1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Constitutional Chronology
After his 1748 visit to New York, Massachusetts Governor William Shirley wrote of the New York Assembly, "They seem to have left scarcely any part of His Majesty's prerogative untouched, and they have gone great lengths toward getting the Government, military as well as civil, into their hands." However New England historians ignored this beginning of constitutional politics, which came from a Dutch colony, even as they trumpeted Boston actions that imitated, half a century later, what had already been accomplished in New York.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Constitutional Chronology
[I]t is expedient that new ... regulations should be established for improving the revenue of this Kingdom ... and ... it is just and necessary that a revenue should be raised ... for defraying the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing the same. Sugar Act Preamble, 1764


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Constitutional Chronology
Britain gained immensely by the 1756-63 French and Indian War (a.k.a. Seven Years' War), but incurred large debt in doing so. To secure peace, the Grenville Ministry maintained 7,500 troops in America. Saddled with huge national debt and expenditures, the English government sought to have the colonies share this burden. Several times, Parliament sought tax revenue to pay its debts, abandoning each attempt soon after it heard Colonial objections. The 1764 Sugar Act imposed high tariff on molasses imports, followed by the 1765 Stamp Act, then the 1766 Declaratory Act, and then the 1767 Townshend Acts.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Constitutional Chronology
Early colonial objections emphasized taxation, later ones a constitutional issue—"no taxation without representation". Already in 1764, it was clear that the British measures were not working. George Grenville, the King's First Minister, drafted tax legislation, but delayed it for a year. Scheduled to go into effect on 1 November 65, the Stamp Act taxed legal and commercial documents, newspapers, books, dice, and playing cards. Had the Ministry wanted to annoy all population segments, it could not have done a better job. After the 1765 Virginia Resolves appeared in colonial newspapers, merchants refused to buy the required stamps. Parliament repealed the Stamp Act on 18 March 66.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Constitutional Chronology
Although official news of the Townshend Acts reached North America in September 67, organized colonial protests began only in 1768. Between 2 December 67 and 15 February 68, the Pennsylvania Chronicle published twelve articles by John Dickinson—his Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, arguing that "Parliament had no right to impose taxes, only duties to encourage and regulate trade". These letters were reprinted throughout colonial America. On 20 January 68, the Massachusetts Assembly petitioned the King to repeal the legislation.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Constitutional Chronology
Seeking American unity, Boston's Samuel Adams suggested that colonial objections "should harmonize with each other". This 11 February 68 Massachusetts Circular Letter, invited every colony to cooperate in resistance. The British ordered the Massachusetts Assembly to rescind the letter. It refused, and its royal governor dissolved it. This led Virginia to generate the PMR on 14 April 68, and to announce it to sister colonies. Then the 6th May New Jersey Assembly Petition to the King asserted "the Privilege of being exempt from any Taxation except as imposed … by themselves or Representatives". Soon every colony protested.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Constitutional Chronology
Starting in 1766 the colonies tried non-importation agreements. These helped induce the Stamp Act repeal because English merchants lost money shipping goods to destinations that would not accept them. In 1768 every port city and nearly every region adopted its own agreement. However, signing a non-importation agreement was one thing; making it effective was something else. Some merchants asked for exorbitant prices; some defied the rules by importing goods, to the chagrin of those who complied. The early agreements collapsed. Nevertheless, non-importation was agreed on in the first Continental Congress.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Constitutional Chronology
On 10 May 73 the Tea Act granted a tea monopoly to the East India Company. It also continued a small duty on tea. Philadelphians protested en masse in October. Bostonians tried to get their English tea agents to resign, but failed. On 16 Dec, after Governor Thomas Hutchinson blocked an attempt to return the Dartmouth, still loaded, to England, activists boarded three tea ships and dumped 342 containers of tea into the harbor. Massachusetts and Virginia, the most populous and wealthy colonies, were also the most influential.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Constitutional Chronology
On 17 June Massachusetts called for "a meeting of Committees from the several Colonies on this Continent". Virginia supported the idea. In 1774 this happened—the First Continental Congress. Delegates included George Washington (Va.), Patrick Henry (Va.), John Adams (Ma. ), Samuel Adams (Ma. ), Joseph Galloway (Pa.) and John Dickinson (Pa.). Peyton Randolph (Va.) was chosen its president.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Slow Communication, Agents, and Committees of Correspondence
The following PETITION, MEMORIAL AND REMONSTRANCE, were ordered by the House of Burgesses not to be published ... until the 15th of December, before which Time it was supposed they would be laid before his Majesty, and both Houses of Parliament. G.WYTH, Cl. H.B.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Slow Communication, Agents, and Committees of Correspondence
Mid-18th-century news between American colonies took days or longer; news from London took six weeks or longer. For instance, on 27 August 68, Massachusetts Governor Bernard wrote to Lord Barrington, "the June Packet is not yet come in, tho' it is now 11 Weeks since it left London. It is become a most dilatory Conveyance". Between 1763 and 1775 communications improved markedly, partly because triangular sails replaced ships' square rigging.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Slow Communication, Agents, and Committees of Correspondence
A striking feature of the New York newspapers after April 65 is the extraordinary attention given to ... what was taking place and being said in other colonies. Little wonder that the Stamp Act Congress met at New York City. ... events in New York had considerable emotional and political impact upon its neighbors. John Dickinson's widely read Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, published in 1767, derived important constitutional arguments from ... New York's legislature being suspended without the colonists' prior acquiescence. [ Kammen 1975]


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Slow Communication, Agents, and Committees of Correspondence
Editors secured news through haphazard channels—from travelers, friends' letters, and domestic and foreign papers—copious but uncertain sources. Weekly posts from Boston and New York were useful, but often late. Although publishers rarely editorialized openly, they tried to mold opinion by accepting certain contributions and rejecting others. But the veracity of news received could not be checked. This had political consequences. The PMR lamented,


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Slow Communication, Agents, and Committees of Correspondence
that the Remoteness of their Situation from the Seat of his Majesty's Empire too often exposes them to such Misrepresentations as are apt to involve them in Censures of Disloyalty to their Most Gracious Sovereign, and the Want of a proper Respect and Deference to the British Parliament; whereas they have ever indulged themselves in the agreeable Persuasion that they had entitled themselves to be considered as inferior to none of their Fellow Subjects, ...


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Slow Communication, Agents, and Committees of Correspondence
Each colony had a London agent for communication between its assembly and the British government. Such agents negotiated with royal Ministers, explaining colonial needs and providing colonial news. Their main contacts were with the Board of Trade, where they handled land problems, border disputes, military affairs, and Indian affairs. The best known agent was Benjamin Franklin, employed for 15 years by Pennsylvania, and later also by Georgia, New Jersey, and Massachusetts.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Slow Communication, Agents, and Committees of Correspondence
Colonial assemblies recognized that they needed to manage their correspondence to coordinate responses to Britain and, later, to share revolutionary plans. Massachusetts' Committee of Correspondence, organized on 2 November 72 by Samuel Adams, became a model for the other colonies. Virginia followed in March 73, and also sent a copy of its enabling resolutions to every other colony, urging each to appoint its own committee. Most complied in 1773.


1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance, Slow Communication, Agents, and Committees of Correspondence
By 1774, the Committees of Correspondence had emerged as shadow governments, superseding their colonial legislatures and royal officials.


1768 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1768.


1768 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1768 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1768 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1768 in science
The year 1768 in science and technology involved some significant events.


17683 Kanagawa
17683 Kanagawa, prov. designation: 1997 AR16, is a carbonaceous background asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 22 kilometers (14 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 10 January 1997, by Japanese astronomer Atsuo Asami at the Hadano Observatory, located 60 kilometers southwest of Tokyo, Japan. The asteroid was later named after the Japanese Kanagawa Prefecture.


17683 Kanagawa, Orbit and classification
Kanagawa orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.5–3.5 AU once every 5 years and 2 months (1,882 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 18° with respect to the ecliptic. No precoveries were taken prior to its discovery. The asteroid's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Hadano.


17683 Kanagawa, Naming
This minor planet was named after the Japanese Kanagawa Prefecture, in which the city of Hadano with its discovering observatory is located. Also located in the east of Kanagawa Prefecture, are the industrial cities of Yokohama and Kawasaki, the second and ninth biggest city of the country, respectively, and vital centers of Japan's economy. The discoverer, Atsuo Asami, graduated at Kanagawa University. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 9 March 2001 (M.P.C. 42365).


17683 Kanagawa, Physical characteristics, Lightcurves
In October 2009, a rotational lightcurve of Kanagawa was obtained at the Wise Observatory in Israel. The photometric observations rendered a well-defined rotation period of 5.895±0.004 hours with a brightness variation of 0.4 magnitude (U=3).


17683 Kanagawa, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Kanagawa has a low albedo between 0.030 and 0.062, and a diameter of 16.8 to 22.1 kilometers. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, and derives a carbonaceous albedo of 0.033 with a diameter of 22.1 kilometers and an absolute magnitude of 12.6.


1769
1769 (MDCCLXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1769th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 769th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 69th  year of the 18th century, and the  10th  and last year of the 1760s decade. As of the start of 1769, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1769 Census (Denmark–Norway)
The 1769 Census was the first census covering the Oldenburg State: the Kingdom of Denmark, the Kingdom of Norway (including the Faroese Islands and Iceland), the Duchy of Schleswig, the Duchy of Holstein, and the Countship of Oldenburg.


1769 in Great Britain
Events from the year 1769 in Great Britain. This year sees several key events in the Industrial Revolution.


1769 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1769.


1769 in paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology (from Greek: paleo, "ancient"; ontos, "being"; and logos, "knowledge") is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1769.


1769 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1769 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1769 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1769 in science
The year 1769 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1769 in science, Astronomy
The transit is followed five hours later by a total solar eclipse visible from Britain.


