1630
1630 (MDCXXX) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1630th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 630th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 30th  year of the 17th century, and the  1st   year of the 1630s decade. As of the start of 1630, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1630 AM
The following radio stations broadcast on AM frequency 1630 kHz: 1630 AM is a Regional broadcast frequency.


1630 AM, United States
All stations operate with 10 kW during the daytime and 1 kW at nighttime and are Class B stations.


1630 Crete earthquake
The 1630 Crete earthquake reportedly occurred at around 09:00 on 9 March 1630 in the Kythira Strait, off the coast of Crete. Until the mid 1990s, the earthquake had traditionally been referred to as the 1629 Crete earthquake, which had been documented to have occurred at about 10:00 on Saturday 27 February 1629. Extensive research by several experts on the subject since the late 1980s has revealed that a calculation error mis-dated the occurrence by several days and a year.


1630 Crete earthquake, Background
The exact epicentre of the earthquake is unknown, although it has been cited to have been in the Kythira Strait. The Venetians, who ruled Crete at the time, recorded it as a major earthquake, and it has been cited as one of three major earthquakes to have taken place in the Antikythira seismic gap, the others occurring in 1750 and 1798.


1630 Crete earthquake, Description
Greek seismological reports indicated that the earthquake occurred on 27 February 1629, resulting in extensive losses to property in much of Crete, and also causing a few deaths in Heraklion, where houses fell down, trapping people. Churches experienced significant damage. In 1893, De Viazis unearthed a series of official documents of the Venetian  Administration of Zakynthos revealing that three captains sailing independently in the strait at the time of the earthquake had reported their observations, which was in the form of tsunami waves travelling in the direction of south and southeast posing threats to their ships.


1630 Crete earthquake, Description
Two reported the "remnants of wrecks and bodies of shipwrecked persons" and ships being affected by a tsunami. Another captain who had landed on the coast of Kythira stated that the people on the island had also experienced earthquake shocks at the same time as the captains had experienced it in the sea, and that it had resulted in some degree of flooding near the pier of the harbour.


1630 Crete earthquake, Recent findings and corrections
In 1988, K. G. Tsiknakis published in the Cretica Chronica two previously unpublished accounts of the earthquake. In 1994, after conducting further research, Tsiknakis stated that he believed the previously-established year of the earthquake was wrong, and it was in fact 1630. In 1997 and 2003, Papazachos and Papazachou stated that they believed the date was 10 March 1630, which has since been moved back a day. In 2010, Papadopoulos and others reported that tsunamis had been recorded when strong earthquakes struck the area between the Peloponnese and Crete, not only on 9 March 1630 but also on 6 February 1866, and 20 September 1867.


1630 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1630.


1630 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1630 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1630 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1630 in science
The year 1630 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1630s
The 1630s decade ran from January 1, 1630, to December 31, 1639.


1630s BC
The 1630s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1639 BC to December 31, 1630 BC.


1630s in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during the 1630s in South Africa.


1630s in archaeology
The decade of the 1630s in archaeology involved some significant events.


1631
1631 (MDCXXXI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1631st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 631st  year of the 2nd millennium, the 31st  year of the 17th century, and the  2nd   year of the 1630s decade. As of the start of 1631, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1631 Kopff
1631 Kopff, provisional designation 1936 UC, is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 9 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 11 October 1936, by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland. It was later named after German astronomer August Kopff.


1631 Kopff, Classification and orbit
Kopff is a member of the Flora family, one of the largest collisional families of stony S-type asteroid. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.8–2.7 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,220 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.21 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic. First identified as 1926 TH at Heidelberg in 1926, the body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Turku in 1936.


1631 Kopff, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In November 2003, a rotational lightcurve of Kopff was obtained from remote photometric observations at the Tenagra and Tenagra II Observatories. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 6.683 hours with a brightness variation of 0.41 magnitude (U=3).


1631 Kopff, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Kopff measures between 8.64 and 9.66 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.2497 and 0.342. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.271 and a diameter of 9.71 kilometers, with an absolute magnitude of 12.1.


1631 Kopff, Naming
This minor planet was named for German astronomer August Kopff (1882–1960). He was first an assistant to Max Wolf, and became later a prolific discoverer of minor planets himself. In 1924, Kopff became Director of the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut in Berlin, and, after the western section moved to Heidelberg, he also became director of the Heidelberg Observatory. Under his leadership, the third Catalogue of Fundamental Stars (FK3) was compiled and the work on the fourth catalogue (FK4) was initiated. The lunar crater Kopff is also named in his honour. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3931).


1631 eruption of Mount Vesuvius
In December 1631, Mount Vesuvius in Italy erupted. The eruption began on 16 December 1631 and culminated the day after. The Volcanic Explosivity Index was VEI-5, and it was a Plinian eruption that buried many villages under the resulting lava flows. It is estimated that between 3000 and 6000 people were killed by the eruption, making it the highest death toll for a volcanic disaster in the Mediterranean in the last 1800 years.


1631 eruption of Mount Vesuvius
The 1631 eruption was considered to be of minor proportions regarding its eruptive magnitude and erupted volumes compared to the AD 79 eruption, but the damage was not. By the 1631 eruption, the summit of Mount Vesuvius had been reduced by 450m, making its total height lower than that of Mount Somma.


1631 in literature
This article is a summary of the literary events and publications of 1631.


1631 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1631 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1631 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1631 in science
The year 1631 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1632
1632 (MDCXXXII) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1632nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 632nd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 32nd  year of the 17th century, and the  3rd   year of the 1630s decade. As of the start of 1632, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1632 (novel)
1632 is the initial novel in the best-selling alternate history book series, "1632", written by American historian, writer, and editor Eric Flint (published in 2000).


1632 (novel)
The flagship novel kicked off a collaborative writing effort that has involved hundreds of contributors and dozens of authors. The premise involves a small American town of three thousand, sent back to May 1631, in an alternate Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War.


1632 (novel), Plot summary
The fictional town of Grantville, West Virginia (modeled on the real West Virginia town of Mannington) and its power plant are displaced in space-time, through a side effect of a mysterious alien civilization.


1632 (novel), Plot summary
A hemispherical section of land about three miles in radius measured from the town center is transported back in time and space from April 2000 to May 1631, from North America to the central Holy Roman Empire. The town is thrust into the middle of the Thirty Years' War, in the German province of Thuringia in the Thuringer Wald, near the fictional German free city of Badenburg. This Assiti Shards effect occurs during a wedding reception, accounting for the presence of several people not native to the town, including a doctor and his daughter, a paramedic. Real Thuringian municipalities located close to Grantville are posited as Weimar, Jena, Saalfeld and the more remote Erfurt, Arnstadt, and Eisenach well to the south of Halle and Leipzig.


1632 (novel), Plot summary
Grantville, led by Mike Stearns, president of the local chapter of the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA), must cope with the town's space-time dislocation, the surrounding raging war, language barriers, and numerous social and political issues, including class conflict, witchcraft, feminism, the reformation and the counter-reformation, among many other factors. One complication is a compounding of the food shortage when the town is flooded by refugees from the war. The 1631 locals experience a culture shock when exposed to the mores of contemporary American society, including modern dress, sexual egalitarianism, and boisterous American-style politics.


1632 (novel), Plot summary
Grantville struggles to survive while trying to maintain technology sundered from twenty-first century resources. Throughout 1631, Grantville manages to establish itself locally by forming the nascent New United States of Europe (NUS) with several local cities even as war rages around them. But once Count Tilly falls during the Battle of Breitenfeld outside of Leipzig, King Gustavus Adolphus rapidly moves the war theater to Franconia and Bavaria, just south of Grantville. This leads to the creation of the Confederated Principalities of Europe (CPoE) and some measure of security for Grantville's up-timer and down-timer populations.


1632 (novel), Reception
F&SF reviewer Charles de Lint received the novel favorably, describing it as "a fine, thoroughly engaging story about real people in an extraordinary situation."


1632 (novel), Reception
Kirkus Reviews called the book a "[s]inewy shoot-'em-up, with pikes and muzzle-loaders squared off against modern automatics and 20th-century tactics: a rollicking, good-natured, fact-based flight of fancy that should appeal to alternate-history buffs as well as military-fantasy fans."


1632 (novel), Reception
A reviewer for the Tech Republic called the book "relentlessly positive, celebrating honest, hardworking folk of two eras who come together to make a better world" and should "appeal to fans of many subgenres". The reviewer also wrote that "Flint succeeds at making the whole adventure palatable by populating his tale with thoughtful, likeable, fallible characters with well drawn motivations."


1632 (novel), Reception
RT Book Reviews called the novel "an outstanding, positive reading experience for those who appreciate living history, indomitable courage and the unsung gallantry of the everyday man."


1632 (novel), Reception
Library Journal praised the author, saying he "convincingly re-creates the military and political tenor of the times in this imaginative and unabashedly positive approach to alternative history."


1632 (novel), Reception
A reviewer for SFRevu wrote "1632 is a fun read and marks Flint as an author to watch for".


1632 (novel), Reception
In contrast to the other reviews, the reviewer for The New York Review of Science Fiction criticized the book for being "almost pure mind candy" by appearing to be a comedy at times and later appearing to be very serious work by "seriously explore anachronism shock by injecting highly dramatic, life-altering decisions filled with much introspection" at other times.


1632 (novel), Reception
1632 was listed on the Locus Hardcovers Bestsellers List for two months in a row during 2000, topping at number 4, and also later on the Paperbacks Bestsellers List for a single month in 2001 at number 3.


