182 (number)
182 (one hundred [and] eighty-two) is the natural number following 181 and preceding 183.


182 BC
Year 182 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Tamphilus and Macedonicus (or, less frequently, year 572 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 182 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks
182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks is a heritage-listed retail building and residence located at 182 Cumberland Street, in the inner city Sydney suburb of The Rocks in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, Australia. It was designed by Walter Liberty Vernon with the assistance of E. L. Drew and built from 1911 to 1912. The property is owned by Property NSW, an agency of the Government of New South Wales. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 10 May 2002.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, History
Early maps of the area show a rectangular building located at the corner of Cumberland and Essex Streets as early as 1832. Rate books for the Council of the City of Sydney list a two-roomed, stone building with a shingled roof. The building was described as a house in rate books in 1852 but in 1853 was described as a shop with a "bake house at the back". The land was transferred to the Surveyor-General on 9 May 1834 and granted on 30 June 1834 to Aaron Byrne and Joseph Moss. On 13 February 1852 the property was sold to Samuel Watson, a grocer of Sydney.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, History
At some time after the resumption of the property in 1902 by the NSW Government and prior to the construction of the present building in 1911/1912 the existing stone shop and house was demolished. This most likely occurred just prior to the construction of the present building as confectioner, Anders P Johnson is listed as the occupant of the building in 1907 and also from 1913 to 1918. The existing shop and dwelling at 182 Cumberland Street was designed in 1911 and possibly being completed in 1912. The original working drawings of the proposed scheme located in the Archives Office of NSW were signed by W. L. Vernon, Government Architect on 2 March 1911 and by E. L. Drew, Assistant Architect on 3 March 1911.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, History
The building remained little changed until 1966, when some changes were proposed by the then owner, the Maritime Services Board. Prior to the conservation works undertaken in 1995-96, the building became derelict and was boarded up for some time. The building is now used as a shop and residence.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, History
Archaeology Notes: granted as Lot 1, Section 64 to Aaron Byrne and Joseph Moss, executors of the will of Elizabeth Moss, 6 September 1834.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Description
The two storey building at the corner of Cumberland and Essex Streets has brick parapet walls, with a slate roof behind. The part of the building on the corner is grander, with stepped sandstone lintels above the shop entry and windows and sandstone keystones above the first floor arched windows. The lower part of the building facing Essex Street features an arched brick entry doorway and does not have a parapet.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Description
Style: Classic Free Style Edwardian; Facade: Brick; Internal Walls: Plastered brick walls; Roof Cladding: Slate.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Description, Condition
As at 27 April 2001, Archaeology Assessment Condition: Partly disturbed. Assessment Basis: Terraced into hill slope.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
As at 26 June 2002, this shop and residence and site are of State heritage significance for their historical and scientific cultural values. The site and building are also of State heritage significance for their contribution to The Rocks area which is of State Heritage significance in its own right (see item no. 4500458).


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The building is part of the Rocks Conservation Area and, as such, contributes to the overall character and interpretation of the area. It is one of the few remaining corner shops and residences within the area. It is representative of government-designed worker housing from the pre-World War I period. It is an example of the work of a well-known architect Walter Liberty Vernon.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
It is an excellent example of small-scale Classic Free Style Edwardian architecture and one of the most intact of such buildings in The Rocks (the others being the former morgue in George Street, the facade of the Brooklyn Hotel and the facade of the former Chamber of Commerce building on the corner of George and Grosvenor Streets).


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
High Significance Fabric: Brick walls; shop fronts; windows and doors; former shop and former store; former sitting room; WC; ceiling, floor boards and brick wall of enclosed verandah; former three bedrooms; bathroom; linen room; stair hall; former laundry; former entry hall (except door). Medium Significance Fabric: Small flight of stairs to staircase landing (former shop & former store); timber shelves (former laundry); concrete floor, plastered brick walls, ceiling, cornice and window of part of former back porch; new gutters, new downpipe at east elevation. Low Significance Fabric: Copper downpipes; new slate roof and metal roof; WC pan; wall basin (part of former back


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
Shop and Residence was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 10 May 2002 having satisfied the following criteria.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
This shop and residence and site are of State heritage significance for their historical and scientific cultural values. The site and building are also of State heritage significance for their contribution to The Rocks area which is of State Heritage significance in its own right.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The building is part of the Rocks Conservation Area and, as such, contributes to the overall character and interpretation of the area. It is one of the few remaining corner shops and residences within the area.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
It is an example of the work of a well-known architect Walter Liberty Vernon. It is an excellent example of small-scale Classic Free Style Edwardian architecture and one of the most intact of such buildings in The Rocks (the others being the former morgue in George Street, the facade of the Brooklyn Hotel and the facade of the former Chamber of Commerce building on the corner of George and Grosvenor Streets).


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
High Significance Fabric: Brick walls; shop fronts; windows and doors; former shop and former store; former sitting room; WC (except smashed WC pan); ceiling, floor boards and brick wall of enclosed verandah; former three bedrooms; bathroom; linen room; stair hall; former laundry; former entry hall (except door). Medium Significance Fabric: Small flight of stairs to staircase landing (former shop & former store); timber shelves (former laundry); concrete floor, plastered brick walls, ceiling, cornice and window of part of former back porch; new gutters, new downpipe at east elevation. Low Significance Fabric: Copper downpipes; new slate roof and metal roof; WC pan; wall basin (part of former back).


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
It is representative of government-designed worker housing from the pre-World War I period.


182 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, References, Attribution
This Wikipedia article was originally based on , entry number 1581 in the New South Wales State Heritage Register published by the State of New South Wales and Office of Environment and Heritage 2018 under  , accessed on 14 October 2018.


182 Elsa
Elsa (/ˈɛlzə/; minor planet designation: 182 Elsa) is a Massalia or background asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 44 kilometers (27 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 7 February 1878, by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa at the Austrian Naval Observatory in today's Croatia. The S-type asteroid has a very long rotation period of 80 hours and likely an elongated shape. The origin of its name is uncertain.


182 Elsa, Orbit and classification
Elsa is a member of the Massalia family (404), a very large inner belt asteroid family consisting of stony asteroids. In a different HCM-study, however, it has been found to be a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population.


182 Elsa, Orbit and classification
It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.0–2.9 AU once every 3 years and 9 months (1,371 days; semi-major axis of 2.42 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.19 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic.


182 Elsa, Naming
The origin of this minor planet's name is uncertain. Originally, the asteroid was named "Elsbeth" – the Austrian variant of "Elisabeth" – and only later changed into a more lyrical "Elsa" with the consent of the discoverer, Johann Palisa. It may have been named after the character in the legend of Lohengrin perpetuated by Richard Wagner's opera of the same name. It may also refer to the Empress Elisabeth of Austria (1854–1898), or to a relative of Admiral Bourgignon, who requested the naming, as he was the military superior of the discoverer at the Naval Observatory at Pola. Finally, the name "Elsbeth" just might have been chosen generically as it is one of the most common feminine Christian names.


182 Elsa, Physical characteristics
Elsa has been characterized as a common, stony S-type asteroid in both the Tholen and SMASS classification.


182 Elsa, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
The asteroid is a relatively slow rotator. In 1980, its rotation period was estimated to be about 3.3 Earth days. In 2008, a collaborative effort from three different sites under the lead of Frederick Pilcher was used to build a complete lightcurve for the asteroid, which showed a period of 80.088±0.002 hours with a brightness variation of 0.30±0.03 in magnitude. A possible companion has been proposed to explain the slow rotation. Other period determinations gave similar results between 80.166 and 80.23 hours with an outlier by the Palomar Transient Factory.


182 Elsa, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
Elsa has very amplified lightcurve indicating an elongated or irregular body. It was one of five minor planets included in the 1993 study, Transition Comets -- UV Search for OH Emissions in Asteroids, which was research involving amateur astronomers who were permitted to make use of the Hubble Space Telescope.


182 Elsa, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Elsa measures between 36 and 45.72 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.196 and 0.2106.


