168th New York State Legislature, Background
At this time there were two major political parties: the Republican Party and the Democratic Party. The Liberal Party, the American Labor Party, the Socialist Workers Party, and the Socialist Labor Party (running under the name of "Industrial Government Party") also nominated tickets.


168th New York State Legislature, Elections
The New York state election, 1950, was held on November 7. Governor Thomas E. Dewey (Rep.) was re-elected. New York State Comptroller Frank C. Moore (Rep.) was elected Lieutenant Governor. Of the other three statewide elective offices up for election, two were carried by the Republicans. The Democratic/Liberal incumbent U.S. Senator Herbert H. Lehman defeated his Republican challenger Lieutenant Governor Joe R. Hanley. The approximate party strength at this election, as expressed by the vote for Governor, was: Republicans 2,820,000; Democrats 1,981,000; Liberals 266,000; American Labor 222,000; Socialist Workers 13,000; and Industrial Government 7,000.


168th New York State Legislature, Elections
Five of the seven women members of the previous legislature—Assemblywomen Mary A. Gillen (Dem. ), of Brooklyn; Janet Hill Gordon (Rep.), a lawyer of Norwich; Genesta M. Strong (Rep.), of Plandome Heights; Mildred F. Taylor (Rep.), a coal dealer of Lyons; and Maude E. Ten Eyck (Rep.), of Manhattan—were re-elected.


168th New York State Legislature, Elections
The New York state election, 1951, was held on November 6. No statewide elective offices were up for election. Four vacancies in the Assembly were filled.


168th New York State Legislature, Sessions
The Legislature met for the first regular session (the 174th) at the State Capitol in Albany on January 3, 1951; and adjourned on March 16.


168th New York State Legislature, Sessions
Arthur H. Wicks (Rep.) was re-elected Temporary President of the State Senate.


168th New York State Legislature, Sessions
The Legislature met for a special session at the State Capitol in Albany on December 6, 1951, to enact the re-apportionment of congressional seats according to the 1950 U.S. census.


168th New York State Legislature, Sessions
The Legislature met for the second regular session (the 175th) at the State Capitol in Albany on January 9, 1952; and adjourned on March 20.


168th New York State Legislature, State Senate, Senators
The asterisk (*) denotes members of the previous Legislature who continued in office as members of this Legislature. Frank S. McCullough changed from the Assembly to the Senate at the beginning of this Legislature. Assemblyman Orlo M. Brees was elected to fill a vacancy in the Senate.


168th New York State Legislature, State Senate, Senators
Note: For brevity, the chairmanships omit the words "...the Committee on (the)..."


168th New York State Legislature, State Assembly, Assemblymen
Note: For brevity, the chairmanships omit the words "...the Committee on (the)..."


168th Ohio Infantry Regiment
The 168th Ohio Infantry Regiment, sometimes 168th Ohio Volunteer Infantry (or 168th OVI) was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War.


168th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Service
The 168th Ohio Infantry was organized at Camp Dennison near Cincinnati, Ohio, and mustered in May 19, 1864, for 100 days service under the command of Colonel Conrad Garis.


168th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Service
The regiment left Ohio for Covington, Kentucky, May 19. Detachments were stationed at Falmouth, Kentucky, and Cynthiana, Kentucky, guarding railroad lines and bridges. Participated in operations against John Hunt Morgan May 31-June 20. Action at Cynthiana June 9 (detachment captured). Cynthiana, June 11. Duty in Kentucky until July 10. Moved to Camp Dennison July 11. Guard duty there and at Cincinnati until September 8.


168th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Service
The 168th Ohio Infantry mustered out of service September 8, 1864, at Cincinnati.


168th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Ohio National Guard
Over 35,000 Ohio National Guardsmen were federalized and organized into regiments for 100 days service in May 1864. Shipped mostly to the Eastern Theater, they were designed to be placed in "safe" rear areas to protect railroads and supply points, thereby freeing regular troops for Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant’s push on the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia. As events transpired, many units found themselves in combat, stationed in the path of Confederate Gen. Jubal Early’s veteran Army of the Valley during its famed Valley Campaigns of 1864. Ohio Guard units met the battle-tested foe head on and helped blunt the Confederate offensive thereby saving Washington, D.C. from capture. Ohio National Guard units participated in the battles of Monacacy, Fort Stevens, Harpers Ferry, and in the siege of Petersburg.


168th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Casualties
The regiment lost 19 enlisted men during service; 11 men killed or mortally wounded, 8 men due to disease.


168th Street station (BMT Jamaica Line)
168th Street was the terminal station on the demolished section of the BMT Jamaica Line in Queens, New York City. It was located between 165th and 168th Streets on Jamaica Avenue.


168th Street station (BMT Jamaica Line), History, Early years
168th Street was part of two Dual Contracts extensions of the BMT Broadway-Jamaica Line east of Cypress Hills and the "S-Curve" from Fulton Street to Jamaica Avenue. It opened on July 3, 1918, replacing 111th Street as the line's terminus. 168th Street station also replaced the Canal Street Station along the Atlantic Avenue Rapid Transit line (today part of the LIRR Main Line), which closed nineteen years earlier, and supplanted the trolley service on Jamaica Avenue.


168th Street station (BMT Jamaica Line), History, Decline and closure
In 1937, the Queens Boulevard Line of the city-owned Independent Subway System was extended to a new terminal at 169th Street and Hillside Avenue, four blocks away. The opening of the IND terminal drew passengers away from the BMT lines.


168th Street station (BMT Jamaica Line), History, Decline and closure
Many groups had called for the removal of the extension in the Jamaica Business district since shortly after it opened, and by the 1960s the city planned to close the station and significant portions of the line in Jamaica. Many merchants credited the line with causing blight and hurting business in the neighborhood.


168th Street station (BMT Jamaica Line), History, Decline and closure
The line was also torn down in preparation for the completion of the Archer Avenue Subway one block south, which would serve the Jamaica Line and a spur of the IND Queens Boulevard Line, and due to political pressure in the area. Construction of that line began in 1972. 168th Street closed at midnight on September 10, 1977, and the elevated structure from 168th Street to Sutphin Boulevard was torn down by 1979. The line was truncated to Queens Boulevard, with the Q49 bus replacing the demolished portion of the line until December 11, 1988.


168th Street station (BMT Jamaica Line), History, Current status
In spite of the support of local business owners for the demolition of the line, stores continued to suffer and several establishments closed due to the absence of the El. This included the large Macy's location in the 165th Street Pedestrian Mall near the bus terminal.


168th Street station (BMT Jamaica Line), History, Current status
Unlike the 160th Street and Sutphin Boulevard stations, which were completely demolished in 1979, 168th Street's former control tower, known as the "Station and Trainmen's Building", still remains standing on the southeast corner of 165th Street and Jamaica Avenue. It sits inactive atop a block of storefronts. The exit stairways for the station were purchased by a private citizen to be used on their estate in Nissequogue on the Long Island Sound.


168th Street station (BMT Jamaica Line), History, Current status
The Archer Avenue Line was completed in 1988, nearly ten years after the closure of the station, but it does not extend east to 168th Street. The closest subway stations to this former station are Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer, at Parsons Boulevard and Archer Avenue, which is nine blocks west and one block south, as well as the existing 169th Street station which is four blocks to the north on Hillside Avenue.


168th Street station (BMT Jamaica Line), Station layout
This elevated station had two tracks and one island platform. It was constructed with a diamond crossover switch west of the station, and a large signal and switch tower built to the south side of the elevated structure at 165th Street. The entrance to the station at this location was built into an alcove of the signal building, which contained storefronts at ground level. Past the crossover, the line expanded to three tracks, with the middle track ending at 160th Street. While reports say the station had a concrete platform, photographs show a wooden platform.


168th Street station (BMT Jamaica Line), Station layout
It served trains from the BMT Jamaica-Nassau Street Line to Manhattan (the predecessors to today's J and Z trains) and from the BMT Lexington Avenue Line. The station also connected to the nearby 165th Street Bus Terminal (opened in 1936) at 89th Avenue and Merrick Boulevard via an exit on 165th Street.


168th Street station (New York City Subway)
168th Street (formerly Washington Heights–168th Street) is an underground New York City Subway station complex shared by the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line and IND Eighth Avenue Line. It is located at the intersection of 168th Street and Broadway in Washington Heights, Manhattan and served by the 1 and A trains at all times, and the C train at all times except late nights.


168th Street station (New York City Subway)
The Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line station was built for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT), and was a station on the West Side Branch of the city's first subway line, which was approved in 1900. The station opened on April 14, 1906. The Eighth Avenue Line station was built as an express and terminal station for the Independent Subway System (IND) and opened on September 10, 1932, as part of the IND's first segment.


