1754 Hōreki River incident, Background
The plain of Nobi had a number of big rivers with complicated geographical features, resulting in many floods. There was a strict rule that the levee or dike of the river should be lower than the levee of Owari Domain, which was held by one of the main cadet branches of the Tokugawa clan. The division of the rivers into three was originally planned by Izawa Sobei, the government head of Mino District in 1735, but his plan was not accepted. Instead, the  Shōgun Tokugawa Ieshige ordered a river engineering project to be conducted by distant Satsuma Domain, knowing that this would pose a significant financial burden on the domain.


1754 Hōreki River incident, Summary of the project
The formal order (Tetsudai Fushin), a special order from the shogunate such as building a castle and others, was issued to Satsuma daimyō Shimazu Shigetoshi. The  karō  of the domain, Hirata Yukie (1704–1755) was assigned to supervise the construction, and was assigned 947 people. It was clear from the start or the project that this order was manifestly a harassment of Satsuma by the shogunate and some Satsuma samurai were of the opinion that they should fight instead of complying, but they were overruled. The domain at that time already had debts exceeding 660,000 ryō in gold. Hirata Yukie sent a formal acceptance note on January 21, 1754 and borrowed 70,000 ryō from bankers in Osaka using sugar cane from Amami-Oshima as collateral, and reached Mino on February 9.


1754 Hōreki River incident, Summary of the project
A project headquarters was established in a location named Motogoya, with an area of 4900 tsubo (about 16,200 square meters), and branch stations were established in four locations. The number of workers would eventually peak at 947 men.


1754 Hōreki River incident, Summary of the project, Harassment
The river improvement works started on February 27. The enmity of the Tokugawa shogunate was obvious because they ordered the dike destroyed three times as it neared completion. Two of the leading samurai involved in the work, Nagayoshi Sobe and Otokawa Sadabuchi, committed seppuku in protest. Hirata deliberately concealed this protest from the shogunate, since it might seem to betray weakness and become an excuse for the attainder of the Shimazu clan. Funds ran out due to the unexpected additional expenses in reconstructing the dikes so many times. For lack of money, the food were restricted to one meal and one bowl of soup, regardless of working conditions. Neighboring peasants were forbidden to sell straw raincoats and straw sandals at a low cost, again attempting to maintain the illusion of a wealthy local economy.


1754 Hōreki River incident, Summary of the project, Harassment
The cost eventually rose to about 400,000 ryō, or more than 30 billion yen. An additional loan of 220,298 ryō was obtained by the domain from Osaka. In August 1754, 157 persons were infected with dysentery, of whom 33 died. The project was completed on May 22, 1755. Hirata committed seppuku the following morning for losses that the domain incurred..


1754 Hōreki River incident, Summary of the project, Completion of River Improvement in the Meiji era
Flooding worsened after the completion of the river improvement works. The project was re-engineered with modern technology in the Meiji period under the direction of Johannis de Rijke (1842–1913), a Dutch civil engineer and an advisor to Japanese government.


1754 Hōreki River incident, Aburajima Embankment National Historic Site
When the river was finally divided successfully in 1900, the Horeki Chisuishi (Horeki River Improvement Monument) was erected near the mouth of the rivers, and the Aburajima Embankment was planted with 1000 line trees from Kyushu. In 1938, a Shinto shrine, the Chisui Jinja, was also erected in this area to memorialize the 85 Satsuma samurai who died. The site was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1940.


1754 Hōreki River incident, Aburajima Embankment National Historic Site, Other memorials
In the city of Kaizu there is a Horeki Chisui Historic Spot Preservation Society  which has planted Kaikozu trees (Erythrina crista-galli), native to the Kagoshima Prefecture. These appear for 35 kilometres (22 mi) along the Nanno-Sekigarara Route. The route was renamed "Satsuma Kaikouzu Street".


1754 Hōreki River incident, Aburajima Embankment National Historic Site, Other memorials
In Kagoshima, there is also a monument to the victims and a statue to Hirata Yukie.


1754 Hōreki River incident, Aburajima Embankment National Historic Site, Other memorials
Satsuma Gishiden (1977–1982), a gekiga drawn and written by Hiroshi Hirata, is a collection of fictional anecdotes revolving around the incident. The main theme of Satsuma Gishiden is the desperation and stoicism of the Satsuma samurai in the face of their ordeal.


1754 Taunton by-election
The Taunton by-election of 1754 to the Parliament of Great Britain was held across thirteen days, from 10–24 December 1754 in Taunton, the county town of the southwestern English county of Somerset. It took place following the death of the incumbent Whig Member of Parliament, John Halliday. The by-election was contested by Robert Maxwell on behalf of the Whigs, and Sir John Pole, 5th Baronet for the Tories. Maxwell was elected with a majority of 56. The election had over 700 rejected votes, and the result caused rioting in Taunton, during which two people were killed.


1754 Taunton by-election
The election was fiercely contested, and both sides incurred great expenses during the campaign. There was not another contested election in Taunton for almost twenty years, and during that time the Taunton Market House Society was set up with the aim of preventing the bad blood of a contested election, and to spend money that would have otherwise been spent on campaigning on improving the town. Maxwell remained as one of Taunton's members of parliament until 1768.


1754 Taunton by-election, Background, Vacancy and nominations
In the mid-18th century, the parliamentary constituency of Taunton, which had an electorate of around 500, returned predominantly Whig members of parliament, partly due to an agreement between Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont and the local Dissenters; Lord Egremont, the chief landowner in the borough, would nominate a candidate for one of the two seats, while the Dissenters would name the second. Nationally, parliament had been controlled by the Whigs since 1715, in what was dubbed the "Whig Supremacy" by Basil Williams.


1754 Taunton by-election, Background, Vacancy and nominations
At the 1754 general election, Lord Egremont put forward his brother-in-law, George Carpenter, 3rd Baron Carpenter, while the Dissenters nominated one of their own, John Halliday. The pair were elected unopposed. Two months after the election, on 8 June 1754, Halliday died, resulting in a by-election being called to fill the vacant seat.


1754 Taunton by-election, Background, Vacancy and nominations
The Dissenters proposed Robert Webb, who had previously served as the member for Taunton from 1747 until the general election in 1754, to fill the vacancy. The recent history of the elections in Taunton suggested that no opposition would be offered: the last contested election had been in 1741. That however proved not to be the case, and a group of Tories put forward their own candidate, Sir John Pole, 5th Baronet of Shute in Devon. Webb did not want the expense of a contested election, and withdrew, leaving the Dissenters without a candidate.


1754 Taunton by-election, Background, Vacancy and nominations
Unable to find a suitable candidate, the Dissenters appealed to Lord Egremont to locate someone to stand for the Whiggish interest. The Mayor, Henry Manly, was sent to London to meet with the Whig Prime Minister, Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, to try and secure a candidate. Manly reported that the Duke of Newcastle did not want the seat to go to a Tory, and was willing to fund the election from the secret service account (more accurately the King's private money, a fund which was not accountable to Parliament). Eventually, through communication with both Lord Egremont and the Duke of Newcastle, Robert Maxwell came forward as the Whig candidate. Maxwell offered to spend up to £3,000 on the election, in addition to the money promised from the secret service fund.


1754 Taunton by-election, Background, Candidates
John Pole was the only son of Sir William Pole, 4th Baronet. The family owned the Shute House estate in east Devon, and had returned six generations of members of parliament, including John Pole's father. He had inherited the estate, and the baronetcy upon his father's death in 1741. Robert Maxwell was the oldest son of John Maxwell, 1st Baron Farnham, an Irish politician and peer. Robert had been a member of the Parliament of Ireland since 1743 for the constituency of Lisburn. He had not stood for the British parliament during the 1754 general election, though he was by that time almost certainly resident in England.