1769 papal conclave
The 1769 papal conclave (15 February – 19 May), was convoked after the death of Pope Clement XIII. It elected as his successor Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli, who took the name Clement XIV.


1769 papal conclave, Death of Clement XIII
Clement XIII died suddenly on 2 February 1769, a day before the date of the consistory that he had convoked to examine the demands for the general suppression of the Society of Jesus. The various courts under the House of Bourbon and the Kingdom of Portugal (under the House of Braganza) had exerted strong pressure on the Holy See to suppress this order through almost the whole of his pontificate.


1769 papal conclave, Death of Clement XIII
In 1759 Jesuits were expelled from Portugal and all its possessions, in 1764 from the Kingdom of France, in 1767 from Spain and in 1768 from the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily and the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza. Clement XIII strongly defended the Society (e.g. in the bull Apostolicum pascendi in 1765), but without success. In January 1769 France and Naples seized the papal territories around Avignon, Benevento and Pontecorvo to force the pope to issue a decree for the suppression of the order. The sudden death of 75-year-old Clement XIII left this difficult decision to his successor.


1769 papal conclave, Divisions in the College of Cardinals and the candidates to the papacy
The papal conclave in 1769 was almost completely dominated by the problem of the Society of Jesus. The Sacred College of Cardinals was divided into two blocs: pro-Jesuits and anti-Jesuits, but several cardinals were neutral. The pro-Jesuit faction, called Zelanti, grouped Italian curial cardinals who opposed the secular influences on the Church. Their leaders were Gian Francesco and Alessandro Albani and cardinal-nephew of the deceased pope Carlo Rezzonico. The anti-Jesuit bloc (called also "court faction") grouped crown-cardinals of the Catholic Powers: France, Spain and Naples.


1769 papal conclave, Divisions in the College of Cardinals and the candidates to the papacy
Respectively ruled at the time by Louis XV of France, Charles III of Spain and Ferdinand III of Sicily/Ferdinand IV of Naples. In spite of the national divisions they worked together for the main goal – suppression of the Society of Jesus. The Bourbon courts had decided to put the official leadership of this bloc in the hands of the French Cardinal de Bernis. He and his colleagues were instructed to block every pro-Jesuit candidature, even with the official exclusion if necessary. Several cardinals, among them Lorenzo Ganganelli, did not belong to either faction.


1769 papal conclave, Divisions in the College of Cardinals and the candidates to the papacy
The French government was more fastidious than Spanish and Neapolitan. Only three cardinals were considered good candidates: Conti, Durini and Ganganelli


1769 papal conclave, Divisions in the College of Cardinals and the candidates to the papacy
Out of these 43 cardinals only 27 or 28 were actually considered papabile, while the remaining 15 were excluded due to their age or health.


1769 papal conclave, Conclave
The conclave began on 15 February 1769. Initially only 27 cardinals participated. Zelanti, taking advantage of the small number of the electors and the absence of the French and Spanish cardinals, tried to achieve a quick election of Cardinal Flavio Chigi. In one ballot he was only two votes short of being elected. The efforts of Zelanti met with strong protests from the ambassadors of France and Spain, and Cardinal Orsini, protector of the Kingdom of Naples and the only crown-cardinal present in the early ballots, was able to join some neutral cardinals to block Chigi's candidature.


1769 papal conclave, Conclave
An unprecedented event was the visit of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, who arrived incognito in Rome on 6 March and was allowed to enter the conclave. He stayed there two weeks, freely debating with the electors. He did not press them but only expressed the wish for the election of a pope who would be able to carry out his duties with the proper respect for the secular rulers.


1769 papal conclave, Conclave
Cardinal de Bernis entered the conclave at the end of March and took the leadership of the anti-Jesuit faction from the hands of Cardinal Orsini, who could have blocked Zelanti's actions only with the great difficulties. Bernis immediately established a regular correspondence with French ambassador Marquis d'Aubeterre, which was in violation of the fundamental law of the conclave. Ambassadors of France and Spain urged Bernis to insist that the election of the future pope be made to depend on his written engagement to suppress the Jesuits.


1769 papal conclave, Conclave
Bernis refused, answering that demanding from the future pope a written or oral promise to destroy the Society of Jesus would be in violation of the canon law. In spite of this refusal, during the next few weeks Bernis consecutively rejected all candidates proposed by Zelanti as too devoted to the Jesuits. In this way twenty-three out of twenty-eight papabile were eliminated, among them strongly pro-Jesuit Cardinal Fantuzzi, who at some point was very close to achieving election to the papal throne, as well as Cavalchini, Colonna, Stoppani, Pozzobonelli, Sersale, and several others.


1769 papal conclave, Conclave
The arrival of Spanish cardinals Solis and de la Cerda on 27 April strengthened the anti-Jesuit party. They also violated the law of the conclave by establishing regular correspondence with Spanish ambassador Azpuru. The Spaniards had fewer scruples than Bernis and, supported by Cardinal Malvezzi, took the matter into their own hands. They paid attention to the only friar in the Sacred College, Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli, O.F.M.Conv.


1769 papal conclave, Conclave
The attitude of Ganganelli towards the Jesuits was a great mystery – he had been educated by the Jesuits and it was said that he received the red hat at the instance of Father Lorenzo Ricci, general of the Society of Jesus, but during the pontificate of Clement XIII he did not engage himself in the defence of the Order. Cardinal Solis began by sounding him out as to his willingness to give the promise required by the Bourbon princes as an indispensable condition for election.


1769 papal conclave, Conclave
Ganganelli answered that "he recognized in the sovereign pontiff the right to extinguish, with good conscience, the Society of Jesus, provided he observed the canon law; and that it was desirable that the pope should do everything in his power to satisfy the wishes of the Crowns". It is not certain whether it was a written or only an oral promise, but this declaration fully satisfied the ambassadors.


1769 papal conclave, Conclave
In the same time Zelanti, also began to incline to give their support to Ganganelli, looking upon him as indifferent or even favourable to the Jesuits. It seems that the attitude of Zelanti was decided by the secret negotiations between their leaders Alessandro and Gian Francesco Albani and the Spanish cardinals. Cardinal de Bernis, the nominal leader of the court faction, probably did not play any role in the appointment of Ganganelli and only followed the instructions of Marquis d'Aubeterre when all had been already known.


1769 papal conclave, Election of Clement XIV
In the final ballot on 19 May 1769 Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli was elected to the papacy receiving all votes except of his own, which he gave to Carlo Rezzonico, nephew of Clement XIII and one of the leaders of Zelanti. He took the name of Clement XIV, in honour of Clement XIII, who had elevated him to the cardinalate.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti
On June 3, 1769, British navigator Captain James Cook, British naturalist Joseph Banks, British astronomer Charles Green and  Swedish naturalist Daniel Solander  recorded the transit of Venus on the island of Tahiti during Cook's first voyage around the world. During a transit, Venus appears as a small black disc travelling across the Sun. This unusual astronomical phenomenon takes place in a pattern that repeats itself every 243 years. It includes two transits that are eight years apart, separated by breaks of 121.5 and 105.5 years.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti
These men, along with a crew of scientists, were commissioned by the Royal Society of London for the primary purpose of viewing the transit of Venus. Not only would their findings help expand scientific knowledge, it would help with navigation by accurately calculating the observer's longitude. At this time, longitude was difficult to determine and not always precise. A "secret" mission that followed the transit included the exploration of the South Pacific to find the legendary Terra Australis Incognita or "unknown land of the South."