168th Street station (New York City Subway)
The IRT station has two side platforms and two tracks. The IND station has two island platforms and four tracks, although the track configuration is reversed from most New York City Subway express stations, with express trains using the outer tracks and local trains using the inner tracks. The transfer between the IRT platforms and the IND platforms has been within fare control since July 1, 1948. The IND station contains elevators, which make it compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA). While the IRT station can only be reached by elevators, it is not ADA-accessible. The IRT station's interior is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History
The IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line and IND Eighth Avenue Line stations are connected by a passageway, which was placed inside fare control on July 1, 1948.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, Construction and opening
Planning for a subway line in New York City dates to 1864. However, development of what would become the city's first subway line did not start until 1894, when the New York State Legislature authorized the Rapid Transit Act. The subway plans were drawn up by a team of engineers led by William Barclay Parsons, chief engineer of the Rapid Transit Commission. It called for a subway line from New York City Hall in lower Manhattan to the Upper West Side, where two branches would lead north into the Bronx. A plan was formally adopted in 1897, and all legal conflicts concerning the route alignment were resolved near the end of 1899.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, Construction and opening
The Rapid Transit Construction Company, organized by John B. McDonald and funded by August Belmont Jr., signed the initial Contract 1 with the Rapid Transit Commission in February 1900, in which it would construct the subway and maintain a 50-year operating lease from the opening of the line. In 1901, the firm of Heins & LaFarge was hired to design the underground stations. Belmont incorporated the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) in April 1902 to operate the subway.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, Construction and opening
The 168th Street station was constructed as part of the IRT's West Side Line (now the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line) from 133rd Street to a point 100 feet (30 m) north of 182nd Street. Work on this section was conducted by L. B. McCabe & Brother, who started building the tunnel segment on May 14, 1900.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, Construction and opening
The original New York City Subway line from City Hall to 145th Street on the West Side Branch opened in 1904, with the line being extended to 157th Street that year. The West Side Branch was extended northward from 157th Street to a temporary terminus at 221st Street, near the Harlem River Ship Canal, on March 12, 1906, with the station at 168th Street not yet open. This extension was initially served by shuttle trains operating between 157th Street and 221st Street. The 168th Street station opened for service on April 14, 1906. On May 30, 1906, express trains began running through to 221st Street. The opening of the first subway line, and particularly the 168th Street station, helped contribute to the development of Washington Heights.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 20th century changes
After the first subway line was completed in 1908, the station was served by West Side local and express trains. Express trains began at South Ferry in Manhattan or Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn, and ended at 242nd Street in the Bronx. Local trains ran from City Hall to 242nd Street during rush hours, continuing south from City Hall to South Ferry at other times. In 1918, the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line opened south of Times Square–42nd Street, thereby dividing the original line into an "H"-shaped system. The original subway north of Times Square thus became part of the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. Local trains were sent to South Ferry, while express trains used the new Clark Street Tunnel to Brooklyn.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 20th century changes
In Fiscal Year 1909, work was done to increase the carrying load of the elevators at the station. To address overcrowding, in 1909, the New York Public Service Commission proposed lengthening platforms at stations along the original IRT subway. As part of a modification to the IRT's construction contracts, made on January 18, 1910, the company was to lengthen station platforms to accommodate ten-car express and six-car local trains. In addition to $1.5 million (equivalent to $41.7 million in 2020) spent on platform lengthening, $500,000 (equivalent to $13,888,000 in 2020) was spent on building additional entrances and exits.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 20th century changes
It was anticipated that these improvements would increase capacity by 25 percent. The northbound platform at the 168th Street station was extended 179 feet (55 m) to the south. The arched ceiling adjacent to the platform extension was replaced with a flat roof made of steel beams, since the arch's structural integrity was compromised by the platform extension. The southbound platform was not lengthened. On January 24, 1911, ten-car express trains began running on the West Side Line. Subsequently, the station could accommodate six-car local trains, but ten-car trains could not open some of their doors.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 20th century changes
In Fiscal Year 1923, work began on the installation of a new entrance with elevators on the west side of Broadway to increase the capacity of the station. In Fiscal Year 1924, work to construct new entrances to the station was 87 percent complete, and two new elevators were installed.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 20th century changes
Platforms at IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line stations between 103rd Street and 238th Street, including those at 168th Street, were lengthened to 514 feet (157 m) between 1946 and 1948, allowing full ten-car express trains to stop at these stations. A contract for the platform extensions at 168th Street and eight other stations on the line was awarded to Spencer, White & Prentis Inc. in October 1946. The platform extensions at these stations were opened in stages. On April 6, 1948, the platform extension opened for stations from 103rd Street to Dyckman Street, including this station but excluding 125th Street.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 20th century changes
Simultaneously, the IRT routes were given numbered designations with the introduction of "R-type" rolling stock, which contained rollsigns with numbered designations for each service. The first such fleet, the R12, was put into service in 1948. The route to 242nd Street became known as the 1. In 1959, all 1 trains became local.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 20th century changes
On December 28, 1950, the New York City Board of Transportation issued a report concerning the construction of bomb shelters in the subway system. Five deep stations in Washington Heights, including the 168th Street station, were considered to be ideal for being used as bomb-proof shelters. The program was expected to cost $104 million (equivalent to $1,118.7 million in 2020). These shelters were expected to provide limited protection against conventional bombs, while providing protection against shock waves and air blast, as well as from the heat and radiation from an atomic bomb.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 20th century changes
To become suitable as shelters, the stations would require water-supply facilities, first-aid rooms, and additional bathrooms. However, the program, which required federal funding, was never completed. In Fiscal Year 1958, two elevators at the station were replaced with automatic ones. In Fiscal Year 1961, the installation of fluorescent lighting at the station was completed.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 20th century changes
In April 1988, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) unveiled plans to speed up service on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line through the implementation of a skip-stop service: the 9 train. When skip-stop service started in 1989, it was only implemented north of 137th Street–City College on weekdays, and 168th Street was served by both the 1 and the 9. Skip-stop service ended on May 27, 2005.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 20th century changes
Between July 5 and September 8, 1997, trains did not stop at the station while the elevators were modernized. The project cost $4 million (equivalent to $6.4 million in 2020). A shuttle bus service was provided to 181st Street on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 21st century changes
In July 2003, to reduce costs, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) announced that as part of its 2004 budget it would eliminate 22 elevator operator positions at this station and four others in Washington Heights, leaving one full-time operator per station. The agency had intended removing all the attendants at these stops, but kept one in each station after many riders protested. The change took effect on January 20, 2004 and saved $1.2 million a year. In November 2007, the MTA proposed savings cuts to help reduce the agency's deficit.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 21st century changes
As part of the plan, all elevator operators at 168th Street, along with those in four other stations in Washington Heights, would have been cut. MTA employees had joined riders in worrying about an increase in crime as a result of the cuts after an elevator operator at 181st Street on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line helped save a stabbed passenger. The move was intended to save $1.7 million a year.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 21st century changes
However, on December 7, 2007, the MTA announced that it would not remove the remaining elevator operators at these stations, due to pushback from elected officials and residents from the area. In October 2018, the MTA once again proposed removing the elevator operators at the five stations, but this was reversed after dissent from the Transport Workers' Union.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 21st century changes
The elevator attendants serve as a way to reassure passengers as the elevators are the only entrance to the platforms, and passengers often wait for the elevators with an attendant. The attendants at the five stations are primarily maintenance and cleaning workers who suffered injuries that made it hard for them to continue doing their original jobs.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, 21st century changes
The station was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005. From 2013 to 2016, the station was partially renovated, with the station ceiling and northbound platform tilework replaced with replicas and flooring replaced. From January 5 to December 20, 2019, the station was closed so the elevator cars could be replaced, and elevator shafts, mechanical components, and the stairways could be upgraded. During this time, a free out-of-system transfer was provided to the A train at Inwood–207th Street, from both 207th Street and 215th Street.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IND Eighth Avenue Line
The Eighth Avenue Line station opened on September 10, 1932, as part of the city-operated Independent Subway System (IND)'s initial segment, the Eighth Avenue Line between Chambers Street and 207th Street. Construction of the whole line cost $191.2 million (equivalent to $3,626.7 million in 2020). While the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line already provided service to Washington Heights, the new Eighth Avenue subway via St. Nicholas Avenue provided an alternative route.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IND Eighth Avenue Line
The A express train has always served the IND station since its inception in 1932. Local service was initially provided by the AA train from 168th Street to Chambers Street/World Trade Center; at the time, local services were denoted by double letters and express services by single letters. The AA was discontinued in 1933 when the CC was created to run on the local tracks along the Eighth Avenue and Concourse lines.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IND Eighth Avenue Line
The original BB train started running with the opening of the Sixth Avenue Line on December 15, 1940, ran as a rush-hour only local service starting at 168th Street–Washington Heights. The "B" designation was originally intended to designate express trains originating in Washington Heights and going to Midtown Manhattan on the Sixth Avenue Line. The AA was resurrected when the BB was created, running outside rush hours.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IND Eighth Avenue Line
The AA was renamed the K in 1985, while the BB was renamed the B. The K train was completely replaced by the C's midday service on December 11, 1988, with all local service at 168th Street being provided by the B. On March 1, 1998, the B and the C switched northern terminals, ending B service to this station and bringing C trains to this station at all times except late nights.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), History, IND Eighth Avenue Line
The IND station was planned to be renovated starting in 2016 as part of the 2010–2014 MTA Capital Program. An MTA study conducted in 2015 found that 48 percent of components in the state were out of date.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), Station layout
The IRT platforms are very deep, with the only public connection between the platforms and fare control being made via elevator. Close to street level is an upper mezzanine level with an unstaffed fare control area. Four elevators lead down to a lower mezzanine below the IRT platforms. At the upper mezzanine, a closed passageway exists behind the elevator bank.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), Station layout
The IRT station is one of three stations in the New York City Subway system that can be accessed solely by elevators. The other two, also located on the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, are 181st Street one stop to the north, as well as Clark Street on the 2 and 3 trains in Brooklyn. However, the IRT station is not ADA-accessible. As part of the 2017 Fast Forward plan to modernize the subway system, 50 more stations will become ADA-accessible during the MTA's 2020–2024 Capital Program, allowing all riders to have an accessible station within two stops in either direction. To meet this goal, one station in the Washington Heights/Inwood area will have to be made accessible on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. The 168th Street station was ultimately selected to be retrofitted as part of the plan.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), Station layout
A slightly sloped corridor within fare control leads between the IRT and IND mezzanines. A full length mezzanine extends above the IND platforms. Elevators from the mezzanine to the street, and to each IND platform, make that portion of the station ADA-accessible.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), Station layout, Exits
The full-time fare control area is at the center of the mezzanine, and has a turnstile bank, token booth, and one staircase and one elevator going up to the southeast corner of West 168th Street and Saint Nicholas Avenue. The part-time side at the north end of the mezzanine has HEET turnstiles and three staircases, two to the southwest corner of Broadway and 169th Street and one to the northwest corner. An exit-only turnstile in the middle of the mezzanine, near the corridor leading to the IRT platforms, leads to a staircase going up to north end of Mitchell Square Park on the south side of West 168th Street between Broadway and Saint Nicholas Avenue.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), Station layout, Exits
The passageway leading to the IRT elevators is just beyond the full-time fare control area. There are two exit stairs past this part-time fare control area, near the southwest corner of Broadway and 168th Street, which face north and south.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), Station layout, Exits
The southernmost portion of the mezzanine, which is outside fare control, is closed. It features one passage on the east side of the IND station with two exits to the southeastern corner of 167th Street and St. Nicholas Avenue and a passage on the west side of the IND station with two exits to Mitchel Square Park. The closed mezzanine area is now used for New York City Transit employees only. The western area was closed in the 1980s for safety reasons, while the eastern area was closed in 1992.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platforms
168th Street on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line has two tracks and two side platforms, and is served by the 1 train at all times. It is one of three in the Fort George Mine Tunnel, along with the 181st Street and 191st Street stations to the north; the tunnel allows the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line to travel under the high terrain of Washington Heights.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platforms
Near the north end of the station, there are four elevators adjacent to the southbound platform, which lead to the fare control level. These elevators are accessed via a concourse several steps above the southbound platform. The lower sections of the concourse walls are clad with white tile, topped by a band of green tile, while the tops of the walls and the ceilings are made of concrete. Two footbridges with staircases connect the platforms. A rear passageway at the lower mezzanine level allows passengers to board and alight on different sides of the elevator cabs.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platforms
The northern open bridge and northbound platform features a passageway east of the northbound side to an eastern elevator shaft. This shaft contained the two original elevators to and from the platforms. The eastern elevator tower was partially destroyed when the IND platforms were built; the space has since been repurposed as a ventilation chamber. There is a closed stairway on the extreme northern end of both platforms, which ascends to a relay and signal power room. This stairway is not visible to the public.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platforms, Design
Much of the station is contained within a vault that measures 47 feet (14 m) wide and 26 feet (7.9 m) high. The lowest 6 feet (1.8 m) of the vault walls are wainscoted with rust-colored brick. Atop the brick wainscoting are a belt course made of marble and a multicolored mosaic frieze measuring about 16 inches (410 mm) thick. The tops of the walls contain tan brick. Tile name tablets are placed above the frieze at regular intervals, with white letters on a dark-green background surrounded by floral designs. These tablets contain the text "168th Street". The center of the vault ceiling has multicolored terracotta medallions at regular intervals; these formerly held lighting fixtures.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platforms, Design
The station's platform extensions have ceilings that are 10 to 12 feet (3.0 to 3.7 m) above the platform level. At the portals between the original vault and the much lower ceilings of the platform extensions, there is a wide arch over the tracks flanked by narrow arches over each platform. These transitions are clad with tan brick. The arch over the tracks has a volute with a laurel wreath. Between the arches, the lower portions of the walls are clad in gray marble.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platforms, Design
The walls of the platform extensions have white ceramic tiles with mosaic friezes as well as plaques with the words "168th Street". The walls are divided every 15 feet (4.6 m) by multicolored tile pilasters that are 16 inches (410 mm) wide. There are two tile panels with the number "168" in each panel. Columns near the platform edge, clad with white tile, support the jack-arched concrete station roof.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), IND Eighth Avenue Line platforms
168th Street is an express station on the IND Eighth Avenue Line that has four tracks and two island platforms. It is served by the A train at all times, and the C train at all times except late nights. Unlike other express stations in the subway system, the inner tracks serve C local trains while the outer tracks serve A express trains during the daytime. This is to make it easier for C trains to terminate here, and turn around to make the southbound trip to Brooklyn.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), IND Eighth Avenue Line platforms
South of this station, the outer tracks descend to a lower level below the inner tracks, creating a two-over-two track layout. North of the station, the inner tracks continue north underneath Broadway to the 174th Street Yard, while the outer tracks turn sharply under Fort Washington Avenue before continuing to Inwood–207th Street. During the night, A trains make local stops, using the northbound local and southbound express tracks at this station.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), IND Eighth Avenue Line platforms
Both outer track walls have a maroon trim line with a black border and small "168" tile captions below them in white numbering on a black border. This station has a full length mezzanine above the platforms and tracks. Black I-beam columns run along the platform, alternating ones having the standard black name plate with white lettering.


