167th Rifle Division (Soviet Union), History, First Formation
The division was formed at Balashov in the Volga Military District in July 1940, under the command of Kombrig Vasily Rakovsky. Just before the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, the June 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, the division became part of the 63rd Rifle Corps. After the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, the division and its corps were sent to the front, joining the 21st Army of the Reserve of the High Command (Stavka reserve). From 28 June, the 167th fought in defense of positions between Rogachev and Zhlobin.


167th Rifle Division (Soviet Union), History, First Formation
During the Battle of Smolensk the division repulsed German attempts to cross the Dnieper. Launching a counterattack, it advanced to the line of the Drut River and remained there until 12 August, when it was withdrawn to the army reserve. Relocated to the area of Dovsk, the division defended the latter as part of the 67th Rifle Corps, fighting in encirclement from 13 August. Due to its loss of contact with the 67th Rifle Corps, the 167th returned to the control of the 63rd Rifle Corps from 14 August.


167th Rifle Division (Soviet Union), History, First Formation
In the encirclement, Rakovsky decided to destroy heavy weapons and ordered the division to escape in groups. He led a group of 25 others out of the encirclement with their weapons in the sector of the 155th Rifle Division of the Bryansk Front on 18 September; about 2,500 men of the division escaped the encirclement. The units that escaped encirclement were disbanded and their men used to reinforce other units.


167th Rifle Division (Soviet Union), History, Second Formation
On 16 December 1941, the 438th Rifle Division was formed in the Ural Military District. On 23 January 1942, it became the 167th Rifle Division (Second Formation). The division was recreated at Ssucho Lug in February 1942 and fought near Bryansk and at Kursk. The division fought in the Battle of the Dnieper. Division personnel Major Fyodor Bruy, Junior lieutenant Alexander Bondarev, Sergeant major Arkady Chepelev, Senior sergeant Alexey Gabrusev, Sergeant Andrian Zhuravlev and Private Dmitry Yemelyanov, among others, were awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union for their actions during the battle.


167th Rifle Division (Soviet Union), History, Second Formation
The division fought in the Carpathians and in Hungary. The division was with the 1st Guards Army of the 4th Ukrainian Front in May 1945. The division ended the war with the honorifics "Sumy-Kiev Twice Red Banner". Postwar, the division moved to Chortkov with the 107th Rifle Corps, part of the 38th Army in the Carpathian Military District. The division and its corps were disbanded in May 1946.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line)
167th Street is a local station on the IND Concourse Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of 167th Street and Grand Concourse in the Highbridge and Concourse neighborhoods of the Bronx, it is served by the D train at all times except rush hours in peak direction and the B train during rush hours.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), History
This underground station, along with the rest of the Concourse Line, opened on July 1, 1933. Initial service was provided by the C express and CC local trains.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), History
Under the 2015–2019 MTA Capital Plan, the station underwent a complete overhaul as part of the Enhanced Station Initiative, and was entirely closed for several months. Upgrades included cellular service, Wi-Fi, USB charging stations, interactive service advisories and maps. In January 2018, the NYCT and Bus Committee recommended that Citnalta-Forte receive the $125 million contract for the renovations of 167th and 174th–175th Streets on the IND Concourse Line and 145th Street on the IRT Lenox Avenue Line. However, the MTA Board temporarily deferred the vote for these packages after city representatives refused to vote to award the contracts.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), History
The contract was put back for a vote in February, where it was ultimately approved. The staircase entrance on the southwest corner of McClellan Street and Grand Concourse closed on July 9, while the rest of the station closed for repairs on August 27, and reopened on January 9, 2019. In 2019, the MTA announced that this station would become ADA-accessible as part of the agency's 2020–2024 Capital Program.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), Station layout
The station has three tracks and two side platforms. The center track is used by the D train during rush hours in the peak direction.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), Station layout
Both platforms have an orange trim line with a black border and name tablets reading "167TH ST." in white lettering on a black background with white border. Below the trim line and name tablets are small "167" and directional signs in white lettering on a black background. Grey (previously yellow) I-beam columns run along both platforms at regular intervals with alternating ones having the standard black station name plate in white lettering. A closed tower sits at the far north end of the Manhattan-bound platform.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), Station layout
North of the station, a track begins on the west side of the line. It ends at a bumper block before the 170th Street station and is only used for storage of Yankee Stadium Special trains for service after their home games.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), Station layout
The 2019 artwork at this station is Beacons, a set of murals by Rico Gatson. The murals depict prominent figures in the Bronx, such as Maya Angelou, James Baldwin, Celia Cruz, Reggie Jackson, Audre Lorde, Tito Puente, Gil Scott-Heron, and Sonia Sotomayor.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), Station layout, Exits
This station's full-time mezzanine is at the north end. Two staircases from each platform go up to a waiting area, where a turnstile bank provides entrance/exit from the station and transfers between the two directions are possible. Outside fare control, there is a token booth and four staircases going up to all corners of the intersection of 167th Street and Grand Concourse. The mezzanine has mosaic directional signs in white lettering on an orange background.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), Station layout, Exits
Both platforms have an unstaffed same-level fare control area at the south end. On the northbound side, a set of exit-only turnstiles lead to a staircase that goes up to the southeast corner of McClellan Street and Grand Concourse. On the Manhattan-bound side, a set of turnstiles lead to a staircase that goes up to the southwest corner of the same intersection. This fare control area had a token booth until 2003.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), Station layout, Exits
Below this station is the 167th Street tunnel underneath the Grand Concourse. Until July 1948, there was a crosstown trolley service in this tunnel, which widens at its midpoint. In each direction, this tunnel had a trolley track, two platforms, and two road lanes. When the trolley was discontinued, the replacement Bx35 bus used the platforms until around 1990, when it was moved to the street above for quicker transfers to other bus routes and the subway. The underpass staircases were permanently closed for security reasons in 1993, and there is no pedestrian access to the underpass - which is open to vehicle traffic only - from either side on street level.


167th Street station (IND Concourse Line), Station layout, Exits
The trolley platforms lead to two lower mezzanines, one to each subway platform. These lower mezzanines are at a slightly lower level than the subway platforms, and have a direct connection to them. They are not visible; a patch of newer tiling and a door in the wall near the northern end of each platform shows where the connections once were. The full-time mezzanine had two winding staircases to the underpass, one to each side. When the trolley mezzanines were closed, these staircases were gated off.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line)
167th Street is a local station on the IRT Jerome Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of 167th Street and River Avenue in the Bronx, it is served by the 4 train at all times. This station was constructed by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company as part of the Dual Contracts and opened in 1917.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line), History
The Dual Contracts, which were signed on March 19, 1913, were contracts for the construction and/or rehabilitation and operation of rapid transit lines in the City of New York. The contracts were "dual" in that they were signed between the City and two separate private companies (the Interborough Rapid Transit Company and the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company), all working together to make the construction of the Dual Contracts possible. The Dual Contracts promised the construction of several lines in the Bronx. As part of Contract 3, the IRT agreed to build an elevated line along Jerome Avenue in the Bronx.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line), History
167th Street station opened as part of the initial section of the line to Kingsbridge Road on June 2, 1917. Service was initially operated as a shuttle between Kingsbridge Road and 149th Street.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line), History
On July 1, 1918, trains on the Ninth Avenue El began stopping here, as they were extended from 155th Street, entering the Bronx via the Putnam Bridge, a now-demolished swing bridge immediately north of the Macombs Dam Bridge, to connect with the Jerome Avenue line between 161st Street and 167th Street.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line), History
Through service to the IRT Lexington Avenue Line began on July 17, 1918. The line was completed with a final extension to Woodlawn on April 15, 1918. This section was initially served by shuttle service, with passengers transferring at this station. The construction of the line encouraged development along Jerome Avenue, and led to the growth of the surrounding communities.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line), History
A new high exit turnstile entrance from the southern end of the northbound platform opened on October 6, 1931.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line), History
In 1940, the New York City Board of Transportation proposed that the IRT Ninth Avenue Line should be connected to the IRT Lenox Avenue Line near the current Harlem–148th Street station. However, the tunnel from Sedgwick Avenue to Anderson–Jerome Avenues was built to elevated-railway standards, whose "open" third rails were shorter than the subway's "covered" third rails, as the "open" rails did not have any protective covers on top. This incompatibility prevented the connection from being built. Another issue was that the Ninth Avenue Line could not carry subway cars, it was only strong enough to carry the lighter elevated cars.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line), History
From 1940 to 1958, 167th Street served as a terminal for the last remnant of the Ninth Avenue Elevated operating from 155th Street (Polo Grounds) to 167th Street. On reaching 167th Street, trains would switch to the center track, change direction, and return to 155th Street on the downtown track. Service was eventually reduced to a single two-car train operating in both directions on the uptown track. In 1958, service was discontinued after the New York Giants left for San Francisco. From the southern end of the station, the ramps leading to the Ninth Avenue line structure can still be seen. These ramps end south of the southwest corner of River Avenue and 164th Street, between Gate 8 and the 164th Street parking garage at Yankee Stadium.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line), Station layout
This elevated station has three tracks with two side platforms. The 4 stops here at all times.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line), Station layout
This station has old-style signs that have been painted over and covered up with new-style signs. It also features new fare control railings as a crossunder.