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Background
In 1663, Scottish mathematician James Gregory came up with the idea of using Venus or Mercury transits to determine the astronomical unit by measuring the apparent solar parallax between different points on the surface of the Earth. In a 1716 issue of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Edmund Halley illustrated Gregory's theory more fully and explained further how it could establish the distance between the Earth and the Sun. In his report, Halley suggested places that a full transit should be viewed due to a "cone of visibility". Places he recommended for observing the phenomenon included the Hudson Bay, Norway and the Molucca Islands. The next transits would occur in 1761 and 1769. Halley died in 1742, almost twenty years before the transit.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Background
The viewing of the 1761 transit involved the effort of 120 observers from nine nations. Thomas Hornsby reported the observations as unsuccessful primarily due to poor weather conditions. He alerted the Royal Society in 1766 that preparations needed to begin for the 1769 transit. Hornsby's publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1766 focused attention on the "cone of visibility" indicating, like Halley, some of the better places to observe the transit. The Royal Society boasted that the British "were inferior to no nation on earth, ancient or modern" and were eager to make another attempt.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Background
When choosing a location for viewing the transit, The Royal Society basically chose the locations Halley suggested in his 1716 article. The committee recommended that the transit be observed from three points: the North Cape at the Arctic tip of Norway, Fort Churchill at Hudson Bay Canada and a suitable island in the South Pacific. They stated that two competent observers were to be sent to each location. King George III approved of the project and arranged for the Navy to provide ships. He allocated £4,000 for the society to help with the expenses.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Choosing an island, a ship and a Captain
In June 1767 British navigator Samuel Wallis made the first European contact with Tahiti. Wallis returned from his voyage in time to help the Royal Society decide that it would be an ideal location to observe the Transit of Venus. A big advantage was that Tahiti was one of the few islands in the South Pacific that they knew the longitude and latitude of. The Admiralty was not really interested in particularly where in the South Pacific the observation of the Venus transit would take place.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Choosing an island, a ship and a Captain
They were more interested in the "secret" mission that would be revealed after the Venus transit observation: the search for the alleged southern continent. HM Bark Endeavour was chosen to take the astronomers and other scientists to Tahiti. James Cook was commissioned as Lieutenant and appointed to command the vessel. Cook was the obvious choice as he was an outstanding seaman with navigational qualifications, a capable astronomer and had observed a 1766 annular eclipse in Newfoundland that was communicated to the Royal Society by John Bevis.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Preparation for the transit
Once the Endeavour arrived on the island, Cook decided to set up the Venus transit observatory on shore. He required a completely stable platform which the ship could not provide and plenty of space to work with. The location of the observatory would be known as "Fort Venus." A sandy spit on the northeast end of Matavai Bay, named Point Venus by Cook, was chosen for the site. They began building Fort Venus two days after they arrived. They marked a perimeter and construction began. It had earthworks on three of its sides adjacent to deep channels.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Preparation for the transit
Wood was gathered to construct palisades that topped the earthworks. Casks from the ship were filled with wet sand and used for stability. The east side of the fort faced the river. Mounted guns were brought in from the ship. A gateway was assembled and within this fortification, fifty-four tents were pitched which housed the crew, scientists, and officers as well as the observatory, blacksmith equipment and a kitchen. Cook sent a party led by Zachary Hickes to a point on the east coast of the island for additional observations. John Gore led another group of thirty-eight more on a neighboring island of Eimeo (Moorea). Both parties were briefed and supplied with the needed equipment.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, The day of the transit
The observers were ordered to record the transit in four phases of Venus' journey across of the sun. The first phase was when Venus began "touching" the outside rim of the sun. In the second phase, Venus was completely within the sun's disc, but was still "touching" the outer rim. In the third phase, Venus has crossed the sun, was still completely within the disc, but was "touching" the opposite rim. Finally in the fourth phase, Venus was completely off the sun, but was still "touching" its outer rim.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, The day of the transit
On the day of the transit, the sky was clear. Independent observations were made by James Cook, Green and Solander with their own telescopes. Because of the rarity of the event, it was important to take accurate records. The next transit would not occur until 1874.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, The day of the transit
This day prov'd as favourable to our purpose as we could wish, not a Clowd was to be seen the whole day and the Air was perfectly clear, so that we had every advantage we could desire in Observing the whole of the passage of the Planet Venus over the Suns disk: we very distinctly saw an Atmosphere or dusky shade round the body of the Planet which very much disturbed the times of the Contacts particularly the two internal ones. Dr. Solander observed as well as Mr. Green and my self, and we differ'd from one another in observeing the times of the Contacts much more than could be expected. Mr Greens Telescope and mine were of the same Magnifying power but that of Dr was greater than ours.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, The day of the transit
Recording the exact moment of the phases proved to be impossible due to a phenomenon called the "Black drop effect." Originally, it was believed that the effect came from the thick atmosphere on Venus, but the haziness was too extensive for this to be the reason. Recent studies now reveal that it is actually turbulence in the Earth's atmosphere that leads to the smearing of the image of Venus.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Results of the 1769 transit observations
The Royal Society was very disappointed in the results of data collected from the transit and Cook's report. The Tahiti observers had trouble with the timing of the stages and their drawings were inconsistent. They later found out that this was also true with the observers at the other locations. Observers from all over noted a haze or "black drop" that seemed to follow Venus making it very difficult to record time entry point on the sun and the exit from the sun.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Results of the 1769 transit observations
For what they believed to be a failure in the observation, The Royal Society decided to blame Green who died on the voyage back to England. Cook's rebuke was so sharp that it was taken from the official proceedings of the Society. Green was not given the opportunity to personally present his own data nor could he defend himself.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Scientific community
Halley's 1716 article called for observers to witness the transit at various places on the globe. The response from the scientific community was astounding. There were at least 120 observers at sixty-two individual posts for the 1761 transit. Observations took place not only in Europe, but also included Calcutta, Tobolsk, Siberia, the Cape of Good Hope, and St. John's in Newfoundland. The 1769 viewing also proved to be a vast international endeavor.


1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti, Modern results compared to results from the 1769 transit
Using the solar parallax values obtained from the 1769 transit, Hornsby wrote in Philosophical Transitions December 1771 that "the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun (is) 93,726,900 English miles." The radar-based value used today for the astronomical unit is 92,955,000 miles (149,597,000 km). This is only a difference of eight-tenths of one percent. Their work was within the bounds of the aphelion and perihelion distances to the sun, ~95 million miles and ~91 million miles respectively. Considering what these astronomers had to work with, their results were "absolutely remarkable".


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade
The 176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade was an infantry brigade of the British Army that saw active service in the First World War on the Western Front and disbanded in 1919. The brigade was raised again, now known as 176th Infantry Brigade, shortly prior to the Second World War and fought in the Normandy Campaign before being disbanded in August 1944. In both world wars the brigade was assigned to a 59th Division: the 59th (2nd North Midland) Division during the first, and the 59th (Staffordshire) Infantry Division in the second.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, First World War
On 31 August 1914, 27 days after the British declaration of war on Germany, the War Office authorised the formation of 2nd Line units for all Territorial Force (TF) units that were being sent overseas. As a result, the 2/1st Staffordshire Brigade came into existence, as a duplicate of the 1/1st Staffordshire Brigade, which was part of the North Midland Division, and was assigned to the 2nd North Midland Division.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, First World War
The brigade (and division) was formed mainly from those men in the Territorial Force who, when asked at the outbreak of war, did not volunteer for service overseas (as soldiers who joined the TF were not obligated to serve overseas). Like the 1st Line formation, the brigade was composed of two battalions of the South Staffordshire Regiment and two of the North Staffordshire Regiment. To distinguish the 2nd Line from the 1st Line, they adopted the '2/' prefix (so a 2nd Line battalion would become 2/5th North Staffs, for example, and a 1st Line 1/5th North Staffs). The original intention of the 2nd Line units was to act in a home service role and to supply drafts of replacements overseas to the 1st Line units.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, First World War
In July 1915 the division was numbered as the 59th (2nd North Midland) Division and the brigades were also numbered, so the 2/1st Staffordshire Brigade became 176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, First World War
In April 1916 the 59th Division was sent to Dublin in Ireland to quell the Easter Rising where the brigade suffered its first casualties of the war, from the Irish Volunteers. In the same year the Military Service Act 1916 came into being, stating that all soldiers in the Territorial Force were now liable to serve overseas, if they were medically fit.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, First World War
The brigade was sent to France in early 1917, with the rest of the 59th Division, to serve in the trenches of the Western Front. The brigade fought in the Third Battle of Ypres, the Battle of Cambrai, both in 1917, sustaining heavy casualties.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, First World War
The brigade, with the rest of the division, was devastated in Operation Michael, the opening phase of the German spring offensive launched by the German Army, in March 1918 and had to be completely reformed, with the original battalions being reduced to cadres and transferred to other divisions and replaced by Provisional Garrison Guard battalions from the United Kingdom.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, First World War
During the fighting at Cambrai in November 1917, Lance Corporal John Thomas of the 2/5th Battalion, North Staffordshire Regiment was awarded the Victoria Cross.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, First World War, Order of battle
In late 1917 until early 1918 there was a shortage of manpower in the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the Western Front, divisions were reduced from twelve to nine infantry battalions, and brigades therefore reduced from four to three. As a result, in late January 1918, the 1/5th North Staffords was transferred from 137th (1/1st Staffordshire) Brigade of 46th (North Midland) Division where they amalgamated with the 2/5th Battalion and were renamed the 5th Battalion. At the same time the 1/5th South Staffs was disbanded, most of the men going to other South Staffs battalions.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
The brigade was disbanded after the war along with the rest of the Territorial Force, which was reformed as the Territorial Army in the 1920s but neither the brigade or division were reformed, being formed as a 2nd Line for hostilities-only.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
Throughout the spring and summer of 1939 the Territorial Army was doubled in size as the threat of war with Germany was becoming increasingly likely. As a result, the brigade number was reactivated by the redesignation of the 166th Infantry Brigade on 4 September 1939, the day after Britain and France declared war on Germany, thus beginning the Second World War.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
The 176th Infantry Brigade, composed of two battalions of the North Staffs and one of the South Staffs, was assigned to the 59th (Staffordshire) Motor Division, which was created as a 2nd Line duplicate of the 55th (West Lancashire) Motor Division. The division was originally organised as a motorised infantry division of only two brigades, the other being the 177th Infantry Brigade, which was formed as a 2nd Line duplicate of 176th Brigade.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
Unlike most Territorial divisions, which were split into an exact 2nd Line 'mirror' duplicate of their parent formation, the 59th, along with two other 2nd Line divisions (the 18th and the 45th), was instead split on a geographical basis, all the units from Staffordshire being assigned to the 59th Division and all units from Liverpool and Lancashire being assigned to the 55th.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
This came with a considerable downside, however, as it meant that while some units of both divisions could be considered to be trained (the 1st Line units), the other units (the 2nd Line units) were not and as there were 1st and 2nd Line units in both divisions they were both considered untrained.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
About a month after the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated from Dunkirk in May–June 1940, the 59th Division was reorganised from a motorised division into a standard infantry division, due to a perceived failure of the motorised divisions in the Battle of France, and received the 197th Infantry Brigade from the now disbanded 66th Infantry Division and the 59th Division was reorganised as a normal infantry division of three brigades. Together with most of the rest of the British Army after the events of France and Dunkirk, the division moved to North-East England where they came under command of X Corps and alternated between coastal defence and home service duties and training to repel a German invasion.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
In June 1942, the brigade, with the rest of the 59th Division, was sent to Northern Ireland where they were to remain until March 1943, and came under command of British Troops Northern Ireland. Soon after arrival, they took part in numerous large-scale exercises with American troops of the U.S. Army stationed there, including the U.S. 1st Armored and U.S. 34th Infantry divisions, both of which were later to serve with distinction fighting on the Italian Front.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
Later in the year, in October, the 176th Brigade was reorganised slightly, with the 7th Battalion, North Staffordshire Regiment being exchanged for the 7th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment, which had previously served with 220th Brigade. The 7th Royal Norfolks was a 2nd Line Territorial unit created in 1939 around the same time as 176th Brigade and had seen service in France in 1940 with the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division and had escaped with a mere 30 men, including a single officer.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
After training for many years throughout the United Kingdom and nine months spent in Northern Ireland the brigade landed in France, together with the rest of the 59th Division, in late June 1944 as part of Operation Overlord and became part of the British Second Army. The brigade fought in the severe attritional battles to capture Caen, in particular during Operation Charnwood and the Second Battle of the Odon, also known as Operation Pomegranate.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
In early August, during the crossing of the River Orne in which the 176th Infantry Brigade, supported by Churchill tanks of 107 RAC of 34 Tank Brigade, played a major role (and earned praise from the GOC Major-General Lewis Lyne), Captain David Auldjo Jamieson, son of Sir Archibald Jamieson, of the 7th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment was awarded the Victoria Cross for his extreme bravery, leadership and calmness under fire and despite being wounded. His would be the first and only VC awarded to the brigade and the division throughout the war.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
He survived his injuries and remained in the Army after the war where he later achieved the rank of major. During the crossing, the brigade suffered heavy casualties, with 7th Royal Norfolks sustaining 42 killed, 111 wounded and 73 missing, for a total of 226 casualties, 6th North Staffords had 76 casualties and 7th South Staffords lost its CO, Lieutenant Colonel J.G. Bullock, killed in action.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
At this stage of the Second World War, however, the British Army (and, in general, the whole of the United Kingdom) was suffering from a severe shortage of manpower, specifically in the infantry where the majority of combat casualties fell. By August 1944, the Army fighting in France had absorbed nearly all the available infantrymen still available in the United Kingdom.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War
Consequently, aside from transferring large numbers of RAF, RAF Regiment, Navy and Artillery personnel to be retrained as infantrymen (which to do so would take many months), the only way the Army could find sufficient replacements (aside from the aforementioned method) for battle casualties was by breaking up units in the field in order to bring other field units up to strength. As a result, the 59th (Staffordshire) Division, considered the most 'junior' infantry division of the British Second Army, was chosen by General Bernard Montgomery, 21st Army Group Commander, for disbandment. The brigade and division were both, therefore, broken up in late August and the battalions broken up and sent to other British divisions in order to bring them up to strength.


