1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1834 Atlantic hurricane season
3) The Padre Ruiz Hurricane of 1834 A hurricane struck the island of Dominica on September 20, bringing heavy winds and a 12 feet (3.7 m) storm surge that devastated the capital of Roseau; 230 people are believed to have been killed by the hurricane's onslaught. Then the hurricane made its second landfall at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic on the September 23. About 170 sailors died when their ships sank in the Ozama River. On land the hurricane disrupted the funeral service of Padre Ruiz, a Roman Catholic priest. A total of 400 people were killed from the hurricane. May have later impacted Louisiana on September 29.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1834 Atlantic hurricane season
4) The Galveston Hurricane of 1834 Also in September, a hurricane hit Mexican Texas, causing heavy damage. This or another severe tropical cyclone visited Galveston.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1835 Atlantic hurricane season
1) The Antigua-Gulf of Mexico-Rio Grande Hurricane of 1835 or Hurricane San Hipólito of 1835 A hurricane was first detected near Antigua on August 12. It crossed through Puerto Rico from southwest to north on August 13, damaging Fuerte de San José, and north of the Dominican Republic, and Cuba, causing at least 3 casualties. It moved across the Florida Straits and the Gulf of Mexico, hitting near the mouth of the Rio Grande on August 18. There, it destroyed small villages, caused strong storm surge, and killed 18 people.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1835 Atlantic hurricane season
2) Between September 12 to the 15th a hurricane smashed Cape Florida and Key Biscayne, creating the Norris Cut and knocking over the Ponce de Leon lighthouse. From there, the storm entered the Gulf of Mexico and took a hard northeast tack, damaging Fort Brooke in Tampa, then moving northward into Georgia and the Carolinas, making the trip "all the way into New England."


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1835 Atlantic hurricane season
3) The South Florida or Key West Hurricane of 1835  First detected in the vicinity of Jamaica on the 12th and crossed central Cuba on the 14th. Hurricane struck Key West area on the 14th and 15th. First good account of hurricane activity near Key West island as the island was sparsely populated before 1830 (only becoming claimed for the United States in 1821). Account published in the Key West Inquirer which had only been in publication for a year at that point. Lightship Florida at Carysfort was severely damaged.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1836 Atlantic hurricane season
1) A hurricane swept through Woodstock, New Brunswick on July 27, 1836. Likely a Category 1.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1836 Atlantic hurricane season
2) A hurricane struck eastern North Carolina between October 10 and 11 doing great damage.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
Lt . Col. William Red of the Royal Engineers was able to map eleven storms during the 1837 season in his book "Law of Storms" published in 1838.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
1)   On July 9 and 10, a tropical storm impacted Barbados.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
2) On July 26, a storm hit Martinique and Barbados. As a hurricane, the system moved ashore in southern Florida and then through the northeast Gulf of Mexico into Alabama by August 5. It caused 57 deaths.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
3) The Antigua-Florida Hurricane of 1837 or Hurricane Nuestra Señora de Los Angeles of 1837. A hurricane passed by Antigua on August 1. The storm then entered Humacao, Puerto Rico, around 5–6 pm 2 August, and left the island through Vega Baja, Puerto Rico, and Dorado, Puerto Rico, ten to twelve hours later (3–6 am 3 August). The eye passed very near San Juan, Puerto Rico, where the barometric pressure (available for the first time in Puerto Rico) registered 28.00 inches of mercury (94.8 kPa). The hurricane sunk all ships in the Bay of San Juan. The worst damages occurred in the northeastern part of the island. Thereafter, the tropical cyclone moved northwest to the Florida/Georgia border before recurving through the western Carolinas on August 7.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
4) The Calypso Hurricane A tropical system was observed east of the West Indies on August 13. It moved through the islands and passed the Bahamas on August 16. While recurving, it hit the North Carolina coast on August 18. It slowly moved over land, causing 48 hours of strong winds, and moved back offshore into the Atlantic on 20 August, bypassing southern New England by August 22.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
5) A tropical storm moved east of Bermuda on 21–25 August 21.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
6) The Apalachee Bay Storm A hurricane moved east-northeast from the Gulf of Mexico on 31 August, struck Apalachee Bay, and moved just offshore the Carolinas by 2 September.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
7) The Bahamas Hurricane of 1837 A tropical storm formed near the northern Bahamas on 13 September. It moved northeast through the western Atlantic Ocean on 15 September.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
8) A tropical storm moved across Saint Augustine, Florida, affecting northeast Florida between September 24 and the 26th.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
9) A hurricane was noted near Bermuda on October 1 to 3.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
This hurricane caused 105 deaths on a 2,000 mile track from the Caribbean to Texas to North Carolina. Racer's storm named for a British warship which encountered the storm in the northwest Caribbean, was one of the most destructive storms of the 19th century. The British ship Racer survived the hurricane and went into Havana for repairs and provided valuable information on hurricanes to William Reid.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
Racer's storm started as a tropical storm moved across the western Caribbean Sea in late September. It first formed near Jamaica on 26–27 September., moved across the Yucatán Peninsula, and struck the western Gulf of Mexico where it struck near Brownsville, Texas on October 2. It stalled near the coast for three days and then recurved to the east hitting Galveston, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Pensacola, Florida, and South and North Carolina. It ultimately moved into the Atlantic Ocean on October 11.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
The hurricane caused destruction all over the Gulf of Mexico including destroying the Mexican Navy and several U.S. ships. During the storm, a paddle boat named Home headed to Charleston ran into the hurricane off of Cape Hatteras. The boat sank with 90 people on board with only 40 surviving and there were only two life preservers on board the boat. As a result of this sinking, U.S. Congress passed a law from this storm mandating the every vessel in the future must have at least enough life preservers for every passenger on board.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1837 Atlantic hurricane season
11)   A tropical storm crossed central Cuba on October 26, moving north-northeast offshore the coast of the Southeast United States through October 29.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1838 Atlantic hurricane season
1) On September 7, a hurricane hit near Cape Florida, causing 38 deaths.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1838 Atlantic hurricane season
2) Two hurricanes hit Cayman Islands in this season or in the previous season on September 28 and October 25.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1838 Atlantic hurricane season
3) A late season hurricane hit the east coast of Mexico on November 1, sinking two U.S. ships.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1839 Atlantic hurricane season
1) The Atlantic Coast Hurricane of 1839. A hurricane hit Charleston, South Carolina on August 28. It passed over North Carolina and Virginia before going out to sea on the 30th.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1839 Atlantic hurricane season
2) Reid's Hurricane. The system moved from east of the West Indies into the southwest Atlantic. Swells were noted as early as September 9 at Bermuda. During late on the September 11 and early on September 12, this hurricane struck Bermuda. The storm tide was measured as 11 feet/3.3 meters. Thousands of trees were downed. The tower on Tower Hill was levelled. Damage done to private property totalled 8000 pounds sterling (1839 pounds). This was one of the first hurricanes to be studied by William Reid in person, in this case as governor of the island the year after his publication of "The Law of Storms" (from Beware the Hurricane).


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1839 Atlantic hurricane season
3) During the middle of September, a hurricane approached the coast of Louisiana. It struck near Lake Charles, then known as Charley's Lake, on September 15.


1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1839 Atlantic hurricane season
4) A late season hurricane hit Galveston, Texas on November 5.


1830s in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the decade 1830 - 1839 to Wales and its people.


1830s in Western fashion
1830s fashion in Western and Western-influenced fashion is characterized by an emphasis on breadth, initially at the shoulder and later in the hips, in contrast to the narrower silhouettes that had predominated between 1800 and 1820.


1830s in Western fashion
Women's costume featured larger sleeves than were worn in any period before or since, which were accompanied by elaborate hairstyles and large hats.


1830s in Western fashion
The final months of the 1830s saw the proliferation of a revolutionary new technology—photography. Hence, the infant industry of photographic portraiture preserved for history a few rare, but invaluable, first images of human beings—and therefore also preserved our earliest, live peek into "fashion in action"—and its impact on everyday life and society as a whole.


1830s in Western fashion, General trends
The prevalent trend of Romanticism from the 1820s through the mid-1840s, with its emphasis on strong emotion as a source of aesthetic experience and its recognition of the picturesque, was reflected in fashion as in other arts. Items of historical dress including neck ruffs, ferronnières (jeweled headbands worn across the forehead), and sleeves based on styles of earlier periods were popular.


1830s in Western fashion, General trends
Innovations in roller printing on textiles introduced new dress fabrics. Rich colors such as the Turkey red of the 1820s were still found, but delicate floral prints on light backgrounds were increasingly popular. More precise printing eliminated the need for dark outlines on printed designs, and new green dyes appeared in patterns of grasses, ferns, and unusual florals. Combinations of florals and stripes were fashionable.


1830s in Western fashion, General trends
Overall, both men's and women's fashion showed width at the shoulder above a tiny waist. Men's coats were padded in the shoulders and across the chest, while women's shoulders sloped to huge sleeves.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Overview
In the 1830s, fashionable women's clothing styles had distinctive large 'leg of mutton' or gigot sleeves, above large full conical skirts, ideally with a narrow, low waist, achieved through a combination of corsetry to restrict the waist and full sleeves and skirts that made the waist appear smaller by comparison. Heavy stiff fabrics such as brocades were fashionable after the aesthetic simplicity of fashion from 1795 to 1820, and many 18th-century gowns were cut up into new garments. There was an emphasis on sloping shoulders and large, full sleeves over much of the arm, with a small cuff at the wrist, which are distinctive to day dresses of the 1830s.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Overview
Pelerines, tippets, or lace coverings draped over the shoulders, were popular (one of several garments, along with full upper-arm sleeves and wide necklines, to emphasize the shoulders and their width).


