152 mm howitzer-gun M1937 (ML-20), Summary
Of other guns with more or less similar characteristics, there were French 155 mm guns model 1917 and 1918 with longer range, but some 3.5 tons heavier (as was the US 155 mm Long Tom). The Czechoslovakian howitzer K4 (used by Germans as 15 cm sFH 37(t)) was about 2 tons lighter, but with range more than 2 km shorter and only 178 pieces were built. The Italian Cannone da 149/40 modello 35 had a range of 23.7 km but had a weight of 11 tons and less than 100 pieces were built. The British BL 5.5 inch (140 mm) Medium Gun probably had the closest characteristics; weight slightly over six tons and range of 18,100 yd (16,600 m) with an 82 lb (37 kg) shell.


152 mm howitzer-gun M1937 (ML-20), Summary
The main shortcomings of the ML-20 were its weight and limited mobility. As the experience of the ML-15 project suggests, the gun could be made somewhat lighter and more suitable for high-speed transportation. The use of a muzzle brake can be seen as a minor flaw: while softening the recoil and thus allowing the use of a lighter carriage, a muzzle brake has the disadvantage of redirecting some of the gases that escape the barrel toward the ground, where they can raise dust, potentially revealing the gun position. But when the ML-20 was developed, muzzle brakes were already a common design element in artillery pieces of that class.


152 mm howitzer-gun M1937 (ML-20), Surviving pieces
ML-20s are on display in a number of military museums. Among other places, the gun can be seen:


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM)
152 mm mortar M1931 (NM) (Russian: 152-мм мортира образца 1931 года (НМ)) was a 152.4 mm (6 inch) artillery piece originally developed by the German arms manufacturer Rheinmetall. The gun was produced in limited numbers in the Soviet Union and saw action with the Soviet Army in World War II. A modified version of the design was also adopted in Germany, as 15 cm sIG 33.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Description
The gun had monobloc barrel fitted with horizontal sliding-block. The recoil system consisted of hydraulic compressor and hydro-pneumatic recuperator, both mounted in the gun cradle. The recoil length was fixed. The carriage was of box trail type, with equilibrator, suspension and a folding recoil spade. Metal wheels had removable rubber tires. The gun was equipped with a gun shield.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Development and production
The first 152 mm divisional mortar for the RKKA was developed in by Kirov Plant in 1930. The gun weighed about 1,500 kg. It utilized a breechblock and other elements of the 152 mm fortress howitzer M1909. It is not clear whether the piece was ever completed.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Development and production
From late 1920s, USSR looked for foreign assistance in modernizing its artillery. Germany could and was willing to offer such assistance. The cooperation with USSR allowed Germany, constrained by the Treaty of Versailles, an opportunity to proceed with arms development. In 1929, German arms manufacturer Rheinmetall created a dummy company Butast for contacts with USSR. In accordance with the Sovnarkom decision from 8 August 1930, on 28 August in Berlin a secret agreement was signed. Germans undertook to help USSR with production of six artillery systems:


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Development and production
For $1,125 mil. Rheinmetall supplied pre-production samples, documentation and parts from which in USSR a few pieces of each type could be assembled.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Development and production
Among other pieces, Rheinmetall brought to USSR eight 152 mm mortars. The guns went through ground trials in June 1931 and were tested by the army in August 1932. The weapon was adopted as 152 mm mortar M1931. In the contemporary documents it is often referred to as N or NM.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Development and production
The gun was in production from 1932 to 1935 at Plant no. 172 (MZM - Motovilikha Machinery Plant; Russian: МЗМ - Мотовилихинский завод машиностроения). The production continuously lagged behind the schedule. In 1932, 5 mortars were manufactured; in 1933 - 50, in 1934 – 59, and in 1935 – 15 pieces. During the production period the gun was repeatedly modified; for example, the barrel of was lengthened by 65 mm.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Development and production
In 1937 a modernized variant was developed. This variant, designated ML-21, reached factory trials on 27 March 1937 and ground and army trials in 1938. The trials revealed some minor defects. The ML-21 was never adopted.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Development and production
Meanwhile, in Germany a modified variant of the original Rheinmetall design was adopted as 15 cm sIG 33.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Self-propelled mounts
The NM was experimentally mounted on T-26 tank chassis. The resulting self-propelled gun, designated SU-5-3, successfully underwent factory trials in 1934 and even took part in a parade at the Red Square. However, in 1935 the project was cancelled, because the T-26 chassis was considered too weak for a 152 mm piece. The fate of the prototype vehicle is unknown. There is an unconfirmed information that it was rebuilt as SU-5-2, armed with 122 mm howitzer M1910/30.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Employment
The NM was employed in divisional artillery, which from 1935 to June 1941 included a battalion of 152 mm howitzers. On 1 November 1936 RKKA possessed 104 pieces (including three practical and one non-operational). By June 1941 only 51 of them remained and, according to the historian M. Svirin, all these were in mobilization reserve. Some pieces saw combat early in the German-Soviet War. In 1942, new ballistic tables for the mortar were released.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Summary
Despite some advantages of the NM, notably its versatility and very light weight for a 152-mm piece, the production was cancelled after a limited number of guns were built. According to M. Svirin, complexity of the design was the main reason. For example, Soviet ordnance plants experienced major problems with production of sliding breechblocks. Also, the NM poorly fitted the Soviet artillery doctrine, mainly because of its range - too short for a divisional gun. The related German design - the 15 cm sIG 33 - was employed as a regimental weapon; it was somewhat heavy for a regimental piece.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Summary
In the RKKA, the niche of heavy regimental weapon was filled by a 120 mm infantry mortar, a cheaper, lighter weapon with slightly longer range, but on the other hand less powerful, less accurate and less versatile. Eventually, a need for a divisional weapon more powerful than a 122 mm howitzer became apparent; in 1943 the RKKA adopted another infantry mortar, the 160 mm divisional mortar MT-13, which was similar to the NM in terms of weight, range and shell weight.


152 mm mortar M1931 (NM), Ammunition
The mortar used separate loading ammunition. The cartridge case could contain five different propellant charges. In addition to an old HE shell, two new HE-Frag shells were developed. The "draft 4139" shell was produced in limited numbers and was no longer used by 1934.


152 mm siege gun M1910
The 152 mm siege gun model 1910 (Russian: 152-мм осадная пушка образца 1910 года) was a heavy gun used by the Russian Army in World War I. The gun was designed by the French arms manufacturer Schneider and the first prototype was evaluated in Russia in 1909-10. A total of 73 guns were ordered from the Putilov Plant in 1912. However, only 51 guns were delivered by the end of the Civil War. A further 49 guns were ordered by the Red Army Artillery Administration in 1926 and 1928. All usable guns were upgraded to 152 mm gun M1910/30 in the early 1930s.


152 mm siege gun M1910, Selection
In 1906 the Russian War Department held a competition among Russian and foreign gun makers to find a 152mm siege gun to replace the obsolete 19th century designs in service. Only two manufacturers' designs were chosen to progress to field trials - those of Schneider and Krupp. The Schneider design was chosen after trials in 1909-10. The trials were a sham since the Schneider gun was preferred even before the trials were conducted. A licence agreement had been signed in 1907 between Schneider and Putilov for the production of a number of Schneider designs including the 152mm gun in anticipation of the final decision. The gun was adopted as the "152 mm Siege Gun Model 1910" (Russian: 152-мм осадная пушка образца 1910 года).


152 mm siege gun M1910, Production
In June 1912 the War Department ordered 56 guns from Putilov. A further 17 guns were ordered by the Marine Office in 1914, but these would have required extensive modifications since they were intended as coastal defence/railway guns. Putilov decided to complete the order for the Russian Army first then build the extra 17 guns. It was intended that production would be completed by July 1918. The Marine Office order was never completed since the revolution intervened in April 1917. Production proceeded fairly slowly. By 1 Jan 1917 36 guns had been completed, by 1 Dec 1917 43 guns.


152 mm siege gun M1910, Production
During the revolution and Civil War production was very slow, only 3 guns were completed in 1919, for a total production of 51 guns. In 1926 the Red Army Artillery Administration ordered 26 152mm guns from "Red Putilovets" the former Putilov factory. In 1928 a further 23 guns were ordered bringing the Red Army inventory of 152 mm guns to 67 in 1930.


152 mm siege gun M1910, Description
In common with the Schneider designs the Putilov guns had hydraulic recoil absorption and pneumatic recuperation. The gun had variable recoil, at less than 12° elevation the recoil length was 1800 1,800 millimetres (71 in), at greater than 16° elevation the recoil length was reduced to 1,000 millimetres (39 in). The 152mm guns barrels were designed to be detached from the carriage for transport and guide plates were added to muzzle to help with removal/installation of the barrel. The barrel transport cart and the gun carriage required teams of 10 horses to move them.


152 mm siege gun M1910, Description
Later in the war the Russian army started using tractors, often imported American Allis-Chamers types, to move these guns as a train. It took a trained crew 20 – 30 minutes to ready the gun for firing from the transport configuration. The gun's wheels could be fitted with hinged flat plates, similar to the French "ceinture de roues", to permit towing on soft ground. The Russian projectiles were a little lighter than the French equivalent weighing 38.6 kg for the shrapnel projectile and 41 kg for the high explosive projectile.