168th Street station (New York City Subway), IND Eighth Avenue Line platforms, Gallery
An R32 C train entering service at 168th Street bound for Brooklyn


168th Street station (New York City Subway), Nearby points of interest
Nearby points of interest include NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital/Columbia University Medical Center, Fort Washington Park on the Hudson River waterfront, and remnants of the Audubon Ballroom.


168th Wing
The 168th Wing (168 WG) is a unit of the Alaska Air National Guard, stationed at Eielson Air Force Base, Fairbanks, Alaska. Before it was redesignated in February 2016, it was known as the 168th Air Refueling Wing (168 ARW). If activated to federal service as a USAF unit, the 168 WG is primarily gained by Pacific Air Forces, while its 213th Space Warning Squadron is gained by Air Force Space Command.


168th Wing, Overview
The 168th Wing is the only Arctic region air refueling unit in the United States and maintains a substantial number of personnel on active duty and civilian Air Reserve Technician status in order to meet its daily operational requirements. The unit transfers more fuel than any other Air National Guard tanker wing, because nearly all receivers are active duty aircraft, many of which are on operational missions.


168th Wing, Overview
The 168th Wing provides the U.S. Air Force the capabilities of global reach and vigilance through the combined operations of air refueling, missile warning, and space surveillance. The unit maintains a constant watch and commitment for Pacific Air Forces, U.S. Northern Command, Air Force Space Commands and the Alaskan North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) Region.


168th Wing, Overview
In 2000, the wing became mobility-tasked, which has been a true opportunity for growth and learning. Besides its federally directed missions, as a unit of the Alaska National Guard, the 168th Wing is an asset of the Governor of Alaska and as such, the Governor can direct the unit to respond to emergencies declared or missions required within the State.


168th Wing, Overview
The 168th Wing completed its R-model conversion in 1995, and in 2000 they completed a major flight deck upgrade called "Pacer CRAG" – with the CRAG standing for Compass, Radar, and GPS (Global Positioning System). The Wing's Primary Assigned Aircraft are nine KC-135 R-models assigned to the 168th Air Refueling Squadron. The wing aircraft are identified with a blue tail stripe, and the name "Alaska".


168th Wing, Overview
Because of Alaska's strategic location with regard to national defense, the mission and importance of the 168th Wing and the Alaska Air National Guard should continue to increase in the coming years. The 168th Wing has a remarkably broad range of responsibilities.


168th Wing, Emblem
The upper right of the shield consists of a compass rose against a yellow background. The compass rose signifies the global nature of the Wing mission and is set at a 30-degree angle to the east representing the magnetic variation of Alaska where the Group was first formed. The yellow background represents the midnight sun at high latitude and the day aspect of the air refueling mission. The lower left of the shield depicts a red lightning bolt running from cloud to cloud against a blue background.


168th Wing, Emblem
The red lightning bolt signifies the projection of military power, the clouds are the medium in which it performs its mission, and the blue background the Arctic night and the night aspect of its mission. The red lightning bolt is also a prominent feature of the squadron patch from which the 168th Wing evolved. Between the yellow and blue fields is a bar of ultramarine blue containing eight yellow stars. The ultramarine blue is Air Force blue representing the 168th Wing's role in the Total Force; it is also the background color of the Alaska flag. The eight yellow stars are the stars of the big dipper also found on the Alaska flag.


168th Wing, History
Established on 23 October 1990 when the Alaska ANG 168th Air Refueling Squadron was expanded to a group level. The 168th Air Refueling Squadron traces its lineage to the 437th Bombardment Squadron of the 319th Bombardment Group, originally activated at Barksdale Field, Louisiana, in June 1942.


168th Wing, History
From a modest beginning in 1986, with just four KC-135E aircraft transferred from the Arkansas Air National Guard at Little Rock AFB,  the unit has blossomed into Wing status and all the accouterments of a full Air Refueling Wing. The first rendezvous and refueling of the squadron occurred just weeks after the arrival of the first aircraft. The pilot in command was Lt Col Tom Gresch, and the navigator conducting the rendezvous was Capt Michael R. Stack, formerly of the Illinois Air National Guard's 126th Air Refueling Wing in Chicago. In 1995, the wing transitioned from the KC-135E to the KC-135R Stratotanker.