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Gowns
The fashionable feminine figure, with its sloping shoulders, rounded bust, narrow waist and full hips, was emphasized in various ways with the cut and trim of gowns. To about 1835, the small waist was accentuated with a wide belt (a fashion continuing from the 1820s). Later the waist and midriff were unbelted but cut close to the body, and the bodice began to taper to a small point at the front waist. The fashionable corset now had gores to individually cup the breasts, and the bodice was styled to emphasize this shape.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Gowns
Evening gowns had very wide necklines and short, puffed sleeves reaching to the elbow from a dropped shoulder, and were worn with mid-length gloves. The width at the shoulder was often emphasized by gathered or pleated panels of fabric arranged horizontally over the bust and around the shoulders.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Gowns
Morning dresses generally had high necklines, and shoulder width was emphasized with tippets or wide collars that rested on the gigot sleeves. Summer afternoon dresses might have wide, low necklines similar to evening gowns, but with long sleeves. Skirts were pleated into the waistband of the bodice, and held out with starched petticoats of linen or cotton.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Gowns
Prior to 1835, fashionable skirts could be worn at ankle-length, but as the decade continued this fell out of fashion.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Hairstyles and Headgear
Early 1830s hair was parted in the center and dressed in elaborate curls, loops and knots extending out to both sides and up from the crown of the head. Braids were fashionable, and were likewise looped over either ear and gathered into a topknot.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Hairstyles and Headgear
Bonnets with wide semicircular brims framed the face for street wear, and were heavily decorated with trim, ribbons, and feathers.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Hairstyles and Headgear
Married women wore a linen or cotton cap for daywear, trimmed with lace, ribbon, and frills, and tied under the chin. The cap was worn alone indoors and under the bonnet for street wear.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Hairstyles and Headgear
For evening wear, hair ornaments including combs, ribbons, flowers, and jewels were worn; other options included berets and turbans.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Undergarments
Women's undergarments consisted of a knee-length linen chemise with straight, elbow length sleeves. Corsets compressed the waist and skirts were held in shape by layers of starched petticoats, stiffened with tucks and cording. The full sleeves were supported by down-filled sleeve plumpers.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Outerwear
Riding habits consisted of a high-necked, tight-waisted jacket with the fashionable dropped shoulder and huge gigot sleeves, worn over a tall-collared shirt or chemisette, with a long matching petticoat or skirt. Tall top hats with veils were worn.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Outerwear
Shawls were worn with short-sleeved evening gowns early in the decade, but they were not suited to the wide gigot sleeves of the mid-1830s.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Outerwear
Full -length mantles were worn to about 1836, when mantles became shorter. A mantlet or shawl-mantlet was a shaped garment like a cross between a shawl and a mantle, with points hanging down in front. The burnous was a three-quarter length mantle with a hood, named after the similar garment of Arabia. The paletot was knee-length, with three cape-collars and slits for the arms, and the pardessus was half or three-quarter length coat with a defined waist and sleeves.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Outerwear
For evening, voluminous mantles of velvet or satin, with fur trim or fur linings in cold climates, were worn with the evening gown.


1830s in Western fashion, Women's fashions, Footwear
Low, square-toed slippers were made of fabric or leather for daytime and of satin for evening wear. Low boots with elastic insets appeared in this decade.


1830s in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
In this time, men's fashion plates continue to show an ideal silhouette with broad shoulders, and a narrow, tightly cinched waist.


1830s in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Coats and waistcoats
Frock coats (in French redingotes) increasingly replaced tail coats for informal day wear. They were calf length, and might be double-breasted. Shoulder emphasis fell lower on the arm; shoulders were sloped and puffed sleeve heads gradually shrank and then disappeared. Waistcoats or vests were single- or double-breasted, with rolled shawl or (later) notched collars, and extremely tight through the waist. Waistcoats were sometimes worn two at time, in contrasting colors. Corsets or corset-like garments were worn by many men to draw in the waistline. The most fashionable coats had padded shoulders and chests, a feature that disappeared after about 1837.


1830s in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Trousers
Full -length trousers began to have the modern fly-front closure, replacing the earlier fall-front. Breeches remained a requirement for formal functions at the British court (as they would be throughout the century). Breeches continued to be worn for horseback riding and other country pursuits, especially in Britain, with tall fitted boots.


1830s in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Outerwear
Cloaks were worn with evening wear. Overcoats with wide sleeves were worn with day wear; these were often called greatcoats.


1830s in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Hats and hairstyles
The crowns of tall hats were less curvy than in the previous period. Hair was generally parted to one side. Curled hair and sideburns remained fashionable, along with moustaches.


1830s in Western fashion, Children's fashion
In this period, small boys wore sashed tunics over trousers, sometimes with a round-collared shirt underneath. By the 1830s the skeleton suit had fallen out of fashion. Older boys wore short jackets and trousers with round-collared shirts.


1830s in association football
The following are events in the 1830s decade which are relevant to the development of association football. All events happened in English football unless specified otherwise.


1830s in association football, Bibliography
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1830s in sociology
The following events related to sociology occurred in the 1830s.


1830–1831 Massachusetts legislature
The 51st Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1830 and 1831 during the governorship of Levi Lincoln Jr. James Fowler served as president of the Senate and William B. Calhoun served as speaker of the House.


1830–1831 papal conclave
The 1830–31 papal conclave, was held commencing 14 December 1830 after the death of Pope Pius VIII. It did not conclude until the 2 February 1831 election of Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari as Pope Gregory XVI.


1830–1831 papal conclave, Context
Pope Pius VIII died on Thursday, November 30, 1830, at the age of sixty-nine. On December 11, the Governor of Rome, Msgr. Benedetto Cappelletti, informed the cardinals that there was a conspiracy in Rome involving the Bonaparte nephews of Cardinal Joseph Fesch. One in custody had been released to the Russian minister, since his mother was the Russian-born Catharina of Württemberg. Fesch refused to ask his nephews to leave Rome. A paper bomb exploded under the windows of the conclave. The conclave opened in an atmosphere of high tension.


1830–1831 papal conclave, Description
When the conclave convened on December 14, some 45 of the 54 living cardinals participated; eight of whom were not Italian. Bartolomeo Pacca presided as Dean of the Sacred College.


1830–1831 papal conclave, Description
Initially the chief candidates included Emmanuele De Gregorio and Bartolomeo Pacca, who had been papabili in the 1829 conclave, plus Giacomo Giustiniani, who was a long-serving papal diplomat but who was vetoed by King Ferdinand VII. Giustiniani had served as nuncio at Madrid and provoked the hostility of the Prime Minister in ecclesiastical matters, and Queen Christina regarding the succession.


1830–1831 papal conclave, Description
From the first day of the scrutiny, which was the 15th, up to the 27th, the votes were fairly evenly divided between De Gregorio and Pacca. However, it became clear eventually that neither of the unvetoed papabili could gain the support of two-thirds of the cardinals, and with Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich wanting a very strong Pope to hold firm against the flood of revolution haunting Europe at the time of the conclave, Giuseppe Albani, who led the Austrian faction and supported Pacca, intervened.


1830–1831 papal conclave, Description
He proposed Vincenzo Macchi, former nuncio in Paris, as his candidate, but few of the other cardinals saw Macchi as suitable for the papacy. Cardinal Joachim-Jean-Xavier d'Isoard was instructed by King Louis-Philippe of France to place a veto against the election of Macchi if necessary. Cardinal Tommaso Bernetti, who vied with Albani for the position of Secretary of State, threw his support to De Gregorio.


1830–1831 papal conclave, Description
Cappellari appeared as an alternative to both De Gregorio and Macchi only when the conclave was well-advanced, but even though Albani worked against him, Cappellari eventually took the lead and won the election.


1830–1831 papal conclave, Description
No conclave since has lasted as long as a week, but at the time no conclave since 1667 had lasted fewer than three weeks. The conclave took eighty-three ballots to deliver a two-thirds majority to a candidate, whereas no conclave since has taken more than fourteen.


1830–1831 papal conclave, Description
Cappellari, then a Camaldolese priest and prefect of the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, was also the last Pope not a bishop when elected.


1831
1831 (MDCCCXXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1831st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 831st  year of the 2nd millennium, the 31st  year of the 19th century, and the  2nd   year of the 1830s decade. As of the start of 1831, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1831 Alabama gubernatorial election
The 1831 Alabama gubernatorial election was an election held on August 1, 1831, to elect the Governor of Alabama. Jacksonian candidate John Gayle beat the incumbent Jacksonian governor Samuel B. Moore and National Republican candidate Nicholas Davis with 55.01% of the vote.


1831 Barbados–Louisiana hurricane
The Great Barbados hurricane was an intense Category 4 hurricane that left cataclysmic damage across the Caribbean and Louisiana in 1831.


1831 Barbados–Louisiana hurricane, Meteorological history
A possible Cape Verde hurricane, the storm slammed into Barbados, leveling the capital of Bridgetown on August 10. Some 1,500 people perished, either drowned by the 17-foot (5.2 m) storm surge that the hurricane brought or crushed beneath collapsed buildings (including the St. John's Parish Church, Barbados). It produced great damage in Saint Vincent and Saint Lucia, and slightly touched Martinique.


1831 Barbados–Louisiana hurricane, Meteorological history
On August 12, it arrived in Puerto Rico. Moving past Haiti and Cuba, it nearly destroyed the town of Les Cayes and damaged Santiago de Cuba, and then crossed the entire length of Cuba, passing Havana on August 14 (Hurricane Georges of 1998 had a similar track). Its estimated Category 4 winds brought ships ashore at Guantanamo Bay, causing mudslides, and resulted in major structural damage.


