1850s in association football
The following are events in the 1850s decade which are relevant to the development of association football. Included are events in closely related codes, such as the Sheffield Rules. All events happened in English football unless specified otherwise.


1850s in sociology
The following events related to sociology occurred in the 1850s.


1851
1851 (MDCCCLI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1851st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 851st  year of the 2nd millennium, the 51st  year of the 19th century, and the  2nd   year of the 1850s decade. As of the start of 1851, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1851 $50 Humbert
The 1851 Humbert $50 gold ingot was an ingot produced by Moffat and Company, under the direction of Augustus Humbert (U.S. Assayer of the treasury) This "coin" while technically an ingot, was still used and unofficially considered currency. It was also the largest ingot produced during the California Gold Rush, weighing almost 2.5 oz. During the gold rush of 1849, the US Treasury department hired private companies to mint coins before they could properly set up a mint.


1851 $50 Humbert
The U.S. Treasury was much more practical and would often mint coins near the location of the precious metals used in the coins, however, this did not always happen overnight. Augustus Humbert, who was originally a watchmaker from NY, took a lifestyle change and moved out to California during the gold rush in 1850. The U.S. Treasury had commissioned him to be an assayer. One of the first necessities was a mint to produce the octagonal ingots. The original mint, to be built, was for Moffat and Company was called the Mount Ophir Mint.


1851 $50 Humbert
This was only a temporary mint before a real branch mint of the treasury could be built and commissioned into service. The ironic part is that despite Moffat and Company producing the $50 Dollar Ingots, they didn't have their mint mark or name stamped on the gold (until the $10 gold coin produced in 1852). These $50 Ingots are very rare and prices can range anywhere from $10,000 and up. Currently, the auction record stands at $14,460,000. Another high profile auction record was made in a 2008 auction by Bowers and Merena. This particular specimen is among the highest known of its variety, professionally graded by NGC, at a grade of MS-65. (The only MS-65 known to exist of its variety) NGC Chairman Mark Salzburg called it "the most memorable coin I have graded all year".


1851 Alabama gubernatorial election
The 1851 Alabama gubernatorial election took place on August 4, 1851, in order to elect the Governor of Alabama. Democrat Henry W. Collier won his second term with a big majority of the votes.


1851 America's Cup
The 100 Guineas Cup, also known as the Hundred Guinea Cup (£100 Cup), or the Cup of One Hundred Sovereigns, was a regatta in 1851 which was the first competition for the trophy later named America's Cup. The trophy was valued at 100 pounds-sterling which led to its various names, all variations on 100 Pound Cup. The race was won by the yacht America, leading to the trophy being renamed "America's Cup". The official event known as "The America's Cup" was founded in 1857, when the deed of gift established the racing regattas. The 1851 competition was a fleet race, whereas modern America's Cups finals are match races.


1851 America's Cup, History
The race originated with an invitation for the Great Exhibition of 1851 by the Earl of Winton, then Commodore of the Royal Yacht Squadron (RYS), inviting the recently formed New York Yacht Club (NYYC) to enjoy the facilities of the clubhouse of the RYS. John Cox Stevens, Commodore of the NYYC responded positively, and anticipated racing. Due to the RYS rules of the time, other races in the 1851 RYS Regatta were restricted to RYS members and their self-owned yachts, so the R. Y. S. £100 Cup was established, open to anyone to enter.


1851 America's Cup, History
At a RYS meeting on 9 May 1851, the race was scheduled for 22 August 1851. This race was to be the first of a series of challenge races for successive £100 Cups. At the time, it was normal practise for the winners to own the cups that were won, and not to return them for the next race to be won by others.


1851 America's Cup, Trophy
The trophy is a bottomless ewer made out of 134 oz (3.8 kg) of silver, and is 27 in (69 cm) tall. The ewer was a stock item obtained from jeweler Robert Garrard in 1848. After the race, it was engraved with the names of the yachts that raced against America, except the runner-up Aurora.


1851 America's Cup, Race
The regatta, held on 22 August 1851, raced clockwise around the Isle of Wight in a fleet race. The course was called "The Queen's Course". The course was near Cowes Castle on the Isle of Wight, where the Royal Yacht Squadron headquarters are located. The race took place as part of the 1851 Royal Yacht Squadron Regatta. The signal gun for sailing was fired at 10am, and the winner saluted by a gun from the flag-ship at 8:34pm (8:37pm railway time).


1851 America's Cup, Race
18 yachts were entered for the race, but only 15 yachts started the race. The yacht Fernande did not make the start, while Strella and Titania both got to the starting line, though did not start the race. Those yachts that raced were America, Alarm, Arrow, Aurora, Bacchante, Beatrice, Brilliant, Constance, Eclipse, Freak, Gipsy Queen, Ione, Mona, Volante, and Wyvern.


1851 America's Cup, Gallery
A flyer from the RYS for, among other things, the race. In it, the race is referred to as the  "R.Y.S. £100 Cup".


1851 Atlantic hurricane season
The 1851 Atlantic hurricane season was the first Atlantic hurricane season to be included in the official Atlantic tropical cyclone record. Six known tropical cyclones occurred during the season, the earliest of which formed on June 25 and the latest of which dissipated on October 19. These dates fall within the range of most Atlantic tropical cyclone activity. None of the cyclones existed simultaneously with another. Of the six storms, three only have a single point in their track known.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season
Two other hurricanes were reported during the season, one near Tampico and the other near Jamaica; however, they are not in the official hurricane database. There may have been other unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season. Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates that between zero and six storms were missed from the official database, due to small tropical cyclone size, sparse ship reports, and relatively unpopulated coastlines.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Season summary
Five of the six tropical cyclones affected land, including three making landfall with winds of over 74 mph (119 km/h). The first struck Texas as a hurricane, which caused moderate to heavy damage, particularly to shipping in Matagorda Bay. One death was indirectly related to the hurricane, as well as at least two injuries.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Season summary
The strongest and deadliest hurricane of the season tracked from east of the Lesser Antilles, through the Greater Antilles, and across the southeastern United States before last being observed near Newfoundland; it was tied for having the longest duration for a hurricane prior to 1870. When it hit near Panama City, Florida with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h), it caused at least 23 deaths, including five when a lighthouse was destroyed. Many houses were destroyed along its path, primarily along the Florida Panhandle.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Season summary
The other landfalling hurricane was one that struck near Tampico, where it caused heavy damage. The last tropical storm of the season made landfall on Rhode Island, though associated damage is unknown. A tropical storm affected the Lesser Antilles in early July, and another tropical storm remained nearly stationary for three days to the southeast of North Carolina.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane One
A small 90 mph (150 km/h) hurricane was first observed on June 25, about 75 miles (120 km/h) southeast of Freeport, Texas. It tracked westward, moving ashore near Matagorda Bay later that night near peak intensity, with an estimated minimum barometric central pressure of 977 mbar; due to lack of observations, it is possible the hurricane struck as the equivalent of a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale. The cyclone slowly weakened as it turned northwestward, with hurricane-force wind gusts reported 24 hours after landfall in current-day Medina County. It is estimated that the storm dissipated early on June 28 over central Texas.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane One
The hurricane produced heavy damage near where it moved ashore, having been described as the most disastrous experienced there to date. The winds destroyed every wharf and several houses in Port Lavaca. On Matagorda Island, the saltwater contaminated the fresh water supply, and in Matagorda Bay, heavy shipping losses were reported. As the cyclone progressed inland, it dropped light to moderate rainfall, peaking at around 3 inches (75 mm) in Corpus Christi. A fort near current day Laredo reported 2.48 inches (63 mm) of precipitation. Across its path, the winds downed several trees and houses, leaving two people injured and contributing to a death when a sick person was exposed to the storm.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Two
A moderate hurricane made landfall near Tampico, which was described as having moved ashore before July 7; the Hurricane Research Division assessed the date as July 5. Heavy damage was reported in Tampico.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Tropical Storm Three
A tropical storm passed through the southern Lesser Antilles on July 10. Overall documentation on the storm was weak, and its track elsewhere is unknown.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Four
Great Florida Middle Panhandle Hurricane of August 1851 or Hurricane San Agapito of 1851 was first observed on August 16 about 775 miles (1250 km) east of Barbados. It tracked west-northwestward, attaining hurricane status on August 17 as it approached the Lesser Antilles. Shortly thereafter, the hurricane passed between Antigua and Saint Kitts and later south of Saint Croix. On August 18 it brushed the southern coast of Puerto Rico, though it affected the entire island due to a large size of the storm. The next day it made landfall on the southern coast of the Dominican Republic.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Four
The cyclone rapidly weakened to tropical storm status over Hispaniola, though it regained hurricane status as it paralleled the southern coast of Cuba just offshore. Late on August 20, the cyclone crossed western Cuba, briefly weakening to tropical storm status before again regaining hurricane status in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico. It quickly strengthened and reached peak winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) early on August 23 about 215 miles (345 km) south-southeast of Pensacola, Florida. Turning northeastward, the hurricane moved ashore near Panama City, Florida at peak intensity, with an estimated barometric pressure of 960 mbar. It accelerated across the Southeastern United States, weakening to a tropical storm before exiting North Carolina into the Atlantic Ocean on August 25. On August 27, it was last observed over Newfoundland as a weak tropical storm.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Four
The hurricane passed near Saint Lucia on August 17, where high tides and rough seas were reported. Flooding was reported in northern Puerto Rico during its passage. Impact is unknown in Hispaniola and Cuba. The hurricane produced an estimated storm tide of 12 feet (3.7 m) at Saint Marks; the combination of waves and the storm tide flooded coastal areas, destroying 50% of the cotton crops in some areas. Rough seas destroyed a brig, killing 17 people, and another person drowned due to a shipwreck.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Four
Many ships were expected to have been lost in the storm, resulting in fear of potentially hundreds of deaths. The storm caused heavy damage along the coastline, and in Apalachicola the winds destroyed the roofs of all but two or three buildings. Dog Island Light was destroyed, resulting in five deaths. Further inland, many houses were blown over in Tallahassee, totaling $60,000 in damage (1851 USD). Heavy damage was reported in Alabama, including destroyed crops and damaged houses; damage in the state was less than in Florida.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Four
Hurricane-force winds extended into southwestern Georgia, while tropical storm force winds were reported along the coastline. In Savannah, the winds damaged many houses and downed many trees. In North Carolina and Virginia, winds from the storm destroyed crop fields and small buildings; in the region, it was described as the worst storm in 30 years. Storm damage was reported as far north as Cambridge, Massachusetts.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Tropical Storm Five
On September 13, a tropical storm was first observed about 225 miles (360 km) southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. A nearby ship with the call sign Cushnoc reported estimated winds of 60 mph (95 km/h), which was judged to be the peak intensity of the tropical storm. Another ship on September 16 reported similar winds in the same location; Thus, it was estimated to have remained nearly stationary for three days. Its complete track is unknown.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Tropical Storm Six
A tropical storm developed on October 16 about 155 miles (250 km) east of Cape Canaveral, Florida. It tracked northeastward, gradually strengthening to attain peak winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) early on October 17. On October 18, the storm turned more to the north-northeast as its forward motion increased. Gradually weakening, the storm dissipated late on October 19 after making landfall on Rhode Island.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Other systems
On August 2, a hurricane was reported in the vicinity of Tampico. However, it was not listed as a tropical cyclone in the official hurricane database.