168th Wing, History
The 168 WG has command and control over thirteen subordinate assigned units whose missions include all aircraft maintenance for the PACAF-gained tankers, providing financial, transportation, contracting, and base supply resources, communications, data processing and visual information functions, organizational security, and disaster preparedness and air base operability. They also contain all personnel activities such as training, equal employment opportunity and recruiting, and limited diagnostic and therapeutic service in general medicine, flight medicine, bioenvironmental, environmental, and dental services.


168th Wing, History
Previously designated as the 168th Air Refueling Wing since 1992, the unit was redesignated as the 168th Wing (168 WG) on 3 Feb 2016, recognizing of the inclusion of the 213th Space Warning Squadron, a geographically separated unit (GSU) at Clear Air Force Station, Alaska. The squadron had been part of the wing since 2006 and the redesignation of the parent wing recognized the dual-mission sets of both air refueling and ballistic missile early warning that the wing now performed.


168th meridian east
The meridian 168° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Asia, the Pacific Ocean, New Zealand, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole.


168th meridian east
The 168th meridian east forms a great circle with the 12th meridian west.


168th meridian east, From Pole to Pole
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 168th meridian east passes through:


168th meridian west
The meridian 168° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, North America, the Pacific Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole.


168th meridian west
The 168th meridian west forms a great circle with the 12th meridian east.


168th meridian west, From Pole to Pole
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 168th meridian west passes through:


169
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by Graham87 (talk | contribs) at 11:21, 10 January 2021 (1 revision imported: import old edit from the Nostalgia Wikipedia). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


169
Year 169 (CLXIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Senecio and Apollinaris (or, less frequently, year 922 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 169 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.


169 (number)
169 (one hundred [and] sixty-nine) is the natural number following 168 and preceding 170.


169 (number), In mathematics
169 is an odd number, a composite number, and a deficient number.


169 (number), In mathematics
169 is a square number: 13 × 13 = 169, and if each number is reversed the equation is still true: 31 × 31 = 961. 144 shares this property: 12 × 12 = 144, 21 × 21 = 441.


169 (number), In mathematics
169 is one of the few squares to also be a centered hexagonal number. Like all odd squares, it is a centered octagonal number. 169 is an odd-indexed Pell number, thus it is also a Markov number, appearing in the solutions (2, 169, 985), (2, 29, 169), (29, 169, 14701), etc. 169 is the sum of seven consecutive primes: 13 + 17 + 19 + 23 + 29 + 31  + 37. 169 is a difference in consecutive cubes, equaling 83−73. {\displaystyle 8^{3}-7^{3}.}


169 BC
Year 169 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Philippus and Caepio (or, less frequently, year 585 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 169 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane
169 Mary Street is a heritage-listed warehouse at 169 Mary Street (corner of Edward Street), Brisbane CBD, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by Richard Gailey and built from 1887 to 1888 by T Game. It is also known as Coal Board Building. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, History
This three-storeyed masonry warehouse was erected in 1887-1888 for Queensland pastoralists and politicians William Allan, MLA and William Graham, MLC.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, History
The land was granted first to John Balfour in 1852. In 1885 the property was transferred to William Allan, then in 1887 he was joined by William Graham as tenants in common. Both Allan and Graham came from Edinburgh originally, and had a number of business interests in common, including sitting on the first board of the Royal Bank of Queensland, established in 1885, and were closely associated with BD Morehead & Co.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, History
An expansion of commercial and building activity in Brisbane in the 1880s transformed the streets around lower Edward Street, which were close to the wharves along the town reach of the Brisbane River, into a warehouse precinct. Built as an investment, Allan's and Graham's warehouse reflects this development phase, and remains one of a small group of late Victorian warehouses surviving in Brisbane. Other comparable buildings include the Metro Arts Building (1890), Spencer's Building (1890) and the Brisbane and Area Water Board Building (1886) in Edward Street, Charlotte House (1888) in Charlotte Street, Watson Brothers Building (1887) in Margaret Street, and Tara House (1878) and Heckelmann's Building (1891) in Elizabeth Street.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, History
In January 1887, architect Richard Gailey called tenders for the erection of a warehouse at the corner of Edward and Mary Streets. Constructed by Brisbane contractor T Game at a cost of £4,295, the building was completed in 1888. First leased by J & B Sniders, importers of china and glass, the warehouse was subsequently used by McMurtie & Co. (boot manufacturers), and a variety of produce and leather merchants, engineers, hardware suppliers and saddlers' ironmongers.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, History
From 1900 to 1914 the property was owned by the Gibson family of Bingera Plantation, near Bundaberg, and between 1928 and 1960 was owned and occupied by Mauri Brothers and Thomson Ltd. The property was purchased by the Commissioner of Main Roads in 1960 and transferred to the Crown in 1968. Since then the building has been used as offices for the Queensland Government and community groups.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Description
The former Coal Board building, located on the eastern corner of Edward and Mary Streets opposite Young's Building, Optical Products, is a three-storeyed rendered masonry structure, with basement, and a corrugated iron twin gable roof concealed behind a parapet wall.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Description
The building is divided into two equal portions, with a central masonry wall with two arched openings per floor, which are expressed on the Mary Street facade. Each portion consists of three bays, separated by pilasters with cornices between each floor, and surmounted by a solid parapet with a central triangular pediment flanked by spherical finials. The building has one street entrance, located in the central bay of the corner portion.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Description
The ground floor has a single large sash window to each bay, with basement windows covered by cast iron screens below. The central bay has a curved pediment and the pilasters are scribed to imitate stonework. The first floor has twin sashes, with shallow arched window heads and rendered mouldings, and a concrete balustrade below to each bay. The second floor is similar, but with rounded window heads.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Description
The Edward Street facade, divided into four bays, is treated similarly but the ground floor sashes have been altered. The rear wall, which is not rendered, is of English bond brickwork.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Description
The main entry has twin panelled timber doors, with fanlight, opening into a vestibule with glazed timber doors and a lower hardboard ceiling with timber cover strips. The ground floor has sections of pressed metal ceilings near the entrance, with hardboard ceilings throughout the rest of the space. A staircase, with turned timber balustrade, is located at the south corner of the building. An early goods lift, located at the southeast, has a folding metal door and is surmounted by the lift motor room on the roof.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Description
The first floor has panelled ceilings with timber coverstrips, and the second floor has hardboard ceilings. The basement has a concrete floor, and steel columns and beams have been inserted to support the floor above.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Description
A three-storeyed masonry toilet block and steel fire stair are built at the rear and are connected by concrete walkways. Car-parking space is also located at the rear fronting Edward Street.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Heritage listing
169 Mary Street was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Heritage listing
The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Heritage listing
169 Mary Street is important in demonstrating the pattern of Queensland's history, providing evidence of the former important warehousing function of the lower Edward Street area.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Heritage listing
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Heritage listing
169 Mary Street is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of an ornate late Victorian warehouse, whose style, scale and detail self-consciously express 1880s optimism.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Heritage listing
169 Mary Street is important in exhibiting aesthetic characteristics valued by the community, in particular the important contribution which the rhythm and scale of its facade make to both Edward and Mary Streets.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Heritage listing
The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, Heritage listing
169 Mary Street has a special association with the work of architect Richard Gailey, whose firm made a significant contribution to the townscape of Brisbane in the 1880s.


169 Mary Street, Brisbane, References, Attribution
This Wikipedia article incorporates text from  published by the State of Queensland under  licence (accessed on 7 July 2014,  on 8 October 2014). The geo-coordinates were computed from the  published by the State of Queensland under  licence (accessed on 5 September 2014,  on 15 October 2014).


169 Medium Regiment (India)
169 Medium Regiment (OP Hill) is part of the Regiment of Artillery of the Indian Army.


169 Medium Regiment (India), Formation
The regiment was raised as 169 Field Regiment in Naushera on 1 November 1963 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel HS Dhaliwal. The class composition of this unit is ‘Maratha’ with the war cry ‘Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Ki Jai’. The regiment is presently a medium regiment.


169 Medium Regiment (India), Operations
The Battle of OP Hill (NL1053) took place after the ceasefire came into effect on 23 September 1965. OP Hill was a Border Observation Post in the Bhimber-Gali-Mendhar Sector, 20 km south west of Poonch. This Observation Post (OP) was being used by the Pakistanis to direct accurate artillery fire. To avoid isolation of Balnoi from Mendhar and Krishna Ghati, capture of OP Hill was imperative.


169 Medium Regiment (India), Operations
120 Infantry Brigade was tasked to evict the enemy from this strategic location. Following a failed battalion level offensive by 2 Garhwal on 6 and 7 October 1965, a full-fledged brigade attack was mounted on 2 November 1965. After a grim battle lasting 2 days, the enemy was dislodged. For its actions, the 169 Mountain Regiment along with 5 Sikh Light Infantry, 2 Dogra, 7 Sikh and 23 Mountain Composite Regiment were awarded the battle honour “OP Hill”.