1754 Taunton by-election, Result
When Halliday died in June, parliament was in recess. As a result of this, a writ could not be issued until parliament reconvened in the winter. This extended the election campaign to run for six months, causing major disruption to the wool trade in the town. In his History of Taunton, Joshua Toulmin reported that the length of the campaigning allowed "the display of every manoeuvre, and the exertion of every power, by which the parties could counteract each other's views."


1754 Taunton by-election, Result
A lot of money was spent on both sides of the election; in addition to the £3,000 which Maxwell said he was willing to spend, the government put forward £3,675 of secret service money for his campaign. Both men had plates and mugs made which were given free to the voters, generally full of food and drink. A number of delft plates bearing the inscription "Sir John Pole for ever" still exist, and one such plate sold for over £2,000 in 2011. A drinking glass with a similar inscription is housed at the British Museum in London.


1754 Taunton by-election, Result
The public houses became aligned to one of the two candidates, and much of the campaign money was placed into these to gain their support. Toulmin lamented that "the houses of entertainment were kept open during all this time; [...] habits of idleness and licentiousness were formed." In a letter to Lord Sackville, Maxwell wrote that the election campaign involved "a great deal of smoking, some drinking, and kissing some hundreds of women."


1754 Taunton by-election, Result
Maxwell travelled down to Taunton in August to contest the seat, and the vacancy was nationally advertised in October. Despite this, the voting did not commence until 10 December 1754. The voting ran for thirteen days, and closed on 24 December; Maxwell received 198 votes to Pole's 142, giving Maxwell a majority of 56. During the course of the voting, over 700 votes were discounted, and it has been referred to as being "notoriously corrupt".


1754 Taunton by-election, Result
When the result was announced, the public showed "their displeasure by assaulting the friends of Mr Maxwell." Maxwell himself had to be escorted back to where he was staying, but during the rioting that ensued, the houses of those known to support Maxwell were attacked. The Derby Mercury reported that Robert Pearsall, a Dissenter minister who had been prominent in Maxwell's campaign, was threatened with having his house pulled down and being sacrificed.


1754 Taunton by-election, Result
Two people, a man and a woman, were killed during the rioting, which prompted two troops of dragoons to be sent to the town, placed at the command of the Mayor, in case of emergency. One of the murderers was caught and sent to the County Jail in Ilchester, but the other escaped.


1754 Taunton by-election, Aftermath
Maxwell, who became the 2nd Baron Farnham upon his father's death in 1759, and then Viscount Farnham in 1760, was returned unopposed at the 1761 general election. He pressed for a position in parliament, suggesting "being in the Admiralty or being paymaster of the pensions." However, this desire was only because he thought that such a position would provide a stepping stone to a higher peerage, and he was made the Earl of Farnham, in the Irish peerage in 1763. He initially stood at the general election in 1768, but withdrew from the election in the face of strong opposition.


1754 Taunton by-election, Aftermath
The Market House Society was formed in Taunton in 1763 by a group who wished to avoid a repeat of the expensive and violent election in 1754. They made it their aim to "prevent the evils and drunkenness of a contested election", and vowed to spend the money that would have otherwise been spent on campaigning on improving Taunton. They put forward two candidates in 1768, who after the withdrawal of Maxwell and another, were returned unopposed for Taunton.


1754 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1754.


1754 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1754 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1754 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1754 in science
The year 1754 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1755
1755 (MDCCLV) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1755th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 755th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 55th  year of the 18th century, and the  6th   year of the 1750s decade. As of the start of 1755, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1755 (album)
1755 is the eleventh full-length album by Portuguese gothic metal band Moonspell, released on 3 November 2017. Unlike previous albums, it is entirely sung in Portuguese. It is a concept album, detailing the story of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake.


1755 (album)
This album was recorded in Antfarm Studios and Poison Apple Studios, produced and mixed by Tue Madsen, noted for working with Meshuggah, The Haunted, Dark Tranquillity, Dir En Grey, and Die Apokalyptischen Reiter. Cover artwork was designed by João Diogo. It includes guest performances in some songs, including vocals by Paulo Bragança on the track 'In Tremor Dei'.


1755 (album), Track listing
All songs written by Moonspell, all lyrics by Fernando Ribeiro (except "Lanterna dos Afogados").


1755 (band)
1755 (pronounced seventeen fifty-five) is an Acadian band formed by Kenneth Saulnier, Pierre Robichaud, Roland Gauvin, Donald Boudreau and Ronald Dupuis. The band was named after the Great Deportation of 1755, during which Acadians were deported from Acadia (present day Maritimes), and was active from 1975 to 1984. After they broke up, every member of the band went on to work on solo albums, or joined new bands such as Les Méchants Maquereaux.


1755 (band)
1755 combined folk, country and rock, with traditional folk song lyrics, or original compositions from the band members or from Acadian poet Gérald Leblanc. The most of the songs are performed in the French dialect of south eastern New-Brunswick, known as "chiac", but some compositions are in English as well. The group is considered an icon of modern Acadian culture, and is credited for launching the modern Acadian musical scene at the international level and for influencing several Acadian artists and bands that came after them, such as Fayo or Dominique Dupuis.


1755 (band)
Although officially broken up since 1984, 1755 often reunites to perform shows and summer tours, especially during Acadian-related festivities such as National Acadian Day. A particularly notable show was at the Moncton Coliseum, during the first Acadian World Congress in 1994, which was filmed and turned into a live album Les retrouvailles de la famille and a video release on VHS and DVD. The band last toured through New Brunswick in 2009.


1755 (band)
Herménégilde Chiasson wrote that 1755 was "much more than a band" but rather "the chant of a generation" and that their songs and lyrics remain the "testimony of a period of tension and affirmation".