167th Street station (IRT Jerome Avenue Line), Station layout, Exits
Fare control is situated in the mezzanine under the tracks. Outside of the fare control area, exit stairs go to all corners of River Avenue and 167th Street.


167th Support Battalion (United States)
The 167th Support Battalion is a support battalion of the United States Army Reserve based at Londonderry, New Hampshire. The battalion is now subordinate to the 655th Regional Support Group of the 316th Sustainment Command (Expeditionary).


167th Support Battalion (United States)
Activated in 1971 as the 167th Support Group (Corps), it was reorganised as a battalion in 2006. The 167th is a logistical support battalion capable of a variety of actions, capable of independent operations and taking on subordinate units to fulfill a larger scale sustainment operation for the United States Army.


167th Support Battalion (United States), Organization
Due to the battalion's modular design, it is also capable of gaining additional subordinate units upon deployment to a theatre of operations.


167th Support Battalion (United States), History
Established at Grenier Field U.S. Army Reserve Center, on Galaxy Way, on the grounds of Manchester-Boston Regional Airport (the former Grenier Air Force Base), the 167th Support Group used a nominal Manchester, New Hampshire postal address, although that portion of the airport was on the Londonderry side of the city boundary.


167th Support Battalion (United States), History
In 1980, the peacetime Army Reserve chain of command was overlaid with a CAPSTONE wartime trace. In an expansion of the roundout and affiliation program begun ten years earlier, CAPSTONE purported to align every Army Reserve unit with the active and reserve component units with which they were anticipated to deploy. Like other Army Reserve units, the 167th Support Group maintained lines of communication with the units – often hundreds or thousands of miles away in peacetime – who would presumably serve above or below them in the event of mobilization. This communication, in some cases, extended to coordinated annual training opportunities.


167th Support Battalion (United States), History
Many of the 167th's units and individual soldiers rotated through Honduras in the 1980s. Operation Fuertes Caminos ("strong roads") provided villagers with roads on which to move their crops to market, while providing invaluable real-world training and experience to reserve engineers, medical personnel, logisticians and others.


167th Support Battalion (United States), History
Operation Nordic Shield was held in the summer of 1987. Units of the 94th Army Reserve Command; principally the 167th Support Group, the 187th Infantry Brigade (Separate), and their subordinate battalions and companies; deployed to Canadian Forces Base Gagetown in southern New Brunswick, to simulate the defense of Iceland against Warsaw Pact forces, the CAPSTONE mission of both the 187th and 167th.


167th Support Battalion (United States), History
Units under the 167th participated in a series of mobilization exercises in the 1980s, including the Selected Reserve Call-Up (23–25 October 1987), Golden Thrust '88 (November 1988), and Proud Eagle 90 (12 October through 2 November 1989). Each of these was designed to evaluate not only the units' ability to prepare to mobilize, but to examine the mobilization processes, systems, and logistical coordination so as to find and correct the unanticipated flaws.


167th Support Battalion (United States), History
In 1990–1991, many of the soldiers from the 167th Support Group's units were called to active duty and served both domestically and overseas in support of Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Despite the commonly held belief that CAPSTONE traces were set in stone, the process of selecting units to mobilize and deploy largely ignored CAPSTONE.


167th Support Battalion (United States), History
Operation Nordic Shield II was held in the summer of 1992. As they did five years before, the 167th Support Group, 187th Infantry Brigade and other units of the 94th ARCOM deployed to Canadian Forces Base Gagetown in southern New Brunswick, to simulate the defense of Iceland against Warsaw Pact forces, the CAPSTONE mission of both the 187th and 167th. Part of the 1992 exercise included lanes training as part of the United States Army Forces Command's "Bold Shift" initiative to reinforce unit war-fighting task proficiency.


167th Support Battalion (United States), History
In the 1990s, the airport's expansion necessitated a land-swap between the airport authority and the federal government, resulting in a new Army Reserve Center being built on the south edge of the airport's periphery. Since relocating, the 167th and its co-located units use a Londonderry postal address.


167th Support Battalion (United States), History
The 167th Support Group deployed soldiers to Honduras and Guatemala in 1999 in support of Operation New Horizon.


167th Support Battalion (United States), Global War on Terror
In 2003, the 167th Corps Support Group was mobilized in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and deployed to the Persian Gulf in February 2004. In March 2004, the 167th deployed into Iraq, to FOB Speicher.


167th Volksgrenadier Division (Wehrmacht)
The 167th Volksgrenadier Division (German: 167. Volksgrenadierdivision), formerly the 167th Infantry Division (German: 167. Infanteriedivision) was a German Army infantry division in World War II.


167th Volksgrenadier Division (Wehrmacht), Operational history, Formation and France
The 167th Infantry Division was formed in the Bavarian capital of Munich in November 1939, absorbing the 7th; 27th and 34th Field-Replacement Battalions from their respective divisions in January. It was also at this point that its commanding officer, Colonel Gilbert, was promoted to major general, shortly before his replacement by Lieutenant General Oskar Vogl.


167th Volksgrenadier Division (Wehrmacht), Operational history, Formation and France
The division took part in the initial 1940 invasion of France with Army Group C, capturing Ouvrage Kerfent and Ouvrage Bambesch - two components of the Maginot Line - between 20–21 June. The division remained in occupied France until February 1941, when it returned to its garrison in Bavaria. In August 1940, Major General Hans Schönhärl took over as commanding officer, being promoted to lieutenant general in December.


167th Volksgrenadier Division (Wehrmacht), Operational history, Barbarossa and the Soviet Union
In June 1941, the division was transferred to the occupied Polish capital of Warsaw as the Axis forces began their assault on the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. In August, Schönhärl was replaced as commanding officer by Major General Verner Schartow, himself replaced by Major General Wolf Trierenberg. On December 17, Red Army forces succeeded in punching a hole in the 167th's sector, only to be forced back by support from the 112th Infantry, with some tank support.


167th Volksgrenadier Division (Wehrmacht), Operational history, Barbarossa and the Soviet Union
Later the Division took part in the Battle of Moscow, Battle of Kursk, and finally against the Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive, where the 167th Infantry Division was disbanded due to heavy losses in January 1944.


167th Volksgrenadier Division (Wehrmacht), Operational history, Second formation as 167th Volksgrenadier Division (October 1944)
The re-created division, now designated 167. Volksgrenadierdivision, took part in the Ardennes Offensive. On New Years Day, it, along with the 5th Parachute Division, aided the panzers in defending the area around the Belgian town of Lutrebois in Luxembourg. While the three were able to hold off the approaching Americans and dealt heavy casualties to their enemies, the situation elsewhere in the Ardennes was different and the 167th was ordered to fall back.


167th meridian east
The meridian 167° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Asia, the Pacific Ocean, New Zealand, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole.


167th meridian east
The 167th meridian east forms a great circle with the 13th meridian west.


167th meridian east, From Pole to Pole
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 167th meridian east passes through:


167th meridian west
The meridian 167° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, North America, the Pacific Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole.


167th meridian west
The 167th meridian west forms a great circle with the 13th meridian east.


167th meridian west, From Pole to Pole
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 167th meridian west passes through:


168
Year 168 (CLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Apronianus and Paullus (or, less frequently, year 921 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 168 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.


168 (number)
168 (one hundred [and] sixty-eight) is the natural number following 167 and preceding 169.


168 (number), In mathematics
168 is an even number, a composite number, an abundant number, and an idoneal number.


168 (number), In mathematics
There are 168 primes less than 1000. 168 is the product of the first two perfect numbers.


168 (number), In mathematics
168 is the order of the group PSL(2,7), the second smallest nonabelian simple group.


168 (number), In mathematics
From Hurwitz's automorphisms theorem, 168 is the maximum possible number of automorphisms of a genus 3 Riemann surface, this maximum being achieved by the Klein quartic, whose symmetry group is PSL(2,7). The Fano plane has 168 symmetries.


168 (number), In mathematics
168 is the sum of four consecutive prime numbers: 37 + 41 + 43 + 47.


168 BC
Year 168 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Macedonicus and Crassus (or, less frequently, year 586 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 168 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.


168 Film Project
The contest starts with the random assignment of verses based on a theme from the scriptures. Writing and preproduction is the next phase, followed by exactly one week (168 hours) to shoot and edit a finished film. If the film is on time and at or under the required total run time, then it is eligible for awards. Worldwide, over 750 short films have been produced for the competition from 2003 to 2012.