1851 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Other systems
An assessment by scholar Michael Chenoweth indicated the presence of a hurricane in the vicinity of western Jamaica around November 7. It is not currently listed in the official hurricane database.


1851 Belgian general election
Senate elections were held in Belgium on 27 September 1851. The snap elections (solely for the Senate) were called by Royal Order on 4 September, due to a lack of support among the wealthy senators for the introduction of an inheritance tax pushed for by the liberal Minister of Finance Walthère Frère-Orban.


1851 Belgian general election
The Liberal Party and Catholics won 27 seats each. Voter turnout was 64.0%, although only 79,296 people (1.8% of the population) were eligible to vote.


1851 Boundary Treaty (Brazil–Uruguay)
The 1851 Boundary Treaty established between Brazil and Uruguay as a result of the Uruguayan Civil War and conflicts with Brazil and Argentina; the result of the treaty was a step towards the acceptance of Uruguay's independence from neighboring territories.


1851 Boundary Treaty (Brazil–Uruguay), Treaties
Uruguay rewarded Brazil's financial and military support by signing five treaties in 1851 that provided for perpetual alliance between the two countries. The Treaty of Montevideo (1828) confirmed Brazil's right to intervene in Uruguay's internal affairs. The treaties also allowed joint navigation on the Uruguay River and its tributaries, and tax exempted cattle and salted meat exports. The treaties also acknowledged Uruguay's debt to Brazil for its aid against the Blancos, and Brazil's commitment for granting an additional loan.


1851 Boundary Treaty (Brazil–Uruguay), Treaties
In addition, Uruguay renounced its territorial claims to a border in the Ibicuí River and accepted the Quaraí River as northernmost border with Brazil, thereby reducing its area the size of the Cisplatina Province, and recognized Brazil's exclusive right of navigation in the Lagoa Mirim and the Jaguarão River , the natural border between the countries. However, a dispute still exists in the vicinity of Masoller over which creek was meant to mark the border in that area. Uruguay also allowed Brazilians to legally own slaves in their properties despite the fact that after 1842 slavery wasn't legal in the country.


1851 California gubernatorial election
The 1851 California gubernatorial election was held on September 3, 1851, to elect the governor of California.


1851 California gubernatorial election
During the 1851 convention, the Democratic Party refused to renominate incumbent John McDougall as the party's choice for governor. Instead, state Democrats nominated Assembly Speaker John Bigler.


1851 Chicago mayoral election
In the 1851 Chicago mayoral election, Walter S. Gurnee defeated incumbent mayor James Curtiss as well as Eli B. Williams and Edward K. Rogers by a landslide 36.25% margin.


1851 Chicago mayoral election
The Whig Party decided against nominating a ticket in the 1851 Chicago municipal elections.


1851 Chicago mayoral election, Results
Gurnee defeated incumbent Democrat James Curtiss as well as Eli B. Williams and Edward K. Rogers.


1851 Chicago mayoral election, Results
Owing to a large number voters not being in compliance with new election laws, an unprecedented number of voters were refused tickets.


1851 Chicago mayoral election, Results
Gurnee received a plurality of votes from all major political parties. It is believed that his vote total from Whigs was as great as his vote total from Democrats. Many political analysts treated the election (which unseated incumbent Democrat James Curtiss) as a "Whig Party victory".


1851 Chilean Revolution
The Revolution of 1851 (or Civil War of 1851) was an attempt by Chilean liberals to overthrow the conservative government of president Manuel Montt and repeal the Chilean Constitution of 1833. After various battles and sieges, by late December 1851 government forces had subdued the revolutionaries.


1851 Chilean Revolution, Background
After the Battle of Lircay ended the Chilean Civil War of 1829–30, Chile formed a conservative political system under the 1833 Constitution, drafted by Mariano Egaña, which established a one-party presidential polity. In the succeeding decades, various liberal social and political movements emerged, led by intellectuals like Santiago Arcos, Francisco Bilbao, José Victorino Lastarria and Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna. These and others formed institutions such as the Literary Society of 1842 and the Society of Equality, which sought to rally the population to achieve an increase in civil rights. The European Revolutions of 1848 also inspired and encouraged opposition political movements, who increasingly saw armed action as the most realistic means of forcing political change.·


1851 Chilean Revolution, 1851 Election and Uprisings, 20 April uprising
In early 1851, the opposition advanced candidate José María de la Cruz in the presidential election to oppose then-president Manuel Bulnes's preferred successor, Manuel Montt. Concerned that the election might not end in their favor, Cruz and other opposition groups decided to attempt a military coup, to be carried out in Santiago by Colonel Pedro Urriola Balbontín.


1851 Chilean Revolution, 1851 Election and Uprisings, 20 April uprising
At dawn on 20 April, Urriola and his companions seized the main streets of Santiago and stormed the army barracks to arm more men, but few of the soldiers they had hoped for joined in the uprising. Two loyalist battalions organized to face the rebels and prepared a counteroffensive from the Alameda and Santa Lucia Hill. The fighting lasted about five hours, after which Urriola was killed along with more than 200 others.


1851 Chilean Revolution, 1851 Election and Uprisings, 25–26 June presidential elections
When the government announced that Montt had won the election by a wide margin, Cruz accused the regime of electoral fraud and declared the election void. He also alleged that government agents were conspiring to assassinate him, but the men accused were acquitted by the Chilean courts. After that Cruz withdrew to Concepción from Santiago. Small protests began in Concepción, Coquimbo and Maule, which would gradually escalate into open rebellion. In the meantime, the government began arresting political opponents.


1851 Chilean Revolution, 1851 Election and Uprisings, September uprisings
Days before Manuel Montt assumed power on 18 September 1851, dissident uprisings seized power in Concepción and La Serena. According to historian Alberto Edwards the uprising  was not only rooted in liberalism but also in provincialism.


1851 Chilean Revolution, 1851 Election and Uprisings, September uprisings
The revolution in La Serena was led by Pedro Pablo Muñoz, the brothers Antonio and Ignacio Alfonso, and other notable residents of the city, who organized a revolutionary militia of 600 men from La Serena, Ovalle and Illapel. Calling themselves the "Restorers of the North," they were commanded by José Miguel Carrera Fontecilla. A revolutionary government was formed in the city, declaring the abolition of the Constitution of 1833. After a defeat by government forces in the Battle of Petorca, the city was besieged.


1851 Chilean Revolution, 1851 Election and Uprisings, September uprisings
The uprising in Concepción, by contrast, had little to do with liberalism, as José María de la Cruz and other Concepción strongmen were pelucones (conservatives). Instead, historian Fernando Silva (1974) claims that the election of Montt meant the loss of the political hegemony Concepción had enjoyed in the 1829–1851 period under the presidents José Joaquín Prieto and Manuel Bulnes, both of whom were from that city. Because of this the Concepción elite would have supported the overthrow of the Montt regime.


1851 Chilean Revolution, 1851 Election and Uprisings, September uprisings
Cruz armed a group of four thousand men, including liberal supporters, rebel troops, mountaineers, and warriors of the Mapuche chieftain Mañil. According to historian José Bengoa, the Mapuches saw the central government in Santiago as their main enemy, explaining their participation on the side of Cruz in the Concepción-based revolt. Cruz had previously been in charge of the Army of the South and had helped to prevent a possible Mapuche-Chilean war arising from the wreck of Joven Daniel in 1849.


1851 Chilean Revolution, 1851 Election and Uprisings, Later uprisings
On 28 October another uprising began in Valparaíso, led by artisans of the Society of Brotherhood (the surviving local chapter of Society of Equality). The Valparaíso mutiny was led by Rafael Bilbao and José Antonio Riquelme.


1851 Chilean Revolution, 1851 Election and Uprisings, Later uprisings
On 21 November a Chilean naval officer named José Miguel Cambiazo led a mutiny in Punta Arenas, which was eventually put down by the Chilean navy.


1851 Chilean Revolution, Consequences of the Revolution
After the failure of the Revolution, the government of Montt began a program of political persecution against the instigators of the uprisings, led by his minister Antonio Varas, which included arrests and deportations. Dozens of notable government opponents were driven into exile, including Arcos, Bilbao, Lastarria and Vicuña Mackenna. Thousands more had died in the fighting.