169 Medium Regiment (India), Operations
169 Field Regiment was inducted in the Kashmir Valley in July 1992 when militancy was at its peak. In the atmosphere as was prevailing then, the unit adapted itself to face the gauntlet thrown by the terrorists within an impressive timeframe. It carried out multifarious operations including cordon and search, raids, ambushes, road opening duties, protection of a sensitive army petroleum depot and higher headquarters, as also neutralization of militants in its area of responsibility. The unit was able to achieve commendable results in its drive against the terrorists.


169 Medium Regiment (India), Operations
In one of its numerous successful operations, the unit apprehended Mohammed Sheikh Yaqoob, the self-styled Divisional Commander of Al-Jehad for Anantnag and Pulwama districts. The arrest created a vacuum in the ranks of Al-Jehad, which became a defunct group. The unit was instrumental in apprehension of 128 local terrorists who were in the process of crossing over to Pakistan in August 1993, for training in terrorist camps in the Pakistani-administered Kashmir. The unit had earned the J & K Governor's Silver Salver in 1995. The Regiment received the COAS unit citation for Operation Rakshak in 1996.


169 Medium Regiment (India), Operations
During its counter-insurgency operations in Assam, the Shaurya Chakra was awarded to Major Gautam Segan and Major Gurtej Singh Grewal in 2001. Along with other medals and other honours, it was also awarded the Unit Appreciation by Army Commander, Eastern Command in 2003.


169 Medium Regiment (India), Operations
The Regiment was the first Indian Artillery unit to be nominated on a UN Mission. The Regiment took part in the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission (MONUSCO) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2008-2009 and United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) in Golan Heights in 2009–2010. The Regiment was awarded the Force Commander's Unit Appreciation in 2010 during its tenure in Golan Heights.


169 Zelia
Zelia (minor planet designation: 169 Zelia) is a main belt asteroid that was discovered by the brothers Paul Henry and Prosper Henry on September 28, 1876. Credit for this discovery was given to Prosper. Initial orbital elements for this asteroid were published in 1877 by American astronomer H. A. Howe.


169 Zelia
Based upon its spectrum, this body is classified as a rare O-type asteroid in the taxonomic system of Bus & Binzel. Photometric observations of this asteroid during 2009 gave a light curve with a period of 14.537 ± 0.001 hours and a brightness variation of 0.14 ± 0.03 in magnitude.


169 km
169 km (Russian: 169 км) is a rural locality (a passing loop) in Dracheninskoye Rural Settlement of Leninsk-Kuznetsky District, Russia. The population was 2 as of 2010.


169 km, Geography
The passing loop is located on the Yurga-Tashtagol line, 20 km west of Leninsk-Kuznetsky (the district's administrative centre) by road.


169 series
The 169 series (169系) was an express electric multiple unit (EMU) train type introduced in 1969 by Japanese National Railways (JNR), and later operated by East Japan Railway Company (JR East) until 1996 and by Shinano Railway in Nagano Prefecture until 2013. The 169 series was developed from the 165 series EMUs.


169 series, Interior
Interior of Mitaka Depot set modified with reclining seats for use on Shinkansen Relay rapid services, 2001


169 series, Shinano Railway
The third-sector operator Shinano Railway operated a fleet of three 3-car 169 series sets (numbered S51 to S53) formerly operated by JR East. These operated on services between Karuizawa and Togura Stations. These sets were scheduled to be withdrawn from regular service in April 2013, with final runs on 29 April 2013.


169 series, Shinano Railway, Formations
The 3-car sets operated by Shinano Railway were formed as shown below, with two motored cars (KuMoHa and MoHa) and one trailer car (KuHa).


169 series, Shinano Railway, Formations
The MoHa 168 car was fitted with one lozenge-type pantograph.


169 series, Shinano Railway, Formations
Shinano Railway 169 series set S52 in JNR Shonan livery in March 2013


169 series, Preserved examples
As of 2014, four 169 series cars are preserved, as follows.


169 series, Preserved examples
Preserved KuMoHa 169 6 next to Karuizawa Station in July 2016


169 series, Preserved examples
The cab end of car KuMoHa 169 27 preserved next to Shimoyoshida Station on the Fujikyuko Line in Yamanashi Prefecture


1690
1690 (MDCXC) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1690th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 690th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 90th  year of the 17th century, and the  1st   year of the 1690s decade. As of the start of 1690, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1690 AM
The following radio stations broadcast on AM frequency 1690 kHz: 1690 AM is a Regional broadcast frequency.


1690 English general election
The 1690 English general election occurred after the dissolution of the Convention Parliament summoned in the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution, and saw the partisan feuds in that parliament continue in the constituencies. The Tories made significant gains against their opponents, particularly in the contested counties and boroughs, as the electorate saw the Whigs increasingly as a source of instability and a threat to the Church of England.


1690 English general election
Following the election, William continued his policy of forming a coalition government around non-partisan figures. The nominal leader of the new government was the Marquess of Carnarvon, though the Tories were able to use their greater numbers in the House of Commons to increase their share of government positions. Contests occurred in 103 constituencies, 38% of the total.


1690 English general election
Party strengths are as estimated by the History of Parliament, though division lists for this parliament are not available and so a precise count may not be possible.


1690 English general election, Summary of the constituencies
See 1796 British general election for details. The constituencies used in England and Wales were the same throughout the period. In 1707 alone the 45 Scottish members were not elected from the constituencies, but were returned by co-option of a part of the membership of the last Parliament of Scotland elected before the Union.


1690 Imperial election
The imperial election of 1690 was an imperial election held to select the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. It took place in Augsburg on January 23.


1690 Imperial election, Background
On May 26, 1685, Charles II, Elector Palatine, the Calvinist elector of the Electoral Palatinate, died without children. He was succeeded by his Catholic cousin Philip William, Elector Palatine, bringing the balance of electors to six Catholics, one Calvinist, and one Lutheran.


1690 Imperial election, Background
The Holy Roman Empire had been embroiled since 1683 in the Great Turkish War, repelling attempted Ottoman conquests in Southeast Europe. On September 25, 1688, hoping to capitalize on the empire's preoccupation with the Turks, the French king Louis XIV of France invaded across the Rhine, precipitating the Nine Years' War.


1690 Imperial election, Background
Louis's war aims were to install his preferred candidate, Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg, bishop of Strasbourg, as elector of Cologne, and to occupy the Electoral Palatinate, to which he believed he was entitled as Charles II's sister Elizabeth Charlotte, Madame Palatine was the wife of his younger brother Philippe I, Duke of Orléans.


1690 Imperial election, Background
Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor called for the election of his successor. He was granted one vote as king of Bohemia, but because the even number of electors might result in a tie, following the precedent of the elections of 1653 and 1658, he abstained. The remaining seven electors were:


1690 Imperial election, Elected
Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold's eldest son, was elected.


1690 Imperial election, Aftermath
Joseph acceded to the throne on his father's death on May 5, 1705.


1690 Mayrhofer
1690 Mayrhofer, provisional designation 1948 VB, is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 32 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 8 November 1948, by French astronomer Marguerite Laugier at Nice Observatory in south-east France. It was later named after Austrian amateur astronomer Karl Mayrhofer.


1690 Mayrhofer, Orbit and classification
The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.7–3.3 AU once every 5 years and 4 months (1,935 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.10 and an inclination of 13° with respect to the ecliptic. First identified as 1932 WN at Uccle, Mayrhofer's observation arc begins with its first used observation taken at Goethe Link Observatory in 1953, or 5 years after its official discovery observation at Nice.


1690 Mayrhofer, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In November 2006, a rotational lightcurve of Mayrhofer was obtained from observations taken by French amateur astronomer Pierre Antonini, giving a rotation period of 22.194 hours with a brightness variation of 0.45 in magnitude (U=2). Photometric observation in the R-band at the Palomar Transient Factory in November 2011, gave a shorter period of 19.0808 hours with an amplitude of 0.30 magnitude (U=2).


1690 Mayrhofer, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Mayrhofer measures between 31.18 and 33.81 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.056 and 0.082. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.064 and a diameter of 31.63 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.1.


1690 Mayrhofer, Naming
Proposed by German catholic priest and amateur astronomer Otto Kippes, this minor planet was named after Austrian amateur astronomer Karl Mayrhofer (1903–1982). He lived in the Austrian town of Ried im Innkreis and was known for his calculations of orbital elements for asteroids. Naming citation was published on 1 October 1980 (M.P.C. 5523).


1690 in Italy
An incomplete list of events which occurred in Italy in 1690:


1690 in Scotland
Events from the year 1690 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1690 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1690.


1690 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1690 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1690 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1690 in science
The year 1690 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1690s
The 1690s decade ran from January 1, 1690, to December 31, 1699.


1690s BC
The 1690s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1699 BC to December 31, 1690 BC.


1690s in Scotland, Incumbents
Duke of Rothesay, Prince and Great Steward of Scotland etc.


1690s in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during the 1690s in South Africa.


1690s in archaeology
The decade of the 1690s in archaeology involved some significant events.


1691
1691 (MDCXCI) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1691st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 691st  year of the 2nd millennium, the 91st  year of the 17th century, and the  2nd   year of the 1690s decade. As of the start of 1691, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1691 Oort
1691 Oort, provisional designation 1956 RB, is a rare-type carbonaceous Themistian asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 33 kilometers in diameter.


1691 Oort
It was discovered on 9 September 1956, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth and Dutch astronomer Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld at Heidelberg Observatory in south-west Germany. It was later named after Dutch astronomer Jan Oort.