1632 (novel), Reception
As of February 2020, twenty years after it was first released, the book has remained in print while still generating small annual royalty payments to the author for print copies sold even though free electronic copies have also been available directly from the publisher for most of that time.


1632 (novel), Legacy
The book generated an unusual amount of fan involvement. When first contemplating a sequel, Flint decided to throw open the universe—perhaps instigated by reception of fan-fiction on 1632 Tech Manual—and invited other authors to help shape the series milieu and fictional canon and began putting together the anthology Ring of Fire.


1632 (novel), Legacy
The market for anthologies in fiction is but a small percentage of the market for novels, and the alternate history genre is a smallish niche to begin with—leading publisher Jim Baen to "hold up" the Ring of Fire collection to see if the series would get a boost from New York Times best selling author David Weber, who had just contracted to do five novels with Flint. Flint had to set aside several planned projects (the Assiti Shards novels were in outline form at the time) and do some additional co-writing with Weber as Ring of Fire gestated.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election
The Election Sejm of 1632 (September 27 – November 8, 1632, extended to November 13, 1632)  was the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's election sejm that elevated Władysław IV to the Polish throne. Władysław had won the support of most of the political factions; and in the absence of any other serious contenders, he was elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Prelude
While Władysław and his father Sigismund III Vasa tried to ensure Władysław's election during Sigismund's lifetime, the option of premature succession was not popular with the nobility; the Vasas' repeated attempts failed, up to and including at the Sejm of 1631. The question of succession was resolved soon enough however, upon Sigismund's sudden heart attack on 23 April 1632 and death in the morning hours of 30 April.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Prelude
Every Polish–Lithuanian election sejm was preceded by a convocation sejm. In accordance with the dictates of the law, the Primate of Poland, Jan Wężyk, acting as Interrex, summoned a convocation sejm for June 22, 1632, which lasted through August 17. Krzysztof Radziwiłł was selected as Marshal of the Sejm. Non -Catholics, led by Marshal Radziwiłł and the magnate Bogusław Leszczyński, demanded increased rights; they were opposed by Voivode Tomasz Zamoyski and the future Bishop Aleksander Trzebiński, but managed to gather enough support that this question dominated the ensuing election sejm.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Candidates
There was little doubt Władysław would succeed his father Sigismund. Some of the Commonwealth's magnates and Catholic clergy did favor Władysław's brother, Jan Kazimierz, in the royal election. However, he had less support than Władysław and his candidacy was never officially put forward, since he was additionally disadvantaged as a younger son in the royal chain of succession and by Sigismund's deathbed blessing of Władysław as his successor.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Candidates
Foreign courts did not avail themselves of the opportunity to promote their own candidates for the Polish throne. Austria's Habsburgs were well disposed toward the Polish Vasas and did not put forward a contender. Fears that King Gustavus II Adolphus, of the Swedish Vasas, would put forward his own candidacy proved unfounded, though his envoy Steno Belke did argue that Władysław should renounce his claim to the Swedish throne  (Władysław declined.) Foreign envoys such as Papal Nuncio Honorat Visconti and the Holy Roman Emperor's envoy Count Julius Mosberg declared their support for Władysław.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Candidates
The Duke of Prussia, George William, Elector of Brandenburg, asked to be permitted to participate in the election sejm but this request was turned down. Muscovy was just then preparing for war with the Commonwealth and failed to put forward a candidate—indeed, it attacked while the election sejm was subsequently in session.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Candidates
Consequently, Władysław's was the first uncontested election in nearly sixty years.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Election
The Election Sejm of 1632 convened on 27 September at its traditional site at Wola near Warsaw to consider both the royal election and legislative items, with Marshal of the Sejm Jakub Sobieski presiding.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Election
The indecisiveness of the Catholic faction allowed Władysław to campaign for increased rights for Protestants and Eastern Orthodox Christians, and thus he obtained their support. At the same time, his evident religious tolerance did not lose him the support of his Catholic backers. Nor did Władysław's breaking custom to go to Warsaw during the election generate noticeable disapproval.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Election
A commission headed by Władysław drafted "Measures for the Appeasement of the Ruthenian People of the Greek Faith that Live in the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania," by which Ukrainian Greek Catholic and Orthodox metropolitans were granted legal jurisdiction. Władysław, lobbied by Peter Mogila, also granted the Orthodox Church the right to its own hierarchs, subject to the candidates' confirmation by the government. Many differences regarding the Orthodox Church and the Union of Brest were thus settled.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Election
The religious freedoms that had been established in 1573 by the Warsaw Confederation were reaffirmed, and a new tax was adopted, the kwarta, which sent 1/4 of starostwos' incomes to the Royal Treasury. It was decided to fortify Puck and to create there a port for the Commonwealth Navy. The Cossack delegation's proposal for increased funding and a Cossack register was turned down; similarly, requests from the Royal Army were rejected. Some of the Sejm's proposals were vetoed by the Senate.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Election
The decision on who would be the Commonwealth's next king was reached on November 8, but as the pacta conventa were not yet ready, the official announcement was delayed until November 13.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Election
In the pacta conventa, Władysław pledged himself to fund a military school and equipment; to find a way to fund a naval fleet; to maintain current alliances; not to raise armies, give offices or military ranks to foreigners, negotiate peace treaties or declare war without the Sejm's approval; not to take a wife without the Senate's approval; to convince his brothers to take an oath to the Commonwealth; and to transfer the profits from the Royal Mint to the Royal Treasury rather than to a private treasury.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Election
At least 3,543 votes were cast for Władysław. When the election result were announced by the Crown Grand Marshal, Łukasz Opaliński, the nobility (szlachta) who had taken part in the election began festivities in honor of the new king, which lasted three hours.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Election
This election sejm was the third sejm of 1632. It had been preceded by an ordinary general sejm (March 11 – April 2, 1632) and by the convocation sejm (June - August 1632) .


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Aftermath
The next day, November 14, 1632, Władysław signed his pacta conventa and the Henrician Articles that had been required of new Polish kings since the 1573 election of France's Henri de Valois to the Polish throne.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Aftermath
Władysław was crowned king on February 5, 1633, the proceedings continuing into the next day.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Aftermath
The coronation sejm, presided over by Marshal of the Sejm Mikołaj Ostroróg, took place from February 8 to March 17, 1633. It confirmed the Orthodox rights that had been pledged by Władysław, but did not support Władysław's proposal to create a Kawaleria, an honorary brotherhood for his supporters. This would be one of many setbacks that Władysław would suffer at the hands of the Sejm.


1632 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Aftermath
The 1633 Sejm would also take more direct control of the royal mint, deepen the sway of serfdom, and accept the petition of Polish Jews to forbid the printing of antisemitic literature, its importation from Western Europe, and its distribution in the Commonwealth. The Sejm also declared war on Muscovy, which had invaded the Commonwealth the previous fall.


1632 Sieböhme
1632 Sieböhme, provisional designation 1941 DF, is an asteroid and relatively slow rotator from the middle region of the asteroid belt, approximately 27 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 26 February 1941, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany. It was later named after ARI-astronomer Siegfried Böhme.


1632 Sieböhme, Orbital characteristics
Sieböhme orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.3–3.0 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,581 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 6° with respect to the ecliptic. In 1907, the body was first identified as A917 SO at the Crimean Simeis Observatory, extending its observation arc by 34 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1632 Sieböhme, Physical characteristics
In August 2012, two rotational lightcurves of Sieböhme were obtained at the Palomar Transient Factory in California, and by Italian astronomer Albino Carbognani. These lightcurves gave a rotation period of 56.8129 and 56.81 hours with a brightness variation of 0.44 and 0.45 magnitude, respectively (U=2/2). One month later, photometric observations by amateur astronomer Pierre Antonini gave a period of 56.65 hours and an amplitude of 0.47 magnitude (U=2). As most minor planets rotate within 2 to 20 hours around their axis, Sieböhme has a relatively long period, despite not being a slow rotator.


1632 Sieböhme, Physical characteristics
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Sieböhme measures between 25.16 and 29.38 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.043 and 0.064. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) derives an albedo of 0.0477 and a diameter of 26.56 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.80. Although CALL derives an albedo that is darker than that of a carbonaceous asteroid, it classifies Sieböhme as a stony asteroid.


1632 Sieböhme, Naming
This minor planet was named in honor of German astronomer Siegfried Böhme (1909–1996), staff member at Astronomisches Rechen-Institut in Heidelberg since 1949. He improved upon the orbital elements of many asteroids, in particular upon 919 Ilsebill. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3931).


1632 in Belgium
Events in the year 1632 in the Spanish Netherlands and Prince-bishopric of Liège (predecessor states of modern Belgium).


1632 in Sweden, Deaths
November 16 - Gustav II Adolf, King of Sweden (died 1632)


1632 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1632.


1632 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1632 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1632 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1632 in science
The year 1632 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1632 series
The 1632 series, also known as the 1632-verse or Ring of Fire series, is an alternate history book series and sub-series created, primarily co-written, and coordinated by American author Eric Flint and published by Baen Books.


1632 series
The series is set in 17th-century Europe, in which the small fictional town of Grantville, West Virginia, in the year 2000 was sent to the past in central Germany in the year 1631, during the Thirty Years' War.


1632 series
As of 2015, the series has five published novels propelling the main plot and over ten published novels moving several subplots and threads forward. The series also includes fan-written, but professionally edited, collaborative material which are published in bi-monthly magazine titled The Grantville Gazettes and some collaborative short fictions.