168 Film Project, History
Founded by John David Ware in 2003, the 168 Film Project started with 13 entries. Winning entries:


168 Film Project, History, 2021
168 will conduct its first online virtual competition and festival.


168 Film Project, History, 2019
"Best Speed Film" was awarded to True Reflection by Aaron Kamp. "Best Alumni Film" went to So Much More by Stephanie  Hylton Wang, and best Write of Passage Spotlight Film to Sunday School, by Alicia Schudt-Schechter and Yvette Sams. Theme: "Rebirth"


168 Film Project, History, 2018
"Best Speed Film" and Best International Film went to Fhedi by Maged Hannah from Egypt.


168 Film Project, History, 2017
"Best Speed Film" was Brother by Chris Hussar. "Best International Film" was The Gift by Andrew Matthews. "Best KidVid" went to Rachel Lowry for Lost, which qualified her team to pitch for and win the 8168 Feature Production Prize, which in 2021 has reached theaters and distribution as Final Frequency.


168 Film Project, History, 2016
The 2016 "Best Film" prize was awarded to The Paperclip, starring James Sayess who received a nomination for best actor.


168 Film Project, History, 2013
The 2013 "Best Film" prize was awarded to ReMoved, a film based on the 2013 festival's assigned theme of "atonement".


168 Film Project, History, 2012
In 2012 "Best Film" was given to "Refuge", produced by Paul e Luebbers and Joel VanderSpek. The "Best International Film" award presented to "Ghosts of Europe" produced by Jesse Hutch and Jamie Rauch.


168 Film Project, History, 2011
The film "Useless", produced by Dennis & Olivia Bentivengo, was awarded "Best Film". "Best Director" to Owen Kingston, Tom Cooper for "Child’s Play".


168 Film Project, History, 2010
"Best Film" award presented to Helen Urriola for her production "The Party".


168 Film Project, History, 2009
Repeat winner Wes Llewellyn honored with "Best Film" for "UP IN THE AIR".


168 Film Project, History, 2008
The "Best Film" award presented to "Stained", produced by Joshua Weigel, Aaron Moore and Jeff Bartsch. "Best International Film" went to "Coppelius, Matthias Haag and Travis Mendel, Producers.


168 Film Project, History, 2007
2007 "Best Film" awarded to "A GOOD DAY" Produced and Directed by Amanda Llewellyn & Wes Llewellyn


168 Film Project, History, 2006
The 2006 "Best Film" prize was awarded to "5 Minuti" from Milan Italy. The screenplay was written by co-director Sergio Mascheroni. The film was produced and directed by Deborah E. Brown with CinemaVerita.com of Padova Italy. "5 Minuti" was based on theme "Faith and Fear" from the assigned Bible reference Hebrews 11:6. The film was also awarded as the 2006 "Best Foreign Film", "Best Screenplay" given to Mascheroni, and "Best Scriptural Integration". Italian actress Barbara Sanua was nominated for "Best Actress" and Maurizio Desinan was nominated for "Best Actor".


168 Film Project, History, 2006
Barbara Sanua participated in four 168 Film Project productions, passing away in Nov. 2013 from Cystic Fibrosis just months after her final 168 Film Project entry. "5 Minuti" has been translated and distributed in 16 languages worldwide, and was heralded as "The New Jesus Film" by 168 Project founder John Ware.


168 Film Project, History, 2006
"Best Actress" for 2006 was presented to Marieke Douridas for her portrayal in "Free of Charge"; Douridas died in April 2006.


168 Film Project, History, 2005
Best Short Film" awarded to "A Temp for All Seasons" produced by Michael Toay. Josh Greene was awarded "Best Screenplay" for "The Commission".


168 Film Project, History, 2004
The 2004 "Best Film" award given to producers Jim O'Keeffe, Dawn O'Keeffe & Talin Parseghian for "Max". Luke Schelhaas was awarded "Best Screenplay" for "Max".


168 Film Project, History, 2003
Producers Wes and Amanda Llewllyn's film "Crosswalk" was awarded "Best Short Film", "Best Story", "Best Scriptural Integration", "Best Editor", "Best Cinematographer".


168 Pioneer Regiment RLC
168 Pioneer Regiment was a unit in the British Territorial Army. The regiment was nationally recruited and provided a reserve unit of pioneers.


168 Pioneer Regiment RLC, Formation
On 1 April 1995, the three operational pioneer TA squadrons (34, 68 and 79 Squadrons) were formed into 168 Pioneer Regiment, with the instructions that it was to become operational by 1 April 1998. These squadrons were formed into the tasking sub-units of the Regiment, which were to become 34, 102 and 103 Squadrons, with the Headquarters Squadron being named 101 Squadron.


168 Pioneer Regiment RLC, Formation
A Regimental Headquarters was also formed under its first Commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Rod Othen, who had served as a regular in the Royal Pioneer Corps (RPC) before retiring and joining the Royal Pioneer Corps in the Territorial Army. He established the Regiment before handing it over to Lt Col Ron Gatepain, who had seen service in the Royal Marines and TA service with the RPC.


168 Pioneer Regiment RLC, Formation
The Strategic Defence Review of 1998 resulted in 168 Pioneer Regiment being tasked with forming two additional Squadrons, which were to be independent sub-units within the Specialist Regiment. These squadrons were to be formed in the North East of England. The Commanding Officer recruited many of the soldiers from disbanding units in the area and formed 100 Squadron at Cramlington, Berwick upon Tweed, Hexham and 104 Squadron based at Middlesbrough; between them, they had units at six locations in the Northeast. It also made 168 Regiment the largest unit in the British Army with 678 personnel and created a new concept of mixing Specialist and Independent TA.


168 Pioneer Regiment RLC, Formation
On 3 July 2013, the Defence Secretary, Philip Hammond, announced in Parliament that as part of the restructuring of the Army, 168 Regiment would be one of nine major units that will be disbanded. The four squadrons of 168 Regiment would be withdrawn from the British Army ORBAT no later than March 2014.


168 Pioneer Regiment RLC, Formation
The Regiment held its disbandment parade on 26 October 2013


168 Shopping Mall
168 Shopping Mall (Chinese: 一路發商場; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: It-lō͘-hoa̍t siong-tiûⁿ) is a shopping complex in Binondo, Manila, the Chinatown of the Philippines. The three-story complex is located along St. Elena and Soler Streets just south of Recto Avenue and Divisoria. It is owned and managed by the 168 Group of Companies. Close competitors to the mall are the 11/88 Mall, the 999 Mall, and the Lucky Chinatown Mall. The building houses over 500 tenants and is considered to be one of the most visited malls in the area, before the opening of the Lucky Chinatown Mall in 2012.


168 Shopping Mall
It is still one of the common destinations when shopping for bargain goods and other commodities, from novelty items, bags, shoes, toys, hardware, RTW's, and others.


168 Shopping Mall, History
It began its operations in the mid-2000s and was developed by the Yeeloofa Development Corporation (YDC) costing somewhere around 250 million pesos. Being developed by the 168 Group of Companies (168 GoC), the 168 Shopping Mall is only one of many buildings being managed and constructed by the group. Within recent years, Phase 2 of the mall was constructed to accommodate the need for extra space due to the overcrowding in the first phase of the mall and the need of space for tenants.


168 Shopping Mall, Tenants
Located on the first level are some banks like Security Bank and BDO and some men's and women's apparel and accessories boutiques as well.


168 Shopping Mall, Tenants
A Robinsons Supermarket branch is located at the lower ground level.


168 Shopping Mall, Tenants
Continuing on the trend of the boutiques, infant's and children's toys, apparel and accessories can be found throughout the succeeding levels; gifts and decorations, and some food stalls are found here. A food court could be found on the third level and on the fifth level, respectively.


168 Shopping Mall, Tenants
A subsidiary of the 168 Group of Companies, the 168 Department Store, is located within the mall complex.


168 Sibylla
168 Sibylla is a large main-belt asteroid, discovered by Canadian-American astronomer J. C. Watson on September 28, 1876. It was most likely named for the Sibyls, referring to the Ancient Greek female oracles. Based upon its spectrum this object is classified as a C-type asteroid, which indicates it is very dark and composed of primitive carbonaceous materials. 168 Sibylla is a Cybele asteroid, orbiting beyond most of the main-belt asteroids.


168 Sibylla
Photometric observations of this asteroid made at the Torino Observatory in Italy during 1990–1991 were used to determine a synodic rotation period of 23.82 ± 0.004 hours. The shape of this slowly rotating object appears to resemble an oblate spheroid.


168 Óra
168 Óra (meaning 168 Hours in English) is a weekly Hungarian language political news magazine published in Budapest, Hungary.


168 Óra, History and profile
168 Óra was started in 1989 by the radio broadcaster with the same name, which is part of Hungary's state broadcasting institution Magyar Rádió. In the initial phase it was just the print version of the radio programme and later, it became a political publication. Ákos Mester is the editor-in-chief of the magazine which is based in Budapest. It is part of Brit Media Group. The publisher of the magazine is Telegráf Kiadó Kft.


168 Óra, History and profile
168 Óra is published weekly on Thursdays, and offers articles about politics and current affairs as well as features interviews with significant public figures. The magazine has a liberal and left liberal stance. The magazine defines itself as a critical civic-intellectual weekly.


