated water supply came from the South London water companies, Southwark and Vauxhall.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Board of Health
As part of the Committee for Scientific Inquiries, Richard Dundas Thomson and Arthur Hill Hassall examined what Thomson referred to as "vibriones". Thomson examined the occurrence of vibriones in air samples from various cholera wards and Hassall observed vibriones in water samples. Neither identified vibriones as the cause of cholera.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Board of Health
As part of their investigation of the cholera epidemic, the Board of Health sent physicians to examine in detail the conditions of the Golden Square neighbourhood and its inhabitants. The Board of Health ultimately attributed the 1854 epidemic to miasma.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Dr Edwin Lankester's evaluation
Dr Edwin Lankester was a physician on the local research conglomerate that studied the 1854 Broad Street Cholera Epidemic. In 1866, Lankester wrote about Snow's conclusion that the pump itself was the cause of the cholera outbreak. He agreed with Snow at the time; however, his opinion, like Snow's, was not publicly supported. Lankester subsequently closed the pump due to Snow's theory and data on the pattern of infection, and infection rates dropped significantly. Lankester eventually was named the first medical officer of health for the St. James District in London, the same area where the pump was located.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Broadwick Street Pump in the 21st century
A replica pump was installed in 1992 at the site of the 1854 pump. Every year the John Snow Society holds "Pumphandle Lectures" on subjects of public health. Until August 2015, when the pump was removed due to redevelopment, they also held a ceremony here in which they removed and reattached the pump handle to pay tribute to Snow's historic discovery. The original location of the historic pump is marked by a red granite paver. In addition, plaques on the John Snow pub at the corner describe the significance of Snow's findings at this site.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Gallery
The pub, close by to the new location of the pump, named after John Snow.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Gallery
A wider image of the pub named after John Snow with the pump centre-right


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Gallery
The new location of the pump whose handle John Snow removed.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Gallery
A wider image of the pump, with the red granite slab in view in the bottom-left corner.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Gallery
The plaque that rests on the new foundation of the pump.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Gallery
A plaque marking the significance of the red granite and the pump. Located on the wall of the John Snow pub, straight across from the pump itself.


1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, Gallery
Broadwick Street showing the John Snow memorial and public house. The memorial pump was removed due to new construction in March 2016. It was replaced, on the pavement outside the pub, in 2019. A plaque affixed to the public house reads: The Red Granite kerbstone mark is the site of the historic Broad Street pump associated with Dr John Snow's discovery in 1854 that cholera is conveyed by water.


1854 Cape Colony parliamentary election
The first election for the Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope were held in 1854. There were no clear party lines, however many representatives for Eastern electoral districts subscribed to a common programme which emphasised separation from the Cape Colony or moving the seat of colonial government eastward, a vagrancy law, or increasing the property qualification part of the franchise (which would have reduced the number of non-Whites able to vote).


1854 Cape Colony parliamentary election, Electoral system, Voting system
The election was conducted on the basis of the multi-racial Cape Qualified Franchise: Cape residents qualified as voters based on a universal minimum level of property ownership, regardless of race.


1854 Cape Colony parliamentary election, Electoral system, Voting system
Elections to the upper house, the Cape Legislative Council, were conducted under a cumulative voting electoral system. This gave each voter several votes, which they could give to a single candidate, or split amongst several. This was justified by the Report from a Committee of the Board of Trade and Plantations on the basis that it would prevent any single group gaining a monopoly on power, as a minority voting in unison could ensure the return of their preferred candidate. The Cape Colony population at the time was majority Boer, with British settlers forming a minority. The British Government had pushed for the franchise property qualification to be low, thereby extending the franchise to the non-white population, who it was believed were more likely to side with the British than the Boers.


1854 Cape Colony parliamentary election, Electoral system, Voting system
The population for the colony was estimated at 225,000 in 1853, with blacks outnumbering whites by a ratio of 55:45. The ratio of registered voters however was heavily in favour of whites.


1854 Cape Colony parliamentary election, Electoral system, Constituencies
For elections to the House of Assembly, the Cape was divided into 22 electoral divisions, returning a total of 46 members. The electoral division boundaries corresponded with the existing Cape Colony fiscal divisions. The only exceptions to this were for Albany, and the urban areas of Cape Town-Green Point and Grahamstown, (which were not included in the Cape electoral division), which had their own electoral divisions.


