1660 Wood, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
From January to March 2012, four rotational lightcurves of Wood were obtained from photometric observations taken by astronomers Julian Oey, Kevin Hills, and Xianming Han. Lightcurve analysis gave a concurring rotation period of 6.809 hours with a brightness variation between of 0.14 and 0.26 magnitude (U=3/3/3/2+).


1660 Wood, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Wood measures 11.34 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.239. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.23 and calculates a diameter of 12.67 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.7.


1660 Wood, Naming
This minor planet was named for British–South African astronomer Harry Edwin Wood (1881–1946), who was the second director of the Union Observatory at which the asteroid was discovered, and who had discovered 12 asteroids himself between 1911 and 1928. He had the prime responsibility for the famous Franklin-Adams Star Camera (Franklin-Adams photographic refractor) since its acquisition in 1909 (also see 1925 Franklin-Adams). The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 July 1972 (M.P.C. 3297).


1660 destruction of Safed
The 1660 destruction of Safed occurred during the Druze power struggle in Mount Lebanon, at the time of the rule of Ottoman sultan Mehmed IV. The towns of Safed and nearby Tiberias, with substantial Jewish communities, were destroyed in the turmoil. Only a few of the former residents of Safed had returned to the town after the destruction. Gershom Scholem considers the 1662 reports about the destruction of Safed as "exaggerated". The community, however, recovered within several years, whereas Tiberias lay in waste for decades.


1660 destruction of Safed, Safed: historical context
Safed's central role in Jewish life in Galilee declined after the late 16th century, when it had been a major city with a population of 15,000 Jews. By the second half of the 17th century Safed still had a majority Jewish community with 200 "houses" and some 4,000 to 5,000 Jewish residents, while about 100 "houses" (multiple family units) in the town were Muslim. The district was under control of Druze emirs from the Maan family until 1660, when the Ottomans sought to regain local control by reorganizing the sanjaks of Safed and Sidon-Beirut into the new province of Sidon.


1660 destruction of Safed, Safed: historical context
From the 1658 death of Emir Mulhim Ma'n to 1667, a struggle for power between his sons and other Ottoman-backed Druze rulers took place in the region. Mulhim's son Ahmad Maʿn emerged victorious among the Druze, but the Maʿnīs lost control of the area and retreated to the Shuf mountains and Kisrawan. In the second half of the 17th century, Safed became the capital of the Ottoman sanjak of the same name.


1660 destruction of Safed, Year of the destruction
Adler, Franco and Mendelssohn claim that the destruction of Safed took place in 1660, Mendelssohn writing that the Jews of Safed "had suffered severely" when the city had been destroyed by the Arabs.


1660 destruction of Safed, Year of the destruction
Gershom Scholem places the attack in 1662, and Rappel writes that by 1662 both Safed and Tiberias were destroyed, with only a few of former Safed's Jewish residents to return to the town. A publication by the General Council of the Jewish Community of Eretz Yisrael states that the Druze of Lebanon raided and destroyed both Safed and Tiberias in 1662, "and the inhabitants fled to the adjacent villages, to Sidon or to Jerusalem".


1660 destruction of Safed, Claims of massacre
Rosanes brings a claim of Safed's Jewish community "utter destruction" in his book "History of the Jews in Turkish realm". Jacob de Haas, in his History of Palestine, asserts the near-total destruction of the Safed Jewish community, claiming that "its community had been massacred in 1660, when the town was destroyed by Arabs, and only one Jew escaped." However, Gershom Scholem writes that the reports of the "utter destruction" of the Jewish community in Safed in this time period "seem greatly exaggerated, and the conclusions based on them are false."


1660 destruction of Safed, Claims of massacre
He points out that Sabbatai Sevi's mystical movement was active in Safed in 1665. Scholem also attributes to the "French trader d'Arvieux who visited Safed in 1660" an understanding of "the religious factor which enabled the community to survive," a belief "'that the Messiah who will be born in Galilee, will make Safed the capital of his new kingdom on earth'" Scholem wrote that there was definitely a Jewish community in Safed in 1664–1667.


1660 destruction of Safed, Safed's Jewish community in the later years
Only a few of the former residents of Safed had returned to the town after the destruction. Altogether, the town's Jewish community kept existing despite the events, with Barnai saying that "in the second half of the 17th century the Jewish presence in Palestine dwindled, and the Jewish presence in the Galilee also shrank. Only in Safed was there a small community."


1660 destruction of Tiberias
The 1660 destruction of Tiberias occurred during the Druze power struggle in the Galilee, in the same year as the destruction of Safed. The destruction of Tiberias by the Druze resulted in abandonment of the city by its Jewish community, until it was rebuilt by Zahir al-Umar in early eighteenth century. Altshuler however attributes the destruction of Tiberias in 1660 to an earthquake. The destruction could have also been a combination of both events.


1660 destruction of Tiberias, Tiberias in the sixteenth century
As the Ottoman Empire expanded along the southern Mediterranean coast under sultan Selim I, the Catholic Monarchs began establishing Inquisition commissions. Many Conversos, (Marranos and Moriscos) and Sephardi Jews fled to the Ottoman provinces, settling at first in Constantinople, Salonika, Sarajevo, Sofia and Anatolia. The Sultan encouraged them to settle in Palestine. In 1558, a Portuguese-born marrano, Doña Gracia, was granted tax collecting rights in Tiberias and its surrounding villages by Suleiman the Magnificent. She envisaged the town becoming a refuge for Jews and obtained a permit to establish Jewish autonomy there.


1660 destruction of Tiberias, Tiberias in the sixteenth century
In 1561 her nephew Joseph Nasi, the Sultan-appointed Lord of Tiberias, encouraged Jews to settle in Tiberias. Securing a firman from the Sultan, he and Joseph ben Adruth rebuilt the city walls and laid the groundwork for a  textile (silk) industry, planting mulberry trees and urging craftsmen to move there. In 1624, when the Sultan recognized Fakhr-al-Din II as Lord of Arabistan (from Aleppo to the borders of Egypt), the Druze leader made Tiberias his capital.


1660 destruction of Tiberias, The 1660 destruction
The destruction of Tiberias by the Druze resulted in the Jewish community fleeing entirely. Unlike Tiberias, which became desolate for many years, the nearby city of Safed recovered from its destruction by Arabs in 1660 relatively quickly, not becoming entirely abandoned, remaining an important Jewish center in the Galilee.


1660 destruction of Tiberias, Aftermath
In the 1720s, Zahir al-Umar a Bedouin ruler of Ottoman Galilee, fortified the town of Tiberias and signed an agreement with the neighboring Bedouin tribes to prevent looting. Richard Pococke, who visited Tiberias in 1738, witnessed the building of a fort to the north of the city, and the strengthening of the old walls, attributing it to a dispute with the pasha (ruler) of Damascus. Under Zahir's patronage, Jewish families were encouraged to settle in Tiberias. He invited Chaim Abulafia of Smyrna to rebuild the Jewish community.


1660 in England
Events from the year 1660 in England. This is the year of Restoration.


1660 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1660.


1660 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1660 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1660 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1660 in science
The year 1660 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark
A state of emergency was declared by the King of Denmark, Frederick III of Denmark in 1660. Its purpose was to put pressure on the nobility of the first estate which in Denmark at the time took the form of the Riksråd, which were reluctant to a proposal from the second (bishoprics) and third estates (burghers) to replace the elective monarchy with hereditary monarchy.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background
Prior to the state of emergency, Denmark had an elective monarchy. The king was elected upon the death of the previous king by a council of noblemen known as the Riksråd, which also functioned as a counterbalance to the king's power while they were in office.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background
Frederik III was elected king in 1648, following the death of his father, Christian IV of Denmark. However, the political situation surrounding his election was tense, and following a brief period of interregnum he had to offer several concessions to the riksråd in return for their vote. Part of this process was a concession fixing the number of nobles on the council to 23, where previously the number had been chosen by the king.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background
These concessions meant that Frederik had limited use of his powers early on in his reign, up until the late 1650s where using some clever political manoeuvering the young king was able to oust two of his primary rivals from the council: Hannibal Sehested in 1651 over mismanagement of funds as the governor of Norway, and Corfitz Ulfeldt in 1657 over treasonous conduct in helping Sweden during the Dano-Swedish War (1657–58). This paved the way for him to begin to solidify his power.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background, First war with Sweden
On 6 June 1654, Charles X Gustav became the king of Sweden. This was a source of concern to Frederick, who considered that the new Swedish king's temperament would lead to much aggression. An opportunity came when in July 1655, the Swedish king started a campaign against Poland, the Polish War. This was a source of relief to Frederick, who was concerned about a direct attack on Denmark.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background, First war with Sweden
He saw this as a distinct opportunity, and with his power in the Riksråd secured, he was able to convince them on 23 February 1657 to grant significant subsidies for a mass military mobilisation for a strike on Sweden while their army was overseas in Poland. On 23 April 1657, he got permission from the council to attack Swedish holdings in Germany, and war was formally declared on 5 June 1657. However, this proved to be a mis-step for the Danish king - the Swedish army quickly abandoned their polish campaign and invaded jutland, and then marched quickly across the frozen sea to unexpectedly conquer the rest of Denmark in the March Across the Belts.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background, First war with Sweden
This was a crushing defeat for Frederick, who was forced to sign over almost a third of the territory he controlled in the Treaty of Roskilde. One of the provisions of the treaty was to renounce any anti-Swedish alliances, and a second condition was that Denmark must provide troops to fight in Sweden's wars, effectively making Denmark a Vassal of Sweden. Frederick, seeing the precarity of his position, resolved to make amends with his former enemy, inviting Charles X Gustav to his palace as an honoured guest, throwing banquets in his honour. The two kings were observed to speak amicably, and signs pointed towards friendship in the near future.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background, Second war with Sweden
However, peace did not last long. The Swedish king was not content with his territorial gains, and made a surprise landing in Zealand on 17 July 1658. Nobody had foreseen the possibility of such a surprise attack, and the defences of the Danish capital, Copenhagen, were not well prepared or garrisoned at all. The situation seemed dire, but impressively the Danish king made a name for himself by dismissing advice given to him by the council to flee the city, famously insisiting that he would "dø i sin rede", or "die in my nest".


