1772 in architecture
The year 1772 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.


1772 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1772.


1772 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1772 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1772 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1772 in science
The year 1772 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1772–1773 Persian Plague
The Persian plague epidemic of 1772–1773, also simply known as the Persian Plague, was a massive outbreak of plague, more specifically Bubonic plague, in the Persian Empire, which claimed around 2 million lives in total. It was one of the most devastating Plague epidemics in recorded human history. The outbreak resulted in the introduction of several quarantine measures for the first time in the Persian Gulf regions.


1772–1773 Persian Plague, Outbreak
The epidemic is believed to have started in Baghdad in the winter of 1772. It then spread to other parts of the Persian-controlled lands. By 1773, the epidemic reached Basra, where it proved to be especially devastating, claiming more than 250,000 lives there alone. The Plague then quickly spread further southwards along the Persian Gulf, eventually reaching Bahrain. Eastwards, the epidemic extended as far as Bombay in India (modern-day Mumbai).


1772–1773 Persian Plague, Outbreak
At the peak of the outbreak, thousand deaths were recorded on a daily basis all throughout the Persian Empire. The outbreak was contained when imposed quarantine measures among the Persian Gulf populations started to show a positive effect by the end of 1773.


1773
1773 (MDCCLXXIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1773rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 773rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 73rd  year of the 18th century, and the  4th   year of the 1770s decade. As of the start of 1773, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1773 British Virgin Islands general election
General elections were held in the British Virgin Islands in 1773.


1773 British Virgin Islands general election, Background
A petition by residents of the Virgin Islands for the creation of a constitution or a judicial system was made to the British government in 1756, but was rejected. A second attempt was made in 1773, and granted by royal prerogative. In June 1773 Governor Ralph Payne was ordered to issue the writs for an election. He subsequently proclaimed the establishment of a legislature on 30 November.


1773 British Virgin Islands general election, Electoral system
A new House of Assembly was created, with 11 elected members. Eight were elected in Tortola, two in Virgin Gorda and one in Jost Van Dyke. The right to vote was restricted to white men owning at least 10 acres of land or property worth at least £10. Candidacy was restricted to white men over the age of 21 who owned at least 40 acres of land or property worth £40, or to sons of men owning 80 acres of land or a property worth at least £80. Candidates had to be residents of the constituency that they ran for election in.


1773 British Virgin Islands general election, Electoral system
In addition to the House of Assembly, a 12-member Legislative Council, also known as the Board, was created, which was appointed by the Governor.


1773 British Virgin Islands general election, Aftermath
The newly elected House of Assembly met for the first time on 1 February 1774.


1773 English cricket season
The 1773 English cricket season was the second in which matches have been awarded retrospective first-class cricket status. The scorecards of eight first-class matches have survived.


1773 English cricket season, Matches
A number of other matches were played during the season, including matches between county teams. Full scorecards do not survive of these matches.


1773 English cricket season, Matches
The scorecard of the England v Hampshire match on 23 June is the first from which some bowling and fielding details are known, although no credit was given to the bowler when a batsman was out other than by being bowled. The card includes the first known instance of hit wicket as a mode of dismissal.


1773 English cricket season, Debutants
The following players made their first known appearance during the 1773 season.


1773 Guatemala earthquake
The 1773 Guatemala earthquake struck Guatemala on July 29 at 15:45 local time. It had an estimated epicentral magnitude of 7.5 Mi. It was part of a sequence that started in May that year. There were two strong foreshocks on June 11 and the mainshock was followed by numerous aftershocks which lasted until December 1773. The series of all these earthquakes is also referred to as the Santa Marta earthquake(s) as it had started on the feast day of Saint Martha.


1773 Guatemala earthquake
With an intensity of approximately VII (Very strong) to VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale, the Santa Marta earthquakes destroyed much of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala (modern Antigua Guatemala), which was at that time the colonial capital of Central America. About 500–600 people died immediately and at least another 600 died from starvation and disease as a result of the earthquake. The event had significant impact on the number of religious personnel in the area, especially the Mercedarian Order, with the count reduced almost by half and a similar reduction in the amount of income received.


1773 Guatemala earthquake, Relocation of the capital
Spanish authorities had previously considered moving the capital to a different location after the devastation of the 1717 Guatemala earthquake and decided after the 1773 event not to rebuild the city again. Thus in 1776 the capital was moved to the new city of Guatemala of Asuncion, known today as Guatemala City.


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole
The 1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole was a British Royal Navy expedition in which two ships under the commands of Constantine John Phipps and Skeffington Lutwidge sailed towards the North Pole in the summer of 1773 and became stuck in ice near Svalbard.


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Background
In January 1773, on the initiative of its vice president Daines Barrington, the Royal Society sent a letter to Lord Sandwich, the First Lord of the Admiralty, suggesting a voyage to the North Pole. Barrington had been influenced by the writings of the Swiss geographer Samuel Engel, who had suggested in his 1765 book Memoires et observations geographiques et critiques sur la situation des pays septentrionaux de l'Asie et de l'Amerique the existence of a vast empty sea near the North Pole. Sandwich proposed the expedition to King George III, "which his Majesty was pleased to direct should be immediately undertaken".


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Preparations
Constantine Phipps volunteered for the expedition and was appointed its commander. The bomb vessel HMS Racehorse was chosen as the expedition ship and modified at Deptford Dockyard in March and April 1773. The second bomb vessel, HMS Carcass under the command of Skeffington Lutwidge, was refitted at Sheerness Dockyard, with both ships provided with additional protection against ice.


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Preparations
Members of the expedition included on Racehorse, Henry Harvey as first lieutenant, Charles Irving as surgeon, Israel Lyons as astronomer, Philippe d'Auvergne as midshipman, and Olaudah Equiano as able seaman. On Carcass, Horatio Nelson served as midshipman. Two Greenland whalers were hired as pilots for each of the ships.


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Preparations
For navigation, Racehorse was equipped with a Larcum Kendall K2 chronometer and Carcass with a John Arnold chronometer. Other new technology on board included Pierre Bouguer's improved log and Irving's apparatus for distillation of seawater.


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Journey
The Admiralty's instructions for Phipps from 25 May 1773 stated he should sail north from the Nore and then, "[...] passing between Spitzbergen and Greenland, proceed up to the North Pole or as far towards it as you are able, carefully avoiding the errors of former navigators by keeping as much as possible in the open sea, and as nearly upon a meridian to the said Pole as the ice or other obstructions you meet with will admit of. If you arrive at the Pole and should even find the sea so open as to admit of a free navigation on the opposite meridian you are not to proceed any further but [...] you are to return to the Nore [...] "


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Journey
The ships sailed north from the Nore on 4 June 1773. Spitsbergen was sighted on 28 June, and the ships sailed further north while observing and surveying the coast. From Hakluyt's headland they continued northwest, starting to encounter ice. From 8 July, the ice made movement very difficult, and the ships had to be towed with smaller boats. As the ice was impenetrable, Phipps turned east to determine whether the ice was joined with Spitsbergen. The expedition made further attempts to sail north while going east along the coast and surveying and studying various islands.


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Journey
On 27 July they reached their furthest point to the north at 80°48'N. On 30 July, on one of the Seven Islands, Phipps and Lutwidge climbed a hill and could see that the sea was completely frozen over to the east. On their return, the ships were completely surrounded by ice. Over the next few days, Phipps was ready to abandon ships and the crew started hauling the boats over the ice. However, on 10 August, the ships broke free of the ice and into the open sea and returned west to Fairhaven.


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Journey
After a final attempt to sail northwest on 19 August, they started the journey home. The ships were separated by storms, and on 18 September, Carcass reached Yarmouth Roads and Lutwidge sent news of the expedition to the Admiralty. The ships reunited on 26 September and returned to docks on the Thames on 30 September.


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Publications
An anonymous narrative of the journey appeared in February 1774, and Phipps' book, A voyage towards the North Pole containing 70 pages of narrative as well as a lengthy appendix with the scientific results of the journey, in the late summer of 1774. A French translation appeared in 1775 and a German translation in 1777. The journey also features in Olaudah Equiano's 1789 autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, and another eyewitness account, that of midshipman Thomas Floyd, was compiled by his family and published in 1879.


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Legacy
The failure of the expedition to get through the ice to the North Pole did not convince Barrington or Engel that this was impossible. Scientific results of the journey include the first scientific description of the polar bear and the ivory gull. Some islands of Sjuøyane are named after expedition members: Nelsonøya, Phippsøya, and Waldenøya.


1773 Phipps expedition towards the North Pole, Legacy
Starting in 1800, a story about Horatio Nelson chasing a polar bear began to circulate, including Nelson's alleged response to a reprimand from Lutwidge, "I wished, Sir, to get the skin for my father." After Nelson's death, the story was expanded in his biographies, and included claims that Nelson had tried to attack the bear with his broken musket, wielding it like a club, a scene immortalised in a painting by Richard Westall.


1773 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1773 to Wales and its people.


1773 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1773.


1773 in paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1773.