1632 series
In terms of the history of Time Travel literature, the 1632 series can be considered an extension and modification of the basic idea dating back to Mark Twain's "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court", in which a 19th-century American engineer, finding himself in 5th-century England, is able—all by himself—to introduce into the past society the full range of his time's technologies. In Flint's version, a whole modern community is transplanted into the past, in possession of a considerable amount of the material and written resources of modern society—making their success in changing the past more plausible.


1632 series, Series overview
The 1632 series began with Flint's stand alone novel 1632 (released February 2000). It is, excepting the lead novel and the serialized e-novel The Anaconda Project (2007), virtually all collaboratively written, including some "main works" with multiple co-authors. However, Flint has mentioned contracts with the publisher for at least two additional solo novels he has in planning on his website. Flint, whose bibliography is dominated by collaborative work, claims that this approach encourages the cross-fertilization of ideas and styles, stimulating the creative process and preventing stale, formulaic works.


1632 series, Series overview
As stated in the first Grantville Gazette and on his site, Flint's novel 1632 was an experiment wherein he explores the effect of transporting a mass of people through time.


1632 series, Series overview
1632 occurs in the midst of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). The plot situation allows pragmatic, American, union-oriented, political thought to grind against the authoritarian, religion-driven societies of an unconsolidated Holy Roman Empire barely out of the Middle Ages. Flint explores examples of suffering due to the petty politics of self-aggrandizement and self-interest on the one hand, and the irreconcilable differences of the schism in Christianity such as the Protestant Reformation and the Counter-Reformation on the other. Despite the fact that the shift puts Grantville in May 1631 initially, because of the ongoing war and the primitive transportation networks of the day Grantville's arrival has something of a delayed impact, so the bulk of the book's action takes place in 1632, hence the name.


1632 series, Series overview
The series was initially continued with two collaborative works that were more or less written concurrently: 1633 (with best selling novelist David Weber) and an anthology called Ring of Fire (with other established science-fiction writers, including long, "deep background" stories by both Weber and Flint).


1632 series, Series overview
Overall, the narratives are not oriented on one group of protagonists with a strong lead character, but instead are carried by an ensemble cast—though most books or short stories do have several strong characters who carry the action and plot forward. Flint had intended from the outset that the whole town would be the collective protagonist; a reflection of his philosophy that historic forces are not centered in the main on the actions of one or two key individuals, but on the many small independent actions of the many going about their daily lives and coping as best they can.


1632 series, Series overview
By late in 1632, the New United States-led coalition of the Confederated Principalities of Europe had become the arsenal and financier (through Jewish connections of real historical interest) for Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus (the displaced Americans' intervention in history already had the effect of preventing Gustavus from being killed in the Battle of Lützen, as happened in the "original" history). This leads the scheming Cardinal Richelieu, who'd been previously financing him to spite and weaken the Habsburgs, to turn on the Swedes.


1632 series, Series overview
Various books from up-time Grantville, especially history books, had found avid readers amongst Europe's ruling elites, changing the plans and strategies of major players of the time. The readers, not understanding the chaotic nature of events (i.e., trivial-seeming changes can have large effects, and vice versa), often believe that these histories give them a strong idea of how they can guide events in a different direction. The "players" sent back through time have no intention of strongly guiding events, but understand how key forces (democracy, sanitation, medicine, egalitarianism, etc.) affect things in the long run to the betterment of mankind, and intend to promote and spread those even if they themselves are not "in control" of what results.


1632 series, Series overview
Richelieu forms a four-way alliance, the League of Ostend, to oppose the New United States, Gustavus' expeditionary army, and allied princes of the German states. After the first book, the series begins multiple plot lines or story threads reflecting this independence of action by a multitude of characters. The sequel 1633 spreads the Americans out geographically over Central Europe. Next, the novel 1634: The Galileo Affair, and the first of the anthologies called the Grantville Gazettes introduced new strong characters. The former begins what is called the South European thread, and some of the stories in the latter and Ring of Fire began the Eastern European thread (Austria-Hungary northwards to Poland).


1632 series, Series overview
Co -author of 1633, New York Times best-selling author David Weber was contracted for no less than five books in the series in what is called the Central European thread or Main thread of the series, but there was a delay before the two authors synchronized their schedules to write that next mainline sequel, 1634: The Baltic War, released in May 2007.


1632 series, Series overview
Without waiting for Weber, other sequels such as 1634: The Ram Rebellion, 1635: The Cannon Law, and the Grantville Gazettes continue in one thread or another with in-depth looks at societal ramifications from technology, religion, and social unrest as Europe deals with the outlandish ideas of Grantville's influential presence, to machinations of Europe's elites trying to maintain their hold on power, or leverage off of Grantville-triggered events or knowledge for reasons of self-interest.


1632 series, Collective collaborative effort
When the novel 1632 was written, Flint did not intend to write an immediate sequel. However, following popular demand for a sequel Flint (a relatively new writer, but an experienced editor) invited other authors contracted to Baen to share the universe to rapidly develop its potential. As a result, while the first long sequel was being written, Flint concurrently put together the Ring of Fire anthology of short fiction by a wide range of authors.


1632 series, Collective collaborative effort
In parallel, the online message board Baen's Bar received a strong response from fans following the release of the digital advance copy of 1632. The forum rapidly evolved into several sub-communities, some act as technical consultant to Flint - for example on how modern technology could be implemented within the series. The high quality of fan fiction submitted to the message board prompted to creation of the official Grantville Gazette magazine that publishes short stories and factual articles as part of the official 1632 series canon, reviewed by Flint.


1632 series, Collective collaborative effort
Originally released sporadically, the Gazette has since evolved to become an online subscription magazine, published every 2 months, with authors paid for their submissions. Several volumes of the Gazette were released in print form by Baen Books, and serialized stories that were originally published in multiple issues of the Gazette have been released in print form by The Ring of Fire Press. The Ring of Fire anthologies of commissioned short fiction also continue, with one volume approximately every 4–5 years.


1632 series, Collective collaborative effort
The end result is a collaborative alternative history series consisting of interlinked novels and short stories, that can be regarded as adding additional layers of depth into the canon - the first level consisting of the "mainline" novels; the second level consisting of novels that take place in parallel "threads" (usually representing events in separate geographic regions); the third level consisting short fiction that has been published in print form (either drawn from the Grantville Gazette, or commissioned separately as part of the Ring of Fire anthology series); and the fourth level consisting of the stories published in the Grantville Gazette. The third and fourth levels frequently provide more in-depth background, and show the impact of the events in the novels on the ordinary population. The entire series canon is maintained by Flint.


1632 series, 1632 plot threads
The "mainline" novels (many of which are written by Flint alone) focus on the principal political developments within the series, along with several key characters. However, the opening of the canon to other writers allows for plot threads in other geographical regions to be explored in more details. As with real history, none of these are in isolation, and plot threads converge and diverge according to the needs of the story.


1632 series, 1632 plot threads, North-Central and Western European thread
The Central European thread or more correctly, the Central and Southwest Central European thread, is the main plot thread of the series. It concerns events in the region from west to east of the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland, Northern France, the Spanish Netherlands, French Netherlands, and the Dutch Republic, and the whole of western Germany eastwards to Brandenburg and the Electorate of Saxony, and southerly to the northern reaches of Bavaria. Bavaria proper, Switzerland, Austria, Bohemia, and points easterly and north are properly geographically part of the Eastern European thread.


1632 series, 1632 plot threads, South European thread
The Southern European thread, or Western South Europe and South Central European thread, or perhaps more appropriately, the South-Central and Southwestern European thread, involves characters introduced in the short story "To Dye For" by Mercedes Lackey but the thread plot action proper continued in the second published novel sequel of the series, the best-selling 1634: The Galileo Affair and its direct sequel, 1635: The Cannon Law, both co-written by Flint and Andrew Dennis. The main characters are, in part, Lackey's The Stone Family, combined with Flint's Sharon Nichols and Larry Mazzare.


1632 series, 1632 plot threads, Eastern European thread
The Eastern European thread is taken to be east of modern-day Germany, Austria, and western Hungary, to include mainly modern-day Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and parts of Ukraine and Belarus, but not Russia. The first fiction written within this thread was the novelette "The Wallenstein Gambit" and the prequel short stories leading up to it, all published in Ring of Fire, but subsequent long fiction planned in the setting had to await authors' scheduling issues.


1632 series, 1632 plot threads, Russian thread
The Russian thread was started by authors Paula Goodlett and Gorg Huff in the eighth issue of the Grantville Gazette with their introduction of the serial Butterflies in the Kremlin, which later became the novel 1636: The Kremlin Games. Goodlett and Huff has since written at least 5 novels within this thread with more on the way.


1632 series, 1632 plot threads, Naval thread
David Weber and Eric Flint in 2002 (writing 1633 and Ring of Fire) originally contracted together and with Baen's Books to co-write five "main series" books—the first two and perhaps some as yet unrevealed others being known as the naval thread. When working on the long-delayed 1634:


1632 series, 1632 plot threads, Naval thread
The Baltic War novel and with the prolonged and ongoing demand for the series sequels, and considering the already-experienced delays imposed by the difficulty of getting schedules between themselves synchronized (it took three planned "windows of opportunity" before one worked in The Baltic War) well enough for the two to have the three to six months or so needed to collaborate successfully, the two decided to alter their original planning and spin off a new thread—one based on the United States of Europe as a naval power. The thread is continued in 1636:


1632 series, 1632 plot threads, Naval thread
Commander Cantrell in the West Indies, which is the story of the United States of Europe's naval task force, operating in the Caribbean Sea and surrounding waters, and the various forces it comes into contact with (including the surviving remnants of the Dutch naval force destroyed in 1633), and its sequel 1637: No Peace Beyond the Line.