152 mm siege gun M1910, Service
The 152 mm M10 gun was employed as a heavy field gun by the Russian Army rather than its intended use as a component of a slow-moving heavy artillery siege train. The use of heavy field guns for counter-battery fire and interdiction of enemy supplies in World War 1, rather than the reduction of static fortifications, required a more flexible command structure than that offered by classical siege artillery. The first 8 guns were sent to the front in the spring of 1915 and were returned to the Putilov factory in October for repairs.


152 mm siege gun M1910, Service
The first guns from Putilov had weak carriages which deformed and cracked around the barrel support areas. In part, this may have been due to poor quality Russian steel since the equivalent Schneider guns did not suffer from this problem. The carriages had to beredesigned and the early production guns remade to remedy this problem. It was also found that the barrels would wear very rapidly when fired continuously at high charges.


152 mm siege gun M1910, Service
An operational solution to this problem was to fire one in three projectiles with reduced charge to limit the muzzle velocity to 349 metres per second (1,150 ft/s)-469 metres per second (1,540 ft/s) with corresponding maximum range reduced to 7,680 metres (8,400 yd)-9,850 metres (10,770 yd) compared to the 14,870 metres (16,260 yd) at 650 metres per second (2,100 ft/s) at full charge. The 152mm M10 suffered high attrition rates during World War 1 and the Russian Civil War with only 26 152mm guns remaining at the end of Civil War, 17 with army units and 9 damaged guns in storage.


152 mm siege gun M1910, Conversion
The remaining usable 152 mm M10 guns were converted to the modernised 152 mm gun M1910/30 gun in the early 1930s.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20)
The 152 mm gun-howitzer M1955, also known as the D-20, (Russian: 152-мм пушка-гаубица Д-20 обр. 1955 г.) is a manually loaded, towed 152 mm artillery piece, manufactured in the Soviet Union during the 1950s. It was first observed by the west in 1955, at which time it was designated the M1955. Its GRAU index is 52-P-546.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), History
152 mm has been a Russian calibre since World War I, when Britain supplied 6 inch Howitzers and Russia purchased 152 mm guns from Schneider (probably derived from the 155  mm Gun Mle 1877/16) for the Imperial Army. The new gun-howitzer, was a replacement of the pre-war ML-20 gun-howitzer (the 152 mm howitzer M1937) and various World War II era 152 mm field howitzers, Model 09/30, Model 1910/30, Model 1938 M10 and Model 1943 D-1. By Soviet definition, a 152 mm howitzer is 'medium'-calibre artillery. It was designated a 'gun-howitzer' because its muzzle velocity exceeded 600 m/s, and its barrel length exceeded 30 calibres. It equipped battalions in the motor rifle division artillery regiment and army level artillery brigades.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), History
The design, which was probably initiated in the late 1940s, was first seen in public in 1955. It was designed by the well established design bureau at Artillery Plant No 9 in Sverdlovsk (now Motovilikha Plants in Yekaterinburg) led by the eminent artillery designer Fëdor Fëdorovich Petrov (1902–1978), who was responsible for several World War II pieces. The gun's factory designation was "D-20".


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), History
The carriage is the same one used for the D-74 122 mm Field Gun. The barrel assembly was the basis for the D-22 (GRAU index: 2A33), which was used for the self-propelled 2S3 Akatsiya ("Acacia").


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
The D-20 has a 34 calibre (5.195 m) barrel, with a double baffle muzzle brake and a semi-automatic vertical sliding-block breech, with a tied jaw and the block moving down to open. The barrel is mounted in a long ring cradle with the trunnions just forward of the breech. The recoil system (buffer and recuperator) is mounted on the cradle above the barrel. Compression balancing gear is attached behind the saddle support, passing through the complex shaped saddle to connect to the cradle just forward of the trunnions. This can be manually re-pressured by a pump below the breech. The breech has a projectile retaining catch to prevent the shell sliding out at higher elevations before it is rammed with a manual rammer.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
Top traverse totals 58° and the vertical elevation range is −5° to 45°.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
Box girder section split trail legs are hinged to the cradle support, with bolts to lock them into either the open or closed position. The cradle support also has a bolt for locking the barrel in the centre for traverse before towing the gun. Large spades are permanently fixed close to the end of each trail; these are hinged and it appears that the gun can be fired with them up or down depending on the terrain, but they are always up when the gun is towed.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
To assist with all-round carriage traverse, there is a pivot jack mounted at the front of the cradle support. The pivot jack is not a sole plate and the gun fires with its foam filled rubber tyred wheels supporting the gun on the ground. When the gun is brought into action, the pivot jack is folded down and adjusted to be on the ground.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
If a large traverse is required, small jacks on each trail leg are rotated downwards, and the trails jacked up until the main wheels are lifted clear of the ground and the bogey wheels mounted on each trail leg swung downwards and the trail jacks raised, the carriage is then traversed, and the trail jacks re-used to lift the bogey wheels and then place the piece back on its main wheels.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
The pivot jack is also used to secure the barrel against vertical movement when the gun is being towed. The barrel is locked in the centre for traverse with a bolt on the cradle support. The jack is folded upwards, lugs on the ring cradle engage the jack base and two tensioners fixed to the saddle support are hooked to the cradle, these are tightened to lock the cradle onto the jack base.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
As was normal for the period, the gun has a shield, including a folding piece below the cradle support. The centre section of the upper shield slides both up and down and folds to accommodate the barrel at higher elevation angles of fire. The shield may offer some protection against muzzle blast to the sights and layer, although it is usually shown being fired with a long lanyard, but is probably mostly for defence against machine gun fire.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
The non-reciprocating sights are standard Soviet pattern, designed for one-man laying. Included are a direct fire anti-tank telescope (OP4M), a panoramic periscopic indirect-fire sight, a dial sight, (PG1M) in a mounting, an angle of sight scale, and a range drum for each charge engraved with the range (distance) scale, coupled to an elevation leveling bubble mounted on dial sight mount. The range drum enables the standard Soviet technique of semi-direct fire when the piece is laid visually on the target and the range set on the range drum.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
Like most Soviet artillery, the gun fires separate ammunition using metal cartridge cases that also provide obturation. The ammunition is interchangeable with that used with other 152 mm guns, although the more modern ones also have a third, much larger cartridge. The D-20 uses two types of cartridge; one has a base charge and up to five increments, the other is a single 'super' charge cartridge. The standard shell weight is 44 kg with a muzzle velocity of 655 m/s, but some projectiles are more or less than this.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
The basic shell is HE-Fragmentation, other projectiles include smoke, illuminating, chemical and probably incendiary. Later projectiles include bomblet, anti-personnel mine, flechette, Krasnopol precision munition, communications jammer, and extended range HE using rocket assistance (RAP). The normally maximum range is 17.4 km, RAP being greater. Two direct-fire anti-tank projectiles have been used, HEAT and APHE, the latter being 5.2 kg heavier and with a lower muzzle velocity.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
The maximum rate of fire is usually stated as five rounds/minute, and 65 rounds/hour sustained. In Soviet service, the unit of fire was 60 rounds.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Description
The detachment was either 8 or 10 men, probably differing between armies and the time period. In Soviet service, the 5,700 kg gun was usually towed by a URAL-375 6×6 truck or, in some regions, an AT-S or AT-L medium tractor.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Variants, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
The US Defense Intelligence Agency has reported the existence of a number of self-propelled artillery systems, mating existing cannon systems with a locally designed chassis. The SPH 152mm M1974 appears to be the D-20 or Type 66 mounted on a tracked chassis “Tokchon”.


152 mm towed gun-howitzer M1955 (D-20), Gallery
Serbian Army M-84 Nora-A 152 mm howitzer at military parade in Niš.


152 mm/53 Italian naval gun Models 1926 and 1929
The 152 mm /53 Model 1926–1929 were built for the Italian Navy in the years before World War II. These guns were used on all Condottieri-class light cruisers except the Duca degli Abruzzi-class.


152 mm/53 Italian naval gun Models 1926 and 1929, Construction
The Model 1926 was designed and manufactured by Ansaldo, while the Model 1929 was manufactured by OTO Melara. Although both models of gun were similar in construction, components from each manufacturer were not fully interchangeable.


152 mm/53 Italian naval gun Models 1926 and 1929, Construction
The gun mounts had electrically powered training, elevation, hoists, rammers and the guns shared a common cradle. Improvements in ammunition handling meant that the rate of fire for the Model 1929 was nearly twice as fast as the Model 1926. Loading was at +20° for the Model 1926, while the model 1929 could be loaded at any angle up to 45°. These guns suffered from dispersion problems so the original muzzle velocity of 1,000 metres per second (3,300 ft/s) was reduced to 850 metres per second (2,800 ft/s) with AP shells.


152 mm/53 Italian naval gun Models 1926 and 1929, Construction
Shell weight was also reduced from 50 kilograms (110 lb) to 47.5 kilograms (105 lb) in an attempt to resolve these problems, but were only partially successful. The main reason for the dispersion problem was because the guns were mounted too close together on a common cradle, which also complicated loading of the guns.


152 mm/53 Italian naval gun Models 1926 and 1929, Naval Service
The majority of the Condottieri-classes had two superfiring twin-mount turrets forward and aft, except for the Duca degli Abruzzi-class which had different model guns and had two twin-turrets replaced with two triple-turrets. The Giussano-class carried Model 1926 guns, while the Cadorna-class, Montecuccoli-class and Duca d'Aosta-class carried Model 1929 guns. The mountings for the Giussano-class and Cadorna-class were found to be too lightly built for the recoil forces created by these guns.