1773 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1773 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1773 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1773 in science
The year 1773 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1774
1774 (MDCCLXXIV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1774th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 774th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 74th  year of the 18th century, and the  5th   year of the 1770s decade. As of the start of 1774, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1774 Alexander Rock House
The 1774 Alexander Rock House in Charlotte, North Carolina is the oldest house in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina and was named to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. Originally built by the Alexander Family who finished construction in 1774, the Rock House and its various outbuildings have had many owners over the years with The Charlotte Museum of History being its steward today.


1774 Alexander Rock House, History, Alexanders
Hezekiah Alexander (~1728–1801), bought more than 600 acres (243 ha) on Sugar Creek in 1767 and finished building the Rock House 1774. Originally from Cecil County, Maryland, Hezekiah moved to Pennsylvania, then to Delaware, and finally North Carolina. He worked as a blacksmith, a farmer, served in the Fifth Provincial Congress which wrote North Carolina's first constitution, and as a trustee of Queens College (which should not be confused with the present-day Queens University of Charlotte.)


1774 Alexander Rock House, History, Alexanders
After Hezekiah's death, the homesite passed to his wife Mary Sample Alexander (1734-1805). Mary never remarried and thus the land was divided between her youngest sons Joel and Oswald upon her death. In addition to the land, Oswald also received the Rock House and outbuildings.


1774 Alexander Rock House, History, Alexanders
In 1826, Oswald married Mary Moore only to die suddenly and without a will before the year's end. After his death, Mary Moore filled a petition for and ultimately received the estate including the Rock House in 1828. Mary Moore married William Lucky that same year and due to how property law worked at the time, the house then passed from her to William Lucky and out of the Alexander Family.


1774 Alexander Rock House, History, Lucky
William Lucky and Mary Moore had 3 kids, Dorcus, William, and Catherine, who all received portions of the land when William died without a will in 1845. Mary was also given a portion of the land but was not given the house which went to Dorcus. Dorcus married and moved to South Carolina in 1852, leaving the property to her uncle John W. Moore who sold it to Joseph W. Cadwell in late 1858.


1774 Alexander Rock House, History, Cadwell
Dr. Joseph Cadwell lived in the Rock House for 2 years until his death at age 28 in 1861. His brother Samuel Cadwell inherited the property and moved in with his parents and younger sister. After living there for 22 years, Samuel sold the property to Adam Yandle in March of 1883.


1774 Alexander Rock House, History, Yandle
Adam Yandle bought the house paying mostly upfront and promising the rest in January of the following year. Knowing he would not be able to pay by the deadline, Yandle mortgaged his home to Victor Barringer in order to pay Samuel Cadwell. This second loan went equally as well as the first and in 1888, Barringer took the property and sold it at auction to Joseph Reid in 1890.


1774 Alexander Rock House, History, Reid
Joseph Reid and his wife Rachel renovated the house multiple times including adding a large front porch and replacing the flooring on the ground level. Joseph died in 1913 without any children so the house went to Rachel who would pass 15 years later in 1928 without ever remarrying thus the house passed to the control of their estate who put it up for sale.


1774 Alexander Rock House, History, Cole
Eugene Cole bought the Rock House and surrounding property from the Reid Estate in 1929 though he never lived in the building himself.


1774 Alexander Rock House, History, Museum
In 1943, Eugene Cole donated the house to the Western North Carolina Annual Conference of the Methodist Church which had plans to use the site as a retirement community. In 1949, the home and some of the surrounding property is leased by members of the Daughters of the American Revolution in order to preserve and restore the historic building. The Hezekiah Alexander Home Foundation was formed in 1969 to better manage the property and fundraise for further work. After passing through several hands, The Charlotte Museum of History became independent in 1986 and maintains the Rock House to this day.


1774 Alexander Rock House, Architecture
The stone house was built in a Georgian style typical of those built by Germans who settled in Pennsylvania and by the Dutch in the Hudson Valley. Germans who moved south to North Carolina brought this style of architecture with them. The Alexander House is one of the few examples of this architecture still in existence.


1774 British general election
The 1774 British general election returned members to serve in the House of Commons of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain to be held, after the merger of the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland in 1707. Lord North's government was returned with a large majority. The opposition consisted of factions supporting the Marquess of Rockingham and the Earl of Chatham, both of whom referred to themselves as Whigs. North's opponents referred to his supporters as Tories, but no Tory party existed at the time and his supporters rejected the label.


1774 British general election, Summary of the constituencies
See 1796 British general election for details. The constituencies used were the same throughout the existence of the Parliament of Great Britain.


1774 British general election, Dates of election
The general election was held between 5 October 1774 and 10 November 1774. North's ministry pushed for elections to occur in 1774 (instead of the originally planned 1775) in part due to wanting to avoid having an election coincide with increasing tensions in the American colonies.


1774 British general election, Dates of election
At this period elections did not take place at the same time in every constituency. The returning officer in each county or parliamentary borough fixed the precise date (see husting for details of the conduct of the elections).


1774 English cricket season
The 1774 English cricket season was the third in which matches have been awarded retrospective first-class cricket status. The scorecards of five first-class matches have survived.


1774 English cricket season
The Laws of Cricket were revised during the season, the first major revision since the 1744 season. The revision of the Laws introduced leg before wicket as a means of dismissal and formalised the standard width of a cricket bat.


1774 English cricket season, Laws revision
The Laws of Cricket were revised during a meeting held at the Star and Garter on Pall Mall, London during February. This was attended by a range of influential cricket figures who produced "New Articles of the Game of Cricket", essentially a revised version of the 1744 Laws.


1774 English cricket season, Laws revision
The revision of the Laws formalised the standard width of a cricket bat at 4.25 inches (10.8 cm), a measure that had been introduced by the Hambledon Club following the Monster Bat Incident of 1771. The weight of a cricket ball was narrowed to between 5.5 inches (14 cm) and 5.75 inches (14.6 cm), having previously been limited to between 5 inches (13 cm) and 6 inches (15 cm), and the toss of a coin was removed from the game, with the listing team instead having the choice of whether to bat or bowl first.


1774 English cricket season, Laws revision
The revision introduced Leg Before Wicket (LBW) as a means of dismissal, stating that "the striker is out if he puts his leg before the wicket with a design to stop the ball and actually prevent the ball from hitting it". The introduction of LBW stemmed from batsmen deliberately blocking the ball using their legs rather than attempting to play it with their bat, most notably a player named Ring. The Law was revised nine times between its introduction and 1831 and it was not until 1839 that the Law was amended to state that the ball had to pitch in line with the stumps in order for the batsman to be out.


1774 English cricket season, Matches
In the match between Hampshire and England on 7–8 July, bowler William Bullen took the first known five wicket haul in first-class matches. It is possible that this feat had already been accomplished, but details of dismissals are often lacking from this period.


1774 English cricket season, Matches
Six other matches are known to have been played during the season, including matches between county teams. Full scorecards do not survive from these matches.


1774 English cricket season, Debutants
The following players made their first known appearance during the 1774 season.


1774 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1774 to Wales and its people.


1774 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1774.


1774 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1774 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1774 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1774 in science
The year 1774 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1774–1775 papal conclave
The 1774–75 papal conclave (October 5 – February 15), was convoked after the death of Pope Clement XIV and ended with the election of Cardinal Giovanni Angelo Braschi, who took the name of Pius VI.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Death of Clement XIV
Pope Clement XIV died suddenly on September 22, 1774 at the age of 68. His pontificate had been dominated by the problem of the Society of Jesus. The various courts under the House of Bourbon and the Kingdom of Portugal (under the House of Braganza) urged the general suppression of the order. The pope tried to defend Jesuits and to temporize, but finally had to capitulate, and in 1773 he issued the Brief Dominus ac Redemptor which suppressed the Society of Jesus. Father Lorenzo Ricci, general of the order, had been imprisoned in the Castel Sant'Angelo. However, the Jesuits still had many adherents in the Roman Curia and in the Sacred College of Cardinals. The attitude toward Jesuits remained the main criterion of the appreciation of the candidates to the papal succession in the subsequent conclave.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Death of Clement XIV
The death of a pope frequently presented an opportunity for the citizens of Rome to vent their anti-clerical feelings, often in the context of satires, sometimes salacious, directed at either the late pope or the cardinals. In 1774, the Governor of Rome had occasion to ban a drama entitled the Conclave for offending the "dignity, decorum, and venerable representation of the Sacred College, as well as, other persons as subjects."


1774–1775 papal conclave, List of participants
At the death of Clement XIV there were fifty-five cardinals in the Sacred College, but two of them died during sede vacante, while another nine remained entirely absent. Forty-four cardinals participated in the conclave:


1774–1775 papal conclave, List of participants
Thirteen cardinals were created by Clement XIV, twenty by Clement XIII, ten by Pope Benedict XIV and one (Alessandro Albani) by Innocent XIII.


1774–1775 papal conclave, List of participants, Absentees
Benedict XIV, Clement XIII and Clement XIV created three of them each.