1755 Cape Ann earthquake
The 1755 Cape Ann earthquake took place off the coast of the British Province of Massachusetts Bay (present-day Massachusetts) on November 18. At between 6.0 and 6.3 on the Richter scale, it remains the largest earthquake in the history of Massachusetts. No one was killed, but it damaged hundreds of buildings in Boston and was felt as far north as Nova Scotia and as far south as South Carolina. Sailors on a ship more than 200 miles (320 km) offshore felt the quake, and mistook it at first for their ship running aground.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake
Many residents of Boston and the surrounding areas attributed the quake to God, and it occasioned a brief increase in religious fervor in the city. Modern studies estimate that if a similar quake shook Boston today, it would result in as much as $5 billion in damage and hundreds of deaths. Some discussion has revolved around the idea that this may have been a remotely triggered event from the 1755 Lisbon earthquake or its aftershocks.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Epicenter
The earthquake took place on November 18, 1755, at approximately 4:30 AM local time. Future President of the United States John Adams, then staying at his father's house in Braintree, Massachusetts, was awakened by the quake, which impressed him so much that he began a diary that night. He wrote that the quake "continued near four minutes" and that "[t]he house seemed to rock and reel and crack as if it would fall in ruins about us." Its epicenter is believed to have been offshore, approximately 24 miles (39 km) east of Cape Ann.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Epicenter
The quake was felt as far north as Halifax, Nova Scotia, south to the Chesapeake Bay and South Carolina, and from Lake George and Lake Champlain in the northwest to a ship 200 miles (320 km) off the east coast. Sailors on the ship reported that the quake was so strong, they had feared that they had run aground. The region experienced several aftershocks, the first of which was a little more than an hour after the quake. Most of these aftershocks could not be felt in Boston, affecting only the northeastern coast of the colony.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Epicenter
Modern research has estimated that the quake was between 6.0 and 6.3 on the Richter scale, and the United States Geological Survey lists it as the largest earthquake in the history of Massachusetts. Scientists are unclear on the causes of this and other quakes in the northeastern United States. There are a number of old faults in the region, but none of them is known still to be active. It is possible that the Cape Ann earthquake may have been remotely triggered by a larger earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal, a few weeks prior, although there is not enough evidence to prove that they are linked.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Damage
Boston and Cape Ann were the most heavily damaged. In Boston, damage was concentrated in areas of infill near the harbor; infill is less sturdy in earthquakes than solid land. From 1,300 to 1,600 chimneys in the city were damaged in some way, the gable ends of some houses collapsed, and a number of roofs were damaged by falling chimneys. Stone chimneys and buildings were damaged in Falmouth (present-day Portland, Maine), Springfield, Massachusetts, and New Haven, Connecticut, as well. Some church steeples in Boston were damaged, ending up tilted from vertical. Stone fencing in rural areas was damaged.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Damage
Observers also reported that several springs dried up, new ones were created, and cracks appeared in the ground near Scituate, Lancaster, and Pembroke. In this last town, observers noted water and fine sand coming from the crack. Non -structural damage was minor; residents reported damage to china and glassware, and a distiller lost some of his product after a cistern was damaged. The Cape Ann earthquake may also have created the first recorded tsunami in U.S. history. Observers in the Leeward Islands nearly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) south of Cape Ann, reported a receding of water followed by a large wave that lifted several boats ashore and left fish floundering on the beach.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Legacy
Many Massachusetts residents of the time perceived the quake as punishment from God for immoral behavior. In the days after the earthquake, special prayer services were held and civic authorities declared fast days. A number of sermons and other writings were published as a consequence, including Jeremiah Newland's Verses Occasioned by the Earthquakes in the Month of November, 1755 and Thomas Prince's Earthquakes the Works of God and Tokens of his Just Displeasure.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Legacy
Well before 1755, the new rational materialist ideas promulgated by Enlightenment scientists had begun to heavily influence the better-educated citizens of colonial America; therefore not all explanations of the event were theological. John Winthrop, a Harvard professor, proposed an alternate explanation having to do with heat and chemical vapors inside the surface of the earth.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Legacy
John Adams, in comments in the margins of Winthrop’s Lecture on Earthquakes wrote: "I am not able to satisfy myself, whether the very general if not universal apprehension that Thunder, Earthquakes, Pestilence, Famine &c. are designed merely as Punishments of sins and Warnings to forsake, is natural to Mankind, or whether it was artfully propagated, or whether it was derived from Revelation.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Legacy
An Imagination that those Things are of no Use in Nature but to punish and alarm and arouse sinners, could not be derived from real Revelation, because it is far from being true, tho few Persons can be persuaded to think so." This kind of public debate between theologians and more scientifically-minded scholars and citizens would have been a very dangerous undertaking indeed for the rationalists in the Massachusetts of the late 17th century - just 65 years earlier.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Legacy
Since the 1755 earthquake, Boston and its surrounding towns have become a major metropolitan area. Much new construction has been built on infill, especially in the Back Bay area, which may be prone to greater shaking and to compaction of the sand and gravel used as fill. Many older buildings in the Boston area are built from stone and brick, and are likely to collapse completely during a major earthquake. Given this, modern observers have expressed concern about the effects of another quake in such a major city.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Legacy
A 1990 study by the Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency estimated potential financial losses at between $4 billion and $5 billion, and potential loss of life in the hundreds. As a consequence, the state has updated building codes and zoning laws to require that new construction and additions in vulnerable areas be built to resist earthquakes.


1755 Cape Ann earthquake, Legacy
Opposition to the Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant, about 15 miles (24 km) north of Cape Ann on the New Hampshire shoreline, highlighted the earthquake risk of the area. The plant was built regardless.


1755 Lisbon earthquake
The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, also known as the Great Lisbon earthquake, impacted Portugal, the Iberian Peninsula, and Northwest Africa on the morning of Saturday, 1 November, Feast of All Saints, at around 09:40 local time. In combination with subsequent fires and a tsunami, the earthquake almost totally destroyed Lisbon and adjoining areas. Seismologists today estimate the Lisbon earthquake had a magnitude of at least 8.4 on the moment magnitude scale, with its epicenter in the Atlantic Ocean about 200 km (120 mi) west-southwest of Cape St. Vincent and about 290 km (180 mi) southwest of Lisbon. Chronologically it was the third known large scale earthquake to hit the city (there had been one in 1321 and another in 1531). Estimates place the death toll in Lisbon alone at between 30,000 and 50,000 people, making it one of the deadliest earthquakes in history.