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background, Second war with Sweden
The king personally led the defence of the city. The Danes had only three weeks of warning of the invasion, and the unprepared and dilapadated line of defence had at first only 2,000 troops garrisoned. However, the city was led well and by September all the breaches in the wall had been repaired, cannons had been hoisted into positions around the walls, and the defending troops had swelled to over 7,000.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background, Second war with Sweden
It was during this siege that the king worked with and struck up a personal friendship with the merchantman Hans Nansen, who also took a hand in the defence and spent much of his own money to assist in the equipping of the garrison, making him also popular. with the citizens. This friendship proved invaluble to the king later on at the meeting of the estates.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background, Second war with Sweden
The Swedish king had originally planned to directly assault the capital, but upon seeing the improved defences, began a protracted siege. The siege was broken just over a year after it had begun when the Dutch fleet came to copenhagen's aid, defeating the Swedish naval fleet at the Battle of the Sound and cutting off the besieging Swedish army from supply. The Dutch then assisted in liberating the rest of the Danish isles, and shortly afterwards the Treaty of Copenhagen (1660) was signed on 27 May 1660.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Background, Second war with Sweden
The king's well known and valiant defence as well as refusing to abandon his people caused him to become immensely popular with the people, setting the stage for his consolidation of power.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Declaration of Emergency
Following the second war in under 3 years, the kingdom was on the verge of bankruptcy. Frederick's debts had reached over 5 million rigsdalers, which posed a significant problem.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Declaration of Emergency
In September 1660, a Declaration of Emergency was proclaimed. This called the estates together to meet to discuss problems in the realm. At the meeting the estates were to discuss the financial problems caused by the wars, and significant negotiations were made over the issue of tax. The three estates were represented as follows:


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Declaration of Emergency
The nobility were attempting to defend their traditional tax exemptions but were surprised by the fierce opposition from the clergy and the burghers.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Declaration of Emergency
The nobles dug their feet in and refused to concede any ground, which irritated the leaders of the other two fanctions to the extent that at a hint from the king Hans Nansen, senior burgomaster of Copenhagen, made an impassioned speech to the other burgesses about a revolutionary proposal for a fundamental restructuring of the Danish state, calling for the abolition of Frederick's election charter, the Haandfæstning, as well as introducing a permanent hereditary monarchy and the abolition of all noble privileges in the form of tax exemptions and land grants.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Declaration of Emergency
The nobles protested strongly, but the king backed the two non-nobility estates, forming a body that he called the "Conjoined Estates", and appointed the bishop Hans Svane as their chairman. On October 8, 1660, they then met at the bishop's palace. It was here that the bishop made his own motion, stating, "Equal rights for all and a free hand for the king." A document was then made laying out these demands, and was taken to the nobles, who rejected the radical proposal.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Declaration of Emergency
On the evening of the 20th of October, Frederick made it publicly known that he intended to accept the offer without the position of the council, and placed Copenhagen under martial law, as well as tightened military control across the country. The Riksråd council was unpopular, and with the military acting on the side of the king they were completely outmanoeuvered and decided to yield under this extreme pressure. Three days later, Conjoined Estate representatives and delegates from the Riksråd officially offered the hereditary throne to Frederik and his successors. A Commission was established, in which nobles were heavily outnumbered, to consider the constitutional implications, and on 27 October, Frederik's coronation charter ( Haandfæstning ) was ceremoniously returned to him.


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Declaration of Emergency
For their parts in this process the King thanked Hans Svane by raising him to the rank of Archbishop, who was the only Danish archbishop to have ever existed. Hans Nansen mostly retired from politics and returned to his merchant work, but in high regard


1660 state of emergency in Denmark, Kongeloven
The King's Law (Danish: Kongeloven) was the first assertion of Divine right of kings in Europe in a written constitution, stating that the king "skal være hereffter og aff alle undersaatterne holdes og agtes for det ypperste og høyeste hoffved her paa Jorden offver alle Menniskelige Lowe, og der ingen anden hoffved og dommere kiender offver sig enten i Geistlige eller Verdslige Sager uden Gud alleene." - the king "shall from this day forth be revered and considered the most perfect and supreme person on the Earth by all his subjects, standing above all human laws and having no judge above his person, neither in spiritual nor temporal matters, except God alone." This in effect gave the king the right to overrule and abolish any other position of power unilaterally, which he then used to abolish the Riksråd council, leaving the king without any limitations to his power.


1660s
The 1660s decade ran from 1 January 1660, to 31 December 1669.


1660s BC
The 1660s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1669 BC to December 31, 1660 BC.


1660s in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during the 1660s in South Africa.


1660s in archaeology
The decade of the 1660s in archaeology involved some significant events.


1661
1661 (MDCLXI) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1661st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 661st  year of the 2nd millennium, the 61st  year of the 17th century, and the  2nd   year of the 1660s decade. As of the start of 1661, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1661 English general election
The 1661 English general election returned a majority of members in accord with Charles II of England. This Parliament was called the Cavalier Parliament, since many of the MPs elected were former Cavaliers or the sons of Cavaliers.


1661 English general election
Yet during the course of the Cavalier Parliament, there was considerable movement between the Cavaliers and the Roundheads.


1661 Granule
1661 Granule, also designated A916 FA, is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 7 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 31 March 1916, by German astronomer Max Wolf at Heidelberg Observatiry in southern Germany, and named for American pathologist Edward Gall.


1661 Granule, Classification and orbit
The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family, a large collisional population of stony asteroids in the inner main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0–2.4 AU once every 3 years and 3 months (1,179 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. Granule's observation arc begins with its observation at Bergedorf Observatory, one month after its official discovery observation. (It is unclear whether "HD 17", Message from Heidelberg Observatory #17, is the official discovery observation due to a different time stamp).


1661 Granule, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In January 2006, the first rotational light-curve of Granule was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer René Roy. It gave a longer-than average rotation period of 24 hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 magnitude (U=2). No other light-curves have been obtained yet.


1661 Granule, Physical characteristics, Size estimates
Granule has neither been observed by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, nor the Japanese Akari satellite, nor NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from the family's principal body and namesake, the asteroid 8 Flora – and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 12.9.


1661 Granule, Naming
This minor planet was named in honor of Edward A. Gall, an internationally renowned American pathologist, former director of the University of Cincinnati Academic Health Center and president of USCAP. It was named on the occasion of his retirement to commemorate his career and his discovery of the Gall's granule, a feature of lymphocytes. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 December 1974 (M.P.C. 3757).


1661 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1661.


1661 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1661 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1661 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1661 in science
The year 1661 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1662
1662 (MDCLXII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1662nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 662nd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 62nd  year of the 17th century, and the  3rd   year of the 1660s decade. As of the start of 1662, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1662 in Ireland
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1662 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1662.


1662 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1662 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1662 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1662 in poetry, Notes
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1662 in science
The year 1662 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1663
1663 (MDCLXIII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1663rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 663rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 63rd  year of the 17th century, and the  4th   year of the 1660s decade. As of the start of 1663, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake
The 1663 Charlevoix earthquake occurred on February 5 in New France (now the Canadian province of Quebec), and was assessed to have a moment magnitude of between 7.3 and 7.9. The earthquake occurred at 5:30 p.m. local time and was estimated to have a maximum perceived intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The main shock epicentre is suggested to have occurred along the Saint Lawrence River, between the mouth of the Malbaie River on the north and the mouth of the Ouelle River on the south. A large portion of eastern North America felt the effects. Landslides and underwater sediment slumps were a primary characteristic of the event with much of the destruction occurring near the epicentral region of the St. Lawrence estuary and also in the area of the Saguenay Graben.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake
The event occurred during the early European settlement of North America and some of the best recorded first hand accounts were from Catholic missionaries that were working in the area. These records were scrutinized to help determine the scale of damage and estimate the magnitude of the quake in the absence of abundant records from that time period.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Tectonic setting
The Charlevoix Seismic Zone (CSZ) lies along the St. Lawrence River, northeast of Quebec City. Although eastern Canada has relatively infrequent earthquakes, due to its location away from active plate boundaries, the CSZ is its most active part, with five earthquakes of estimated magnitude of 6 or greater since historical records began. Focal mechanisms for earthquakes in this zone are consistent with rupture on both reverse faults and strike-slip faults of varied orientation.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Tectonic setting
The main structures of the area are faults of the Saint Lawrence rift system that run parallel to the river, formed during the break-up of the supercontinent Rodinia in the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic. The greatest seismicity occurs where the rift is overprinted by a ~300 Ma meteorite crater, the Charlevoix impact structure. Most CSZ earthquakes have hypocenters within the Grenvillian basement at depths between 7 and 15 km. Many of the smaller earthquakes do not appear to be located on the rift faults, but within the volumes of rock between them. Larger events lie outside the impact structure and have inferred nodal planes consistent with reactivation of the rift faults. The relatively weak impact structure is interpreted to cause a perturbation of the regional stress field, affecting the stability of the rift faults.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Tectonic setting
The estimated length of the most active portion of the CSZ was 73 kilometres (45 mi) and the fault area was put at 73 km × 25 km (45 mi × 16 mi). By comparison, the 7 February 1812 New Madrid event, which was thought to have taken place on the Reelfoot fault and was the largest event in that series, had a rupture zone that was less than that of the Charlevoix earthquake and caused chimney damage at distances of more than 600 kilometres (370 mi).