1774–1775 papal conclave, List of participants, Died during sede vacante
Two cardinals, including one created by Benedict XIV and one created by Clement XIII:


1774–1775 papal conclave, Divisions in the Sacred College
The College of Cardinals was generally divided into two blocs: curial, pro-Jesuit (zelanti) and political, anti-Jesuit. The first one was formed by the Italian curial cardinals who opposed the secular influences on the Church. The second one included crown-cardinals of the Catholic courts. These two blocs were in no way homogenous. Zelanti were divided into moderate and radical factions. The anti-Jesuit bloc was divided into several national groups with different interests.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Divisions in the Sacred College
The leader of Zelanti was Cardinal Marcantonio Colonna. The other representatives of this faction were Giovanni Battista Rezzonico, his relative Carlo Rezzonico, who occupied the important office of the camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, Gian Francesco Albani, dean of the College of Cardinals, and Alessandro Albani, archdeacon of the College. The Rezzonichi represented the radical wing of this faction, while the Albanis and Colonna represented the moderate wing. Among the anti-Jesuit cardinals the main leader was Cardinal de Bernis, ambassador of Louis XVI of France.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Divisions in the Sacred College
The interests of Charles III of Spain were represented by Cardona, interests of Ferdinand III of Sicily/Ferdinand IV of Naples by Orsini, while those of Maria Theresa of Austria and her son Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor were under the care of Migazzi and Corsini. Also very influential was Cardinal Giraud, former nuncio in France. Several cardinals were not counted among the members of these factions.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Divisions in the Sacred College
There was no main favourite of the conclave. About thirty cardinals were considered papabile.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Conclave
The conclave began on October 5, 1774. Initially there were only 28 participants. By the middle of December their number reached only 39, but by the end of the conclave five more cardinals arrived.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Conclave
Cardinal Marcantonio Colonna, taking advantage of the small number of electors, mostly curial cardinals belonging to his zelanti faction, tried to release Father Ricci from prison. This initiative obtained support of camerlengo Carlo Rezzonico and of Henry Benedict Stuart, but the anti-Jesuit faction was strong enough to frustrate it.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Conclave
Every day at least one ballot took place, but no candidates with serious chances for the election were proposed at the beginning, because the number of electors was relatively small and they were obliged to await the arrival of the rest, particularly of those representatives of the courts who did not reside in Rome. Zelanti voted mainly for their leader Colonna, who received the greatest number of votes in these initial ballots, but certainly had no chances to secure the required majority of two thirds. Some other candidates were also put forward by the Zelanti, but they were all rejected by crown-cardinals as too pro-Jesuit. Against the candidature of Giovanni Carlo Boschi the Bourbon courts even pronounced the official papal veto.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Conclave
Although the court factions cooperated by blocking of Zelanti candidates, they were unable to agree upon one of their own. Spain supported Pallavicino, while Austria favoured Visconti, a former nuncio at Vienna. Towards the end of 1774, the name of young Cardinal Giovanni Angelo Braschi was raised for the first time. Braschi belonged to the moderate wing of the Zelanti faction. He was advanced by Cardinal Giraud, and obtained a significant number of votes. The crown-cardinals rejected Braschi as pro-Jesuit, although Cardinal de Bernis in his report for the French court found him moderate man and did not exclude the support for him in the future, if no better candidate would be found. No consensus had been achieved before the end of 1774.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Conclave
In January 1775 cardinals Migazzi, Borromeo, Caracciolo, Pallavicino and Visconti were proposed by the political factions, but without any significant success, because Zelanti rejected all candidates recommended by the monarchs. Cardinal Zelada tried to mediate between factions, proposing to reduce the number of candidates to six, of whom each of the two blocs had to advance three, and to elect the one who would be the most acceptable for all. But this initiative had also failed.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Conclave
Gradually French Cardinals de Bernis and Luynes came to the conclusion that it was impossible to find any better candidate with chances for election than the initially rejected Cardinal Braschi. This was the turning point of the conclave. Braschi's candidacy gained important and influential allies. But Spain and Portugal still opposed him as too favorable toward the Jesuits. Braschi also had some opponents in the radical wing of his own party. To secure the required majority, Cardinal de Bernis aligned himself with Cardinal Zelada, who acted as mediator: de Bernis had to convince the political factions, while Zelada had to overcome the opposition among the radical Zelanti. Also Cardinal Albani was engaged in the promotion of Braschi.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Conclave
Cardinal Zelada secured the support of Zelanti without serious problems. Spain's candidate, Pallavicino, openly declared that he would not accept the tiara and supported Braschi. The other political factions agreed when Braschi promised the ratification of the suppression of the Jesuits, his friendship to the House of Bourbon and to the House of Habsburg, and agreed to be guided by the allies in the distribution of State offices.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Election of Pius VI
On February 15, 1775, after 134 days of deliberation, on the 265th ballot, Cardinal Giovanni Angelo Braschi was elected to the papacy receiving all votes except his own, which, according to custom, he gave to Gian Francesco Albani, dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals. He took the name of Pius VI, in honour of St. Pius V.


1774–1775 papal conclave, Election of Pius VI
On February 22, 1775 the Pope-elect was consecrated bishop of Rome by Cardinal Dean Gian Francesco Albani, bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina, assisted by Sub-dean Henry Benedict Stuart, bishop of Frascati, and Camerlengo Carlo Rezzonico, bishop of Sabina. On the same day he was also solemnly crowned by Cardinal Alessandro Albani, protodeacon of S. Maria in Via Lata.


1775
1775 (MDCCLXXV) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1775th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 775th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 75th  year of the 18th century, and the  6th   year of the 1770s decade. As of the start of 1775, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1775, Events, Summary
The  American Revolution begins this year, with the first military engagement being the April 19 Battles of Lexington and Concord on the day after Paul Revere's now-legendary ride. The Second Continental Congress takes various steps toward organizing an American government, appointing George Washington commander-in-chief (June 14), Benjamin Franklin postmaster general (July 26) and creating a Continental Navy (October 13) and a Marine force (November 10) as landing troops for it, but as yet the 13 colonies have not declared independence, and both the British (June 12) and American (July 15) governments make laws.


1775, Events, Summary
On July 6, Congress issues the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms and on August 23, King George III of Great Britain declares the American colonies in rebellion, announcing it to Parliament on November 10.


1775, Events, Summary
On June 17, two months into the colonial siege of Boston, at the Battle of Bunker Hill, just north of Boston, British forces are victorious, but only after suffering severe casualties and after Colonial forces run out of ammunition, Fort Ticonderoga is taken by American forces in New York Colony's northern frontier, and American forces unsuccessfully invade Canada, with an attack on Montreal defeated by British forces on November 13 and an attack on Quebec repulsed December 31.


1775, Events, Summary
Human knowledge and mastery over nature advances when James Watt builds a successful prototype of a steam engine, and a scientific expedition continues as Captain James Cook claims the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands in the south Atlantic Ocean for Britain. Nature's power over humanity is dramatically demonstrated when the Independence Hurricane (August 29 – September 13) devastates the east coast of North America, killing 4,173, and when, on the western side of the North American continent, Tseax Cone erupts in the future British Columbia, as well as when a smallpox epidemic begins in New England. Smallpox was then cured by Edward Jenner.


1775 (TV pilot)
Seventeen Seventy Five was a 1992 pilot episode for a CBS situation comedy. Set in colonial Philadelphia during the run-up to the American Revolution, the series was to follow the exploits of innkeeper Jeremy Proctor and his family. The series was not picked up by CBS, but was broadcast as a special presentation once September 5, 1992.


1775 (TV pilot)
A similar idea for a situation comedy was mentioned by Andrew Alexander in a commentary track for SCTV.


1775 (TV pilot), Plot
Innkeeper Jeremy Proctor needs funds to send his daughters to a ball (which will hopefully lead to marrying one of them off). He thus tries to borrow the money from his brother-in-law, George Washington, but to no avail.


1775 English cricket season
The 1775 English cricket season was the fourth in which matches have been awarded retrospective first-class cricket status. The scorecards of four first-class matches have survived.


1775 English cricket season, Matches
During the second Hampshire v Surrey match, John Small set a new record for the highest known score in cricket matches, making 136 for the Hampshire XI. This beat John Minshull's score of 107 set in 1769 and was the first century scored in a match that has been awarded first-class status. It lasted only until 1777 when James Aylward set a new mark with a score of 167.


1775 English cricket season, Matches
Ten other matches are known to have been played during the season, including matches between county teams. Full scorecards do not survive from most of these matches.


1775 English cricket season, Other events
During a single wicket cricket match in May at the Artillery Ground, Lumpy Stevens, bowling, beat John Small at least three times only for the ball to pass through centre of the wicket, which at that time still consisted of two stumps and a single bail crosspiece. This led to calls for the introduction of a third stump to make it impossible for the ball to pass through the centre of the wicket.


1775 English cricket season, Other events
The earliest known reference to Oldfield Cricket Club in Berkshire and to cricket in Huntingdonshire date from 1774.


1775 Liverpool Seamen's revolt
The 1775 Liverpool Seamen's revolt was a revolt by seamen faced by a cut in wages and consisted of industrial sabotage actions, protests and prison escapes. At the height of the struggle, the seamen bombarded Liverpool Town Hall.


1775 Liverpool Seamen's revolt, Economic crisis
At the time a large number of  the working class in Liverpool were seamen and enjoyed the support of much of the general population. In August 1775, the American War of Independence had a big impact on the economy of Liverpool, particularly the transatlantic slave trade. In 1773 105 ships had sailed for Africa with a burthen tonnage of 11,056. By 1775 this had reduced to 81 ships with a total tonnage of 9,200. There were 3,000 unemployed seamen in Liverpool and about 40 ships fitted out for the transport of slaves were laid up.