1854 Cardiganshire by-election
The 1854 Cardiganshire by-election was a parliamentary by-election held on 22 February 1854 for the British House of Commons constituency of Cardiganshire.


1854 Cardiganshire by-election, Previous Member of Parliament
The seat had become vacant when the constituency's Conservative Member of Parliament (MP), William Edward Powell (16 February 1788 – 10 April 1854) retired from Parliament. He died not long after.


1854 Cardiganshire by-election, Candidates
Vaughan was a prominent landowner in Cardiganshire and the 4th Earl of Lisburne.


1854 Cardiganshire by-election, Candidates
Vaughan's political views and allegiance to the Conservative Party were expected to attract opposition and Thomas Lloyd of Bronwydd was mentioned as a possible candidate. However, Lloyd declined to stand and the Liberals, following the lead of the Pryse family of Gogerddan, chose not to contest the seat.


1854 Chicago mayoral election
In the 1854 Chicago mayoral election, Democrat Isaac Lawrence Milliken defeated Temperance Party nominee Amos G. Throop by a landslide 19.5% margin.


1854 Chicago mayoral election
Incumbent mayor Charles McNeill Gray did not run for reelection.


1854 Chicago mayoral election, Campaigning
Throop had the support of the city's temperance forces. Milliken supported giving Catholics a portion of the school fund and did not support temperance.


1854 City of Auckland by-election
The 1854 City of Auckland by-election was a by-election held in the multi-member City of Auckland electorate on 4 August 1854 during the 1st New Zealand Parliament. It was one of the earliest by-elections in New Zealand political history and was triggered by the resignation of Thomas Bartley. Bartley resigned on 11 July 1854 to take up a place in the Legislative Council.


1854 City of Auckland by-election
The election was won by William Brown over John Williamson.


1854 City of Auckland by-election, Nomination meeting
The nomination meeting was held on 1 August, at a time soon after midday. Thomas Beckham, the returning officer and a future MP of the electorate, kicked off the meeting by reading out the writ. Alexander Black was the first elector to nominate someone, that person being John Williamson. Coolahan seconded that nomination, his reasons being that Williamson had acted well in the Provincial Council. Joseph Newman then counterproposed William Brown, an action seconded by James George. With no other electors advancing a nomination, Beckham declared a show of hands to be called. After the show of hands Beckham stated that it was in favour of Brown. Williamson then demanded a poll, which was won by Brown.


1854 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1854 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 5, 1854. Former state legislator and Whig Party nominee Henry Dutton defeated former congressman and Democratic nominee Samuel Ingham and former congressman Charles Chapman with 31.89% of the vote.


1854 Connecticut gubernatorial election
Although Ingham won a large plurality of the vote, he did not receive a majority. As a result, the Connecticut General Assembly elected the governor, per the state constitution. Dutton won the vote over Ingham, 140 to 93, in the General Assembly, and became the governor. This was the first of two elections in which Ingham would receive a plurality of more than 10% in the popular vote and lose the election, the second being 1856.


1854 Connecticut gubernatorial election
Dutton won even though he earned a smaller percentage of the popular vote than the previous four elections that the Whigs lost, winning with fewer than one third of the votes. The deterioration of the Whig vote share was similar to the national party collapse, as part of the political transition from the Second Party System to the Third Party System. This was the last time the Whigs won election to the governor's office, the last time the Whigs would finish second in the popular vote, and the last such election in which the Free Soil Party participated.


1854 Danish Folketing election
Folketing elections were held in Denmark on 1 December 1854. Following the elections, Peter Georg Bang became Prime Minister on 12 December.


1854 Danish Folketing election, Electoral system
The elections were held using first-past-the-post voting in single-member constituencies. Only 14% of the population was eligible to vote in the elections, with suffrage restricted to men over 30 who were not receiving poor relief (additionally disqualifying those who had not paid back any previous poor relief received), were not classed as "dependents" (those who were privately employed but did not have a household) and who had lived in their constituency for a certain length of time.


1854 Delaware gubernatorial election
The 1854 Delaware gubernatorial election was held on November 7, 1854. Incumbent Democratic Governor William H. H. Ross was unable to seek re-election. His 1850 opponent, former State Representative Peter F. Causey, ran as the American Party candidate, and faced former Kent County Sheriff William Burton, the Democratic nominee. Causey ultimately defeated Burton by a slim, but decisive, margin.