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Tectonic setting
These things together suggest that the Charlevoix earthquake was similar in size to the largest of the New Madrid earthquakes and was at least a magnitude 6.8 event. The estimation of the earthquake's intensity was based on the condition of the soil where the damage occurred. A lower magnitude range would be preferred if the soil in the area was soft and loosely compacted and a range based on firm ground or bedrock would be proportionately higher.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Effects
The earthquake was felt sharply in New England, though the date recorded for the event was 26 January 1663, as New England was using the Julian calendar at the time. A church record entry made by Reverend S. Danforth from Roxbury, Massachusetts (~ 600 km from the CSZ) indicated the initial shock was felt around 6 pm that evening and several more shocks followed the next morning. On the shores of Massachusetts Bay, the tops of chimneys were broken on houses and pewter (a malleable metal alloy) was jarred from shelves.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Effects
This level of damage is consistent with a modified Mercalli intensity of VI though this may have been because the early colonials had the capability of producing only relatively weak mortar. Using this MMI value and the distance from the epicenter one can estimate the magnitude of the earthquake using published intensity-attenuation relations.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Effects
In a June 2011 report on the earthquake that was published in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, John E. Ebel, a professor and researcher at Boston College, used these known relations that apply to earthquakes in northeastern North America and determined the magnitude to be 7.3 – 7.9.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Effects
Great landslides along the Saint Lawrence, Saint-Maurice, and Batiscan Rivers made these rivers muddy after the shock, with the waters of the St. Lawrence being affected for up to one month. Near Trois-Rivières several waterfalls were transformed by these landslides, and one waterfall on the St. Maurice River near Les Grès was said to have been nearly leveled. At Saint-Jean-Vianney, Quebec, there was a large earthflow landslide in a sensitive clay, interpreted to have been caused by the 1663 earthquake. In 1971 this was the site of another much smaller earthflow that destroyed 41 houses and killed 31 people.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Effects
Multibeam bathymetry data and high resolution seismic reflection data acquired in the Saguenay Fjord has been used to identify a series of landslide deposits that were probably triggered by the 1663 earthquake. The Saguenay region is the site of a geological graben and has been subject to several natural disasters since the turn of the seventeenth century. In 1996 it was the site of the largest flood in 20th-century Canadian history, which led to the investigation of the fjord bottom using bathymetric data to determine slope stability.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Historical records
The inhabitants of the land were the Algonquin and Iroquois people as well as several thousand French settlers. Religious groups like the Ursulines (a Roman Catholic religious institute for women) and the Augustinians left good records of the event. These groups accredited the earthquake to God as a retaliation for disobedience. Some very detailed, though inconsistent, summaries were given by several Jesuits, most notably Jérôme Lalemant who provided relatively reserved written accounts of the strong effects of the earthquake back to his superiors in Europe.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Historical records
Lalemant was said to have been a disciplined priest with diverse experience and following his time in Canada was brought back to France to be posted the provincial superior of the Society of Jesus. Father Charles Simon, on the other hand, was said to have limited training and some written records of his were not received as readily or without hesitation.


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Historical records
Father Simon seemed to not be of the same mind as the bulk of the devoted, saying "...the Earthquake was rather a Scheme of Divine Mercy than a scourge of Justice,— especially since, in so great a confusion of affairs and perturbations of the elements, no one lost life or fortune. Fear came to all, penalty to none."


1663 Charlevoix earthquake, Aftermath
Immediately after the earthquake, the missionaries, once it had become clear that no lives had been lost, regarded the earthquake not only as a timely warning to the population of New France for their sinfulness, but also as a sign of God's protection. They described it as "miraculous" rather than a disaster, regarding the date of the earthquake as particularly important, coming on the last day of the carnival, just before Mardi Gras. They were pleased to see all the colonists attending church regularly in the following days and that even the traffickers in wine and brandy appeared to repent. These effects were short-lived and Lalemant and other missionaries were soon left wishing for another great earthquake to help them in their cause.


1663 in China
Events from the year 1663 in China. Also known as 壬寅 (Water Tiger) 4359 or 4299 to 卯年 (Water Rabbit) 4360 or 4300 in the Earthly Branches calendar.


1663 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1663.


1663 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1663 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1663 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1663 in science
The year 1663 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1663 van den Bos
1663 van den Bos, provisional designation 1926 PE, is a stony Florian asteroid and an exceptionally slow rotator from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 12 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 4 August 1926, by English astronomer Harry Edwin Wood at Johannesburg Observatory in South Africa. It was later named after astronomer Willem Hendrik van den Bos.


1663 van den Bos, Orbit and classification
The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family, a large group of stony asteroids in the main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8–2.6 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,224 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 5° with respect to the ecliptic.


1663 van den Bos, Orbit and classification
In March 2082, van den Bos will pass 29 Amphitrite at a distance of 0.0065 AU (972,000 km). The body's observation arc begins with a post-recovery observation taken at Johannesburg in 1936, when it was also identified as 1936 OM, which is a full decade after its official discovery observation from 1926.


1663 van den Bos, Physical characteristics, Slow rotator
In October 2010, a rotational lightcurve of van den Bos was obtained from photometric observations by astronomers Robert Stephens and David Higgins. It gave a rotation period of 740 hours with a brightness variation of 0.80 magnitude (U=3-). It is one of the slowest rotating minor planets (see list) and a suspected tumbler, that has a non-principal axis rotation. At the same time, photometric observations at the Shadowbox Observatory gave an alternative, yet ambiguous period of 155 hours with an amplitude of 0.5 magnitude (U=1).


1663 van den Bos, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, van den Bos measures between 7.58 and 13.54 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.171 and 0.255. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.2045 and a diameter of 12.25 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 11.9.


1663 van den Bos, Naming
This minor planet was named in honor of Dutch-born, South African astronomer Willem Hendrik van den Bos (1896–1974), former director of the Union Observatory (1941–1956) and president of the Astronomical Society of South Africa (1943–1955). He made visual micrometric observations and discovered thousands of double stars. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 July 1972 (M.P.C. 3297).


1664
1664 (MDCLXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1664th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 664th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 64th  year of the 17th century, and the  5th   year of the 1660s decade. As of the start of 1664, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1664
It is one of eight years (CE) to contain each Roman numeral exactly once (1000(M)+500(D)+100(C)+50(L)+10(X)+(-1(I)+5(V)) = 1664).


1664 (beer)
Kronenbourg 1664 is a golden pale lager with an alcohol percentage of 5.5% ABV in continental Europe and 5.0% for the UK market. It was first brewed in 1664 by Canon Brewery in the Alsace region of France by master brewer Geronimus Hatt. It uses the exact same recipe as was first used in 1664. For the UK market only, Kronenbourg 1664 is owned and produced in the UK by Heineken after being bought from Scottish & Newcastle. However, the Carlsberg Group officially still owns and brews Kronenbourg in other markets. The French lager contains Strisselspalt hops, unique to the Alsace, which are used in its brewing process and give the beer its bitter and fragrant citrus taste.


1664 (beer), History
In 1649, Geronimus Hatt obtained his master brewer certificate. Fifteen years later in 1664, he then opened up his first brewery, Brasserie du Canon, in Strasbourg. Just under 200 years later, the brewery relocated to the village of Cronenbourg, to the west of Strasbourg, because of a consistent flooding problem in its original location.


1664 (beer), History
Strisselspalt hops were used in the creation of the lager for the first time in 1885. This ingredient native to the Alsace region of France has been used in the creation of the beer ever since.


1664 (beer), History
In 1922, the Hatt Brewery changed its name to Tigre Brock. The name then changed again to Kronenbourg after the Second World War.


1664 (beer), History
By 1952, the beer now known as Kronenbourg 1664 was launched by Brasseries Kronenbourg to celebrate founder Geronimus Hatt. It was sold in France and imported to Britain in time for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. After its launch in Britain, it was exported to 68 other countries.


1664 (beer), History
In 2001, brewing company Scottish & Newcastle acquired Kronenbourg for £1.7 billion.


1664 (beer), History
During 2004–2005, Kronenbourg 1664 won an award at the International Brewing Awards for the first time. It finished first in Class 2: 4.6–6.9% ABV category.


1664 (beer), History
In 2008, Heineken purchased the licence to produce Kronenbourg 1664 in the UK from Scottish & Newcastle.


1664 (beer), Production
Kronenbourg has breweries in the UK, France and Australia. Their UK brewery is based in Manchester and had a £50 million investment to improve its facilities and production.