1831 Barbados–Louisiana hurricane, Meteorological history
It turned to the northwest, where it made landfall near Last Island, Louisiana as a Category 3 hurricane on August 17. There it flooded parts of New Orleans from its 7-to-10-foot (2.1 to 3.0 m) storm surge in Lake Pontchartrain and also causing hail. The back part of the city of New Orleans was completely inundated. It was simultaneously felt at Pensacola, Florida and Mobile, Alabama, and extended to Natchez, Mississippi 300 miles (480 km) up the Mississippi river. Its duration was six days from the time it commenced in Barbados and its course cycloidal; the distance passed over by the storm from Barbados to New Orleans is 2,100 nautical miles (3,900 km), and the average rate of its progress fourteen miles (21 km) an hour.


1831 Barbados–Louisiana hurricane, Impact
The Great Barbados Hurricane left 2,500 people dead and $7,000,000 (equivalent to $170,121,875 in 2020) in damage. Ludlum (1963) wrote: “It was one of the great hurricanes of the century, or any century.”


1831 Belgian general election
General elections were held in Belgium on 29 August 1831. They were the first elections to the new bicameral parliament created by the constitution adopted in February 1831.


1831 Belgian general election
In the Senate elections Catholics won 31 seats and Liberals four. Voter turnout was 62.2%, although only 46,000 people (1.1% of the country's population) were eligible to vote.


1831 Belgian general election
On 8 September 1831, King Leopold I of Belgium opened the 1831–1832 parliamentary session, the first ever of the Belgian Parliament.


1831 Belgian general election, Electoral system
The electoral system was defined in the 1831 constitution and the electoral law of 3 March 1831. The 102 members of the Chamber of Representatives and 51 members of the Senate were elected by absolute majority in 44 electoral districts. Each district had between one and seven Representatives and one to three Senators; some were elected by joint or alternating districts.


1831 Belgian general election, Electoral system
Eligibility vote was restricted to men aged 25 or older who held Belgian nationality either through birth or through grand naturalisation, and who paid a cens fixed by the electoral law. The cens differentiated depending on the place of residence.


1831 Belgian general election, Electoral system, Constituencies
The 44 constituencies elected 102 representatives and appointed 51 senators as follows.


1831 Bristol riots
The 1831 Bristol riots took place on 29–31 October 1831 and were part of the 1831 reform riots in England. The riots arose after the second Reform Bill was voted down in the House of Lords, stalling efforts at electoral reform. The arrival of the anti-reform judge Charles Wetherell in the city on 29 October led to a protest, which degenerated into a riot. The civic and military authorities were poorly focused and uncoordinated and lost control of the city. Order was restored on the third day by a combination of a posse comitatus of the city's middle-class citizens and military forces.


1831 Bristol riots
Much of the city centre was burnt, up to £300,000 of damage caused and up to 250 casualties incurred. The city's mayor Charles Pinney was tried for failing to prevent the riot and acquitted. The military commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Brereton was court-martialled on a similar charge and committed suicide before he could be sentenced. A renewed third reform bill passed in 1832, as the Great Reform Act, introducing sweeping changes to the electoral system. Local government in Bristol was likewise reformed with the passing of the Municipal Corporations Act 1835.


1831 Bristol riots, Background
In early 19th-century Britain there were large discrepancies in the size of constituencies of the lower house, the House of Commons. Some seats, so called rotten boroughs returned up to two Members of Parliament (MPs) from a small number of electors, while seats in new urban centres, such as Manchester, had no MPs.


1831 Bristol riots, Background
In March 1831 an attempt was made by the Whigs to introduce a Reform Bill to address the matter. This was defeated in parliament and the prime minister, Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, resigned. Grey was returned to office with a majority in the subsequent general election and introduced a second Reform Bill. This passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Lords on 8 October 1831. Bristol, a city of 100,000 people, was represented by just two members of parliament.


1831 Bristol riots, Background
The rejection of the bill and the second resignation of Grey resulted in a period of political upheaval which has since been characterised as "the closest that Britain came to revolution". Inhabitants of cities and towns were angry at the failure to pass the bill and there were serious disturbances in London, Derby, Leicester, Yeovil, Sherborne, Exeter, Bath, Worcester and Bristol. The disturbances in Birmingham were so severe that the British Army's Scots Greys cavalry regiment was deployed to the city. Full scale riots erupted in Bristol, Nottingham and Derby.


1831 Bristol riots, Background
The Bristol Recorder (senior judge) Charles Wetherell was a noted opponent of the Reform Bill. Although he was given a hero's welcome in the city in 1829 for his opposition to Catholic emancipation, he sparked controversy in 1830 for stating in parliament that the people of Bristol opposed reform. The city had, in fact, sent a petition of 17,000 names to support reform and hosted large pro-reform public meetings in the first week of October. Wetherell himself was MP for the Yorkshire rotten borough of Boroughbridge. Boroughbridge, with just 48 electors, was set to be abolished by the Reform Bill. Wetherell was due to attend the court of assizes in Bristol at the end of October.


1831 Bristol riots, Preceding days
The Mayor of Bristol and head of its local authority, the Bristol Corporation, was Charles Pinney, a Whig and a supporter of the Reform Bill. His election, in September, may have been arranged by the other aldermen of the city, who were mainly anti-reform Tories, to curry favour with pro-reform elements and to reduce the likelihood of unrest. Pinney, by virtue of his office, was responsible for leading the response of the civil authorities to the riots. The citizens were angered as they regarded Pinney, who had not publicly supported electoral reform since taking office, as having abandoned the cause to join the Establishment.


1831 Bristol riots, Preceding days
The Bristol Political Union (BPU), under William Herapath, was a key organisation in the city supporting reform. On 18 October the BPU broke up a meeting of sailors who were discussing forming a bodyguard for Wetherell's arrival. On 24 October a riot was narrowly averted when pro-reform citizens protested the arrival of George Henry Law, Bishop of Bath and Wells for the consecration of a new church in Bedminster. Law had voted against the Reform Bill in the House of Lords.


1831 Bristol riots, Preceding days
The BPU met with the city magistrates in October and agreed to maintain neutrality during any civil disturbance, provided that troops were not used. Herapath called off the agreement on 25 October, when he learnt that the magistrates had requested troops be sent to the city. Herapath later stated that he was confident that he could have maintained order in the city, had the troops not been deployed.


1831 Bristol riots, Preceding days
The Bristol under-sheriff had command of only 100 constables and estimated that at least 300 would be required to deal with the anticipated size of the protests against Wetherell. Herapath refused to allow BPU members to be enlisted as special constables and there were few volunteers from the middle class who were traditionally called upon to provide this service. The magistrates managed to enlist 119 volunteers, but many of these were of known violent tendencies. Despite having the power to do so the magistrates did not order the yeomanry or half-pay and retired army personnel to be called up. They did, however, clear weapons from the city's gun smiths in case of looting.


1831 Bristol riots, Preceding days
The city magistrates requested British Army troops be sent to help with any disorder. The government was reluctant to send any, knowing that it would be unpopular with the public, but eventually the Home Secretary William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne authorised the deployment of a force of 93 soldiers to be only used in the case of an "absolute emergency". These were a mix of men from the 14th Light Dragoons and the 3rd Dragoon Guards. The 14th were unpopular in Bristol as they had recently been involved in the suppression of disorder in the West Country, where they had earned the nickname the "Bloody Blues".


1831 Bristol riots, Preceding days
During the course of the riots men of this regiment, recognisable in their distinctive blue uniforms, would be jeered by the crowd while those of the 3rd, a regiment based locally, were cheered. Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Brereton was commander of the 3rd Dragoon Guards and led the military response to the riots. He was a supporter of reform and, after the riots, would be accused of having sympathies with the mob.


1831 Bristol riots, Preceding days
When the troops arrived in the city the aldermen and magistrates refused to ride at the head of the troops as they crossed the city boundary, as tradition demanded. The officials were fearful that doing so would cause the mob to single out their businesses for looting and arson.


1831 Bristol riots, 29 October
The location of Wetherell's entrance into the city had been changed for security reasons but soon became common knowledge and he was met with a mob upon his arrival on 29 October. The carriage carrying Wetherell and Pinney was stoned and they sought refuge at the corporation's Mansion House. Violence escalated, particularly after the special constables carried out a number of charges into the crowd, one of which led to the death of a member of the public. There were disputes between the dragoons and the constables over the perceived heavy-handedness of the latter. Pinney twice spoke to the crowd to attempt to regain control, but felt he had no option but to read the Riot Act at dusk, by which time many of the special constables had abandoned their posts.


1831 Bristol riots, 29 October
The rioting continued into the night and the Mansion House was stormed, the 14th Light Dragoons attempted to halt the riot and shot one man dead whilst doing so. Wetherell fled the Mansion House via the rooftop to an adjacent building and Pinney escaped to seek refuge at a friend's house where he spent much of the following day.


1831 Bristol riots, 30 October
The looting of the Mansion House continued from 7 am on 30 October, a Sunday. Its wine cellar was emptied and the building set on fire. Efforts to control the riot were hampered by a crowd of middle-class onlookers, who encouraged the rioters. Pinney ordered a notice to be read out in the city's places of worship that morning that ordered a posse comitatus to be formed. However, fewer than 200 men answered the call and these mostly dispersed when the civic authorities failed to organise them effectively.


1831 Bristol riots, 30 October
Part of the problem was that the civic authorities moved their headquarters between a number of different buildings. This meant that their leaders were hard to locate at key times, for example on 30 October a force of 57 men from the Dodington yeomanry arrived in the city but were withdrawn by their officer when no magistrate could be found to requisition lodgings. Herapath spoke to the mob but failed to halt the violence, he later offered to mobilise the BPU members as a peacekeeping force but was refused by Pinney who thought it would reflect badly upon the authorities.