182 Elsa, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
During 2002, Elsa was also observed by radar from the Arecibo Observatory. The return signal matched an effective diameter of 44±10 km.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks
182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks are a series of heritage-listed terrace houses located at 182.5-188 Cumberland Street, in the inner city Sydney suburb of The Rocks in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, Australia. It was built during 1890 by William John Finneran. The property is owned by Property NSW, an agency of the Government of New South Wales. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 10 May 2002.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, History
In the area of study the houses on allotment 7, Nos. 169-171 Gloucester Street, were demolished between 1880 and 1882 and the land was still vacant when it was consolidated in a single title with the adjoining land in Cumberland Street in 1898. On the Cumberland Street frontage the houses on allotments 4 & 5, Nos. 184 & 186 Cumberland Street were demolished in 1889. By 1891 all of the area was owned by Herbert Salway.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, History
With a trend for the construction of large commercial premises in the area it is possible that Salway hoped to build on a large scale but any such plans were delayed by the depression of the 1890s. By 1898 the whole area was sold to James Channon. A month later Channon subdivided the land and sold that part of it to William John Finnegan, a builder of Rouse Hill. Four new houses had been built on the Cumberland Street frontage by 1900 and two on the Gloucester Street frontage by c. 1901-1902.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, History
It is most likely that Finnegan was the builder of all of these dwellings. Rate assessment books and entries in the Sands Directories suggest that the Cumberland Street terraces were completed and occupied by 1900. The terraces continued to be used as residences to the late 1970s, despite the building of the southern approach to the bridge and the gradual change of buildings in this area to a commercial use.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, History
The buildings then were derelict for a number of years and prior to their restoration were occupied by squatters. Work on the terraces to restore them to residential use for leasehold was completed in 1996.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, History
Archaeological History - Partially covered by grants (all Section 64): Lot 4 to William Long of 22 June 1839; Lot 5 to William Davis of 14 May 1836; Lot 6 Government Land claimed by T. Galbraith; Lot 7 claimed by Thomas Hancy. The Conservation Plan for the site revealed it had been occupied by two dwellings since at least the 1820s, the current terraces being constructed in 1898. Elements from an earlier structure (c. 1820s) were identified in the foundations and first floor wall of the terrace.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Description
The terraces are typical examples of Victorian Terrace Houses built as an investment. The planning of the four terraces is similar with the basement containing the laundry and an external toilet; the ground floor containing the parlour, dining room and kitchen; the upper floor containing one large bedroom and two smaller bedrooms and a bathroom. Typical elevational details include some fine cast iron balustrade panels (largely intact), evidence of a cast iron frieze and brackets to the upper balcony beam and surviving examples of the cast iron fringe, brackets and frieze drop fixed below the balcony floor beam. Internally, the main rooms have or show evidence of moulded timber surrounds to fireplaces, four-panelled timber doors, decorative ceiling roses but no cornices.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Description
Style: Victorian Terrace Houses; Facade: Painted brickwork; Ceilings: Original lath & plaster. Terraced houses including vacant lot. ; Built By: 1820s


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Description, Condition
As at 27 April 2001, Archaeological Assessment Condition: Partly disturbed. Assessment Basis: A decision had been made with this site that ground disturbance would be minimal and limited to areas already disturbed by services. During conservation works however, part of the rear wall of the terraces collapsed due to an inadequate foundation, requiring urgent underpinning along the length of this wall. Subsequent excavation indicated that the two-storey rear wing was founded on demolition material from the earlier structure, which in some places was up to one metre in depth indicating that the site has a very high archaeological potential. Investigation: Watching Brief


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Description, Further information
The conservation policies should be modified in the light of the conservation work undertaken in 1995-96.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
As at 1 April 2011, this terrace and site are of State heritage significance for their historical and scientific cultural values. The site and building are also of State heritage significance for their contribution to The Rocks area which is of State Heritage significance in its own right.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The terraces have streetscape significance and provide a humanising aspect to this area of The Rocks. The historic significance of the terraces is reasonable, particularly due to their survival through the 1900s and the 1920s. These terraces are amongst the last examples of speculative housing to be constructed in this area. The architectural significance of the terraces is not particularly unique, but nonetheless they are a representative example of a building form common throughout Sydney.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
Few examples of terraces of this type remain in this area, and they provide a valuable record of the variety of nineteenth century housing forms once common in the Rocks and Millers Point. The site is significant as an archaeological resource (both above and below ground) spanning 180 years of residential use.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
Terraces was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 10 May 2002 having satisfied the following criteria.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The site is situated within one of the earliest areas of settlement in Australia. The terraces reflect the original mainly residential use of this area from at least 1802 until the present. The early stone remnants incorporated in the present buildings have considerable historic significance, dating from the 1820s or earlier, and if so, may be amongst the earliest remnants of buildings in The Rocks. The site and its associated buildings were unaffected by the clearance activities initiated by the outbreak of bubonic plague due to their recent construction at that time.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
In the 1920s the site and its buildings again survived a major construction project in the area, namely the building of the Harbour Bridge, and stand in dramatic contrast to the ambition and style of the 1920s-1930s as shown in the bridge and its approaches. The Cumberland Street allotments have a minor associational significance with William Davis and William Long and although not occupied by them, reflect the vigorous early 19th century economic life in The Rocks.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The terraces are now an isolated example of the original residential nature of this quarter of The Rocks. The terraces display excellent cast iron and decorative plaster elements to the street frontage. The terraces contain examples of good late 19th century craftsmanship, in particular the joinery elements. The terrace No. 186 contains an early intact kitchen fireplace and cast iron hob. The restored terraces will reinforce The Rocks character of this area and provide a humanising aspect to the streetscape. The retention of these characteristic low scale traditional terraces will promote the increased residential and tourism uses of this area.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, Heritage listing
The site has considerably rarity value being situated in one of the earliest areas of European settlement in Australia. The site has evidence of permanent residential usage from c.1802 to the present day and has the potential to demonstrate the way of life in a residential area of Sydney over almost two centuries. The site provides and accessible resource for archaeological investigation and historical, social and architectural interpretation, public access and education.


182.5-188 Cumberland Street, The Rocks, References, Attribution
This Wikipedia article was originally based on , entry number 1607 in the New South Wales State Heritage Register published by the State of New South Wales and Office of Environment and Heritage 2018 under  , accessed on 14 October 2018.


1820
1820 (MDCCCXX) was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1820th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 820th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 20th  year of the 19th century, and the  1st   year of the 1820s decade. As of the start of 1820, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1820 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1820 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 13, 1820. Incumbent governor and Toleration Party candidate Oliver Wolcott Jr. was re-elected, defeating Federalist Party candidates former delegate Nathan Smith and former congressman and state legislator Timothy Pitkin with 76.14% of the vote.


1820 Delaware gubernatorial special election
The 1820 Delaware gubernatorial special election was held on October 3, 1820. The winner of the 1819 gubernatorial election, Henry Molleston, died before assuming office, elevating State Senate Speaker Jacob Stout to the governorship and triggering an election in 1820. However, the election was not just for the remainder of Molleston's term, but instead for a full three-year term.


1820 Delaware gubernatorial special election
Jesse Green was the Federalist nominee to succeed Stout and ran against Democratic-Republican nominee John Collins. Collins defeated Green by a slim margin, becoming the first Democratic-Republican Governor of Delaware since 1810. However, Collins died in office on April 16, 1822, triggering another special election in 1822.


1820 Delaware gubernatorial special election, Bibliography
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1820 French legislative election
The 1820 general election organized the second legislature of the Second Restoration. The election was held on 4 and 13 November.


1820 French legislative election, Process
Only citizens paying taxes were eligible to vote. All electors elected three-fifths of all deputies in the first round. In the second round, the most heavily taxed voted again to elect the remaining two-fifths of deputies.


1820 Louisiana gubernatorial election
The 1820 Louisiana gubernatorial election was the third gubernatorial election to take place after Louisiana achieved statehood. Under Article III Sec 2 of the 1812 Constitution of the State of Louisiana the Governor was elected in two steps. On the first Monday in July, eligible voters went to the polls and voted. The returns were sent to the President of the Louisiana State Senate. On the second day of the session of the Louisiana State Legislature, the Louisiana House of Representatives and Senate met in joint session and voted between the top two candidates. The candidate who received a majority in General Assembly became governor.


1820 Maine gubernatorial election
The 1820 Maine gubernatorial election took place on April 3, 1820. It was the first election for Governor of Maine, taking place after Maine separated from Massachusetts and was recognized as a state on March 15, 1820. Maine's separation from Massachusetts came as a result of The Missouri Compromise. This election saw the virtually unanimous election of William King, the man most chiefly responsible for the push for Maine statehood. He had no opponents.


1820 Maine's at-large congressional district special election
A special election was held in Maine's at-large congressional district on November 7, 1820 to fill a vacancy left by the resignation of John Holmes. Holmes had been elected under the authority of the State of Massachusetts to that state's former 14th district, part of the District of Maine. When, on March 15, 1820, the former District was granted statehood as the State of Maine, Holmes was elected one of its first two Senators. Under the act admitting Maine as a state, seven seats were moved from Massachusetts to Maine for the 17th Congress, and any vacancies in the 16th Congress that arose in seats held by residents of Maine were to be filled by residents of the new state.


1820 Maine's at-large congressional district special election
The special election was held on the same date as the general elections for the 17th Congress.