1664 (beer), Production
The Carlsberg Group officially owns and brews Kronenbourg globally, except in the UK where it is owned and brewed by Heineken International.


1664 (beer), Production
Kronenbourg is available in the UK on draught and in several packed sizes including 275ml bottles, 660ml bottles, 568ml and 440ml cans


1664 (beer), Advertising in the UK
In the 1980s, Kronenbourg 1664 launched its 'A Different Kind of Strength' advertising campaign. The campaign was featured on television across the UK. It told the story of a young man who struggled to win a game of pool, however after training and drinking Kronenbourg 1664 he showed 'A Different Kind of Strength' in order to win.


1664 (beer), Advertising in the UK
Kronenbourg 1664 began its 'Femme fatale' advertising campaign in 2000. The television ad showed men being distracted by what is at first assumed to be a young woman, however, after a few fatal accidents the camera zooms out and you find out they were all actually staring at a glass of Kronenbourg 1664. The ad created by advertising agency Rainey Kelly received over 60 complaints, all rejected by the Advertising Standards Authority (UK)


1664 (beer), Advertising in the UK
In 2004, the "Composer" advertising campaign was launched. The advert plays on the idea that once you open a bottle of Kronenbourg 1664 you have to stop what you're doing and enjoy it. Malcolm Venville directed the ad at Therapy Films.


1664 (beer), Advertising in the UK
The "Smaller Bubbles, Smoother Taste" Kronenbourg 1664 advert first aired in 2009 and was directed by Tony Kaye. The ad tells the story of a group of chefs trying to turn a large bubble into a number of smaller ones. They do this through the use of cooking equipment such as knives, mincers, graters and more. By the end, they have created the perfect sized bubbles to go in a glass of Kronenbourg 1664.


1664 (beer), Advertising in the UK
October 2010 saw Kronenbourg 1664 team up with two different British bands to create adverts for its "Slow the Pace" campaigns: the first was Motörhead who performed a slow acoustic version of their hit "Ace of Spades" in a busy pub. The second was Madness who played a toned down version of their song "Baggy Trousers". The slowed down version later featured on the Madness box set compilation A Guided Tour of Madness with the song title "Le Grand Pantalon". The two adverts created by ad agency BBH London encouraged the viewer to 'Slow the pace' and savour the taste.


1664 (beer), Advertising in the UK
In March 2013, Kronenbourg 1664's "A Taste Suprême" advertising campaign began and the slogan has become synonymous with the brand today. In the television advertisement, ex-professional footballer Eric Cantona played a starring role as brand ambassador. The ad plays on the idea that the hop farmers in France are treated like the celebrity footballers of the UK. The ad was created by advertising agency Ogilvy & Mather and featured the Queen song "We Are the Champions".


1664 (beer), Advertising in the UK
In 2014, complaints were made to the Advertising Standards Authority which subsequently decided to ban the 2013 ad from being aired. Months later, this ruling was overturned after Heineken submitted a request for the ruling to be reconsidered.


1664 (beer), Advertising in the UK
2016 saw the return of Cantona featuring in four videos for the digital campaign #lebigswim, the premise being that if 10,000 British people agreed that Kronenbourg 1664 is the best tasting beer in the world then Cantona would swim the English Channel.


1664 (beer), Advertising in the UK
Cantona was also to appear again on television screens in association with Kronenbourg 1664. In 2016, the ex-Manchester United player featured in a television advert called "The Alsace-tians". The concept of the TV ad plays off common depictions of St Bernard dogs with barrels around their necks, however in this ad they used Alsatians who deliver Kronenbourg 1664 to the deserving.


1664 in China
Events from the year 1664 in China. Also known as 癸卯年 (Water Rabbit) 4360 or 4300 to 甲辰年 (Wood Dragon) 4361 or 4301.


1664 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1664.


1664 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry and literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1664 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1664 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1664 in science
The year 1664 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1665
1665 (MDCLXV) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1665th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 665th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 65th  year of the 17th century, and the  6th   year of the 1660s decade. As of the start of 1665, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1665 AM
The following radio stations broadcast on AM frequency 1665 kHz:


1665 Gaby
1665 Gaby, provisional designation 1930 DQ, is a stony asteroid and a relatively slow rotator from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 11 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 27 February 1930, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany. It was later named after Gaby Reinmuth, the discoverer's daughter-in-law.


1665 Gaby, Orbit and classification
Gaby orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9–2.9 AU once every 3 years and 9 months (1,370 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.21 and an inclination of 11° with respect to the ecliptic. No precoveries were taken, and no prior identifications were made of Gaby. The body's observation arc begins 2 months after its official discovery observation at Heidelberg.


1665 Gaby, Physical characteristics
In the Tholen classification, Gaby is a common S-type asteroid.


1665 Gaby, Physical characteristics, Lightcurves
In February 2005, French amateur astronomer Laurent Bernasconi obtained a rotational lightcurve of Gaby from photometric observations. It gave a rotation period of 66 hours with a brightness variation of 0.27 magnitude (U=2).


1665 Gaby, Physical characteristics, Lightcurves
This is a longer-than average rotation, since most minor planets have a period between 2 and 20 hours (see list). In 2016, concurring sidereal periods of 67.905 and 67.911 hours were obtained from modeled photometric observations derived from the Lowell Photometric Database and other sources (U=n.a. ).


1665 Gaby, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Gaby measures between 10.75 and 11.01 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.253 and 0.278. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts Petr Pravec's revised WISE data with an albedo of 0.2532 and a diameter of 11.01 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 11.9±0.2.


1665 Gaby, Naming
This minor planet was named by the discoverer for his daughter-in-law, Gaby Reinmuth. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 15 December 1968 (M.P.C. 2901).


1665 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1665.


1665 in paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1665.


1665 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1665 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1665 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1665 in science
The year 1665 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1666
1666 (MDCLXVI) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1666th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 666th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 66th  year of the 17th century, and the  7th   year of the 1660s decade. As of the start of 1666, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1666
This is the first year to be designated as an Annus mirabilis, in John Dryden's 1667 poem so titled, celebrating England's failure to be beaten either by the Dutch or by fire. It is the only year to contain each Roman numeral once in descending order (1000(M)+500(D)+100(C)+50(L)+10(X)+5(V)+1(I) = 1666).


1666 Articles of Peace and Amity
The 1666 Articles of Peace and Amity were signed 20 April 1666 between the Province of Maryland and 12 Eastern Algonquian-speaking indigenous nations, including the Piscataway, Anacostanck, Doegs, Mikikiwomans, Manasquesend, Mattawoman, Chingwawateick, Hangemaick, Portobackes, Sacayo, Panyayo, and Choptico. The treaty established the right of Native peoples to remain on their lands and preserved the inviolable right of Native peoples to fishing, crabbing, hunting, and fowling. The treaty states "If an Indian kill an Englishman he shall dye for itt", however execution is only prescribed if an "English man shall kill any Indian that shall come vnpaynted".


1666 Articles of Peace and Amity
The treaty permitted Englishmen to kill Native people who enter an English plantation "painted", stating that "the English cannot easily distinguish one Indian from another." If a Native person and an Englishman meet accidentally in the forest, the "Indian shall be bound immediately to throwe downe his Armes vpon call, and in case any Indian soe meeting an English man shall refuse to throwe downe his armes vpon Call he shall be deemed as an Enemy."


1666 Articles of Peace and Amity, History
In December 2020, the Council of the District of Columbia voted to honor the language of the treaty guaranteeing fishing rights to Native people by granting free fishing licences to members of the Piscataway Indian Nation and Tayac Territory and the Piscataway Conoy Tribe of Maryland.


1666 census of New France
The 1666 census of New France was the first census conducted in Canada (and also North America). It was organized by Jean Talon, the first Intendant of New France, between 1665 and 1666.


1666 census of New France
Talon and the French Minister of the Marine Jean-Baptiste Colbert had brought the colony of New France under direct royal control in 1663, and Colbert wished to make it the centre of the French colonial empire. To do this he needed to know the state of the population so that the economic and industrial basis of the colony could be expanded.


1666 census of New France
Jean-Talon conducted the census largely by himself, travelling door-to-door among the settlements of New France. He did not include Native American inhabitants of the colony, or the religious orders such as the Jesuits or Recollets.


1666 census of New France
According to Talon's census there were 3,215 people in New France, and 538 separate families. The census showed a difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women. Children and unwedded adults were grouped together; there were 2,154 of these, while only 1,019 people were married (42 were widowed). A total of 625 people lived in Montreal, the largest settlement; 547 people lived in Quebec; and 455 lived in Trois-Rivières. The largest single age group, 21- to 30-year-olds, numbered 842. 763 people were professionals of some kind, and 401 of these were servants, while 16 were listed as "gentlemen of means".


1666 in England
1666 in England was the first year to be designated as an Annus mirabilis, in John Dryden's 1667 poem, which celebrated England's failure to be beaten either by fire or by the Dutch. However, this year also saw the Great Fire of London.


1666 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1666.


1666 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1666 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1666 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1666 in science
The year 1666 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1666...Théâtre Bizarre
1666... Théâtre Bizarre is the second studio album by the French progressive death metal band Misanthrope. It is sung in English on tracks 1, 3, 5 and 8; French on track 2, 4, 6, 7, and 11; and German on track 10.