152 mm/53 Italian naval gun Models 1926 and 1929, Ammunition
Ammunition was of quick fire separate loading type. The AP projectile was 63 centimetres (2.07 ft) long with a cartridge case and a bagged charge which weighed 21.43 kilograms (47.2 lb).


152 mm/53 Italian naval gun Models 1926 and 1929, Photo gallery
Surviving examples of Model 1929 guns salvaged from the Cruiser Raimondo Montecuccoli are located at the Città della Domenica theme and amusement park near Perugia, in Italy.


152 mm/55 Italian naval gun Models 1934 and 1936
The 152 mm /55 Model 1934–1936 were built for the Italian Navy in the years before World War II. These guns were used on the Duca degli Abruzzi-class Light cruisers, which were the final series of the Condottieri-class cruisers as their primary armament and as secondary armament on the Littorio-class battleships.


152 mm/55 Italian naval gun Models 1934 and 1936, Construction
The Model 1934 was designed and manufactured by Ansaldo, while the Model 1936 was manufactured by OTO Melara. The Model 1934's made by Ansaldo were of monobloc construction with a horizontal sliding breech block, while the Model 1936's made by OTO Melara were constructed of two tubes, a loose liner and a horizontal sliding breech block. Both models fired the same quick firing separate loading ammunition. The gun mounts had electrically powered training, elevation and hoists. There were telescopic pneumatic rammers and each gun had a separate cradle.


152 mm/55 Italian naval gun Models 1934 and 1936, Construction
Loading was at any angle up to +20° for both the twin and triple mounts. These guns were considered a significant improvement over the earlier 152 mm /53 Models 1926 and 1929 guns in that they had a lower muzzle velocity, were more widely spaced in the turrets and had separate gun cradles.


152 mm/55 Italian naval gun Models 1934 and 1936, Construction
This gun proved to be much more accurate than its predecessors, with tight dispersion patterns at distance using APC shells; substantially larger patterns when using HE shells were not attributed to the gun but to the shell shape, and work was underway in 1941 on a new design to correct this issue.


152 mm/55 Italian naval gun Models 1934 and 1936, Naval Service
Ansaldo Model 1934 guns were mounted triple wing turrets on the Littorio, and in triple and twin superfiring turrets forward and aft on the Duca degli Abruzzi-class. OTO Melara Model 1936 guns were mounted in triple wing turrets in the Vittorio Veneto and Roma.


152 mm/55 Italian naval gun Models 1934 and 1936, Ammunition
Ammunition was of quick fire separate loading type. The AP projectile was 63 centimetres (2.07 ft) long with a cartridge case and a bagged charge which weighed 16.35 kilograms (36.0 lb).


1520
Year 1520 (MDXX) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1520 AM
The following radio stations broadcast on AM frequency 1520 kHz: 1520 AM is a United States clear-channel frequency. WWKB in Buffalo, New York, and KOKC in Oklahoma City share Class A status on 1520 AM.


1520 Imatra
1520 Imatra, provisional designation 1938 UY, is a carbonaceous Ursula asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 54 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 22 October 1938, by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland, who named after the Finnish town of Imatra.


1520 Imatra, Orbit
Imatra is a member of the Ursula family (631), a large family of C- and X-type asteroids, named after its parent body, 375 Ursula. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.8–3.4 AU once every 5 years and 6 months (2,005 days; semi-major axis of 3.11 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.10 and an inclination of 15° with respect to the ecliptic. No precoveries and no prior identifications were made. Imatra's observation arc begins at Turku, 3 weeks after its official discovery observation.


1520 Imatra, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In July 2008, American astronomer Brian Warner obtained a rotational lightcurve of Imatra at his Palmer Divide Observatory in Colorado. It gave a rotation period of 18.635 hours with a brightness variation of 0.28 magnitude (U=3-), superseding a period of 5.23 hours from observations at Italian and French observatories in the 1990s (U=2). In September 2014, photometric observations by French amateur astronomers Laurent Bernasconi, Romain Montaigut and Arnaud Leroy gave a period of 18.609 hours with an amplitude of 0.27 magnitude (U=2+).


1520 Imatra, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Imatra measures between 53.42 and 58.63 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.039 and 0.062. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.0428 and a diameter of 53.41 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 10.4.


1520 Imatra, Naming
This minor planet is named for the south-eastern Finnish town Imatra, located in South Karelia near the Russian border, about half way in between St Petersburg and Finland's capital Helsinki. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3929).


1520 New Hampshire Avenue
1520 New Hampshire Avenue, NW is located in the Dupont Circle neighbourhood of Washington, D.C.. It has had a number of notable owners, and is currently home to the Embassy of Jamaica to the United States of America.


1520 New Hampshire Avenue, Architecture
The building, an example of Beaux-Arts architecture, is a contributing property to the Dupont Circle Historic District and valued at $4,422,000. Beaux-Arts is a neoclassical architectural style that was taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris.


1520 New Hampshire Avenue, Ownership
Notable owners of the property have included Beekman Winthrop, George P. McLean, author Thomas Bell Sweeney, the Institute for Policy Studies, and the Children's Defense Fund.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue
1520 Sedgwick Avenue is a 102-unit apartment building in the Morris Heights neighborhood in the Bronx, New York City. Recognized as a long-time "haven for working class families," it has been historically accepted as the birthplace of hip hop.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue
The first mortgages for units at 1520 Sedgwick were made in 1967. After a long period of neglect and shady dealings in the 1990s and 2000s the building has been "highlighted by elected officials and tenant advocates as an emblem of New York’s affordable housing crisis." Senator Chuck Schumer called the building "the birthplace of predatory equity", and Representative José E. Serrano, called it "such a visible building."


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History
The creation of the Cross Bronx Expressway uprooted thousands in the Bronx during the early 1970s, displacing communities, and fostering white flight. 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, which received its first mortgage in 1967, is located on the Expressway.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History, Hip hop birthplace
1520 Sedgwick Avenue has been called "the birthplace of Hip Hop." As Hip Hop grew throughout the Bronx, 1520 was a starting point where Clive Campbell, later known as DJ Kool Herc, presided over parties in the community room at a pivotal point in the genre's history.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History, Hip hop birthplace
DJ Kool Herc is credited with helping to start Hip Hop and rap music at a house concert at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue on August 11, 1973. At the concert he was a DJ and MC in the recreation room of 1520 Sedgwick Avenue. Sources have noted that while 1520 Sedgwick Avenue was not the actual birthplace of Hip Hop – the genre developed slowly in several places in the 1970s – it was verified to be the place where one of the pivotal and formative events occurred that spurred Hip Hop culture forward. During a rally to save the building, DJ Kool Herc said, "1520 Sedgwick is the Bethlehem of Hip-Hop culture."


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History, Hip hop birthplace
On August 11, 1973, Clive Campbell aka DJ Kool Herc spun the turntables at a back-to-school birthday party for his sister Cindy Campbell held in the recreation center at 1520 Sedgwick. He was assisted by Theodore Puccio who has been credited as the first MC but many insiders attribute that honor to Coke La Rock. After spending months perfecting a new technique involving "playing the frantic grooves at the beginning or in the middle of the song" with two turntables, a mixer, and two copies of the same record, Campbell unveiled the technique at his sister's party.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History, Hip hop birthplace
After renting the recreation room for 25 dollars, Cindy charged 25 cents for females and 50 cents for males to attend. "I wrote out the invites on index cards, so all Herc had to do was show up. With the party set from 9 p.m. to 4 a.m., our mom served snacks and dad picked up the sodas and beer from a local beverage warehouse." With the exhibition of his new style, Campbell's friend Coke La Rock demonstrated another innovation called rapping. Attendees, or people who later falsely claimed to be there, include Grandmaster Caz, leader of The Cold Crush Brothers, Grandmaster Flash, Busy Bee, Afrika Bambaataa, Sheri Sher, Mean Gene, Kool DJ Red Alert, and KRS-One.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History, Ownership and maintenance
Starting in the early 2000s, building owners threatened to turn 1520 into high rent units. Senator Schumer led a rally in 2007 focused on maintaining the affordable costs of the housing in order to maintain its working-class roots. The New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation recognized the building as the "birthplace of hip hop" on July 5, 2007.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History, Ownership and maintenance
Starting in 2007 the building's owners sought to repeal the status afforded to the building by the Mitchell-Lama Housing Program, which allowed it to maintain rent control for low-income and working class residents. Despite work by groups such as the Urban Homesteading Assistance Board and the Tenants and Neighbors Association to preserve the building's Mitchell-Lama status, the courts allowed the building's status to be repealed. In 2008 the building was sold to a real estate group that included Mark Karasick, a prominent real estate investor, which intended to turn the building into market-rate housing.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History, Ownership and maintenance
However, after the United States housing bubble burst,  a period of neglect and threats of forced evictions daunted residents, and despite promises to the opposite, the building fell into decline. In 2010 the city's Housing Development Corporation provided a $5.6 million loan to allow Winn Development and a new group called Workforce Housing Advisors to buy the building's mortgage from Sovereign Bank for $6.2 million. Rafael E. Cestero, the commissioner of the New York City Department of Housing Preservation and Development, said they supported the sale in order to help provide sustainable housing for working-class families.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History, Ownership and maintenance
On November 7, 2011, following a foreclosure auction with no active bidders, Workforce Housing Advisors were able to take title of 1520 Sedgwick Avenue. Several residents, who were present at the auction along with tenant advocacy group Urban Homesteading Assistance Board, wept with joy when the auctioneer announced no bids had been registered. John Crotty of Workforce Housing Advisors told the New York Times that his group intends to renovate the distressed building and work with tenants to recognize its importance. The group's investors are more interested in steady, secure returns than in making money quickly.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History, Ownership and maintenance
Some money for renovations will be provided by New York City's department of Housing Preservation and Development, and the Housing Development Corporation. The new owner intends to pursue a listing for on the National Register of Historic Places, for which the building was deemed eligible in 2007 but Karasick declined to accept.