1691 Oort, Orbit and classification
is a member of the Themis family, a dynamical family of outer-belt asteroids with nearly coplanar ecliptical orbits. Oort orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.6–3.7 AU once every 5 years and 7 months (2,054 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 1° with respect to the ecliptic.


1691 Oort, Orbit and classification
It was first identified as 1945 TD at Turku in 1945, extending body's observation arc by 14 years prior to its official discovery observation. Information about an earlier 1917-identification, A917 TD, is not available.


1691 Oort, Physical characteristics
The dark C-type asteroid, classified as a rare intermediate CU-type in the Tholen taxonomy.


1691 Oort, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In February 2009, a rotational lightcurve of Oort was obtained from photometric observations taken by French amateur astronomer René Roy. It gave a well-defined rotation period of 10.2705 hours with a brightness variation of 0.38 magnitude (U=3). An international study from 2013, published a concurring, modeled period of 10.2684 hours (n.a. ).


1691 Oort, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Oort measures 33.64 and 37.37 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.065 and 0.053, respectively. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 and calculates a diameter of 27.13 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 10.95.


1691 Oort, Naming
This minor planet was named in honor of Dutch astronomer Jan Oort (1900–1992), director of the Leiden Observatory (1945–1970), president of the International Astronomical Union (1958–1961), and a well-known authority on stellar statistics and galactic structure.


1691 Oort, Naming
He overturned the idea that the Sun was at the center of the Milky Way. The Oort cloud, the outermost gravitationally bound region of the Solar System, was also named after him. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 15 February 1970 (M.P.C. 3023).


1691 in Italy
An incomplete list of events which occurred in Italy in 1691:


1691 in Scotland
Events from the year 1691 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1691 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1691.


1691 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1691 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1691 in science
The year 1691 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1691 papal conclave
The 1691 papal conclave was convened on the death of Pope Alexander VIII and ended with the election of Antonio Pignatelli as  Pope Innocent XII. It lasted for five months, from 12 February to 12 July 1691. The conclave became deadlocked after Catholic monarchs opposed the election of Gregorio Barbarigo, who some members of the College of Cardinals also viewed as too strict. The conclave only ended in the July when cardinals started to become ill from the heat, and after French cardinals agreed to vote for Pignatelli despite him coming from Spanish-controlled Naples.


1691 papal conclave, Background
Issues of Gallicanism were prominent in the 1689 conclave that had elected Alexander VIII. Alexander's predecessor, Innocent XI, had refused to confirm new French bishops to the point where thirty-five dioceses lacked a bishop confirmed by Rome in 1688. Alexander's election had been secured by promising that he would confirm the unconfirmed French bishops. Despite this, Alexander's last act as pope before he died was to condemn the Declaration of the Clergy of France on 1 February 1691.


1691 papal conclave, Background
Alexander was also noted for his nepotism that was partially due to his advanced age and belief that his family would have little time to profit from his reign. This was in contrast to his predecessor Innocent XI, who was known for being austere and had not caused any scandals through nepotism.


1691 papal conclave, Conclave
The conclave began on 12 February 1691, and membership in the College of Cardinals was at its statutory maximum of 70 cardinals. Despite this, at the beginning of the conclave only 38 electors were present. The number rose to 44 electors present by 19 February 1691, and by the time of the election of Innocent XII in July, 61 electors were present.


1691 papal conclave, Conclave
The curial cardinals entered the conclave seeking to elect Gregorio Barbarigo as pope. Leopold I, the Holy Roman Emperor, considered him to be an unacceptable choice because he was a Venetian. While Leopold did not formally exclude Barbarigo, he did not wish for him to be elected. In addition to Leopold, the Spanish ambassador in Rome worked against Barbarigo's election, and Louis XIV of France opposed it because of the wishes of his allies.


1691 papal conclave, Conclave
Leandro Colloredo, who was the leader of the  zelanti faction within the college, initially suggested Barbarigo for the pontificate. Colloredo and his faction also had the backing of Flavio Chigi, the cardinal nephew of Alexander VII, in the conclave. Barbarigo was seen as an individual with a firm moral system, and it was thought that he might abolish nepotism if elected.


1691 papal conclave, Conclave
Despite Leopold not formally excluding Barbarigo, a rumour spread that he had been excluded, and despite the protests of the zelanti faction of cardinals, enough members of the College of Cardinals recognized the Emperor's ability to exclude a candidate that it prevented his election.


1691 papal conclave, Conclave
Leopold had sent an envoy with two letters for his cardinals: the first public letter declared that he did not wish to see Barbarigo excluded, while the second letter, which was private, expressed his desire that Barbarigo not be elected, but that he did not want to take the blame for the exclusion, but rather wished for the Spanish to be the ones to do so. Additionally, some of the more materialistic cardinals feared that Barbarigo would be similarly strict as Pope Innocent XI, and this factored into his failure to win election.


1691 papal conclave, Conclave
It was clear to the cardinals that Barbarigo would not be elected pope by the end of April, and the conclave entered a period where it had no clear direction. The daily scrutinies would return no successful candidates, and the afternoon scrutinies would often simply repeat the deadlock that had occurred in the morning. Votes even went to non-cardinals for the first time in a conclave since 1503.


1691 papal conclave, Conclave
There was no clear lead as to who might be elected pope, and at one point several cardinals started a fire in the living quarters by accidentally knocking over a lamp while playing cards. While this caused some of the cells housing the cardinals to be unlivable, three cardinals had died by that point so there was room available to relocate the cardinals who had been put out of their previous housing.


1691 papal conclave, Election of Innocent XII
Federico Altieri began seeking to secure election to the papacy for himself. He had sought to both have a public persona favourable to Leopold I, while also working to curry the favour of Louis XIV. The zelanti faction and Flavio Chigi opposed him, which was enough to stop his victory.


1691 papal conclave, Election of Innocent XII
Altieri had positioned himself with his campaign as a credible faction leader within the conclave, and began working to elect his friend Antonio Pignatelli pope. Altieri worked to convince the French cardinals that Pignatelli would not work for the Spanish as pope even though he was from Naples. Pignatelli had received some support in March, but fell short of the majority required for election. At the end of June, however, the heat was increasing and some cardinals became ill. This allowed his candidacy to gain traction, and he was elected pope on 12 July 1691, over the objections of the zelanti faction, and took the name Innocent XII. The conclave was the longest papal election since 1305, having met for more than five months.


1692
1692 (MDCXCII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1692nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 692nd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 92nd  year of the 17th century, and the  3rd   year of the 1690s decade. As of the start of 1692, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1692 AM
The following radio stations broadcast on AM frequency 1692 kHz:


1692 Jamaica earthquake
The 1692 Jamaica earthquake struck Port Royal, Jamaica, on 7 June. A stopped pocket watch found in the harbour in 1959 indicated that it occurred around 11:43 AM local time.


1692 Jamaica earthquake
Known as the "storehouse and treasury of the West Indies" and as "one of the wickedest places on Earth", Port Royal was, at the time, the unofficial capital of Jamaica and one of the busiest and wealthiest ports in the Americas, as well as a common home port for many of the privateers and pirates operating on the Caribbean Sea.


1692 Jamaica earthquake
The 1692 earthquake caused most of the city to sink below sea level. About 2,000 people died as a result of the earthquake and the following tsunami, and another 3,000 people died in the following days due to injuries and disease.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Tectonic setting
The island of Jamaica lies on the boundary between the Caribbean Plate and the Gonâve Microplate. The Gonâve microplate is a 1,100 km (680 mi) long strip of mainly oceanic crust formed by the Cayman spreading ridge within a strike-slip pull-apart basin on the northern transform margin of the Caribbean Plate with the North American Plate. Jamaica was formed by uplift associated with a restraining bend along this strike-slip structure. The focal mechanisms of earthquakes around Jamaica are primarily sinistral strike-slip along WSW-ENE trending faults and minor reverse or thrust motion on NW-SE trending faults. The 1692 event is thought to have occurred on one of these strike-slip faults.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Damage
Two-thirds of the town, amounting to 33 acres (13 ha), sank into the sea immediately after the main shock. According to Robert Renny in his An History of Jamaica (1807): "All the wharves sunk at once, and in the space of two minutes, nine-tenths of the city were covered with water, which was raised to such a height, that it entered the uppermost rooms of the few houses which were left standing. The tops of the highest houses were visible in the water and surrounded by the masts of vessels, which had been sunk along with them."


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Damage
Before the earthquake the town consisted of 6,500 inhabitants living in about 2,000 buildings, many constructed of brick and with more than one storey, and all built on loose sand. During the shaking, the sand liquefied and the buildings, along with their occupants, appeared to flow into the sea. More than twenty ships moored in the harbour were capsized. One ship, the frigate Swann, was carried over the rooftops by the tsunami. During the main shock, the sand was said to have formed waves. Fissures repeatedly opened and closed, crushing many people. After the shaking stopped the sand again solidified, trapping many victims.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Damage
At Liguanea (present-day Kingston), all the houses were destroyed and water was ejected from 40-foot-deep (12 m) wells. Almost all the houses at St. Jago (Spanish Town) were also destroyed.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Damage
Numerous landslides occurred across the island. The largest, the Judgement Cliff landslide, displaced the land surface by up to 800 m and killed 19 people. Several rivers were temporarily dammed and a few days after the earthquakes the harbour became flooded with large numbers of trees stripped of their bark brought down after one of these dams was breached.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Damage
A pocket watch, made in the Netherlands by the French maker Blondel in about 1686, was recovered during underwater archaeological investigations led by Edwin Link in 1959. The watch was stopped with its hands pointing to 11:43 AM; this matches well with contemporary accounts of the timing of the earthquake.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Aftermath
Even before the destruction was complete, some of the survivors began looting, breaking into homes and warehouses. The dead were also robbed and stripped, and, in some cases, had fingers cut off to remove the rings that they wore.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Aftermath
In the immediate aftermath of the earthquake, it was common to ascribe the destruction to divine retribution on the people of Port Royal for their sinful ways. Members of the Jamaica Council declared: "We are become by this an instance of God Almighty's severe judgement." This view of the disaster was not confined to Jamaica; in Boston, the Reverend Cotton Mather said in a letter to his uncle: "Behold, an accident speaking to all our English America."