1775 Liverpool Seamen's revolt, Economic crisis
Merchants decided to reduce the standard pay for rigging out a ship in preparation for a voyage, which was 30 shillings a month. Seamen who had been engaged to rig the Derby found that they were to be paid at only 20 shillings a month, and were told that there were plenty of sailors to be had in the port.


1775 Liverpool Seamen's revolt, Economic crisis
The seamen returned to the ship, cut down the rigging and left it lying on deck. The rest of the rigged ships in the harbour were treated in the same way. When nine of the men were arrested and committed to prison by the magistrates, two or three thousand seamen surrounded the prison and secured the release of eight of the men. They marched away, discovered that they had left one prisoner behind, and marched back to the prison. Here they succeeded in releasing not only the other seaman, but also a woman who had been accused of aiding and abetting the rioters.


1775 Liverpool Seamen's revolt, Economic crisis
The crowd marched to the Town Hall - which was also the merchants' Exchange - with a red flag. They continued their peaceful meetings and marching and a delegation met Lord Mayor James Clemens on the fifth day. There was a report that the merchants agreed to pay the rates that were asked.


1775 Liverpool Seamen's revolt, Economic crisis
However, that afternoon the merchants hired a body of armed men at ten shillings a day, and posted some in the Town Hall to arrest the strike leaders. In the evening, they fired on the unarmed strikers who were surrounding the building. The dead were variously reported at two or seven, the wounded at ten or several.


1775 Liverpool Seamen's revolt, Economic crisis
The seamen went aboard ships collecting cannon, and then put them into position to bombard the Town Hall. They bedecked their hats with red ribbons, raised the red flag, and at 1pm the next day, they began bombarding the Town Hall. Four people were killed.


1775 Liverpool Seamen's revolt, Economic crisis
The merchants sent a message to the military in Manchester and two days later 100 cavalry with six officers set off for Liverpool. The seamen were attending the funeral of the victims of the shooting. The troops hunted down and arrested forty to sixty sailors and marched them off to Lancaster for indictment and trial.


1775 Liverpool Seamen's revolt, Economic crisis
Only twelve of the sailors were indicted at Lancaster. Eight were found guilty, but all were discharged on agreeing to enlist in the Navy.


1775 Newfoundland hurricane
The 1775 Newfoundland hurricane, also known as the Independence Hurricane, was a hurricane that struck the Thirteen Colonies and the Colony of Newfoundland in August and September, 1775, at the outset of the American War of Independence. It is believed to have killed at least 4,000 people, making it one of the deadliest Atlantic hurricanes of all time. There is disagreement among historians and meteorologists whether the events were one storm or two distinct storms.


1775 Newfoundland hurricane, Impact, North Carolina and Virginia
On August 27, 1775, a hurricane hit the Outer Banks of North Carolina. It turned northeastward and left the state on September 2, bringing heavy wind and rain to southeastern Virginia. A letter from New Bern, North Carolina, recounted, "We had a violent hurricane...which has done a vast deal of damage here, at the Bar, and at Matamuskeet, near 150 lives being lost at the Bar, and 15 in one neighborhood at Matamuskeet."


1775 Newfoundland hurricane, Impact, North Carolina and Virginia
The September 9, 1775, edition of The Virginia Gazette reported: "The shocking accounts of damage done by the rains last week are numerous: Most of the mill-dams are broke, the corn laid almost level with the ground, and fodder destroyed; many ships and other vessels drove ashore and damaged, at Norfolk, Hampton, and York. In the heavy storm of wind and rain, which came on last Saturday, and continued most part of the night, the Mercury man of war as drove from her station abreast of the town of Norfolk, and stuck flat aground in shoal water."


1775 Newfoundland hurricane, Impact, Newfoundland
A storm struck the eastern coast of Newfoundland on September 9, 1775. It is uncertain if this storm was the remnants of the hurricane that had crossed the Outer Banks over a week earlier.


1775 Newfoundland hurricane, Impact, Newfoundland
Newfoundland's fisheries "received a very severe stroke from the violence of a storm of wind, which almost swept everything before it," Commodore Governor Robert Duff wrote shortly after it struck. "A considerable number of boats, with their crews, have been totally lost, several vessels wrecked on the shores," he said. Ocean levels rose to heights "scarcely ever known before" and caused great devastation, Duff reported.


1775 Newfoundland hurricane, Impact, Newfoundland
A total of 4,000 sailors, mostly from England and Ireland, were reported to have been drowned. A localized storm surge is reported to have reached heights of between 20 and 30 feet. Losses from the hurricane include two armed schooners of the Royal Navy, which were on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland to enforce Britain's fishing rights.


1775 Newfoundland hurricane, Impact, Newfoundland
The hurricane is Atlantic Canada's first recorded hurricane and Canada's deadliest natural disaster (and by far the deadliest hurricane to ever hit territory of present-day Canada), as well as the eighth-deadliest Atlantic hurricane in history.


1775 Zimmerwald
1775 Zimmerwald, provisional designation 1969 JA, is a stony Eunomian asteroid and slow rotator from the middle region of the asteroid belt, approximately 10 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 13 May 1969, by Swiss astronomer Paul Wild at Zimmerwald Observatory near Bern, Switzerland. It is named for the village of Zimmerwald, where the discovering observatory is located.


1775 Zimmerwald, Orbit and classification
Zimmerwald is a member of the Eunomia family, a large group of mostly stony S-type asteroids and the most prominent family in the intermediate main-belt, which is located between two prominent Kirkwood gaps. It orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.1–3.1 AU once every 4 years and 2 months (1,533 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.19 and an inclination of 13° with respect to the ecliptic. The first precovery of Zimmerwald was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1949, extending the body's observation arc by 20 years prior to its official discovery observation at Zimmerwald. During the 1950s, it was also identified at Heidelberg, Goethe Link and McDonald Observatory.


1775 Zimmerwald, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In May 2011, a rotational lightcurve of Zimmerwald was obtained by American astronomer Robert Stephens at the Center for Solar System Studies, California, using photometric observations taken at the Santana and Goat Mountain observatories (646, G79). Lightcurve analysis gave a very long rotation period of 122±5 hours with a change in brightness of 0.60 magnitude (U=2+). It is also suspected, that the body might be in a nonprincipal axis rotation, which is commonly known as "tumbling". While the slowest rotators have periods above 1000 hours, the majority of minor planets have periods shorter than 20 hours.


1775 Zimmerwald, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Zimmerwald measures 10.17 and 10.70 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between of 0.244 and 0.21, respectively (without preliminary results). The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.21 – derived from 15 Eunomia, the family's largest member and namesake – and calculates a diameter of 11.03 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 12.1.


1775 Zimmerwald, Naming
This minor planet was named for the small village of Zimmerwald, location of the discovering Zimmerwald Observatory. It is located about seven miles south of the Swiss capital Bern, after which the binary asteroid 1313 Berna was named. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 18 April 1977 (M.P.C. 4155).


1775 in Canada, Historical documents
Continental Congress letter to Canadians, May 26, 1775 (two sources)


1775 in Canada, Historical documents
Gen. Richard Montgomery letter re Chambly capitulation, officers and stores captured, etc. (note: "St. John's" is Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu)


1775 in Canada, Historical documents
Gen. Montgomery letter re St.-Jean surrender and capitulation terms, stores captured, etc.


1775 in Canada, Historical documents
Col. Benedict Arnold's bedraggled regiment arrives at Quebec City from Maine, November 8, 1775


1775 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1775 to Wales and its people.


1775 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1775.


1775 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1775 in poetry, Events
October 26 - Phillis Wheatley sends a poem and letter to General George Washington in his honor. He responded to her in 1776.