1520 Sedgwick Avenue, History, Ownership and maintenance
The new ownership of 1520 Sedgwick is seen by public officials and housing advocates as a huge victory in the struggle to preserve affordable housing in New York City. It is a big step forward in the fight to rescue low income housing from the disastrous impact overleveraging has had on this vulnerable resource. The rescue of 1520 Sedgwick was largely made possible through a sustained organizing campaign within the tenant body. Residents of this iconic building fought for over 5 years to maintain the affordability of their home and rescue it from speculative landlords.


1520 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1520.


1520 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1520 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1520 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1520 in science
The year 1520 in science and technology included many events, some of which are listed here.


1520s
The 1520s decade ran from January 1, 1520, to December 31, 1529.


1520s, Deaths
Hans Maler zu Schwaz, Portrait of a beardless man with the inscription:„ALS MAN. 1521. ZALT. WAS. ICH. 33. IAR ALT“(mutatis mutandis to English: „as we had in 1521, I was 33 years old)


1520s BC
The 1520s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1529 BC to December 31, 1520 BC.


1520s BC, Significant people
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1520s in music
The decade of the 1520s in music (years 1520–1529) involved some significant events, compositions, publications, births, and deaths.


1521
1521 (MDXXI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, the 1521st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 521st year of the 2nd millennium, the 21st year of the 16th century, and the 2nd year of the 1520s decade.


1521, Deaths
Hans Maler zu Schwaz, Portrait of a beardless man with the inscription:„ALS MAN. 1521. ZALT. WAS. ICH. 33. IAR ALT“(mutatis mutandis to English: „as we had in 1521, I was 33 years old)


1521 Santo Domingo Slave Revolt
The 1521 Santo Domingo Slave Revolt in the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola took place around the time of christmas festivities of 1521. It is the earliest recorded slave rebellion in the Americas. Just days after the rebellion, the colonial authorites introduced a set of laws to prevent another uprising, these are thought to be the earliest surviving laws created to control enslaved Africans in the New World.


1521 Santo Domingo Slave Revolt
There is some disagreement by historians on the precise date of the rebellion. Some historical sources state the rebellion took place on the first or second day of Christmas. Contemporary historians generally mark the anniversary of the rebellion as December 25th or 26th, other sources mistakenly call it the "1522 slave rebellion".


1521 Santo Domingo Slave Revolt
The rebellion started on the Nueva Isabela sugar plantation (located today in the northwestern outskirts of Santo Domingo city) owned by the colony's governor Diego Colón, a descendant of Chistopher Columbus. The text of 1522 slave laws describe that a “certain number” of slaves “agreed to rebel and rebelled with intention and purpose to kill all the Christians they could and to free themselves and take over the land.”  The historical documents present the uprising as well-planned and coordinated action. Local oral tradition says that the rebellion was led by Maria Olofa (Wolofa) and Gonzalo Mandinga, a romantic couple, both Muslims from the Wolof nation.


1521 Santo Domingo Slave Revolt
On January 6 of 1522 (Day of the Three Kings also known as Ephiphany), just days after the uprising, the governor of Santo Domingo, introduced strict laws designed to prevent the "Black and slaves" from uprising again. These are thought to be some of the earliest laws created to control enslaved Africans in the New World. The 1522 laws restricted the physical movements of the enslaved, prohibited the enslaved from bearing arms and accessing weapons, required enslavers to keep strict slave registers, and introduced harsh punishment in the form of physical torture and execution.


1521 Seinäjoki
1521 Seinäjoki, provisional designation 1938 UB1, is a Brasilia asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 14 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 22 October 1938, by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at the southwestern Turku Observatory, Finland. The asteroid was later named after the Finnish city of Seinäjoki.


1521 Seinäjoki, Orbit and classification
Seinäjoki is a member of the Brasilia family, a smaller asteroid family of X-type asteroids in the outer main-belt. Since the family's namesake, 293 Brasilia, is a suspected interloper in its own family, it has also been named Seinäjoki family after Seinäjoki.


1521 Seinäjoki, Orbit and classification
It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.5–3.2 AU once every 4 years and 10 months (1,760 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 15° with respect to the ecliptic. In 1933, Seinäjoki was first identified as 1933 UR1 at Simeiz Observatory. The body's observation arc, however, begins with its official discovery observation at Turku.


1521 Seinäjoki, Physical characteristics, Rotation and pole
In October 2010, a rotational lightcurve of Seinäjoki was obtained by Russell Durkee at the U.S. Shed of Science Observatory (H39) in Minneapolis. It gave it a well-defined rotation period of 4.32 hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 magnitude (U=3). A modeled lightcurve form Lowell photometric database gave a concurring period of 4.328 hours and a spin axis of (-18.0°, 230.0°) in ecliptic coordinates.


1521 Seinäjoki, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Seinäjoki measures between 13.66 and 14.81 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.205 and 0.22 (more recent results only).


1521 Seinäjoki, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous C-type asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a much larger diameter of 24.30 kilometers as a body's and diameter and reflectivity (albeo) correlate indirectly. However, based on the much higher albedo given by WISE/NEOWISE, the body is rather of a stony composition, which is untypical for asteroids in the outer main-belt.


1521 Seinäjoki, Naming
This minor planet was named for the city of Seinäjoki, located in Southern Ostrobothnia, western Finland. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3929).


1521 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1521.


1521 in poetry
-- Lines 12-21, "The Tunnyng of Elynour Rummyng" by John Skelton. The poem is thought to have been first published this year.


1521 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1521 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1521 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1521 in science
The year 1521 in science and technology included many events, some of which are listed here.


1521 in the Philippines
1521 in the Philippines details events of note that happened in the Philippines in the year 1521.


152188 Morricone
152188 Morricone, provisional designation 2005 QP51, is a background asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 3 kilometers (2 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 27 August 2005, by astronomers Franco Mallia and Alain Maury at the Campo Catino Austral Observatory (CAO), San Pedro de Atacama, Chile, a robotic station of the Italian Campo Catino Astronomical Observatory. The asteroid was named for Italian composer Ennio Morricone.


152188 Morricone, Orbit and classification
When applying the hierarchical clustering method to the asteroid's proper orbital elements, Morricone is both a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population (according to Nesvorný), and a distant member of the Eunomia family (according to Milani and Knežević). It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 2.1–3.0 AU once every 4 years and 1 month (1,494 days; semi-major axis of 2.56 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 15° with respect to the ecliptic.


152188 Morricone, Orbit and classification
The body's observation arc begins with its observation by AMOS at Haleakala Observatory in August 2001, or four years prior to its official discovery observation by CAO at San Pedro de Atacama in Chile.


152188 Morricone, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
Morricone has not been observed by any of the space-based surveys such as the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite or the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion, the asteroid measures 2.3 and 4.2 kilometers in diameter based on an absolute magnitude of 15.6 and a geometric albedo of 0.06 and 0.20, which roughly correspond to a body of carbonaceous and stony composition, respectively (both types are common in the central asteroid belt).


152188 Morricone, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
As of 2018, no rotational lightcurve of Morricone has been obtained from photometric observations. The body's rotation period, shape and poles remain unknown.


152188 Morricone, Naming
This minor planet was named after Italian composer Ennio Morricone (1928–2020), who wrote over 500 scores for cinema and television, including several famous Spaghetti Westerns. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 June 2007 (M.P.C. 59925).


1521–1522 papal conclave
The 1521–1522 papal conclave elected Pope Adrian VI to succeed Pope Leo X. The conclave was marked by the early candidacies of cardinal-nephew Giulio de'Medici (future Pope Clement VII) and Alessandro Farnese (future Pope Paul III), although the Colonna and other cardinals blocked their election.