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War, Order of battle
176th Infantry Brigade was constituted as follows during the war:


176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade, Second World War, Commanders
The following officers commanded 176th Infantry Brigade during the war:


176th Air Defense Squadron
The 176th Air Defense Squadron (176 ADS) is a unit of the Alaska Air National Guard 176th Wing located at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Anchorage, Alaska.


176th Air Defense Squadron, Overview
The squadron provides mission-ready personnel to operate and maintain the Alaskan Region Air Operations Center (RAOC) of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). It integrates fixed and airborne radar into the NORAD Global Command and Control System (NGCCS), and conducts 24-hour Alaskan NORAD Region (ANR) and Eleventh Air Force (11th AF) air sovereignty and theater air control operations.


176th Air Defense Squadron, Overview
The 176th Air Defense Squadron is unique amongst the other American sectors in that it controls the only sector within its region, while the Eastern Air Defense Sector and Western Air Defense Sector both comprise the Continental NORAD Region (CONR). In addition to this distinction, it is the only sector that has regular reported intercepts of foreign military aircraft, with multiple intercepts of Russian Tu-95 "Bear" aircraft through its lifetime.


176th Air Defense Squadron, History
The 176th Air Defense Squadron traces its lineage, honors and history to Murphy Dome Air Force Station (AFS), (originally situated in a mountainous region known as the Yukon-Tanana Upland, 20 miles northwest of Fairbanks, Alaska). It was one of the ten original aircraft control and warning sites constructed during the early 1950s to establish a permanent air defense system in Alaska.


176th Air Defense Squadron, History
Murphy Dome was initially operated by a detachment of the 532d Aircraft Control and Warning Group, Ladd Air Force Base (now Fort Wainwright). When the 532d was inactivated in 1951, the site was then operated by a detachment of the 13rd


176th Air Defense Squadron, History
Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron, Alaska Air National Guard. As part of HQ Alaskan Air Command's (HQ AAC) plan to upgrade all remote sites to full squadrons, the 744th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron (744th ACWS) was activated at Murphy Dome on 1 February 1953 with an authorized strength of 249 personnel.


176th Air Defense Squadron, History
The mission of the 744th ACWS was to support, administer and train assigned personnel to perform air defense missions, support tactical missions as directed by HQ AAC, and operate and maintain the Murphy Dome AFS.


176th Air Defense Squadron, History
In 1977, the 744th ACWS was assigned to the newly reactivated 531st Aircraft Control and Warning Group (531st ACWG). The 531 ACWG was later re-designated the 11th Tactical Control Group (11th TCG) in 1981.


176th Air Defense Squadron, History
In the early 1980s, construction began on a new NORAD Region Operations Control Center (ROCC) at Elmendorf AFB, which would be responsible for managing all air defense operations in Alaska, making all manned remote radar sites redundant. The 744th ACWS was selected to man the ROCC, which achieved full operational status on 15 September 1983. All remote radar squadrons were inactivated by 1 November 1983. Under HQ Alaskan Air Command's SEEK IGLOO program, civilian manning at all remote radar sites was reduced to approximately four civilian personnel per site.


176th Air Defense Squadron, History
In 1989, the 744th ACWS was aligned under the newly established 11th Tactical Control Wing (11 TCW). In 1992, this wing was renamed the 11th Air Control Wing (11 ACW), and the 744 ACWS was renamed the 744th Air Defense Squadron (744th ADS). The 11th ACW was reorganized on 1 July 1994 as the 611th Air Operations Group (611th AOG), and the 744th ADS was renamed the 611th Air Control Squadron (611th ACS).


176th Air Defense Squadron, History
In 2001, the 611th ACS began a four-year transition to the Alaska Air National Guard. On 1 October 2004, the 611th ACS was officially inactivated and the 176th ACS was ceremonially recognized. Thus, the 176th ACS traces its heritage and honors from the original 744 ACWS/ADS, handed down over the past 50 years. In September 2013, the 176th ACS was re-designated as the 176th Air Defense Squadron (176th ADS).


176th Air Defense Squadron, History, Lineage
Note: No direct lineage or history between 611th ACS and 176th ACS


176th Air Defense Squadron, History, Honors
The squadron has earned four Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards for the following periods: 13 August 1967 – 21 August 1967, 1 January 1976 – 31 December 1976, 1 January 1978 – 31 December 1978, 1 July 1982 – 8 November 1983, 1 July 1994 – 30 June 1996, and 1 October 1999 – 30 September 2001


176th Battalion (Niagara Rangers), CEF
The 176th (Niagara Rangers) Battalion, CEF, was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War. Based in St. Catharines, Ontario, the unit began recruiting in January 1916 in Lincoln and Welland counties. Their training ground and campsite was situated on Spring St., Niagara Falls, where Memorial School was built in 1921. The unit left Niagara on 24 April 1917 bound for England. Upon arrival, the battalion was absorbed into the 12th Reserve Battalion. The 176th (Niagara Rangers) Battalion, CEF, had one Officer Commanding: Lieutenant-Colonel Donald Sharpe.


176th Battalion (Niagara Rangers), CEF
After the war, the perpetuation of the battalion was assigned to the Lincoln Regiment in 1920, and then to the Lincoln and Welland Regiment in 1936.


176th Battalion (Niagara Rangers), CEF, Insignia
The 176th Battalion were identified by a horseshoe surrounding Niagara Falls on a wreath of maples. Contained within scrolls were the words "Niagara Rangers", "Canada", "Overseas Battalion". The number 176 was placed between the ends of the horseshoe.