1831 Bristol riots, 30 October
There was mistrust between the civic and military leaders and confusion over what actions to take. Pinney's orders to Brereton were vague and did not explicitly authorise the use of deadly force; at one point Brereton had to dissuade Pinney from issuing direct orders to fire into the crowd. Brereton had never served in a public order role before and behaved indecisively, he consistently overestimated the size of the rioting crowd and underestimated his ability to control it. Brereton may have been affected by the criticism the armed forces received for its actions in Manchester in 1819, in which 18 people were killed when cavalry charged a crowd in the so-called Peterloo Massacre.


1831 Bristol riots, 30 October
A charge by the 14th Dragoons in Corn Street against a mob attacking the Council House resulted in the deaths of two men. Brereton believed an element in the 14th were provoking trouble with the crowd and, assured by the mob that they would disperse if the "Bloody Blues" were sent away, ordered them to withdraw. There was a short lull in the fighting, during which Wetherell escaped from the city disguised as a woman, but the mob afterwards attacked the town gaols. The few soldiers of the 3rd Dragoon Guards left on the scene were powerless to stop them; the Bridewell Jail, Lawford's Gate Prison and Gloucester County Prison were overrun and the prisoners freed.


1831 Bristol riots, 30 October
Further destruction was inflicted upon houses, warehouses, tollhouses and civic buildings, particularly on  Queen Square, Prince's Street and King Street. There was an attempt to attack the Bristol Corporation's dock company and the dock gates were burnt. Fires set at the Bishop's Palace, customs house, excise office and at other buildings were reportedly visible from Newport, Wales. Chants from the crowd included "Oh! It's only Corporation property!" to justify the destruction of civic buildings and "Down with the churches and mend the roads with them". It is known that a number of "fireballs" of flammable tow and pitch were manufactured for use by rioters; though otherwise they were armed only with improvised sticks, railings, and tools looted from blacksmiths.


1831 Bristol riots, 31 October
The destruction caused during the night of 30/31 October, in which many private houses were attacked, shocked the citizens of the city. The middle classes were provoked into action and some 3,000 men reported for duty in the posse comitatus on the following morning. An additional 100 soldiers from the 14th Light Dragoons arrived in the city later that day. Their officer, Major Beckwith, and a war office liaison officer, Major Mackworth, took control of the situation, without regard for Brereton's seniority.


1831 Bristol riots, 31 October
They responded to a rush of rioters on the southern side of Queen Square with a charge by the 3rd Dragoon Guards that effectively quelled the riot. The posse comitatus had largely restored order across the city by the time General Sir Richard Downes Jackson arrived from London with several hundred soldiers to do so.


1831 Bristol riots, Aftermath
The riots were the worst in an English city since the 1780 Gordon Riots in London. The total death toll is unknown but twelve citizens are known to have been killed in clashes with the authorities; many other corpses were recovered later from within burned buildings. Historian Mark Harrison in 1988 estimated between 120 and 250 casualties from all parties. A large part of the city centre was destroyed and up to £300,000 of damage caused.


1831 Bristol riots, Aftermath
Bristol was governed by Jackson and his troops for four months. Many in parliament had no confidence in the local government under Pinney and set up a committee of enquiry to remove the Bristol magistrates from office, opposed by Melbourne, who claimed he lacked jurisdiction. Pinney was eventually brought to trial before the Court of King's Bench in October 1832 and acquitted.


1831 Bristol riots, Aftermath
Trials of the rioters were held in January 1832, 102 were tried and 31 were sentenced to death. One of the men sentenced to hang was a retired tradesman whose only crime was to shout encouragement to the rioters. He was singled out by the court for particular punishment because of the respectable position he held in society. Clemency was granted to all bar four of those sentenced to death after a petition of 10,000 names was presented, which included the names of people whose houses had been destroyed in the riot.


1831 Bristol riots, Aftermath
Some 22 people were transported to Australia and 43 imprisoned. Captain Warrington of the 3rd Dragoon Guards was court-martialled and cashiered for failing to pass on a message to Brereton during the riot. The colonel himself was arraigned before a court-martial in January 1832. During the proceedings he offered to plead guilty to charges of failing to control the riot if the court agreed not to call any more witnesses. The court refused this request and Brereton committed suicide before a sentence could be passed.


1831 Bristol riots, Aftermath
Both pro-reform and anti-reform activists blamed the other for the riots. Pro -reformers suspected the Tory aldermen of Bristol of wanting the riots to get out of hand to discredit the movement while the Tories blamed the Whig government of withholding troops from the city authorities. It was alleged that the riots were directed by an external party; allegations were made of French involvement (revolutionaries there had overthrown Charles X in July 1830) and of members of the Birmingham Political Union travelling to the city, but not substantiated.


1831 Bristol riots, Aftermath
Reform campaigners, eager to avoid any political connection to the riot, claimed the rioters were all youths, the unemployed and "women of abandoned character" from St Philips and Lawford's Gate areas of the city. However court records show the rioters seem to have largely been men aged 20–40 from the Temple and St James districts. Only one of those convicted of rioting was unemployed, for example.


1831 Bristol riots, Aftermath
Another common misconception of the time was that troublemakers had come from the  Kingswood collieries; though the pit owners stated that their men had largely remained at work throughout the riots. No defendant claimed a political motive in court and many pleaded drunkenness as mitigation for their behaviour.


1831 Bristol riots, Aftermath
The Third Reform Bill, known afterwards as the Great Reform Act, finally passed in 1832 after a political crisis known as the Days of May. The Royal Commission on Municipal Corporations of 1833 thought Bristol's local authority was jealous of its power and incapable of controlling the city; with many city officials viewing their positions as sinecures. The corporation was reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. Pinney returned to the corporation that year as an alderman, a position he held for 18 years.


1831 Bristol riots, W. J. Müller's 1831 depictions of the riots
The artist William James Müller, an artist of the Bristol School, witnessed the rioting and recorded some of the scenes in a series of "raw and brilliant oil and watercolour sketches".


1831 Bristol riots, W. J. Müller's 1831 depictions of the riots
The Burning of the New Gaol with St. Paul’s Church, Bedminster


1831 Chilean presidential election
The Chilean presidential election of 1831 took place through a system of electors, and resulted in the election as President of General José Joaquín Prieto.


1831 Chilean presidential election
Following the victory by the conservatives at the Battle of Lircay, which put an end to the Chilean Civil War of 1829–30, order was restored. A new Congress was elected, and a call for presidential elections was made. A restricted number of citizens voted for electors, who in turn voted to elect a new president.


1831 Chilean presidential election
On June 2, the day following the first session of the new Congress, the vote recount took place. José Joaquín Prieto was elected President, and Diego Portales Vice President. The position of Vice President was later abolished with the Constitution of 1833.


1831 City Bank of New York theft
The 1831 City Bank of New York theft took place on March 19, 1831, in New York City, New York, United States, when burglars stole $245,000 (1831 values) from the City Bank (now Citibank) on Wall Street, using a set of copied keys. The theft is regarded as one of the first bank heists in U.S. history The amount stolen would come to over $52 million in 2013 currency. Initial reports variously reported the name of the culprits as Edward Smith, Edward Jones, James Honeyman and James Murray. A modern source, drawing on period newspapers, fingers James Honeyman and William J. Murray.


1831 City Bank of New York theft
Murray and Honeyman, who used both "Smith" and "Jones" as aliases, spent $60,000 before they were caught. Murray fled to Philadelphia while Honeyman remained in New York under an alias. Both were captured, convicted, and both sentenced to five years in Sing Sing prison.


1831 City Bank of New York theft
The Connecticut Courant reported that the suspect, Smith (Honeyman), was apprehended "due to the acuteness and indefatigable vigilance of High Constable Hays." Perpetrator had been apprehended in the previous year for robbing "Mr. Schenck's store"  in Brooklyn. He was a "Morocco (leather) dresser" by trade who kept a small shoe store on the Bowery where he allowed "dissipated profligates" to gather. Constable Hays found nothing during his first search of the Division Street rooms where Honeyman lived with his wife and two children.


1831 City Bank of New York theft
Tipped off by the keeper of the lodging house, who saw Honeyman carrying a trunk out of his rooms, the "acute" Constable Hays returned later in the week, and decided to search the trunks remaining in the apartment. This time he found most of the stolen money hidden under clothing in one of the trunks. Suspect was seized and taken to New York's colonial-era Bridewell prison.


1831 City Bank of New York theft
Authorities recovered:  $57,328 in City Bank Notes; $501,118 in "various city notes;" $44,000 in Lansingburgh Bank Notes (a bank in Lansingburgh, New York); $20,000 in notes issued by the "Morris Canal"; $8.272 recorded as "uncurrent - belonging to S. & M. Allen"; and $40 worth of counterfeit notes. $63,000 of stolen money was never recovered, a sum that included 398 doubloons.


1831 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1831 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 8, 1831. Incumbent acting governor and National Republican nominee John S. Peters was elected to a term in his own right after the resignation of his predecessor Gideon Tomlinson, defeating Anti- Masonic nominee Zalmon Storrs with 68.75% of the vote.


1831 Connecticut gubernatorial election
As the election took place during the early Second Party System, this was the last time a candidate for the governor's office would be listed under the Federalist banner.


1831 Coronation Honours
The 1831 Coronation Honours were appointments by King William IV to various orders and honours on the occasion of his coronation on 8 September 1831. The honours were published in The London Gazette on 16 September and 27 September 1831.


1831 Coronation Honours
The recipients of honours are displayed here as they were styled before their new honour, and arranged by honour, with classes (Knight, Knight Commander, etc.) and then divisions as appropriate.


1831 French legislative election
The 1831 general election organized the second legislature of the July Monarchy. The election was held on 5 July. Only tax paying citizens were eligible to vote.