1521–1522 papal conclave
Adrian, the viceroy to Spain and a clear pro-Imperial candidate, was elected as a compromise candidate despite his absence from the conclave. The number of cardinal-electors (thirty-nine) and the length of the sede vacante increased the cost of the conclave even in excess of the funds distributed by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Francis I of France, and Henry VIII of England to promote their candidates.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Cardinal electors
There were thirty-nine cardinal electors, only three of whom were non-Italians (two Spaniards and one Swiss). Nine non-Italians did not attend (compared to only one Italian), despite the lengthy delay. The lengthy delay was due to the capture of one cardinal on his way to Rome, who was held for ransom. In the meantime, the agents of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Francis I of France, and Henry VIII of England began to distribute the large sums that the monarchs had sent to Rome for bribes.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Cardinal electors
The preferred choice of Henry VIII was Thomas Wolsey (for whom he was prepared to spend 100,000 ducats), although Giulio de'Medici (future Pope Clement VII) was also acceptable to him. Henry VIII asked Charles V (with whom he was allied) to support Wolsey and send his army to Rome. Even the large bribes of these monarchs were less than the cost of the conclave, and even the papal tiara was mortgaged to continue to fund it, and only a very few of the Italian cardinals would even consider a non-Italian.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Cardinal electors
Charles V eventually threw his support behind Medici rather than Wolsey, although he was opposed by many because he was the cousin of Leo X and the College feared a hereditary papacy.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Cardinal electors
Francis I supported the election of a French pope, backed by one million gold ecus, although whether he actually sent the funds to Rome is unclear; in fact, Francis I's agents focused their attention on the pro-French Italian candidates, mainly the three Venetians. Francis I claimed to control the votes of twelve cardinals.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Cardinal electors
Medici for his part entered the conclave with fifteen or sixteen supporters, but very little chance of securing additional votes.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Cardinal electors, The papabile
The bookmakers of Rome offered bets on the papabile, an early example of gambling on papal elections; Medici had the best odds at 25 to 100; Farnese's odds were 20 to 100.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Proceedings
The conclave began on December 28, twenty-seven days after the death of Leo X. The cardinals agreed to a conclave capitulation, but Baumgartner calls it "an exercise in futility as always". The balloting began on December 30.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Proceedings
Farnese, supported by Medici and his supporters, received twelve initial votes, all from creations of Leo X. If Farnese could have secured the votes of Leo X's other cardinals (twenty-eight of the thirty-nine electors), he could easily have been elected. The Roman mob looted him home (as was customary for newly elected popes) and his odds increased to 40 to 100, although his votes dropped to four on the second day. After the second ballot, one cardinal pleading ill health was released from the conclave by a two-thirds vote.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Proceedings
The conclave dragged well into 1522, taking only one vote per day; various Italian ambassadors remained well-informed of the progress throughout. Farnese remained the favorite into the eight scrutiny, with Medici asking for an accessus after Farnese received twelve votes. Farnese received eight or nine additional votes by accessus, and one cardinal even shouted out "Papam Habemus!". However, two of Farnese's strongest opponents demanded a formal counting of the votes, and it was revealed that Farnese was just short of the required supermajority, after which Farnese was discredited and lost support.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Proceedings
Medici attempted to promote the candidacy of others in his party, but none could gain wide support. Wolsey received eight votes, but his young age deterred other cardinals from supporting him (the English ambassador tried to convince the College he was over fifty). Medici addressed the conclave on January 9 and suggested they turn their attention to candidates not present in the conclave, expressing his willingness to elect Adrian of Utrecht. In the following scrutiny Adrian received fifteen votes, including all those controlled by Medici. Colonna, the main opponent of Medici and those in his party then declared his support for Adrian, netting him thirteen more votes by accessus, exactly two-thirds. As Adrian was not present, his candidacy did not require two-thirds plus one.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Proceedings
The crowd did not understand which cardinal had been elected immediately upon announcement, as Adrian was relatively obscure and currently in Spain as viceroy to Charles V. Three cardinals were dispatched to inform him of his election, with a private letter reaching him on January 24 (the cardinals would not arrive until March). In the meantime, rumors of Adrian VI's death spread in Rome and Francis I began to prepare for a new conclave.


1521–1522 papal conclave, Proceedings
The cardinals did not bring a fisherman's ring with them to Spain, to ensure that Adrian VI would be forced to travel to Rome, where he arrived on August 28. Adrian VI said mass every day for the year he was pope, in contrast to his two predecessors who may have never celebrated mass at all.


1522
Year 1522 (MDXXII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, the 1522nd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 522nd year of the 2nd millennium, the 22nd year of the 16th century, and the 3rd year of the 1520s decade.


1522 Almería earthquake
The 1522 Almería earthquake (Spanish: Terremoto de Almería de 1522) was a major 6.8 to 7.0 Mw earthquake that occurred on September 22 in the capital of Almeria and the Andarax Valley, near Alhama de Almería. It had a maximum felt intensity of X–XI (extreme), and killed about 2,500 people making it the most destructive earthquake in Spanish history. The city of Almería was totally destroyed, and there was serious destruction in 80 other towns, in Granada large cracks was observed in various walls and towers. Some damage also occurred at the Alhambra, more than 100 kilometers away from the epicenter.


1522 Kokkola
1522 Kokkola, provisional designation 1938 WO, is a stony Vestian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 9.5 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 18 November 1938, by pioneering Finnish astronomer Liisi Oterma at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland. It was later was named for the town of Kokkola.


1522 Kokkola, Classification and orbit
The S-type asteroid and member of the Vesta family is also classified as LS-type, an intermediate to the L-types. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2–2.5 AU once every 3 years and 8 months (1,331 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 5° with respect to the ecliptic. Due to a precovery taken at Turku, Kokkola's observation arc was extended by 3 weeks prior to its official discovery observation.


1522 Kokkola, Physical characteristics
In May 1984, American astronomer Richard Binzel obtained a rotational lightcurve of Kokkola from photometric observations. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 5.83 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.29 magnitude (U=3).


1522 Kokkola, Physical characteristics
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Kokkola measures 9.42 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.206 (revised albedo fits from 2014). The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.20 and derives a diameter of 9.57 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 12.46.


1522 Kokkola, Naming
This minor planet was named for Kokkola, a Finnish town and port on the Gulf of Bothnia. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3929).


1522 Vila Franca earthquake
The 1522 Vila Franca earthquake, also known as the 1522 Vila Franca landslide (Portuguese: Subversão de Vila Franca or Terramoto de Vila Franca) refers to the earthquake and landslides that occurred on October 21–22, 1522, in the municipality of Vila Franca do Campo. Vila Franco do Campo was then the provincial capital and is located on São Miguel Island in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores.


1522 Vila Franca earthquake
The epicenter of the earthquake was situated several kilometres north-northwest of Vila Franca. The shaking had a maximum intensity of X (i.e., "Very destructive") on the European macroseismic scale, triggering landslides and lahars that moved 6,750,000 cubic metres (238,000,000 cu ft) of material down the surrounding slopes, destroying buildings. The movement of debris into the settlement caused the deaths of 3,000 to 5,000 people. In addition to the destruction of Vila Franca, the earthquake affected the neighboring settlements of Ponta Garça, Maia and Porto Formoso where thousands died as well. A tsunami formed by the lahar destroyed several boats that were located near the islet of Vila Franca and the deaths of almost a hundred people. Gaspar Frutuoso, writing 70 years following the destruction, provided a complete record of these events, called "Romance de Vila Franca."


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, History
Between the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century, the settlement of Vila Franca do Campo was the provincial capital of the island of São Miguel. The town was granted the status of a municipality in 1472. The principal civil and religious institutions and the residence were located there, as well as the residence of the Donatary-Captain, whose family (the Gonçalves da Câmara clan) were the most powerful on the island. They would later receive the title of Counts of Vila Franca. The presence of the main customshouse and relative shelter of the villages' islet made Vila Franca the primary port of entry to the island.


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, History
Vila Franca do Campo had never suffered an attack or natural disaster. By 1522, it was a prosperous and developing center with over 5,000 inhabitants, making up approximately 25 percent of the island's population. Most of the population settled along the coast where the mouths of the ravines of Ribeira da Mãe de Água and Ribeira Seca provided drinkable water. The interior, which extended into the Água de Pau Massif), was less populated, especially near the Rabaçal and Louriçal hilltops that were separated by the Ribeira da Mãe de Água valley. About 600 metres (2,000 ft) from the village was the islet of Vila Franca, which was a navigating landmark and provided some shelter from southern squalls.


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, History
Due to the lack of contemporary building materials, most of the buildings in the village were constructed from loose masonry stone and filled with gravel or stone. Only the homes of the landed gentry and the principal facades of the better properties were plastered with clay. The low quality of the clay on the island meant that these too were weak and easily crumpled. The difficulty of producing tile locally meant the richer nobles and religious buildings were covered in tile, while poorer homes were framed in culm and covered with hay or straw. The elevated hardness of the basalt stone made working the material difficult, creating rounded surfaces that were fragile to masonry. These factors, combined with the elevated weight of the walls, resulted in constructions that were vulnerable to seismic activity.


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, History
According to the Romance de Vila Franca, on the night of 21 October 1522:


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, History
The calm did not last; around two in the morning, local time, as related in the Saudades da Terra (authored by Gaspar Frutuoso):


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, History
The epicenter of the earthquake is estimated to have been some kilometers north-northwest of the town, in the area of Monte Escuro. It culminated in a scale X event. Landslides followed throughout the island. It is likely that they were affected by the saturation of the sub-soil from by torrential rainfall several days earlier. The island's volcanic terrain, consisting of low-density pyroclastic materials (such as the pumice stones that comprised the flanks of the Água do Pau Massif), was susceptible to landslides, and eventually resulted in the creation of lahars. Similar conditions on the northeast coast of Faialense Caldera occurred during the July 1998 earthquake.


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, History
Gaspar Frutuoso continued, noting how the great landslides were terrifying:


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, History
Multiple landslides all over the island followed, especially in Maia, where a gigantic avalanche of mud descended along the flanks of Monte Rabaçal, followed the course of the Ribeira da Mãe de Água and later spread over the whole town. As Gaspar Frutuoso noted:


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, History
The mud arrived at the port and fell to the sea. Some people were swept along with it. It also caused a tsunami that destroyed ships that were anchored in the bay. As Gaspar Frutuoso indicated:


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, History
A study of the resulting deposits from the 1522 landslides permitted an analysis of the material that spread across Vila Franca from the headlands of the Ribeira da Mãe d’Água in the northwest and south of the Pico da Cruz, from Monte Rabaçal. Breaking from an area along the south-southeast flank, up to 6,750,000 cubic metres (238,000,000 cu ft) of debris ran down the ravine, at a speed that was estimated at between 1–3 metres per second (3.3–9.8 ft/s), reaching the centre of the village in a few minutes and covering it completely. The dense current of material razed the remaining buildings and carried many of the Vilafranquenses to the sea. Another torrent of less magnitude, generated in the headlands of the Ribeira Seca, followed the ravine and spread across the eastern coast, in the area of the parish of Ribeira Seca.