176th Fighter Squadron
The 176th Fighter Squadron (176 FS) is a unit of the Wisconsin Air National Guard 115th Fighter Wing located at Truax Field Air National Guard Base, Madison, Wisconsin. The 176th is equipped with the F-16 Fighting Falcon.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II
Activated in July 1942, the 306th Fighter Squadron was an advanced pilot training squadron, assigned to III Fighter Command at Dale Mabry Army Airfield, Florida. The 306th was an Operational Replacement Unit (OTU) which trained newly graduated pilots in combat fighter tactics with graduates being assigned to operational squadrons for combat in overseas theaters. Initially equipped with the P-39 Airacobra, later using P-47 Thunderbolts and P-51 Mustangs when they became available. Disbanded in May 1944 as part of a reorganization of Army Air Force training unit designations.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard
The wartime 306th Fighter Squadron was reconstituted and re-designated as the 176th Fighter Squadron, and was allotted to the Wisconsin Air National Guard, on 24 May 1946. It was organized at Truax Field, Madison, Wisconsin and was extended federal recognition on 6 October 1948 by the National Guard Bureau. The 176th Fighter Squadron was entitled to the history, honors, and colors of the 306th. The squadron was equipped with F-51D Mustangs and was assigned to the new 128th Fighter Group, WI ANG at General Mitchell Field, Milwaukee.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Air Defense
The 176th was gained by Air Defense Command (ADC) with an air defense mission of the Great Lakes, Chicago and Wisconsin. Upgraded to F-80A Shooting Star jet aircraft in 1949. Was re-designated as the 176th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron in November 1950 and 10 of the unit's 25 Mustangs were shipped to Korea in support of the Korean War effort. Federalized during the Korean War in February 1951, but remained at Truax Field where it flew air defense training missions. During the active duty tour, the 176th FIS converted its aircraft to the F-89 Scorpion. They became the first Air National Guard unit to fly the modern jet fighter. Returned to Wisconsin state control in February 1952 and converted back to the F-51 Mustang.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Air Defense
In October 1953, The 176th FIS converted from F-51's to the F-86 Sabre, and the squadron performed summer training with the F-86 was at the Alpena Training Center in Alpena, Michigan in 1954. In October 1954 The 176 Fighter Squadron was reassigned the F-89 Scorpion, which they had flown briefly in 1952 during the unit's Korean War activation. The aircraft, designed as an "All Weather" fighter interceptor, carried a pilot and radar operator.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Air Defense
On 15 April 1956, the 176th FIS was authorized to expand to a group level, and the 115th Fighter-Interceptor Group was established by the National Guard Bureau at Truax Field. The 176th FIS becoming the group's flying squadron. The Group continued its air defense mission with summer training moved to Volk Field from 1956 to 1962. Beginning in 1963, training moved to "year around" training. In January 1960 F-89 crews were put on active duty status and the unit was assigned an around-the-clock runway alert commitment of two armed aircraft. Along with this commitment came the F-89J with an armament platform that included the AIR-2 Genie. The AIR-2A was the first US air-to-air rocket with a nuclear warhead. In early 1966 the squadron turned in their F-89's for the F-102 Delta Dagger.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Air Defense
In May 1966 the 176th FIS replaced their F-89's with the Convair F-102 Delta Dagger. In the spring of 1967 after a period of re-training in the new supersonic interceptors, the 176th FIS resumed its air defense "runway alert" mission. One year later in June 1969, the unit airlifted to Gulfport, Mississippi for summer training, ending six years of "year around" training at home base.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Air Defense
In September 1972, the 176th FIS won the prestigious "William Tell Competition" in the F-102 category. The event, held at Tyndall Air Force Base, included top Air National Guard, Canadian Air Force and active US Air Force units worldwide. The competition included 12 teams of 48 aircraft, each team scored on aerial marksmanship, weapons control, weapons loading and maintenance.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Forward Air Control
In November 1974, the squadrons parent 115th Fighter-Interceptor Group was transferred from Air Defense Command to Tactical Air Command(TAC). In addition the 115th's status was elevated from a group to a Wing, its designation being changed to the 128th Tactical Air Support Wing in a re-alignment by the Wisconsin National Guard Bureau.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Forward Air Control
The squadron was re-designated as the 176th Tactical Air Support Squadron (TASS), and in December 1974 the unit's F-102's were replaced by the Cessna O-2A Skymaster Forward Air Control (FAC) aircraft. The O-2 was the military version of the Cessna 337 Skymaster, a high wing, twin boom aircraft with a unique centerline pusher/tractor twin engine configuration. The O-2A version, used by the 176th TASS, was used in forward air control, (FAC), missions, often in conjunction with a ground FAC & ROMAD, (radio operator, maintenance, and driver), team.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Forward Air Control
In November 1979, the O-2s were replaced by the OA-37B Dragonfly Forward Air Control aircraft. It was developed from the A-37 light attack aircraft which was used extensively in the Vietnam War as a counter-insurgency aircraft, with the surviving aircraft either being sold to the Republic of Vietnam Air Force or returned to the United States. The OA-37s were received from ANG units in Maryland and New York.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Forward Air Control
With most of the pilots and maintenance crews having prior jet aircraft experience with the F-102's, the unit was able to transition the OA-37 to C-1 status, (full combat ready), in less than six months. Awards during the OA-37 era included an overall rating of "Excellent" in the unit's Operational Readiness Inspection (ORI), the Distinguished Flying Award and their first Air Force Outstanding Unit Award.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Close Air Support
On 1 October 1981, the 176th TASS was redesignated the 176th Tactical Fighter Squadron (TFS). Along with the mission change came a new aircraft, the A-10 Thunderbolt II, nickname "Warthog", with the OA-37s being sent to other ANG units. For survivability made the A-10 an excellent weapons delivery system for ground targets. The A-10's most dominant feature is its seven barrel GAU-8/A 30mm cannon, capable of firing at up to 70 "tank busting" rounds per second.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Close Air Support
During the A-10 era the unit received two "Outstanding Unit" Awards, three Air Force Flight Safety Awards, and in 1991 an "Outstanding" in its Unit Effectiveness Inspection (UEI). Deployments with the A-10 included Operation Coronet Cove to Panama, and "Checkered Flag" missions to NATO bases in West Germany and England.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Current mission
With the end of the Cold War, the early 1990s marked several changes. On 16 March 1992 the 176th Tactical Fighter Squadron (TFS) was redesignated the 176th Fighter Squadron (FS) as its parent 128th Tactical Fighter Wing became the 128th Fighter Wing. The 128th FW implemented the Air Force Objective Organization, which established the 128th Operations Group to which the 176th FS was assigned. Also occurring at this time was a command change from the Air Force's Tactical Air Command (TAC) to the newly created Air Combat Command (ACC).


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Current mission
In 1993 the 176th FS began transitioning from the A-10A to the F-16C/D block 30 Fighting Falcon airframes with the enlarged inlet, with the A-10s were transferred out to other ANG units. The first F-16s arrived at Truax ANGB on 1 April 1993. The current role of the 176th FS is air-interdiction and close air support (CAS). This was the same task as when they flew the A-10. Although the transition to the F-16 meant a huge change in the overall execution of this mission when comparing the A-10 with an F-16.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Current mission
On 11 October 1995, the squadron was reassigned to the new 115th Operations Group when its parent 128th Fighter Wing was re-designated back to the 115th by the Wisconsin National Guard Bureau. The 128th designation was causing confusion with the 128th Air Refueling Wing at General Mitchell ANGB, another Wisconsin Air National Guard unit.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Current mission
Operations participated in during this era include: Operation Coronet Chariot, Karup AS, Denmark 1994, Operation Northern Watch, Incirlik AB, Turkey 1997, Operation Southern Watch, Al Jaber AB, Kuwait 1997–98, Operation Southern Watch, Prince Sultan AB, Saudi Arabia 1999, Operation Coronet Nighthawk, Curacao, Netherlands Antilles 2001, Operation Enduring Freedom, Al Udeid AB, Qatar 2004–05, and Operation Noble Eagle, 11 September 2001 to present.


176th Fighter Squadron, History, Wisconsin Air National Guard, Current mission
In December 2017, the Air Force announced that the 176th was one of two Air National Guard squadrons selected for equipping with the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II. The conversion to the fifth-generation jet fighter is scheduled for 2023.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment
The 176th Fighter Aviation Regiment PVO was a fighter regiment of the Soviet Air Defense Forces during World War II and the Cold War. The unit was disbanded in March 1960.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
The unit was formed on 22 March 1938 as the 19th Fighter Aviation Regiment (IAP) at Gorelovo in the Leningrad Military District from the 58th and 70th Separate Fighter Aviation Squadrons and the 33rd Separate Reconnaissance Aviation Squadron. Equipped with Polikarpov I-15bis fighters, the regiment formed part of the 54th Light (Fighter) Aviation Brigade of the Air Forces (VVS) of the Leningrad Military District.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
It was shifted to the Skomorokhi airfield in the Kiev Special Military District on 9 September 1939 in order to fight in the Soviet invasion of Poland, which it fought in between 17 and 28 September as part of the VVS Ukrainian Front's 59th Fighter Aviation Brigade, equipped with the Polikarpov I-16 fighter.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
The 19th IAP returned to the Leningrad Military District in October, and between 30 November 1939 and 13 March 1940 fought in the Winter War against Finland as part of the 54th Fighter Aviation Brigade of the VVS 7th Army of the Northwestern Front. It initially included three squadrons of I-16s and one I-15bis squadron; the latter was transferred to the north in mid-December and replaced by a new I-16-equipped 4th Aviation Squadron by the beginning of January.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
During the war, the regiment was officially credited with flying 3,646 sorties, downing three Finnish aircraft in aerial combat and destroying two on the ground, and 74 locomotives and 150 railcars destroyed in ground attacks; it suffered no losses. For its "exemplary performance of combat missions", the 19th IAP was awarded the Order of the Red Banner on 11 April.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
The regiment became part of the 3rd Fighter Aviation Division (IAD) of the VVS Leningrad Military District in November 1940. At the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, on 22 June 1941, the regiment fielded fifty I-16s, twenty Polikarpov I-153, and fifteen Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 fighters for a total of 85 aircraft in five squadrons. By this point the 3rd IAD was part of the Northern Air Defense Zone of the National Air Defense Forces (PVO).