1851 Chilean Revolution, Consequences of the Revolution
A major rift developed within Chile's political opposition, dividing them into a group headed by Francisco Bilbao, who called for renewed armed revolution, and one headed by Aubrey, seeking a return to democracy by an institutional route.


1851 Chilean presidential election
The Chilean presidential election of 1851 took place through a system of electors, and resulted in the election as President of Manuel Montt. Montt was the first non-military president.


1851 Chilean presidential election
Montt's opponent, José María de la Cruz, refused to accept the results and started a rebellion, the Revolution of 1851, in Concepción. He was defeated by former president Manuel Bulnes.


1851 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1851 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 2, 1851. It was a rematch of the 1850 Connecticut gubernatorial election. Incumbent governor and Democratic Party nominee Thomas H. Seymour defeated former state legislator and Whig nominee Lafayette S. Foster with 48.94% of the vote.


1851 Connecticut gubernatorial election
Seymour won a plurality of the vote, but he did not receive a majority. As a result, the Connecticut General Assembly elected the governor, per the state constitution. The Whig Party had a majority in the Connecticut State house, but they were divided over their choice. Seymour won the vote over Foster by a mere one-vote margin, 122 to 121, in the General Assembly, and became the governor.


1851 French constitutional referendum
A referendum was held in France on 20 and 21 December 1851. Voters were asked whether they approved of the continuation of the authority of Louis Napoléon Bonaparte and to delegate the powers required to produce a new constitution. It was approved by 92% of voters with an 81.7% turnout.


1851 French constitutional referendum, Results
92.03% of French voters voted in favor of the amendment, while 18.35% of electors abstained from voting. The official tally and free nature of the vote were questioned by dissidents like Victor Hugo.


1851 French coup d'état
The Coup d'état of 2 December 1851 was a self-coup staged by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (later Napoleon III), at the time President of France under the Second Republic. Code-named Operation Rubicon and timed to coincide with the anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation and victory at Austerlitz, the coup dissolved the National Assembly, granted dictatorial powers to the president and preceded the establishment of the Second French Empire the next year.


1851 French coup d'état
Faced with the prospect of having to leave office in 1852, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte) staged the coup in order to stay in power and implement his reform programs; these included the restoration of universal male suffrage previously abolished by the legislature. The continuation of his authority and the power to produce a new constitution were approved days later by a constitutional referendum, resulting in the Constitution of 1852, which greatly increased the powers and the term length of the president. A year after the coup, Bonaparte proclaimed himself "Emperor of the French" under the regnal name Napoleon III.


1851 French coup d'état, Causes
In 1848, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte was elected President of France through universal male suffrage, taking 74% of the vote. He did this with the support of the Party of Order after running against Louis Eugène Cavaignac. Subsequently, he was in constant conflict with the members (députés) of the National Assembly.


1851 French coup d'état, Causes
Contrary to the Party's expectations that Louis-Napoleon would be easy to manipulate (Adolphe Thiers had called him a "cretin whom we will lead [by the nose]"), he proved himself an agile and cunning politician. He succeeded in imposing his choices and decisions upon the Assembly, which had once again become conservative in the aftermath of the June Days uprising in 1848. He broke away from the control of the Party of Order and created the Ministère des Commis, appointing General Hautpoul as its head, in 1849. On 3 January 1850, he dismissed Changarnier, a dissident in the Party of Order, thereby provoking an open conflict within the party. He also actively encouraged the creation of numerous anti-parliament newspapers and acquired the support of 150 members of Parliament, the "Parti de l'Elysée".


1851 French coup d'état, Causes
The provisions of the constitution that prohibited an incumbent president from seeking re-election appeared to force the end of Louis-Napoleon's rule in December 1852. He therefore spent the first half of 1851 trying to force changes to the constitution through Parliament so he could be re-elected. Bonaparte travelled through the provinces and organised petitions to rally popular support. Two-thirds of the General Council supported Louis-Napoleon's cause, but in the Assembly, supporters of the Duke of Orléans, led by Thiers, concluded an alliance with the far left to oppose Louis-Napoleon's plans. In January 1851, the Parliament voted no confidence in the Ministère des Commis. On 19 July, it refused the constitutional reform proposed by Louis-Napoleon, also scrapping universal male suffrage in an effort to break popular support for Bonaparte.


1851 French coup d'état, Preparations for the coup
The coup d'état was meticulously planned from 20 August 1851. Preparations and planning for this coup took place at Saint-Cloud. Among the conspirators were Jean-Gilbert Victor Fialin, a loyal companion of Louis-Napoléon, Charles de Morny, Louis-Napoléon's half-brother, and General Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud. On 14 October, Louis-Napoleon asked the Parliament to restore universal male suffrage but the request was turned down. His request for a reconsideration of the constitutional reform proposal was also turned down on 13 November.


1851 French coup d'état, Preparations for the coup
Prepared to strike, Louis-Napoleon appointed General Saint-Arnaud as the Minister of War and a circular was issued reminding soldiers of their pledge of "passive obedience". Followers of the President were appointed to various important positions: General Magnan as the Commander of the Troops of Paris, and Maupas, Prefect of Haute-Garonne as Prefect of Police of Paris. Convinced that the coup was now inevitable after the latest refusal, Louis-Napoleon fixed the anniversary of the coronation of Napoleon in 1804, and the victory at Austerlitz in 1805, as the day for the coup. The operation was christened Rubicon, alluding to Julius Caesar.


1851 French coup d'état, The coup of 2 December 1851
On the morning of 2 December, troops led by Saint-Arnaud occupied strategic points in Paris, from the Champs-Élysées to the Tuileries. Top opposition leaders were arrested and six edicts promulgated to establish the rule of Louis-Napoleon. The National Assembly was dissolved, and universal male suffrage restored. Louis-Napoleon declared that a new constitution was being framed and said he intended to restore the "system established by the First Consul".


1851 French coup d'état, The coup of 2 December 1851
Reacting to this coup, parliamentarians took refuge in the mayor's office of the 20th arrondissement of Paris, and 220 of them voted to oust Louis-Napoleon from power. Most prominent among these were liberals like Remusat and moderates like Pascal Duprat, who were arrested soon after. A Parisian insurrection led by the likes of Victor Hugo and Victor Schoelcher erupted despite tight control by the Army. The insurgents were soon defeated. On 3 December parliamentarian Jean-Baptiste Baudin was killed, and on 4 December 200 more people fell victim to the suppression of the revolt. The Italian journalist Ferdinando Petruccelli della Gattina was among the rebels and was expelled from France. By evening, the revolt of Paris was suppressed and the city returned to normal.


1851 French coup d'état, Revolt in other places
The coup triggered revolts in other places across France. On 5 December, rebellions were reported in big cities, small towns and rural areas in the south-west of France. The department of Basses-Alpes even declared itself administered by a "Committee of Resistance" but the army, still loyal to the President, succeeded in quelling the rebellion. A total of 32 departments were put under a state of alert from 8 December and the rebellious areas were controlled in a few days. Opponents were arrested and some were forced to flee.


1851 French coup d'état, Revolt in other places
Victor Hugo fled to Brussels, then Jersey, and finally settled with his family on the Channel Island of Guernsey at Hauteville House, where he would live in exile until Napoleon III’s downfall in 1870 and collapse of the regime during the Franco-Prussian War. By the end of the rebellion, 26,000 people were arrested, 9,530 were sent to Algeria and 250 to the prison of Cayenne.


1851 French coup d'état, Peace returns and aftermath
The Bonapartists were finally assured of a victory. Generals Vaillant and Harispe became Marshals of France on 11 December. A new constitution was being drafted. A referendum was organised to ratify the new order and the coup was portrayed as a security operation. On 20 and 21 December, the French population were recorded as having voted for acceptance of the new regime by an overwhelming majority of 7,145,000 to 600,000, although the official tally and free nature of the vote were questioned by dissidents like Victor Hugo. Bonaparte now had the power to draft a new constitution.


1851 French coup d'état, Peace returns and aftermath
Following a referendum in December 1851, a new constitution was adopted in January 1852. It dramatically expanded the powers of the president, who was elected for a period of 10 years with no term limits. He not only possessed executive power, but was vested with the power of legislative initiative, thereby reducing the scope of the Parliament. Bonaparte was automatically reelected to a fresh term as president. For all intents and purposes, he now held all governing power in the nation.


1851 French coup d'état, Peace returns and aftermath
The authoritarian republic proved to be only a stopgap, as Bonaparte immediately set about restoring the Empire. In less than a year, following another referendum on 7 November 1852, the Second French Empire was proclaimed. Again on the symbolic and historic date of 2 December, President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte became Napoleon III, Emperor of the French. The 1851 constitution concentrated so much power in Louis-Napoléon's hands that when the Empire was proclaimed, the only substantive changes to the document were to replace the word "president" with the word "emperor" and make the post hereditary.


1851 Georgia gubernatorial election
The 1851 Georgia gubernatorial election was held on October 6, 1851.


1851 Georgia gubernatorial election
The Constitutional Union Candidate, Howell Cobb defeated the Southern Rights Candidate, Charles McDonald.


1851 Georgia gubernatorial election
Governor Howell Cobb became the first and only Constitutional Union Governor of Georgia.


1851 Grand National
The 1851 Grand National was, at the time, the 14th renewal of a handicap steeplechase horse race that took place at Aintree near Liverpool, England, on 26 February 1851. However, this was later retrospectively recorded as the 13th official running by the Steeplechase Calendar of 1864 when the race of 1838 was disregarded as official.


1851 Grand National
The race was won by Abd-El-Kader, becoming the first dual winner and the first to do so in consecutive years (discounting The Duke, 1836/1837 whose wins are not included in official race records). Known affectionately as "Little Ab", the horse stood at just under fifteen hands.