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, Aftermath
The consequences were tragic: between 3000 and 5000 people were killed in the village, many due to the landslides and lahars that followed the watercourses. Much of the central part of the town was covered in mud and landslide material, with the port disappearing under a layer of pumice. As Gaspar Frutuoso concluded:


1522 Vila Franca earthquake, Aftermath
The catastrophe became known as the subversion of Vila Franca or burial of Vila Franca, and marked a profound change in the development of the island of São Miguel. It resulted in the economic, social and political migration of settlers from the municipality of Vila Franca and the growth of the city of Ponta Delgada, then an economic rival in the region.


1522 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1522.


1522 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1522 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1522 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1522 in science
The year 1522 in science and technology included a number of events, some of which are listed here.


15224 Penttilä
15224 Penttilä, provisional designation 1985 JG, is a dark background asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 8 kilometers (5 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 15 May 1985, by American astronomer Edward Bowell at Lowell's Anderson Mesa Station in Arizona, United States. The likely elongated asteroid has a rotation period of 4.4 hours. It was named after planetary scientist Antti Penttilä at the University of Helsinki.


15224 Penttilä, Orbit and classification
Penttilä is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the inner asteroid belt at a distance of 1.8–3.0 AU once every 3 years and 9 months (1,372 days; semi-major axis of 2.42 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.24 and an inclination of 12° with respect to the ecliptic.


15224 Penttilä, Orbit and classification
The body's observation arc begins with its first observation, a precovery taken at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in April 1970, or 15 years prior to its official discovery observation at Anderson Mesa Station.


15224 Penttilä, Naming
This minor planet was named for Finnish postdoctoral researcher Antti Penttilä (born 1977) at the University of Helsinki, an expert on light reflection and absorption on the surface of small Solar System bodies such as asteroids and cometary nuclei, as well as of the cosmic dust released by cometary comae. The official naming citation was published on 12 July 2014 (M.P.C. 89081).


15224 Penttilä, Physical characteristics
The asteroid's spectral type has not been determined. Due to its low geometric albedo, it likely a carbonaceous C-type asteroid (see below).


15224 Penttilä, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In June 2015, a rotational lightcurve was obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations by astronomer Daniel Klinglesmith at Etscorn Campus Observatory (719), New Mexico. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 4.377±0.001 hours with a brightness variation of 0.55 in magnitude (U=3-), indicative of a non-spherical, elongated shape. Previously, in August 2012, a concurring period of 4.3771±0.0064 hours with an amplitude of 0.46 was determined from observations in the R-band by astronomers at the Palomar Transient Factory, California (U=2).


15224 Penttilä, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Penttilä measures between 7.9 and 9.6 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.04 and 0.085. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20, and hence calculates a smaller diameter of 4.9 kilometers.


1523
Year 1523 (MDXXIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1523 Pieksämäki
1523 Pieksämäki, provisional designation 1939 BC, is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 9 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 18 January 1939, by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at the Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland, and named for the town of Pieksämäki.


1523 Pieksämäki, Orbit and classification
This S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family, one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0–2.5 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,226 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 5° with respect to the ecliptic. In 1936, it was first identified as 1936 FO1 at Nice Observatory, extending Pieksämäki's observation arc by 3 years prior to its official discovery observation at Turku.


1523 Pieksämäki, Physical characteristics, Lightcurves
In December 2005, American amateur astronomer Donald P. Pray obtained a rotational lightcurve at Carbuncle Hill Observatory in collaboration with other astronomers. Light-curve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 5.3202 hours with a brightness variation of 0.47 magnitude (U=3).


1523 Pieksämäki, Physical characteristics, Lightcurves
Previous photometric observations were made by Kryszczyńska et al. in July 2004, that gave an identical period with an amplitude of 0.40 magnitude (U=2+), and by Claes-Ingvar Lagerkvist, who derived a period of 5.33 hours (Δ0.5 mag) already in the 1970s (U=2). In March 2013, another well-defined period of 5.3210 hours (Δ0.42 mag) was obtained by French amateur astronomer René Roy.


1523 Pieksämäki, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Pieksämäki measures 9.111 and 10.008 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.213 and 0.505. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from 8 Flora, the family's principal body and namesake – and calculates a diameter of 8.98 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.4.


1523 Pieksämäki, Naming
This minor planet was named for Pieksämäki, an eastern Finnish town in Southern Savonia. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3929).


1523 in Norway
This is a list of events that occurred in the year 1523 in Norway.


1523 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1523.


1523 in poetry
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1523 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1523 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1523 in science
The year 1523 in science and technology included many events, some of which are listed here.


1523 papal conclave
The 1523 papal conclave elected Giulio de' Medici as Pope Clement VII to succeed Pope Adrian VI. According to conclave historian Baumgartner, the conclave was the "last conclave of the Renaissance".


1523 papal conclave, Background
Adrian VI experienced ill health during the final months of his life, inspiring the cardinals to begin politicking. Francis I of France had just dispatched a large army into northern Italy in 1522, and expecting to leverage this force to effect the election of French cardinal Jean de Lorraine, or more likely a pro-French Italian cardinal such as Niccolò Fieschi. However, his army experienced a major defeat at the Battle of Bicocca prior to the conclave. In any case, the three French cardinals were ordered by Francis I to rush to Rome.


1523 papal conclave, Background
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, strengthened by the Battle of Bicocca, supported Giulio de' Medici, an advocate for imperial policy within the College. Henry VIII of England would have preferred the election of Thomas Wolsey, but was in no position to effect it; Henry VIII sent two letters—one supporting Medici, the other supporting Wolsey—which were to be distributed to the College in that order. The odds against the election finishing before October were given at 60 to 100. The odds were given as 80 to 100 against the conclave finishing in November, and those who took them lost heavily.


1523 papal conclave, Background, The papabile
Gambling on papal elections occurred, and the bookmakers favored Farnese, followed by Medici. Conclave secrecy was non-existent due to the ambassadors who "reported daily" on the balloting and living conditions. Similarly, the law of the conclave requiring the reduction of rations was not followed.


1523 papal conclave, Proceedings
The conclave opened on October 1, with thirty-two cardinals in attendance. Nine cardinals were absent. Baumgartner apparently believes that the only cardinal created by Adrian VI (a fellow Dutchman)  was absent, but all the conclave attendance lists show him as participating. Cardinal Giulio de' Medici had sixteen or seventeen supporters; Cardinal Pompeo Colonna had the second most. The "anti-Imperial/anti-Medici" cardinals successfully demanded that the first scrutiny be delayed until the French Cardinals, who were known to be on the way, arrived. On October 6, they appeared, raising the number of electors to thirty-five.


1523 papal conclave, Proceedings
Medici drew the lot to have his cell under Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter, a portrait seen as an omen of election as Julius II had been housed underneath it as well. The remark demonstrates incidentally that the voting was taking place in the Chapel of S. Nicolas and the sleeping quarters were in the Sistine Chapel.


1523 papal conclave, Proceedings
Fieschi was the candidate of the French and received eleven votes; Carvajal (the stalking horse of the Imperial party) received twelve. Both parties switched their support in the next scrutiny with Gianmaria del Monte coming within one vote of election following an accessus. Medici had previously agreed to support del Monte as the final vote, but broke his word and did not come forward.


1523 papal conclave, Proceedings
After the conclave reached its tenth day, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey allegedly received twenty-two votes, although he never received more —conclave mythology of the most unlikely sort. By October 13, the Imperial party started voting for Medici, with the French supporting Farnese. Medici's supporters remained disciplined into November, while the French faction began to crack. Colonna (who despised Medici despite his close ties to Charles V) held a block of four votes against Medici. However, on October 18, when the French faction proposed the candidacy of Orsini (the Colonna family and Orsini family being rivals), Colonna was impelled to throw his support to Medici, giving him twenty votes.


1523 papal conclave, Proceedings
On November 10, Cardinal Ivrea (Ferrero) finally entered the Conclave, having been released from captivity.


1523 papal conclave, Proceedings
Cardinal Giulio de' Medici easily reached the requisite twenty-seven by accessus and took the name Clement VII.


1524
Year 1524 (MDXXIV) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1524 Joensuu
1524 Joensuu, provisional designation 1939 SB, is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 42 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 18 September 1939, by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland, and named for the town of Joensuu.


1524 Joensuu, Classification and orbit
Joensuu is a dark C-type asteroid, that orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.7–3.5 AU once every 5 years and 6 months (2,002 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 13° with respect to the ecliptic. In 1931, Joensuu was first identified as 1931 EL at Heidelberg Observatory, extending the body's observation arc by 8 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1524 Joensuu, Physical characteristics
In October 2005, a rotational lightcurve of Joensuu was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer Laurent Bernasconi. It gave a well-defined rotation period of 9.276 hours with a change in brightness of 0.33 magnitude (U=3).


1524 Joensuu, Physical characteristics
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Joensuu measures between 39.37 and 49.39 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.034 and 0.07. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.0505 and a diameter of 42.83 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 10.7.


1524 Joensuu, Naming
This minor planet was named for the Finnish town Joensuu, where the discoverer received his early schooling. It is located in North Karelia, near the Russian border. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3929).