1667
1667 (MDCLXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1667th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 667th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 67th  year of the 17th century, and the  8th   year of the 1660s decade. As of the start of 1667, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1667 Dubrovnik earthquake
The 1667 Dubrovnik earthquake was one of the three most devastating earthquakes to hit what is now modern Croatia in the last 2,400 years, since records began. The entire city was almost destroyed and around 3,000 to 5,000 people were killed. The city's Rector Simone Ghetaldi was killed and over three quarters of all public buildings were destroyed. At the time, Dubrovnik was the capital of the Republic of Ragusa. The earthquake marked the beginning of the end of the Republic.


1667 Dubrovnik earthquake, Tectonic setting
Dubrovnik's region is located in the eastern part of the Adriatic Sea and is a narrow strip of land, dotted by a series of bays, with the Dinaric Alps in the background, and hundreds of islands along the coast. The city of Dubrovnik was built in the most seismically active area in Croatia, which makes earthquakes the strongest in the whole country. It is the only Croatian town that is shown in red on the seismic map, which means that it is exposed to potential hazard of the strongest earthquakes, those of 10 degrees in the Mercalli scale.


1667 Dubrovnik earthquake, Earthquake
The earthquake occurred at around 8 in the morning on April 6, 1667. Survivors of the event witnessed a rumbling sound followed by a tremendous kick that rocked the city. It occurred at about 8:45 in the morning, lasted between 8 and 15 seconds, and had a set of 37 macro seismic intensities according to the EMS98. This event is thought to be the biggest one in the history of Dalmatia and practically defines seismic hazard in the coastal area of Croatia.


1667 Dubrovnik earthquake, Earthquake
The effects of the earthquake were most keenly felt in the territory of the Republic of Ragusa, with a maximum intensity of 9 EMS98 being assigned to three settlements: Ragusa itself, Ombla and Gruž. Other parts of the Republic were most likely affected as well, although no written records were found by historians that related to them. The Venetian enclave of Cattaro experienced a maximum intensity of 8 EMS98, with an estimated 250-300 people dead in a town of ~1300 residents. In total, 37 settlements were affected, with the EMS98 spanning 6 to 9.


1667 Dubrovnik earthquake, Earthquake, Damage
Many of the city buildings were reduced to rubble, with a majority of the ones that remained standing suffering significant damage. It is assumed that the large scale of destruction is due primarily to two factors: the previous earthquakes of 1520 and 1639, and the poor properties of the adhesives, prepared using brackish and sea water, used in the construction of the buildings. The Rector's Palace, the Major Council Hall and Sponza Palace all suffered severe damage. All the buildings lining the Stradun were destroyed, and passage through the street was blocked by rubble. Although the Franciscan Church and Monastery weren't destroyed by the earthquake, the subsequent fire destroyed much of the monastery, as well as its great library.


1667 Dubrovnik earthquake, Earthquake, Damage
Citizens of the city witnessed huge stones rolling down the hill of Srđ destroying everything in their way. Large cracks appeared in the land, and the city's water sources dried up. The dust created by the destroyed buildings were thick enough to obscure the sky. Later, a powerful tsunami devastated the port, flooding everything near the shore. Strong winds fueled fires from homes and bakeries, and the resulting blaze  would not be extinguished for almost 20 days.


1667 Dubrovnik earthquake, Aftermath
The Sponza and the Rector's palace were the only buildings that survived the natural disaster. The city was reconstructed in the baroque style that has survived intact to this day. Despite the reconstruction, the decline of the Mediterranean as a hub for trade meant that Dubrovnik, like other Mediterranean ports, began a steady decline. According to the historian Robin Harris, the earthquake killed around 2,000 inhabitants of the city and up to 1,000 in the rest of the republic. Among the dead were the Rector and half of the members of the Great council. The effects of the earthquake also resulted in the loss of half of the nobility population.


1667 Dubrovnik earthquake, Aftermath, Thievery
Alongside the fire, robbery had taken over the city as a result of the anarchy that followed, given that the earthquake killed the Rector and wiped out a great part of the government. The first claims filed before the Criminal Court concerned thefts of items and valuables from collapsed houses and rubble, with only a few cases of theft of construction material. By the beginning of 1668, the theft of construction material increased. It became the dominant form of thievery by the end of the year, and remained as such until 1674. In the period between June 21, 1667 and the December 31, 1676, ~70% of theft reports concerned material used in the city reconstruction, while 30% of the reports concerned theft of personal items and valuables.


1667 Dubrovnik earthquake, Aftermath, Water shortages
The earthquake had done significant damage to various sources of fresh water, due to the damage done to the city's aqueduct. Furthermore, the wells around the city either dried up, or gave a yellowish, thick mass instead of water. Water had to be imported, gathered from the rainfall or drawn from the wells of the Gruž Dominican monastery, which were surprisingly undamaged. Consequently, significant funds had to be diverted into the reconstruction of the aqueduct.


1667 Shamakhi earthquake
The 1667 Shamakhi earthquake occurred on 25 November 1667 with an epicenter close to the city of Shamakhi, Azerbaijan (then part of Safavid Iran). It had an estimated surface wave magnitude of 6.9 and a maximum felt intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. An estimated 80,000 people died.


1667 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1667.


1667 in literature, Events
The Roman Catholic Church places the works of René Descartes on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.


1667 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1667 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1667 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1667 in science
The year 1667 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1667 papal conclave
The 1667 papal conclave was convened on the death of Pope Alexander VII and ended with the election of Giulio Rospigliosi as Pope Clement IX. The conclave was dominated by factions loyal to the cardinal nephews of Alexander VII and Urban VIII. It saw the continued existence of the Squadrone Volante, or Flying Squadron, that had emerged in the 1655 conclave. The conclave also saw Spain and France, the two largest Catholic powers at the time, both support Rospigliosi's election as pope. Ultimately, Rospigliosi's election was achieved when the French ambassador bribed Flavio Chigi, Alexander's nephew, to support Rospigliosi. Following the conclave all the parties believed they had elected the pope that they had wanted.


1667 papal conclave, Background
After his election Alexander VII had initially been opposed to nepotism, refusing to name a cardinal nephew. Members of the College of Cardinals urged him to reconsider appointing members of his family to positions of power, and he eventually relented, naming fellow members of his Chigi family to the papal government and appointing a cardinal nephew.


1667 papal conclave, Background
The diplomatic relationship between France and the Papal States became worse while Alexander was pope. France had invaded Avignon in 1664 after a confrontation between France's ambassador to the Holy See and papal troops. The French forces left Avignon only after an apology was rendered by Alexander. Cardinal Mazarin, the leader of the French government, further urged Alexander to create more French cardinals, but he did not do so. During his pontificate Alexander created 40 new cardinals with 33 of them being Italians.


1667 papal conclave, Background
Within the College of Cardinals a faction of cardinals that was not loyal to any of the Catholic monarchies were called the Squadrone Volante, and had risen during the conclave of 1655. The name, which translates as Flying Squadron, was given because of their support of candidates who they believed had the best interest of the papacy in mind rather than candidates supported by the secular monarch. Christina, Queen of Sweden, who had abdicated the Swedish throne and moved to Rome before converting to the Catholic Church, served as the secular supporter of the group, and became particularly close to Decio Azzolino.


1667 papal conclave, Conclave
When the conclave opened it had 64 cardinal electors present. At the time of Alexander's death, the College was at its then-maximum capacity of 70 members. Between the time of his death and the opening of the conclave on 2 June 1667, two of the cardinals had died, and four members had yet to arrive in Rome. Since the conclaves of 1605, the College had consistently maintained 60 or more members take place in the conclave, and crowding had become an issue. The College debated whether it would be appropriate to hold the conclave in the Vatican given concerns about crowding and deaths of cardinals in previous conclaves, but older cardinals insisted on holding the conclave there.


1667 papal conclave, Conclave
Alexander VII had created 34 of the cardinals present during the 1667 conclave. Of that group, 10 did not accept Flavio Chigi, Alexander's cardinal nephew, as their leader because his lifestyle was considered unseemly. Sixteen of the cardinals present in the conclave were creations of Urban VIII, and they all agreed to follow the lead of Antonio Barberini, one of Urban's nephew.


1667 papal conclave, Conclave
The conclave was dominated by the parties loyal to the cardinal nephews, and electors who were loyal to various monarchs or were members of the Flying Squadron remained divided, splitting evenly between the two larger parties headed by the nephews. The French had eight electors who were loyal to them, and the Spanish had six, while the Flying Squadron had eleven.


1667 papal conclave, Conclave
From the beginning of the conclave, Giulio Rospigliosi was considered to be the papabile with the strongest chances. He was not opposed by any of the major factions at the conclave. Initially, the French sought to hide the fact that they supported Rospigliosi and promoted Scipione Pannocchieschi d’Elci for the papacy in order to allow the Spanish to support Rospigliosi, who was on good terms with the Spanish government. The Spanish, however, initially preferred the election of Francesco Barberini, another of Urban VIII's nephews.


1667 papal conclave, Conclave
The other serious candidate at the beginning of the conclave was Girolamo Farnese. Farnese was not acceptable to the Flying Squadron, which left the conclave with Rospigliosi and d'Elci as the only viable options. Flavio Chigi promoted d'Elci as a candidate, but he was considered too zealous by some of the electors.