1755 Lisbon earthquake
The earthquake accentuated political tensions in Portugal and profoundly disrupted the country's colonial ambitions. The event was widely discussed and dwelt upon by European Enlightenment philosophers, and inspired major developments in theodicy. As the first earthquake studied scientifically for its effects over a large area, it led to the birth of modern seismology and earthquake engineering.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami
The earthquake struck on the morning of 1 November 1755, All Saints' Day. Contemporary reports state that the earthquake lasted from three and a half to six minutes, causing fissures 5 metres (16 ft) wide in the city center. Survivors rushed to the open space of the docks for safety and watched as the sea receded, revealing a plain of mud littered with lost cargo and shipwrecks.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami
Approximately 40 minutes after the earthquake, a tsunami engulfed the harbor and downtown area, rushing up the Tagus river "so fast that several people riding on horseback ... were forced to gallop as fast as possible to the upper grounds for fear of being carried away." It was followed by two more waves. Candles lit in homes and churches all around the city for All Saints' Day were knocked over, starting a fire that developed into a firestorm which burned for hours in the city, asphyxiating people up to 30 metres (98 ft) from the blaze.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami
Lisbon was not the only Portuguese city affected by the catastrophe. Throughout the south of the country, in particular the Algarve, destruction was rampant. The tsunami destroyed some coastal fortresses in the Algarve and, at lower levels, it razed several houses. Almost all the coastal towns and villages of the Algarve were heavily damaged, except Faro, which was protected by the sandy banks of Ria Formosa. In Lagos, the waves reached the top of the city walls.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami
Other towns in different Portuguese regions, such as Peniche, Cascais, and even Covilhã (which is located near the Serra da Estrela mountain range in central inland Portugal) were visibly affected by the earthquake, the tsunami or both of them. The shock waves of the earthquake destroyed part of Covilhã's castle walls and its large towers and damaged several other buildings in Cova da Beira, as well as in Salamanca, Spain.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami
On the island of Madeira, Funchal and many smaller settlements suffered significant damage. Almost all of the ports in the Azores archipelago suffered most of their destruction from the tsunami, with the sea penetrating about 150 metres (490 ft) inland. Portuguese towns in northern Africa were also affected by the earthquake, such as Ceuta and Mazagon, where the tsunami hit hard the coastal fortifications of both towns, in some cases going over it, and flooding the harbor area. In Spain, the tsunamis swept the Andalusian Atlantic Coast, nearly destroying the city of Cadiz.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami
Shocks from the earthquake were felt throughout Europe as far as Finland and in North Africa, and according to some sources even in Greenland and the Caribbean. Tsunamis as tall as 20 metres (66 ft) swept along the coast of North Africa, and struck Martinique and Barbados across the Atlantic. A three-metre (ten-foot) tsunami hit Cornwall on the southern British coast. Galway, on the west coast of Ireland, was also hit, resulting in partial destruction of the "Spanish Arch" section of the city wall. In County Clare Aughinish Island was created when a low lying connection to the mainland was washed away. At Kinsale, several vessels were whirled round in the harbor, and water poured into the marketplace.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami
In 2015, it was determined that the tsunami waves may have reached the coast of Brazil, then a colony of Portugal. Letters sent by Brazilian authorities at the time of the earthquake describe damage and destruction caused by gigantic waves.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Earthquake and tsunami
Although seismologists and geologists have always agreed that the epicenter was in the Atlantic to the west of the Iberian Peninsula, its exact location has been a subject of considerable debate. Early hypotheses had proposed the Gorringe Ridge, about 320 km (200 mi) south-west of Lisbon, until simulations showed that a location closer to the shore of Portugal was required to comply with the observed effects of the tsunami. A 1992 seismic reflection survey of the ocean floor along the Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault detected a 50-kilometre-long (31 mi) thrust fault southwest of Cape St. Vincent, with a dip-slip throw of more than 1 km (0.62 mi). This structure may have created the primary tectonic event.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Casualties and damage
Economic historian Álvaro Pereira estimated that of Lisbon's population at the time of approximately 200,000 people, some 30,000–40,000 were killed. Another 10,000 may have lost their lives in Morocco. However, a 2009 study of contemporary reports relating to the 1 November event found them vague and difficult to separate from reports of another local series of earthquakes on 18–19 November. Pereira estimated the total death toll in Portugal, Spain and Morocco from the earthquake and the resulting fires and tsunami at 40,000 to 50,000 people.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Casualties and damage
Eighty-five percent of Lisbon's buildings were destroyed, including famous palaces and libraries, as well as most examples of Portugal's distinctive 16th-century Manueline architecture. Several buildings that had suffered little earthquake damage were destroyed by the subsequent fire. The new Lisbon opera house (the "Ópera do Tejo"), opened just six months before, burned to the ground. The Royal Ribeira Palace, which stood just beside the Tagus river in the modern square of Terreiro do Paço, was destroyed by the earthquake and tsunami.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Casualties and damage
Inside, the 70,000-volume royal library as well as hundreds of works of art, including paintings by Titian, Rubens, and Correggio, were lost. The royal archives disappeared together with detailed historical records of explorations by Vasco da Gama and other early navigators. The palace of Henrique de Meneses, 3rd Marquis of Louriçal, which housed an invaluable library of 18,000 books, was also destroyed. The earthquake damaged several major churches in Lisbon, namely the Lisbon Cathedral, the Basilicas of São Paulo, Santa Catarina, São Vicente de Fora, and the Misericórdia Church.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Casualties and damage
The Royal Hospital of All Saints (the largest public hospital at the time) in the Rossio square was consumed by fire and hundreds of patients burned to death. The tomb of national hero Nuno Álvares Pereira was also lost. Visitors to Lisbon may still walk the ruins of the Carmo Convent, which were preserved to remind Lisboners of the destruction.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Relief and reconstruction efforts
The royal family escaped unharmed from the catastrophe: King Joseph I of Portugal and the court had left the city, after attending mass at sunrise, fulfilling the wish of one of the king's daughters to spend the holiday away from Lisbon. After the catastrophe, Joseph I developed a fear of living within walls, and the court was accommodated in a huge complex of tents and pavilions in the hills of Ajuda, then on the outskirts of Lisbon.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Relief and reconstruction efforts
The king's claustrophobia never waned, and it was only after Joseph's death that his daughter Maria I of Portugal began building the royal Ajuda Palace, which still stands on the site of the old tented camp. Like the king, the prime minister Sebastião de Melo (1st Marquis of Pombal) survived the earthquake. When asked what was to be done, Pombal reportedly replied "bury the dead and heal the living", and set about organizing relief and rehabilitation efforts.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Relief and reconstruction efforts
Firefighters were sent to extinguish the raging flames, and teams of workers and ordinary citizens were ordered to remove the thousands of corpses before disease could spread. Contrary to custom and against the wishes of the Church, many corpses were loaded onto barges and buried at sea beyond the mouth of the Tagus. To prevent disorder in the ruined city, the Portuguese Army was deployed and gallows were constructed at high points around the city to deter looters; more than thirty people were publicly executed. The army prevented many able-bodied citizens from fleeing, pressing them into relief and reconstruction work.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Relief and reconstruction efforts
A project proposed that a new royal palace be built in Campo de Ourique as the new royal residence in 1760, but was later abandoned due to a lack of priority or interest in a palace being built in the Campo de Ourique neighborhood of Lisbon.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Relief and reconstruction efforts
The king and the prime minister immediately launched efforts to rebuild the city. On 4 December 1755, a little more than a month after the earthquake, Manuel da Maia, chief engineer to the realm, presented his plans for the re-building of Lisbon. Maia presented four options from abandoning Lisbon to building a completely new city. The first, and cheapest, plan was to rebuild the old city using recycled materials. The second and third plans proposed widening certain streets. The fourth option boldly proposed razing the entire Baixa quarter and "laying out new streets without restraint". This last option was chosen by the king and his minister.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Relief and reconstruction efforts
In less than a year, the city was cleared of debris. Keen to have a new and perfectly ordered city, the king commissioned the construction of big squares, rectilinear, large avenues and widened streets – the new mottos of Lisbon.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Relief and reconstruction efforts
The Pombaline buildings are among the earliest seismically protected constructions in Europe. Small wooden models were built for testing, and earthquakes were simulated by marching troops around them. Lisbon's "new" Lower Town, known today as the Pombaline Lower Town (Baixa Pombalina), is one of the city's famed attractions. Sections of other Portuguese cities, such as the Vila Real de Santo António in Algarve, were also rebuilt along Pombaline principles.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Relief and reconstruction efforts
The Casa Pia, a Portuguese institution founded by Maria I (known as A Pia, "Maria the Pious"), and organized by Police Intendant Pina Manique in 1780, was founded following the social disarray of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Effect on society, economy, and philosophy
The earthquake had wide-ranging effects on the lives of the populace and intelligentsia. The earthquake had struck on an important religious holiday and had destroyed almost every important church in the city, causing anxiety and confusion amongst the citizens of a staunch and devout Roman Catholic country. Theologians and philosophers focused and speculated on the religious cause and message, seeing the earthquake as a manifestation of divine judgment.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Effect on society, economy, and philosophy, Economy
A 2009 study estimated that the earthquake cost between 32 and 48 percent of Portugal's GDP. Also, "in spite of strict controls, prices and wages remained volatile in the years after the tragedy. The recovery from the earthquake also led to a rise in the wage premium of construction workers. More significantly, the earthquake became an opportunity to reform the economy and to reduce the economic semi-dependency vis-à-vis Britain."


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Effect on society, economy, and philosophy, Philosophy
The earthquake and its aftermath strongly influenced the intelligentsia of the European Age of Enlightenment. The noted writer-philosopher Voltaire used the earthquake in Candide and in his Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne ("Poem on the Lisbon disaster"). Voltaire's Candide attacks the notion that all is for the best in this, "the best of all possible worlds", a world closely supervised by a benevolent deity. The Lisbon disaster provided a counterexample. As Theodor Adorno wrote, "[t]he earthquake of Lisbon sufficed to cure Voltaire of the theodicy of Leibniz" (Negative Dialectics 361). Jean-Jacques Rousseau was also influenced by the devastation following the earthquake, whose severity he believed was due to too many people living within the close quarters of the city. Rousseau used the earthquake as an argument against cities as part of his desire for a more naturalistic way of life.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Effect on society, economy, and philosophy, Philosophy
Immanuel Kant published three separate texts on the Lisbon earthquake. As a younger man, fascinated with the earthquake, he collected all the information available in news pamphlets and formulated a theory of the causes of earthquakes. Kant's theory, which involved shifts in huge caverns filled with hot gases, was incorrect, but was one of the first systematic attempts to explain earthquakes in natural rather than supernatural terms. According to Walter Benjamin, Kant's slim early book on the earthquake "probably represents the beginnings of scientific geography in Germany. And certainly the beginnings of seismology".