1851 Grand National, Course Changes
The start area from previous years was sowed with wheat so the grass field to the left of this was used instead, although the runners did pass over the wheat field at the start of the second circuit. The span of the water jump in front of the stands was also increased to 15 feet


1851 Grand National, Course Changes
The third fence, which had previously been a post and rails, was replaced with a ditch and bank and an additional hurdle was placed between the Canal bridge and the racecourse proper.


1851 Grand National, Course Changes
The first fence was described as the Wheat Fence due to the wheat field that preceded it this year. The Anchor Bridge Crossing was described as Proceed's lane after the well backed horse, which had fallen there two years earlier.


1851 Grand National, Leading contenders
There was an element of criticism of the event this year due to several highly fancied withdrawals in the days prior to the race.


1851 Grand National, Leading contenders
Rat Trap was listed as an 11/2 favourite after the eve of race betting exchanges, which this year predominantly took place in Lucas' Repository on Great Charlotte Street. This stretched to 6/1 before the off and was based largely on the fact he was being partnered by former winning jockey, Jem Mason and was also carrying eleven lbs less than when failing to complete the course last year. The favourite was prominent as the leaders took the Water jump and remained just off the leaders on the second circuit, unable to mount a challenge, finishing fifth or sixth.


1851 Grand National, Leading contenders
Sir John had finished third last year when sent off as favourite and remained well supported, despite having to give weight to all his rivals. Trained by Richard I'Anson at Curraghmore, Ireland  and ridden by John Ryan, Lord Waterford's colours went to the front early on the first circuit and lay at the head of the pack in third place as two runners cut out the second circuit pace. After the final hurdle Sir John was well placed to challenge but remained a couple of lengths adrift of the two in front of him to finish third.


1851 Grand National, Leading contenders
Abd-El-Kader Last year's winner wasn't heavily backed until the day of the race when his appearance on the course attracted the attention of the spectators. Carrying just six lbs more than in victory last year, his owner, Dublin based owner of the Steeplechase Calendar and Irish reporter for sports paper, Bell's Life, Joe Osborne, had secured fellow countryman, Terry Abbott for the ride, which was considered by the public as an improvement on last year's winning partner, Chris Green. This ensured 'Little Ab' was sent off as co second favourite at 7/1.


1851 Grand National, Leading contenders
Abbott kept the champion handy on the first circuit, lying a close eighth at the Canal Turn and moving up to third at the Water Jump. The Irish rider showed excellent judgement on the second circuit, remaining calm to allow others to gain a lead of over ten lengths before he moved Little Ab up to challenge Sir John for third place coming to proceed's Lane. Abbott then kicked on when entering the racecourse to challenge Maria Day after the final hurdle, going on to win a tight finish by half a neck. As much of the press of the time had already disregarded the races of 1836 and 1837 as Grand National's, he was regarded as the first duel winner of the race.


1851 Grand National, Leading contenders
Vain Hope sometimes listed as Vainhope was the winner of the Wolverhampton Chase in December, beating many of his Aintree opponents. He was also one of two entries for William Vevers, which led the owner to declare which of his two competitors he was placing his faith. The betting public followed and respected Vever's judgement and led to his declared runner being a 7/1 morning second favourite, although he drifted slightly to 8/1 by the off. Under Sam Darling Junior, Vain Hope was kept well to the rear for most of the contest, only starting to make progress after jumping Becher's for the second time. Unfortunately he never gave his backers a run for their money and was never closer than fifth on the run in.


1851 Grand National, Leading contenders
Tipperary Boy Impressed when finishing fourth last year when completely unconsidered by the public. He also impressed again with a front running performance in finishing second in the Worcestershire Grand Annual Chase in December when ridden by Ablett. Duel National winner, Tom Olliver took the mount at Aintree, leading to his being well backed to 10/1 on race day. Olliver took his mount to the front rank right from the off, disputing the lead for much of the first circuit.


1851 Grand National, Leading contenders
Tipperary Boy led at the Water jump before Olliver set out to win the race early, increasing the pace to lead by six lengths at Becher's Brook. He maintained his gallop all the way back to the race course when challenged approaching the final hurdle. Tipperary Boy kicked through the timber and rapidly faded to finish unplaced.


1851 Grand National, The race
Official records only state the first three finishers, the remainder listed merely as having also ran. However, the race was recorded in detail by most national and regional newspapers of the time, largely in agreement with the record published by the Liverpool Mercury.


1851 Grand National, The race
Sir John and Tipperary Boy cut out the early running. Hope came to the front at Becher's Brook but Chris Green's stirrup leather broke at the Canal Turn and the horse retreated rapidly with no further mention of them, suggesting the horse was pulled up soon after. Peter Simple came to the lead along the Canal Side of the course and was the subject of a large bet that he would be the first to take the Water jump, then known as the Artificial Brook, situated in front of the stands. Tubb's mount led over the fence at the distance chair but was headed by Tipperary Boy over the Water, thus losing the bet.


1851 Grand National, The race
Sir John was third at this stage followed by Rat Trap, Abd El Kader, Half and Half, Maria Day and Mulligan leading the main body of runners with Vainhope, Volatile and Fugleman bringing up the rear. Volatile fell here and, although remounted, pulled up before reaching the first fence on the second circuit, reported as the Wheat fence. Penrith had been seen to the rear from an early stage and reports suggested he fell on the first circuit.


1851 Grand National, The race
Peter Simple struggled in the wheat field leaving the racecourse and was pulled up as Tipperary Boy upped the pace, opening up a lead of a length or two to Maria Day and Mulligan who in turn led Sir John by three lengths with Abd El Kader just behind in the main pack. The pace increased with the order remaining the same until the vicinity of the Canal Turn where Mulligan suffered a heavy fall but was quickly remounted.


1851 Grand National, The race
Along the Canal side of the course Tipperary Boy maintained a two length lead over Maria Day, in turn four lengths clear of Sir John as Abd El Kader and Half and Half moved up to dispute third. Vainhope was now steadily improving from the rear and Mulligan was also gaining ground after his fall. The Greysteel Mare and Shinrone both fell at some point along this part of the course, although the latter was remounted while several others retired from the race with victory beyond them.


1851 Grand National, The race
Coming back onto the racecourse, Maria Day moved up to challenge Tipperary Boy. Abd El Kader moved past the one paced Sir John in third as the remainder failed to make progress. The two leaders jumped the final hurdle together but both crashed through the timber. Maria Day continued but Tipperary Boy tired rapidly to leave Abd El Kader as the only challenger to the mare. Abbott's mount drew level on the run in and got the better of a close finish to claim victory by half a neck. Sir John was a further two lengths down in third with Half and Half fourth. The contemporary reports differ on the order of the remaining finishers but a majority suggest the order was that listed in the finishing order below.


1851 Grand National, The race
No injury was reported to any of the horses but William Taylor suffered a broken collarbone when he fell from The Victim at Proceed's Lane fence, which is no longer on the course but was where the runners cross Anchor Bridge in the modern era.


1851 Grand National, Finishing Order
Only the first three were officially recorded. However there are several detailed reports of the race published in the national and regional newspapers of the time. While each report presents some minor differences, a more detailed picture of the fate of each runner can be taken from the agreement of the majority of reports.


1851 Lacroute
1851 Lacroute, provisional designation 1950 VA, is an asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 17 kilometers in diameter.


1851 Lacroute
It was discovered on 9 November 1950, by French astronomer Louis Boyer at the Algiers Observatory in the capital of Algeria, Northern Africa, and named after French astronomer Pierre Lacroute.


1851 Lacroute, Orbit and classification
Lacroute orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.5–3.7 AU once every 5 years and 6 months (1,996 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.19 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic. As no precoveries were taken, and no prior identifications were made, the body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation in 1950.


1851 Lacroute, Physical characteristics
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Lacroute measures 16.9 and 18.2 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.049 and 0.074, respectively. As of 2016, the body's spectral type, as well as its rotation period and shape remain unknown.


1851 Lacroute, Naming
This minor planet was named in honor of French astronomer Pierre Lacroute (1906–1993), a known astrometrist, president of IAU's Commission 24 in the 1970s, and director of the Observatory of Strasbourg, instrumental in the establishment of the Stellar Data Center (also see SIMBAD).


1851 Lacroute, Naming
Lacroute also made an independent reduction of the astrometric star catalogue AGK3, using a technique involving overlapping photographic plates. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 August 1978 (M.P.C. 4419).


1851 Liberian general election
Presidential elections were held in Liberia in 1851. The result was a victory for incumbent President Joseph Jenkins Roberts.


1851 Liverpool Town Council election
Elections to Liverpool Town Council were held on Saturrday 1 November 1851. One third of the council seats were up for election, the term of office of each councillor being three years.


1851 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
The 1851 Massachusetts gubernatorial election was held on November 10.


1851 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
Incumbent Democratic Governor George S. Boutwell was re-elected to a second term in office. Although Whig Robert C. Winthrop won a plurality of the popular vote, a majority was required for election. Instead, the election was put to the Massachusetts General Court, where a coalition of Free Soil and Democratic legislators elected Boutwell to a second term.


1851 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, Legislative vote
The Massachusetts House of Representatives certified the popular returns on January 12. Governor Boutwell was the first candidate nominated with 200 votes to Winthrop's 194. On a second ballot, Winthrop was nominated with 240 votes, with 30 for Palfrey and 16 for Cogswell. In the Massachusetts State Senate, Boutwell defeated Winthrop 28-11.


1851 Massachusetts legislature
The 72nd Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1851 during the governorship of George S. Boutwell. Henry Wilson served as president of the Senate and Nathaniel Prentice Banks served as speaker of the House.


1851 Michigan gubernatorial election
The 1851 Michigan gubernatorial election was held on November 4, 1851. Democratic nominee Robert McClelland defeated Whig nominee Townsend E. Gidley with 58.50% of the vote.