1632 series, 1632 plot threads, The Americas thread
This agreement for Weber to leave aside European threads likely will follow up foreshadowings of overt dislike evinced by various Grantville natives for both the African slave trade and the Amerindian encounters with colonizing Europeans—and Flint has already written a very sympathetic, two-volume alternate history from the American Native's viewpoint in his Arkansas Wars series—and he'd written similar foreshadowings into the series' earlier works that were spun into pro-democracy and anti-anti-Semitic social themes now manifesting in the series in the Eastern Europe thread in particular, as well as an overall, muted sub-theme. This revised author's decision released a logjam of backup of other novels in the series, so that since rehashing their arrangement, 1632 series books have been released regularly every 4–6 months.


1632 series, 1632 plot threads, The Americas thread
Stories in 1632 Slushpile regarding obtaining strategically important materials and some which have reached publication in regard to the Essen Steel Corporation and Essen Chemical are foreshadowing activities (mining chromium for one) in North America, and others are pursuing latex rubber in South America. In addition, the three books contracted between Flint and David Weber will in part involve expeditions sent by Gustavus and Mike Stearns to American shores.


1632 series, The Ring of Fire Press
In June 2013, the Ring of Fire Press was created to reissue certain materials originally published online in the Grantville Gazette. First, it would publish certain stories that were serialized across several issues of the Gazette, so they can be read without hunting through the various Gazette issues. Second, it would publish several themed collections of fact articles.


1632 series, The Ring of Fire Press
In 2018, the scope of the Ring of Fire Press expanded, with the hiring of managing editor Walt Boyes and Joy Ward, and graphic artist Laura Givens. The release schedule was increased to two books per month, including original novels in the 1632 series (the first being 1635: The Battle for Newfoundland), collections of serialized 1632 stories, and non-1632 related novels - both new and reprinted.


1632 series, The Ring of Fire Press
The initial volumes were made available through Amazon as Kindle editions or print on demand paperback books. Later Baen began distributing selected titles for Ring of Fire Press through their web store and their other distribution channels.


1632 series, Assiti Shards novels
Following the success of the 1632 series, two other alternative history series were started by Eric Flint, following the same conceit as 1632 - that there was a time displacement caused by an "Assiti Shard".


1632 series, Literary significance and reception
As of 2014, four books in the series had significantly large number of sales of hardcover editions to become eligible for The New York Times Best Seller list. 1634: The Galileo Affair was on the best seller list for hardcover fiction for two weeks during April 2004 while reaching number 27. 1634: The Baltic War was on the same list for two weeks during May 2007, peaking at number 19. 1634: The Bavarian Crisis was on this list for a week in October 2007 at number 29. The most recent book, 1636: The Kremlin Games was on the NY Times list for a week during June 2012 at number 30.


1632 series, Literary significance and reception
Almost all of the books in the series sold well enough to get listed on the various Locus Magazine Bestsellers Lists with some titles listed multiple times, and a few even reached the top spot for the month.


1632 series, Literary significance and reception
1635: The Papal Stakes is the first book in the series to get listed on the Wall Street Journal Best-Selling Books list.


1632 series, Literary significance and reception
A few titles were nominated for the Dragon Awards. Up-time Pride and Down-time Prejudice was a finalist for the Dragon Award for Best Alternate History Novel for 2020 while 1637: No Peace Beyond the Line has been awarded the Dragon Award for Best Alternate History Novel for 2021.


1632-verse glossary of terminology
The following are some of the terms used in the 1632 series.


1633
1633 (MDCXXXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1633rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 633rd  year of the 2nd millennium, the 33rd  year of the 17th century, and the  4th   year of the 1630s decade. As of the start of 1633, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1633 (novel)
1633 is an alternate history novel co-written by American authors Eric Flint and David Weber published in 2002, and sequel to 1632 in the 1632 series. 1633 is the second major novel in the series and together with the anthology Ring of Fire, the two sequels begin the series hallmarks of being a shared universe with collaborative writing being very common, as well as one that, far more unusually, mixes many canonical anthologies with its works of novel length.


1633 (novel)
That is because Flint wrote 1632 as a stand-alone novel, though with enough "story hooks" for an eventual sequel, and because Flint feels "history is messy" and the books reflect that real life is not a smooth, polished linear narrative flow from the pen of some historian but is instead clumps of semi-related or unrelated happenings that somehow sum up how different people act in their own self-interests.


1633 (novel), Premise
The series begins in the Modern era on May 31, 2000, during a small town wedding when the small West Virginia town of Grantville trades places in both time and geographic location with a nearly unpopulated countryside region within the Holy Roman Empire during the convulsions of the Thirty Years' War.


1633 (novel), Premise
Flint's goal was to explore the short- and long-term effects of placing a single American town, complete with modern culture, technology and modes of thought, in certain periods of history.


1633 (novel), Premise
The town elects the charismatic former pro-boxer Mike Stearns as president, and he quickly decides to provide refuge for those displaced as a result of the constant fighting, to branch out and grow as quickly as possible—to launch the American Revolution "150 years early", and found a "New United States". The Grantvillers undertake to defend south central Thuringia with the aid of a cavalry detachment from king Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden's Green Regiment, and fights several battles which convince various polities to join the NUS.


1633 (novel), Premise
By early 1632, their informal alliance with Gustavus and with Jews, their manufacturing capabilities, and their defeats of Catholic armies draws serious and well-designed concerted efforts to attack the "republican cancer" growing in Thuringia, and Grantville itself is attacked, teaching Stearns that he needs a protector to "buy time", even as the "up-timers" have determined that to retain as much technology as possible they need to "gear down" to a late nineteenth-century technology base while their modern equipment is still operable.


1633 (novel), Plot summary
1633 continues where 1632 left off. Most of the novel details various political machinations of the new "United States" and the attempts of Cardinal Richelieu to nullify the threat posed by the technological advantage the up-timers have given to Gustavus Adolphus and his "Confederated Principalities of Europe". Richelieu completely changes France's foreign policy and forms an alliance aimed squarely at the NUS and Gustavus called the League of Ostend.


1633 (novel), Plot summary
Mike Stearns sends emissaries looking for allies, some of whom end up behind enemy lines as they already belong to the secret League of Ostend, which announces its presence in the Battle of Four Fleets. The Dutch Republic nearly falls and Stearns' emissary voluntarily stays behind, becoming trapped in the Siege of Amsterdam.


1633 (novel), Plot summary
At this point, the newly created timeline start to diverge greatly from the actual history of the 17th Century, in no small part because the news of a town from the future brought spies and emissaries, and a fair number of encyclopedias and history textbooks found their way into European courts. One theme of the series is of down-timer leaders trying to change, hasten or head off their histories while the acts of ordinary citizens going about their day-to-day affairs and of the leaders of Grantville effect more fundamental societal and political changes.


1633 (novel), A mix of methodology
In the series the major novels carry the majority of internationally significant events, but the characters who perform the action are all too likely to have been introduced in one of the ground-eye view short stories which build deep background and form a backdrop for the overarching story lines.


1633 (novel), A mix of methodology
Flint is on record of stating "history is messy" but is not the stuff of the linear narrative cleaned up, categorized and written into a history book—and that he wanted to capture some sense of how individual actions on the behalf of one's own self-interest actually form the essence of history, not some idealized superman controlling the throttle and steering wheel at the heart of changing events.


1633 (novel), A mix of methodology
To a great extent, the short stories are fundamental to the main novels in the series, introducing characters and development which play again later in the longer works. Much of writing in Ring of Fire (ROF) antedated this work, and events in this novel were correlated with the stories in that which in many cases, cover events and personalities referenced in this at the least, moreover, there is not a single story in the anthology which happens after the start of this book, they all take place ahead of its exposition.


1633 (novel), A mix of methodology
One ROF story, "In the Navy", by Weber is a direct prequel to a main plot element in this book and its plot threads' direct sequel 1634: The Baltic War.


1633 (novel), Reception
Publishers Weekly gives a positive review and praised the authors, Flint "for at showing how the new converts can make even the 'old Americans' uncomfortable in their zeal to achieve the blessings of 'life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,'" while Weber "helps smooth out characters who were stereotypes in the first book."


1633 (novel), Reception
Booklist gave a mostly positive review saying that "if it takes too many pages for some, others will turn every one and cry for more, which the authors intend to provide."


1633 (novel), Reception
The reviewer for the School Library Journal wrote that the book is "cleanly written, with an enormous cast of interesting characters...with constant action and the hint of danger."


1633 (novel), Reception
Library Journal gave a positive review saying that the authors "take historic speculation to a new level in a tale that combines accurate historical research with bold leaps of the imagination."


1633 (novel), Reception
1633 was listed on the Locus (magazine) Hardcovers Bestsellers List for three months in a row during 2002, topping at number 2, and also later on the Paperbacks Bestsellers List for a single month in 2003 at number 1.


1633 Chimay
1633 Chimay, provisional designation 1929 EC, is a Themistian asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 37 kilometers in diameter.