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
Senior Lieutenant S.V. Tyutyunnikov claimed the regiment's first aerial victory of the war on 6 July, a German Junkers Ju 88 bomber near Lake Lubenskoye. The regiment became part of the 7th Fighter Aviation Corps PVO when the division expanded into the latter on the next day. During the month, it was reorganized to a three-squadron structure authorized thirty aircraft, transferring the I-153-equipped 4th Squadron to the 192nd IAP and the I-16-equipped 5th Squadron to the 195th IAP. While still flying missions, it converted two squadrons to the MiG-3 and one squadron to the Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3 fighter. In addition to air defense, the 19th IAP also flew ground attack missions and provided air cover in support of the ground troops of the Leningrad Front until 23 August.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
The squadron absorbed five pilots and their MiG-3s from the 35th Fighter Aviation Regiment on 12 September. Due to losses, it was withdrawn to Cherepovets from 18 October to reorganize to a two-squadron structure with twenty fighters and two Polikarpov U-2 communication aircraft, which occurred on 17 November. A month later, the regiment transferred to Semyka in Gorky Oblast to re-equip with LaGG-3s in the Moscow Military District with the 2nd Reserve Fighter Aviation Regiment, remaining there until February.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
From 25 February, it fought as part of the 2nd Reserve Aviation Group of the Supreme High Command, operating under the command of the VVS Volkhov Front. Beginning on 26 April, the 19th served as the training center for the VVS Volkhov Front, returning to the 2nd Reserve IAP on 15 July to retrain on the new Lavochkin La-5 fighter. It was relocated without aircraft to Lyubertsy on 9 August, and there reorganized on 23 October to consist of three squadrons with ten aircraft each. It joined the 269th IAD at Buturlinovka on 27 December.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
The 19th went back into combat with the 269th as part of the 2nd Air Army of the Voronezh Front on 2 January 1943. To receive new personnel, it was withdrawn to Morshansk in the Volga Military District with the 4th Reserve Fighter Aviation Regiment on 20 March. The regiment was sent back to the 2nd Air Army reserve between 3 and 25 July, with which it conducted combat training without flying in combat.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
It was moved to Chkalovsky on 4 August at the disposal of the commander of the Red Army Air Forces, where it was reorganized to consist of three squadron totalling 40 aircraft in September. The regiment returned to combat on 8 January 1944 as an independent fighter regiment tasked with sweeping the skies for German aircraft, directly subordinated to the headquarters of the 2nd Air Army, now part of the 1st Ukrainian Front.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
For its courage in the recapture of Proskurov, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Chortkiv, Husiatyn, and Zalishchyky, the 19th IAP received the Proskurov honorific on 3 April. Transferred to the 16th Air Army of the 1st Belorussian Front on 6 June, it became the first Red Army Air Forces regiment to receive the Lavochkin La-7 fighter in that month. The 19th was transferred to the 6th Air Army of the front between 7 July and 19 August, when it returned to the 16th Air Army.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Prewar and World War II
After receiving the Order of Alexander Nevsky on 9 August for its courage in the breakthrough of German defenses west of Kovel, the regiment was converted into the 176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment on 17 August in recognition of its "courage and heroism" during the war. In January 1945 it was operationally subordinated to the command of the army's 3rd Fighter Aviation Corps. After the end of the war on 9 May, the 176th Guards were awarded the Order of Kutuzov, 3rd class, on 11 June for their "exemplary performance of combat missions" during the Battle of Berlin.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Postwar
On 1 December 1951, over Sunchon, at least twenty MiG 15's from the 176th attacked a formation of fourteen Royal Australian Air Force No. 77 Squadron Meteors. Three Meteors were shot down.


176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, History, Postwar
The 176th Guards were finally renamed as 176th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment PVO in February 1952.


176th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)
The 176th Infantry Division was a military formation that served with the German Army during World War II.


176th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), Brief history
On 31 October 1944, the 176th Infantry Division was formed out of the 176th Division and was a “training and replacement” formation. It had a strength of about 7,000 men, most of whom were in a poor shape. The division was nicknamed the "kranken division" (sick division), because it was mostly made up of men deemed unfit for military service, such as the physically handicapped and men with severe allergies. One battalion consisted of men with serious hearing maladies, two comprised Luftwaffe personnel, (but with ample infantry training), while many others were convalescents and semi-invalids.


176th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), Brief history
In November and December 1944, the Division was part of the XII SS Corps, 5th Panzer Army. Between January and March 1945 the 176th Infantry Division was assigned to the XII SS Corps, 15th Army. The 176th Division was a 'regular' military formation which operated mainly on the Dutch side of the "Roer bridgehead" during Operation Blackcock. During the operation, its HQ was located at Effeld near Vlodrop. The division was actually refitting and re-equipping during the Battle of the Bulge and Operation Blackcock.


176th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), Brief history
The division was assigned to the LXXIV Korps of 15th Army in April 1945 and saw action in the Duisburg area where it eventually surrendered.


176th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), Commanders
The 176th Division was under the command of General-Major Christian-Johannes Landau (1897 - 1952). Landau was a World War I veteran and “artilleryman”, he took command of the division on 1 January 1945. He was awarded the Knight's Cross on 9 May 1945, two days after the official surrender of Germany . Landau held a master's degree in agriculture. He was taken into captivity on 9 May 1945 and released in 1947. He died in 1952 in Freiburg, Brunswig at the age of 55.


176th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht), Organisation
The division had been formed in October 1944, it included three Grenadier Regiments (the 1218th, 1219th, and 1220th). It totalled six Grenadier battalions, one Fusilier battalion and one Panzerjäger (Anti-Tank) battalion. The 1178th Artillery Regiment consisted of four battalions. From captured documents, dating from October 1944, it is believed that the 176th Division operated in so-called Battle Groups ("Kampfgruppen"), three of which were centred on the Grenadier Regiments, while the fourth was organized around the Engineer/Pioneer battalion.


176th New York Infantry Regiment
The 176th New York Infantry Regiment (aka "Ironsides") was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War.


176th New York Infantry Regiment, Service
The 176th New York Infantry was recruited at large New York November 20, 1862 through January 10, 1863 and mustered in December 22, 1862 for three-years service under the command of Colonel Charles C. Nott.


176th New York Infantry Regiment, Service
The regiment was attached to Defenses of New Orleans, Louisiana, Department of the Gulf, to February 1864. 1st Brigade, 2nd Division, XIX Corps, Department of the Gulf, to June 1864. 3rd Brigade, 2nd Division, XIX Corps, Department of the Gulf, to July 1864, and Army of the Shenandoah, Middle Military Division, to January 1865. 3rd Brigade, Grover's Division, District of Savannah, Department of the South, to March 1865. 3rd Brigade, 1st Division, X Corps, Army of the Ohio, Department of North Carolina, to May 1865. District of Savannah, Georgia, Department of the South, to July 1865. Districts of Augusta and Columbus, Georgia, Department of Georgia, to April 1866.


176th New York Infantry Regiment, Service
The 176th New York Infantry mustered out at Savannah, Georgia on April 27, 1866.


176th New York Infantry Regiment, Detailed service
The regiment left New York for New Orleans, Louisiana, January 11, 1863. Duty in the District of LaFourche, defenses of New Orleans, guarding lines of New Orleans & Opelousas Railroad at Brashear City, LaFourche Crossing, Tigerville, Bonnet Carte, and other points until January 1864. Actions at Pattersonville June 17 and 19, 1863. LaFourche Crossing June 19–21. Thibodeaux June 20 (Company D). Fort Buchanan and Bayou Boeuf June 23. Brashear City June 23. Ordered to Franklin, Louisiana, January 4, 1864, and duty there until April. Red River Campaign April 15-May 22. Moved from Carrollton to Alexandria April 15–18.


176th New York Infantry Regiment, Detailed service
At Alexandria until May 13. Gov. Moore's Plantation May 3. Wilson's Farm May 5. Retreat to Morganza May 13–20. Mansura May 16. At Morganza until July 3. Moved to New Orleans, then to Fort Monroe, Virginia, and Washington, D.C., July 3–29. Sheridan's Shenandoah Valley Campaign August 7-November 28. Berryville September 8. Battle of Winchester September 19. Fisher's Hill September 22. Battle of Cedar Creek October 19. At Kernstown and Winchester until January 5, 1865. Moved to Savannah, Georgia, January 5–22, and duty there until March.


176th New York Infantry Regiment, Detailed service
Moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, March 5, then to Morehead City March 10, and duty there until April 8. Moved to Goldsboro, North Carolina, April 8, and duty there until May 2. Moved to Savannah May 2–7. Duty there and the Districts of Augusta, Columbus, and Macon, Georgia, Department of Georgia, until April 1866.


176th New York Infantry Regiment, Casualties
The regiment lost a total of 180 men during service; 2 officers and 30 enlisted men killed or mortally wounded, 2 officers and 146 enlisted men died of disease.


176th New York State Legislature
The 176th New York State Legislature, consisting of the New York State Senate and the New York State Assembly, met from January 5 to July 6, 1966, during the eighth year of Nelson Rockefeller's governorship, in Albany.


176th New York State Legislature, Background
Under the provisions of the New York Constitution of 1938, re-apportioned in 1953, 58 Senators and 150 assemblymen were elected in single-seat districts for two-year terms. The senatorial districts consisted either of one or more entire counties; or a contiguous area within a single county. The Assembly districts consisted either of a single entire county (except Hamilton Co.), or of contiguous area within one county.


176th New York State Legislature, Background
In 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down several decisions establishing that State legislatures should follow the One man, one vote rule to apportion their election districts. A special Federal Statutory Court declared the New York apportionment formulae for both the State Senate and the State Assembly unconstitutional, and the State Legislature was ordered to re-apportion the seats by April 1, 1965.


176th New York State Legislature, Background
The court also ruled that the 1964 legislative election should be held under the 1954 apportionment, but those elected could serve only for one year (in 1965), and an election under the new apportionment should be held in November 1965. Senators John H. Hughes and Lawrence M. Rulison (both Rep.) questioned the authority of the federal court to shorten the term of the 1964 electees, alleging excessive costs for the additional election in an off-year.


176th New York State Legislature, Background
The lame-duck Legislature of 1964 met for a special session at the State Capitol in Albany from December 15 to 31, 1964, to re-apportion the legislative districts for the election in November 1965, gerrymandering the districts according to the wishes of the Republican majority before the Democrats would take over the Legislature in January. The number of seats in the State Senate was increased to 65, and the number of seats in the Assembly to 165. County representation was abandoned in favor of population-proportional districts, and the new Assembly districts were numbered from 1 to 165.


176th New York State Legislature, Background
On February 1, 1965, the United States Supreme Court confirmed the Federal Statutory Court's order to elect a new New York Legislature in November 1965.


176th New York State Legislature, Background
On April 14, 1965, the New York Court of Appeals declared the apportionment of December 1964 as unconstitutional, citing that the New York Constitution provides expressly that the Assembly shall have 150 seats, not 165 as were apportioned. The court also held that, although the constitutional State Senate apportionment formula provides for additional seats, the increase from 58 to 65 was unwarranted.


176th New York State Legislature, Background
On May 10, the Federal Statutory Court ordered that the election on November 2, 1965, be held under the December 1964 apportionment, and that the Legislature thus elected re-apportion the seats again by February 1, 1966.