1820 Massachusetts's 13th congressional district special election
A special election was held in 1820 in Massachusetts's 13th congressional district to fill a vacancy caused by the resignation of Edward Dowse (DR) on May 26, 1820


1820 Massachusetts's 1st congressional district special election
A special election was held in Massachusetts's 1st congressional district on October 23, 1820 to fill a vacancy created by the resignation of Jonathan Mason (F) on May 15, 1820. As a majority was not achieved on the first ballot, a second ballot was held November 6, 1820


1820 Massachusetts's 8th congressional district special election
A special election was held in Massachusetts's 8th congressional district on October 16, 1820 and November 24, 1820 to fill a vacancy caused by the resignation of Zabdiel Sampson (DR) on July 26, 1820.


1820 Massachusetts's 8th congressional district special election, Election results
Although a majority was achieved on the first ballot, a second election was ordered because elections had not been held in the town of Hanson.


1820 Michigan Territory's at-large congressional district special election
On August 9, 1820, William Woodbridge, the first delegate for Michigan Territory, resigned, after having served since March 2, 1820. A special election was held to fill the resulting vacancy.


1820 Missouri gubernatorial election
The 1820 Missouri gubernatorial election was Missouri's first gubernatorial election due to it becoming a state. In the election, which was held on August 28, 1820, territorial governor William Clark was defeated by Alexander McNair.


1820 Naval Air Squadron
1820 Naval Air Squadron (1820 NAS) was a Naval Air Squadron of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm.


1820 Naval Air Squadron
It formed at Brunswick (Maine) 1 April 1944 and embarked on HMS Arbiter in July. However its aircraft were judged unsatisfactory for their intended role and the squadron disbanded on 16 December 1944 at RNAS Burscough.


1820 Naval Air Squadron
The squadron only flew one type of aircraft, the Curtiss Helldiver I.


1820 New Jersey's at-large congressional district special election
John Condit (Democratic-Republican) of New Jersey's at-large congressional district resigned to become assistant collector of the Port of New York.


1820 New Jersey's at-large congressional district special election
Charles Kinsey (also Democratic-Republican) was elected February 2, 1820 to replace him. Kinsey had previously served as a member from New Jersey but had lost re-election to Condit in 1818.


1820 New York gubernatorial election
The 1820 New York gubernatorial election was held in April 1820 to elect the Governor and Lieutenant Governor of New York. Governor Clinton was the incumbent. U.S. Vice President Tompkins had been governor from 1807 to 1817. Tompkins would be re-elected vice president, in November 1820.


1820 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The Clintonian faction of the Democratic-Republican Party nominated incumbent DeWitt Clinton. For Lieutenant Governor they nominated incumbent John Tayler.


1820 New York gubernatorial election, Candidates
The anti-Clintonian faction of the Democratic-Republican Party nominated Vice President Daniel D. Tompkins.


1820 Norwegian parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in Norway in 1820. As political parties were not officially established until 1884, all those elected were independents.


1820 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election
The 1820 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election occurred on October 10, 1820. Incumbent Democratic-Republican governor William Findlay sought re-election but was defeated by U.S. Representative Joseph Hiester. Findlay entered the race with significantly reduced popularity. He had been renounced in the press as an opponent of democracy due to his nomination during the 1817 campaign by a group of party insiders. He additionally faced allegations of corruption over the misappropriation of funds during his tenure as State Treasurer, although all charges were dismissed during impeachment proceedings before the State Legislature.


1820 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election
For this campaign, Findlay was chosen for a slot on the ballot at a popular convention of Democratic Republicans; Hiester was selected at a separate convention of Federalists and "Old School Democrats" (i.e. allies of former governor Thomas McKean). The sour state of the economy was a key factor in the defeat of the incumbent, as Pennsylvania was reeling from the effects of the Panic of 1819.


1820 Pennsylvania's 5th congressional district special election
On May 15, 1820, David Fullerton (DR) of Pennsylvania's 5th district resigned from his seat in the House of Representatives. A special election was held on October 10, 1820 to fill the resulting vacancy. This election was held on the same day as the election for the 17th Congress.


1820 Portuguese legislative election
Parliamentary elections were held in Portugal between 10 and 27 December. They followed the Liberal Revolution on 24 August. These were the first parliamentary elections in Portugal. This election aimed to form assemblies in three levels: parochial, provincial, and the Constituent Cortes of 1820.


1820 Portuguese legislative election, Background
Portugal was ruled as an absolute monarchy since 1698, the last time Portugal had any sort of representative assembly prior to 1820. The Liberal Revolution had as its main political objective the creation of a democratically elected parliament, but there were three approaches to what sort of parliamentary government should be established:


1820 Portuguese legislative election, Background
While the latter option initially won, the aftermath of the Martinhada (11 November 1820) would lead to the Spanish Constitution of 1812 option being implemented in the 1820 elections.


1820 Portuguese legislative election, Electoral system
The new electoral law was introduced on 22 November and had been directly translated from 1812 Spanish constitution, which had a wide electoral franchise but indirect electoral system. All literate men had the right to vote except monks, servants, and some other groups. Otherwise eligible men in Portuguese colonies were also allowed to vote. In a three-stage process, the electorate directly elected members of parochial assemblies, who then elected provincial assemblies whose members then elected the members of the legislature (i.e., the Constituent Cortes of 1820). There were a total of six provinces in mainland Portugal: Alentejo, Beira, Estremadura, Minho, Trás-os-Montes, and Algarve.


1820 Portuguese legislative election, Results
The 110 elected members included 43 jurists and magistrates, 20 academics, 15 members of the church, 11 military personnel, five property owners, three physicians and three tradespeople. The vast majority were members of masonic societies.


1820 Portuguese legislative election, Aftermath
This election would form the Constituent Cortes of 1820, which would nominate a new government (the Regência which replaced the provisional government Junta Provisional do Governo Supremo do Reino), create the Portuguese Constitution of 1822 and order John VI of Portugal to return from Brazil to swear the 1822 Constitution. A second legislative election was held in 1822, the only to be held under the Constitution of 1822. The Vilafrancada (27 May 1823) would bring an end to the 1822 Constitution.


1820 Rhode Island gubernatorial election
The 1820 Rhode Island gubernatorial election was an uncontested election held on April 5, 1820 to elect the Governor of Rhode Island. Nehemiah Rice Knight, the incumbent Governor and Democratic-Republican nominee, was the only candidate and so won with 100% of the vote.


1820 Settlers
The 1820 Settlers were several groups of British colonists from England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. settled by the government of the United Kingdom and the Cape Colony authorities in the Eastern Cape of South Africa in 1820.


1820 Settlers, Origins
After the Napoleonic Wars, Britain experienced a serious unemployment problem. Many of the 1820 Settlers were poor and the Cape government encouraged them to settle in the Eastern Cape in an attempt to strengthen the eastern frontier against the neighbouring Xhosa peoples, and to provide a boost to the English-speaking population of South Africa. The settlement policy led to the establishment of Albany, South Africa, a centre of the British diaspora in Africa.


1820 Settlers, Colonisation
Of the 90,000 applicants, about 4,000 were approved. Many 1820 Settlers initially arrived in the Cape in about 60 different parties between April and June 1820. They were granted farms near the village of Bathurst, Eastern Cape and supplied equipment and food against their deposits, but their lack of agricultural experience led many of them to abandon agriculture and withdraw to Bathurst and other settlements like Grahamstown, East London and Port Elizabeth, where they typically reverted to their trades.


1820 Settlers, Colonisation
A group of the 1820 Settlers continued on to Natal, then a part of Zululand, home of the Zulu people. At the time, King Shaka ruled the territory with highly trained warriors. Leaders of the Natal settlers requested permission from Shaka to stay on the land. When the king witnessed the settlers' technological advances, permission was granted in return for access to firearm technology. According to genealogist Shelagh O'Byrne Spencer, among 1820 Settlers who moved to Natal were "John Bailie, the founder of East London, and Charles Kestell, after whose son, the Revd John Daniel Kestell of Anglo-Boer War fame, the Free State town of Kestell is named".


1820 Settlers, Memorial
They are commemorated in Grahamstown by the 1820 Settlers National Monument, which opened in 1974. A living monument, it hosts plays, musical performances and cultural events, and is supported by the 1820 Settlers Association which was founded in 1920 by Sir Walter Stanford and other descendants.


1820 Settlers National Monument
The 1820 Settlers National Monument, which honours the contribution to South African society made by the British 1820 Settlers, overlooks Makhanda in the Eastern Cape. It commemorates the Anglo-African folk, as well as the English language as much as the Settlers themselves. The building was designed by John Sturrock, Sturrock was inspired by the work of Louis Kahn.


1820 Settlers National Monument, National Arts Festival
The Monument is closely linked with the National Arts Festival, often known simply as the Grahamstown Festival. Ever since the monument's opening on 13 July 1974, the festival has been held there every year, except for in 1975. Virtually all possible venues in Grahamstown are used during the festival, but the Monument is the anchor of the event and the biggest venue too. The main theatre in the monument complex is named after Guy Butler.


1820 Settlers National Monument, Fire in 1994
The monument was devastated by a fire in 1994 and rebuilt and was officially re-dedicated by Nelson Mandela in May 1996.