168 Óra, History and profile
In 2003 168 Óra published the then French President Jacques Chirac's press conference as if it was an exclusive interview for the magazine.


168 Óra, Circulation
The circulation of 168 Óra was 58,000 copies in 2002 and 53,000 copies in 2003. During the fourth quarter of 2009 its circulation was 36,371 copies. In 2010 the magazine had a circulation of 21,000 copies. It was 17,746 copies in 2013. It dropped to 14,321 copies in 2015.


1680
1680 (MDCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1680th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 680th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 80th  year of the 17th century, and the  1st   year of the 1680s decade. As of the start of 1680, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1680 AM
The following radio stations broadcast on AM frequency 1680 kHz: 1680 AM is a Regional broadcast frequency.


1680 AM, In the United States
All stations operate with 10 kW during the daytime and are Class B stations.


1680 Per Brahe
1680 Per Brahe, provisional designation 1942 CH, is a bright background asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 14 kilometers (9 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 12 February 1942, by Finnish astronomer Liisi Oterma at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland. The stony S-type asteroid has a rotation period of 3.4 hours. It is named after Swedish count and governor Per Brahe the Younger.


1680 Per Brahe, Orbit and classification
The S-type asteroid is a non-family asteroid of the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.2–3.2 AU once every 4 years and 6 months (1,643 days; semi-major axis of 2.73 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. Per Brahe was first identified as A902 JA at Heidelberg Observatory in 1902, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 40 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1680 Per Brahe, Naming
This minor planet was named for Swedish count Per Brahe (1602–1680), who was Governor General of Finland in the 17th century. His prosperous legacy saw the establishment of Academia Aboensis, the first university in Finland, the construction of various new towns and many schools, and the publication of the first Finnish Bible. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 April 1980 (M.P.C. 5280).


1680 Per Brahe, Physical characteristics, Lightcurve
In December 2012, two rotational lightcurves of Per Brahe were obtained by American astronomers Robert Stephens and Brian Warner. They gave a well-defined rotation period of 3.426 and 3.428 hours with a brightness variation of 0.13 and 0.017 magnitude, respectively (U=3/3). Previously, lightcurves obtained by Laurent Bernasconi and René Roy in 2005 and 2006, gave a similar period of 3.444 and 3.44 hours, respectively. (U=2/1+).


1680 Per Brahe, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Per Brahe measures between 13.96 and 18.29 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.178 and 0.300. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives a higher albedo of 0.341 and a diameter of 14.36 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.0.


1680 in Scotland
Events from the year 1680 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1680 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1680.


1680 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1680 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1680 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1680 in science
The year 1680 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1680s
The 1680s decade ran from January 1, 1680, to December 31, 1689.


1680s BC
The 1680s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1689 BC to December 31, 1680 BC.


1680s in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during the 1680s in South Africa.


1680s in archaeology
The decade of the 1680s in archaeology involved some significant events.


1681
1681 (MDCLXXXI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1681st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 681st  year of the 2nd millennium, the 81st  year of the 17th century, and the  2nd   year of the 1680s decade. As of the start of 1681, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1681 English general election
The 1681 English general election returned members to the last parliament of Charles II. It sat for one week from 21 March 1681 until 28 March 1681, and was  dubbed the Oxford Parliament. Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown.


1681 Steinmetz
1681 Steinmetz, provisional designation 1948 WE, is a stony asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 16 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 23 November 1948, by French astronomer Marguerite Laugier at Nice Observatory in south-eastern France. It was named after German amateur astronomer Julius Steinmetz.


1681 Steinmetz, Orbit and classification
Steinmetz orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.1–3.2 AU once every 4 years and 5 months (1,617 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic. Steinmetz was first identified as A914 DB at Heidelberg Observatory in 1914, extending the body's observation arc by 34 years prior to its official discovery observation at Nice.


1681 Steinmetz, Physical characteristics
This asteroid is characterized as a common S-type asteroid in the Tholen classification.


1681 Steinmetz, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In December 2006, Italian amateur astronomer Silvano Casulli obtained a rotational lightcurve of Steinmetz from photometric observations. It gave a well-defined rotation period of 8.99917 hours with a brightness variation of 0.42 magnitude (U=3).


1681 Steinmetz, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Steinmetz measures 14.58 and 16.16 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.204 and 0.161, respectively. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 and calculates a diameter of 20.49 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.56.


1681 Steinmetz, Naming
According to a proposal by Otto Kippes, who verified the discovery, this minor planet was named after Julius Steinmetz (1893–1965), a German amateur astronomer, orbit computer, and pastor from Gerolfingen in Bavaria. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 October 1980 (M.P.C. 5523).


1681 Trondheim fire
The 1681 Trondheim fire started on 18 April 1681, in a building near Nidelva. Large parts of the centre of Trondheim, Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. were destroyed, including the quay houses and Vår Frue Church. Timber merchant Thomas Hammond perished during the fire.


1681 Trondheim fire
After the fire incident, a new city plan of Trondheim was developed by Johan Caspar von Cicignon, on the initiative of the King Christian V.


1681 in Scotland
Events from the year 1681 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1681 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1681.


1681 in poetry
— First lines from Andrew Marvell's To His Coy Mistress, first published (posthumously) this year


1681 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1681 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1681 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1681 in science
The year 1681 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1682
1682 (MDCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1682nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 682nd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 82nd  year of the 17th century, and the  3rd   year of the 1680s decade. As of the start of 1682, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1682 Karel
1682 Karel, provisional designation 1949 PH, is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 7.5 kilometers in diameter.


1682 Karel
It was discovered on 2 August 1949, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany, and later named after the son of Dutch astronomer couple Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten.


1682 Karel, Orbit and classification
Karel is a member of the Flora family, one of the largest collisional populations of stony asteroids in the inner main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8–2.7 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,223 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.19 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. In 1929, Karel was first identified as 1929 SD at Heidelberg, extending the body's observation arc by 20 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1682 Karel, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
Astronomers François Colas, Jean Lecacheux, Federico Manzini and Raoul Behrend obtained a rotational lightcurve of Karel from photometric observations in January 2008. It gave a well-defined rotation period of 3.37485 hours with a brightness variation of 0.47 in magnitude (U=3). An identical period was modeled from the Lowell Photometric Database (U=n.a. ).


1682 Karel, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Karel measures 4.80 and 7.27 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.278 and 0.531, respectively. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from 8 Flora, the largest member and namesake of this family – and calculates a diameter of 7.47 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.8.


1682 Karel, Naming
This minor planet was named after Karel van Houten, son of Dutch astronomers Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten of the Leiden Observatory. Together with Ingrid, Reinmuth discovered the minor planet 1691 Oort in 1956. Reinmuth also named his two discoveries, 1673 van Houten and 1674 Groeneveld, after the prolific couple of Dutch astronomers. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 15 December 1968 (M.P.C. 2901).


1682 in Scotland
Events from the year 1682 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1682 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1682.


1682 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles concerning that nation's poetry or literature (for example, Irish or French).


1682 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1682 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1682 in science
The year 1682 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1683
1683 (MDCLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1683rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 683rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 83rd  year of the 17th century, and the  4th   year of the 1680s decade. As of the start of 1683, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1683 AM
The following radio stations broadcast on AM frequency 1683 kHz:


1683 Castafiore
1683 Castafiore, provisional designation 1950 SL, is a carbonaceous background asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 21 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 19 September 1950, by Belgian astronomer Sylvain Arend at Royal Observatory of Belgium in Uccle, Belgium, and named after the character Bianca Castafiore from The Adventures of Tintin.


1683 Castafiore, Orbit and classification
The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun in the middle main-belt at a distance of 2.3–3.2 AU once every 4 years and 6 months (1,653 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 12° with respect to the ecliptic.


1683 Castafiore, Naming
This minor planet was named for Bianca Castafiore, a fictional character in the comic-strip Adventures of Tintin . On the occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, the father of the fictional character, Georges Remi, better known under his pseudonym Hergé, was honoured by the minor planet 1652 Hergé. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 8 April 1982 (M.P.C. 6832).


1683 Castafiore, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In September 2004, American astronomer Donald P. Pray obtained a rotational lightcurve of Castafiore from photometric observations. It gave a rotation period of 13.931 hours with a brightness variation of 0.66 magnitude (U=2+).


1683 Castafiore, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Castafiore measures 21.15 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.160 (best result only), while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057, and calculates a diameter of 25.44 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.7.


1683 in Scotland
Events from the year 1683 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1683 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1683.


1683 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1683 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1683 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1683 in science
The year 1683 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1684
1684 (MDCLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1684th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 684th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 84th  year of the 17th century, and the  5th   year of the 1680s decade. As of the start of 1684, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1684 Iguassú
1684 Iguassú, provisional designation 1951 QE, is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 30.5 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 23 August 1951, by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory, located in the city of La Plata, Argentina. It was named after the Iguazu Falls in South America.