1775 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1775 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1775 in science
The year 1775 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic
The New World of the Western Hemisphere was devastated by the 1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic. Columbus' first voyage to America can be attributed for bringing the smallpox virus to America and led to its spread across most of the continent of North America. At least 130,000 people were estimated to have died in the epidemic that started in 1775.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Background
Smallpox was a dangerous disease caused by the variola major virus. The most common type of smallpox, ordinary, historically has devastated populations with a 30% death rate. The smallpox virus is transmittable through bodily fluids and materials contaminated with infected materials. Generally, face-to-face contact is required for an individual to contract smallpox as a result of an interaction with another human. Unlike some viruses, humans are the only carriers of variola major. This limits the chances of the virus being unknowingly spread through contact with insect or other animal populations. Persons infected with smallpox are infectious to others for about 24 days after their infection time. However, there is a period of time in which individuals are contagious but have only begun to experience minor symptoms such as fever, headaches, body aches, and sometimes vomiting.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Background
This epidemic occurred during the years of the American Revolutionary War. During this time, there was no medical technology widely available to protect soldiers from outbreaks in crowded and unhygienic troop camps. Thus, this virus posed a major threat to the success of the Continental Army, led by George Washington.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Background
It is not known where the outbreak began, but the epidemic was not limited to the colonies on the Eastern seaboard, nor to the areas ravaged by hostilities. The outbreak spread throughout the North American continent. In 1775 it was already raging through British-occupied Boston and among the Continental Army's invasion of Canada. During Washington's siege of Boston the disease broke out among both Continental and British camps. Many escaped slaves who had fled to the British lines in the South likewise contracted smallpox and died.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Background
In the South, it reached Texas, and from 1778 to 1779, New Orleans was especially hard hit due to its densely populated urban area. By 1779 the disease had spread to Mexico and would cause the deaths of tens of thousands. At its end the epidemic had crossed the Great Plains, reaching as far west as the Pacific coast, as far north as Alaska and as far south as Mexico, infecting virtually every part of the continent.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Background
One of the worst tragedies of the pandemic was the massive toll it took on the indigenous population of the Americas. The disease was likely spread via the travels of the Shoshone Indian tribes. Beginning in 1780 it reached the Pueblos of the territory comprising present day New Mexico. It also showed up in the interior trading posts of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1782. It affected nearly every tribe on the continent, including the northwestern coast. It is estimated to have killed nearly 11,000 Native Americans in the Western area of present-day Washington, reducing the population from 37,000 to 26,000 in just seven years.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Quarantine methods
Though there was not too much known about viruses and their transitions, English colonists in North America recognized the effectiveness of isolating individuals infected with smallpox. The English colonies were more aware of the features of smallpox than of almost any other infectious disease. It was widely recognized that there were only two options for protecting oneself against this disease, quarantine or inoculation against the disease. Many feared inoculation, and instead chose isolation via quarantine. Individuals with recognized infections were sent to remote locations where they could let the disease run its course without the fear of infecting others. If needed, the scale of the quarantine could be increased. This meant cutting off entire towns from the rest of the colonies for the duration of the disease.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Quarantine methods
Members of the English colonies as well as English officials were proactive in establishing quarantine guidelines in order to protect the public. One of the earliest recorded examples of this was a quarantine established in 1647 by Puritans in order to prevent the spread of disease from ships coming from the Caribbean. In 1731 an act, entitled , was passed. This act made the heads of households mandatory reporters for smallpox; these individuals were required to report smallpox in their house to the selectmen of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Quarantine methods
Infected households would then be indicated with the placement of a red flag. In South Carolina, sentinels were to be posted outside infected households and infectious notices were required to be posted. In many colonies islands were set up to quarantine individuals coming in by ship. This decreased the chances of smallpox being introduced via trade or travel. By the late 1700s, almost all colonies had quarantine laws in effect in order to diminish the hugely damaging effects that smallpox could have on their communities.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Quarantine methods
Upon taking charge of the Continental Army, Washington recognized the severe danger that smallpox posed to his men and the outcome of the war. To this end, Washington became "particularly attentive to the least Symptoms of Smallpox"  among his men. Further, Washington was prepared to quarantine any member of his troops showing symptoms according to previously discovered methods and guidelines, including through the use of a special hospital. Following an outbreak of smallpox in Boston, Washington took further precautions to protect his men; he quarantined his men from the dangerous Boston public. These measures included the refusal to allow contact between his soldiers and the viral refugees of Boston. Additionally, certain retreats of the Continental Army can be linked to Washington's wish to avoid smallpox and his intense caution when it came to his troops.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation
Though it was practiced in many parts of the world, the technology of inoculation, or Variolation, was not known in Europe until the 1670. It was widely publicized by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who inoculated her own children against smallpox, despite widespread concern and controversy. Inoculation was the practice of introducing infected materials in to the bodies of healthy individuals with the hope that they would contract a mild form of smallpox, recover, and be immune to further infections. The outcome of inoculations in surviving patients was successful. These individuals proved to be immune to smallpox.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation
Understandably, there was much concern surrounding the practice of inoculation. The ordinary person was unable to comprehend the efficacy of intentionally infecting an otherwise healthy person with a potentially fatal disease. Thus, many were reluctant to have themselves or their family members inoculated. There were instances in which these fears were validated. Many of those who had been inoculated died as a result of the smallpox they had been exposed to. Additionally, there was the potential for an accidental outbreak of smallpox after contact between inoculation patients and the public. The choice of significant individuals such as John Adams and Abigail Adams to be inoculated did some to make inoculations more accepted, but there was still much progress to be made.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation, George Washington
George Washington contributed greatly to the progression of public health systems in America. During his time working with the Continental Army, Washington observed how smallpox and other diseases spread like wildfire through Army camps and gatherings. This was often due to the cramped and dirty living conditions of these places. Washington understood the destructive nature of smallpox and other diseases such as malaria, diphtheria, and scarlet fever. He was one of the first to introduce the idea of compulsory health initiatives such as widespread inoculation. Washington also had experience with disease outside the realm of combat and war. Having himself suffered from many illnesses and observing those of his family, George Washington was an integral part of the establishment of American public health programs.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation, George Washington
Along with quarantine, another one of Washington's methods for keeping his men healthy was with the use of inoculation. Washington, like others of the time period, was not intimately familiar with the exact mechanisms of the virus. However, he and others were able to realize that men who had previously contracted and subsequently recovered from smallpox were unlikely to become ill a second time. Thus, early on Washington recognized the strategic advantage of these individuals. During an outbreak in Boston, Washington sent troops made up only of men who had previously been infected with smallpox. With this, he was able to both protect his soldiers and take advantage of the vulnerability of Boston and its British inhabitants during the smallpox outbreak of March 1776.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation, George Washington
Initially, George Washington was reluctant to inoculate his troops. But as he watched many of his men fall victim to smallpox, Washington believed that he would be able to keep his troops healthy through sanitary and quarantine methods. There were several events that contributed to the change of Washington's policy. First, Washington recognized that quarantine and attempted cleanliness were not enough to keep his vital troops healthy and in fighting form. Additionally, many prominent members of colonial society were having themselves and their families inoculated. Eventually, even George Washington's wife, Martha Washington was herself inoculated.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation, George Washington
It was not long after this that Washington initiated the inoculation of the American troops. Washington recognized the dangers of inoculating these men; many patients died as result of the infection caused by inoculation. However, the importance of keeping his men healthy outweighed the risks, and almost all Continental soldiers were inoculated against smallpox. Washington (a survivor of smallpox himself) understood the danger that smallpox posed to his men, saying "Necessity not only authorizes but seems to require the measure, for should the disorder infect the Army . . .


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation, George Washington
we should have more to dread from it, than from the Sword of the Enemy." However, it was more complex than just Washington making this decision. Local officials were concerned that the inoculation of soldiers would lead to the accidental spread of smallpox among civilians. But Washington persisted in his quest and managed to get the majority of his soldiers inoculated. Along with the rise in popularity of the practice, Washington's decision to inoculate his troops was also extremely strategic; he was able to realize the deep impact an epidemic would have on his troops.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation, George Washington
Immunity was initially more widespread among the British men than the Americans. This was due to the more accepted practice of inoculation in Europe and the high rate of childhood cases, resulting in immunity. With this, an epidemic spread among Americans could prove disastrous to the American cause. With his men at Valley Forge inoculated, Washington was able to proceed with more confidence, knowing that at least his men would not be struck down by the smallpox virus.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation, John and Abigail Adams
Both John and Abigail Adams were intimately familiar with disease and illness, having seen many family members and themselves infected. Thus, Abigail made certain to educate her children on the dangers of disease and how to best avoid it. These lessons included both practices of cleaning and the administration of home medicine. The Adams both understood the toll that smallpox could take and therefore feared the disease and its potentially devastating lasting effects. In July 1764, John Adams set an example by choosing to be inoculated before it was a commonly accepted practice. Though techniques were rudimentary at this time, Adams survived the experience, emerging with protective immunity. Adams described the inoculation procedure in a letter to his wife:


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation, John and Abigail Adams
With this act, John Adams set a precedent for many. At the time of his inoculation, the practice was still highly controversial and distrusted by most. This stemmed from the cases in which inoculation patients died as a result of the contracted disease. Additionally, there was always the risk of inoculation patients unintentionally infecting others. However, Adams understood that the benefits of inoculation far outweighed the potential risks. Having a background in medicine, Adams strove to educate others on his findings and beliefs. John Adams was certainly a leading figure in the American Revolution; he played many important roles and was known to many. Adams was able to spread his progressive beliefs about public health programs such as inoculation by taking advantage of his status during this time.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Inoculation, John and Abigail Adams
In July 1776, Abigail and their four children, Charles, Nabby, Thomas, and John Quincy, were all inoculated.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Implications for public health
Many of the leading figures associated with the American Revolution were also involved in the attempt to stop the disastrous spread of smallpox throughout the American Colonies and beyond. Such individuals included George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin, among others. Prior to the steps made by these parties, public health policies in the colonies were not well established; they were limited to emergency situations. This is to say that policies and programs sprung up around epidemics and quarantines, wherever they were needed in the moment. However, the scourge of smallpox prompted changes to be made that would impact the public health of America for years to come.


1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic, Implications for public health
At the time of its introduction, almost all colonists were extremely wary of this new medical procedure. It was difficult for them to understand how the infection of an otherwise healthy individual could have a positive outcome. However, inoculation saved many lives and may have protected the Continental Army from destruction. The smallpox inoculation program paved the way for the global public health system that is responsible for the control and eradication of many deadly diseases, including but not limited to polio, measles, and diphtheria.