1831 Londonderry City by-election
A by-election was held in the Parliament of the United Kingdom constituency of Londonderry City between 28 March and 2 April 1831. It was held after the 1830 general election in the constituency was declared void by the House of Commons following an election petition. The grounds for the petition were that the election's winner Sir Robert Ferguson, 2nd Baronet, was also the constituency's returning officer by virtue of his position as mayor of the city. Ferguson and his 1830 opponent Captain John Richard James Hart both stood in the 1831 by-election. The result was similar to that of the preceding year and Ferguson was returned. Less than a month after the by-election, Parliament was dissolved and the 1831 United Kingdom general election was called, in which Ferguson also won.


1831 Londonderry City by-election, Background
Sir Robert Ferguson, 2nd Baronet, a Whig politician with conservative leanings, had been elected to the House of Commons for the Londonderry City constituency at the 1830 United Kingdom general election. The 1830 election had been held in the city between 11 and 16 August and the declared result was 258 votes for Ferguson and 87 for his Tory opponent Captain John Richard James Hart. Ferguson was the sitting mayor of Londonderry and hence was also the constituency's returning officer. Three petitions were lodged against the election, on 15, 16 and 22 November 1830 by Hart and local electors. It was alleged that Ferguson had a conflict of interest, ignored a king's bench judgement against him and had ignored complaints about unfair conduct during the election. A committee of the House of Commons declared the election void on 14 March 1831 and issued warrants for a new election.


1831 Londonderry City by-election, Background
Hart was a noted supporter of the First Reform Bill and Ferguson, to secure votes, also pledged to support the bill. Hart's campaign was damaged by his father's opposition to the bill.


1831 Londonderry City by-election, Results
The election was held between 28 March and 2 April 1831 and resulted in 202 votes for Ferguson and 62 for Hart, a similar proportion to the 1830 results. Hart again alleged malpractice during the election and two further petitions were submitted on the basis that Ferguson was still legally mayor and returning officer. There were also complaints from the Catholic majority that the requirement to swear a test, repealed by the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, in order to become freemen and electors, deprived them of their vote.


1831 Londonderry City by-election, Results
The petitions became void upon when the Whig leader, Lord Grey, dissolved parliament on 23 April. Ferguson stood again for the constituency at the 1831 United Kingdom general election, held in Londonderry from 9 to 12 May and was again elected. Ferguson afterwards represented the Londonderry City constituency continuously until his death on 13 March 1860.


1831 Maine gubernatorial election
The 1831 Maine gubernatorial election took place on September 12, 1831. Incumbent Democratic Governor Samuel E. Smith defeated National Republican candidate Daniel Goodenow.


1831 Massachusetts legislature
The 52nd Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1831 during the governorship of Levi Lincoln Jr. Leverett Saltonstall served as president of the Senate and William B. Calhoun served as speaker of the House.


1831 Massachusetts legislature
Notable legislation included "a law to transfer state elections to the fall so as to coincide with national elections."


1831 National Republican National Convention
The 1831 National Republican National Convention was held to determine the presidential ticket of the National Republican Party in the 1832 United States presidential election. The convention was held in Baltimore, Maryland in December 1831. The party nominated Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky for president and former Representative John Sergeant of Pennsylvania for vice president.


1831 National Republican National Convention
The 1831 National Republican National Convention was the first U.S. presidential nominating convention held by major party, though a third party, the Anti-Masonic Party, had held a presidential nominating convention earlier in 1831. 155 delegates from 18 of the 24 states attended the convention. Clay was the unanimous choice for president of the party's delegates. He was the first sitting member of the United States Senate to be nominated for president.


1831 National Republican National Convention
In the 1832 presidential election, Clay was defeated by President Andrew Jackson of the Democratic Party. After the 1832 election, the National Republican Party, the Anti-Masonic Party, and other opponents of Jackson coalesced into the Whig Party. Thus, the 1831 convention was the only national convention ever held by the National Republican Party.


1831 Naval Air Squadron
1831 Naval Air Squadron (1831 NAS) was a Naval Air Squadron of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm. The squadron was formed in 1943 in Rhode Island, before being disbanded after its return to Britain in 1946. It was reformed a year later, as part of the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve where in 1955 it became the first jet-equipped squadron of the Royal Navy Voulenteer Reserve, before being disbanded in 1957. It was later briefly reformed between 1980-81 to assist in training aircrew.


1831 Naval Air Squadron, Second World War
1831 Naval Air Squadron initially formed on 1 July 1943 at NAS Quonset Point on Rhode Island, equipped with Lend-Lease supplied Vought Corsair fighters. It crossed the Atlantic to Britain in October, but was disbanded on 10 December 1943, when it was broken up to re-inforce 1830 and 1833 Naval Air Squadrons. It reformed on 1 November 1944, again as a Corsair-equipped squadron, at another American naval base, this time NAS Brunswick in Maine. The Squadron returned to Britain in February 1945, embarking on the aircraft carrier Glory which sailed to join the British Pacific Fleet in May 1945. By the time Glory reached the Pacific, the Second World War was almost over, and the ship's Naval Air Wing, including 1831 Squadron, saw no combat. The squadron, without its aircraft, returned to Britain and disbanded on arrival on 13 August 1946.


1831 Naval Air Squadron, Naval Reserve
1831 Squadron reformed at RNAS Stretton in Cheshire on 1 June 1947 as part of the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve, equipped with Supermarine Seafire fighters and a single North American Harvard trainer. The squadron, which had its strength supplemented by single examples of the Hawker Sea Fury and Fairey Firefly in 1948, carried out a training deployment aboard Illustrious in September 1949 and again in August–September 1950.


1831 Naval Air Squadron, Naval Reserve
The Squadron re-equipped with the Sea Fury in August 1951 and in June 1952, became part of the newly established Northern Air Division of the RNVR, being joined by 1841 Squadron, equipped with Fireflies in the anti-submarine role, in July that year. On 15 June 1953, 1831 Squadron took part in the flypast for the Coronation Fleet Review marking the Coronation of Elizabeth II, and in July that year it carried out more deck landing training aboard Illustrious.


1831 Naval Air Squadron, Naval Reserve
In August 1954, the Northern Air Division was deployed to Har Far, Malta for that year's 14-day continuous training period. That month it also replaced its Harvard trainers with Boulton Paul Sea Balliols, which were used both for training and communications duties. From May–June 1955, the Squadron became the first jet-equipped squadron of the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve, replacing its Sea Furys with seven Supermarine Attacker jet fighters and one de Havilland Vampire T22 trainer, while retaining its Sea Balliols. Later that year, the squadron formed a formation aerobatic team with its Attackers, displaying at five airshows that year. On 9 January 1957, it was announced that flying units of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force and the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve were to be disbanded, with operational training ending on 10 January. As a result, 1831 Naval Air Squadron disbanded on 10 March 1957.


1831 Naval Air Squadron, Naval Reserve
The Squadron reformed on 3 April 1980 at RNAS Lee-on-Solent with the role of giving continuation training to aircrew in the Royal Navy Reserve. It had no aircraft of its own, borrowing aircraft from other squadrons as required. The Squadron moved to RNAS Yeovilton on 1 April 1981 but soon disbanded.


1831 Nicholson
1831 Nicholson, provisional designation 1968 HC, is a stony asteroid of the Baptistina family from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 8 kilometers (5 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 17 April 1968, by Swiss astronomer Paul Wild at the Zimmerwald Observatory near Bern, Switzerland. The S-type asteroid has a rotation period of 3.2 hours. It was named for American astronomer Seth B. Nicholson.


1831 Nicholson, Orbit and classification
According to a HCM-analysis by David Nesvorný, Nicholson is a member of the Baptistina family (403), located within the greater Flora family a giant asteroid clan and the largest family of stony asteroids in the asteroid belt. Conversely, and since the existence of a proper Flora family has been ruled out by other astronomers, Nicholson has also been classified as a background asteroid.


1831 Nicholson, Orbit and classification
It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.0–2.5 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,224 days; semi-major axis of 2.24 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.13 and an inclination of 6° with respect to the ecliptic. The asteroid was first observed as 1948 GF at the Nice Observatory in April 1948. The body's observation arc begins with its observation as 1955 ML at the Goethe Link Observatory in June 1955, almost 13 years prior to its official discovery observation at Zimmerwald.


1831 Nicholson, Naming
This minor planet was named by the discoverer in memory of American astronomer Seth B. Nicholson (1891–1963), who pioneered in several branches of planetary research at Mount Wilson Observatory and who discovered four of Jupiter's numerous moons – namely, Sinope, Lysithea, Carme, and Ananke. The lunar crater Nicholson and the dark terrain of Nicholson Regio on Jupiter's moon Ganymede, as well as the impact crater Nicholson on Mars have also been named after him. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 15 October 1977 (M.P.C. 4236).


1831 Nicholson, Physical characteristics
In the SMASS classification, Nicholson is a common stony S-type asteroid.


1831 Nicholson, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In April 2015, a rotational lightcurve of Nicholson was obtained from photometric observations by a group of Spanish astronomers from Valencia and Alicante at various observatories: (J08), (Z95), (J67), (Z98) and (I57). Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 3.228±0.001 hours and a brightness variation of 0.24 magnitude (U=3). At the same time, Serbian astronomer Vladimir Benishek at the Belgrade Observatory determined a concurring period of 3.25510±0.00003 hours with an amplitude of 0.29 magnitude (U=3).


1831 Nicholson, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Nicholson measures 7.1 and 8.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.39 and 0.296, respectively. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from 8 Flora, the namesake of the Flora family – and calculates a diameter of 8.58 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.5.


1831 Pennsylvania's 11th congressional district special election
On November 22, 1831, a special election was held in Pennsylvania's 11th congressional district to fill a vacancy caused by the death of William Ramsey (D) on September 29, 1831.