1851 Naval Air Squadron
1851 Naval Air Squadron (1851 NAS) was a Naval Air Squadron of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm.


1851 New York state election
The 1851 New York state election was held on November 4, 1851, to elect the Secretary of State, the State Comptroller, the State Attorney General, the State Treasurer, the State Engineer, a Judge of the New York Court of Appeals, a Canal Commissioner and an Inspector of State Prisons, as well as all members of the New York State Assembly and the New York State Senate.


1851 New York state election, Background
The Democratic state convention met on September 10 in Syracuse. The Whig state convention met on September 11 in Syracuse. Horace Wheaton, candidate for Canal Commissioner, was the sitting Mayor of Syracuse.


1851 New York state election, Results
Six out of eight state offices were won by the Democrats, the most important ones by margins of a few hundred votes out of about 400,000 cast. The incumbent Chatfield was re-elected. The incumbents Seymour, Foot and Wells were defeated.


1851 New York state election, Results
Six Democrats and four Whigs were elected to the district benches of the New York State Supreme Court.


1851 New York state election, Contested election
The Whig candidate James M. Cook was declared elected state treasurer with a majority of only 228 votes, but Attorney General Chatfield contested the result in the New York Supreme Court in favor of Welch, claiming that ballots with a name similar to that of the candidate Benjamin Welch, Jr., had been counted as "scattering" but had been intended for Welch.


1851 New York state election, Contested election
In fact the official state canvass shows ballots for "Benjamin Welch" in Chemung (68), Kings (1), Saratoga (1) and Tompkins (47), "B. Welch" in Chenango (1), Livingston (1) and New York (1), "B. J. Welch" in Livingston (1), and "Benjamin C. Welch, Jr." in Ontario (32); a total of 153. On the other side, the official canvass also shows votes for "J. M. Cook" in Kings (1), "J. W. Cook" in Livingston (2), "Cook" in New York (2), "James Cook" in Saratoga (1), "James A. Cook" in Suffolk (15) and "John M Cook" in Yates (1), a total of 22.


1851 New York state election, Contested election
Besides, votes from several election districts were disallowed on technicalities (49 for Welch and 24 for Cook in Chesterfield, Essex County, New York; 332 for Welch and 66 for Cook in the second election district of the 14th Ward in New York City). On September 30, 1852, the election result was reversed by the Supreme Court, but Cook refused to deliver the office and the books. Welch sued for the delivery of the books, but the motion was denied. After some more legal proceedings, Welch took office as Treasurer for the remainder of the term on November 20, 1852.


1851 New Zealand census
The 1851 New Zealand census was the first national population census held in the Crown colony of New Zealand. The day used for the census was Saturday 1 November 1851. The enumeration was left to the governments of New Ulster and New Munster, the two provinces into which the country was then divided and was ordered by the Census Ordinance of 1851. The census, which only surveyed European New Zealanders, revealed a population of 26,707.


1851 New Zealand census, Summary, Data availability
The Blue Books were statistical information from New Zealand's early Colonial period (1840–1855). They have information about population, revenue, military, trade, shipping, public works, legislation, civil servants, foreign consuls, land transactions, churches, schools, and prisons.


1851 New Zealand census, Population and dwellings
Population counts for the New Zealand districts. The original six were Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago, though in 1858 New Plymouth was renamed Taranaki.


1851 New Zealand census, Population and dwellings, Religion
Members of Christian denominations formed 93.35 per cent. of those who made answer to the inquiry at the census; non-Christian sects were 0.24 per cent. ; whilst "other" religions constituted 6.41 per cent.


1851 New Zealand census, Numbers of livestock
Showing the numbers of livestock in the possession of Europeans in the several settlements in 1851.


1851 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election
The 1851 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election occurred on October 14, 1851. Incumbent governor William F. Johnston, a Whig, was a candidate for re-election but was defeated by Democratic candidate William Bigler.


1851 Philadelphia mayoral election
The Philadelphia mayoral election of 1851 saw the reelection of Charles Gilpin.


1851 Philadelphia mayoral election, Electoral system
Beginning in 1839, the city operated under a mixed electoral system. Citizens voted for mayor in a general election. If a candidate receive a majority of the vote, they would be elected mayor. However, if no candidate received a majority, the City Council would select a mayor from the top-two finishers.


1851 Portuguese legislative election
The Portuguese legislative election, 1851 was held on 2 and 16 November.


1851 Research Fellowship
The 1851 Research Fellowship is a scheme conducted by the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 to annually award a three-year research scholarship to approximately eight "young scientists or engineers of exceptional promise". The fellowship is open to all nationalities and fields of science, including physical or biological sciences, mathematics, applied science, and any branch of engineering. The fellowship can be held anywhere in the United Kingdom.


1851 Research Fellowship
Several other Fellowships are also awarded by the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, including the Research Fellowship in the Built Environment, Industrial Fellowships and the Research Fellowship in Design.


1851 Research Fellowship, Alumni
The research fellowship known as the 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, has been awarded to numerous scientists and engineers over the years, many of whom have become leaders in their fields.


1851 South Australian colonial election
Colonial elections were held in South Australia on 21 February 1851. Only 16 of the 24 seats in the unicameral Legislative Council were popularly elected but was the first occurrence of voting franchise in the colony. The 1855 election was the second and last of this type. The 1857 election was the first contest which popularly elected all members to the new bicameral Parliament of South Australia.


1851 South Australian colonial election
The first six Governors of South Australia oversaw governance from proclamation in 1836 until self-government in 1857.


1851 Swiss federal election
Federal elections were held in Switzerland on 26 October 1851. The Radical Left remained the largest group in the National Council, winning 78 of the 120 seats.


1851 Swiss federal election, Electoral system
The elections were held under the Federal law concerning the elections to the National Council, which had been passed on 21 December 1850. The 120 members of the National Council were elected in 49 single- and multi-member constituencies; there was one seat for every 20,000 citizens, with seats allocated to cantons in proportion to their population. The 1850 law reduced the number of constituencies from 52, but increased the number of seats from 111; Aargau, Glarus, Lucerne, Neuchâtel, Vaud and Zürich gained one seat each, whilst Bern gained three seats. The law also set the election date as the last Sunday in October and introduced a three-year term.


1851 Swiss federal election, Electoral system
The elections were held using a three-round system; candidates had to receive a majority in the first or second round to be elected; if it went to a third round, only a plurality was required. Voters could cast as many votes as there were seats in their constituency. In six cantons (Appenzell Innerrhoden, Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Glarus, Nidwalden, Obwalden and Uri), National Council members were elected by the Landsgemeinde.


1851 Texas gubernatorial election
The 1851 Texas gubernatorial election was held on August 4, 1851 to elect the Governor of Texas. Incumbent Governor Peter Hansborough Bell was reelected to a second term, receiving 48% of the vote. His nearest challenger, Middleton T. Johnson, won just 19%.


1851 United Kingdom census
The United Kingdom Census of 1851 recorded the people residing in every household on the night of Sunday 30 March 1851, and was the second of the UK censuses to include details of household members. However, this census added considerably to the fields recorded in the earlier 1841 UK Census, providing additional details of ages, relationships and origins, making the 1851 census a rich source of information for both demographers and genealogists.


1851 United Kingdom census
The 1851 census for England and Wales was opened to public inspection at the Public Record Office in 1912 (the 100-year closure rule was not in effect at the time), and is now available from The National Archives as part of class HO 107. The 1851 census for Scotland is available at the General Register Office for Scotland.


1851 United Kingdom census
An 1851 census was taken in Ireland but most of the records have been destroyed; those that remain are held by the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland (for those counties of Ireland which remain in the UK) or the National Archives of Ireland (for those counties now in the Republic of Ireland).


1851 United Kingdom census
The census was held concurrently with a census of religion in England and Wales, which recorded religious institutions and attendance at religious services on 30 March. The returns for this are also held at The National Archives as class HO 129.


1851 United Kingdom census, Developments from previous censuses
The 1851 census was the first to record the full details of birth location for individuals. Where 1841 had only recorded if an individual was born in a county, the 1851 census states the county and parish or town of birth as well. The purpose behind asking for this information was to answer one of the critical questions of the time which was the rate and intensity of migration from rural to urban areas. The results confirmed there had been a significant shift from the countryside to the towns.


1851 United Kingdom census, Developments from previous censuses
The 1851 census was the first to record each person's marital status and relationship to the head of the household, as well as details of disability being recorded — with a field for recording the information that an individual was "blind, deaf or imbecile". Each individual's exact age was also recorded (to the nearest year) rather than rounding adult ages down to the nearest five years.


1851 United Kingdom census, Developments from previous censuses
In 1851, much greater detail was asked about people's occupations than in previous censuses. This enabled government analysis of occupations into "classes" and "sub-classes". Masters in trade and manufacture were asked to state the word "master" after the description of their occupation and to state the number of men employed on the day of the census. A full transcript of the 1851 Census can be found online.


1851 United Kingdom census, Developments from previous censuses
Full documentation for the 1851 population census, including census forms and enumerator instructions, is available from the North Atlantic Population Project.


1851 United Kingdom census, Developments from previous censuses, Census of religion
The Government also conducted a census in England and Wales of churches and chapels, endowments, sittings, attendance at religious services on Sunday 30 March 1851 and average numbers during the preceding twelve months. Reports were collected from local ministers. The attendance count was 10,896,066 out of a population of 17.9 million. There were 5,292,551 attending Church of England services, 4,536,264 attending the other Protestant churches, and 383,630 attending Catholic services. This was a unique experiment, not repeated at any later census.


1851 United Kingdom census, Developments from previous censuses, Census of religion
The religious census returns are now held in The National Archives as class HO 129.