1633 Chimay
It was discovered on 3 March 1929, by Belgian astronomer Sylvain Arend at the Royal Observatory of Belgium in Uccle. Five nights later, the body was independently discovered by Max Wolf at Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany. It was later named for the Belgian town of Chimay.


1633 Chimay, Classification and orbit
Chimay is a member of the Themis family, a dynamical family of asteroids with nearly coplanar ecliptical orbits. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.8–3.6 AU once every 5 years and 9 months (2,085 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. Chimay was first identified as A917 BB at Heidelberg in 1917, extending the body's observation arc by 12 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1633 Chimay, Physical characteristics
Several rotational lightcurves were obtained from photometric observations. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined, concurring rotation period of 6.58–6.63 hours with a brightness variation between 0.31 and 0.58 magnitude (U=3/3-/2).


1633 Chimay, Physical characteristics
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Chimay measures between 36.1 and 37.7 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has a low albedo between 0.079 and 0.089. In accordance with the space-based surveys, the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) derives an albedo of 0.078, and calculates a diameter of 36.1 kilometers. CALL also classifies Chimay as a S-type rather than a carbonaceous C-type asteroid.


1633 Chimay, Naming
This minor planet was named after the Belgian town Chimay, home of the discoverer, who also co-discovered Comet Arend–Roland. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3931).


1633 in Belgium
Events in the year 1633 in the Spanish Netherlands and Prince-bishopric of Liège (predecessor states of modern Belgium).


1633 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1633.


1633 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1633 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1633 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1633 in science
The year 1633 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1634
1634 (MDCXXXIV) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1634th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 634th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 34th  year of the 17th century, and the  5th   year of the 1630s decade. As of the start of 1634, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1634 Valletta explosion
On 12 September 1634, a Hospitaller gunpowder factory in Valletta, Malta accidentally blew up, killing 22 people and causing severe damage to a number of buildings. The factory had been built at some time in the late 16th or early 17th centuries, replacing an earlier one in Fort St. Angelo in Birgu. It was located in the lower part of Valletta, close to the Slaves' Prison.


1634 Valletta explosion
The explosion damaged the nearby Jesuit church and college. The church's façade was rebuilt in around 1647 by the architect Francesco Buonamici, while the damaged parts of the college were also rebuilt after the explosion.


1634 Valletta explosion
The gunpowder factory was not rebuilt. In around 1667, a new factory was constructed in Floriana, far away from any residential areas. This factory was incorporated into the Ospizio complex in the early 18th century.


1634 in Belgium
Events in the year 1634 in the Spanish Netherlands and Prince-bishopric of Liège (predecessor states of the nation of Belgium).


1634 in Belgium, Events
13 March – Great Council of Mechelen sentences Henry, Count of Bergh, in absentia to death and forfeiture of goods for his role in the Conspiracy of Nobles (1632).


1634 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1634.


1634 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1634 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1634 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1634 in science
The year 1634 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1634: The Baltic War
1634: The Baltic War is a sequel to both the first-of-type sequels, Ring of Fire and 1633, co-written by American authors Eric Flint and David Weber published in 2007. It had to await schedule co-ordination by the two authors, which proved difficult and delayed the work by nearly two years.


1634: The Baltic War
It continues the Main or Central European thread centered on the newly organized United States of Europe birthed in Central Germany under the protection-by-arms of Emperor Gustavus Adolphus (in the previous novel 1633) and in particular, the role of the citizens of Grantville, now of Thuringia, and the capital city of Magdeburg have to play on the world stage. With the stability imposed by the protection of Gustavus's armies, up-timers began migrating to other locales in the "neohistories" world as the year 1633 closed.


1634: The Baltic War
This "second half novel" wraps up two plot threads left hanging in Flint and Weber's 1633 (2002): the resolution of the captive Grantville diplomatic mission that Charles I is holding in the Tower of London, and how Admiral Simpson's awkward looking fleet of ironclad warships managed to get out of the Elbe past the Imperial Free City of Hamburg to effect the lifting of Siege of Luebeck. The book also details ground battles as the Americans have been busy upgrading Gustavus's army into a highly trained professional army at the expense of the mercenaries so prevalent in the era.


1634: The Baltic War, Literary significance and reception
Publishers Weekly called the book "exciting" and that the authors "emphasize the effect that the ideas of liberty, equality and the rule of law have" in the shaping the transition from absolutism to democracy. Although the reviewer for SFRevu gave a mostly positive review, he wrote that the book "does have a feel of being unfocused" since there "are a large and growing number of characters to follow."


1634: The Baltic War, Literary significance and reception
The reviewer for the Midwest Book Review wrote that the "fast-paced storyline contains several fronts in which the advanced twenty-first technology plays key roles in the war, but it is a psychological and philosophical battle for the minds and hearts of the people that is perhaps more critical to the cause of freedom and democracy."


1634: The Baltic War, Literary significance and reception
1634: The Baltic War is the second book in the 1632 series to be listed on the New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover fiction. During May 2007, this book was able to stay on the NY Times list for a period of 2 weeks while peaking at number 19.


1634: The Baltic War, Literary significance and reception
Besides being listed on the NY Times Best Seller list, 1634: The Baltic War was also listed on the Locus (magazine) Hardcovers Bestsellers List for two months in a row during 2007, topping at number 2, and also later on the Paperbacks Bestsellers List for a single month in 2009 at number 8.


1634: The Bavarian Crisis
1634: The Bavarian Crisis is a novel in the alternate history 1632 series, written by Virginia DeMarce and Eric Flint as sequel to Flint's novella "The Wallenstein Gambit"; several short stories by DeMarce in The Grantville Gazettes; 1634: The Ram Rebellion; and 1634: The Baltic War. The novel's first draft was completed in 2005, before work on The Baltic War began. Many chapters of that "early draft version" were available on line, but the final production reached print on October 1, 2007.


1634: The Bavarian Crisis, Publication
DeMarce, who wrote Flint congratulating him on his research and verisimilitude found in the novel 1632 soon joined with him as an expert collaborator and is one of the regular contributing writers to 1632 Tech Manual, the canonical Grantville Gazettes and a key member of the 1632 Research Committee with a PhD in history and an international expert specialized in European Genealogy. Her stories regularly deal with historical social and social science matters, as may be expected from DeMarce's PhD dissertation about the 1525 German Peasants' War and her life work as a 17th-century European history specialist.


1634: The Bavarian Crisis, Publication
The Bavarian Crisis was delayed due to the delayed start and completion of the preceding major work in the set, The Baltic War. If The Bavarian Crisis had been published first, it would have contained plot spoilers for 1634: The Baltic War. As it begins concurrently with the events revealed in that book and that of 1634: The Galileo Affair as well as 1634: The Ram Rebellion, the overall scope of plot detail (historical canvas) in the series might be readily intuited.


1634: The Bavarian Crisis, Publication
As it is, most of the narrative in all four novels span the same period of 1634, the late winter-to-early summer, though 1634: The Galileo Affair expends a few early chapters within the year 1633 as backdrop activities within the Catholic Church and Richelieu's offices are germane to the arch of the plotting.


1634: The Bavarian Crisis, Plot summary
Early revelations detail machinations by the Habsburg heiress Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria (1610–1665) to gather information as aided and abetted by a dowager aunt and her younger sister behind the backs of her father Emperor Ferdinand II of the Holy Roman Empire and his Jesuit watchdogs.


1634: The Bavarian Crisis, Plot summary
Duke Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria becomes a widower in need of a suitable Catholic bride, while the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand whose armies have reconquered 80–85% of the Low Countries by the summer of 1634 is contemplating a dynastic move of his own which his brother King Philip IV of Spain will find a bit disconcerting.


1634: The Bavarian Crisis, Plot summary
Veronica Dreeson and Mary Simpson meanwhile plan a trip to tend to personal matters to the Upper Palatinate border region conquered by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and administered for him from Amberg by ally Duke Ernest of Saxe-Gotha, one of the four Wettin dukes that were supplanted by Grantville's (formation of the NUS) actions in 1631 and 1632. Events in the other 1634 novels (1634: The Galileo Affair, 1634: The Ram Rebellion, 1634: The Baltic War) are integrated into the action and political events behind the scenes, and this book ties a host of little oddities into a coherent canvas capturing a snapshot of the state of Europe in early summer of 1634.


1634: The Bavarian Crisis, Plot summary
Concurrent with their pet projects, the formidable Dreeson and Simpson women are accompanied by a trade delegation with the strategic goal of restoring the iron production of the Upper Palatinate to feed the war needs of the USE.


1634: The Bavarian Crisis, Literary significance and reception
Publishers Weekly gives a positive review finding it a "complicated but coherent story" and "refreshing to read an alternate history that doesn't depend upon the clash of anachronistic arms, but rather on how modern ideas of human rights, education, sanitation and law might have affected the Europe of the 30 Years War." A reviewer for the SFRevu wrote that this is not a "stand alone novel" and that reading other books in the series first would "make some of the inside jokes and intricate politics more clear." The Midwest Book Review said that the "story line is fast-paced, but contains a more serious tone than its predecessors."


1634: The Bavarian Crisis, Literary significance and reception
1634: The Bavarian Crisis was the third book in the 1632 series to be listed on the New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover fiction. During October 2007, this book was able to be on the NY Times list for one week while peaking at number 29.


1634: The Bavarian Crisis, Literary significance and reception
1634: The Bavarian Crisis was listed on the Locus (magazine) Hardcovers Bestsellers List for one month in 2008 at number 8.