1831 Pennsylvania's 11th congressional district special election, Election results
McCoy took his seat December 5, 1831, at the start of the 1st session of the 22nd Congress


1831 United Kingdom general election
The 1831 United Kingdom general election saw a landslide win by supporters of electoral reform, which was the major election issue. As a result, it was the last unreformed election, as the Parliament which resulted ensured the passage of the Reform Act 1832. Polling was held from 28 April to 1 June 1831. The Whigs won a majority of 136 over the Tories, which was as near to a landslide as the unreformed electoral system could deliver. As the Government obtained a dissolution of Parliament once the new electoral system had been enacted, the resulting Parliament was a short one and there was another election the following year. The election was the first since 1715 to see a victory by a party previously in minority.


1831 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
The ninth UK Parliament elected in 1830 lacked a stable Commons majority for the Tory government of the Duke of Wellington: the best estimate is that it there had 310 supporters, 225 opponents and 121 doubtful. After a series of defeats, on 15 November 1830 Henry Parnell's motion for an inquiry into the civil list was carried by 233 to 204; this defeat surprised Wellington and his cabinet and forced their resignation. Wellington went into opposition, with Sir Robert Peel as the Tory Leader of the Opposition in the Commons. A Whig government under Earl Grey was appointed on 22 November 1830, the first since the Ministry of all the Talents in 1806–07. The government's Leader of the House of Commons was Viscount Althorp, who also served as Chancellor of the Exchequer.


1831 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
Grey was determined to bring in reform to the traditional electoral system, which had been discussed for many decades. With aristocratic colleagues he produced a surprisingly bold scheme of reform; the second reading of the Reform Bill was carried by only one vote (302–301) on 22 March 1831. The Tory opposition was determined to stop the scheme going ahead, and when the Bill went into committee on 18 April, General Gascoyne moved an amendment which required that the total number of MPs representing England and Wales ought not to be reduced.


1831 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
This proposal was a skilfully drafted 'wrecking amendment' and when it was passed by 299–291 on 19 April, the Grey government knew it would not get its legislation. In truth Grey had been ready to ask for a dissolution immediately the Committee stage began, and King William IV reluctantly agreed; the King dissolved Parliament in person (amid a great political tumult) on 22 April.


1831 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
The new Parliament was summoned to meet on 14 June 1831, for a maximum seven-year term from that date.


1831 United Kingdom general election, Dates of election
At this period there was not one election day. After receiving a writ (a royal command) for the election to be held, the local returning officer fixed the election timetable for the particular constituency or constituencies he was concerned with. Polling in seats with contested elections could continue for many days.


1831 United Kingdom general election, Dates of election
The general election took place between the first contest on 28 April and the last contest on 1 June 1831.


1831 United Kingdom general election, Summary of the constituencies
Monmouthshire (1 County constituency with 2 MPs and one single member Borough constituency) is included in Wales in these tables. Sources for this period may include the county in England.


1831 United Kingdom general election, Summary of the constituencies
Table 2: Number of seats per constituency, by type and country


1831 United States Senate election in New York
The 1831 United States Senate election in New York was held on February 1, 1831, by the New York State Legislature to elect a U.S. Senator (Class 3) to represent the State of New York in the United States Senate.


1831 United States Senate election in New York, Background
Nathan Sanford had been elected in 1826 to this seat, and his term would expire on March 3, 1831.


1831 United States Senate election in New York, Background
At the State election in November 1830, the Jacksonian Democrats managed to defeat the combined Anti- Masons and National Republicans. Enos T. Throop was narrowly re-elected Governor, a large Jacksonian-Democratic majority was elected to the Assembly, and five of the nine State Senators elected were Jacksonian Democrats. The 54th New York State Legislature met from January 4 to April 26, 1831, at Albany, New York. The party strength in the Assembly as shown by the election for Speaker was: 91 for Jacksonian Democrat George R. Davis and 30 for Anti- Mason John C. Spencer.


1831 United States Senate election in New York, Candidates
The Jacksonian Democratic State legislators held a caucus before the election, and nominated New York Supreme Court Justice William L. Marcy. The vote was 77 for Marcy, 15 for Erastus Root, 6 for the incumbent Nathan Sanford and 6 scattering votes.


1831 United States Senate election in New York, Result
William L. Marcy was the choice of both the Assembly and the Senate, and was declared elected.


1831 United States Senate election in New York, Aftermath
Marcy resigned his seat on January 1, 1833, upon taking office as Governor of New York. The State Legislature held a special election to fill the vacancy in January 1833, and elected Silas Wright, Jr.


1831 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania
The 1831 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania was held on December 13, 1831. George M. Dallas was elected by the Pennsylvania General Assembly to the United States Senate.


1831 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania, Background
The Democratic-Republican Isaac D. Barnard was elected to the United States Senate by the General Assembly, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate, in December 1826. Sen. Barnard resigned on December 6, 1831, vacating the seat.


1831 United States Senate special election in Pennsylvania, Results
Following the resignation of Sen. Isaac Barnard, the Pennsylvania General Assembly convened on December 13, 1831, to elect a new Senator to fill the vacancy. A total of eleven ballots were recorded. The results of the eleventh and final ballot of both houses combined are as follows:


1831 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1831 Vermont gubernatorial election took place in September and October, and resulted in the election of William A. Palmer to a one-year term as governor.


1831 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the mid-to-late 1820s, the old Democratic-Republican Party continued to splinter into adherents of Andrew Jackson (the Jacksonian or Democratic Party) and those of John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay (the National Republican Party, soon to be called the Whig Party). The Anti-Masonic Party, which had formed in the late 1820s, continued to attract adherents, and was especially strong in Vermont.


1831 Vermont gubernatorial election
The candidates for governor in 1831 were: Anti- Mason William A. Palmer; Heman Allen (of Colchester), the nominee of the Clay Masonic or National Republican Party; and Jacksonian Ezra Meech. In the general election, the General Assembly determined that the results were: total votes, 33,976; Palmer, 15,258 (44.9%); Allen, 12,290 (36.2%); Meech, 6,158 (18.1%); scattering, 270 (0.8%).


1831 Vermont gubernatorial election
Because no candidate received a majority as required by the Vermont Constitution, the General Assembly was required to select. With 227 members voting on the 9th ballot, 114 votes were necessary for a choice. Palmer, who had consistently attained 110 or more votes on the previous eight ballots, received 114 votes. Allen received 36, Meech 42, and incumbent governor Samuel C. Crafts, a National Republican, received 35.


1831 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for lieutenant governor, the total votes were 34,099. Anti - Mason Lebbeus Egerton received 15,190 votes (44.5%), Jedediah Harris, a National Republican, received 12,736 (37.3%), Jacksonian John Roberts received 6,127 (18.0%), and 46 (0.2%) were recorded as scattering. The General Assembly was required to choose and with 209 members voting on the first ballot, 105 votes were necessary for a choice. Egerton was elected with 110 votes to 60 for Harris, 40 for Roberts, and 9 scattering.


1831 Vermont gubernatorial election
Benjamin Swan won election to a one-year term as treasurer, his thirty-second. Though he had nominally been a Federalist, Swan was usually endorsed by the Democratic-Republicans and even after the demise of the Federalist Party he was frequently unopposed. In 1831, he was the candidate of both the Jacksonians and the National Republicans and Augustine Clarke was the Anti-Masonic candidate. The popular vote was reported as: total votes cast, 33,362; Swan, 19,118 (57.3%); Clarke, 14,204 (42.6%); scattering, 39 (0.1%).


1831 census of the Ottoman Empire
1831 census of the Ottoman Empire was the first available population information in the West. The Europeans estimates before this census, some of whom, such as William Eton, David Urquhart, Georg Hassel was based on their personal assumptions which in these publications claimed to be gathered from Ottoman court.


1831 census of the Ottoman Empire
The "first" modern Ottoman census was conducted beginning in 1828/29 in both Europe and Anatolia. It was required after Auspicious Incident in 1826. Many of the old customs and procedures changed at this census. Advent of the war with Russia in 1828-1829 prevented the generalization.


1831 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1831 in Australia.


1831 in Australia
The year of the Ripon Land Grant, which attracted many settlers to Australia.


1831 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1831 in Chile.


1831 in Chile, Incumbents
President of Chile: José Tomás Ovalle y Bezanilla (-8 March), Fernando Errázuriz Aldunate(8 March-18 September), José Joaquín Prieto Vial (18 September-)


1831 in Iran
The following lists events that have happened in 1831 in the Qajar dynasty.


1831 in New Zealand
The following lists events that happened during 1831 in New Zealand.


1831 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1831 in South Africa.


1831 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1831 to Wales and its people.


1831 in Wales, Arts and literature, New publications
Y Drysorfa a Calvinistic Methodist publication, restarts under the editorship of John Parry


1831 in archaeology
The year 1831 CE in archaeology included many events, some of which are listed below.


1831 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1831.


1831 in paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1831.


1831 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1831 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1831 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1831 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1831.


1831 in science
The year 1831 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1831 in sports
1831 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1831 reform riots
The 1831 reform riots occurred after the Second Reform Bill was defeated in Parliament in October 1831. There were civil disturbances in London, Leicester, Yeovil, Sherborne, Exeter, Bath and Worcester and riots at Nottingham, Derby and Bristol. Targets included Nottingham Castle, home of the anti-reform Duke of Newcastle, other private houses and jails. In Bristol, three days of rioting followed the arrival in the city of the anti-reform judge Charles Wetherell; a significant portion of the city centre was burnt, £300,000 of damage inflicted and up to 250 casualties occurred.


1831 reform riots, Background
The British parliament consists of two houses: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. In the early 19th-century the House of Lords was populated by hereditary peers and the House of Commons by Members of Parliament (MPs) elected to represent constituencies. The areas covered the constituencies had not been amended to reflect population change and so there were many so-called rotten boroughs, returning one or two MPs from only a small number of voters, while some new urban centres such as Manchester had no MPs. The franchise was small with only 5% of the British populace able to cast a vote at a general election.