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Effect on society, economy, and philosophy, Philosophy
Werner Hamacher has claimed that the earthquake's consequences extended into the vocabulary of philosophy, making the common metaphor of firm "grounding" for philosophers' arguments shaky and uncertain: "Under the impression exerted by the Lisbon earthquake, which touched the European mind in one [of] its more sensitive epochs, the metaphor of ground and tremor completely lost their apparent innocence; they were no longer merely figures of speech" (263). Hamacher claims that the foundational certainty of René Descartes' philosophy began to shake following the Lisbon earthquake.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Effect on society, economy, and philosophy, Politics
The earthquake had a major impact on politics. The prime minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, was the favorite of the king, but the aristocracy despised him as an upstart son of a country squire. The prime minister, in turn, disliked the old nobles, whom he considered corrupt and incapable of practical action. Before 1 November 1755 there was a constant struggle for power and royal favor, but the competent response of the Marquis of Pombal effectively severed the power of the old aristocratic factions. However, silent opposition and resentment of King Joseph I began to rise, which would culminate with the attempted assassination of the king in 1758 and the subsequent elimination of the powerful Duke of Aveiro and the Távora family.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Development of seismology
The prime minister's response was not limited to the practicalities of reconstruction. He ordered a query sent to all parishes of the country regarding the earthquake and its effects. Questions included:


1755 Lisbon earthquake, Development of seismology
The answers to these and other questions are still archived in the Torre do Tombo, the national historical archive. Studying and cross-referencing the priests' accounts, modern scientists were able to reconstruct the event from a scientific perspective. Without the questionnaire designed by the Marquis of Pombal, this would have been impossible. Because the marquis was the first to attempt an objective scientific description of the broad causes and consequences of an earthquake, he is regarded as a forerunner of modern seismological scientists.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, In popular culture
A fictionalized version of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake features as a main plot element of the 2014 video game Assassin's Creed Rogue, developed and published by Ubisoft. Notably, a similar earthquake occurs earlier in the story in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and possibly coincides with a real-world earthquake recorded there in 1751.


1755 Lisbon earthquake, In popular culture
The album 1755 by the Portuguese Gothic Metal band Moonspell is a concept album detailing the story of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. The album is entirely sung in Portuguese and explores not only the history but also its effects on Portuguese society, culture and spirituality.


1755 Lorbach
1755 Lorbach, provisional designation 1936 VD, is a stony Eoan asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 25 kilometers in diameter.


1755 Lorbach
It was discovered on 8 November 1936, by French astronomer Marguerite Laugier at Nice Observatory in southeastern France, and named after Anne Lorbach Herget, wife of astronomer Paul Herget.


1755 Lorbach, Classification and orbit
Lorbach is a member of the Eos family (606), the largest asteroid family in the outer main belt consisting of nearly 10,000 asteroids. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.9–3.2 AU once every 5 years and 5 months (1,986 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.05 and an inclination of 11° with respect to the ecliptic. Lorbach was first identified as A924 PA at Heidelberg Observatory in 1924. The body's observation arc, however, begins 2 days after its official discovery observation at Nice in 1936.


1755 Lorbach, Physical characteristics
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Lorbach measures 24.88 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.140. It is a stony S-type asteroid on the Tholen taxonomic scheme, and has an absolute magnitude of 10.77. As of 2017, Lorbach's spectral type, rotation period and shape remain unknown.


1755 Lorbach, Naming
This minor planet was named after the maiden name of American Anne Lorbach Herget, second wife of astronomer Paul Herget, after whom the minor planet 1751 Herget is named. Anne worked as an assistant at the Cincinnati Observatory since the 1960s, key-punching MPC-data and assigning provisional designations to minor planets. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 August 1978 (M.P.C. 4419).


1755 in Canada, Historical documents
In last pre-war negotiations, British insist Lower Lakes and St. Lawrence are Anglo-French boundaries, and Six Nations lands are British


1755 in Canada, Historical documents
With settlement of their land claims, William Johnson expects Haudenosaunee support as war with France begins in North America


1755 in Canada, Historical documents
Lt . Gov. James De Lancey outlines how troops assembled in New York could attack French in region from Montreal to Fort Duquesne


1755 in India, Deaths
14 February – Raghoji I Bhonsle, Maratha King of Nagpur


1755 in architecture
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by Cote d'Azur (talk | contribs) at 11:07, 4 December 2019 (→Buildings and structures). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1755 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1755.


1755 in literature
LEXICOGRAPHER. A writer of dictionaries; a harmless drudge that busies himself in tracing the original, and detailing the signification of words.


1755 in literature
—Self-deprecating definition by Samuel Johnson from A Dictionary of the English Language


1755 in paleontology
Paleontology, palaeontology or palæontology (from Greek: paleo, "ancient"; ontos, "being"; and logos, "knowledge") is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because mankind has encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1755.


1755 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1755 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1755 in poetry, Deaths
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1755 in science
The year 1755 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1756
1756 (MDCCLVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1756th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 756th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 56th  year of the 18th century, and the  7th   year of the 1750s decade. As of the start of 1756, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1756 in Ireland
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by BHGbot (talk | contribs) at 15:45, 18 June 2020 (WP:BHGbot 6 (List 5): eponymous category first, per MOS:CATORDER; WP:GENFIXES). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1756 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1756.


1756 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1756 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1756 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1756 in science
The year 1756 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1756 to 1760 in sports
Events in world sport through the years 1756 to 1760.


1757
1757 (MDCCLVII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1757th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 757th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 57th  year of the 18th century, and the  8th   year of the 1750s decade. As of the start of 1757, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1757 Hajj caravan raid
The 1757 Hajj caravan raid was the plunder and massacre of the Hajj caravan of 1757 on its return to Damascus from Mecca by Bedouin tribesmen. The caravan was under the protection of an Ottoman force led by the Wali (provincial governor) of Damascus, Husayn Pasha, and his deputy Musa Pasha, while the Bedouin were led by Qa'dan al-Fayez of the Bani Sakher tribe. An estimated 20,000 pilgrims were either killed or died of hunger or thirst as a result of the raid.