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Aftermath
After the earthquake, the town was partially rebuilt. But the colonial government was relocated to Spanish Town, which had been the capital under Spanish rule. Port Royal was devastated by a fire in 1703 and a hurricane in 1722. Most of the sea trade moved to Kingston. By the late 18th century, Port Royal was largely abandoned.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Characteristics, Earthquake
There were three separate shocks, each with increasing intensity, culminating in the main shock. The estimated size of the event was 7.5 on the moment magnitude scale.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Characteristics, Earthquake
Despite reports of the town flowing into the sea, the main result of the earthquake was subsidence caused by liquefaction. This would also explain an eyewitness account of houses being swallowed and people being buried up to their necks in the sand. The probable triggering of the Judgement Cliff landslide during the earthquake occurred along the line of the Plantain Garden fault. Movement on this structure has been suggested as the cause of the earthquake.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Characteristics, Landslides
The Judgement Hill landslide is a complex rock-slide slump with a volume of about 80 × 106 m3. The slip surface is found within zones of clay and shale with gypsum at the base of a limestone unit. This landslide occurred shortly after the earthquake but it remains possible that heavy rain over the few days after the event was the final trigger for the slip.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Characteristics, Tsunami
The sea was observed to retreat by about 300 yd (270 m) at Liguanea (probably near Kingston) while at Yallahs it withdrew 1 mi (1.6 km). It returned as a 6 ft (1.8 m) high wave that swept over the land.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Characteristics, Tsunami
One possible cause of the tsunami is thought to be the slump and grain flow into the harbour from beneath the town itself, although the waves in the harbour may be better described as seiches and larger waves reported elsewhere, such as at Saint Ann's Bay, are explained as the result of an entirely separate submarine landslide, also triggered by the earthquake.


1692 Jamaica earthquake, Future seismic hazard
Estimates of current deformation of Jamaica suggest that sufficient strain has accumulated to generate a M=7.0–7.3 earthquake, similar in size to the 1692 event. This may mean that a repeat of this event is imminent, although this estimate relies on many assumptions, such as that none of the motion on the Plantain Garden fault is accommodated aseismically.


1692 Salta earthquake
The 1692 Salta earthquake took place in the Province of Salta, in the Republic of Argentina on 13 September at 11:00 a.m. local time. It registered 7.0 on the Richter magnitude scale and was located at a depth of 30 kilometres (19 mi). Aftershocks continued to be felt until 15 September.


1692 Salta earthquake, Damage and casualties
The destructive force of the 1692 Salta earthquake was measured at IX on the Mercalli intensity scale. It completely destroyed the small village of Talavera del Esteco, in the province of Salta. It caused 13 deaths and injuries as well as significant damage to the city of Salta.


1692 Salta earthquake, Aftermath
Salteño tradition has it that the number of victims was not higher because the earthquake occurred during the day and that the villagers were able to take measures to prevent greater damage. It is recounted that, in the middle of the chaos of the earthquake, while the houses were shaking and roofs were falling off, that the image of the Immaculate Conception (then called the Virgen del Milagro), then located in the main cathedral, fell some three meters to the ground.


1692 Salta earthquake, Aftermath
Villagers, who had run to the church to pray, saw that the image was not only undamaged from the fall, but that it had fallen at the feet of the image of Christ. The villages interpreted that the image was interceding to Christ on behalf of the village. The following day the villagers paraded the image through the streets. The Salteños began venerating the image and praying for it to stop the earthquake. The tremors continued for two more days.


1692 Salta earthquake, Aftermath
On 8 October 1692 the Salta town council labelled the events of 13–15 September as miraculous. Nuestra Señora del Milagro was appointed "advocate" of the city and 13 September declared a national holiday. On 15 October she was recognized as Patroness and Advocate of Salta. The miraculous events of 13–15 September 1692 was the commencement of what has become the yearly Fiesta del milagro (Feast of the miracle) on 15 September each year.


1692 Salta earthquake, Aftermath
The celebrations commence with festivities as early as 6 September and continue until the 15th when the images of Christ and the Virgen del Milagro, are paraded through the streets in a grand procession. The Fiesta del milagro is the most popular religious festival in Salta and one of the most important in Argentina.


1692 Salta earthquake, Esteco
CONICET archaeologists and other investigators undertook excavations at the site where the city of Esteco II (officially called Nuestra Señora de Talavera de Madrid) was destroyed by the 1692 earthquake. The excavations were done within a 27 square metres (290 sq ft) area. They found a wall and one of the four towers of the fort that protected the city, located in Río Piedras, in the departament of Metán.


1692 Subbotina
1692 Subbotina, provisional designation 1936 QD, is a dark background asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 37 kilometers (23 miles) in diameter. The carbonaceous Cg-type asteroid has a rotation period of 9.2 hours. It was discovered by Grigory Neujmin at the Crimean Simeiz Observatory in 1936, and later named after Soviet mathematician and astronomer Mikhail Subbotin.


1692 Subbotina, Discovery
Subbotina was discovered by Soviet-Russian astronomer Grigory Neujmin at the Crimean Simeiz Observatory on 16 August 1936. On the following night, astronomer Karl Reinmuth independently discovered the body at the Heidelberg Observatory in Germany. The asteroid was first observed as 1927 SL at the discovering observatory in September 1927. Its first used observation was made at Heidelberg in July 1931, extending the body's observation arc by 5 years prior to its official discovery observation in 1936.


1692 Subbotina, Naming
This minor planet was named in memory of eminent Soviet mathematician and astronomer, Mikhail Subbotin (1893–1966), long-time director of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (ITA) in former Leningrad. The lunar crater Subbotin was also named in his honour. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 June 1967 (M.P.C. 2740).


1692 Subbotina, Orbit and classification
Subbotina is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 2.4–3.2 AU once every 4 years and 8 months (1,700 days; semi-major axis of 2.79 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic.


1692 Subbotina, Physical characteristics
In the SMASS-II taxonomy, Subbotina has been characterized as a dark Cg-type, a subtype of the wider group of carbonaceous C-type asteroids with low albedos.


1692 Subbotina, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In October 2006, a rotational lightcurve of Subbotina was obtained from photometric observations by Italian Silvano Casulli and French Laurent Bernasconi, both amateur astronomers. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 9.2457±0.0005 hours with a brightness variation of 0.3 in magnitude (U=3). Somewhat higher amplitudes of 0.42 and 0.62 magnitude were found by the NEOWISE mission.


1692 Subbotina, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Subbotina measures between 34.8 and 43.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a notably low albedo in the range of 0.02 to 0.049. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.04 and a diameter of 36.5 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.3.


1692 in China, Deaths
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1692 in Scotland
Events from the year 1692 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1692 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1692.


1692 in piracy
See also 1691 in piracy, other events in 1692, 1693 in piracy, and Timeline of piracy.


1692 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1692 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1692 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1693
1693 (MDCXCIII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1693rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 693rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 93rd  year of the 17th century, and the  4th   year of the 1690s decade. As of the start of 1693, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1693 Hertzsprung
1693 Hertzsprung (prov. designation: 1935 LA) is a dark and elongated background asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt, approximately 39 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 5 May 1935, by Dutch astronomer Hendrik van Gent at the Leiden Southern Station, annex to the Johannesburg Observatory in South Africa.


1693 Hertzsprung, Classification and orbit
Hertzsprung orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.0–3.6 AU once every 4 years and 8 months (1,707 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.27 and an inclination of 12° with respect to the ecliptic. The asteroid was already observed as 1930 HG at Crimea-Simeis in 1930. This observation, however, remained unused and the body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Johannesburg in 1935.


1693 Hertzsprung, Naming
This minor planet was named in memory of Danish chemist and astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung (1873–1967), best known for the famous Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, a spectral classification system for stars he developed jointly with Russel, after whom the asteroid 1762 Russell was named. From 1934 to 1945, Hertzsprung was the head of the Leiden Observatory in the Netherlands.


1693 Hertzsprung, Naming
As a prominent expert in photometry, he initiated a survey of variable stars in the Southern Milky Way at the Leiden Southern Station. A number of asteroids and comets were also discovered during the course of this survey. The asteroid's name was suggested by the staff at Leiden Observatory. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 15 December 1967 (M.P.C. 2822).


1693 Hertzsprung, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Hertzsprung measures between 30.95 and 41.97 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.03 and 0.059.