1820 Spanish general election
General elections to the Cortes Generales were held in Spain in 1820. At stake were all 203 seats in the Congress of Deputies.


1820 Spanish general election, History
The 1820 elections were the first ones since the 1820 revolution. The elections were held under the Spanish Constitution of 1812.


1820 Spanish general election, Constituencies
A majority voting system was used for the election, with 33 multi-member constituencies and various single-member ones.


1820 Spanish general election, Results
Most MPs were liberals, mainly from the moderate (or doceañista) faction.


1820 United Kingdom general election
The 1820 United Kingdom general election was triggered by the death of King George III and produced the first parliament of the reign of his successor, George IV. It was held shortly after the Radical War in Scotland and the Cato Street Conspiracy. In this atmosphere, the Tories under the Earl of Liverpool were able to win a substantial majority over the Whigs.


1820 United Kingdom general election
The sixth United Kingdom Parliament was dissolved on 29 February 1820. The new Parliament was summoned to meet on 21 April 1820, for a maximum seven-year term from that date. The maximum term could be and normally was curtailed, by the monarch dissolving the Parliament before its term expired.


1820 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
The Tory leader was the Earl of Liverpool, who had been Prime Minister since his predecessor's assassination in 1812. Liverpool had led his party to two general election victories before that of 1820. The Tory Leader of the House of Commons was Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh.


1820 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
The Whig Party continued to suffer from weak leadership, particularly in the House of Commons.


1820 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
At the time of the general election, the Earl Grey was the leading figure amongst the Whig peers. It was likely that Grey would have been invited to form a government, had the Whigs come to power, although in this era the monarch rather than the governing party decided which individual would be Prime Minister.


1820 United Kingdom general election, Political situation
The Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, George Tierney, was successful at first after the Whig gains at the 1818 general election. However, on 18 May 1819, Tierney moved a motion in the House of Commons for a committee on the state of the nation. This motion was defeated by 357 to 178. Foord comments that "this defeat put an effective end to Tierney's leadership". However he continued to be the nominal leader at the time of the 1820 election.


1820 United Kingdom general election, Dates of election
At this period there was not one election day. After receiving a writ (a royal command) for the election to be held, the local returning officer fixed the election timetable for the particular constituency or constituencies he was concerned with. Polling in seats with contested elections could continue for many days. It was triggered by the death of King George III.


1820 United Kingdom general election, Dates of election
The general election took place between the first contest on 6 March and the last contest on 14 April 1820.


1820 United Kingdom general election, Summary of the constituencies
Monmouthshire (1 County constituency with 2 MPs and one single member Borough constituency) is included in Wales in these tables. Sources for this period may include the county in England.


1820 United Kingdom general election, Summary of the constituencies
Table 2: Number of seats per constituency, by type and country


1820 United States House of Representatives election in Missouri
Missouri was admitted to the union on August 10, 1821, but elections had been held August 28, 1820.


1820 United States House of Representatives election in New Jersey
New Jersey elected its members November 7, 1820. There were an unusually large number of candidates, 119 candidates according to one contemporary newspaper. Some candidates ran under an "Anti-Caucus" ticket. Only 1 of the 6 six incumbents would serve in the next term, as 4 retired and 1 died after re-election.


1820 United States House of Representatives elections in Kentucky, Notes
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1820 United States House of Representatives elections in Ohio, Notes
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1820 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina, Notes
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1820 United States census
The United States census of 1820 was the fourth census conducted in the United States. It was conducted on August 7, 1820. The 1820 census included six new states: Louisiana, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama and Maine. There has been a district wide loss of 1820 census records for Arkansas Territory, Missouri Territory and New Jersey.


1820 United States census
The total population was determined to be 9,638,453, of which 1,538,022 were slaves. The center of population was about 120 miles (193 km) west-northwest of Washington in Hardy County, Virginia (now in West Virginia).


1820 United States census
This was the first census in which any states recorded a population of over one million—New York, Virginia, and Pennsylvania—as well as the first in which a city recorded a population of over 100,000—New York. It was also the first census in which Baltimore was ranked as the country's second-most populous city. Thirdly, in this census and the 14 subsequent ones, New York is the most populous state until it is superseded by California in the 1970 census.


1820 United States census, Census questions
The 1820 census contains a great deal more information than previous censuses. Enumerators listed the following data in columns, left to right:


1820 United States census, Census questions
Several of these columns were for special counts, and not to be included in the aggregate total. Doing so would have resulted in counting some individuals twice. Census takers were asked to use double lines, red ink or some other method of distinguishing these columns so that double counting would not occur. For example, the count of free white males between 16 and 18 was a special count, because these individuals were also supposed to be tabulated in the column for free white males of age 16 and under 26.


1820 United States census, Census questions
The other special counts were foreigners not naturalized, persons engaged in agriculture, persons engaged in commerce, and persons engaged in manufacture.


1820 United States census, Census questions
Census takers were also instructed to count each individual in only one of the occupational columns. For example, if an individual was engaged in agriculture, commerce, and manufacture, the census taker had to judge which one the individual was primarily engaged in.


1820 United States census, Note to researchers
Censustaking was not yet an exact science. Before 1830, enumerators lacked pre-printed forms, and drew up their own, sometimes resulting in pages without headings, line tallies, or column totals. As a result, census records for many towns before 1830 are idiosyncratic. This is not to suggest that they are less reliable than subsequent censuses, but that they may require more work on the part of the researcher.


1820 United States elections
The 1820 United States elections elected the members of the 17th United States Congress. The election took place during Era of Good Feelings and the First Party System. Despite the Panic of 1819, the Democratic-Republican Party maintained control of the presidency and both houses of Congress, while the Federalist Party provided only limited opposition. Missouri joined the union during the 17th Congress.


1820 United States elections
In the presidential election, incumbent Democratic-Republican President James Monroe received no major opposition, although fellow Democratic-Republican John Quincy Adams received one electoral vote. The Federalists did not nominate a presidential candidate, although four Federalists received a scattering of electoral votes for vice president. Monroe joined George Washington as the only presidential candidates who won election without any serious opposition.


1820 United States elections
In the House, Federalists picked up a small number of seats, but Democratic-Republicans continued to dominate the chamber.


1820 United States elections
In the Senate, Democratic-Republicans picked up a moderate number of seats, increasing their already-dominant majority.


1820 United States presidential election
The 1820 United States presidential election was the ninth quadrennial presidential election. It was held from Wednesday, November 1, to Wednesday, December 6, 1820. Taking place at the height of the Era of Good Feelings, the election saw incumbent Democratic-Republican President James Monroe win re-election without a major opponent. It was the third and last United States presidential election in which a presidential candidate ran effectively unopposed. It was also the last election of a president from the revolutionary generation.


1820 United States presidential election
Monroe and Vice President Daniel D. Tompkins faced no opposition from other Democratic-Republicans in their quest for a second term. The Federalist Party had fielded a presidential candidate in each election since 1796, but the party's already-waning popularity had declined further following the War of 1812. Although able to field a nominee for vice president, the Federalists could not put forward a presidential candidate, leaving Monroe without organized opposition.


1820 United States presidential election
Monroe won every state and received all but one of the electoral votes. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams received the only other electoral vote, which came from faithless elector William Plumer. Nine different Federalists received electoral votes for vice president, but Tompkins won re-election by a large margin. No other post-Twelfth Amendment presidential candidate has matched Monroe's share of the electoral vote. Monroe and George Washington remain the only presidential candidates to run without any major opposition. Monroe's victory was the last of six straight victories by Virginians in presidential elections (Jefferson twice, Madison twice, and Monroe twice). Monroe was the first presidential candidate to receive at least 200 electoral votes in a victorious campaign.


1820 United States presidential election, Background
Despite the continuation of single party politics (known in this case as the Era of Good Feelings), serious issues emerged during the election in 1820. The nation had endured a widespread depression following the Panic of 1819 and momentous disagreement about the extension of slavery into the territories was taking center stage. Nevertheless, James Monroe faced no opposition party or candidate in his re-election bid, although he did not receive  all of the electoral votes (see below).


1820 United States presidential election, Background
Massachusetts was entitled to 22 electoral votes in 1816, but cast only 15 in 1820 by reason of the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which made the region of Maine, long part of Massachusetts, a free state to balance the pending admission of slave state Missouri. In addition, Pennsylvania, Tennessee and Mississippi also cast one fewer electoral vote than they were entitled to, as one elector from each state died before the electoral meeting. Consequently, this meant that Mississippi cast only two votes, when any state is always entitled to a minimum of three.


1820 United States presidential election, Background
This is one of only three times a state or district has cast under the minimum of three electoral votes, the others being Nevada in 1864 and the District of Columbia in 2000. In the case of the former, an elector was snowbound and there was no law to replace him (Nevada had only become a state that year). In that of the latter, a faithless elector abstained from voting.