1757 Hajj caravan raid
Although Bedouin raids on the Hajj caravan were fairly common, the 1757 raid represented the peak of such attacks. Historian Aref Abu-Rabia called it the "most famous" raid against a Hajj caravan. The attack caused a crisis in the Ottoman Government. Husayn Pasha was dismissed and senior officials such as the kizlar agha (chief eunuch), Aboukouf, and the former wali of Damascus, As'ad Pasha al-Azm, were executed for their alleged negligence or involvement, respectively.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, Background
Performing the Hajj (annual Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca) is a sacred duty in Islam. During the Ottoman era (1517–1917), as in previous periods, Muslim pilgrims from the Levant and Anatolia would assemble in Damascus and travel together in a caravan stocked with goods and foodstuffs to Mecca under an armed guard led by the amir al-hajj (commander of the Hajj caravan). The armed guard was present mainly to protect the caravan from Bedouin assaults as it traversed various Bedouin tribes' territories in the desert.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, Background
Major looting raids against the caravan normally occurred when the tribes were experiencing economic hardships. The Bedouin would typically be paid off by the amir al-hajj through a sarr (tribute) payment in return for safe passage through their territory. The sarr money came from the tax revenues collected by the amir al-hajj from the inhabitants of Damascus Eyalet earmarked specifically for the Hajj caravan's protection and supply. Often, an amir al-hajj would pay half of the sarr to the most powerful Bedouin tribes en route to Mecca, and pay the other half on the return if the circumstances necessitated it.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, Background
If the Bedouin tribes did not threaten the caravan on the return trip, the amir al-hajj would keep the remainder of the sarr payment to himself. Many times, despite payment of the sarr, the Bedouin tribes would loot the caravan regardless, though to a lesser extent. The tribes also received income from selling transport camels to pilgrims. In addition, Bedouin tribesmen were enlisted to serve as the caravan's auxiliary troops because of their familiarity with the territory and the predominantly Bedouin population that inhabited the areas along the route to Mecca. Thus, the Hajj caravan was a lucrative source of income for the tribes.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, Background
In the decades prior to the 1757 raid, the predominant Bedouin tribes in the region between Damascus and the northern Hejaz were the Bani Sakher and the smaller tribes of the Bani Aqil, the Bani Kulayb and the Sardiyah. However, beginning in the early 18th century, the much larger Anizzah tribe from Najd overran the Syrian Desert, displacing the other tribes. Consequently, the Ottoman commanders leading the Hajj gradually transferred the traditional duties normally entrusted with the Bani Sakher and its allies to the Anizzah.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, Background
This deprived the former of a major income source and the religiously prestigious role of protecting the Muslim pilgrims. The Bani Sakher and the Anizzah partook in joint raids against the Hajj caravan in 1700 and 1703. The financial hardship of the Bani Sakher and the lesser tribes was exacerbated by a severe drought in 1756 and 1757.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, The raid
After having completed his dawrah (tax collection tour) in April 1757, amir al-hajj and wali of Damascus, Husayn Pasha ibn Makki, departed with the pilgrim caravan in July, and it arrived safely in Mecca several weeks after. As the caravan set off for its return to Syria, the caravan's smaller advance guard under commander Musa Pasha was assaulted by Bani Sakher tribesmen commanded by Qa'dan al-Fayez at al-Qatranah, in central modern-day Jordan. The guard was plundered and dispersed, with soldiers fleeing south to Ma'an, southwest to Gaza, west to Jerusalem and north to the Hauran plain. Musa Pasha was personally attacked and managed to escape to the Hauran town of Daraa "nude and barefooted", according to historian Abbud al-Sabbagh. Musa later died of his wounds.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, The raid
Surviving soldiers of the advance guard arrived at Damascus to alert the authorities, who afterward dispatched a relief guard to support the main caravan, which by late September had reached the northern Hejaz town of Tabuk. The relief guard was attacked by the tribesmen at an area between al-Qatranah and Ma'an, and was not able to proceed much further than the Balqa plain. Husayn Pasha had also been alerted of the advance guard's plunder and the relief guard's dispersal, and attempted to reach out to Sheikh Qa'dan. Husayn Pasha's representatives offered Sheikh Qa'dan a bribe in exchange for safe passage to Damascus, but were rebuffed.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, The raid
The caravan's provisions were running low, and Husayn Pasha departed Tabuk with the caravan in late October with knowledge that the Bani Sakher and allied tribesmen, including the smaller Sardiyah, Bani Aqil and Bani Kulayb, awaited them on the route. On the third day of Husayn Pasha's march, the Bedouin tribesmen launched their assault on the caravan between Tabuk and Dhat al-Hajj. According to historian F. E. Peters, the site of the assault was Hallat Ammar, on the Tabuk-Ma'an road at the border between modern-day Jordan and Saudi Arabia.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, The raid
At the immediate outset of the raid, numerous pilgrims were killed. The Bedouin tribesmen plundered the caravan of its remaining provisions and goods and withdrew. Among the looted items was the highly decorated mahmal (litter) that represented the sovereignty of the Ottoman Sultan. Some 20,000 pilgrims were either killed by the attackers, died of their wounds, or died of hunger or thirst on the way back to Damascus. Among the dead pilgrims was one of the sisters of the Sultan himself. Husayn Pasha survived, but did not return to Damascus, fearing for his safety. The 18th-century Damascus-based chronicler Ahmed al-Budeiri recorded that pilgrims, men and women, were stripped of their clothing and left naked in the desert by the Bedouin raiders.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, Aftermath
The raid shocked people across the Ottoman Empire, and the authorities in Damascus and the Ottoman capital, Istanbul. Although Bedouin raids on the Hajj caravan were fairly common, the 1757 raid represented the peak of such attacks. Historian Aref Abu-Rabia called it the "most famous" Bedouin raid against a Hajj caravan.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, Aftermath
A crisis ensued in the Ottoman Government. Sultan Osman III died on 30 October 1757 and was succeeded by Mustafa III. The latter punished a number of imperial and provincial officials he held responsible for failing to secure the caravan. Husayn Pasha was immediately dismissed as amir al-hajj and wali of Damascus and ultimately reassigned as sanjak-bey (district governor) of Gaza in 1762. Husayn Pasha submitted a complaint to the imperial authorities, alleging that the powerful Arab sheikh of the Galilee, Zahir al-Umar, incited the Bedouin tribes to launch the raid, which Zahir denied. Zahir requested an investigation into the matter and the authorities concluded that he was not involved in the raid. Moreover, Zahir curried favor with the authorities by buying the looted goods from the Bani Sakher and returning the mahmal to the Sultan.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, Aftermath
Husayn Pasha's imperial patron and an official with some responsibilities regarding the Hajj caravan, the kizlar agha Aboukouf, was arrested, exiled to Rhodes and executed. Aboukouf's severed head was placed outside the imperial palace in Istanbul. The official justification for his death was his appointment of Husayn Pasha and dismissal of the former wali of Damascus and amir al-hajj, As'ad Pasha al-Azm, who had successfully led the pilgrimage throughout his 14-year reign.


1757 Hajj caravan raid, Aftermath
However, As'ad Pasha was also punished due to suspicions that he collaborated with the Bedouin raiders to attack the caravan in order to discredit his successor Husayn Pasha and persuade the imperial authorities to restore him to office. According to Ahmad Hasan Joudah, As'ad Pasha was exiled to Crete, but was executed on his way there, in March 1758. His severed head was also displayed in front of the Sultan's palace.


1757 Porvoo
1757 Porvoo, provisional designation 1939 FC, is a presumably stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 10 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 17 March 1939, by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory on the coast of southwestern Finland. The asteroid was named for the Finnish city of Porvoo.


1757 Porvoo, Orbit and classification
Porvoo orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.1–2.6 AU once every 3 years and 7 months (1,317 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.13 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. As no precoveries were taken, and no prior identifications were made, Porvoo's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation.


1757 Porvoo, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In the early 1980s, a rotational lightcurve of Porvoo was obtained from photometric observations taken by American astronomer Richard P. Binzel using the 0.91- and 2.1-m telescopes at the University of Texas McDonald Observatory. It gave it a well-defined rotation period of 4.89 hours with a brightness variation of 0.30 magnitude (U=3).


1757 Porvoo, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Porvoo measures 10.03 and 12.81 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.049 and 0.073, respectively.


1757 Porvoo, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 – contrary to the rather carbonaceous albedo given by the space-based surveys – and calculates a diameter of 6.32 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 13.36.


1757 Porvoo, Naming
This minor planet was named for Porvoo, Finnish city and municipality located on the southern coast of Finland, and east of the capital Helsinki.


1757 Porvoo, Naming
Porvoo is one of the six medieval towns in Finland, and is its second oldest city after Turku, location of the discovering observatory. In 1809, at the Diet of Porvoo, the Russian czar confirmed that Finland was annexed to the Russian empire as an autonomous nation. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 August 1980 (M.P.C. 5449).


1757 Tampa expedition
The 1757 Tampa expedition was an exploration into Tampa Bay and up the Hillsborough River led by Spanish Royal Navy captain Don Francisco Maria Celi. Documents produced during the trip include the first European-drawn map of the Tampa Bay, Florida area and a log book. The journey followed more than 200 years after Spanish Explorer Pánfilo de Narváez landed near Tampa Bay with 400 men in 1528.


1757 Tampa expedition, History
In April 1757, Spanish explorer Don Francisco Maria Celi documented a trip into Tampa Bay and up the Hillsborough River. Celi's expedition came to Tampa Bay from Cuba. The party he led up the Hillsborough River was seeking pine trees suitable for use as masts on his ships. The expedition was for the Spanish Royal Navy.