1851 United Kingdom census, Government analysis
Since the 1841 Census the population of Ireland had dropped by 1.7 million due to mass starvation caused by the Great Famine, as well as emigration abroad.


1851 United Kingdom census, Government analysis
The additional information on ages and occupations permitted considerable contemporary analysis of the census data for England and Wales. Not only were 332 different occupations analysed by age group, but they were also correlated with death records from civil registration, allowing statisticians, led by William Farr, "to compare the living in each well defined occupation with the number dying registered at the corresponding ages; and thus to determine the influence of employment on health and life".


1851 United Kingdom census, Government analysis
Miners die in undue proportions, particularly at the advanced ages, when their strength begins to decline... Tailors die in considerable numbers at the younger ages (25–45)... Labourers' mortality is as nearly the same rate as that of the whole population, except in the very advanced ages, when the Poor Law apparently affords inadequate relief to the worn-out workman.


1851 United Kingdom census, Genealogical value
The 1851 census is seen as one of the key sources for British genealogical research of the nineteenth century. The information about the relationship of individuals to the head of household enables relationships between people to be established accurately. Furthermore, the inclusion of exact ages and details of each person's place of birth, provides the researcher with a pointer to the location of birth or baptism records. In many cases, this allows the researcher to pin-down the parish of birth with relative ease: in other cases, the situation is not so simple.


1851 United Kingdom census, Genealogical value
An example of the problems encountered is that the census may accurately record a person's place of birth, although their baptism (which may be the only record relating to their birth) may be in a different place. Conversely, a person may have been born and baptised in one place, but brought up in a different place, which is the one they remember as their place of origin and duly record it as such in the census.


1851 United Kingdom census, Genealogical value
A further problem is that the information about a household was normally provided to the census enumerator by the head of household—and heads of household varied in the conscientiousness with which they elicited information from each person in the household. In cases where a person was born outside the country, only the country of origin is given (not the location within the country). Hence, for example, there are many people in the English census whose place of birth is given simply as "Scotland".


1851 United Kingdom census, Data availability and publication
The 1851 schedules have been digitized and are available at subscription websites. The schedules are of high importance to genealogists since 1851 was the first year in which a place of birth or parish was recorded. Microdata from the 1851 population census are freely available through the North Atlantic Population Project.


1851 United Kingdom census, Data availability and publication, Religious census
The religious census returns (The National Archives, HO 129) are available to download free of charge as part of the Digital Microfilm project.


1851 United Kingdom census, Data availability and publication, Religious census
The returns for a number of counties have been published by county record societies and similar bodies.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts
The 1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts was held during January 1851. Free Soil Party candidate Charles Sumner was elected by a coalition of Free-Soil and Democratic legislators over Whig incumbent Robert C. Winthrop, who had been appointed to finish the term of retiring Senator Daniel Webster.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts
At the time, Massachusetts elected United States senators by a majority vote of each separate house of the Massachusetts General Court, the House and the Senate.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Background, Democratic-Free Soil coalition
At the time, Massachusetts elected governors by a majority of the popular vote. If no candidate received a majority, the election was decided by a vote of the General Court. In 1850, the Massachusetts electorate split between three major parties: the Whigs, the Democrats, and the anti-slavery Free Soil Party. To overcome the much larger Whig Party, the Democrats and Free-Soilers entered a coalition. Under their power-sharing agreement, the state Democratic Party adopted an anti-slavery platform. Democrats George S. Boutwell and Nathaniel Prentiss Banks would be elected Governor and Speaker of the House, respectively. Free Soil leader Henry Wilson was elected Senate President.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Background, Democratic-Free Soil coalition
Finally, abolitionist activist Charles Sumner would be elected to the United States Senate in the January election.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Background, Legislative composition
In the Senate, 14 Whigs, 14 Democrats, and 12 Free-Soilers were elected. In the House, 175 Whigs, 108 Democrats, and 113 Free-Soilers were elected. Although the Democratic-Free Soil coalition held a clear majority in each house, some Democratic legislators voiced their opposition to the election of the radical abolitionist Sumner. Conservative representatives who sought reconciliation with the South feared that Sumner's election would be a step toward civil war and sought to deny him the majority in the House.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election in the House
The election for Senator began in the House on January 14, but the House adjourned after no candidate received a majority on the first two ballots.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election in the House, First ballot
Following the first ballot, a motion was made to postpone the election until February 15. Pending that motion, another motion was made to adjourn. The motion to adjourn failed 180-190, and the motion to postpone failed 159-193. The House proceeded to a second ballot.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election in the House, Second ballot
Following the failure of the second ballot, the House adjourned for the day. They also adjourned on January 15 without electing a Senator. Following this adjournment, the House Free Soilers threatened that if Sumner was not elected on the next ballot, then they would request the resignation of Democratic Governor George S. Boutwell, who owed his seat to the coalition's support.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election in the House, Twentieth and twenty-first ballots
On the twentieth ballot, April 23, Sumner was found to be one vote shy of a majority. However, a single vote had Sumner's name written but crossed out in pencil. After debate, this vote was counted and it was reported that Sumner had a one-vote majority, but a Whig member of the House moved to count a previously-discarded vote as "scattering." After another half hour of debate, the motion carried without opposition and Sumner's majority was erased. It was reported that there were two more votes than members voting.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election in the House, Twentieth and twenty-first ballots
After it was erroneously reported that Sumner had won by one vote, abolitionists throughout the Commonwealth began celebrating.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election in the House, Twenty-third ballot
On the twenty-third ballot, Sumner fell two votes short of a majority. It was reported that two votes for Sumner found "doubled together" were thrown out.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election in the House, Twenty-sixth and final ballot
On the twenty-sixth ballot, it was moved that votes be cast by envelope. Two Whigs were reported to have supported Sumner, one being Nathaniel B. Borden after instructions to do so from his constituents. Sumner was declared the victor with a majority of one. Two blank ballots were not counted.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election in the Senate
On January 20, between the fifth and sixth House ballots, Sumner was victorious over Winthrop in the Senate, receiving three votes more than the necessary 20.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election in the Senate
Votes for Sumner: Austin, Joseph T. Buckingham, Cazneau, Dean, Dewitt, Graves, Whiting Griswold, Howe, Kimball, Keyes, Morrison, Mosely, Robinson, Saunders Jr., Tabor, Usher, Welch, Whitney, Warner, Wellington, Wood, Senate President Wood, and Henry Wilson.


1851 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, Election in the Senate
Votes for Winthrop: Barney, Bassett, Boynton, Daniels, Hyde, Charles Hubbard, Hawley, Hilliard, Kuhn, Newell, Russell, Sears, Benjamin Seaver, Wilkins


1851 United States Senate election in New York
The 1851 United States Senate election in New York was held on February 4 and March 18/19, 1851, by the New York State Legislature to elect a U.S. Senator (Class 1) to represent the State of New York in the United States Senate.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Background
Daniel S. Dickinson (Dem.) had been elected in 1845 to this seat, and his term would expire on March 3, 1851.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Background
At this time the Whig Party in New York was split in two opposing factions: the Seward/Weed faction (the majority, opposed to the Compromise of 1850) and the "Silver Grays" (supporters of President Millard Fillmore and his compromise legislation, led by Francis Granger whose silver gray hair originated the faction's nickname). The opposing factions of the Democratic Party in New York, the "Barnburners" and the "Hunkers", had reunited at the State election in November 1850, and managed to have almost their whole State ticket elected, only Horatio Seymour was defeated for governor by a plurality of 262 votes.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Background
At the State election in November 1849, 14 Seward Whigs, 3 Silver Gray Whigs and 15 Democrats were elected for a two-year term (1850–1851) in the State Senate. At the State election in November 1850, a Whig majority was elected to the Assembly for the session of 1851. The 74th New York State Legislature met from January 7 to April 17, and from June 10 to July 11, 1851, at Albany, New York.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Candidates
Ex-Governor of New York Hamilton Fish was the candidate of the Whig Party.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Election
Hamilton Fish belonged to the Seward/Weed faction, but was also a close friend of Henry Clay who was one of the leaders of the Fillmore faction in Washington, D.C. He was thus considered the only viable compromise candidate. The Silver Grays asked Fish to pledge his support for the Compromise, but Fish refused to make any comment, saying that he did not seek the office, and that the legislators should vote guided by Fish's known political history.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Election
Fish had earlier stated his opposition against the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 but was believed to support most of the remainder of the Compromise. Nevertheless, Silver Gray State Senator James W. Beekman declared that he would not vote for Fish for personal reasons, a dislike stemming from the time when they were fellow students at Columbia University.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Election
The State Legislature met on February 4, the legally prescribed day, to elect a U.S. Senator. In the Assembly, Fish received a majority of 78 to 49. In the State Senate the vote stood 16 for Fish and 16 votes for a variety of candidates, among them Beekman's vote for Francis Granger. After a second ballot with the same result, Beekman moved to adjourn, which was carried by the casting vote of the lieutenant governor, and no nomination was made.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Election
On February 14, Senator George B. Guinnip offered a resolution to declare John Adams Dix elected to the U.S. Senate. On motion of Senator George R. Babcock, the resolution was laid on the table, i.e. consideration was postponed.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Election
On February 15, Guinnip again offered a resolution to declare John Adams Dix elected to the U.S. Senate. Senator Stephen H. Johnson offered an amendment to this resolution, declaring Daniel S. Dickinson elected. On motion of Senator Marius Schoonmaker, the resolution was laid on the table too.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Election
On March 18, when two Democratic State Senators were absent, having gone to New York City, the Whigs persuaded the Democrats in a 14-hour session to re-open the U.S. Senate election, and in the small hours of March 19 Fish was nominated by a vote of 16 to 12 (Beekman, Johnson [both Whigs], Thomas B. Carroll and William A. Dart [both Dem.] did not vote).