1524 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1524.


1524 in poetry
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1524 in poetry, Births
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1524 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1524 in science
The year 1524 in science and technology included a number of events, some of which are listed here.


1525
Year 1525 (MDXXV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1525 Savonlinna
1525 Savonlinna, provisional designation 1939 SC, is an asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 12 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 18 September 1939, by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at the Turku Observatory in southwestern Finland. It was later named after the eastern Finnish town Savonlinna.


1525 Savonlinna, Orbit and classification
Savonlinna orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.0–3.4 AU once every 4 years and 5 months (1,620 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.26 and an inclination of 6° with respect to the ecliptic. It was first identified as 1930 SE at Simeiz Observatory, extending the body's arc length by 9 years prior to its official discovery observation at Turku.


1525 Savonlinna, Physical characteristics, Rotational period
In October and December 2010, two rotational lightcurves of Savonlinna were obtained by Gordon Gartrelle at UND and the Palomar Transient Factory in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a divergent rotation period of 14.634 and 22.8406 hours with a brightness variation of 0.52 and 0.50 magnitude, respectively (U=2/2).


1525 Savonlinna, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Savonlinna measures between 11.73 and 12.23 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.045 and 0.130. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.084 and a diameter of 12.06 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.9. It also classifies the body as a S-type asteroid, despite its derived albedo.


1525 Savonlinna, Naming
This minor planet was named for the eastern Finnish town Savonlinna, located in the heart of the Saimaa lake region. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3929).


1525 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1525.


1525 in poetry
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1525 in poetry, Births
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1525 in poetry, Deaths
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1525 in science
The year 1525 in science and technology included many events, some of which are listed here.


15258 Alfilipenko
15258 Alfilipenko, provisional designation 1990 RN17, is a carbonaceous background asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 12 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 15 September 1990, by Russian–Ukraininan astronomer Lyudmila Zhuravleva at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, Nauchnyj, on the Crimean peninsula. The asteroid was named after Russian civil engineer Aleksandr Filipenko.


15258 Alfilipenko, Orbit and classification
Alfilipenko orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.7–3.8 AU once every 5 years and 10 months (2,132 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic. No precoveries were taken. The asteroid's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation.


15258 Alfilipenko, Physical characteristics, Lightcurves
A rotational lightcurve of Alfilipenko was obtained from photometric observations made at the U.S. Palomar Transient Factory in October 2013. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 4.3655 hours with a brightness variation of 0.11 magnitude (U=2).


15258 Alfilipenko, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Alfilipenko measures 12.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.084, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 11.3 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 13.46.


15258 Alfilipenko, Naming
This minor planet was named in honour of Russian civil engineer Aleksandr Vasil'evich Filipenko (born 1950) from Khanty-Mansiysk, Siberia. He is the chairman of a charitable foundation for the memory of Alexander Danilovich Menshikov (1673–1729), after whom the minor planet 3889 Menshikov is named. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 13 July 2004 (M.P.C. 52323).


1526
Year 1526 (MDXXVI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1526 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1526.


1526 in poetry
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1526 in poetry, Births
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1526 in poetry, Deaths
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1526 in science
The year 1526 in science and technology included many events, some of which are listed here.


15262 Abderhalden
15262 Abderhalden, provisional designation 1990 TG4, is a carbonaceous Themistian asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 12 kilometers in diameter.


15262 Abderhalden
It was discovered by German astronomers Freimut Börngen and Lutz Schmadel at the Karl Schwarzschild Observatory in Tautenburg, eastern Germany, on 12 October 1990. The asteroid was named after Swiss physiologist and biochemist Emil Abderhalden.


15262 Abderhalden, Orbit and classification
Abderhalden is a member of the Themis family, a dynamical family of outer-belt asteroids with nearly coplanar ecliptical orbits. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.8–3.7 AU once every 5 years and 9 months (2,102 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 1° with respect to the ecliptic. The first precovery was obtained at Crimea–Nauchnij in 1978, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 12 years prior to its discovery.


15262 Abderhalden, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In October 2013, a rotational lightcurve of Abderhalden was obtained from photometric observation taken by astronomers at the Palomar Transient Factory in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 3.5327 hours with a brightness variation of 0.21 magnitude (U=2).


15262 Abderhalden, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.08, a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of the Themis family, and calculates a diameter of 8.4 kilometers, while the NEOWISE mission of NASA's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer finds an albedo of 0.062 with a corresponding diameter of 12.2 kilometers and an absolute magnitude of 13.2.


15262 Abderhalden, Naming
This minor planet was named in memory of Swiss biochemist and physiologist Emil Abderhalden (1877–1950). He was a researcher in the field of physiological chemistry, founder of modern dietetics, and promoter of public welfare. Abderhalden taught physiology at the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg from 1911 until the end of World War II. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 13 October 2000 (M.P.C. 41387).


15268 Wendelinefroger
15268 Wendelinefroger, provisional designation 1990 WF3, is a stony, spheroidal, and binary Nysian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 3.4 kilometers in diameter.


15268 Wendelinefroger
It was discovered on 18 November 1990, by Belgian astronomer Eric Elst at ESO's La Silla Observatory in northern Chile, and named after Belgian singer Wendeline Froger.


15268 Wendelinefroger, Orbit
The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.8–2.9 AU once every 3 years and 8 months (1,329 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.23 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. It was first identified as 1979 WA7 at Crimea–Nauchnij in 1979, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 11 years prior to its discovery.


15268 Wendelinefroger, Physical characteristics, Primary
In October 2008, a rotational lightcurve was obtained from photometric observations at the Leura Observatory (E17), Australia. It gave a rotation period of 2.422 hours with a low brightness variation of 0.07 magnitude, which indicates that the asteroid is of nearly spheroidal shape (U=3). The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 3.4 kilometer with an absolute magnitude of 14.7.


15268 Wendelinefroger, Physical characteristics, Secondary
During the photometric observations in 2008, a minor-planet moon was also discovered, orbiting Wendelinefroger every 25.07±0.02 hours at a distance of 8.7 kilometers. Based on mutual occultations of Wendelinefroger and its moon, the diameter ratio for the two bodies is at least 0.24 (i.e. secondary-to-primary mean-diameter ratio), which translates into an estimated diameter of 0.8 kilometer or more for the asteroid's moon, using CALL's calculated diameter for the primary.


15268 Wendelinefroger, Naming
This minor planet is named in honour of Belgian female singer Wendeline Froger (b. 1948), who has a soprano voice and performs at church celebrations, weddings and for selected audiences at her residence. She has a preference to sing Lieder by Robert Schumann, after whom the minor planet 4003 Schumann is named. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 12 December 2008 (M.P.C. 64563).


1527
Year 1527 (MDXXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1527 Malmquista
1527 Malmquista, provisional designation 1939 UG, is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 10 kilometers in diameter.


1527 Malmquista
It was discovered on 18 October 1939, by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland. It was named for the Swedish astronomer Gunnar Malmquist.


1527 Malmquista, Orbit and classification
Malmquista is a member of the Flora family, one of the largest families of stony asteroids in the main belt. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.8–2.7 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,214 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 5° with respect to the ecliptic. In 1909, it was first observed at Heidelberg Observatory as A909 TC. The body's observation arc begins at Lowell Observatory in 1929, when it was identified as 1929 TG, 10 years prior to its official discovery observation at Turku.


1527 Malmquista, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In September 2002, a first rotational lightcurve of Malmquista was obtained from photometric observations by Stephen Brincat at Flarestar Observatory on the island of Malta. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 14.077 hours with a brightness variation of 0.60 magnitude (U=3). In September 2012, observations at the Palomar Transient Factory, California, gave a period of 14.044 hours and an amplitude of 0.42 magnitude (U=2).


1527 Malmquista, Physical characteristics, Spin axis
In 2013, an international study modeled a lightcurve with a period of 14.0591 hours and found a spin axis of (5.0°, 80.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β) (U=n.a. ).


1527 Malmquista, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Malmquista measures between 9.55 and 10.338 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.220 and 0.307. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from 8 Flora, a S-type asteroid and the family's largest member and namesake – and calculates a diameter of 10.80 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 12.0.


1527 Malmquista, Naming
This minor planet was named after Swedish astronomer Gunnar Malmquist (1893–1982), director of the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in Sweden. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center in January 1956 (M.P.C. 1350).


1527 election in Cetin
The 1527 election in Cetin (Croatian: Cetinski / Cetingradski sabor, meaning Parliament on Cetin(grad) or Parliament of Cetin(grad), or Cetinski / Cetingradski izbor) was an assembly of the Croatian Parliament in the Cetin Castle in 1527. It followed a succession crisis in the Kingdom of Hungary caused by the death of Louis II, and which resulted in the Kingdom of Croatia joining the Habsburg Monarchy. The charter electing the Habsburg Archduke of Austria Ferdinand I as King of Croatia was confirmed with the seals of six Croatian nobles.


1527 election in Cetin, Battle of Mohács and the succession crisis
Faced with the overwhelming force of the Ottoman Empire, the nobility of the Kingdom of Croatia was alarmed as the Siege of Belgrade of 1521 caused the Kingdom of Hungary to lose its last fortress on the Danube to Suleiman the Magnificent. King Louis II showed no interest in defense, and was in a dire financial situation at the time. The Croatians appealed to the Pope, Venice, Emperor Charles V and Archduke Ferdinand for help, but had little success.