176th New York State Legislature, Background
On August 24, it was clarified that, if the Governor and Legislature should not have enacted a new apportionment by February 1, 1966, then the courts should draft a new apportionment for the next election.


176th New York State Legislature, Background
On October 11, the U.S. Supreme Court dismissed four appeals against the ruling of the Federal Statutory Court, and upheld the election of a new New York Legislature on November 2.


176th New York State Legislature, Background
At this time there were two major political parties: the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. The Liberal Party and the Conservative Party also nominated tickets.


176th New York State Legislature, Elections
The 1965 New York state election, was held on November 2. The only statewide elective office up for election was a seat on the New York Court of Appeals. Republican Kenneth B. Keating defeated Democrat/Liberal Owen McGivern and Conservative Henry S. Middendorf, Jr. The approximate party strength at this election, as expressed by the vote for Judge of the Court of Appeals, was: Republicans 3,106,000; Democrats 1,824,000; Liberals 208,000; and Conservatives 207,000.


176th New York State Legislature, Elections
Three of the five women members of the previous legislature—Assemblywomen Shirley Chisholm (Dem. ), a preschool teacher of Brooklyn; Constance E. Cook (Rep.), a lawyer of Ithaca; and Dorothy H. Rose (Dem. ), a high-school teacher and librarian of Angola—were re-elected. Gail Hellenbrand (Dem. ), of Brooklyn, was also elected to the Assembly.


176th New York State Legislature, Sessions
The Legislature met for the regular session (the 189th) at the State Capitol in Albany on January 5, 1966; and adjourned on July 6.


176th New York State Legislature, Sessions
Earl W. Brydges (Rep.) was elected Temporary President of the State Senate.


176th New York State Legislature, Sessions
On January 14, the New York Court of Appeals moved the deadline for the new legislative apportionment from February 1 to February 15.


176th New York State Legislature, Sessions
On February 23, the Court of Appeal appointed a commission of five members to map out new districts because the Republican-majority Senate and the Democratic-majority Assembly could not agree on a new apportionment. The commission was chaired by President-elect of the American Bar Association Orison S. Marden, of Scarsdale, who was not affiliated with any party and was deemed politically independent. The other members were Ex-Judges of the Court of Appeals Bruce Bromley (Rep.), of Manhattan, and Charles W. Froessel (Dem. ), of Queens; Ex-Republican State Chairman Edwin F. Jaeckle, of Buffalo;  and Robert B. Brady (Dem. ), the Counsel to the Joint Legislative Committee on Re-Apportionment.


176th New York State Legislature, Sessions
On March 14, the apportionment draft was submitted to the Court of Appeals.


176th New York State Legislature, Sessions
On March 22, the Court of Appeals accepted the apportionment as drafted, thus becoming the law, without the need of legislative approval. The number of seats in the State Senate was reduced to 57, and the number of seats in the Assembly to 150.


176th New York State Legislature, State Senate, Senators
The asterisk (*) denotes members of the previous Legislature who continued in office as members of this Legislature. Jerome Schutzer, Anthony B. Gioffre, Theodore D. Day and James F. Hastings changed from the Assembly to the Senate at the beginning of the session. Assemblyman William J. Ferrall was elected to fill a vacancy in the Senate.


176th New York State Legislature, State Senate, Senators
Note: For brevity, the chairmanships omit the words "...the Committee on (the)..."


176th New York State Legislature, State Assembly, Assemblymen
The asterisk (*) denotes members of the previous Legislature who continued in office as members of this Legislature.


176th New York State Legislature, State Assembly, Assemblymen
Note: For brevity, the chairmanships omit the words "...the Committee on (the)..."


176th Ohio Infantry Regiment
The 176th Ohio Infantry Regiment, sometimes 176th Ohio Volunteer Infantry (or 176th OVI) was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War.


176th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Service
The 176th Ohio Infantry was organized at Camp Chase in Columbus, Ohio August 10 through September 21, 1864, and mustered in for one year service on September 21, 1864, under the command of Colonel Edwin Cooley Mason.


176th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Service
The regiment was attached to Post and Defenses of Nashville, Department of the Cumberland, to December 1864. 2nd Brigade, 4th Division, XX Corps, Department of the Cumberland, to March 1865. District of Nashville, Tennessee, Department of the Cumberland, to June 1865.


176th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Service
The 176th Ohio Infantry mustered out of service June 18, 1865, at Nashville, Tennessee.


176th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Detailed service
Left Ohio for Nashville, Tennessee, September 21. Served provost and guard duty at Nashville, September 1864 to June 1865. Battle of Nashville December 15–16, 1864.


176th Ohio Infantry Regiment, Casualties
The regiment lost a total of 102 enlisted men during service, all due to disease.


176th Perevolochna Infantry Regiment
The 176th Perevolochna Infantry Regiment (Russian: 176-й пехотный Переволоченский полк) was a reserve infantry regiment in the Imperial Russian Army that fought during World War I as part of the 44th Infantry Division.


176th Perevolochna Infantry Regiment, Origins
The regiment traced its seniority back to the formation of the 27th Reserve Infantry Battalion from a cadre of the Poltava Local Battalion on 31 July 1877. It was redesignated as the 64th Reserve Infantry Battalion (Cadre) on 10 October 1878, and granted an unadorned banner on 31 March 1880. The battalion received the designation Perevolochna Reserve Battalion on 25 March 1891, and expanded into the two battalion-189th Perevolochna Reserve Infantry Regiment on 1 December 1892. It was reorganized as the four battalion-176th Perevolochna Infantry Regiment on 1 January 1898.


176th Perevolochna Infantry Regiment, World War I
At the outbreak of World War I, the 176th Perevolochensky Regiment was part of the 21st Army Corps and quartered at Chernigov. Upon mobilisation, the regiment was immediately transferred to its winter barracks so that the summer camp could be used by the 316th Khvalinsky Regiment. At that time, the regiment was under the command of Mikhail Dmitriyevich Bonch-Bruyevich, who gave the troops a patriotic speech before marching them to the railway station at Kruty. Bonch-Bruyevich experienced some problems with maintaining discipline.


176th Perevolochna Infantry Regiment, World War I
However, he was lenient with a group of 100 soldiers who had gone AWOL and another group of drunken reservists who had tried to give a beating to Captain Kotsubinsky, the unpopular commanding officer of the 7th Company. The unit travelled via Kiev to Lutsk, whence it joined the 44th Infantry Division at Torgovitsy.


176th Perevolochna Infantry Regiment, References, Bibliography
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176th Rifle Division
The 176th Rifle Division was an infantry division of the Red Army, originally formed as part of the prewar buildup of forces, based on the shtat (table of organization and equipment) of September 13, 1939. The division completed its formation at Kryvyi Rih in the Odessa Military District and at the time of the German invasion of the Soviet Union was in the same area, assigned to the 35th Rifle Corps. Being relatively far from the frontier it escaped the early disasters and retreated in good order through southern Ukraine into the autumn as part of 9th Army.


176th Rifle Division, 1st Formation
The division officially formed at Kryvyi Rih in the Odessa Military District on July 16, 1940. As of June 22, 1941 it had the following order of battle:


176th Rifle Division, 1st Formation
Col. Vladimir Nikolaevich Martsinkevich was appointed to command on the day the division formed. This officer had previously commanded the 173rd Rifle Division and would be promoted to the rank of major general on November 9. On June 22 the 176th was in 9th Army's 35th Rifle Corps with the 95th Rifle Division; the 9th was at the time a separate Army unassigned to any Front.


176th Rifle Division, Battles in Ukraine
By July 1 the division had been shifted to the 48th Rifle Corps, still in 9th Army which was now part of Southern Front (formerly Odessa Military District). A few days later it incorporated five battalions of militia plus survivors of the 2nd and 23rd Border Guards that had retreated from the frontier. The 176th remained with 9th Army, retreating across the southern Ukraine until October while the main forces of Army Group South were focused on the encirclement battle east of Kiev. As of the start of September it was a separate division within 9th Army and during October it was withdrawn into the Front reserves; the 380th Howitzer Regiment was removed from the division on October 14.


176th Street station
176th Street is a local station on the IRT Jerome Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of 176th Street and Jerome Avenue in the Bronx, it is served by the 4 train at all times. This station was constructed by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company as part of the Dual Contracts and opened in 1917.


176th Street station, History
The Dual Contracts, which were signed on March 19, 1913, were contracts for the construction and/or rehabilitation and operation of rapid transit lines in the City of New York. The contracts were "dual" in that they were signed between the City and two separate private companies (the Interborough Rapid Transit Company and the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company), all working together to make the construction of the Dual Contracts possible. The Dual Contracts promised the construction of several lines in the Bronx. As part of Contract 3, the IRT agreed to build an elevated line along Jerome Avenue in the Bronx.


176th Street station, History
176th Street station opened as part of the initial section of the line to Kingsbridge Road on June 2, 1917. Service was initially operated as a shuttle between Kingsbridge Road and 149th Street. Through service to the IRT Lexington Avenue Line began on July 17, 1918. The line was completed with a final extension to Woodlawn on April 15, 1918. This section was initially served by shuttle service, with passengers transferring at 167th Street. The construction of the line encouraged development along Jerome Avenue, and led to the growth of the surrounding communities.


176th Street station, History
On July 5, 2004, this station, 170th Street, and Fordham Road closed for four months so they could be renovated. As part of the project, new canopy roofs, walls, lighting, staircases, floors, and a public address system would be installed at each station.


176th Street station, Station layout
This elevated station has three tracks with two side platforms. The 4 stops here at all times.


176th Street station, Station layout
The station has old style signs painted over and covered up with new style signs, and features new fare control railings as a crossunder.


176th Street station, Station layout
The 2006 artwork here is called Reaching Out For Each Other by Juan Sánchez. It features stained glass windows on the platform windscreens and station house that each feature a hand as a central element to depict their use as a universal language.