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Result
Fish was the choice of both the Assembly and the Senate, and was declared elected.


1851 United States Senate election in New York, Aftermath
Fish took his seat on December 1, 1851, and remained in office until March 3, 1857.


1851 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania
The 1851 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania was held on January 14, 1851. Richard Brodhead was elected by the Pennsylvania General Assembly to the United States Senate.


1851 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania, Results
The Pennsylvania General Assembly, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate, convened on January 14, 1851, to elect a Senator to serve the term beginning on March 4, 1851. The results of the vote of both houses combined are as follows:


1851 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1851 Vermont gubernatorial election was held on September 2, 1851. The state continued its support for the Whig party, and Whig Governor Charles K. Williams was easily re-elected to a one-year term. The strong showing of the Free Soil Party candidate Timothy P. Redfield also showed that Vermont was on its way to becoming an anti-slavery bastion. The Democratic nominee, John S. Robinson went on to win the governorship in 1853.


1851 Virginia gubernatorial election
The 1851 Virginia gubernatorial election was held on December 8, 1851 to elect the governor of Virginia. It was the first gubernatorial election in Virginia in which the governor was elected by direct popular vote, instead of being selected by the state legislature. The change was brought about by the adoption of the Virginia Constitution of 1851.


1851 Wisconsin gubernatorial election
The 1851 Wisconsin gubernatorial election was held on November 4, 1851. Whig candidate Leonard J. Farwell won the election with 51% of the vote, winning his first term as Governor of Wisconsin. Farwell defeated Democratic candidate Don A. J. Upham.


1851 Wisconsin gubernatorial election, Democratic Party
Don A. J. Upham had been Mayor of Milwaukee for two years just prior to his run for Governor. Before that, he had served extensively in the government of the Wisconsin Territory prior to statehood—as a member of the Council (upper chamber of the legislature) and as President of the first Constitutional Convention.


1851 Wisconsin gubernatorial election, Whig Party
Leonard J. Farwell owned a considerable amount of land in the Madison area and had invested in improvements. He had been active in establishing the Wisconsin Historical Society, the state agricultural society, the state public school system, and the state university.


1851 in Australia
1851 in Australia was a watershed year. It saw the start of the Australian gold rushes with significant gold discoveries in both New South Wales (near Bathurst) in February and Victoria in July. As a result of the Gold Rushes, the European population of Victoria increased from 97,489 in 1851 to 538,628 in 1861 and the population of NSW increased from 197,265 in 1851 to 350,860 in 1861. Victoria became a self-governing colony. Sentiment in the eastern Australian colonies moved decisively against penal transportation leading to the end of transportation to Tasmania in 1853. Melbourne's major suburb/satellite city in the Dandenong Ranges, Belgrave was first settled, making it the oldest town in the Dandenong Ranges.


1851 in New Zealand
The following lists events that happened during 1851 in New Zealand.


1851 in New Zealand, Population
The estimated population of New Zealand at the end of 1851 is 64,350 Māori and 26,707 non-Māori.


1851 in Siam
The year 1851 was the 70th year of the Rattanakosin Kingdom of Siam (now known as Thailand). It was the 28th and last year in the reign of King Nangklao (Rama III), and the first year in the reign of King Mongkut (Rama IV).


1851 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1851 in South Africa.


1851 in Switzerland
The following is a list of events, births, and deaths in 1851 in Switzerland.


1851 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1851 to Wales and its people.


1851 in archaeology
The year 1851 in archaeology included many events, some of which are listed below.


1851 in architecture
The year 1851 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.


1851 in birding and ornithology, Birds
Birds described in 1851 include the bare-necked umbrellabird, common ʻamakihi, dusky-headed parakeet, Madeira firecrest, Madeiran storm petrel, North Island brown kiwi, olive sparrow, grey-crowned palm-tanager, red-headed fody, rufous-throated tanager, silver-throated tanager, Sri Lanka bush warbler, yellow-bellied tanager and yellow-eared bulbul.


1851 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1851.


1851 in paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1851.


1851 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1851 in poetry, Events
June – While waiting to cross the English Channel on honeymoon, English poet Matthew Arnold probably begins to compose the poem "Dover Beach" (published 1867).


1851 in poetry, Births
Dath years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1851 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1851 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1851.


1851 in science
The year 1851 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1851 in sports
1851 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1851 in the United Kingdom
The following is a list of events that occurred in the year 1851 in the United Kingdom.


1851-52 Australian cricket season
1851-52 was the second season of First-class cricket in Australia. There was only one first-class match played, Victoria v Tasmania in Melbourne, Victoria.


1851–1855 Yellow River floods
The 1851-1855 Yellow River floods resulted in a change of the Yellow River's course, thereafter emptying into the Bohai Sea rather than into the Yellow Sea. This natural disaster is thought to have been a major cause of the Taiping Rebellion and Nian Rebellion.


1852
1852 (MDCCCLII) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1852nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 852nd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 52nd  year of the 19th century, and the  3rd   year of the 1850s decade. As of the start of 1852, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1852 Acapulco earthquake
The 1852 Acapulco earthquake occurred in Acapulco on 4 December 1852 and totally destroyed the town. It had an estimated magnitude of Mw 7.8.


1852 Acapulco earthquake, Description
The earthquake was registered at about 10:10 p.m. on 4 December 1852, totally destroying Acapulco. There were few deaths but many injuries. The cost of damage was estimated at $5 million or more. The earthquake generated a small tsunami that caused the sea to retreat about 6 metres (20 ft) from the coast in Acapulco. Despite fears that it would return and flood the town, the normal sea level was gradually restored.


1852 Acapulco earthquake, Description
According to a local newspaper published the next day: “Last night at 10:24 a strong earthquake was felt in this capital (Acapulco), which was tremulous at first, and in which later we thought we noticed three oscillations from North to south. The earthquake lasted about ten seconds and caused great alarm in the population. So far we do not know that any unfortunate accident has occurred."


1852 Acapulco earthquake, Technical
The earthquake occurred on the Jalisco–Michoacán–Guerrero subduction zone. It was reported at 16 locationswith a maximum intensity at IX. Magnitude of the quake is estimated at Mw 7.8.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season
The 1852 Atlantic hurricane season was one of only three Atlantic hurricane seasons in which every known tropical cyclone attained hurricane status. Five tropical cyclones were reported during the season, which lasted from late August through the middle of October; these dates fall within the range of most Atlantic tropical cyclone activity, and none of the cyclones coexisted with another. Though there were officially five tropical cyclones in the season, hurricane scholar Michael Chenoweth assessed two of the cyclones as being the same storm. There may have been other unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season, as meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimated that up to six storms were missed each year from the official database; this estimate was due to small tropical cyclone size, sparse ship reports, and relatively unpopulated coastlines.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Season summary
Every tropical cyclone in the season was of hurricane status, or with winds at or exceeding 74 mph (119 km/h). In only two other seasons did every cyclone attain hurricane status; those years were 1858 and 1884. All five cyclones affected land; the strongest was the first storm, which caused severe damage and loss of life when it made landfall near the border between Mississippi and Alabama. The second storm of the season struck Puerto Rico, where it caused over 100 deaths, primarily from flooding. In the middle of September, the third storm moved across Florida with strong wind gusts and light rainfall, and a week later the fourth storm passed over or north of the Lesser and Greater Antilles. The last storm hit the Florida Panhandle, though damage was less than expected.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane One
The Great Mobile Hurricane of 1852 was the first tropical cyclone of the year. It was first observed on August 19 about 140 mi (230 km) north of Puerto Rico. It moved on a west-northwest motion before passing through the Bahamas as it attained hurricane status on August 20. After paralleling the northern coast of Cuba, the storm passed between the Dry Tortugas and Key West, Florida on August 22, and two days later it is estimated the hurricane attained peak winds of 115 mph (185 km/h).