1820 United States presidential election, Background
Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama and Missouri participated in their first presidential election in 1820, Missouri with controversy, since it was not yet officially a state (see below). No new states would participate in American presidential elections until 1836, after the admission to the Union of Arkansas in 1836 and Michigan in 1837 (after the main voting, but before the counting of the electoral vote in Congress).


1820 United States presidential election, Nominations, Democratic-Republican Party nomination
Since President Monroe's re-nomination was never in doubt, few Republicans bothered to attend the nominating caucus in April 1820. Only 40 delegates attended, with few or no delegates from the large states of Virginia, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Massachusetts, and New Jersey. Rather than name the president with only a handful of votes, the caucus declined to make a formal nomination. Richard M. Johnson offered the following resolution: "It is inexpedient, at this time, to proceed to the nomination of persons for the offices of President and Vice President of the United States." After debate, the resolution was unanimously adopted, and the meeting adjourned. President Monroe and Vice President Daniel D. Tompkins thus became de facto candidates for re-election.


1820 United States presidential election, Nominations, Democratic-Republican Party nomination
In the run-up to the caucus, Tompkins made another run for his former post of Governor of New York, leading to potential replacements being informally discussed among the party leadership. The matter was ultimately rendered moot when Tompkins lost the election shortly before the nominating caucus took place, and though some within the party remained dissatisfied with Tompkins' performance as vice president, the role was not considered important enough to be worth a formal nomination process after his ability to continue in the office was confirmed.


1820 United States presidential election, General election, Campaign
Effectively there was no campaign, since there was no serious opposition to Monroe and Tompkins.


1820 United States presidential election, General election, Disputes
On March 9, 1820, Congress had passed a law directing Missouri to hold a convention to form a constitution and a state government. This law stated that "the said state, when formed, shall be admitted into the Union, upon an equal footing with the original states, in all respects whatsoever." However, when Congress reconvened in November 1820, the admission of Missouri became an issue of contention. Proponents claimed that Missouri had fulfilled the conditions of the law and therefore was a state; detractors contended that certain provisions of the Missouri Constitution violated the United States Constitution.


1820 United States presidential election, General election, Disputes
By the time Congress was due to meet to count the electoral votes from the election, this dispute had lasted over two months. The counting raised a ticklish problem: if Congress counted Missouri's votes, that would count as recognition that Missouri was a state; on the other hand, if Congress failed to count Missouri's vote, it would count as recognition that Missouri was not a state.


1820 United States presidential election, General election, Disputes
Knowing ahead of time that Monroe had won in a landslide and that Missouri's vote would therefore make no difference in the final result, the Senate passed a resolution on February 13, 1821 stating that if a protest were made, there would be no consideration of the matter unless the vote of Missouri would change who would become president. Instead, the President of the Senate would announce the final tally twice, once with Missouri included and once with it excluded.


1820 United States presidential election, General election, Disputes
The next day this resolution was introduced in the full House. After a lively debate, it was passed. Nonetheless, during the counting of the electoral votes on February 14, 1821, an objection was raised to the votes from Missouri by Representative Arthur Livermore of New Hampshire. He argued that since Missouri had not yet officially become a state, it had no right to cast any electoral votes. Immediately, Representative John Floyd of Virginia argued that Missouri's votes must be counted. Chaos ensued, and order was restored only with the counting of the vote as per the resolution and then adjournment for the day.


1820 United States presidential election, Results, Popular vote
The Federalists received a small amount of the popular vote despite having no electoral candidates. Even in Massachusetts, where the Federalist slate of electors was victorious, the electors cast all of their votes for Monroe. This was the first election in which the Democratic-Republicans won in Connecticut and Delaware.


1820 United States presidential election, Results, Popular vote
Source (Popular Vote): A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825


1820 United States presidential election, Results, Popular vote
(a) Only 15 of the 24 states chose electors by popular vote. (b) Adams received his vote from a faithless elector. (c) There was a dispute as to whether Missouri's electoral votes were valid, due to the timing of its assumption of statehood. The first figure excludes Missouri's votes and the second figure includes them.


1820 United States presidential election, Results, Electoral vote
The sole electoral vote against Monroe came from William Plumer, an elector from New Hampshire and former United States senator and New Hampshire governor. Plumer cast his electoral ballot for Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. While legend has it this was to ensure that George Washington would remain the only American president unanimously chosen by the Electoral College, that was not Plumer's goal. In fact, Plumer simply thought that Monroe was a mediocre president and that Adams would be a better one.


1820 United States presidential election, Results, Electoral vote
Plumer also refused to vote for Tompkins for Vice President as "grossly intemperate", not having "that weight of character which his office requires," and "because he grossly neglected his duty" in his "only" official role as President of the Senate by being "absent nearly three-fourths of the time"; Plumer instead voted for Richard Rush.


1820 United States presidential election, Results, Electoral vote
Even though every member of the Electoral College was pledged to Monroe, there were still a number of Federalist electors who voted for a Federalist vice president rather than Monroe's running mate Daniel D. Tompkins: those for Richard Stockton came from Massachusetts, while the entire Delaware delegation voted for Daniel Rodney for vice president, and Robert Goodloe Harper's vice presidential vote was cast by an elector from his home state of Maryland. In any case, these breaks in ranks were not enough to deny Tompkins a substantial electoral college victory.


1820 United States presidential election, Results, Electoral vote
Monroe's share of the share of the electoral vote has not been exceeded by any candidate since, with the closest competition coming from Franklin D. Roosevelt's landslide 1936 victory.


1820 United States presidential election, Results, Electoral vote
Only Washington, who won the vote of each presidential elector in the 1789 and 1792 presidential elections, can claim to have swept the Electoral College.


1820 United States presidential election, Results, Electoral vote
(a) There was a dispute over the validity of Missouri's electoral votes, due to the timing of its assumption of statehood. The first figure excludes Missouri's votes and the second figure includes them. (b) These votes are from electors who voted for a Federalist vice president rather than Monroe's running mate Daniel D. Tompkins; combined, these votes represent only 5.6% of the electoral vote.


1820 United States presidential election, Results by state
Elections in this period were vastly different from modern day Presidential elections. The actual Presidential candidates were rarely mentioned on tickets and voters were voting for particular electors who were pledged to a particular candidate. There was sometimes confusion as to who the particular elector was actually pledged to. Results are reported as the highest result for an elector for any given candidate. For example, if three Monroe electors received 100, 50, and 25 votes, Monroe would be recorded as having 100 votes. Confusion surrounding the way results are reported may lead to discrepancies between the sum of all state results and national results.


1820 United States presidential election, Results by state
In Massachusetts, Federalist electors won 62.06% of the vote. However, only 7,902 of these votes went to Federalist electors who did not cast their votes for Monroe (this being most likely because these Federalist electors lost). Similarly, In Kentucky, 1,941 ballots were cast for an elector labelled as Federalist who proceeded to vote for Monroe. All of the Federalist Monroe votes have been placed in the Federalist column, as the Federalist party fielded no presidential candidate and therefore it is likely these electors simply cast their votes for Monroe because the overwhelming majority he achieved made their votes irrelevant.


1820 United States presidential election in Alabama
The 1820 United States presidential election in Alabama took place between November 1 and December 6, 1820, as part of the nationwide presidential election. The state legislature chose three representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1820 United States presidential election in Alabama
Alabama, along with eight other states, had its electors chosen not by the people, but by the State House and Senate. George W. Philips, Henry Minor and John Scott were selected by the legislature and all three men voted for James Monroe.


1820 United States presidential election in Connecticut
The 1820 United States presidential election in Connecticut took place between November 1 to December 6, 1820, as part of the 1820 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose nine representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1820 United States presidential election in Connecticut
During this election, Connecticut cast its nine electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and incumbent President James Monroe.


1820 United States presidential election in Connecticut
Effectively, the 1820 presidential election was an election with no campaign, since there was no serious opposition to Monroe and Tompkins. In fact, they won all the electoral votes barring 1 from New Hampshire, which was cast for Secretary of State John Quincy Adams.


1820 United States presidential election in Indiana
The 1820 United States presidential election in Indiana took place between November 1 to December 6, 1820, as part of the 1820 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose three representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1820 United States presidential election in Indiana
During this election, Indiana cast its three electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and incumbent President James Monroe.


1820 United States presidential election in Indiana
Effectively, the 1820 presidential election was an election with no campaign, since there was no serious opposition to Monroe and Tompkins. In fact, they won all the electoral votes barring one from New Hampshire, which was cast for Secretary of State John Quincy Adams.


1820 United States presidential election in Louisiana
The 1820 United States presidential election in Louisiana took place between November 1 to December 6, 1820, as part of the 1820 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose three representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1820 United States presidential election in Louisiana
During this election, Louisiana cast its three electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and incumbent President James Monroe.