1684 Iguassú, Orbit and classification
The asteroid orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.7–3.5 AU once every 5 years and 5 months (1,992 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.13 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic.


1684 Iguassú, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In January 2014, two rotational lightcurves of Iguassú were obtained at the Palomar Transient Factory in California. They gave a rotation period of 9.14 and 9.23 hours, respectively, both with a brightness change of 0.15 in magnitude (U=2/2).


1684 Iguassú, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Iguassú measures between 30.21 and 31.38 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.08 and 0.093. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 30.62 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.3.


1684 Iguassú, Naming
This minor planet is named for the large Iguazu Falls, a 60 meters high and 1 kilometer wide waterfall, which river of the same name marks part of the boundary between Argentina and Brazil. As a curiosity, the spelling of the minor planet's name (Iguassú) neither concurs with the Spanish "Iguazú" nor with the Portuguese "Iguaçu". It is rather similar to "Yguasu", used in the native Guarani language, from which the waterfall's name originates. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 8 April 1982 (M.P.C. 6832).


1684 in Scotland
Events from the year 1684 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1684 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1684.


1684 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1684 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1684 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1684 in science
The year 1684 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1685
1685 (MDCLXXXV) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1685th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 685th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 85th  year of the 17th century, and the  6th   year of the 1680s decade. As of the start of 1685, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1685 English general election
The 1685 English general election elected the only parliament of James II of England, known as the Loyal Parliament. This was the first time the words Whig and Tory were used as names for political groupings in the Parliament of England. Party strengths are an approximation, with many MPs' allegiances being unknown.


1685 English general election
513 Members of Parliament were returned, across 53 counties and 217 boroughs in England and Wales, most returning two members. Only 15 counties and 57 boroughs (a total of 100 seats) had contested elections, with the other candidates being returned unopposed. One borough had a double return, where multiple members were recorded elected, and another was subsequently voided by Parliament, forcing a by-election.


1685 English general election
While the number of seats had not changed from the previous election, their electorate had been substantially altered by royal influence. Following the Exclusion crisis, ninety-nine boroughs had received new charters, the aim being to eliminate the influence of the Whigs. The Whigs also lost seats in county constituencies - which were not liable to charter manipulation - dropping from around sixty county seats in 1681 to only eight.


1685 English general election
In the new parliament, the Tories now had their own majority in both houses, Commons and Lords. The exact breakdown of members returned at the election is not clear, but of the 525 members who served during the 1685-89 Parliamentary term, including those elected at later by-elections, 468 are estimated as Tories and 57 as Whigs. This estimate does not treat any members as uncommitted, and up to 30% of members were recorded as inactive.


1685 English general election
The election had significant effects on Parliament demographically as well as politically. The newly elected members were mostly inexperienced, with slightly over half never having sat in Parliament before. The majority of these would stand down or lose their seats at the subsequent election in 1689. Members were much more likely to be High Church Anglicans, with very few Presbyterians or Independents compared to other Parliaments of the period. There was an unusually high share of government officials and military officers, and fewer country gentry. Two minors were elected, Peter Legh and the Hon. Thomas Windsor, aged 15 and 16 respectively.


1685 Toro
1685 Toro (prov. designation: 1948 OA) is an asteroid and near-Earth object of the Apollo group on an eccentric orbit. It was discovered on 17 July 1948, by American astronomer Carl Wirtanen at Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton, California. The stony S-type asteroid has a rotation period of 10.2 hours and measures approximately 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) in diameter. It is named for Betulia Toro Herrick, wife of astronomer Samuel Herrick.


1685 Toro, Classification and orbit
Toro is an Apollo asteroid, a subgroup of near-Earth asteroids that cross the orbit of Earth. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.8–2.0 AU once every 584 days. Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.44 and an inclination of 9° with respect to the ecliptic.


1685 Toro, Classification and orbit
This asteroid's orbit also shows a 5:8 resonance with Earth and in a near 5:13 resonance with Venus. This near resonance results from Earth and Venus being in a near 8:13 resonance with each other. It was the third Apollo asteroid to be discovered. The current resonance with Earth will last for only a few thousand years. Calculations show that Toro will leave it in 2960 CE, and that it will enter the region of 5:13 resonance with Venus in 3470 CE. This is because the distance from Earth's orbit will become larger and that from Venus's orbit smaller. A study of long-term stability shows that the alternating resonances will possibly be broken roughly 3 million years from now because of close approaches between Toro and Mars.


1685 Toro, Classification and orbit
Based on orbital paths, Toro is the best candidate for the source of the Sylacauga meteorite, the first meteorite authenticated to have struck a human, Mrs. Ann Hodges of Sylacauga, Alabama on 30 November 1954. Toro's Earth minimum orbit intersection distance of 0.0507 AU (7,580,000 km), is just above the 0.05 AU requirement to be listed as a potentially hazardous asteroid. With an orbital uncertainty U = 0, its orbit and future close approaches are well determined.


1685 Toro, Naming
This minor planet was named after the maiden name of Betulia (née Toro) Herrick, wife of American astronomer Samuel Herrick. Herrick had studied the asteroid's orbit, and requested the name, along with the other asteroid, 1580 Betulia. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 10 March 1966 (M.P.C. 2504).


1685 Toro, Physical characteristics
In the Tholen and SMASS taxonomic scheme, Toro is characterized as a stony S-type asteroid. It is reported to be composed of L chondrite with a high albedo in the range of 0.24–0.34. It has an extremely well-measured rotation period of 10.2 hours.


1685 in England
Events from the year 1685 in England. This year sees a change of monarch.


1685 in Scotland
Events from the year 1685 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1685 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1685.


1685 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1685 in poetry, Works published, Great Britain, English verses on the death of Charles II and coronation of James II
Charles II of England died on February 6; James II of England was crowned on April 23:


1685 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1685 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1685 in science
The year 1685 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1686
1686 (MDCLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1686th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 686th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 86th  year of the 17th century, and the  7th   year of the 1680s decade. As of the start of 1686, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1686 in Italy
An incomplete series of events which occurred in 1686 in Italy:


1686 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1686.


1686 in music
This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1686.


1686 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1686 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1686 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1686 in science
The year 1686 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1687
1687 (MDCLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1687th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 687th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 87th  year of the 17th century, and the  8th   year of the 1680s decade. As of the start of 1687, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1687 Glarona
1687 Glarona (prov. designation: 1965 SC) is a stony Themis asteroid approximately 34 kilometers in diameter from the outer region of the asteroid belt. It was discovered by Swiss astronomer Paul Wild at Zimmerwald Observatory near Bern, Switzerland, on 19 September 1965. It was later named after the Swiss Canton of Glarus.


1687 Glarona, Orbit and classification
The asteroid is a member of the Themis family, one of the larger groups in the outer main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.6–3.7 AU once every 5 years and 7 months (2,049 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. The first precovery was taken at Heidelberg Observatory in 1909, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 56 years prior to its discovery.


1687 Glarona, Naming
The minor planet was named for of the discoverer's home valley, the Swiss Canton of Glarus and its capital Glarus. Paul Wild (1925–2014) was a prolific discoverer almost 100 asteroids, and is well known for his discovery of comet Wild 2, which was visited by NASA's Stardust mission. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 October 1969 (M.P.C. 2971).


1687 Glarona, Physical characteristics, Lightcurves
A rotational lightcurve obtained in the 1970s gave a well-defined rotation period of 6.3 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.75 in magnitude (U=3). In March 2016, a second period was published based on data from the Lowell Photometric Database (LPD). Using lightcurve inversion and convex shape models, as well as distributed computing power and the help of individual volunteers, a period of 6.49595±0.00001 hours could be obtained for this asteroid from the LPD's sparse-in-time photometry data (U=n.a. ).


1687 Glarona, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, the asteroid measures between 31.5 and 42.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo in the range of 0.0795 to 0.141.


1687 Glarona, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) gives preference to the results obtained by IRAS with an albedo of 0.1219 and a diameter of 33.93 kilometers. CALL also classifies the Themistian asteroid as a stony S-class body, which are otherwise known to have low albedos, showing spectra of carbonaceous C-type bodies (also see Carbonaceous chondrites).


1687 Peru earthquake
The 1687 Peru earthquake occurred at 11:30 UTC on 20 October. It had an estimated magnitude of 8.4–8.7 and caused severe damage to Lima, Callao and Ica. It triggered a tsunami and overall about 5,000 people died.


1687 Peru earthquake, Tectonic setting
The earthquake occurred along the boundary between the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate. The earthquake is likely to be a result of thrust faulting, caused by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American plate.


1687 Peru earthquake, Tectonic setting
The coastal parts of Peru and Chile have a history of great megathrust earthquakes originating from this plate boundary, such as the 1960 Valdivia earthquake.


1687 Peru earthquake, Damage
The port of Pisco was completely destroyed by the tsunami, with at least three ships being swept over the remains of the town.