1693 Hertzsprung, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with the results obtained by IRAS, that is an albedo of 0.048 and a diameter of 38.7 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 10.97. While the dark C-type asteroid is classified as a rare CBU-subtype on the Tholen taxonomic scheme, the NEOWISE mission groups the body to the rare and reddish P-type asteroids.


1693 Hertzsprung, Physical characteristics, Rotation and shape
In August 1987, a rotational lightcurve of Hertzsprung was obtained from photometric observations made with the ESO 1-metre telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile. The lightcurve gave it a well-defined rotation period of 8.825 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.45 magnitude (U=3). Observations by the NEOWISE mission found higher amplitudes of 0.70 and 1.05, which indicates that the body has a non-spheroidal or elongated shape.


1693 Sicily earthquake
The 1693 Sicily earthquake struck parts of southern Italy near Sicily, Calabria, and Malta on January 11 at around 21:00 local time. This earthquake was preceded by a damaging foreshock on January 9. The main quake had an estimated magnitude of 7.4 on the moment magnitude scale, the most powerful in Italian recorded history, and a maximum intensity of XI (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale, destroying at least 70 towns and cities, seriously affecting an area of 5,600 square kilometres (2,200 sq mi) and causing the death of about 60,000 people.


1693 Sicily earthquake
The earthquake was followed by tsunamis that devastated the coastal villages on the Ionian Sea and in the Straits of Messina. Almost two-thirds of the entire population of Catania were killed. The epicentre of the disaster was probably close to the coast, possibly offshore, although the exact position remains unknown. The extent and degree of destruction caused by the earthquake resulted in extensive rebuilding of the towns and cities of southeastern Sicily, particularly the Val di Noto, in a homogeneous late Baroque style, described as "the culmination and final flowering of Baroque art in Europe".


1693 Sicily earthquake
According to a contemporary account of the earthquake by Vincentius Bonajutus, published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, "It was in this country impossible to keep upon our legs, or in one place on the dancing Earth; nay, those that lay along on the ground, were tossed from side to side, as if on a rolling billow."


1693 Sicily earthquake, Tectonic setting
Sicily lies on part of the complex convergent boundary where the African Plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate. This subduction zone is responsible for the formation of the stratovolcano Mount Etna and considerable seismic activity. Most damaging earthquakes however, occur on the Siculo-Calabrian rift zone. This zone of extensional faulting runs for about 370 kilometres (230 mi), forming three main segments through Calabria, along the east coast of Sicily and immediately offshore, and finally forming the southeastern margin of the Hyblaean Plateau. Faults in the Calabrian segment were responsible for the 1783 Calabrian earthquakes sequence.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Tectonic setting
In the southern part of the eastern coast of Sicily, investigations have identified a series of active normal faults, dipping to the east. Most of these lie offshore and some control basins that contain large thicknesses of Quaternary sediments. The two largest faults, known as the western and eastern master faults, border half-grabens with fills of up to 700 metres (2,300 ft) and 800 metres (2,600 ft) respectively. Onshore, two ages of faulting have been recognised, an earlier phase trending NW-SE and a later phase trending SSW-NNE that clearly offsets the first group, including the Avola fault and the Rosolini-Ispica fault system.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Earthquake characteristics, January 9 foreshock
A destructive earthquake occurred two days before the mainshock at 21:00 local time, centered in the Val di Noto. It had an estimated magnitude of 6.2 and a maximum perceived intensity of VIII–XI on the Mercalli intensity scale. Intensities of VIII or higher have been estimated for Augusta, Avola Vecchia, Floridia, Melilli, Noto Antica, Catania, Francofonte, Lentini, Scicli, Sortino and Vizzini. Augusta lies well outside the main zone of severe shaking; its extensive damage is probably due to its construction on unconsolidated sediments.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Earthquake characteristics, January 9 foreshock
From the shape and location of the area of maximum damage, this earthquake is thought to have been caused by movement on the Avola fault.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Earthquake characteristics, January 11 mainshock
The earthquake lasted for four minutes, according to contemporary accounts. The estimated magnitude of 7.4 is taken from the extent and degree of the recorded damage, with a very large area that reached X (Extreme) or more on the Mercalli scale. The maximum shaking reached XI in the towns of Buscemi, Floridia, Melilli, Occhiola and Sortino.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Earthquake characteristics, January 11 mainshock
The source of the January 11 earthquake is debated. Some catalogues give an onshore epicentre without any direct association with a known structure, while others propose that the source was offshore due to the associated tsunami, involving either rupture along a normal fault, part of the Siculo-Calabrian rift zone, or rupture along the subduction zone beneath the Ionian Sea. An analysis of the distribution of tsunami run-ups along the coast suggests that a submarine landslide triggered by the earthquake is the most likely source, in which case the tsunami provides no constraint on the epicenter. A landslide origin is supported by the observation of possible landslide bodies along the Hyblean-Malta escarpment.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Earthquake characteristics, January 11 mainshock
Historic documents in the Archivo General de Simancas mention dozens of aftershocks, some as late as August 1694, and some reportedly as strong as the initial quake of January 11, 1693. Aftershocks continued until at least 1696, with their effects concentrated in towns along the coast, supporting an epicenter either near the coast or offshore.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Tsunami
The tsunami triggered by the earthquake affected most of the Ionian Sea coast of Sicily, about 230 kilometres (140 mi) in all. The first thing that was noted at all localities affected was a withdrawal of the sea. The strongest effects were concentrated around Augusta, where the initial withdrawal left the harbour dry, followed by a wave of at least 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) height, possibly as much as 8 metres (26 ft), that inundated part of the town. The maximum inundation of about 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) was recorded at Mascali.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Tsunami
Tsunami deposits linked to the 1693 tsunami have been found both onshore and offshore. At Ognina, just south of Syracuse, at the head of a ria, a sequence containing several coarse clastic layers has been found, inconsistent with its lagoonal setting. The uppermost coarse layer, which has a strongly erosive base, consists of coarse sand with up to granule size clasts. The layer has been dated as 17th to 18th century based on pottery shards and one well-preserved clay pipe, consistent with the 1693 tsunami.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Tsunami
Offshore from Augusta, a sequence identified using chirp sonar data was sampled with a 6.7 metres (22 ft) gravity core in 72 metres (236 ft) of water. Following detailed analysis of both grain size and foraminifera assemblages, eleven possible high-energy events were found based on the presence of large numbers of shallow water forams combined with a greater proportion of fine sand in the same interval. The uppermost two events correlate well with the tsunamis from the 1908 Messina earthquake and the 1693 earthquake.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Link to eruption of Etna
Although there are reports of an eruption at the time of the earthquake, most sources suggest that the volcano had been inactive since the destructive eruption of 1669. Analysis of the relationship between eruptions and earthquakes has found that earthquakes are followed by long periods without activity in the 'rift zones' that extend out to north and south from the summit. Estimates of Coulomb stress transfer due to the dyke intrusion in the rift zones associated with the 1669 eruption, suggest that this could have helped to trigger the 1693 earthquake, by increasing stress levels on the faults.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Damage, January 9 foreshock
Despite the difficulty of separating the effects of this event from the mainshock, some information is available. This earthquake caused widespread damage, particularly in Augusta where almost half of the houses were destroyed. Most of the buildings in two districts of Avola collapsed and many buildings were also destroyed in Noto, Floridia, Lentini and Mellili. Some buildings collapsed in Catania, Vizzini and Sortini. There were an estimated 200 deaths in both Augusta and Noto.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Damage, January 11 mainshock
The area of severe damage covered most of southeastern Sicily, an area of about 14,000 square kilometres (5,400 sq mi), including all the present provinces of Catania, Ragusa and Syracuse. At least 70 cities, towns and villages were devastated, with some examples of at least partial building collapse as far afield as Messina, Agrigento, Palermo, Reggio Calabria and Malta.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Damage, January 11 mainshock
The earthquake also triggered large landslides, such as at Noto Antica and Sortino, and in one case a large rock-slide dammed a stream, forming a lake a few kilometers long. Several large NW-SE trending fractures were created up to 500 metres (1,600 ft) long and 2 metres (6.6 ft) wide, on the plains just south of Catania. In the same area, sand volcanoes were formed by jets of water spurting as much as several metres into the air, with similar phenomena being reported from the Lentini plain and along some river valleys.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Damage, January 11 mainshock
At Augusta the tsunami damaged galleys of the Knights of Malta that were anchored in the harbour when they were grounded during the initial withdrawal of the sea.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Damage, January 11 mainshock
The number of deaths recorded at the time in official sources were about 12,000 in Catania (63% of the population), 5,045 in Ragusa (51%), 3,500 in Syracuse (23%) 3,000 in Noto (25%), 1,840 in Augusta (30%) and 3,400 in Modica (19%). The total death toll in the same source was recorded as 54,000 with other sources referring to totals of about 60,000. In 1853, Mallet recorded 93,000 deaths, in his catalogue of earthquakes.


1693 Sicily earthquake, Aftermath, Response
Sicily was at the time ruled as part of the Crown of Aragon by the Kings of Spain. The Viceroy in Madrid, the Duke of Uzeda, reacted by appointing Giuseppe Lanza, the Duke of Camastra, and the Prince of Aragon as Vicars General for the Val Demone and Val di Noto regions of Sicily respectively. Due to illness, both the Prince of Aragon and his replacement the bishop of Syracuse were unable to take up the position of Vicar General for Val di Noto and the Duke of Camastra was forced to take on the responsibility for both areas.