1527 election in Cetin, Battle of Mohács and the succession crisis
The majority of Croatian magnates and members of lower nobility were keen to elect a new king. The gathering (sabor) was caused by a monarchical crisis after the death of king Louis II and a major defeat of the Kingdom of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács on 29 August 1526. The young king Louis II was "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" among his other titles, but left no legitimate heir.


1527 election in Cetin, Battle of Mohács and the succession crisis
At the session of Hungarian parliament in Székesfehérvár on 10 November 1526, the majority of the Hungarian untitled lesser nobility (the gentry) chose John Zápolya to be the king of Hungary, and he was duly crowned the next day under the name King John I of Hungary. However, Ferdinand of Habsburg was also elected King of Hungary by the Hungarian higher aristocracy (the magnates or barons) and the Hungarian Catholic clergy in a rump Diet in Pozsony on 17 December 1526. Accordingly, Ferdinand also was crowned as King of Hungary in the Székesfehérvár Basilica on 3 November, 1527.


1527 election in Cetin, Cetin
The Croatian nobles met at Cetin on December 31, 1526, to discuss their strategy and choose a new leader. The Austrian Archduke Ferdinand also sent his envoys to be present at the time of the Parliament session. The assembly occurred in the Franciscan monastery of St. Mary below the Cetin Castle in the settlement of Cetingrad. At that time, the owner of the castle and the surrounding estate, where the assembly was held, was the Croatian noble Juraj III Frankopan.


1527 election in Cetin, Cetin
Advocates of both options, after a long debate, finally agreed on Ferdinand on January 1, 1527. The election of Ferdinand was a natural one because he was not only the powerful Archduke of Austria, he also ruled the lands of Croatia's Slavic neighbours, the Slovenes, as both Duke of Carinthia and Carniola. Ferdinand I was elected the new king of Croatia, and the assembly "confirmed the succession to him and his heirs".


1527 election in Cetin, Cetin
In return for the throne Ferdinand promised to respect the historic rights, freedoms, laws, and customs the Croats had when united with the Hungarian kingdom, and to defend Croatia from Ottoman invasion and subjugation in all time with 1000 horsemens, 200 soldiers, and finance another 800 horsemens. He also had an obligation to inspect and supply the fortified cities.


1527 election in Cetin, Cetin, Charter
The charter signed by the Croatian nobles, which bears a fine example of the chequered seal of Croatia, is claimed as "among the most important documents of Croatian statehood", showing a special political status of Croatia at that time coming out of it. The charter confirmed at the same time the ancient rights of Croatian nobility to self-regulate the major issues - among which was the election of a king – freely and independently, regardless of opinion or decision of Hungarian Diet, since the two countries were in the personal union from 1102.


1527 election in Cetin, Cetin, Charter
The text of the Charter contains first the listing of names of the present Croatian high nobility members, church dignitaries and low nobility members, as well as names and titles of Ferdinand's plenipotentiaries, then the quotation of arguments for the legally valid election of a Habsburger to be the hereditary ruler of Croatia, further the declaratory statement of recognition and announcement of the Austrian archduke as king and his wife Anna (sister of Louis II) as queen, and finally "the swearing-in of loyalty, obedience and allegiance". Place and date of issue are specified at the end of the text as well.


1527 election in Cetin, Cetin, Charter
The mentioned Croatian nobles are Andrija the Bishop of Knin and Abbot of Topusko, Ivan Karlović of Krbava, Nikola III Zrinski, brothers Krsto II and Vuk I Frankopan of Tržac, Juraj III Frankopan of Slunj, Stjepan Blagajski, Krsto Peranski, Bernard Tumpić Zečevski (of Zečevo), Ivan Kobasić Brikovički (of Brekovica), Pavao Janković, Gašpar Križanić, Toma Čipčić, Mihajlo Skoblić, Nikola Babonožić, Grgur Otmić, noble judge of the Zagreb County, Antun Otmić, Ivan Novaković, Pavao Izačić, Gašpar Gusić, and Stjepan Zimić, while the Austrian plenipotentiaries present were Paul von Oberstein (Provost of Vienna and Ferdinand's Geheimrat), Nikola Jurišić and Ivan Katzianer (Ferdinand's chief military commanders), and Johann Püchler (Prefect of the town of Mehov).


1527 election in Cetin, Cetin, Seals
Beneath the text there are six seals of most notable Croatian magnates and dignitaries to verify the Charter, as well in the middle a seal of the Kingdom of Croatia, in the following sequence:


1527 election in Cetin, Aftermath
Ferdinand's plenipotentiaries took over the Charter from the Croats and took it with them on their way back to Vienna. In return, earlier that day, in a document called Coronation Oath, they confirmed the promises and assurances of Ferdinand (given before upon the previous demands of the Croats), and accepted all the related obligations and responsibilities of the new-elected king.


1527 election in Cetin, Aftermath
Before their return to Vienna, the plenipotentiaries wrote a letter to their principal on 3 January 1527 in which they informed him about the sequence of events during the Parliament session and explained their delay and longer stay in Croatia than expected before (among other things, some of Croatian magnates did not have their seals with them, but needed to go home and to verify the Charter afterwards).


1527 election in Cetin, Aftermath
On January 6, 1527, the Slavonian nobility distanced themselves from this election and nominated John Zápolya the rival claimant to the Hungarian throne instead. A civil war erupted, with Ferenc Batthyány leading the pro-Habsburg faction and Christoph Frankopan leading the pro-Zápolya faction. The Austrian option ultimately prevailed after Zápolya's death in 1540.


1527 election in Cetin, Legacy
The charter is preserved at the National Archives of Austria in Vienna.


1527 election in Cetin, Legacy
The Constitution of Croatia describes these events as one of the historical foundations of Croatian sovereignty, as an "independent and sovereign decision of the Croatian Parliament".


1527 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1527.


1527 in poetry
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1527 in poetry, Births
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1527 in poetry, Deaths
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1527 in science
The year 1527 in science and technology included a number of events, some of which are listed here.


1528
Year 1528 (MDXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1528 census of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The census of 1528 was the first census carried out in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was not a true census since it had limited scope: it only sought to count peasant households (Lithuanian: dūmas) for military purposes. The Grand Duchy used a conscript army where Lithuanian nobles were required to provide one soldier per each 16 or 20 households owned. Therefore, the state needed to count such households to know whether a noble fulfilled his military duty. The next census was conducted in 1565.


1528 census of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Background and results
The Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars brought first substantial territorial losses and caused a fundamental shift in the military. Instead of being a privilege that brought profit from war loot and career opportunities in newly acquired territories, military service became an expensive duty in defense of the motherland. Each soldier had to provide his own weapons, armor, horse, and food. The nobles made their living off agriculture and looked for ways to shirk their army responsibilities. The state needed ways to enforce the conscription and started keeping detailed lists and inventories of who reported for duty and who did not. These inventories were made at the time and location of army gathering. In 1528, scribes visited nobles and their properties to count and verify the number of peasant households. The First Statute of Lithuania codified the procedures of reporting for military duty.


1528 census of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Background and results
The census determined the maximum size of the army. Nobles could provide about 20,000 cavalrymen, magnates and city dwellers could provide additional 10,000. Because the census counted only households, it is difficult to extrapolate the number of residents. German Werner Conze estimated 1.3 million residents. Henryk Łowmiański and Jerzy Ochmański pointed out that Conze did not account for Grand Duke's and church lands that were not counted in the census and increased the estimate to more than 2 million residents.


1528 in art, Events
Plague ravishes Venice, Bergamo and other Italian cities. Several eminent artists die in the outbreak.


1528 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1528.


1528 in poetry
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1528 in poetry, Births
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1528 in poetry, Deaths
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1528 in science
The year 1528 in science and technology included a number of events, some of which are listed here.


1529
Year 1529 (MDXXIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1529 Oterma
1529 Oterma, provisional designation 1938 BC, is a reddish, rare-type Hildian asteroid from the outermost region of the asteroid belt, approximately 56 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 26 January 1938, by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland. It is named for Liisi Oterma.


1529 Oterma, Orbit and classification
Oterma is a member of the Hilda family, a large group of asteroids that orbit in resonance with the gas giant Jupiter. Hildian asteroids are thought to have originated from the Kuiper belt in the outer Solar System.


1529 Oterma, Orbit and classification
It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 3.2–4.8 AU once every 7 years and 12 months (2,914 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 9° with respect to the ecliptic.


1529 Oterma, Orbit and classification
It was first identified as A912 VO at Winchester Observatory in 1912 (799). The body's observation arc begins at Turku a few weeks after its official discovery observation.


1529 Oterma, Physical characteristics
Oterma belongs to an exclusive group of 33 known asteroids with a spectral P-type in the Tholen classification scheme.


1529 Oterma, Physical characteristics, Photometry
During a study of 47 Hilda asteroids in the 1990s, a rotational lightcurve of Oterma was obtained from photometric observations at the Swedish Uppsala Astronomical Observatory and other places. It gave a rotation period of 15.75 hours with a change in brightness of 0.18 magnitude (U=2).


1529 Oterma, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the space-based surveys carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission and by the Japanese Akari satellite, Oterma measures 56.33 and 60.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.054 and 0.047, respectively. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 54.40 kilometers, with an absolute magnitude of 10.05.


1529 Oterma, Naming
Oterma was named for Liisi Oterma (1915–2001), first Finnish female astronomer with a PhD and a discoverer of minor planets and comets at the Turku observatory between 1939 and 1953. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (M.P.C. 3929).


1529 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1529.


1529 in poetry
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