1667 papal conclave, Election of Clement IX
On the morning of 20 June 1667 Rospigliosi received five votes during the first scrutiny. He had only received at most 10 votes during the scrutinies of the preceding weeks. Between the morning scrutiny and the one held in the evening Charles d'Albert d'Ailly, the French ambassador in Rome, promised Flavio Chigi income from France. Chigi then agreed to convince the electors who were loyal to him to vote for Rospigliosi's election. At the scrutiny that evening, Rospigliosi received 61 votes and was elected Pope Clement IX. Rospigliosi was the last pope to come from Tuscany. At the conclusion of the conclave, both France and Spain believed that they had succeeded in electing the pope that they had wanted.


1668
1668 (MDCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1668th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 668th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 68th  year of the 17th century, and the  9th   year of the 1660s decade. As of the start of 1668, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1668 North Anatolia earthquake
Northern Anatolia was struck by a large earthquake on 17 August 1668 in the late morning. It had an estimated magnitude in the range 7.8–8.0 Ms and the maximum felt intensity was IX on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale. The epicenter of the earthquake was on the southern shore of Ladik Lake. It caused widespread damage from at least Bolu in the west to Erzincan in the east and resulted in about 8,000 deaths. It remains the most powerful earthquake recorded in Turkey.


1668 North Anatolia earthquake, Tectonic setting
North Anatolia lies across the mainly transform boundary between the Anatolian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. Relative to the Eurasian Plate the Anatolian Plate is being forced westwards by the continuing northward movement of the Arabian Plate. This motion is accommodated by a major dextral (right lateral) strike-slip fault system the North Anatolian Fault. This 1,500 km (930 mi) long structure extends from the Karlıova Triple Junction in the east to the Aegean Sea in the west. In detail the fault is formed of many separate segments.


1668 North Anatolia earthquake, Tectonic setting
Movement on parts of this fault zone have been responsible for many large and damaging earthquakes. They tend to form overall westward propagating sequences that can last for many decades. The most recent sequence began with the 1939 Erzincan earthquake, continuing with major earthquakes in 1942, 1943, 1944, 1949, 1951, 1957, 1966, 1967, 1992 and two in 1999.


1668 North Anatolia earthquake, Earthquake
Analysis of historical records suggests that the 17 August earthquake was preceded by a number of foreshocks at the western end of the rupture zone. The mainshock was very large, with an estimated magnitude ranging from 7.8 Ms  (based on the size of the area affected by shaking of intensity VI) to 8.0 Ms  (based on the interpreted rupture length). The suggested rupture length varies from 380 km (240 mi) to 600 km (370 mi). In Tokat the earthquake was followed by at least six months of aftershocks.


1668 North Anatolia earthquake, Earthquake
Evidence of a major earthquake at about this time affecting the full 600 km (370 mi) has been found by trenching across the fault at many localities. The 600 km length is based on the assumption that there was a single large event rather than several smaller events, but that would require a propagating rupture to jump across a major extensional stepover (lateral offset) of 10 km (6.2 mi) in the fault at Niksar.


1668 North Anatolia earthquake, Earthquake
Despite evidence from past events, backed up by dynamic rupture modelling, that most earthquakes are unable to jump more than about 5 km (3.1 mi), the 2001 Kunlun earthquake shows clear evidence of propagating across a much wider stepover and this has been backed by further numerical modelling that suggests that ruptures can jump 8 km or more in the case of mature fault systems.


1668 North Anatolia earthquake, Earthquake
The 1668 earthquake is regarded as probably the first in a mainly westward propagating sequence that continued into the 19th century, including events in 1719, 1754, 1766, 1859 and 1893.


1668 North Anatolia earthquake, Damage
The town of Bolu was reported to be almost completely destroyed by the earthquake, with 1,800 fatalities. There was also severe damage further east along the fault, with another 6,000 reported casualties between Merzifon and Niksar. Some damage was also reported from as far east as Erzincan and at various locations along the Black Sea coast. The walls and towers of Samsun Castle were damaged and some parts of the structure "were demolished".


1668 Shandong earthquake
The Great Tancheng earthquake (Chinese: 郯城 地震; pinyin: Tánchéng dìzhèn), also known as the Shandong earthquake was a major seismic event that occurred during the rule of the Qing Dynasty somewhere in Shandong Province on July 25 of the year 1668. The earthquake had an estimated magnitude of Ms  8.5, making it the largest historical earthquake in Eastern China, and one of the largest in the world on land. The earthquake had cataclysmic implications to the region, shaking intensity was estimated to reach XII (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale, the most destructive shaking an earthquake could achieve. An estimated 43,000 to 50,000 lives were lost in the earthquake, and its effects were widely felt. The epicenter may have been located between Juxian and Tancheng County, northeast of the prefecture-level city of Linyi in southern Shandong.


1668 Shandong earthquake, Geological setting
The earthquake of 1668 occurred along the Yishu Fault, which is part of the massive Tanlu Fault Zone which formed in the Mesozoic. This fault has an estimated silp rate of less than 1 to 2.6 mm/yr. The Yishu Fault runs through east Chine for a length of 360 km, and is part of the much longer, 2,000-km-long Tanlu Fault Zone that trends north northeast-south southwest in eastern China. During the earthquake, the Yishu Fault produced a surface rupture for a length of 160 km, with an average offset of 9 meters. Researchers found that the slip sense of the fault was mainly dextral strike-slip with a small thrust component. A hypocenter depth of between 22 and 28 km has been suggested for the 1668 event.


1668 Shandong earthquake, Geological setting
The same fault may have also produced a magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Haicheng, 700 km north of this event.


1668 Shandong earthquake, Impact
The powerful earthquake was felt in 379 counties, 29 of which had catastrophic damage.


1668 Shandong earthquake, Impact
In Ju County, many structures were totally destroyed. No building was left standing in the area with a diameter of more than 50 km. Wells erupted fountains of water and ground fissures opened, gushing out sand and water. The same was seen in Tancheng County where water shot through the air up to 10 meters high. Fissures were said to be so deep that the bottom of them could not be seen. The earthquake completely obliterated every single home, temple, battlement and storehouse. In Linyi, no house was left standing, and black water was said to emerge from fissures. Many nearby city had their walls fallen and some parts flooded by overflowing rivers and wells. Fissures caused water and sand to erupt, burying homes. Many livestocks also died as a result of the earthquakes.


1668 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1668.


1668 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1668 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1668 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1668 in science
The year 1668 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1669
1669 (MDCLXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1669th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 669th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 69th  year of the 17th century, and the  10th  and last year of the 1660s decade. As of the start of 1669, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1669 Act for annexation of Orkney and Shetland to the Crown
The 1669 Act of Annexation was a Parliamentary Act passed during 1669 by the Parliament of Scotland to establish Orkney and Shetland's status as Crown Dependencies following a legal dispute with William, Earl of Morton, who held the estates of Orkney and Shetland.


1669 Act for annexation of Orkney and Shetland to the Crown
The Act made Orkney and Shetland exempt from any "dissolution of His Majesty’s lands". In 1742 a further Act of Parliament returned the estates to a later Earl of Morton, however, the original act of Parliament specifically proscribes this, stating that any such change is to be  "considered null, void and of no effect".


1669 Act for annexation of Orkney and Shetland to the Crown
The 1669 Act specifically removed Orkney and Shetland from the jurisdiction of the Scottish Parliament and places it firmly in the care of the Crown, restoring the situation as it was 200 years prior at the time of the pawning of the islands by King Christian I of Denmark/Norway to Scotland's James III.


1669 Dagmar
1669 Dagmar, provisional designation 1934 RS, is a rare-type Themistian asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 42 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 7 September 1934, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany, and named after a common German feminine name.


1669 Dagmar, Classification and orbit
The asteroid is a member of the Themis family, a large group of asteroids in the outer main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8–3.5 AU once every 5 years and 7 months (2,032 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.11 and an inclination of 1° with respect to the ecliptic. As no precoveries were taken, and no prior identifications were made, Dagmar's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation.


1669 Dagmar, Physical characteristics
Dagmar has a rare spectra of a G-type asteroid (or Cg-type in the SMASS taxonomy), similar to 1 Ceres, the largest asteroid and only dwarf planet in the asteroid belt.


1669 Dagmar, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
Astronomer Federico Manzini obtained a provisional lightcurve of Dagmar from photometric observations in March 2004. It gave a tentative rotation period of 12 hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 magnitude (U=1). As of 2017, no secure period has yet been published.


1669 Dagmar, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Dagmar measures between 35.78 and 45.194 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.035 and 0.057. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by 17 observations made by IRAS, that is an albedo of 0.0565 and a diameter of 35.78 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 10.97.


1669 Dagmar, Naming
This minor planet was named by the discoverer after a common German feminine name. No special meaning is assigned to this name. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 15 December 1968 (M.P.C. 2901).


1669 Polish–Lithuanian royal election
On 16 September 1668, King John II Casimir abdicated the Polish–Lithuanian throne. He left for France and joined the Jesuits where he became Abbot of Saint-Germain-des-Prés Abbey in Paris which resulted in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth being left without a monarch, making it necessary for a free election.