1634: The Galileo Affair
1634: The Galileo Affair is the fourth book and third novel published in the 1632 series. It is co-written by American authors Eric Flint and Andrew Dennis and was published in 2004. It follows the activities of an embassy party sent from the United States of Europe (Grantville) to Venice, Italy, where the three young Stone brothers become involved with the local Committees of Correspondence and the Inquisition's trial of Galileo Galilei.


1634: The Galileo Affair, Plot summary
Following Grantville's alliance with Gustavus Adolphus and their military successes, texts of modern-day history books of the seventeenth century have become very popular among the powerful personages of Europe and made dramatic effects and turmoil on the continent. Among those that are affected are the Holy Roman Catholic Church with their religious holdings. Father Lawrence Mazzare started the controversy by allowing Father Fredrich von Spee to read his own entry in the Catholic Encyclopedia, thereby stiffening the Jesuit's resistance to the Inquisition. Also Mazzare provided copies of the papers of the Second Vatican Council and other documents to Monsignor Giulio Mazarini, which led Pope Urban VIII to request a summary of Catholic theological reforms over the following centuries in the original timeline.


1634: The Galileo Affair, Plot summary
The newly formed USE acts to open a trade corridor with the Middle East via Venice to insure supplies of materials unavailable within Western Europe; gaining political allies within these regions; and religious allies to spread the doctrines of religious tolerance and the separation of church and state. Michael Stearns selects Lawrence Mazzare to lead the delegation to Venice because of his current fame (or notoriety) among Catholics. Mazzare asks Simon Jones, the Methodist minister, to accompany him as a sign of religious tolerance and Father Augustus Heinzerling. Jones goes along as Mazzare's assistant.


1634: The Galileo Affair, Plot summary
Stearns also sends Tom Stone and his family to assist with the production of pharmaceuticals, Sharon Nichols to aid in medical education (and to give her something useful to do while she is grieving over Hans Richter's death in 1633), and Ernst Mauer to advise on public sanitation. Lieutenant Conrad Ursinus is sent as the naval attaché and advisor on shipbuilding and Scottish Captain Andrew Lennox is assigned as the military attaché and commander of the Marine Guard. Lieutenant Billy Trumble is sent as XO of the Marine escort as well as sports advisor. However, the delegation is opposed by the French embassy in Venice led by Claude de Mesmes, comte d'Avaux, who is given orders by Cardinal Richelieu to disrupt trade negotiations between the USE and Venice.


1634: The Galileo Affair, Literary significance and reception
Publishers Weekly in their review said that "It's refreshing to read an alternate history where the problems of two people do amount to a hill of beans, which isn't surprising, since all the installments in this popular series to date have focused as much on ordinary people as on kings and generals. The closing chase sequence is literally a riot." School Library Journal was mixed in their review saying "this is a good choice for fans of alternative history, although those who prefer the more serious work of Harry Turtledove may find it too upbeat for their taste.


1634: The Galileo Affair, Literary significance and reception
Also, familiarity with previous titles is a must as the authors place readers right in the middle of the action." Booklist also noted that the book is "challenging for newcomers, but Young Adults who know the series will enjoy this latest installment" and it would help if the reader have the previous books available.


1634: The Galileo Affair, Literary significance and reception
1634: The Galileo Affair was the first book in the 1632 series to be listed on the New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover fiction. During April 2004, this book was able to stay on the NY Times list for a period of 2 weeks while peaking at number 27.


1634: The Galileo Affair, Literary significance and reception
Besides being listed on the NY Times Best Seller list, 1634: The Galileo Affair was also the first book in the 1632 series to be listed at the top of the Locus (magazine) Hardcovers Bestsellers List for the month of July in 2004 and was also able to reach number 3 while staying on the Locus Paperbacks Bestsellers List for 2 months in 2005.


1634: The Ram Rebellion
1634: The Ram Rebellion is the seventh published work in the 1632 alternate history book series, and is the third work to establish what is best considered as a "main plot line or thread" of historical speculative focus that are loosely organized and classified geographically.


1634: The Ram Rebellion
The initial main thread is called the "Western and North-Central Europe thread" (encompassing northern and western Germany, Denmark, England, France, the Low Countries, Sweden and the Baltic); the second plot line, encompassing events in Italy, Spain, the Mediterranean region, and France, the "South European thread", and this book can be considered the starting novel of the "South-Central/South-East thread" being set in southern Germany, Austria, Bavaria, and Bohemia. This geographically organized plot thread actually began in Ring of Fire in Flint's novelette "The Wallenstein Gambit" which is set in Bohemia, Austria, and Germany, which tied into stories in various Grantville Gazettes.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Contents
The book is hard to classify as it is an oddity, as acknowledged by series creator Eric Flint in the foreword; an anthology in fact, with several longer novelettes sandwiching seemingly unrelated short stories under a (hidden for a while) overarching story line that is capped off by a short novel that finally brings all the seemingly unrelated and disparate contents together in the latter part of the book.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Contents
Unlike most works in the 1632 series, much of this book is written from the standpoint of common people "in the street", including Germans trying to cope with Grantville, West Virginia, up-timers trying to cope with their new world around Grantville, and both trying to deal with the problems of two widely different cultures meeting in the new United States of Europe. These merging dynamics are the milieu shaping stories Flint felt necessary to include even though they are set in 1631–1632. Their impact extends throughout the book and into 1634, as well as across political boundaries and battle lines as the historical imperatives developed in this book extend into the direct sequel 1634: The Bavarian Crisis.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Plot summary
The book spot-covers local events and a few related diplomatic discussions from a few days after the Ring of Fire (May–June 1631) to October in the fall of 1634—giving it the largest time footprint of the four—though narrowly focused. The short novel that concludes the work begins in late August 1633 and overlaps many of the shorter works earlier in the book. Two of the three other books set in 1634 refer to the events in the work (usually as the "troubles in Franconia") setting its canonical place in the "greater" neo-historical international politics covered in the other two works.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Plot summary, "Recipes for Revolution"
The two Larkin "Birdie" Newhouse tales along with two flashback vignettes by Flint begin the Ram Rebellion book, all four set in the weeks immediately after the Ring of Fire. In the Flint stories which are sandwiched around the Birdie tales, Mike Stearns goes back to school under the tutelage of Melissa Mailey. Stearns has a problem, he has to get a handle on likely complications from the local population, as the stories are set just a few days after he is elected as Chairman of the Emergency Committee. As a result, Mailey gives Stearns several very thick history books on European history in the era.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Plot summary, "Recipes for Revolution"
Birdie Newhouse has an immediate problem, he's a farmer with most of his farm's arable land 300 years off and a continent away. The stories by Gorg Huff and Paula Goodlett explore the alien land practices and ownership of down-time Germany as Birdie seeks to gain additional lands. Land sales are rare; worse, the lawyers are in control and there are three general levels of vested interest: The owners-in-fact, a variable number of other claimants, and the tenants.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Plot summary, "Recipes for Revolution"
The tenants have certain rights and obligations over and above monetary rent while leases are generally for the lesser of three generations or 99 years. In between the owner in fact and the tenants is usually a monetary transaction which gives the rents to any number of claimants—depending upon the finances of the landholding family. The claimants all have a say in the farm operation to some extent, as do the occupants of the farm villages, which also have the right to disapprove or accept new co-farmers, for the land is farmed cooperatively with another set of obligations and entitlements. Birdie can't just go and buy a piece of land, he has to buy it from three different and diverse groups of people... and get them all to agree to terms. As the story notes, seventeenth century Germany was a lawyer's paradise.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Plot summary, "Enter the Ram"
Flo Richards is a farmer's wife with four grown children who had bought a small flock of type C Delaine Merino sheep and some angora rabbits before the Ring of Fire in the hope that she'd see more of her youngest daughter, Jen, once she'd finished her studies out of town. The Ring of Fire had consequently left Jan behind in the present in which Flo dealt with this loss by concentrating on her livestock. She and her husband JD have local Germans living with them as partners now that farming has become more labour-intensive.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Plot summary, "Enter the Ram"
Flo's laments about the poor quality wool from the locally obtained ram (who comes to be known as Brillo for that reason) strike a chord with someone and subsequently a number of 'Brillo fables' start to appear in the local broadsheet; the fables concern the titular ram escaping from his pen and interfering with her merino breeding program. The ram's fame spreads through Grantville out into the rest of Germany. The Women's League of Voters uses a Ram's Head as its emblem, schoolchildren sing songs about Brillo, and even adapt it into a ballet.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Plot summary, "The Trouble in Franconia"
With the example of future Grantville, a peasant revolt becomes a revolutionary movement in the fractured Holy Roman Empire south and east of Thuringia while the Machiavellian maneuvers in the neo-historical governments and various field armies now dance to counter-act those aimed at the Americans' new heartland. Up-timers, from the original USA space-time want the serfs to succeed and liberate themselves—but also know what a bloodbath the French Revolution became and various individuals act to help one and prevent the others.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Plot summary, "The Trouble in Franconia"
Avoiding that path will take all sorts of resources and efforts, and Americans from both uptime and down-time act resolutely to mitigate the problems, diplomacy to head off wars headed by authoritarians threatened by the new American ideals, and a deft appreciation of when not to fight and dangle an irresistible carrot instead.


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Plot summary, "The Ram Rebellion"
In Franconia, schoolteacher Constantin Ableidinger has been reading Common Sense by Thomas Paine. He also finds the Brillo stories interesting. The farmers in Franconia (and Thuringia for that matter) have a history of dissent concerning serfdom and Mike Stearns has hopes of getting some fundamental changes made in the way that Franconia is run as a result of a farmer's rebellion of sorts. He neglects to include this in the briefing given to the civil servants sent down to administer Franconia although these people, Johnny F. and Noelle Murphy, among others have an effect on the schoolteacher's "Ram rebellion".