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane One
The storm slowed on August 25 before turning northward, and early on August 26 it made landfall near Pascagoula, Mississippi at peak strength, and the hurricane rapidly weakened to tropical storm status as it accelerated east-northeastward. On August 28 it emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from South Carolina, and after turning to the northeast, it was last observed on August 30 about 130 mi (200 km) southeast of Cape Cod.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane One
In the Florida Keys, rough waves forced several ships ashore, leaving some damaged. Strong waves created four new channels in the Chandeleur Islands, and the storm's passage also destroyed the island lighthouse; the three keepers were found three days later. Two schooners were also washed ashore along Cat Island. The hurricane produced an estimated storm tide of 12 feet (3.7 m) in Mobile, Alabama, where strong winds damaged much of the city, leaving the majority of the houses destroyed. Trees were downed up to 30 miles (50 km) inland, and coastal areas were flooded. Damage along the coastline was estimated at around $1 million (1852 USD, $26 million 2008 USD), and several lives were lost. While crossing the southeastern United States, the storm brought light rainfall but moderately strong winds; in Charleston, South Carolina, the storm destroyed several bridges and crop fields.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Two
Early on September 5, a hurricane was first observed about 65 mi (110 km) southeast of Christiansted in the Danish Virgin Islands. One meteorologist assessed the hurricane as being located near Antigua on September 3. Tracking steadily west-northwestward, it quickly moved ashore near Ponce, Puerto Rico with winds estimated at 80 mph (130 km/h). After crossing southwestern Puerto Rico, the hurricane emerged into the Mona Passage as a tropical storm. Late on September 5 it made landfall on eastern Dominican Republic; it quickly weakened over Hispaniola, dissipating on September 6 over the northwestern portion of the island.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Two
An assessment by scholar Michael Chenoweth in 2006 indicated this storm was the same as the next hurricane, with it continuing northwestward and ultimately reaching the Gulf of Mexico. Due to not being considered the same cyclone in the official hurricane database, this hurricane and the following hurricane are listed separately. There, the passage of the storm caused severe flooding, which destroyed large quantities of crops and damaged several roads. Storm damage was heaviest between Guayanilla and Mayagüez. More than 100 people were killed in Puerto Rico, many of whom died due to flooding.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Three
A hurricane was located in the central Gulf of Mexico on September 9, potentially the same hurricane as the previous storm. It tracked generally eastward toward the coast of Florida, with its hurricane intensity estimation based on two ship reports. At about 0000 UTC on September 12, it moved ashore near Clearwater, Florida as a minimal hurricane, with an estimated minimum barometric central pressure of 985 mbar. Accelerating east-northeastward while crossing the state, the cyclone emerged into the Atlantic Ocean as a weakened tropical storm before regaining hurricane status on September 13. Later that day, it was last observed about 250 mi (400 km) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Three
A post in Fort Meade, Florida reported at least 0.55 in (14 mm) of rainfall during the storm's passage. The hurricane was considered "violent", and gusts were estimated to have reached hurricane force. Rough seas and strong easterly winds beached a vessel near St. Augustine.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Four
On September 22, a tropical storm was located about 200 mi (330 km) east of Guadeloupe. With a steady west-northwest path, the storm moved across the northern Lesser Antilles on September 23, during which it intensified into a hurricane. It passed a short distance north of Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic as it reached its peak intensity of 90 mph (150 km). Late on September 26 the hurricane turned northwestward, bringing it through the Turks and Caicos Islands and eastern Bahamas. Recurving north-northeastward, the cyclone moved into open waters, and was last classified as a tropical cyclone on September 30 about 390 mi (630 km) east of Cape Hatteras. However, one hurricane researcher assessed the hurricane as lasting until October 3, with the cyclone turning eastward and dissipating near the Azores.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Five
A moderately strong hurricane with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) was first spotted on October 6 east of Jamaica. Passing a short distance south of the island, the hurricane tracked northwestward and brushed the Yucatán Peninsula before turning north-northeastward into the Gulf of Mexico. Late on October 9, it made landfall a short distance east of Apalachicola, Florida at peak winds with an estimated pressure of 969 mbar. Rapidly weakening to tropical storm status, the cyclone continued northeastward and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina on October 11. Later that day, it was last observed about 250 mi (400 km) southeast of Cape Cod.


1852 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Five
Heavy damage was reported in Jamaica. Upon making landfall in Florida, the hurricane produced a 7 ft (2 m) storm tide, and in Georgia, hurricane-force winds extended into the southwestern portion of the state, while tropical storm force winds occurred along the coastline. In the state, moderate winds damaged trees and roofs, though the destruction was less than anticipated.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake
The 1852 Banda Sea earthquake struck on 26 November, 1852 at 07:40 local time, affecting coastal communities on the Banda Islands. The earthquake had an estimated moment magnitude of 7.5 or 8.4 to 8.8. It caused violent shaking lasting five minutes, and was assigned IX on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale in the Maluku Islands. A tsunami measuring up to 8 meters slammed into the islands of Banda Neira, Saparua, Haruku and Ceram. The tsunami caused major damage, washing away many villages, ships and residents. At least 60 people were killed in the earthquake and tsunami.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Tectonic setting
The Banda Sea is situated in a region of complex convergence involving the Australian and Sunda plates. This complex tectonic interaction has broken the crust into a number of minor plates and microplates including the Banda Sea, Timor, Molucca Sea and Bird's Head plates. Resembling an arch, this convergent boundary is one of the most complex in the world. Oceanic lithosphere subduct to a depth greater than 600 km beneath the Banda Sea. As a consequence, the Banda Sea is a seismically active region.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Tectonic setting
Many large earthquakes in the Banda Sea occur at a hypocenter depth of up to 600 km, including an Mw  7.6 which struck at 397 km depth. These intermediate-focus (70–300 km) and deep-focus (>300 km) earthquakes are the result of dip-slip faulting within the oceanic lithosphere, which usually do not result in significant impact. The 1938 Banda Sea earthquake, an Mw  8.5 event was an intermediate-focus thrust earthquake.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake
At about 07:40 to 07:50 local time, the island of Banda Neira was rocked by a series of intense "vertical shocks" which developed into rolling motions. The rocking motion was directed in a northwest-southeast orientation for five minutes. The first shock was so strong that nearly every home on the island collapsed. The houses that withstood the shaking suffered so much cracks that they became uninhabitable. Papenberg, a small peak on the island reportedly collapsed as well. Many large cracks were formed at the beach on the island. A similar situation was also described on Banda Besar. The tremors were accompanied by a loud rumble described as "cannon shots".


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake
On the islands of Rosengain and Pulau Ai, the earthquake was also felt with a great force, assigned IX on the Mercalli intensity scale.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake
On Haruku Island, the earthquake formed cracks in the walls of a fort and church. Damage to structures was also reported on Saparua. The island of Ambon was undamaged but felt the tremors for five minutes intensely. The swaying of trees and flagstaffs was observed on Bacan Island.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake
Three newly formed but small islands were seen after the earthquake. The islands were "soft and had a yellow golden color" to them. Coral remains and yellow sand were likely the composition of the islands. One of the islands later washed away while the remaining two had vegetation grown on them. Another island located at 5° 35' S and 133° 0' E, 250 meters in diameter was also discovered.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake
In Surabaya, Java, weak tremors were felt, but they were likely due to a separate event.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Tsunami
The highest tsunami wave was recorded on the island of Banda Neira with a height of 8 meters. It struck the island approximately 25 minutes after the shaking had stopped. Many residents who witnessed the oncoming waves were frightened and fled for the hills. Sixty boat crews died when the tsunami overcame the breakwater and embankments where they had sought refuge. The waves carried with it many proas, smashing them against the embankment. Waves also wiped out buildings at the coast. Four separate waves were observed with regular intervals until 10:30 when the water began to calm down.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Tsunami
On Pulau Ai, the tsunami was significant, being one meter higher than the usual flood tide level. Descriptions of the tsunami in Ambon is unclear, with sources claiming the waves were 8 meters tall while other stating 20 cm higher than the flood tide mark. Flooding damage to homes, proas and beaches was seen on Ceram Island.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami origins
Due to the lack of instrumental data, the mechanism of the earthquake is still debatable, with published sources suggesting the event was a large megathrust earthquake with an estimated moment magnitude (Mw ) of 8.4 or greater. Other research journals claim it was a shallow normal faulting event with a smaller magnitude of 7.5.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami origins, Fisher and Harris' study
In a research paper published by Fisher and Harris in 2016, they concluded that the Banda Sea earthquake and tsunami was the result of thrust faulting on a subduction zone. A series of reconstructions with varying locations and maximum slip yielded moment magnitudes of 8.4 to 8.8. Using the models, they concluded that the earthquake was a thrust faulting, megathrust event which ruptured a subduction zone along the Tanimbar Trough. They estimate at least 10 to 15 meters of slip had been cumulated, which would suggest this event had a minimum moment magnitude of 8.4.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami origins, Cummins' study
On the other hand, a recent study in 2020 led by Phil Cummins suggest the event did not occur on a megathrust fault, but rather, a shallow normal fault in the Banda Sea. The normal fault has was determined as being the Banda Detachment, a shallow-dipping structure that accommodates extension of the Banda Sea. It is thought to be the only major potentially seismogenic structure to cause heavy shaking and a large tsunami. The earthquake potential and history of this structure is still poorly understood, and never been considered a tsunami and seismic hazard to the region.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami origins, Cummins' study
The Weber Deep, a 7.2-km deep forearc basin located between the megathrust front and Banda Arc volcanic chain is a massive fault scarp which formed when extension along the Banda Detachment started. However, there have been no instrumentally recorded earthquakes on this fault therefore it is suggested that the structure is creeping aseismically, or that earthquakes on this fault have occurred before the birth of modern seismic instruments.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami origins, Cummins' study
The research presented a much smaller earthquake moment magnitude of only 7.5 with a rupture close to the Banda Islands. An earthquake anywhere on the megathrust is unlikely to result in violent ground motions as described in the historical accounts because it is too far from the islands. The study dismissed all reports of shaking felt in Surabaya, Java as being a separate, local earthquake which timing coincided with the one in the Banda Sea. The event in Java, named the 1852 Grati earthquake, is thought to have a magnitude of Mw  5.7 to 6.0 and occurred on the Pasuruan Fault.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami origins, Cummins' study
In addition, explicit descriptions of the tsunami in the Banda Islands described a rise in sea level, followed by a drop. This meant the earthquake could not be sourced from a subduction zone megathrust event as such a tsunami would be observed as a drawback of the water first in the same location. The Banda Islands situated on the overriding plate would experience a negative wave first, before a large tsunami could hit, thus a drawback would be observed. Furthermore, a megathrust earthquake-sourced tsunami would take much longer for it to hit the islands, while historic descriptions stated that the tsunami arrived 20 minutes after the five minutes of shaking.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami origins, Cummins' study
The research paper presented two nearby plausible tsunami sources; the western seafloor expression of the Banda Detachment at 100 km south southeast of Banda Neira, or a slump located on the eastern edge of the Weber Deep. Modelling the tsunami sourced by a slump fits the well-documented accounts of the tsunami better. The associated tsunami therefore was caused by submarine slumping triggered by the Mw 7.5 earthquake.


1852 Banda Sea earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami origins, Ringer's study
A 2021 paper led by Ringer discussed the earthquake and concluded that this event on the subduction zone had a larger moment magnitude of 8.8, located southeast of Seram Island. The authors noted Cummins' conclusion that the resulting tsunami was by an earthquake-triggered slump of low possibility because the Banda Sea earthquake of 1938 did not trigger a large tsunami therefore a major submarine landslide did not happen.