1820 United States presidential election in Louisiana
Effectively, the 1820 presidential election was an election with no campaign, since there was no serious opposition to Monroe and Tompkins. In fact, they won all the electoral votes barring one from New Hampshire, which was cast for Secretary of State John Quincy Adams.


1820 United States presidential election in Massachusetts
The 1820 United States presidential election in Massachusetts took place between November 6 and December 1, 1820, as part of the 1820 United States presidential election. Voters chose 15 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1820 United States presidential election in Massachusetts
During this election, the Democratic-Republican Party was the only major national party, but the Federalist Party (which had no candidate) won the popular vote in Massachusetts.


1820 United States presidential election in Missouri
The 1820 United States presidential election in Missouri took place between November 1 to December 6, 1820. The state’s electors were pledged to the eventual winner, James Monroe, by the state legislature. It was the first year Missouri cast ballots for the electoral college.


1820 United States presidential election in Missouri, Statehood and electoral vote dispute
On March 6, 1820, Congress had passed a law directing Missouri to hold a convention to form a constitution and a state government. This law stated that "…the said state, when formed, shall be admitted into the Union, upon an equal footing with the original states, in all respects whatsoever." However, when Congress reconvened in November 1820, the admission of Missouri became an issue of contention. Proponents claimed that Missouri had fulfilled the conditions of the law and therefore it was a state; detractors contended that certain provisions of the Missouri constitution violated the United States Constitution.


1820 United States presidential election in Missouri, Statehood and electoral vote dispute
By the time Congress was due to meet to count the electoral votes from the election, this dispute had lasted over two months. The counting raised a ticklish problem: if Congress counted Missouri's votes, that would count as recognition that Missouri was a state; on the other hand, if Congress failed to count Missouri's vote, that would count as recognition that Missouri was not a state.


1820 United States presidential election in Missouri, Statehood and electoral vote dispute
Knowing ahead of time that Monroe had won in a landslide and that Missouri's vote would therefore make no difference in the final result, the Senate passed a resolution on February 13, 1821 stating that if a protest was made, there would be no consideration of the matter unless the vote of Missouri would change who would become President. Instead, the President of the Senate would announce the final tally twice, once with Missouri included and once with it excluded.


1820 United States presidential election in Missouri, Statehood and electoral vote dispute
The next day this resolution was introduced in the full House. After a lively debate, it was passed. Nonetheless, during the counting of the electoral votes on February 14, 1821, an objection was raised to the votes from Missouri by Representative Arthur Livermore of New Hampshire. He argued that since Missouri had not yet officially become a state that Missouri had no right to cast any electoral votes. Immediately, Representative John Floyd of Virginia argued that Missouri's votes must be counted. Chaos ensued, and order was only restored with the counting of the vote as per the resolution and then adjournment for the day.


1820 United States presidential election in New Hampshire
The 1820 United States presidential election in New Hampshire took place between November 1 and December 6, 1820, as part of the 1820 United States presidential election.


1820 United States presidential election in New Hampshire
During this election, the Democratic-Republican Party was the only major national party, and its candidate of choice was James Monroe, the current president. New Hampshire's eight electors were chosen by voters statewide, and all of them voted for James Monroe and his running mate, Vice President Daniel D. Tompkins, except for one who gave his electoral votes to John Quincy Adams and Richard Rush.


1820 United States presidential election in New Jersey
The 1820 United States presidential election in New Jersey took place between November 1 to December 6, 1820, as part of the 1820 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose eight representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1820 United States presidential election in New Jersey
During this election, New Jersey cast its eight electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and incumbent President James Monroe.


1820 United States presidential election in New Jersey
Effectively, the 1820 presidential election was an election with no campaign, since there was no serious opposition to Monroe and Tompkins. In fact, they won all the electoral votes barring one from New Hampshire, which was cast for Secretary of State John Quincy Adams.


1820 United States presidential election in New York
The 1820 United States presidential election in New York took place between November 1 to December 6, 1820, as part of the 1820 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose 29 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1820 United States presidential election in New York
During this election, New York cast its 29 electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and incumbent President James Monroe.


1820 United States presidential election in New York
Effectively, the 1820 presidential election was an election with no campaign, since there was no serious opposition to Monroe and Tompkins. In fact, they won all the electoral votes barring one from New Hampshire, which was cast for Secretary of State John Quincy Adams.


1820 United States presidential election in Ohio
The 1820 United States presidential election in Ohio took place between November 1 and December 6, 1820, as part of the 1820 United States presidential election. Voters chose 8 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1820 United States presidential election in Ohio
Ohio re-elected incumbent Democratic-Republican Party President James Monroe by a large margin. Although Monroe ran unopposed, John Quincy Adams received a minority of the vote as an opposition candidate.


1820 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania
The 1820 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania took place as part of the 1820 United States presidential election. Voters chose 25 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President. Only 24 electoral votes were cast from Pennsylvania, however, one of the electors having died.


1820 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania
During this election, James Monroe was re-elected by a large margin. Pennsylvania voted for Monroe over opposition candidate DeWitt Clinton.


1820 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania, Results
Note: Election results totals only include known numbers, as verified by . Vote totals from several counties are missing/unknown.


1820 United States presidential election in South Carolina
The 1820 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place between November 1 to December 6, 1820, as part of the 1820 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose 11 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1820 United States presidential election in South Carolina
During this election, South Carolina cast its 11 electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and incumbent President James Monroe.


1820 United States presidential election in South Carolina
Effectively, the 1820 presidential election was an election with no campaign, since there was no serious opposition to Monroe and Tompkins. In fact, they won all the electoral votes barring one from New Hampshire, which was cast for Secretary of State John Quincy Adams.


1820 United States presidential election in Vermont
The 1820 United States presidential election in Vermont took place between November 1 to December 6, 1820, as part of the 1820 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose eight representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.


1820 United States presidential election in Vermont
During this election, Vermont cast its eight electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and incumbent President James Monroe.


1820 United States presidential election in Vermont
Effectively, the 1820 presidential election was an election with no campaign, since there was no serious opposition to Monroe and Tompkins. In fact, they won all the electoral votes barring one from neighboring New Hampshire, which was cast for Secretary of State John Quincy Adams.


1820 Vermont gubernatorial election
The 1820 Vermont gubernatorial election for Governor of Vermont took place in September and October, and resulted in the election of Richard Skinner to a one-year term.


1820 Vermont gubernatorial election
The Vermont General Assembly met in Montpelier on October 12. The Vermont House of Representatives appointed a committee to review the votes of the freemen of Vermont for governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and members of the governor's council. With incumbent Jonas Galusha not a candidate for reelection, and the Federalist Party defunct, Democratic-Republican Richard Skinner was the only major candidate. The committee determined that Skinner had easily won a one-year term against only scattering opposition.


1820 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the election for lieutenant governor, incumbent Paul Brigham was not a candidate for reelection and the committee determined that Democratic-Republican William Cahoon had been elected to a one-year term. Vote totals were not recorded, but a contemporary newspaper account indicated that only 1,007 votes were cast for scattering opposition.


1820 Vermont gubernatorial election
Benjamin Swan was elected to a one-year term as treasurer, his twenty-first. Though nominally a Federalist, Swan was usually endorsed by the Democratic-Republicans and often ran unopposed. Vote totals for the 1820 election were not recorded, but an October 17 newspaper article indicated that Swan had been unanimously reelected, with no votes for any other candidates.


1820 Vermont gubernatorial election
In the race for governor, the results of the popular vote were reported as follows.


1820 Virginia's 10th congressional district special election
On February 10, 1820, George F. Strother (DR), Representative for Virginia's 10th district, resigned, having been appointed as receiver of public money in St. Louis, Missouri. A special election was held to fill the resulting vacancy


1820 Virginia's 1st congressional district special election
On July 6, 1820, James Pindall (F) resigned from his position as Representative for Virginia's 1st district. A special election was held to fill the resulting vacancy.