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Literary significance and reception
Dana Blankenhorn of ZDNet called the book "a sort of open source novel" as a way of describing how Eric Flint invited other authors to contribute stories to this book in which it extends the franchise. Another reviewer wrote that "the book gets mired down in detail. It was just too much information."


1634: The Ram Rebellion, Literary significance and reception
1634: The Ram Rebellion was listed on the Locus (magazine) Hardcovers Bestsellers List for two months in a row during 2006, topping at number 2.


1635
1635 (MDCXXXV) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1635th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 635th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 35th  year of the 17th century, and the  6th   year of the 1630s decade. As of the start of 1635, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1635 Bohrmann
1635 Bohrmann, provisional designation 1924 QW, is a stony Koronian asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 17 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 7 March 1924, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southern Germany, and named for astronomer Alfred Bohrmann.


1635 Bohrmann, Orbit and classification
The stony S-type asteroid belongs to the Koronis family, a group consisting of few hundred known bodies with nearly ecliptical orbits. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.7–3.0 AU once every 4 years and 10 months (1,761 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.06 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic.


1635 Bohrmann, Orbit and classification
As no precoveries were taken, Bohrmann's observation arc begins with the first used observation taken on the night following its discovery.


1635 Bohrmann, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Bohrmann measures between 16.6 and 19.1 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.187 and 0.255. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for members of the Koronian family of 0.24, and calculates a diameter of 17.1 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.0.


1635 Bohrmann, Lightcurves
In September and October 2003, four rotational lightcurves were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations at several observatories around the world, including the Whitin Observatory in Wellesley, Massachusetts, as well as by U.S. astronomers Robert Stephens and Brian Warner. The lightcurves gave two different solutions for the Bohrmann's rotation period. One solution gave 5.864±0.001 and 5.86427±0.00005 hours, while the alternative solution gave 11.73±0.01 and 11.730±0.005 hours. The lightcurves had a concurring brightness variation of 0.25 in magnitude (U=2/2/3/n.a. ).


1635 Bohrmann, Naming
This minor planet was named after German astronomer Alfred Bohrmann (1904–2000), a long-time observer of minor planets at the discovering Heidelberg Observatory and a discoverer of minor planets himself. During his career he had published several hundreds of precise observations of asteroids. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3931).


1635 in Belgium
Events in the year 1635 in the Spanish Netherlands and Prince-bishopric of Liège (predecessor states of modern Belgium).


1635 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1635.


1635 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1635 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1635 in science
The year 1635 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1635: The Cannon Law
1635: The Cannon Law is the sixth book and fifth novel published in the 1632 series by Eric Flint and Andrew Dennis. It is the second novel in the French-Italian plot thread, which began with 1634: The Galileo Affair and was published by Baen Books in 2006. The book explores the reactions of the Roman Catholic hardliners to Pope Urban VIII's actions in tolerating the new freedom of religion taking root in Central Europe during the climax of The Galileo Affair.


1635: The Cannon Law
Like all the preceding books in the series, it is set in the Thirty Years' War. The series deals with history and political life, American culture and a host of other things taken for granted in today's First World countries.


1635: The Cannon Law, Plot summary
Following the events of 1634: The Galileo Affair, Pope Urban VIII has been won over to the actions of the Americans after being saved from his attempted assassination and his subsequent pardon of Galileo Galilei. However, Pope Urban's relations with the Americans and their allies earns the scorn of his historical enemy Cardinal Gaspar Borja y Velasco, who had been loudly critical of the actions, or inactions, of the Holy See in regard to Gustavus Adolphus, Galileo, and now Cardinal Larry Mazzare, and had been briefly banned from Rome by Urban.


1635: The Cannon Law, Plot summary
Cardinal Borja returns to Rome, though living in the outskirts of the city, and having cultivated allies with the Spanish element of the Vatican and acquiring the aid of Francisco de Quevedo y Villega, a mercenary agent provocateur, is ordered by King Philip IV of Spain to stir up trouble within Rome with the efforts of discrediting Urban and turning him into a lame duck pope after Urban failed to support Spain in her war against the United States of Europe (USE).


1635: The Cannon Law, Plot summary
Borja exceeds these orders, orchestrating a military coup to overthrow Urban, which also caused the deaths of Urban's political allies including his  cardinal-nephew Antonio Barberini, and replace him with a Spanish puppet. Urban escapes from his second attempted death with the help from the American Roman embassy, leading to Borja being declared an Anti- Pope, with only Spain and its satellites recognizing his authority as the new Pope.


1635: The Cannon Law, Literary significance and reception
Publishers Weekly was somewhat critical in their review saying "If this novel is not as rollicking as its predecessor, that may be because there really isn't anything funny about the Spanish Inquisition, Monty Python notwithstanding." Roland Green reviewing for Booklist was more positive saying "this is probably the strongest book in the magnificent saga since the opening volume 1632." The reviewer or SFRevu wrote that "the book has that iceburg feeling of inevitability" and that the "people of 1635 may be trying to get out of the path history set for them, but they're still driven by the same events and pressures that decided their fates the first time."


1635: The Cannon Law, Literary significance and reception
1635: The Cannon Law was listed on the Locus (magazine) Hardcovers Bestsellers List for two months in a row at the end of 2006 and the beginning of 2007, topping at number 8.


1635: The Dreeson Incident
1635: The Dreeson Incident (2008) is a novel in the alternate history 1632 series, written by Virginia DeMarce and Eric Flint, as a sequel to Flint's novella 1634: The Bavarian Crisis.


1635: The Dreeson Incident, Plot summary
The novel takes place after the events of 1634: The Galileo Affair, and 1635: The Cannon Law in which French Huguenot extremist Michel Ducos came close to assassinating Pope Urban VIII and forced to flee with his followers from Rome. The leaders of the French Huguenot group under Ducos settled in Scotland making plans to embarrass Cardinal Richelieu. Michel also has left strict instructions for several of his followers, led by Guillaume Locquifier, in Frankfurt to do nothing until he gives them new orders.


1635: The Dreeson Incident, Plot summary
Meanwhile, Duke Henri de Rohan, the highest ranking Huguenot, has his own group of agents monitoring events throughout Europe. He also would like to see Richelieu removed from office, but he views the radical actions of Ducos as self-defeating. After having learning the events in Rome, Henri writes letters to his agents in Grantville, Frankfurt and elsewhere warning of the escape of Ducos and ordering them to notify him if Ducos appears. Rohan has two double agents working within the Ducos operation.


1635: The Dreeson Incident, Plot summary
Jacques-Pierre Dumais is one of the double agents working for the Duke, who works in Grantville as a garbage collector while secretly examining 20th century knowledge discarded by the American residents. Spymaster Francisco Nasi has also been trying to track down Ducos. His agents and others have been sending reports on activities in Grantville and elsewhere within the State of Thuringia-Franconia.


1635: The Dreeson Incident, Plot summary
In the midst of this, the United States of Europe elections are taking place. Incumbent Prime Minister Mike Stearns is sure that his political party will lose, but figures that his opponent William Wettin will overextend himself and his respective Crown Loyalists party. Ducos' Huguenots in Frankfurt plan a demonstration and action in Grantville to vilify Richelieu by plotting assassinations on Grantville's powerful figures: Mayor Henry Dreeson and Presbyterian minister Enoch Wiley (as attempts on individuals such as Mike Stearns and Gustavus Adolphus remain impossible to do).


1635: The Dreeson Incident, Plot summary
The assassinations are successfully carried out during several manipulated demonstrations against vaccination and autopsies through down-timers and an anti-Semitic incident at Grantville's synagogue as covers for the assassination. In the aftermath, the results do not come out as the Huguenots had planned: Nasi, Stearns, and several others figure out the cause for the assassinations. They and other like-minded individuals are shocked by the provocative actions of the anti-Semites and decide to use the incident to justify the total eradication of all antisemitic forces in the area controlled by Grantville's allies.


1635: The Dreeson Incident, Literary significance and reception
A reviewer for SFRevu liked the book but wrote that "it is easy to get drawn in by these characters, although sometimes it is hard to keep track of all the subplots that have developed". The Library Journal gave a more positive review by saying that the authors "keeps the action moving and the history honest as ordinary citizens of the 20th century bring their skills and their hopes to a dark time in European history." The reviewer for Booklist wrote that this book is a "solid addition to the Ring of Fire alternate history saga."


1635: The Dreeson Incident, Literary significance and reception
1635: The Dreeson Incident was listed on the Locus (magazine) Hardcovers Bestsellers List for a single month in 2009 at number 5.


1635: The Eastern Front
1635: The Eastern Front is an alternate history novel by Eric Flint in the 1632 series, first published in hardcover by Baen Books on October 5, 2010, with a paperback edition following from the same publisher in November 2011. It is a sequel to 1635: The Tangled Web and is directly continued by 1636: The Saxon Uprising.


1635: The Eastern Front, Plot summary
In the alternative history scenario of the novel and series, Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus, has with the aid of the time-displaced citizens of Grantville, West Virginia, tipped the balance in the Thirty Years' War and become emperor of much of Germany, now reorganized as the United States of Europe. Having at least temporarily sidelined Austria and France, the main enemies of the new state, he is free to turn his attention to the rebellious states of Brandenburg and Saxony and pursue his dream of conquering Poland. The former are duly reconquered and the latter invaded.