1669 Polish–Lithuanian royal election
The pro-French faction, which was backed by Michal Prazmowski and Crown Hetman Jan Sobieski, was strong. During the Convocation, several Sejm members of the szlachta urged the election of a native Piast king instead. There were widespread rumors that supporters of foreign candidates had been bribed. Under the circumstances, the Bishop of Chełmno, Andrzej Olszowski, suggested that instead of a foreigner, a Pole should be elected. Olszowski suggested the candidacy of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki, who was the son of legendary Ruthenian magnate, Jeremi Wiśniowiecki. Michał Korybut was an exceptional individual, but the Szlachta who were afraid of growing French influences, decided to back him. Local sejmiks urged the nobility to come to Warsaw as pospolite ruszenie.


1669 Polish–Lithuanian royal election
The free election, which took place in May and June 1669 in Wola, near Warsaw, is regarded as the epitome of szlachta anarchy (see Golden Liberty). After heated arguments on June 6, a crowd of nobility electors forced senators to void the candidacy of Louis, Grand Condé. Some senators tried to oppose, but most gave way to the threats and eventually supported the Bishop of Kujawy, Florian Czartoryski, who stated: “The voice of the people is the voice of God”.


1669 Polish–Lithuanian royal election
On June 17, some districts of Warsaw burned in a fire and rumors soon spread that the fire was intentionally set. Szlachta surrounded the wooden shed in which the senators convened, accusing them of treason and conspiring with foreign envoys. Shots were fired and, as Jan Chryzostom Pasek later wrote in his diaries, “bishops and senators hid themselves under chairs, emerging only after the situation had been defused.”


1669 Polish–Lithuanian royal election
Two days later, on June 19, Wiśniowiecki was elected the new king. A Polish nobleman, Jan Antoni Chrapowicki, who participated in the free election, wrote later: “There were different factions: some wanted the Neuburgian, others supported the Lotharingian. Since neither side wanted to resign their candidacy, it was decided that in order to avoid commotion, a Piast will be elected, who turned out to be  Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki. Primate Prazmowski, who was hesitant at the choice, was eventually forced to sing the Te Deum hymn”.


1669 Polish–Lithuanian royal election
Even though Wisniowiecki won the support of the majority of electors, a faction led by Prazmowski and Sobieski continued to oppose him. The Crowning by the Sejm, which took place in Kraków, was dismissed. The Commonwealth, which suffered from continuous Crimean Tatar raids, was on the brink of civil war. Outbreak of the Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76) changed this situation, ending internal conflicts.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna
The 1669 eruption of Mount Etna is the largest-recorded historical eruption of  the volcano on the east coast of Sicily, Italy. After several weeks of increasing seismic activity that damaged the town of Nicolosi and other settlements, an eruption fissure opened on the southeastern flank of Etna during the night of 10-11 March. Several more fissures became active during 11 March, erupting pyroclastics and tephra that fell over Sicily and accumulated to form the Monti Rossi scoria cone.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna
Lava disgorged from the eruption fissures flowed southwards away from the vent, burying a number of towns and farmland during March and April, eventually covering 37–40 square kilometres (14–15 sq mi). The inhabitants of the towns fled to the city of Catania and sought refuge there; religious ceremonies were held in the city to implore the end of the eruption. In early April a branch of the lava flow advanced towards the city and on the 1 or 16 April it reached its city walls, provoking a crisis and the flight of many of its inhabitants. The city walls held up the lava, which began to flow into the Ionian Sea. More than two weeks later, parts of the flow surmounted the walls and penetrated Catania but did not cause much damage. The eruption ended in July.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna
The first recorded attempt to divert a lava flow occurred when priest Diego Pappalardo and fifty others worked to break up a lava flow in an effort to divert it. The effort was initially successful but the diverted flow threatened another town whose inhabitants chased Pappalardo and his men away and the lava flow resumed its original course towards Catania. There are no known fatalities of the 1669 eruption but many towns, parts of Catania and farmland were destroyed by the lava flow and the earthquakes that accompanied the eruption. News of the eruption spread as far as North America and a number of contemporaries described the event, leading to an increased interest in Etna's volcanic activity.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Context
Mount Etna lies on the island of Sicily, at the coast facing the Ionian Sea. Etna is one of the most iconic and active volcanoes in the world; its eruptions–including both effusive and explosive eruptions from flank and central vents–have been recorded for 2,700 years. Etna had been unusually active during the 17th century, with several long lasting and voluminous eruptions and volcanic activity also increased on Vulcanello in the Aeolian Islands; a similar concordance between activity at Etna and in the Aeolian Islands was also observed in 2002. During the two months before the 1669 eruption, the output of gas and steam from Etna's summit craters had been higher than usual.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Context
In 1669, Sicily was part of the Kingdom of Aragon, which governed the island through a viceroy in Palermo. A highly productive agricultural sector existed on the heavily urbanized southeastern slopes of Etna; settlements had grown there during the High Middle Ages. Catania had a population of about 27,000 and was the third-largest city of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Prelude
Seismic activity at Mount Etna began on 25 February 1669 and increased over the next two weeks. It reached its zenith during the night of 10 and 11 March when earthquakes destroyed Nicolosi. The seismic activity caused damage in Gravina, Mascalucia, Pedara and Trecastagni, and was felt as far away as Catania. A number of seismic events are reported in contemporaneous records but their timing and frequency are not known. Early activity that lasted until 9 March reflects the ascent of deep magma within the mountain while subsequent earthquakes were associated with the opening of the eruption fissure. These early events impacted a wider area than the later ones; earthquake activity diminished after the eruption had begun.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Eruption commences and events at the vent
After midnight on 11 March, the first fissure opened up on Etna between the Monte Frumento Supino cinder cone and Piano San Leo. This 2-meter (6.6 ft) wide and 9-kilometer (5.6 mi) long fissure between 2,800–1,200 m (9,200–3,900 ft) elevation was accompanied by weak eruptive activity at its upper end and an intense glow on its lower end. During the afternoon of the same day, a second fissure opened and erupted lithics and ash clouds; historical records vary on the number of vents that became active.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Eruption commences and events at the vent
An alternative reconstruction of events envisages the development of several fissure segments between 950–700 m (3,120–2,300 ft) elevation, most of which underwent brief explosive and effusive eruptions. At 18:30, the main vent became active and lava began to flow from the second fissure from east of the Monte Salazara cone, close to Nicolosi, at 800–850 m (2,620–2,790 ft) elevation in Etna's southern rift zone.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Eruption commences and events at the vent
A fifth fissure segment south of the Monpilieri cinder cone was briefly active on 12 March and several vents – sources disagree on the exact number – became active on 12 March around the main vent with lava fountaining. The Monti Rossi cinder cone developed over the main vent and was almost fully formed by 13 March.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Explosive eruption
An eruption column rose from the vent and deposited tephra, pyroclastics covered large parts of Etna's southeastern flank and ash from the eruption traveled as far as Calabria and Greece. Strombolian and lava fountaining took place, generating pyroclastics including lapilli and lava bombs, which fell over the southeastern flank for three months. These deposits reached a thickness of 12 centimetres (4.7 in) 5 km (3.1 mi) from the vent; roofs in Acireale, Pedara, Trecastagni and Viagrande collapsed under the weight of the tephra. Huge boulders were ejected to distances of several kilometers. Most of the tephra was produced within the first few days of the eruption.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Explosive eruption
The explosive stages of the 1669 eruption produced 0.066 km3 (0.016 cu mi) of pyroclastics and have been classified as category 2–3 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index, making it one of the most intense eruptions of Etna. Subplinian eruptions on Etna's flanks are not common; other examples are the prehistoric eruptions of Monte Moio 28,600 ± 4,700 years ago, Monte Frumento delle Concazze 3,500 years ago and Monte Salto del Cane 3,000 years ago.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Explosive eruption
Over three million tons of sulfur were released by the eruption. This sulfur may have risen into the upper troposphere, causing changes in the chemistry of the regional atmosphere and environmental hazards. The 1669 eruption, however, did not form a substantial atmospheric dust veil.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Lava flow
Lava now flowed out of the volcano into a densely populated area at an average rate of 50–100 m3/s (1,800–3,500 cu ft/s), with a peak rate of 640 m3/s (23,000 cu ft/s). Lava emanating from the vent flowed around the Mompilieri/Monpilieri cinder cone and during 12 March destroyed the villages of Malpasso. The town of Mompilieri fell victim to the lava flows during the night and Mascalucia was covered the day after. During and after 14 March, the lava flow branched out in three directions and began to advance southwards; the western branch destroyed villages close to Mascalucia, and houses around Camporotondo and San Pietro.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Lava flow
This fiery and burning deluge immediately spread itself to above six miles in breadth, seeming to be somewhat of the colour of melted and burning glass; but, as it cools, becomes hard and rocky, and everywhere in its passage leaves hills and pyramids of that matter behind it.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Lava flow
After 15 March, the lava flow fronts began to slow down. The development of additional branches and of overlapping flows continued as lava tubes formed in the flow. On 15–17 March San Giovanni Galermo was partially destroyed, followed during the next week by agricultural land of Gravina. Between the 26 and 29 March the same fate struck Camporotondo and San Pietro, and on 29 March Misterbianco. Between the 18 and 25 March the western and eastern branches of the lava flow stopped advancing 10 km (6.2 mi) and 8.8 km (5.5 mi) away from the vent, respectively. Almost a century after the eruption, Sir William Hamilton reported the lava flows had shifted an otherwise undamaged vineyard by over 0.5 km (0.31 mi).