1757 Tampa expedition, History
Celi reportedly erected a cross at a site he named el Pinal de la Cruz de Santa Teresa (the Pine Forest of the Cross of Saint Theresa). The site is now part of Riverhills Park in Temple Terrace, Florida. He continued upriver as far as the rapids that are now part of Hillsborough River State Park.


1757 Tampa expedition, History
Celi's log book and surveying documentation of the area are the first we have of the area going back 200 years prior. He kept a survey journal and logbook of the expedition. A copy of the map made on the trip is held by the South Florida History Museum and the original is in the Museo Naval de Madrid in Spain.


1757 Tampa expedition, Temple Terrace site
The area of longleaf pine, sand live oak, and cypress trees made the area suitable for turpentine manufacturing and logging until 1913. Eventually, Riverhills Park was established, and a historical marker commemorating the expedition put up along with a replica of the cross.


1757 caretaker ministry
The Kingdom of Great Britain was governed by a caretaker government in April–June 1757—after the King's dismissal of William Pitt led to the collapse of the Pitt–Devonshire ministry amid the Seven Years' War. William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, continued as the nominal head of government.


1757 caretaker ministry, History
In 1756, King George was reluctantly compelled to accept a ministry dominated by William Pitt as Secretary of State. The nominal head of this ministry, as First Lord of the Treasury, was the Duke of Devonshire.


1757 caretaker ministry, History
On 6 April 1757, following Pitt's opposition to the execution of Admiral John Byng, the King (who distrusted Pitt) dismissed him and his brother-in-law Lord Temple, who had been First Lord of the Admiralty. The result of these events was to demonstrate beyond doubt that the "Great Commoner" (as Pitt was familiarly known) was indispensable to the formation of a ministry strong enough to prosecute a major war.


1757 caretaker ministry, History
Devonshire was left to lead a ministry that was manifestly far too weak to survive long—particularly in wartime. One of the major problems was that it included no figure capable of taking the lead in the House of Commons. The ministry also lacked the support of the most significant factions in the Commons.


1757 caretaker ministry, History
Devonshire recognised that it was necessary to reconcile Pitt and his old political foe Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, who led the strongest Whig faction in Parliament, but whose exclusion Pitt had insisted from the 1756–57 ministry.


1757 caretaker ministry, History
The King (after discussions with Devonshire and Newcastle in May) authorised Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, to be his emissary to negotiate for a new ministry. Hardwick pleaded with Pitt to work with Newcastle in heading "a complete, strong, and well-cemented" government, as opposed to "a mutilated, enfeebled, half-formed system".


1757 caretaker ministry, History
The needs of the country and the lack of an obvious alternative led to the reappointment of Pitt as Secretary of State (with Newcastle as First Lord of the Treasury) on 27 June, forming the Pitt–Newcastle ministry. Devonshire resigned the office of First Lord to take up the less demanding responsibilities of Lord Chamberlain.


1757 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1757.


1757 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1757 in poetry, Births
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1757 in poetry, Deaths
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1757 in science
The year 1757 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1757 raid on Berlin
The 1757 raid on Berlin  took place during the Third Silesian War (part of the Seven Years' War). Cavalrymen of the Holy Roman Empire attacked and briefly occupied Berlin, the capital of Prussia.


1757 raid on Berlin, Background
After the War of the Austrian Succession, traditional European alliances fell apart and were replaced by an Anglo-Prussian pact and a Franco-Austrian alliance. Known as the Diplomatic Revolution, these events caused the Seven Years' War. Frederick II, King of Prussia and bitter rival of the Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, invaded Silesia in 1756 but suffered his first defeat at Kolin on June 18. In the aftermath of the battle, however, Frederick neglected to protect the approach to his capital, Berlin.


1757 raid on Berlin, Battle
Austrian commanders noticed this flaw, and Prince Charles of Lorraine, commander of Austrian troops facing Frederick's main army, dispatched Hungarian cavalry officer Count András Hadik and a force of about 5,100 men, mostly Hungarian hussars, to capture the city. However, to guard his main base at Elsterwerda, Hadik left behind enough troops that his raiding party was outnumbered by the unsuspecting Berlin garrison.


1757 raid on Berlin, Battle
On 16 October Hadik and his raiding force arrived outside of Berlin. Although the Prussian defenders were surprised, they refused Hadik's surrender demands. Hadik promptly attacked the city gates, entering the city. The city's military governor, General Rotzow, believed that his forces were outnumbered and spirited the Royal Family to Spandau, while Hadik demanded that the city council pay a ransom of 200,000 thalers and a dozen pairs of gloves for the Empress. The ransom was paid, but Hadik left the city hurriedly when he realized that a significant Prussian force under the Prince of Anhalt-Dessau was marching toward Berlin in an attempt to intercept him.


1758
1758 (MDCCLVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1758th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 758th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 58th  year of the 18th century, and the  9th   year of the 1750s decade. As of the start of 1758, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1758 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1758.


1758 in paleontology
Paleontology, palaeontology or palæontology (from Greek: paleo, "ancient"; ontos, "being"; and logos, "knowledge") is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because mankind has encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1758.


1758 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1758 in poetry, Oliver Goldsmith's "poetical scale"
In the January 1758 edition of the Literary Magazine, an anonymous writer widely believed to be English poet and author Oliver Goldsmith presented a table comparing 29 English poets, rating them on a scale in each of four aspects of literary greatness. A score of 20 was literary perfection. Some of his estimations:


1758 in poetry, Oliver Goldsmith's "poetical scale"
Some other poets Goldsmith placed on the scale: Michael Drayton, Lee, Aaron Hill, Nicholas Rowe, Garth, Southern and Hughes. John Donne was not listed, because, wrote Goldsmith, "Dr Donne was a man of wit, but he seems to have been at pains not to pass for a poet." (See also Mark Akenside's "Balance of Poets" of 1746.)


1758 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1758 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1758 in science
The year 1758 in science and technology involved some significant events.


1758 papal conclave
The 1758 papal conclave (May 15 – July 6), convoked after the death of Pope Benedict XIV, elected Cardinal Carlo Rezzonico of Venice, who took the name Clement XIII.


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, Divisions among cardinals
College of Cardinals was divided into several factions, which initially formed two blocs:


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, Divisions among cardinals
Many cardinals created by Benedict XIV (called "Juniors") did not belong to any faction, but majority of them aligned themselves with "Union of Crowns", particularly with Spanish protector Portocarrero.


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, Divisions among cardinals
During the conclave, however, these two groups mixed with each other. Near the end of the conclave, on the one side there was the Imperial faction together with Zelanti, and on the other side Anziani, together with the Bourbon faction (defending the interests of the Bourbon crowns).


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, Divisions among cardinals
Because of the absence of the political representatives of the main Catholic courts the ambassadors of France and the Empire asked the electors for delay voting until their arrival. This demand was rejected before the conclave began.


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, The beginning and the early candidates
Only twenty-seven cardinals entered the conclave on May 15. Eighteen more cardinals arrived in Rome by June 29. Meantime, however, Cardinal Bardi had to leave the conclave due to illness.


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, The beginning and the early candidates
No serious candidates were proposed in the early ballots. In the first scrutiny on May 16 the greatest number of votes (eight in the ballot and three more in the accessus) were received Dean of the College of Cardinals Rainiero d'Elci, who was 88 years old. It does not mean, however, that no efforts to obtain the support for the candidates were made by the leaders present in the conclave. In particular Corsini worked vigorously for the election of Giuseppe Spinelli, leader of the Zelanti, but met with the strong opposition of Orsini, Cardinal Protector of the Kingdom of Naples. The protector of Spain, Portocarrero, also rejected Spinelli, and was able to join many of the "Juniors" to his party. Finally, the candidature of Spinelli had to be withdrawn.