1775–1795 in Western fashion
Fashion in the twenty years between 1775–1795 in Western culture became simpler and less elaborate. These changes were a result of  emerging modern ideals of selfhood, the declining fashionability of highly elaborate Rococo styles, and the widespread embrace of the rationalistic or "classical" ideals of Enlightenment philosophes.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Enlightenment concept of "fashion"
According to some historians, it was at this time when the concept of fashion, as it is known today, was established (others date it much earlier). Prior to this point, clothes as a means of self-expression were limited. Guild-controlled systems of production and distribution and the sumptuary laws made clothing both expensive and difficult to acquire for the majority of people. However, by 1750 the consumer revolution brought about cheaper copies of fashionable styles, allowing members of all classes to  in fashionable dress. Thus, fashion begins to represent an expression of individuality.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, French Revolution
As the radicals and Jacobins became more powerful, there was a revulsion against high-fashion because of its extravagance and its association with royalty and aristocracy. It was replaced with a sort of "anti-fashion" for men and women that emphasized simplicity and modesty. The men wore plain, dark clothing and short unpowdered hair. During the Terror of 1794, the workaday outfits of the sans-culottes symbolized Jacobin egalitarianism.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, French Revolution
High fashion and extravagance returned to France and its satellite states under the Directory, 1795–99, with its "directoire" styles; the men did not return to extravagant customs. These trends would reach their height in the classically-styled fashions of the late 1790s and early 19th century. For men, coats, waistcoats and stockings of previous decades continued to be fashionable across the Western world, although they too changed silhouette in this period, becoming slimmer and using earthier colors and more matte fabrics.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
Women's clothing styles maintained an emphasis on the conical shape of the torso while the shape of the skirts changed throughout the period. The wide panniers (holding the skirts out at the side) for the most part disappeared by 1780 for all but the most formal court functions, and false rumps (bum-pads or hip-pads) were worn for a time.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
Marie Antoinette had a marked influence on French fashion beginning in the 1780s. Around this time, she had begun to rebel against the structure of court life. She abolished her morning toilette and escaped to the Petit Trianon with increasing frequency, leading to criticism of her exclusivity by cutting off the traditional right of the aristocracy to their monarch.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
Marie Antoinette found refuge from the stresses of the rigidity of court life and the scrutiny of the public eye, the ailing health of her children, and her sense of powerlessness in her marriage by carrying out a pseudo-country life in her newly constructed hameau. She and an elite circle of friends would dress in peasant clothing and straw hats and retreat to the hameau. It was out of this practice that her style of dress evolved.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
By tradition, a lady of the court was instantly recognizable by the panniers, corset, and weighty silk materials that constructed her gown in the style à la française or à l'anglaise. By doing away with these things, Marie Antoinette's gaulle or chemise á la Reine stripped female aristocrats of their traditional identity; noblewomen could now be confused with peasant girls, confusing long standing sartorial differences in class. The chemise was made from a white muslin and the queen was further accused of importing foreign fabrics and crippling the French silk industry.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
The gaulle consisted of thin layers of this muslin, loosely draped around the body and belted at the waist, and was often worn with an apron and a fichu. This trend was quickly adopted by fashionable women in France and England, but upon the debut of the portrait of Marie Antoinette by Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun, the clothing style created a scandal and increased the hatred for the queen. The queen's clothing in the portrait looked like a chemise, nothing more than a garment that women wore under her other clothing or to lounge in the intimate space of the private boudoir.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
It was perceived to be indecent, and especially unbecoming for the queen. The sexual nature of the gaulle undermined the notions of status and the ideology that gave her and kept her in power. Marie Antoinette wanted to be private and individual, a notion unbecoming for a member of the monarchy that is supposed to act as a symbol of the state.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
When Marie Antoinette turned thirty, she decided it was no longer decent for her to dress in this way and returned to more acceptable courtly styles, though she still dressed her children in the style of the gaulle, which may have continued to reflect badly on the opinion of their mother even though she was making visible efforts to rein in her own previous fashion excess. However, despite the distaste with the queen's inappropriate fashions, and her own switch back to traditional dress later in life, the gaulle became a popular garment in both France and abroad. Despite its controversial beginnings, the simplicity of the style and material became the custom and had a great influence on the transition into the neoclassical styles of the late 1790s.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
During the years of the French Revolution, women's dress expanded into different types of national costume. Women wore variations of white skirts, topped with revolutionary colored striped jackets, as well as white Greek chemise gowns, accessorized with shawls, scarves, and ribbons.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Overview
By 1790, skirts were still somewhat full, but they were no longer obviously pushed out in any particular direction (though a slight bustle pad might still be worn). The "pouter-pigeon" front came into style (many layers of cloth pinned over the bodice), but in other respects women's fashions were starting to be simplified by influences from Englishwomen's country outdoors wear (thus the "redingote" was the French pronunciation of an English "riding coat"), and from neo-classicism. By 1795, waistlines were somewhat raised, preparing the way for the development of the empire silhouette and unabashed neo-classicism of late 1790s fashions.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
The usual fashion at the beginning of the period was a low-necked gown (usually called in French a robe), worn over a petticoat. Most gowns had skirts that opened in front to show the petticoat worn beneath. As part of the general simplification of dress, the open bodice with a separate stomacher was replaced by a bodice with edges that met center front.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
The robe à la française or sack-back gown, with back pleats hanging loosely from the neckline, long worn as court fashion, made its last appearance early in this period. A fitted bodice held the front of the gown closely to the figure.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
The robe à l'anglaise or close-bodied gown featured back pleats sewn in place to fit closely to the body, and then released into the skirt which would be draped in various ways. Elaborate draping "à la polonaise" became fashionable by the mid-1770s, featuring backs of the gowns' skirts pulled up into swags either through loops or through the pocket slits of the gown.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Gowns
Front-wrapping thigh-length shortgowns or bedgowns of lightweight printed cotton fabric remained fashionable at-home morning wear, worn with petticoats. Over time, bedgowns became the staple upper garment of British and American female working-class street wear. Women would also often wear a neck handkerchief or a more formal lace modesty piece, particularly on lower cut dresses, often for modesty reasons. In surviving artwork, there are few women depicted wearing bedgowns without a handkerchief. These large handkerchiefs could be of linen, plain, colored or of printed cotton for working wear. Wealthy women wore handkerchiefs of fine, sheer fabrics, often trimmed with lace or embroidery with their expensive gowns.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Jackets and redingotes
An informal alternative to the dress was a costume of a jacket and petticoat, based on working class fashion but executed in finer fabrics with a tighter fit.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Jackets and redingotes
The caraco was a jacket-like bodice worn with a petticoat, with elbow-length sleeves. By the 1790s, caracos had full-length, tight sleeves.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Jackets and redingotes
As in previous periods, the traditional riding habit consisted of a tailored jacket like a man's coat, worn with a high-necked shirt, a waistcoat, a petticoat, and a hat. Alternatively, the jacket and a false waistcoat-front might be a made as a single garment, and later in the period a simpler riding jacket and petticoat (without waistcoat) could be worn.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Jackets and redingotes
Another alternative to the traditional habit was a coat-dress called a joseph or riding coat (borrowed in French as redingote), usually of unadorned or simply trimmed woolen fabric, with full-length, tight sleeves and a broad collar with lapels or revers. The redingote was later worn as an overcoat with the light-weight chemise dress.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Underwear
The shift, chemise (in France), or smock, had a low neckline and elbow-length sleeves which were full early in the period and became increasingly narrow as the century progressed. Drawers were not worn in this period.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Underwear
Strapless stays were cut high at the armpit, to encourage a woman to stand with her shoulders slightly back, a fashionable posture. The fashionable shape was a rather conical torso, with large hips. The waist was not particularly small. Stays were usually laced snugly, but comfortably; only those interested in extreme fashions laced tightly. They offered back support for heavy lifting, and poor and middle class women were able to work comfortably in them. As the relaxed, country fashion took hold in France, stays were sometimes replaced by a lightly boned garment called "un corset," though this style did not achieve popularity in England, where stays remained standard through the end of the period.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Underwear
Panniers or side-hoops remained an essential of court fashion but disappeared everywhere else in favor of a few petticoats. Free-hanging pockets were tied around the waist and were accessed through pocket slits in the side-seams of the gown or petticoat. Woolen or quilted waistcoats were worn over the stays or corset and under the gown for warmth, as were petticoats quilted with wool batting, especially in the cold climates of Northern Europe and America.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Footwear and accessories
Shoes had high, curved heels (the origin of modern "louis heels") and were made of fabric or leather. Shoe buckles remained fashionable until they were abandoned along with high-heeled footwear and other aristocratic fashions in the years after the French Revolution,  The long upper also was eliminated, essentially leaving only the toes of the foot covered. The slippers that were ordinarily worn with shoes were abandoned because the shoes had become comfortable enough to be worn without them. Fans continued to be popular in this time period, however, they were increasingly replaced, outdoors at least, by the parasol. Indoors the fan was still carried exclusively. Additionally, women began using walking sticks.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
The 1770s were notable for extreme hairstyles and wigs which were built up very high, and often incorporated decorative objects (sometimes symbolic, as in the case of the famous engraving depicting a lady wearing a large ship in her hair with masts and sails—called the "Coiffure à l'Indépendance ou le Triomphe de la liberté"—to celebrate naval victory in the American war of independence). These coiffures were parodied in several famous satirical caricatures of the period.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
By the 1780s, elaborate hats replaced the former elaborate hairstyles. Mob caps and other "country" styles were worn indoors. Flat, broad-brimmed and low-crowned straw "shepherdess" hats tied on with ribbons were worn with the new rustic styles.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
Hair was powdered into the early 1780s, but the new fashion required natural colored hair, often dressed simply in a mass of curls.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Style gallery, 1790–1795
Miss Shuttle-Cock (1776) compares women's dresses and feathered headwear to the shuttlecocks used in the sport of Badminton.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Style gallery, 1790–1795
In Following the Fashion (1794), James Gillray caricatured figures flattered and not flattered by the high-waisted gowns then in fashion.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Women's fashion, Style gallery, 1790–1795
Isaac Cruikshank's caricature of a female French revolutionary, emphasizing colorful, mismatched clothes (1794).