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Lava flow
The southeastern branch of the flow, which was fed by lava tubes and ephemeral vents, continued to advance and destroyed farms close to Catania. On 20 March, a branch of the lava flow approached the city and after ponding in and filling the Gurna del Nicito lake, on the 1, 12 or 16 April, it reached the city walls about 15 km (9.3 mi) away from the vent. The walls deflected the lava flow southwards and after surrounding the Castello Ursino on 23 April and obliterating the valley that surrounded it, the lava flow began entering the Ionian Sea as a 2 km (1.2 mi)-wide flow front.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Lava flow
The city walls resisted the advancing lava for 15 days. Beginning on 30 April, some flows overtopped the walls and penetrated Catania, pushing aside weaker buildings and burying sturdier ones but did not cause much damage. Inside the city the flows advanced about 200 metres (660 ft). The 1669 eruption is the only historical eruption that impacted the urban area of Catania; other lava flows in the city are of prehistoric age and the presence of lava from the AD 252 eruption has been ruled out.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Lava flow
Lava continued to flow into the sea, which was 17 km (11 mi) away from the vents, for two more months, and overlapping lava flows continued to form upstream yielding a complex lava field. On 11 July 1669 lava ceased to flow and on 15 July the eruption was definitively over. The eruption lasted 122 days, making it one of the longest in the history of Etna. Even after the eruption ended, the lava flows were still hot enough to boil water for many months and it reportedly took eight years for the lava to cool. Puffs of gas would escape when rods were poked into the lava.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Events, Events at the summit
During the night of 24 March, a violent earthquake took place and was followed by activity on the main summit of Etna. The next day at 10:00 an explosive eruption occurred at the summit, and an "immensely high" eruption column rose over the volcano. No caldera collapse took place on the volcano but landslides affected the summit crater. There is disagreement between contemporaneous records that mention a collapse of the summit in 1669, those which do not, and 21st-century research that indicates there were no major changes in the morphology of the summit during the 1669 eruption.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Response
When the eruption began to destroy settlements and land north of Catania, the people fled to the city. Authorities in Catania requested assistance from the then-viceroy of Sicily Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 10th Duke of Alburquerque and took care of about 20,000 refugees. These refugees sought out the city as a safe haven because it was distant from the eruption at that time and they were received with great hospitality. It appears that during this time, religious ceremonies took up much of the daily lives of Catania's populace.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Response
As the eruption continued and lava flows advanced towards Catania, law and order broke down, panic ensued – an unusual event during a natural disaster – and the authorities of Catania were overwhelmed. The viceroy appointed Prince Stefano Riggio as vicar-general to manage the crisis per l'incendio di Mongibello ("for the fire of the Mongibello"); Riggio arrived on 18 April and found a largely depopulated city as the artisanal class and the aristocracy had fled Catania and others had followed in their wake.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Response
Riggio prepared barracks north of Catania to take up refugees and evacuated both prisons, the city archives, food reserves and religious objects from the city. When lava broke over the city walls on 30 April, the evacuation of the city was considered but then rejected. Instead, the walls threatened by the lava flows were reinforced, gates blocked and when the lava penetrated them restraining walls and barriers were built from the debris of destroyed houses. The viceroy later sent also money for recovery.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Response
Eruptions of Etna were interpreted as the consequence of divine wrath and suffering being inflicted on the sinful people. Religious services took place in Catania and other villages; during processions the relics of St. Agatha, the Martyr of Catania, were carried around and people flagellated themselves. Some sources suggest the veil of St. Agatha spared the city from total destruction.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Response
Fifty inhabitants of Pedara led by priest Diego Pappalardo attempted to divert a lava flow by breaking up the margins with axes and picks while protecting themselves from the heat through water-soaked hides. This effort worked initially until 500 inhabitants of Paternò put a stop to it because their town was threatened by the redirected lava flow. The diversion attempt failed when the breach healed. This effort constitutes the first recorded attempt at changing the course of a lava flow.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Response
As a consequence of the incident between Paterno and the people attempting the diversion, it was declared and formally ratified in the 19th century that people diverting a lava flow would be liable for the damage caused by it; this rule was only suspended during the eruption of 1983 although clandestine attempts, sometimes with official backing, had occurred before that year. There were religious objections to diverting lava flows; such an intervention was viewed as sacrilegious in the context of the relationship between God, man, and nature.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, On the volcano
The 1669 eruption is considered to be the most important historical flank eruption of Etna. With a volume of 0.5–1 km3 (0.12–0.24 cu mi) lava, the 1669 eruption is Etna's largest during the last 400 years and its largest historical effusive eruption. Its lava field is the largest in the volcano's history and the longest flow at Etna during the last 15,000 years.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, On the volcano
The lava flow of 1669 covered an area of 37 km2 (14 sq mi)-40 km2 (15 sq mi),, radically changing the morphology of the volcano. It is considered an aa lava field that also contains "toothpaste" lava with tabular and plate-like structures of varying sizes and numerous lava channels. The lava extended the coast by 800 m (2,600 ft) over a width of 1.5 km (0.93 mi). An older volcanic cone and lava flows from earlier eruptions were partially buried.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, On the volcano
The 1669 eruption came at the end of a period of high effusive activity that began in 1610. The behavior of Etna changed after the eruption, presumably due to the large volume of material erupted in the 1669 event and changes in the plumbing system it caused. After 1669, Etna's eruptions were smaller, shorter, and more sporadic with fewer flank eruptions, and mafic phenocrysts became more common in the lavas. The 1669 eruption has been defined as the starting point of a century-long cycle of activity that continues to this day and Etna's volcanic products are subdivided into pre-1669 and post-1669 formations in Italy's geological map.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, On the volcano, Scoria cone and lava caves
The about-200-metre (660 ft)-high and about 1-kilometre (0.62 mi) wide Monti Rossi scoria cone was formed by the 1669 eruption. It consists of two overlapping cones or a cone with two summits that was constructed by intense lava bomb and volcanic ash fallout that was observed by eyewitnesses. This cone was named "Mount of Ruin" after the eruption and was then renamed Monti Rossi (Red Mountains), either to cancel the memory of the destructive eruption or after its color. It is a prominent landmark.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, On the volcano, Scoria cone and lava caves
Several caves, such as the Grotta delle Palombe, are accessible from a small depression on the eruption fissure; Pietra Luna cave, a system of three caves between Belpasso and Nicolosi that contain cave formations; and several lava caves in the flow were formed by the 1669 eruption. Such caves form when lava flows develop a crust and drain out, leaving an empty space under the crust that forms the cave.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, On the surrounding population
The 1669 eruption was the most destructive eruption of Mount Etna since the Middle Ages. Approximately fourteen villages and towns were destroyed by the lava flows or by earthquakes that preceded and accompanied the eruption. South of the volcano, ash and tephra fallout destroyed large but unclearly stated quantities of olive groves, orchards, pasture, vineyards, and mulberry trees that were used for silkworm rearing. Contemporaneous sources do not mention any fatalities from the eruption or the earthquakes that accompanied it; later reports of 10,000 – 20,000 fatalities appear to be incorrect and apocryphal.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, On the surrounding population
Contrary to common reports, not all of Catania was destroyed but its outskirts, and the western part of the city sustained damage. Canals, parts of the fortifications of Catania, and about 730-300 buildings were destroyed by the eruption. The Monastery of San Nicolò l'Arena and the Castello Ursino were damaged; its moat was filled in and the lower part of the Castello Ursino was buried beneath 9–12 m (30–39 ft) of lava. Large parts of the population of Catania and 27,000 peasants were left homeless. The reconstruction costs, damages caused by the eruption, and a population decrease during the events depressed both industrial and commercial activity in the city.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, On the surrounding population
The eruption is also known as the Great eruption and the year of great ruin by contemporaries. News of the eruption spread to England, France, Portugal, Ireland, and Scotland, where government news pamphlets about the eruption were published. The news reached as far as Cambridge, Massachusetts, in North America. The 1669 eruption has been portrayed in a number of contemporaneous iconographic works and is the most commonly depicted eruption of Etna in its iconography. After 1669, the number of large eruptions of Etna decreased and the interest in portraying the volcano and its eruptions waned as a consequence.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, Long-term effects
Despite the lack of fatalities, the 1669 eruption had a long-term impact on society and economy of the wider region. Inhabitation patterns and thus the economic development of the southeastern flank of Etna were influenced by the eruption for centuries. The population of the region declined after the eruption.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, Long-term effects
Several towns were rebuilt in different locations and under different names. A new port and a new neighborhood were built in Catania. Its city walls were rendered ineffective by the lava flow, which provided a natural obstacle. New fortifications were built in 1676 on the lava flow and in sections that were unprotected after the eruption. In Catania, the damage caused by the eruption was exceeded by that caused by the 1693 Sicily earthquake.


1669 eruption of Mount Etna, Impact, Long-term effects
Unlike earthquakes, lava flows cause long-lasting damage to land; even a century later the land covered by the lava from the 1669 eruption was barren and today only limited agricultural activity is possible. As a consequence of this and other eruptions, about 13% of cultivable land south of Etna and below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) elevation was lost in the 17th century. A westward expansion of Catania was no longer possible over the terrain covered by lava. The impact of the tephra fallout was less; roof damage was quickly repaired and agriculture quickly recovered.