1820 Virginia's 20th congressional district special election
On February 1, 1820, James Johnson (DR) of Virginia's 20th district resigned from his position as Representative. A special election was held to fill the resulting vacancy


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections
Elections to the United States House of Representatives for the 17th Congress were held at various dates in different states between July 1820 and August 1821 as President James Monroe won reelection unopposed.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections
The virtually nonpartisan Era of Good Feelings, a period of national political dominance by the Democratic-Republican Party, continued. Despite small gains, the Federalist Party remained relegated to limited state and local influence.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Election summaries
One seat was added during this Congress for the new State of Missouri


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Special elections
There were special elections in 1820 and 1821 to the 16th United States Congress and 17th United States Congress.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Alabama
Alabama elected its member August 5–6, 1821, after the term began but before the new Congress convened.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Connecticut
Connecticut elected its members April 2, 1821, after the term began but before the new Congress convened.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Maine
This was the first election in Maine since its separation from Massachusetts. In the previous election, Massachusetts had had 20 representatives. Seven seats (representing the 14th-20th districts) were reassigned from Massachusetts to Maine. In addition, under the terms of the law which admitted Maine to the union, any vacancies in the 16th Congress by Representatives elected to represent Massachusetts but residing in the new states of Maine would be filled by a resident of Maine.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Maine
John Holmes, who had been elected to the House for the former 14th district of Massachusetts was elected as one of the first two senators for Maine. The vacancy was filled in a special election by Joseph Dane (Federalist). Dane was the only Representative officially considered as representing Maine in the 16th Congress. The Representatives from the 15th-20th districts were still classified as being from Massachusetts for the remainder of the 16th Congress.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Maine
Maine elected its members on November 7, 1820. State law required a majority to win an election, necessitating additional ballots if a majority was not received. And, in fact, additional ballots were held on January 22, 1821 and September 10, 1821, after the term began but before the new Congress convened.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
This was the first election in Massachusetts after the separation of the former District of Maine as the new State of Maine, taking the old 14th – 20th districts with it.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
Massachusetts elected its members November 6, 1820. Massachusetts had a majority requirement for election, which was not met in the 2nd district necessitating two additional elections on January 8, 1821 and April 16, 1821, after the term began but before the new Congress convened.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Massachusetts
District numbers differed between source used and elsewhere on Wikipedia; district numbers used elsewhere on Wikipedia used here.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Missouri
Missouri was admitted to the union on August 10, 1821, but elections had been held August 28, 1820.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, New Jersey
New Jersey elected its members November 7, 1820. There were an unusually large number of candidates, 119 candidates according to one contemporary newspaper. Some candidates ran under an "Anti-Caucus" ticket. Only 1 of the 6 six incumbents would serve in the next term, as 4 retired and 1 died after re-election.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, New York
New York elected its members April 24–26, 1821, after the term began but before the new Congress convened. The 21st district, previously a plural district with two seats, was divided into two single-member districts for the 17th Congress, the 21st and 22nd.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, New York
The Democratic-Republican party in New York was divided between "Bucktails" and "Clintonians". The Clintonians ran on a joint ticket with the remaining Federalists. In a few cases, marked as "Clintonian/Federalist" below, it is unclear whether a candidate on the joint ticket was Democratic-Republican or Federalist.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, New York
Only five of the twenty-seven incumbents were re-elected to the next term. Sixteen incumbents retired and five lost re-election. Despite this high turnover of membership, there was only a one-seat net gain for the Federalists.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, North Carolina
North Carolina elected its members August 9, 1821, after the term began but before the new Congress convened.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Tennessee
Tennessee elected its members August 9–10, 1821, after the term began but before the new Congress convened.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Vermont
In 1820, Vermont returned to using districts. This would be the only election in which the 6th district would be used.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Vermont
Vermont elected its members September 5, 1820. A majority was required for election, which was not met in the 2nd or 3rd district, requiring additional ballots to achieve a majority. The 2nd district required 7 ballots. The 3rd district required two additional ballots. The additional ballots were held December 11, 1820, and February 19, May 1, July 2, September 4, and October 22, 1821.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Virginia
Virginia elected its members in April 1821, after the term began but before the new Congress convened.


1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections, Non-voting delegates
There were four territories that had the right to send a delegate to at least part of the 17th Congress, only three of which actually sent delegates. Missouri Territory's seat remained vacant, as the territory was admitted as the State of Missouri early in the 17th Congress.


1820 and 1821 United States Senate elections
The United States Senate elections of 1820 and 1821 were elections for the United States Senate that, corresponding with James Monroe's landslide re-election, had the Democratic-Republican Party gain one-to-five seats (in the general and special elections), assuming almost complete control of the Senate.


1820 and 1821 United States Senate elections
As these elections were prior to ratification of the seventeenth amendment, senators were chosen by state legislatures.


1820 and 1821 United States Senate elections, Change in composition, Before the elections
Composition after the June 13 and 14, 1820 elections in Maine.


1820 and 1821 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Special elections during the preceding Congress
In these special elections, the winner was elected during 1820 or before March 4, 1821; ordered by election date.


1820 and 1821 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Races leading to the next Congress
In these general elections, the winner was seated on March 4, 1821; ordered by state.


1820 and 1821 United States Senate elections, Race summaries, Special elections during the next Congress
In this special election, the winner was elected in 1821 after March 4; ordered by election date.


1820 and 1821 United States Senate elections, Maine
John Holmes (Democratic-Republican) was elected as one of the new states first pair of senators whose terms began with June 13, 1820 statehood. He was elected to the class 1 seat's short term, which ended March 3, 1821, and was re-elected January 31, 1821 to the term starting March 4, 1821.


1820 and 1821 United States Senate elections, Maine
John Chandler (Democratic-Republican) as elected to the class 2 seat's long term, and his term would end March 3, 1823.


1820 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1820 in Australia.


1820 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1820 in Chile.


1820 in New Zealand
The following lists events that happened during 1820 in New Zealand.


1820 in New Zealand, Incumbents, Regal and viceregal
Any reference to New Zealand in a legal rather than geographic sense prior to 1840 is complex and unclear. When the British colony of New South Wales was founded in 1788 it nominally included New Zealand as far as 43°39'S (approximately halfway down the South Island).


1820 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1820 in South Africa.


1820 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1820 to Wales and its people.


1820 in birding and ornithology
This article provides a summary of significant events in 1820 in birding and ornithology. Notable occurrences in 1820 include the first description of the yellow-legged tinamou, and the commencement of ornithologist William John Swainson's Zoological Illustrations, a work including illustrations of many birds.


1820 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1820.


1820 in paleontology
Paleontology, palaeontology or palæontology (from Greek: paleo, "ancient"; ontos, "being"; and logos, "knowledge") is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because mankind has encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1820.


1820 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1820 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1820 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1820 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1820.


1820 in science
The year 1820 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1820 in sports
1820 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1820 in the United Kingdom
Events from the year 1820 in the United Kingdom. This year sees a change of monarch after a nine-year Regency.


1820s
The 1820s (pronounced "eighteen-twenties") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1820, and ended on December 31, 1829.


1820s
It saw the rise of the First Industrial Revolution. Photography, rail transport, and the textile industry were among those that largely developed and grew prominent over the decade, as technology advanced significantly. European colonialism began gaining ground in Africa and Asia, and trade between the Qing Dynasty began to open up more towards foreign traders, particularly those from Europe. As European imperialism gained momentum, opposition from affected/exploited societies resulted, with wars such as the Java War and the Greek War of Independence. Resistance in the form of separatism and nationalism (particularly in the Spanish American wars of independence) led to the independence of many countries around the world, such as Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia.


1820s, Politics and wars
The Greek War of Independence and the Russo-Turkish War were two of the decade's more important conflicts. Meanwhile, colonialism in Africa had just begun to accelerate, and global trade between Asian powers (e.g. the Qing Dynasty) with European powers (mainly the British and French empires) increased substantially. In South America, states such as Bolivia, Peru, and Brazil gained independence from the Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire.


1820s, Politics and wars, East Asia, Indonesia
The Java War (also known as the "Diponegoro War") was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830. It started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro after the Dutch decided to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his parents' tomb.


1820s, Politics and wars, East Asia, Indonesia
The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java and besieging Yogyakarta. Furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoro's cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. As the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops. Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand. The Dutch colonial army was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi, and later on from the Netherlands.


1820s, Politics and wars, East Asia, Indonesia
The rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict, 8,000 being Dutch.


1820s, Politics and wars, Europe, Southern Europe
At the start of the decade, most of Greece was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, as it had been since 1453, despite frequent revolts. In early 1821, a secret organization called the Filiki Eteria instigated several battles that, together with the blessing of a Greek flag and proclamation of uprising by Bishop Germanos of Patras on March 25, marked the beginning of the revolution. The uprising successfully established a foothold in the Peloponnese, seizing Tripolitsa in September 1821, and had some success in Crete, Macedonia and Central Greece.


1820s, Politics and wars, Europe, Southern Europe
Between 1821 and 1824, first and second national assemblies were held, and the constitutions of 1822 and of 1823 were established. However, revolutionary activity was fragmented, resulting in the civil wars of 1824–1825. The Greek side withstood the Turkish attacks because, during this period, the Ottoman military campaigns were periodic and uncoordinated.


1820s, Politics and wars, Europe, Southern Europe
That changed when the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II negotiated with Mehmet Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gain. Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and secured most of the peninsula by the end of 1825. He then helped break the siege of Missolonghi. Although Ibrahim was defeated in Mani, he had succeeded in suppressing most of the revolt in the Peloponnese and Athens had been retaken.