1687 Peru earthquake, Characteristics
The earthquake was probably followed by another large event further to the south. A magnitude of 8.7 has been estimated from tsunami runup heights and by comparison with the earthquake of 1974.


1687 Peru earthquake, Characteristics
The tsunami was reported in Japan where it produced runups of tens of metres.


1687 Peru earthquake, Economic impact
Chile has a history of exporting cereals to Peru dating back to 1687 when Peru was struck by both an earthquake and a stem rust epidemic. Chilean soil and climatic conditions were better for cereal production than those of Peru and Chilean wheat was cheaper and of better quality than Peruvian wheat. According to historians Villalobos et al. 1974 the 1687 events were only the detonant factor for exports to start.


1687 Peru earthquake, Economic impact
In the 16th and 17th century the principal wine growing area of the Americas was in the central and southern coast of Peru. In Peru the largest wine-making centre was in the area of Ica and Pisco. The earthquake destroyed wine cellars and mud containers used for wine storage. This event marked the end of the Peruvian wine-boom.


1687 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1687.


1687 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1687 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1687 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1687 in science
The year 1687 in science and technology involved some significant events.


16879 Campai
16879 Campai, provisional designation 1998 BH10, is a stony Witt asteroid and slow rotator from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 10 kilometers (6 miles)  in diameter. The S-type asteroid was discovered on 24 January 1998, by Italian astronomers Andrea Boattini and Maura Tombelli at the Pistoia Mountains Astronomical Observatory in San Marcello Pistoiese, Tuscany, central Italy. It was named for Italian amateur astronomer Paolo Campai.


16879 Campai, Orbit and classification
Campai is a member of the Witt family (535), a large family of (predominantly) stony asteroids with more than 1,600 known members. It orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.7–2.8 AU once every 4 years and 7 months (1,673 days; semi-major axis of 2.76 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.02 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic. The first precovery was obtained at Siding Spring Observatory in July 1977, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 22 years prior to its discovery.


16879 Campai, Physical characteristics
Campai has been characterized as a common, stony S-type asteroid, in line with the overall spectral type for members of the Witt family.


16879 Campai, Physical characteristics, Slow rotator
In October 2010, a rotational lightcurve of Campai was obtained from photometric observations made at the Palomar Transient Factory in California. It rendered an exceptionally long period of 314.2468±4.9149 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.68 magnitude (U=2). While the result is based on less than full coverage, and may be refined by future observations, Campai is one of the slowest rotating asteroids known to exist.


16879 Campai, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link calculates a diameter of 10.5 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 13.6 and an assumed standard albedo for a carbonaceous asteroid of 0.057.


16879 Campai, Naming
This minor planet was named for Italian amateur astronomer Paolo Campai (born 1957) from Florence, who is specialized in teaching and astrophotography. Both discoverers made his acquaintance near Florence on a night in 1985, while observing comet 1P/Halley and α Phoenicis. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 6 August 2003 (M.P.C. 49281).


1688
1688 (MDCLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1688th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 688th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 88th  year of the 17th century, and the  9th   year of the 1680s decade. As of the start of 1688, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery
The 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery was the first protest against enslavement of Africans made by a religious body in the Thirteen Colonies. Francis Daniel Pastorius authored the petition; he and three other Quakers living in Germantown, Pennsylvania (now part of Philadelphia), signed it on behalf of the Germantown Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends. Clearly a highly controversial document, Friends forwarded it up the hierarchical chain of their administrative structure—monthly, quarterly, and yearly meetings—without either approving or rejecting it. The petition effectively disappeared for 150 years into Philadelphia Yearly Meeting's capacious archives; but upon rediscovery in 1844 by Philadelphia antiquarian Nathan Kite, latter-day abolitionists published it in 1844 in The Friend, (Vol. XVII, No. 16.) in support of their antislavery agitation.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, Historical background
The colony of Pennsylvania was founded in 1682 by William Penn as a place where people from any country and faith could settle, free from religious persecution. In payment of a debt to Penn's father, Penn had received from King Charles II a large land grant west of New Jersey which Charles II named Pennsylvania after William's father, Admiral William Penn. Penn had become a friend of George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends, who were pejoratively nicknamed "Quakers" because they described themselves as quaking and trembling in fear of the Lord.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, Historical background
Penn had converted to Quakerism and had been imprisoned several times for his beliefs. Charles II allowed Penn to establish a proprietary colony where Penn appointed the governor and judges but established an otherwise democratic system of government with freedom of religion, fair trials, elected representatives, and separation of church and state.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, Historical background
From 1660 to 1680, several Quakers including William Penn visited the United Provinces and the Rhine valley of what would later become Germany, and organized gatherings where they preached the Quaker testimony. Many people, including some who had been Mennonites in Krefeld and Kriegsheim (now part of the modern Mennonite congregation of Monsheim, Germany), in the German "Palatinate", converted to the new Quaker faith. Among them was Francis Daniel Pastorius, a young German born near Würzburg to a family of elite officeholders.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, Historical background
After training as an attorney, Pastorius sought spiritual release from his lucrative but uninspiring practice with the local gentry, and he turned inward looking for a philosophical purity in his life. He was attracted to Penn's colony as a place where religious freedom would allow him to start afresh a life free from "libertinism and sins of the European world." Meanwhile, the Mennonites and Quakers in the Netherlands and along the Rhine valley were often fined or imprisoned for publicly practicing a faith other than the officially recognized Reformed Church, Catholicism and Lutheranism.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, Historical background
In 1681, Penn invited immigrants from Europe to the new colony. He arrived in 1682, had the land surveyed, organized Philadelphia as a welcoming town laid out as a grid with many green spaces, and profited by selling lots. Soon, the waterfront was a bustle of activity, town streets were laid out with houses built on narrow lots, and churches of several different faiths were established. The town merchants traded with the largely Quaker colony of West Jersey. The town and surrounding countryside prospered.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The German settlement
In 1683 Pastorius was delegated authority to purchase land in the new Pennsylvania colony by a group of men from Frankfurt who intended to emigrate. He traveled to Philadelphia in August 1683, having purchased a warrant from Penn's agent on behalf of the Frankfurt men who had supplied the funds. In October, 1683, thirteen German-Dutch families from Krefeld in the Rhine valley arrived with their own land claim. Seizing upon a chance to create a viable German-speaking town, Pastorius negotiated with Penn to combine the two claims. As it turned out, the people from the Frankfurt Company never emigrated to the new colony, but more Quakers and Mennonites came from the Rhine valley and Pastorius's ambitious plan for a German-speaking town near Philadelphia grew and became real.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The German settlement
Pastorius had devised a simple plan for a town, with lots parceled out along one long main thoroughfare, where settlers could build their houses. He required land good for tilling because the emigrants would need to grow their own food to survive. Pastorius and Penn became good friends, and they often discussed plans for the new settlement over dinner. The land originally promised to Pastorius was supposed to be level and along a navigable river, and Pastorius had paid for 6,000 contiguous acres (24 km2).