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
Throughout the period, men continued to wear the coat, waistcoat and breeches. However, changes were seen in both the fabric used as well as the cut of these garments. More attention was paid to individual pieces of the suit, and each element underwent stylistic changes. Under new enthusiasms for outdoor sports and country pursuits, the elaborately embroidered silks and velvets characteristic of "full dress" or formal attire earlier in the century gradually gave way to carefully tailored woolen "undress" garments for all occasions except the most formal.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
In Boston and Philadelphia in the decades around the American Revolution, the adoption of plain undress styles was a conscious reaction to the excesses of European court dress; Benjamin Franklin caused a sensation by appearing at the French court in his own hair (rather than a wig) and the plain costume of Quaker Philadelphia.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Overview
In the United States, only the first five Presidents, from George Washington to James Monroe, dressed according to this fashion, including wearing of powdered wigs, tricorne hats and knee-breeches. The latest-born notable person to be portrayed wearing a powdered wig tied in a queue according to this fashion was Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia (born in 1779, portrayed in 1795).


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Coats
By the 1770s, coats exhibited a tighter, narrower cut than seen in earlier periods, and were occasionally double-breasted. Toward the 1780s, the skirts of the coat began to be cutaway in a curve from the front waist. Waistcoats gradually shortened until they were waist-length and cut straight across. Waistcoats could be made with or without sleeves. As in the previous period, a loose, T-shaped silk, cotton or linen gown called a banyan was worn at home as a sort of dressing gown over the shirt, waistcoat, and breeches.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Coats
Men of an intellectual or philosophical bent were painted wearing banyans, with their own hair or a soft cap rather than a wig. This aesthetic overlapped slightly with the female fashion of the skirt and proves the way in which male and female fashions reflected one another as styles became less rigid and more suitable for movement and leisure.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Coats
A coat with a wide collar called a frock coat, derived from a traditional working-class coat, was worn for hunting and other country pursuits in both Britain and America. Although originally designed as sporting wear, frock coats gradually came into fashion as everyday wear. The frock coat was cut with a turned down collar, reduced side pleats, and small, round cuffs, sometimes cut with a slit to allow for added movement. Sober, natural colors were worn, and coats were made from woolen cloth, or a wool and silk mix.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Shirt and stock
Shirt sleeves were full, gathered at the wrist and dropped shoulder. Full -dress shirts had ruffles of fine fabric or lace, while undress shirts ended in plain wrist bands. A small turnover collar returned to fashion, worn with the stock. In England, clean, white linen shirts were considered important in Men's attire. The cravat reappeared at the end of the period.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Breeches, shoes, and stockings
As coats became cutaway, more attention was paid to the cut and fit of the breeches. Breeches fitted snugly and had a fall-front opening.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Breeches, shoes, and stockings
Low-heeled leather shoes fastened with shoe buckles were worn with silk or woolen stockings. Boots were worn for riding. The buckles were either polished metal, usually in silver (sometimes with the metal cut into false stones in the Paris style) or with paste stones, although there were other types. These buckles were often quite large and one of the world's largest collections can be seen at Kenwood House; with the French Revolution they were abandoned in France as a signifier of aristocracy.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
Wigs were worn for formal occasions, or the hair was worn long and powdered, brushed back from the forehead and clubbed (tied back at the nape of the neck) with a black ribbon.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Hairstyles and headgear
The wide-brimmed tricorne hats turned up on three sides were now turned up front and back or on the sides to form bicornes. Toward the end of the period, a tall, slightly conical hat with a narrower brim became fashionable (this would evolve into the top hat in the next period).


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Men's fashion, Style gallery, Caricature
Isaac Cruikshank's caricature of a French revolutionary (1794), emphasizing striped clothing and a Phrygian cap.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Children's fashion
In the late 18th century, new philosophies of child-rearing led to clothes that were thought especially suitable for children. Toddlers wore washable dresses called frocks of linen or cotton. British and American boys after perhaps three began to wear rather short pantaloons and short jackets, and for very young boys the skeleton suit was introduced. These gave the first real alternative to boys' dresses, and became fashionable across Europe.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Working-class clothing
Working-class people in 18th-century England and the United States often wore the same garments as fashionable people: shirts, waistcoats, coats and breeches for men, and shifts, petticoats, and dresses or jackets for women. However, they owned fewer clothes, which were made of cheaper and sturdier fabrics. Working-class men also wore short jackets, and some (especially sailors) wore trousers rather than breeches. Smock-frocks were a regional style for men, especially shepherds. Country women wore short hooded cloaks, most often red. Both sexes wore handkerchiefs or neckerchiefs.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Working-class clothing
Men's felt hats were worn with the brims flat rather than cocked or turned up. Men and women wore shoes with shoe buckles (when they could afford them). Men who worked with horses wore boots.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Working-class clothing
During the French Revolution, men's costume became particularly emblematic of the movement of the people and the upheaval of the aristocratic French society. It was the long pant, hemmed near the ankles, that displaced the knee-length breeches culottes that marked the aristocratic classes. Working-class men had worn long pants for much of their history, and the rejection of culottes became a symbol of working class, and later French, resentment of the Ancien Régime. The movement would be given the all-encompassing title of sans-culottes, wearing the same as the working class.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Working-class clothing
There was no culotte "uniform" per se, but as they were turned into a larger symbol of French society, they had certain attributes attributed to them. In contemporary art and description, culottes become associated with the Phrygian cap a classical symbol. French citizens on all levels of society were  obligated to wear the blue, white and red of the French flag on their clothing, often in the form of the pinned the blue-and-red cockade of Paris onto the white cockade of the Ancien Régime,  thus producing the original cockade of France. Later, distinctive colours and styles of cockade would indicate the wearer's faction although the meanings of the various styles were not entirely consistent and varied somewhat by region and period.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Working-class clothing
In the 17th century, a cockade was pinned on the side of a man's tricorne or cocked hat, or on his lapel.


1775–1795 in Western fashion, Contemporary summaries of 18th-century fashion change
These two images provide 1790s views of the development of fashion during the 18th century (click on images for more information):


1776
1776 (MDCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1776th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 776th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 76th  year of the 18th century, and the  7th   year of the 1770s decade. As of the start of 1776, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1776 (boardgame)
1776 is an Avalon Hill board wargame developed by Randell Reed and originally published in 1974, depicting the American Revolution. It contains a campaign game plus four scenarios covering the invasion of Canada, the Saratoga campaign, Greene's Southern campaign, and the Yorktown campaign.


1776 (book)
1776 (released in the United Kingdom as 1776: America and Britain at War) is a book written by David McCullough, published by Simon & Schuster on May 24, 2005. The work is a companion to McCullough's earlier biography of John Adams, and focuses on the events surrounding the start of the American Revolutionary War. While revolving mostly around the leadership (and often indecisiveness) of George Washington, there is also considerable attention given to King George III, William Howe, Henry Knox, and Nathanael Greene.


1776 (book)
Key Revolutionary War battles detailed in the book include the Battle of Dorchester Heights, the Battle of Long Island, and the Battle of Trenton. The activities of the Second Continental Congress and the signing of the Declaration of Independence are treated in less detail, as the focus is on military rather than political events. The book includes multiple pages of full color illustrations, including portraits and historical battlefield maps made by British engineers at the time.


1776 (book), Illustrated Edition
1776: The Illustrated Edition was released on October 2, 2007. The Illustrated Edition contains 140 images and thirty-seven removable replicas of source documents. More than three dozen source documents—including a personal letter George Washington penned to Martha about his commission, a note informing the mother of a Continental Army soldier that her son has been taken prisoner, and a petition signed by Loyalists pledging their allegiance to the King—are re-created in uniquely designed envelopes throughout the book and secured with the congressional seal.


1776 (book), Illustrated Edition
The text closely mirrors the original book, but omits or summarizes some parts deemed too long. The Illustrated Edition comes with its own protective slipcase, decorated with The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776 by John Trumbull and has a "fake watermark" of the Great Seal of the United States on the back and front. The book is plain covered in blue with the golden embossed numbers "1776".


1776 (book), Reception
1776 was selected as part of the 2005 and 2006 CSAF Professional Reading Program. 1776 is also a New York Times and Amazon bestseller.


1776 (film)
1776 is a 1972 American musical drama film directed by Peter H. Hunt. The screenplay by Peter Stone was based on his book for the 1969 Broadway musical of the same name. Set in Philadelphia in the summer of 1776, it is a fictionalized account of the events leading up to the signing of the Declaration of Independence. The song score was composed by Sherman Edwards. The film stars William Daniels, Howard Da Silva, Donald Madden, John Cullum, Ken Howard and Blythe Danner.