1635: The Eastern Front, Plot summary
West Virginian Mike Stearns, former prime minister of the USE and now a major general in command of the army's third division of the USE army, acquits himself well in the campaign, but atrocities committed by some of his men lead him to establish the Hangman Regiment to police his own forces, under the command of new-minted Light Colonel Jeff Higgins.


1635: The Eastern Front, Plot summary
Meanwhile, on the home front, other sequences of events involve Mike's wife Rebecca Abrabanel and the Swedish royal family. French Huguenots attempt to assassinate Gustavus's daughter Princess Kristina and her betrothed Prince Ulrik in an attempt to provoke the wrath of the Swedes and Danes against Cardinal Richelieu and the government of their Catholic-ruled country. The prince and princess escape, though her mother, the queen Maria Eleonora, is murdered.


1635: The Eastern Front, Plot summary
Gustavus's eastern war is stalled in the battle of Lake Bledno, in which he gains a strategic victory but receives a life-threatening wound. His hitherto-loyal chancellor Axel Oxenstierna takes the opportunity to seize power in an attempt to reverse the democratizing influence of the West Virginians, endangering the USE at a critical juncture.


1635: The Eastern Front, Literary significance and reception
The reviewer for SFRevu gave a positive review and wrote "One of the best things about Flint’s writing is the smooth flow of his battle descriptions. He presents the majesty and the horror without getting bogged down in a blow by blow recounting of the action. He seamlessly meshes the multitude of points of view into a coherent tale that spans the limits of the USE. It is enjoyable to read the way he brings action in the side books into the main plot. That has always been one of the hallmarks of the series."


1635: The Eastern Front, Literary significance and reception
The reviewer for a Shiny Book Review wrote that the "story takes awhile to get going" while also praised the author by writing that "with typical deftness, Eric Flint can usually create a great story" and "this is an Eric Flint novel, so you know the editing is going to be sound."


1635: The Eastern Front, Literary significance and reception
1635: The Eastern Front barely missed getting listed on the Locus Hardcovers Bestsellers List in 2011, but did well enough to be labeled as a runner-up.


1635: The Papal Stakes
1635: The Papal Stakes is novel in the 1632 series written by Charles Gannon and Eric Flint. It was published in 2012 and is the direct sequel to 1635: The Cannon Law published in 2006. This book is the third in the South European fork to the main 1632 series storyline. The story follows the exploits of younger members of the Stone family in Italy and describes the impact of Grantville on the Roman Catholic church and on the patchwork of independent countries in the Italian peninsula.


1635: The Papal Stakes, Literary significance and reception
The reviewer for SFRevu writes that "Charles Gannon takes the helm in this installment" and that "Gannon hits all the right notes." The Midwest Book Review called the book "a fabulous thriller as Eric Flint and Charles E. Gannon prove a deft pairing." The reviewer for the Mixed Book Bag also agrees that Flint and Gannon make a good writing team and adds "This is a story that flows smoothly and is focused on the problems the characters face" and "the action is great and keeps the story arc moving along".


1635: The Papal Stakes, Literary significance and reception
1635: The Papal Stakes is the first book in the 1632 series to get listed on The Wall Street Journal Best-Selling Books list for Hardcover Science Fiction, which gets its data from NPD BookScan (formerly Nielsen BookScan). This book was able to stay on this list for two weeks during October 2012, topping at number 6.


1635: The Tangled Web
1635: The Tangled Web is a novel in the alternate history 1632 series, written by Virginia DeMarce.


1635: The Tangled Web
Two of the stories were previously published in the online version of The Grantville Gazettes with the Prince and Abbot first published in Volume 8 and Mail Stop first published in Volume 9. The rest of the stories are original material.


1635: The Tangled Web, Plot summary
The main setting takes place in Fulda in 1633 and follows in four interlinking stories which ties together near the end of the novel.


1635: The Tangled Web, Plot summary, "Prince and Abbot"
The New United States decided to accept the return of Johann Bernhard Schenk von Schweinsberg as the Abbot of Fulda, but the Abbot will have to give up the title of prince. Moreover, he will not be allowed to collect tithes. The N.U.S. is now the secular authority in Fulda and will collect the taxes. The Abbot surprises Wes Jenkins - the administrator of Fulda - in his attempts to persuade the monks to abide by the new rules of his order. The local monks have resisted abiding by these rules.


1635: The Tangled Web, Plot summary, "Prince and Abbot"
Even the importation of Saint Gall monks hasn't won them over to the Tridentine doctrines. Dissatisfied Catholic conspirators in Bonn decide to unsettle affairs in Fulda, in which they initially arrange to post scurrilous flyers all over the town and then hire Irish mercenaries led by Walter Leslie to abduct the Abbot and several N.U.S. administrators.


1635: The Tangled Web, Plot summary, "Mail Stop"
The story focus on Martin Wackernagel. As a private courier, Martin delivers correspondence and small packages on a route stretching from Grantville to Gelnhausen along the imperial road. He also makes side trips to Barracktown and other locations near his route. Martin visits his mother now and then during his travels, but he is reluctant to face her. She keeps asking when he will be married, but things are not as they seems. There is a secondary thread involving a pair of fourteen-year-olds operating a downtime mimeograph machine and unwittingly producing propaganda material that could lead to local unrest that is always in the background of the first three stories.


1635: The Tangled Web, Plot summary, "Mail Stop"
A third thread involves a young teenaged Jewish boy named David who wanted to leave his village and see the world as a postal carrier instead of being tied to his village in an unwanted profession and an arranged marriage to a vapid young girl. All of the different thread diverge and intersects along Wackernagel's postal route.


1635: The Tangled Web, Plot summary, "Happy Wanderer"
“MAIL STOP” and “HAPPY WANDERER” tell the story of Martin Wackernagel, a private courier with a regular route. Martin maintains three separate households complete with wife and children unknown to his mother or his other “wives”. The woman he hopes to make his fourth wife is niece to Clara Bachmeierin, who married Wes Jenkins in the first story.


1635: The Tangled Web, Plot summary, "Window of Opportunity"
The story examines the actions of the Mainz Committee of Correspondence. Bernard Eberhard – Captain Duke of the Swedish Army – is sent to Fulda by General Brahe to observe the interplay between NUS administrators and Abbot von Schweinsberg. Bernhard takes his brothers and his fellow CoC members with him to Fulda. He and his brothers began working for Major Derek Utt. Later, Utt plans an operation against the Irish soldiers who had abducted the Abbot. He sends Sergeant Helmut Herke and a small band of soldiers to determine the whereabouts of the colonels.


1635: The Tangled Web, Literary significance and reception
One reviewer thought that the first half of the book was a "little boring" since it describes  events that were mentioned in previous books but from a different POV. For the second half of the book, the reviewer said that this "section of the book starts out light and turns dark but is all fresh material."


1635: The Tangled Web, Literary significance and reception
1635: The Tangled Web was listed on the Locus (magazine) Hardcovers Bestsellers List for one month during 2010 at number 5.


1636
1636 (MDCXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1636th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 636th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 36th  year of the 17th century, and the  7th   year of the 1630s decade. As of the start of 1636, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1636 Imperial election
The imperial election of 1636 was an imperial election held to select the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. It took place in Regensburg on December 22.


1636 Imperial election, Background
This was the sixth imperial election to take place during the Reformation. On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther, a professor of moral theology at the University of Wittenberg, now part of the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, had delivered the Ninety-five Theses to Albert of Brandenburg, the elector of Mainz. This list of propositions criticized the practice of selling indulgences, remissions of the punishment meted out for sin in Purgatory. Luther's criticism snowballed into a massive schism in the church, and from there into a split among the states of the empire.


1636 Imperial election, Background
The accession of the fiercely Catholic Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor as king of Bohemia led to unrest among the Protestant estates of the kingdom. On May 23, 1618, a group of members of the Protestant estates threw two of Ferdinand II's representatives from the third story of Prague Castle in an event known as the Defenestration of Prague. On August 26, 1619, the full Bohemian estates declared Ferdinand II deposed. They offered the throne to Frederick V of the Palatinate, elector of the Electoral Palatinate, who accepted.


1636 Imperial election, Background
Ferdinand II called on Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, duke of Bavaria and leader of the Catholic League, a political confederation-cum-military alliance, for help suppressing the Bohemian Revolt and removing Frederick. In a treaty of October 21, he promised the Upper Palatinate and its electoral rights in exchange for this help. At the Diet of Regensburg on February 25, 1623, the Duchy of Bavaria received the Palatine electoral dignity, to be returned on Maximilian's death.


1636 Imperial election, Background
On May 30, 1635, the Peace of Prague was signed, ending the conflict between the Holy Roman Empire and its Protestant states. However, the larger war in Germany, the Thirty Years' War, which involved other great powers in Europe, continued.


1636 Imperial election, Background
Ferdinand II called for the election of his successor. In addition to Maximilian, the electors called to Regensburg were:


1636 Imperial election, Background
Of these, only the elector of Saxony was Lutheran and only the elector of Brandenburg was Calvinist.


1636 Imperial election, Aftermath
Ferdinand III acceded to the throne on his father's death on February 15, 1637 and was crowned on November 18.


1636 in Belgium
Events in the year 1636 in the Spanish Netherlands and Prince-bishopric of Liège (predecessor states of modern Belgium).


1636 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1636.