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The German settlement
However a suitable tract of land near Philadelphia was unavailable on the Delaware River, because level ground there was valuable and most of it had already been sold. Penn suggested land near the Schuylkill Falls (East Falls), but it was too steep for Pastorius's plan, so as an alternative Penn suggested land a little further east, near the top of a gentle hill between two creeks, and Pastorius agreed. Germantown was thus founded along a Lenni Lenape trail four miles (6 km) north of Philadelphia, between the Wissahickon and Wingohocking creeks. Pastorius had the land surveyed, and over the first winter the families lived in downtown Philadelphia while struggling to clear the land for their makeshift log houses. Germantown became a separate and self-sufficient town of Dutch and German speakers.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The German settlement
The thirteen original Krefelder families were Mennonites who had become Quakers in their native Holland before they arrived in the new Pennsylvania colony. Because they had been persecuted in their own land on account of their beliefs they understood the value of a community founded on religious toleration. Unlike Pastorius, they were not wealthy, but were skilled craftsmen who knew they would have to work hard for a living. By trade they were carpenters, weavers, dyers, tailors, and shoemakers, so they were not fully prepared for the hard work of clearing the forest. Over the first year they cleared land and planted crops for food and flax for weaving. They set up looms and soon were producing linen cloth that sold widely throughout the colonies.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The issue of slavery
Some of the early settlers of Philadelphia and its surrounding towns were wealthy and purchased African slaves to work on their farms. Although many such slaveowners also had immigrated to escape religious persecution, they saw no contradiction in owning slaves. Although serfdom had already been abolished in northwestern Europe by 1500, servitude was still ubiquitous, and sometimes under harsh conditions. Many immigrants to the new colony were indentured servants, who had signed an agreement to work for several years in exchange for being transported via a passenger ship to the new colony.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The issue of slavery
Slavery was widespread in the American colonies, and local slave markets ensured the ease of purchasing slaves to the general populace. The Atlantic slave trade was beginning to rapidly expand, and many settlers thought it necessary for economic growth in the colonies. Many slave ship owners and captains made large profits transporting slaves from Africa to the Caribbean and mainland North America. William Penn oversaw the economic progress of his colony and once proudly declared that during the course of a year Philadelphia had received ten slave ships.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The issue of slavery
The first settlers of Germantown were soon joined by several more Quaker and Mennonite families from Krisheim, also in the Rhine valley, who were ethnic Germans but spoke a similar dialect to the Hollanders from Krefeld. Some out of pragmatism attended the local Quaker Meetings held in the newly built homes of immigrants, becoming involved and accepted in the Philadelphia Quaker community, and eventually joining as members. However, in several ways they felt themselves outsiders, which allowed them to question the social values in the nascent colony.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The issue of slavery
Some attended the Quaker Meeting temporarily while they waited for a Mennonite minister to arrive, and then helped to build the first Mennonite Meetinghouse. The town prospered and grew, and a Quaker Meeting was organized at Thones Kunders's house, under the care of Dublin (Abington Meeting). By 1686 a Quaker Meetinghouse was constructed near the current site of Germantown Friends Meeting.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The issue of slavery
The German-Dutch settlers were unaccustomed to owning slaves, although from the shortage of labor they understood why slavery was required to ensure the economic prosperity of the colony. Slaves and indentured servants were a valuable asset for a farmer because they were not paid. Yet the German-Dutch settlers refused to buy slaves themselves and quickly saw the contradiction in the slave trade and in farmers who forced people to work.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The issue of slavery
Although in their native Germany and Holland the Krefelders had been persecuted because of their beliefs, only people who had been convicted of a crime could be forced to work in servitude. In what turned out to be a revolutionary leap of insight, the Germantowners saw a fundamental similarity between the right to be free from persecution on account of their beliefs and the right to be free from being forced to work against their will.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, About the contents of the petition
In 1688, five years after Germantown was founded, Pastorius and three other men petitioned the Dublin Quaker Meeting. The men gathered at Thones Kunders's house and wrote a petition based upon the Bible's Golden Rule, "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you," urging the Meeting to abolish slavery. It is an unconventional text in that it avoids the expected salutation to fellow Quakers and does not contain references to Jesus and God. It argues that every human, regardless of belief, color, or ethnicity, has rights that should not be violated.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, About the contents of the petition
Throughout the petition the reference to the Golden Rule is used to argue against slavery and for universal human rights. On first reading, the argument presented in the petition seems indirect. Nowhere is the Meeting specifically asked to condemn the practice of slavery. Instead, in reference to the Golden Rule, the four men ask why Christians are allowed to buy and own slaves, almost in mock sarcasm, to get the slaveowners to see their point. In doing so, it arguably was very successful, but it would be easy to miss the sophistication of their argument. They emphatically argue that in their society the capture and sale of ordinary people as slaves, where husband, wife and children are separated, would not be tolerated, again referring to the Golden Rule.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, About the contents of the petition
The four men also assert that according to the Golden Rule, the slaves would have the right to revolt, and that inviting more people to the new land would be difficult if prospective settlers saw the contradiction inherent in slavery. In mentioning the possibility of a slave revolt, they clearly were suggesting to that slavery would discourage potential settlers from emigrating to the American colonies. In the Caribbean colonies there had been many slave revolts over several decades, so the possibility was real.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, About the contents of the petition
However, the power of the argument for potential settlers from Europe was more than the fear of a revolt—it was that any such revolt would be justifiable according to the Golden Rule. This logic strengthened the newly defined universal rights, which applied to all humans, not just the "civilized". The petition has several examples of such counter-intuitive but forceful arguments to push the slave-owning reader off his balance.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, About the contents of the petition
The petition contains several points of difficulty for the reader unfamiliar with history. First, the petition's grammar seems unusual today but reflects the Krefelders' incomplete knowledge of English as well as typical pre-modern use of variable spelling. The original wording includes "ye." which is a contraction of the word "the", and might be confused with the second person plural "ye" that was in wide use at the time.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, About the contents of the petition
Second, the petition mentions Turks as an example of a people who might take someone on a ship into slavery in the Ottoman Empire. The four men were referring to the widely known stories of Barbary pirates who had established outposts on the coast of North Africa and for hundreds of years had plundered ships. After the Muslims were driven out of Spain in 1492 they raided the Spanish coast and the Spanish countered with more attacks.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, About the contents of the petition
The Barbary pirates in the period (1518–1587) were allied with the Ottoman authorities and captured slaves to be brought back to North Africa or Turkey. Thus in their early period, their motivation was political. In the later period during the 17th century the North African pirate communities became more independent and lived mainly on plunder so the motivation for piracy was mainly economic. In that period up to 20,000 captured Christians were said to be kept as slaves in Algiers.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, About the contents of the petition
The slave raiders traveled throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the North Atlantic, often taking slaves from Italy and Spain, but ranging as far north as Iceland (see Sack of Baltimore etc.). Among the Barbary pirates were renegades from Northern Europe who had converted to Islam. Some English, French, and Germans were allowed to pay their way out of slavery and so brought back the stories of marauding pirates capturing slaves. At the time that the Petition was written, a number of Friends were enslaved in Morocco, including the captain of the ship that had brought Pastorius and his compatriots to Pennsylvania.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, About the contents of the petition
The petition's mention of this point, then, is another example of their sophisticated reasoning. The widely circulated stories of slavery on the Barbary Coast were true, for Europeans had been the prey of political enemies and renegades who had captured them as slaves. Indeed, in the year that the petition was written, a number of Quakers were enslaved in Morocco. This analogy in the first paragraph of the petition cast the Atlantic slave trade in a questionable light. The four authors expressed their belief that slaves had social and political equality with ordinary citizens.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, About the contents of the petition
Third, the petition refers to the black slaves as "negers", which was a German and Dutch word meaning black or negro. In its 1688 usage the term was simply descriptive and not in any way derogatory. Throughout the petition the four men show respect for enslaved people and declare them equals.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The effect of the document
The four men presented their petition at the local Monthly Meeting at Dublin (Abington), but it is not clear what they expected to happen. Although they were accepted in the Quaker community, they were outsiders who could not speak or write fluently in English, and they also had a fresh view of slavery that was unique to Germantown. They must have understood from the beginning that it would be difficult to force the whole colony to abolish slavery, as it was generally believed that the colony's prosperity depended on slavery.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The effect of the document
It is not clear whether the four men expected the local Meeting to affirm their view, because they knew that nearby Meetings might not in be in agreement, and consequences would be far-reaching. The Meeting decided that although the issue was fundamental and just, it was too difficult and consequential for them to judge, and would need to be considered further. In the usual manner the Meeting sent the petition on to the Philadelphia Quarterly Meeting, where it was again considered and sent on to the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (held in Burlington, NJ).


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The effect of the document
Realizing that the abolition of slavery would have a wide and overreaching impact on the entire colony, none of the Meetings wanted to pass judgment on such a "weighty matter." PYM minuted that they would send the petition to London Yearly Meeting, without mentioning whether they actually did so, and on this point no direct evidence has been discovered. The minutes of London Yearly Meeting do not mention the petition directly, apparently skirting the issue.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The effect of the document
The practice of slavery continued and was tolerated in Quaker society in the years immediately following the 1688 petition. Some of the authors continued to protest against slavery, but for a decade their efforts were rejected. Germantown continued to prosper, growing in population and economic strength, becoming widely known for the quality of its products such as paper and woven cloth. Eventually several of the original Krefelders rejoined the Mennonites and moved away from Germantown at least in part because of their insistence not to side with slave-owners.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The effect of the document
Several other petitions and protests were written by Quakers against slavery in the next several decades, but were based on racist or practical arguments of inferiority and intolerance. Some of the protests became entangled with politics and theology and as a result were dismissed by the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, confusing the issue. Almost three decades passed before another Quaker petition against slavery was written with sophistication comparable to the Germantown 1688 petition. But the Germantowners' condemnation of slavery continued, and their moral leadership on the issue influenced Quaker abolitionists and Philadelphia society.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, The effect of the document
Gradually over the next century, due to the efforts of many dedicated Quakers such as Benjamin Lay, John Woolman, and Anthony Benezet, Quakers became convinced of the essential wrongness of the institution of slavery. Many of the Quaker abolitionists published their articles anonymously in Benjamin Franklin's newspaper. In 1776 a proclamation was written by Philadelphia Yearly Meeting banning the owning of slaves. By that time, many Quaker monthly meetings in the Delaware Valley were attempting to help freed slaves by providing funds for them to start businesses and encouraging them to attend Quaker meetings and educate their children.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, Historical and social importance
The 1688 petition was the first American document of its kind that made a plea for equal human rights for everyone. It compelled a higher standard of reasoning about fairness and equality that continued to grow in Pennsylvania and the other colonies with the Declaration of Independence and the abolitionist and suffrage movements, eventually giving rise to Lincoln's reference to human rights in the Gettysburg Address. The 1688 petition was set aside and forgotten until 1844 when it was re-discovered and became a focus of the burgeoning abolitionist movement in the United States.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, Historical and social importance
After a century of public exposure, it was misplaced and once more re-discovered in March 2005 in the vault at Arch Street Meetinghouse. It was discovered in deteriorating condition, with tears at the edges, paper tape covering voids and handwriting where the petition had originally been folded, and its oak gall ink slowly fading into gray. To preserve the document for future generations, it was treated at the Conservation Center for Art and Historic Artifacts (CCAHA) in downtown Philadelphia. CCAHA conservator Morgan Zinsmeister removed previous repairs and reduced centuries of old and discolored adhesives with various poultices and enzymatic solutions.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, Historical and social importance
Acidity and discoloration in the paper were reduced through aqueous treatment. Repairs were made with acrylic-toned Japanese papers that were carefully applied to bridge the voids. Finally, the petition was photographed at high resolution and then encapsulated along its edges(not laminated) between sheets of inert polyester film. The petition was shown at an exhibit of original rare American documents at the National Constitution Center on Independence Mall in the summer of 2007. It currently resides at Haverford College Quaker and Special Collections, the joint repository (with Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College) for the records of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting. Today the 1688 petition is for many a powerful reminder about the basis for freedom and equality for all.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, Historical and social importance
In a world where slavery continues in many forms, the 1688 petition seems relevant to many people because of its statement on the nature of human suffering and institutions that conspire to continue injustice based on power and tradition. In many countries today people have been reported to be duped into being taken to foreign lands where they are held under difficult conditions and forced to work with meager pay.