1820s, Politics and wars, Europe, Southern Europe
Following years of negotiation, three Great Powers, Russia, the United Kingdom and France had come to agree to the formation of an autonomous Greek state under Ottoman suzerainty, as stipulated in the Treaty of London. Ottoman refusal to accept these terms led to the Battle of Navarino, which effectively secured complete Greek independence. That year, the Third National Assembly at Troezen established the First Hellenic Republic. With the help of a French expeditionary force, the Greeks drove the Turks out of the Peloponnese and proceeded to the captured part of Central Greece by 1828. As a result of years of negotiation, Greece was finally recognized as an independent nation in May 1832.


1820s, Politics and wars, Europe, Western Europe
In the 1820s, the British government was formally headed by King George IV, but in practice, was led by his Prime Ministers Lord Liverpool (1812–1827), George Canning (1827), Lord Goderich (1827–1828), and Duke of Wellington (1828–1830). This decade was largely peaceful for Britain, with some foreign intervention. The British supported the Portuguese liberals in the Liberal Wars, and supported Greek rebels in the war for independence. During this time, London became the largest city of the world, taking the lead from Beijing.


1820s, Politics and wars, Europe, Western Europe
Domestic tensions ran high at the start of the decade, with the Peterloo Massacre (1819), the Cato Street Conspiracy (1820), and the Radical War (1820) in Scotland. However, by the end of the 1820s, many repressive laws were repealed. In 1822, Britain repealed the death penalty for over 100 crimes, and punishments such as drawing and quartering and flagellation fell out of use. Seditious Meetings prevention Act (barring large assemblies) and the Combination Act (banning trade unions) were repealed in 1824. The Catholic Relief Act by Parliament of the United Kingdom granted a substantial measure of Catholic Emancipation in Britain and Ireland.


1820s, Politics and wars, North America, United States
At the beginning of the 1820s, the United States stretched from the Atlantic Ocean through to (roughly) the western edge of the Mississippi basin, though Florida, Michigan, Wisconsin and all present-day states fully west of the Mississippi had yet to be granted statehood. Two states were admitted to the union during this decade: Maine in 1820, and Missouri in 1821. The Adams–Onís Treaty, signed in 1819 and ratified by Spain in 1821, ceded Florida to the United States, and established a boundary between New Spain and the United States.


1820s, Politics and wars, North America, United States
Slavery was widespread throughout the southern United States. According to the 1820 U.S. Census, the slave population at that time was 1,538,000. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 prohibited slavery in the former Louisiana Territory north of the parallel 36°30′ north except within the boundaries of the proposed state of Missouri. By the 1830 U.S. Census, the slave population had risen to 2,009,043. With the coordination of the American Colonization Society, many freed African-Americans repatriated to Africa during this decade to the newly formed colony of Liberia.


1820s, Politics and wars, North America, United States
The political mood at the start of the 1820s was referred to as the Era of Good Feelings, following the collapse of the Federalist party. James Monroe, the sitting U.S president since 1817, was re-elected in 1820, virtually unopposed. In 1823, Monroe introduced the Monroe Doctrine in the State of the Union Address, declaring that any European attempts to recolonize the Americas would be considered a hostile act towards the United States.


1820s, Politics and wars, North America, United States
The feeling of unity during the Monroe administration was dispelled in the presidential election of 1824, which due to an Electoral College stalemate, was decided in the United States House of Representatives. John Quincy Adams was chosen as the sixth U.S. president, despite receiving only 30.9% of the popular vote to Andrew Jackson's 41.3%. This gave rise to Jacksonian Nationalism and the rise of the modern Democratic Party, with Andrew Jackson elected in the 1828 election.


1820s, Politics and wars, North America, Mexico
After ten years of civil war in Mexico (then called the "Viceroyalty of New Spain") and the death of two of its founders, by early 1820 the Mexican independence movement was stalemated and close to collapse. However, the Army of the Three Guarantees was formed under the command of Colonel Agustín de Iturbide with the support of patriots and loyalists to secure independence for Mexico and the protection of Roman Catholicism. Iturbide's army was joined by rebel forces from all over Mexico, and quickly gained control of Mexico. On August 24, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córdoba, which recognized the Mexican Empire under the terms of the Plan of Iguala.


1820s, Politics and wars, North America, Mexico
On September 27 the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the Mexican Empire. The newly formed Mexican congress eventually declared Iturbide emperor of Mexico on May 19, 1822. Later that year, Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with a sympathetic junta. However, on March 19, 1823 Iturbide abdicated.


1820s, Politics and wars, North America, Mexico
The First Federal Republic was established on October 4, 1824. In the new constitution, the republic took the name of United Mexican States, and was defined as a representative federal republic, with Catholicism as the official and unique religion. Guadalupe Victoria was the first President of Mexico from 1824 until 1829.


1820s, Politics and wars, North America, Mexico
After Manuel Gómez Pedraza won the election to succeed Victoria, Vicente Guerrero staged a coup d'état and took the presidency on April 1, 1829. Guerrero was deposed in a rebellion under Vice-President Anastasio Bustamante in December 1829.


1820s, Culture, Fashion
During the 1820s in European and European-influenced countries, fashionable women's clothing styles transitioned away from the classically influenced "Empire"/"Regency" styles of ca. 1795–1820 (with their relatively unconfining empire silhouette) and re-adopted elements that had been characteristic of most of the 18th century (and were to be characteristic of the remainder of the 19th century), such as full skirts and clearly visible corseting of the natural waist.


1820s, Culture, Fashion
The silhouette of men's fashion changed in similar ways: by the mid-1820s coats featured broad shoulders with puffed sleeves, a narrow waist, and full skirts. Trousers were worn for smart day wear, while breeches continued in use at court and in the country.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons
The decade of the 1820s featured the 1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons. While data is not available for every storm that occurred, some parts of the coastline were populated enough to give data of hurricane occurrences. Each season was an ongoing event in the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation in the Atlantic basin. Most tropical cyclone formation occurs between June 1 and November 30.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1820 Atlantic hurricane season
1) The Winyaw Hurricane of 1820 A minimal hurricane moved from Florida on September 8 northward to hit near the border of North Carolina and South Carolina on September 10. It caused only minor damage. Part of cluster of hurricanes struck Charleston area in 1804, 1811, 1813, 1820, and 1822.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1820 Atlantic hurricane season
2) A hurricane was sighted at Dominica on September 26 before moving west-northwest through Hispaniola, then across the southwest Atlantic to South Carolina on October 1.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1821 Atlantic hurricane season
1) A tropical storm moved westward across the Caribbean, from Guadeloupe on September 1 to western Cuba on September 9.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1821 Atlantic hurricane season
The Norfolk and Long Island Hurricane was a deadly hurricane that rapidly moved up the Atlantic coast during the first few days of September. It included a hurricane landfall within the modern borders of New York City, the only recorded case of a hurricane eyewall moving directly over New York City to date. It caused 200 deaths, and is estimated to have been a Category 4 hurricane.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1821 Atlantic hurricane season
3) The Middle Gulf Hurricane of 1821 Later in September, from the 15th–17th, a strong hurricane hit Mississippi. This was a very large storm, bringing storm surge flooding from Mobile to what is now Wakulla and Taylor Counties, Florida. 11 of the 13 vessels in the harbor at Pensacola Bay were lost, causing 35 deaths.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1821 Atlantic hurricane season
It was from the 1821 Norfolk and Long Island hurricane that William C. Redfield published his account in the American Journal of Science presenting his first evidence that hurricanes had counter-clockwise rotation of destructive winds from area tree fall patterns he examined. This also corroborated John Farrar's published work a few years earlier in 1819 that a hurricane was a rotating counter-clockwise vortex. Redfield suggested that hurricanes form east of the Leeward Islands and then travel westwards at a moderate speed. William Reid of the Royal Engineers built off of Redfield's work by studying logs of ships affected by the Great Hurricane of 1780.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1822 Atlantic hurricane season
1) The Early Tropical Storm of 1822 A hurricane struck the central Gulf coast between July 7 and July 9.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1822 Atlantic hurricane season
2) The Carolina Hurricane of 1822 This hurricane moved north-northwest from the Bahamas on September 25 to hit Charleston, South Carolina on September 27. It claimed the lives of hundreds of slaves who found themselves trapped in the low-lying Santee Delta, miles from higher ground and with no shelter. It caused 300 (or more deaths), but managed to break a drought in the Richmond area. Part of cluster of hurricanes struck Charleston area in 1804, 1811, 1813, 1820, and 1822.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1822 Atlantic hurricane season
3) From October 20 to the 22, a hurricane hit Virginia, causing heavy damage and winds in the Richmond area.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1822 Atlantic hurricane season
4) A hurricane struck the River Mersey in England on December 5–6, as evidenced by the gravestone of Nelson Burt (nine-year-old son of Albin R. Burt) in the churchyard of St Lawrence's Church, Stoak.


1820s Atlantic hurricane seasons, 1822 Atlantic hurricane season
5) A rare December hurricane moved through the eastern Caribbean Sea and eventually into Venezuela between December 13 and December 22.