1831 reform riots, Background
In March 1831, an attempt was made by the Whigs to introduce a Reform Bill to address the matter. This was defeated in parliament and the prime minister, Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, resigned. Grey was returned to office with a majority in the subsequent general election and introduced a second Reform Bill. This passed in the House of Commons, but was defeated in the Lords on 8 October 1831.


1831 reform riots, Background
The rejection of the bill and the second resignation of Grey resulted in a period of political upheaval which has since been characterised as "the closest that Britain came to revolution". Inhabitants of cities and towns were angry at the failure to pass the bill and there were serious disturbances in London, Leicester, Yeovil, Sherborne, Exeter, Bath and Worcester. The disturbances in Birmingham were so severe that the British Army's Scots Greys cavalry regiment was deployed to the city. Full -scale riots erupted in Bristol, Nottingham and Derby.


1831 reform riots, Nottingham and Derby
Rioting broke out in Nottingham on 9 October upon learning of the defeat of the bill. This was initially directed against the private houses of known opponents of reform. On 10 October a public meeting turned to violence, the attendees marched on Colwick Hall, home of John Musters, which was damaged. The same day the mob burned Nottingham Castle, home of anti-reform peer Henry Pelham-Clinton, 4th Duke of Newcastle, who was away at parliament. Jails in Derby and Markeaton were also attacked and Lowe's Silk Mill in Beeston was burnt on 11 October, the same day the riots ceased. The Duke was able to gather yeomanry and his own tenants to successfully defend his residence at Clumber Park.


1831 reform riots, Nottingham and Derby
On 4 January 1832, 26 men arrested during the riots were tried by a special commission, the local magistrates being suspected of having possible sympathies with the defendants. Eight of these men were found guilty, though none were brought to justice for the attack on the castle, and three were hanged on 25 January. The Duke accused the Nottingham magistrates and the Home Office of failing to prevent the riots and, after a lengthy dispute, was awarded £21,000 in damages in August 1832. In protest at the event the Duke refused to restore the castle and the burnt shell stood on the site for some time afterwards. He also halted works on The Park Estate, a housing development described as "the Belgravia of Nottingham".


1831 reform riots, Bristol
Rioting took place in Bristol after the arrival of anti-reform judge Charles Wetherell in the city for the annual assizes on 29 October. Wetherell's carriage was attacked and civic and military authorities lost control of the situation. There followed two days of rioting and looting in which much of the city centre was burned and prisoners freed from the jails. The riots were brought to an end on 31 October by which time £300,000 of damage had been caused and up to 250 casualties incurred.


1831 reform riots, Bristol
The Bristol Corporation, the local authority, was criticised for its handling of the riots. Its mayor, Charles Pinney was tried for neglect of duty and found not guilty. The military commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Brereton, was court-martialled for his actions in the event and committed suicide before he could be sentenced. A royal commission found the corporation incapable of controlling the city and it was subsequently reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835.


1831 reform riots, Passing of the Reform Act
Grey resigned after the loss of the vote and King William IV called upon the Duke of Wellington, leader of the Tory party, to form a government. Wellington was unable to secure the support necessary during a period of political uncertainty known as the Days of May and so Grey's government was recalled. The Whigs voted a Third Reform Bill through the House of Commons and it was sent to the House of Lords.


1831 reform riots, Passing of the Reform Act
The king, who had previously been opposed to reform, now agreed to use his powers to create enough new pro-reform peers to overcome the Tory majority in the upper house. This action did not need to be carried out as the Tory lords, threatened with an influx of Whigs, abstained on the vote and the bill passed. The bill, afterwards known as the Great Reform Act, received royal assent on 7 June 1832.


1831 reform riots, Passing of the Reform Act
The act removed many of the rotten boroughs and granted new seats to the industrial towns and cities. The franchise was, on the whole, extended being granted to any man who owned property worth £10 or more. In some boroughs, the so-called potwallopers, this actually reduced the electorate as they had previously granted the vote to any man with a hearth big enough to boil a cauldron. Local government was investigated by the Royal Commission on Municipal Corporations in 1833 and the subsequent Municipal Corporations Act 1835 applied reforms to many, including Bristol.


1832
1832 (MDCCCXXXII) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1832nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 832nd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 32nd  year of the 19th century, and the  3rd   year of the 1830s decade. As of the start of 1832, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1832 Colombian presidential election
Indirect presidential elections were held in the Republic of New Granada on 9 March 1932. Francisco de Paula Santander was elected president, whilst José Ignacio de Márquez was elected vice president.


1832 Colombian presidential election, Background
Joaquín Mosquera was elected President in May 1830, but was forced out of office on 4 September that year under pressure from the military. General Rafael Urdaneta was appointed interim president the following day whilst a response from former President Simón Bolívar on whether he would return to the Presidency was awaited. However, he refused to accept the post, and gave his support to Urdaneta. Bolívar died in December.


1832 Colombian presidential election, Background
Following a brief civil war in early 1831, Urdaneta left office and elections were held for a Constituent Assembly. A new constitution was drafted, and the Assembly elected an interim President to serve until the first normal term of office would start on 1 April 1833.


1832 Colombian presidential election, Results, Vice President
After fifteen rounds of voting, José Ignacio de Márquez was elected with 42 votes to the 20 received by José María Obando.


1832 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1832 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 13, 1832. Incumbent governor and National Republican nominee John S. Peters was re-elected, defeating former senator and Democratic nominee Calvin Willey with 71.44% of the vote.


1832 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The Anti-Masonic Party in Connecticut was opposed to the platform of the National Republicans, and combined its forces with the Democrats in this race, supporting a ticket of Willey for governor and John M. Holley of Salisbury for lieutenant governor. Willey had previously been affiliated with the Anti- Jacksonians during his term in the United States Senate.


1832 Connecticut gubernatorial election
This was the last time the National Republican Party would win a Connecticut gubernatorial election.


1832 Delaware gubernatorial election
The 1832 Delaware gubernatorial election was held on November 6, 1832. This was the first gubernatorial election held under the 1831 constitution, which moved the state's general elections to November and extended the Governor's three-year term to four years, but preserved the bar on governors from succeeding themselves. Incumbent National Republican Governor David Hazzard was barred from seeking a second term. New Castle County Treasurer Caleb P. Bennett ran as the Democratic candidate to succeed Hazzard, while former State Representative Arnold Naudain ran as the National Republican candidate. Bennett narrowly defeated Naudain, winning by a margin of just 54 votes.


1832 Delaware gubernatorial election, Bibliography
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1832 Democratic National Convention
The 1832 Democratic National Convention was held from May 21 to May 23, 1832, in Baltimore, Maryland. In the first presidential nominating convention ever held by the Democratic Party, incumbent President Andrew Jackson was nominated for a second term, while former Secretary of State Martin Van Buren was nominated for vice president.


1832 Democratic National Convention
The Anti-Masonic Party and the National Republican Party had held the first presidential nominating conventions in 1831, and Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet" helped organize a Democratic convention in 1832.


1832 Democratic National Convention
As the party leaders assumed that Jackson would be nominated for President, the primary purpose of the convention was to find a new running mate: Vice President John C. Calhoun had fallen out with Jackson following the Petticoat affair and the Nullification Crisis, and subsequently resigned the office in order to take a Senate seat.


1832 Democratic National Convention
The convention, which was presided over by Governor Robert Lucas, hosted delegates from every state except Missouri; Jackson won the presidential nomination unanimously.


1832 Democratic National Convention
With Jackson's strong endorsement, Van Buren easily won the vice presidential nomination on the first ballot, defeating former Representative Philip P. Barbour of Virginia and Representative Richard Mentor Johnson of Kentucky. The Democratic ticket of Jackson and Van Buren went on to win the 1832 presidential election.


1832 Democratic National Convention, Background
In the summer of 1822, "Richmond Junto" leader Thomas Ritchie of Virginia began raising the idea of a national convention to resolve the issue of nomination; ultimately, the Congressional nominating caucus was appealed to by the devotees of Treasury Secretary William H. Crawford's candidacy. Following that defeat in the election of 1824, early in 1827, Van Buren privately made the argument to Richie for an exclusive national convention of Republicans to ensure Jackson's nomination. However, it did not immediately come to fruition while state conventions and legislatures took up Jackson as their presidential candidate for the election of 1828 with Vice President John C. Calhoun as his running mate. Such a type of national convention would occur after the election.


1832 Democratic National Convention, Background
Calhoun soon became politically estranged from President Jackson, due in part to an 1830 letter written by Crawford stating that Calhoun, as Secretary of War under President James Monroe, pushed for a reprimand of then-General Jackson for his actions in the 1818 invasion of Florida. The Petticoat affair in which Calhoun's wife, Floride, was a central figure further alienated Jackson from the vice president and his supporters.


1832 Democratic National Convention, Background
The final blow to the relationship came in January 1832, when Calhoun, as President of the Senate, sank Van Buren's nomination as Minister to Great Britain by casting a tie-breaking vote in the United States Senate. Consequently, Calhoun was replaced as the party's 1832 vice presidential nominee by Van Buren. Later that year, on December 28, he resigned as Vice President, after having been elected to the U.S. Senate. There he continued to be a proponent of the doctrine of nullification in opposition to Jackson.


1832 Democratic National Convention, Background
The proposal for the convention began with members of Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet", his coterie of informal advisers and confidants. Major William Berkeley Lewis wrote on May 25, 1831, to Amos Kendall, who was then in New Hampshire. He proposed that the New Hampshire legislature call for a national gathering of Republican supporters of the Jackson administration to nominate a candidate for the vice presidency, and asked Kendall to pass the idea to Isaac Hill. After the New Hampshire legislature issued the call for a general convention, the Washingoton Globe, the principal Jacksonian newspaper, seconded the recommendation on July 6, 1831:


1832 Democratic National Convention, Background
The recommendation of a Convention at Baltimore to nominate a candidate for the Vice-Presidency deserves a serious consideration. It is probably the best plan which can be adopted to produce entire unanimity in the Republican party, and secure its lasting ascendancy.