1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, Historical and social importance
The power of economic progress has in some cases created conditions where those with less education and resources are convinced to travel from familiar surroundings and feel threatened not to complain for fear of losing their work. Ethnic minorities and women of many third-world countries are especially vulnerable. Societies that are sometimes called "advanced" are to some extent dependent on cheap labor and resources taken from those less fortunate. Some believe that our worldwide environmental crisis has been created by our willingness to ignore the pleas and lost lives of people who would work hard for equal pay and privilege. The expectation of equal rights for everyone is a powerful motivator that may help to give economic progress and environmental responsibility worldwide.


1688 Sannio earthquake
The 1688 Sannio earthquake occurred in the late afternoon of June 5 in the province of Benevento of southern Italy. The moment magnitude is estimated at 7, with a Mercalli intensity of XI. It severely damaged numerous towns in a vast area, completely destroying Cerreto Sannita and Guardia Sanframondi. The exact number of victims is unknown, and is estimated at about 10,000. It is among the most destructive earthquakes in the history of Italy.


1688 Sannio earthquake, Earthquake
The earthquake occurred in the southern and central part of the Apennines, an earthquake-prone area where several large faults are present, and where extensional tectonics phenomena are common due to the collision of the African Plate with the Eurasian Plate.


1688 Sannio earthquake, Earthquake
The earthquake was preceded by lighter earthquakes starting in February 1688 and by a series of foreshocks in the days before the main shock. It was followed by aftershocks lasting at least until December of that year. The magnitude of the main shock is reported as 6.98 ±0.12 by the Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology, while the Mercalli intensity is estimated as XI (Extreme). The epicentral area was to the southeast of the Matese massif and to the northwest of Benevento, between the Calore river and one of its tributaries, the Tammaro. In this area the maximum Mercalli intensity of XI was reached, while in Naples the intensity was VII–VIII. The shock was perceived in five regions of Southern Italy, in an area of 80,000 square kilometres (31,000 sq mi).


1688 Sannio earthquake, Damage
Three towns were completely destroyed by the earthquake: Cerreto Sannita, Guardia Sanframondi, and Civitella Licinio, a frazione of Cusano Mutri. In 20 more villages and towns near the epicentre, destruction was almost total. In an area of 50,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi), about 120 settlements took extensive damage, while about forty–fifty other towns were damaged only slightly.


1688 Sannio earthquake, Damage
Benevento was hit harshly by the earthquake, with over 80% of the buildings being significantly damaged or destroyed, including the Santa Sofia church. The poor quality of the buildings was a determining factor of extent of the damages. Avellino and Naples also experienced extensive destruction, with several collapsed or damaged buildings; in Naples, more than thirty churches and religious buildings were severely damaged. In Cerreto Sannita only three houses remained standing, with the destruction also of poor Clares monastery and a Franciscan one.


1688 Sannio earthquake, Casualties
The exact number of deaths resulting from the earthquake is unknown, but it is estimated at about 10,000. Cerreto Sannita, the hardest-hit town, lost half its inhabitants, 4,000 out of 8,000. In Civitella Licinio, which was completely destroyed, the only survivors were those who were working in the fields when the earthquake hit. In Guardia Sanframondi there were more than 1,000 victims. In Benevento 1,367 people died out of a population of 7,500; the number of deaths was lower because many citizens were working in the countryside at the time. Hundreds of people died in San Lorenzello, due to a landslide. Several deaths were recorded also in Naples, Avellino and other towns.


1688 Sannio earthquake, Effects, Environmental effects
The earthquake caused several landslides originating from the Matese and other mountainsides, among which a large landslide that devastated the town of San Lorenzello. The courses of the Sabato and the Volturno rivers was altered. In the mountains of the Sannio, large clefts opened, new springs were formed and preexistent springs became muddy.


1688 Sannio earthquake, Effects, Societal effects
The earthquake had a strong impact on the economy and the social fabric of the affected area, which at the time belonged to the Kingdom of Naples, except for Benevento, which was an exclave of the Papal States. The inhabitants of the area abandoned the destroyed and damaged buildings, and lived in makeshift shelters. Furthermore, buildings devoted to food production like mills were also destroyed, affecting the food supply. The two governments involved granted tax relief to the people of the area and put forth other measures to mitigate the societal effects of the earthquake.


1688 Sannio earthquake, Effects, Societal effects
In Naples, there were episodes of looting and public security issues; the inmates of damaged prisons also escaped or were released. Three weeks after the earthquake governmental and economic activities had not restarted yet. In Benevento, the financial help provided by the Papal States was insufficient, and was mostly used to rebuild public and religious institutions.


1688 Sannio earthquake, Aftermath
In Benevento reconstruction was slow, and hindered by contrasts between the citizens and the Papal authorities. Another strong earthquake hit the town 14 years later, in 1702, further slowing down the efforts to rebuild the town. Vincenzo Maria Orsini, who later became Pope Benedict XIII, was archbishop of Benevento at the time. He survived the earthquake and gave a decisive contribution to rebuilding efforts. The Papal States sent experts to Benevento: they ascertained that the houses that used river pebbles had fared worse than those built with bricks. They suggested to rebuild the houses with bricks or square stones.


1688 Sannio earthquake, Aftermath
Cerreto Sannita was rebuilt under the supervision of the Count Marzio Carafa, feudal lord of the town. The old, destroyed settlement was abandoned and rebuilt nearby at a lower altitude, in a place with safer, more stable soil. Acting under the guidance of engineers and technicians, the new town was made with larger roads, square blocks of houses, buildings with only one or two floors, and other safety measures.


1688 Smyrna earthquake
The 1688 Smyrna earthquake occurred at 11:45 on 10 July. It had an epicenter close to Izmir, Turkey. It had an estimated magnitude of 7.0 Ms, with a maximum felt intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and caused about 16,000 casualties.


1688 Smyrna earthquake, Aftermath
When the city was rebuilt, houses were mainly built of wood, apart from the foundations and the base of the walls where stone was used. This made the reconstructed buildings more resistant to future earthquakes.


1688 Wilkens
1688 Wilkens, provisional designation 1951 EQ1, is a Mitidika asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 16 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 3 March 1951, by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at La Plata Observatory in the Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina, and named after astronomer Alexander Wilkens.


1688 Wilkens, Classification and orbit
Wilkens has been identified as a member of the Mitidika family, a dispersed asteroid family of typically carbonaceous C-type asteroids. The family is named after 2262 Mitidika (diameter of 9 km) and consists of 653 known members, the largest ones being 404 Arsinoë (95 km) and 5079 Brubeck (17 km).


1688 Wilkens, Classification and orbit
It orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.0–3.3 AU once every 4 years and 3 months (1,547 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.24 and an inclination of 12° with respect to the ecliptic. As no precoveries were taken, and no prior identifications were made, Wilkens' observation arc begins with its official discovery observation in 1951.


1688 Wilkens, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In July 2007, astronomer Lorenzo Franco obtained a rotational lightcurve of Wilkens at the Balzaretto Observatory (A81) near Rome, Italy. It gave a well-defined period of 7.248 hours and a brightness variation of 0.23 magnitude (U=3). Photometric observations in the S-band at the Palomar Transient Factory in January 2014, gave a period of 7.3017 hours with an amplitude of 0.34 (U=2).


1688 Wilkens, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Wilkens measures 16.23 and 16.82 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.044 and 0.066, respectively. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 and calculates a diameter of 12.12 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.7.