1776 (film)
Portions of the dialogue and some of the song lyrics were taken directly from the letters and memoirs of the actual participants of the Second Continental Congress.


1776 (film), Plot
While General George Washington is conducting the struggle against the British Empire on the battlefield, the Continental Congress in Philadelphia piddles away its time over trivial matters and continually refuses to begin debating the question of American independence. The leader of the independence faction is the abrasive John Adams of Massachusetts, whose continuous pushing of the issue has brought their cause to a complete standstill. John Dickinson of Pennsylvania leads an anti-independence faction that hopes for reconciliation with England.


1776 (film), Plot
During his quieter moments, Adams calls up the image of his wife Abigail Adams, who resides in Massachusetts and gives him insight and encouragement (these conversations are based on letters between the couple). Dr. Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Adams' closest ally, suggests that another colony which supports independence should submit a proposal. Richard Henry Lee of Virginia voluntarily rides off to Williamsburg to get authorization from the state legislature to propose independence.


1776 (film), Plot
About a month later, Dr. Lyman Hall arrives to represent Georgia, and is immediately interrogated by his fellow delegates regarding his views on independence (with Dickinson framing it as "treason"). Minutes later, Lee returns with the resolution, and debate on the question begins. Eventually, six colonies say "yea", five more say "nay", and New York (at the behest of delegate Lewis Morris) abstains "courteously" as it does in every vote. The debate, largely between Adams and Dickinson, becomes increasingly contentious and personal, culminating in a cane fight between the two men. Caesar Rodney breaks up the fight and reminds the delegates that the enemy is not each other, but England. He falters because of his cancer and is taken back to Delaware by fellow delegate Thomas McKean, leaving the anti-independence George Read to represent Delaware.


1776 (film), Plot
Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, part of the anti-independence faction, calls for a vote on independence knowing Adams doesn't have the votes to win. The New Jersey delegation, led by Reverend John Witherspoon, arrives just in time to provide a vote supporting independence. In a move intended to defeat the resolution, Dickinson moves that the vote on independence be unanimous. After a tie amongst the delegates, with New York still abstaining, John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress, votes in support of Dickinson's motion, arguing that without unanimity, those opposing independence would fight for England against their fellow colonists.


1776 (film), Plot
Stalling for time to rally support for the resolution, Adams and Franklin call again for a postponement, stating the need for a written "declaration" describing their grievances. Once again, the vote is tied (New York abstains "courteously" yet again, since its delegates have never been given specific orders by the disorganized New York legislature) and ultimately decided by Hancock in favor of Adams' motion.


1776 (film), Plot
Hancock appoints a committee that includes Adams, Franklin, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Robert Livingston of New York, and Thomas Jefferson (after Lee declines due to an appointment to serve as governor of Virginia). Jefferson resists because he desires to return home to Virginia to see his wife, Martha, but the others present more compelling reasons to avoid the responsibility; they opine that Jefferson's diplomatic nature and superior writing skill are required to properly draft the declaration.


1776 (film), Plot
Jefferson develops writer's block due to missing his wife, so Adams sends for her: "It simply occurred to me that the sooner his problem was solved the sooner ours would be." Upon meeting her, Adams and Franklin are quite smitten with the beautiful Martha. While maneuvering to get the required unanimity for the vote on independence, Adams, Franklin, and Samuel Chase of Maryland agree to visit the Continental Army encamped in New Brunswick, at the request of General Washington, to help convince Maryland to support independence.


1776 (film), Plot
When they return to Philadelphia, the declaration is read and then subsequently debated and amended for days. Jefferson agrees to most alterations to the document, much to Adams' growing consternation. The debate reaches a head when the Southern delegates, led by Rutledge, walk out of Congress when a clause opposing slavery is not removed. Adams remains adamant that the clause remain, but Franklin appeals to him to allow the passage to be removed so that they can first achieve the vote on independence and the formation of a nation, deferring the fight over slavery to a later time. Adams leaves the final decision to Jefferson, who reluctantly concedes. After removing that clause, 11 of 13 colonies are now in favor. New York abstains "courteously" once again.


1776 (film), Plot
The question is therefore up to the colony of Pennsylvania, whose delegation is polled at Franklin's request. Franklin votes for the declaration, but Dickinson votes against it; the outcome is now in the hands of their fellow delegate, Judge James Wilson. Wilson has always followed Dickinson's lead, but, in this case, he votes in favor of the declaration, not wanting to be remembered by history as the man who voted to prevent American independence.


1776 (film), Plot
When Hancock insists that no man be allowed to sit in Congress unless he signs the Declaration, Dickinson resigns from Congress to accept an officer's commission in the army. After receiving word of the destruction of his property from General Washington, Morris finally withdraws New York's abstention and agrees to sign the document. Finally, with the Declaration of Independence ready to be signed, Hancock places his signature first, whereupon the others (including New York) affix theirs to the Declaration, establishing the United States on July 4, 1776.


1776 (film), Cast
An asterisk (*) indicates an actor or actress who was also in the original Broadway cast.


1776 (film), Musical numbers and soundtrack
An original motion picture soundtrack album was released in 1972 by Columbia Records on vinyl LP records. It contains all the musical numbers, with the exception of "Cool, Cool Considerate Men" and "Compliments". The soundtrack also contains the edited versions of some of the musical numbers which were presented in full on the laserdisc and DVD releases. Although the Original Broadway Cast recording was released on CD in 1992, the film soundtrack was not.


1776 (film), Production
Jack L. Warner bought the film rights to the musical for $1.25 million.


1776 (film), Production
Many members of the original Broadway cast, including William Daniels, Ken Howard, John Cullum, and Howard Da Silva, reprised their roles for the film. Ralston Hill, Ron Holgate,  David Ford, Charles Rule and others repeated their roles from the Broadway production, marking their only appearances in feature film. This was a decision Warner made himself after feeling he made a mistake by turning down Julie Andrews for the 1964 film adaptation of My Fair Lady in favor of Audrey Hepburn.


1776 (film), Production
1776 was also the only film of Donald Madden, who was not in the original Broadway cast.


1776 (film), Production
Exteriors were filmed at the Warner Ranch in Burbank, California, the former Columbia Pictures backlot, where they built an entire street of Colonial Philadelphia. Most of the Colonial sets were destroyed by a fire in the mid-1970s.


1776 (film), Production
The water fountain seen during the musical number "The Lees of Old Virginia", with Ben Franklin, John Adams, and Richard Henry Lee, became known to television viewers as the fountain seen during the beginning credits of the TV series Friends. This fountain still exists directly across the street from the Bewitched and I Dream of Jeannie houses.


1776 (film), Production
Interiors were shot at the old Columbia studio on Gower Street in Hollywood. 1776 was among the final films shot at Gower Studios before the Warner/Columbia merger in 1971.


1776 (film), Production
"Cool, Cool, Considerate Men" was cut from the film prior to its release and not included on the soundtrack recording nor on the first VHS tapes and laserdiscs. The footage, some of physically poor quality, was restored for the DVD and Blu-Ray releases.


1776 (film), Political changes
According to the Los Angeles Times, "The song 'Cool, Cool, Considerate Men' depicts Revolutionary War–era conservatives as power-hungry wheedlers focused on maintaining wealth." According to Jack L. Warner, the film's producer and a friend of U.S. President Richard Nixon, Nixon requested to have the song removed from the film. Nixon apparently saw the song as an insult to the conservatives of his time, as it suggested that the conservatives were the ones who were hindering American Independence as they danced a minuet singing the song that included the stanza,


1776 (film), Political changes
Come ye cool, cool considerate setWe'll dance together to the same minuetTo the right, ever to the rightNever to the left, forever to the right.


1776 (film), Political changes
To further complicate things as mentioned above, the song is anachronistic, because the terms "right" and "left" in politics were not coined until the French Revolution.


1776 (film), Political changes
Warner's attempt to comply with Nixon's demands had initially been rebuffed by director Hunt during production, only for the song to be removed in post-production while Hunt was on vacation. Warner also wanted the original negative of the song shredded, but the film's editor kept it in storage unaltered. Trailers were already released in theaters with the "Considerate Men" number as its centerpiece; Warner had those trailers pulled and re-edited.


1776 (film), Political changes
In a 2015 interview, Hunt mentioned that Warner, on his deathbed in 1978, told a friend that he regretted editing the scene, believing that he had ruined the structure of the film as a result of those edits. It was only decades later that the song was restored to the film.


1776 (film), Political changes
When the Broadway musical was about to be presented to Nixon at the White House in 1970, before the film was made, his staff pressed the producers to cut the song then; their request was denied.


1776 (film), Historical accuracy
According to The Columbia Companion to American History on Film, historical "[i]naccuracies pervade 1776, though few are very troubling." Because Congress was held in secrecy and there are no contemporary records on the debate over the Declaration of Independence, the authors of the play created the narrative based on later accounts and educated guesses, inventing scenes and dialogue as needed for storytelling purposes. Some of the dialogue was taken from words written, often years or even decades later, by the actual people involved, and rearranged for dramatic effect.