1832 Democratic National Convention, Background
Lewis later recalled warning former Secretary of War and delegate John Eaton the day before the convention not to vote for anyone there except Van Buren unless he was prepared to "quarrel with the General [Jackson]."


1832 Democratic National Convention, Proceedings
The convention was called to order by Frederick A. Sumner of New Hampshire, who said of the origins and purpose of the convention:


1832 Democratic National Convention, Proceedings
Gentlemen—The proposition for calling a general convention of delegates, to act on the nomination of a candidate for president, and to select a suitable candidate for vice-president of the United States, originated in the state of New Hampshire, by the friends of democracy in that state; and it appears that the proposition, although opposed by the enemies of the democratic party, has found favor in nearly and perhaps all the States of the Union ...


1832 Democratic National Convention, Proceedings
The object of the representatives of the people of New Hampshire who called this convention was not to impose on the people as candidate for either of the two offices in this government, any local favorite; but to concentrate the opinion of all the states ... They believed that the example of this convention would operate favorably in future elections; that the people would be disposed after seeing the good effects of this convention in conciliating the different and distant sections of the country, to continue this mode of nomination.


1832 Democratic National Convention, Proceedings
Delegates from all states except Missouri were present. Governor Robert Lucas of Ohio served as the chairman and convention president. Peter Vivian Daniel, James Fenner, John M. Barclay, and Augustin Smith Clayton were chosen as convention vice presidents. John Adams Dix was appointed secretary at the first meeting, with other additional secretaries thereafter. A resolution was passed by the convention requiring two-thirds majority support of the delegates for a nomination.


1832 Democratic National Convention, Proceedings
An address by the Republican delegates of New York gave a history of previous national political activity in the United States. They denounced the National Republicans as Federalists under a new designation and they denounced the Nullifiers while they declared that their own party held the middle ground between the positions of the other two. The address described what they claimed were political similarities between Andrew Jackson and Thomas Jefferson and it defended the policies of Jackson's administration. It characterized Van Buren as a strict constructionist and welcomed his nomination.


1832 Democratic National Convention, Proceedings
The convention concluded by adopting a resolution calling for an address or report from the delegations to their constituents.


1832 Democratic National Convention, Vice Presidential nomination, Vice Presidential candidates
Martin Van Buren was nominated for vice president on the first ballot after receiving 208 votes of the 283 cast, 19 more than the two-thirds majority required to win.


1832 Democratic National Convention, General election
Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren defeated their main competitors, Henry Clay and John Sergeant of the National Republican Party, by a large electoral vote margin in the election of 1832.


1832 Georgian plot
1832 Georgian plot (Georgian: 1832 წლის შეთქმულება, romanized: 1832 ts'lis shetkmuleba) was a conspiracy involving Georgian royalty and nobility to restore Georgian statehood and its Bagrationi dynasty monarchy.


1832 Georgian plot
Eastern Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1801, breaking the terms of the Treaty of Georgievsk. Members of the royal Bagrationi dynasty were deported to the Russian provinces, and Russian control was acknowledged in 1813 by the Treaty of Gulistan. The Georgians, unsatisfied with the Russian rule, yearned for the removal of Russian dominance and the return of their royal dynasty. The goal of independence was kept alive principally by Prince Okropir of Georgia, a son of the last eastern Georgian monarch, George XII.


1832 Georgian plot
Okropir and other Georgians held gatherings of Georgian students in Moscow and St. Petersburg, trying to inspire them with patriotic feeling towards their country under Russian rule. It resulted in creation of a secret society in Tbilisi whose main goal was the re-establishment of an independent kingdom under the dethroned Bagrationi. Okropir himself visited Georgia in 1830, and held talks with the principal conspirators, who included members of Georgian aristocrats from the Orbeliani and Eristavi princely houses, as well as the philosopher Solomon Dodashvili. The plot was also supported by the Georgians from western Georgia, i.e. from the Russian-abolished Kingdom of Imereti as well as the members of the House of Shervashidze that ruled Abkhazia.


1832 Georgian plot
Most of the Georgian conspirators were not liberal republicans, but rather monarchists and nationalists. It was proposed to invite the Russian commander-in-chief in Georgia together with other members of their administration to a grand ball in Tbilisi and at a given signal they would all be assassinated. The Georgians would then seize the Daryal Pass to prevent Russian reinforcements, and Prince Aleksandre of Georgia, son of the Georgian king Erekle II would return from Persia to be proclaimed king of Georgia.


1832 Georgian plot
The ball at which the Russian officers and administration members were to be killed was scheduled for 20 November 1832, but it was unexpectedly postponed, first to 9 December, then to 20 December. Early in December the whole affair was revealed to the authorities by one of the conspirators, Prince Palavandishvili, and all of them were arrested. Ten of the accused conspirators were sentenced to death but later reprieved and deported to distant Russian provinces instead, largely because of their aristocratic status. The 1832 plot, though unsuccessful, played an important role in the national liberation movement that Georgians would seek to organize more fruitfully.


1832 Maine gubernatorial election
The 1832 Maine gubernatorial election took place on September 10, 1832. Incumbent Democratic Governor Samuel E. Smith defeated National Republican candidate Daniel Goodenow in a re-match of the previous year's election.


1832 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
The 1832 Massachusetts gubernatorial election was held on November 12.


1832 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
National Republican Governor Levi Lincoln Jr. was re-elected to a ninth term in office over Democrat Marcus Morton and Anti- Mason Samuel Lathrop.


1832 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
The Anti-Masonic Party, which was now controlled by former Democrats, was growing in strength. The party positioned itself in opposition to Henry Clay, a Mason and the National Republican presidential candidate, by declaring him "far behind the ordinary standard of morals" with "no virtuous example in his private life." This created a conundrum for Anti- Masonic nominee Samuel Lathrop, a friend of Clay.


1832 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
Democratic candidate Marcus Morton, who had campaigned actively in the preceding three elections, sought to withdraw his name but was persuaded to stay on the ticket by party leader David Henshaw. Morton accepted his role as the state's advocate for the Andrew Jackson campaign but saw little hope of victory and privately expressed that he had no influence over anyone but his son Marcus Jr.


1832 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Campaign
Jackson's veto of the renewal of the national bank charter and his declaration against concentrated wealth consolidated conservative elements against him and may have buoyed the National Republican vote in the state.


1832 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, General election, Results
Lincoln and Henry Clay carried the state with more than twice the vote of their nearest competitor, with the Democrats finishing third in both races. Turnout increased, though this time with most of the new votes going to the National Republicans and Democrats.


1832 Massachusetts legislature
The 53rd Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1832 during the governorship of Levi Lincoln Jr.. William Thorndike served as president of the Senate and William B. Calhoun served as speaker of the House.


1832 Missouri gubernatorial election
The 1832 Missouri gubernatorial election was held on August 6, 1832. Lt . Governor Daniel Dunklin, the Jacksonian candidate was elected over John Bull, the Anti- Jacksonian candidate.


1832 Mrkos
1832 Mrkos, provisional designation 1969 PC, is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 30 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 11 August 1969 by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in Nauchnyj, on the Crimean peninsula. It was named after Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos.


1832 Mrkos, Orbit and classification
The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.9–3.5 AU once every 5 years and 9 months (2,104 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.10 and an inclination of 15° with respect to the ecliptic. Mrkos was first observed and identified as 1937 CJ at Yerkes Observatory in 1937, extending the body's observation arc by 32 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1832 Mrkos, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In October 2004, a rotational lightcurve for Mrkos was obtained from photometric observations taken by American astronomer Brian Warner at his Palmer Divide Observatory in Colorado. It gave a rotation period of 13.64 hours with a brightness variation of 0.18 in magnitude (U=3-).


1832 Mrkos, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Mrkos measures between 27.18 and 30.78 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.068 and 0.097. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.0567 and a diameter of 30.67 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.3.


1832 Mrkos, Naming
This minor planet was named in honor of Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos (1918–1996), a prolific discoverer of 273 minor planets and well known for his contributions to cometary astronomy. He was the director of the Kleť Observatory in what is now the Czech Republic, initiated the first minor planet survey in his country, was a professor at Charles University in Prague and University of South Bohemia, and a participant of a Soviet Antarctic expedition in the late 1950s. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 June 1975 (M.P.C. 3825).


1832 Naval Air Squadron
1832 Naval Air Squadron (1832 NAS) was a Naval Air Squadron of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm.


1832 Naval Air Squadron, References, Bibliography
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1832 New York gubernatorial election
The 1832 New York gubernatorial election was held from November 5 to 7, 1832, to elect the Governor and Lieutenant Governor of New York.


1832 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The Democratic Party nominated U.S. senator William L. Marcy. They nominated University of the State of New York regent John Tracy for Lieutenant Governor.


1832 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The National Republican Party nominated state assemblyman and 1830 gubernatorial candidate Francis Granger. They nominated Samuel Stevens for Lieutenant Governor.


1832 New York gubernatorial election, Sources
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1832 Newfoundland general election
The 1832 Newfoundland general election came after many years of agitation against the British Parliament. Newfoundland was the last British colony in North America to gain representative government.


1832 Newfoundland general election, Member distribution
The first general election for Newfoundland was held in November, 1832. The island was divided into nine electoral districts:


1832 Newfoundland general election, Member distribution
None of the west coast of Newfoundland was represented during the 1832 general election because it fell within the jurisdiction of the French and American treaty shores. 15 seats in total, were up for election and representation to govern the affairs of the island.


1832 Newfoundland general election, Districts
The districts were determined by settlements and landmarks along the coast, with no consideration given to areas inland. It was determined that all residents lived on or near the coast.