176th Street station, Station layout, Exits
The fare control is in a mezzanine below the tracks. Outside fare control, stairs lead to either southwest corner of Jerome Avenue and 176th Street.


176th Tunnelling Company
The 176th Tunnelling Company was one of the tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers created by the British Army during World War I. The tunnelling units were occupied in offensive and defensive mining involving the placing and maintaining of mines under enemy lines, as well as other underground work such as the construction of deep dugouts for troop accommodation, the digging of subways, saps (a narrow trench dug to approach enemy trenches), cable trenches and  underground chambers for signals and medical services.


176th Tunnelling Company, Background
By January 1915 it had become evident to the BEF at the Western Front that the Germans were mining to a planned system. As the British had failed to develop suitable counter-tactics or underground  listening devices before the war, field marshals French and Kitchener agreed to investigate the suitability of forming  British mining units. Following consultations between the Engineer-in-Chief of the BEF, Brigadier George Fowke, and the mining specialist John Norton-Griffiths, the War Office formally approved the tunnelling company scheme on 19 February 1915.


176th Tunnelling Company, Background
Norton-Griffiths ensured that tunnelling companies numbers 170 to 177 were ready for deployment in mid-February 1915. In the spring of that year, there was constant underground fighting in the Ypres Salient at Hooge, Hill 60, Railway Wood, Sanctuary Wood, St Eloi and The Bluff which required the deployment of new drafts of tunnellers for several months after the formation of the first eight companies. The lack of suitably experienced men led to some tunnelling companies starting work later than others.


176th Tunnelling Company, Background
The number of units available to the BEF was also restricted by the need to provide effective counter-measures to the German mining activities. To make the tunnels safer and quicker to deploy, the British Army enlisted experienced coal miners, many outside their nominal recruitment policy. The first nine companies, numbers 170 to 178, were each commanded by a regular Royal Engineers officer. These companies each comprised 5 officers and 269 sappers; they were aided by additional infantrymen who were temporarily attached to the tunnellers as required, which almost doubled their numbers.


176th Tunnelling Company, Background
The success of the first tunnelling companies formed under Norton-Griffiths' command led to mining being made a separate branch of the  Engineer-in-Chief's office under Major-General S.R. Rice, and the appointment of an 'Inspector of Mines' at the GHQ Saint-Omer office of the Engineer-in-Chief. A second group of tunnelling companies were formed from Welsh miners from the 1st and 3rd Battalions of the Monmouthshire Regiment, who were attached to the 1st Northumberland Field Company of the Royal Engineers, which was a Territorial unit. The formation of twelve new tunnelling companies, between July and October 1915, helped to bring more men into action in other parts of the Western Front.


176th Tunnelling Company, Background
Most tunnelling companies were formed under Norton-Griffiths' leadership during 1915, and one more was added in 1916. On 10 September 1915, the British government sent an appeal to Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand to raise tunnelling companies in the Dominions of the British Empire. On 17 September, New Zealand became the first Dominion to agree the formation of a tunnelling unit. The New Zealand Tunnelling Company arrived at Plymouth on 3 February 1916 and was deployed to the Western Front in northern France. A Canadian unit was formed from men on the battlefield, plus two other companies trained in Canada and then shipped to France. Three Australian tunnelling companies were formed by March 1916, resulting in 30 tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers being available by the summer of 1916.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Formation
176th Tunnelling Company was formed at Lestrem in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France in April 1915, and moved soon after to the Neuve Chapelle area, facing Bois du Biez. From its formation until the end of the war the company served under First Army.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Givenchy 1915
In June 1915 the company was moved to Givenchy, where it relieved 170th Tunnelling Company which had been operating there since spring 1915 to counter enemy mining activity in that sector.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Cuinchy 1915
The company was next deployed in Summer 1915 on operations under the command of 2nd Division near Cuinchy, again alongside 170th Tunnelling Company and the 173rd Tunnelling Company.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Givenchy 1916
176th Tunnelling Company saw action in the northern Givenchy area until it was relieved by 254th Tunnelling Company, arriving from Gallipoli, in Spring 1916.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Vimy 1916
In April 1916, 176th Tunnelling Company moved to Neuville-Saint-Vaast near Vimy in northern France, where it remained for a considerable time. Neuville-Saint-Vaast was close to the German "Labyrinth" stronghold between Arras and Vimy and not far from Notre Dame de Lorette. British tunnellers took over mining in this area progressively from the French between February and May 1916. From spring 1916, the British had deployed five tunnelling companies along the Vimy Ridge, and  during the first two months of their tenure in the area, 70 mines were fired, mostly by the Germans. Between October 1915 and April 1917 an estimated 150 French, British and German charges were fired in this 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) sector of the Western Front.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Vimy 1916
In March 1916, the New Zealand Tunnelling Company had taken over this sector of the Western Front between Roclincourt and Écurie from the French 7/1 compagnie d'ingénieurs territoriaux. On 29 March 1916, the New Zealanders exchanged position with the 185th Tunnelling Company and moved to Roclincourt-Chantecler, a kilometre south of their old sector. At the same time, the 172nd Tunnelling Company was deployed in the Neuville-Saint-Vaast sector along with the 176th and 185th Tunnelling Companies. 172nd Tunnelling Company was relieved in this area by the 2nd Australian Tunnelling Company in May 1916.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Vimy 1916
Also in May 1916, a German infantry attack, which forced the British back 640 metres (700 yd), was aimed at neutralising British mining activity by capturing the shaft entrances. From June 1916, however, the Germans withdrew many miners to work on the Hindenburg Line and also for work in coal mines in Germany. In the second half of 1916 the British constructed strong defensive underground positions, and from August 1916, the  Royal Engineers developed a mining scheme to support a large-scale infantry attack on the Vimy Ridge proposed for autumn 1916, although this was subsequently postponed. After September 1916, when the Royal Engineers had completed their network of defensive galleries along most of the front line, offensive mining largely ceased although activities continued until 1917. The British gallery network beneath Vimy Ridge eventually grew to a length of 12 kilometres (7.5 mi).


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Vimy 1916
The Canadian Corps was posted to the northern part of Vimy Ridge in October 1916 and preparations for an attack were revived in February 1917. Prior to the Battle of Vimy Ridge (9–12 April 1917), the British tunnelling companies secretly laid a series of explosive charges under German positions in an effort to destroy surface fortifications before the assault. The original plan had called for 17 mines and 9 Wombat charges to support the infantry attack, of which 13 (possibly 14) mines and 8 Wombat charges were eventually laid.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Vimy 1916
At the same time, 19 crater groups existed along this section of the Western Front, each with several large craters. In order to assess the consequences of infantry having to advance across cratered ground after a mining attack, officers from the Canadian Corps visited La Boisselle and Fricourt where the mines on the first day of the Somme had been blown.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Vimy 1916
Their reports and the experience of the Canadians at St Eloi in April 1916 – where mines had so altered and damaged the landscape as to render occupation of the mine craters by the infantry all but impossible –, led to the decision to remove offensive mining from the central sector allocated to the Canadian Corps at Vimy Ridge.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Vimy 1916
Further British mines in the area were vetoed following the blowing by the Germans on 23 March 1917 of nine craters along no man's land as it was probable that the Germans were aiming to restrict an Allied attack to predictable points. The three mines already laid by 172nd Tunnelling Company were also dropped from the British plans. They were left in place after the assault and were only removed in the 1990s. Another mine, prepared by 176th Tunnelling Company against the German strongpoint known as the Pimple, was not completed in time for the attack.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Vimy 1916
The gallery had been pushed silently through the clay, avoiding the sandy and chalky layers of the Vimy Ridge, but by 9 April 1917 was still 21 metres (70 ft) short of its target. In the end, two mines were blown before the attack, while three mines and two Wombat charges were fired to support the attack, including those forming a northern flank.


176th Tunnelling Company, Unit history, Vimy 1916
Other units active around Vimy were 175th, 182nd, 184th and 255th Tunnelling Companies.


176th Wing
The 176th Wing (176 WG) is a unit of the Alaska Air National Guard, stationed at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson (JBER), Anchorage, Alaska. If activated to federal service, components of the Wing are gained by several United States Air Force Major Commands.


176th Wing, Overview
The 176 WG is the largest unit of the Alaska Air National Guard. It is a composite wing — meaning a wing which operates more than one type of aircraft; each having different mission objectives. From 1969–2011 the 176th Wing was based at Kulis Air National Guard Base, located adjacent to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport and approximately 15 miles from JBER. It was recommended for relocation as part of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) process. It now operates out of a set of new and renovated buildings on JBER in an area known colloquially as Camp Kulis.


176th Wing, Units
The 176th Wing is one of the largest and most complex wings in the Air National Guard. It consists of several major components:


176th Wing, History
In 1969, the Alaska Air National Guard 144th Tactical Airlift Squadron (TAS) was authorized to expand to a group level, and the 176th Tactical Airlift Group (TAG) was established by the National Guard Bureau. The 176th TAG received federal recognition and was activated on 1 April 1969. The 144th TAS was assigned as the new unit's operational squadron, flying C-123J Provider transports. Other units formed by the new Group were the 176th Headquarters, 176th Material Squadron (Maintenance), 176th Combat Support Squadron, and the 176th USAF Dispensary.


176th Wing, History
In the early 1970s, the mission of the 176th TAG was primarily the logistical support of the Alaskan Air Command Aircraft Control and Warning (Radar) Sites, all of which were in remote areas with rough gravel runways. The C-123Js were equipped with wingtip mounted J-44 jet engines and could handle heavy payloads and also helped offset the drag of the ski modification added to give the aircraft the capability to be operated off frozen runways and icy surfaces. The 176th operated the only ski-equipped C-123Js in the Air Force.