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, The beginning and the early candidates
The first candidate with serious chances for election was Alberico Archinto, Secretary of State and Vice-Chancellor of the deceased pope. He had a strong support both among Zelanti and some of the "Crown-Cardinals", but the faction of Corsini did not agree to support him and produced as counter-candidate Marcello Crescenzi. Eventually, as had occurred many times before and later, the candidatures of Archinto and Crescenzi eliminated each other.


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, The arrival of the French cardinals and their exclusion against Cavalchini
Gradually, the representatives of royal courts arrived in Rome with instructions from their monarchs. On June 4 entered Cardinal Luynes with the instructions of Louis XV of France. Five days later he officially announced the nomination of Cardinal Prospero Colonna di Sciarra to the post of Protector of France. But the Imperial Cardinal von Rodt was still awaited.


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, The arrival of the French cardinals and their exclusion against Cavalchini
During the next days the new candidate Carlo Alberto Guidobono Cavalchini,   received still more votes, promoted by Corsini and Portocarrero working together. On June 19 he obtained twenty-one votes, on June 21 twenty-six, and in the evening of June 22 as many as twenty-eight out of forty-three, which meant that he was only one vote short of being elected. But after that ballot Cardinal Luynes informed the Dean of the Sacred College Rainiero d’Elci of the official veto of the King of France against Cavalchini.


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, The arrival of the French cardinals and their exclusion against Cavalchini
France opposed Cavalchini because of his support of the beatification of Robert Bellarmine and in the matters connected with the anti-Jansenist bull Unigenitus. The exclusion met with strong protests, but Cavalchini himself said, "It is a manifest proof that God deems me unworthy to fill the functions of his vicar upon earth".


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, The arrival of the French cardinals and their exclusion against Cavalchini
After the collapse of Cavalchini's candidacy, Portocarrero advanced as a new candidate Paolucci, but he was rejected by French, who – together with the faction of Corsini, voted again for Crescenzi.


1758 papal conclave, The conclave, The arrival of Cardinal von Rodt
The arrival of Cardinal von Rodt on June 29 with the instructions of the Imperial Court was the turning point of the conclave. He initially tried to achieve an agreement with the French, but having failed, he turned toward the Zelanti faction. Direct negotiations between von Rodt and Spinelli resulted in the proposal for election of the Venetian Cardinal Carlo Rezzonico, bishop of Padua. On July 6 in the morning the bishop of Padua received eight votes in the ballot and four additional in the accessus. Portocarrero, Albani and the French cardinals initially opposed, but finally agreed for him. After the consultations of French Cardinals with ambassador Laon it became clear that Rezzonico would be elected to the Papacy.


1758 papal conclave, The election of Pope Clement XIII
On July 6 in the evening Carlo Rezzonico was elected Pope, receiving thirty-one votes out of forty-four, one more than the required majority of two-thirds. The remaining thirteen (including his own) fell to Cardinal Dean Rainiero d'Elci. Rezzonico accepted his election and took the name of Clement XIII, in honour of Pope Clement XII, who had elevated him to the cardinalate in 1737. He was crowned on July 16 in the loggia of the patriarchal Vatican Basilica by protodeacon Alessandro Albani.


1758 papal conclave, List of participants
Pope Benedict XIV died on May 3, 1758. Forty-five out of fifty-five Cardinals participated in the subsequent conclave. Only forty-four, however, voted in the final ballot, because Cardinal Bardi left the conclave because of illness on June 24:


1758 papal conclave, List of participants
Thirty five electors were created by Benedict XIV, eight by Clement XII, one by Benedict XIII (Borghese) and Innocent XIII (A. Albani).


1758 papal conclave, Absentees
All the absentees were creatures of Benedict XIV, except d'Alsace, who was created by Clement XI, and Lamberg, who was appointed by Clement XII.


1759
1759 (MDCCLIX) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1759th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 759th  year of the 2nd millennium, the 59th  year of the 18th century, and the  10th  and last year of the 1750s decade. As of the start of 1759, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.


1759
In Great Britain, this year was known as the Annus Mirabilis, because of British victories in the Seven Years' War.


1759 Kienle
1759 Kienle, provisional designation 1942 RF, is a stony background asteroid from the central regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 11 September 1942, by astronomer Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory in southwest Germany. The S-type asteroid has a longer-than average rotation period of 29.3 hours. It was named for German astrophysicist Hans Kienle.


1759 Kienle, Orbit and classification
Kienle is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 1.8–3.5 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,577 days; semi-major axis of 2.65 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 5° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at with its official discovery observation during the height of World War II on September 1942.


1759 Kienle, Naming
This minor planet was named after German astrophysicist Hans Kienle (1895–1975), known for his work on spectrophotometry and director of several German observatories, including the discovering Heidelberg Observatory (1950–1962). Kienle was also president of IAU Commission 36 during the 1950s. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 18 April 1977 (M.P.C. 4155).


1759 Kienle, Physical characteristics
In both the Tholen- and SMASS-like taxonomy of the Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey (S3OS2), Kienle is a stony S-type asteroid.


1759 Kienle, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
During the early 1980s, a rotational lightcurve of Kienle was obtained from photometric observations by American astronomer Richard Binzel using the 0.91- and 2.1-meter telescopes at the University of Texas McDonald Observatory. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 29.25 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.30 magnitude (U=2).


1759 Kienle, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Kienle measures between 6.9 and 7.3 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.18 and 0.20. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.10 – a compromise figures between the stony inner- and carbonaceous outer-belt asteroids – and consequently calculates a larger diameter of 9.85 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 13.15.


1759 in Great Britain
Events from the year 1759 in Great Britain. This year was dubbed an "Annus Mirabilis" due to a succession of military victories in the Seven Years' War against French-led opponents.


1759 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1759 to Wales and its people.


1759 in architecture
The year 1759 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.


1759 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1759.


1759 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1759 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1759 in poetry, Deaths
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1759 in science
The year 1759 in science and technology involved several significant events.


175R
175R (１７５Ｒ, Inago Raidā, "Inago Rider") is a Japanese ska punk band from Kitakyūshū, Fukuoka Prefecture.


175R
Debuting in 2001, 175R has released seven singles, seven albums and four DVDs. The band's members include Shogo on Vocals, Kazya on guitar, Isakick on bass and Yoshiaki on drums. The band shared their second single with the band Shaka Labbits. The name 175R means "Inago Rider," which is derived from the goroawase of "175" plus "R" for "rider." Inago (蝗) means grasshopper in Japanese, as a reference to the popular Kamen Rider Series of tokusatsu television programs. In 2007, the group's single "Yume de Aeta Nara..." was featured as the ending theme for the film Kamen Rider Den-O: I'm Born!.


175R
Another one of their songs, Melody, was used featured in a music-related video game for the Nintendo DS called Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan. Unlike the other songs included in the game, Ouendan made use of an actual (albeit edited) 175R recording, instead of a cover version.


175th (2/3rd London) Brigade
The 175th (2/3rd London) Brigade was an infantry brigade formation of the Territorial Force of the British Army. The brigade was formed as a 2nd Line of the 169th (1/3rd London) Brigade and was assigned to the 58th (2/1st London) Division, itself formed as a 2nd Line of 56th (1/1st London) Division, and served on the Western Front during the First World War.


175th (Medicine Hat) Battalion, CEF
The 175th Battalion, CEF, was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War.


175th (Medicine Hat) Battalion, CEF
Based in Medicine Hat, Alberta, the unit began recruiting during the winter of 1915/16 in the Medicine Hat district. After sailing to England in October 1916, the battalion was absorbed into the 21st Reserve Battalion on January 10, 1917. The 175th Battalion, CEF, had one officer commanding: Lieutenant-Colonel Nelson Spencer.


175th (Medicine Hat) Battalion, CEF
In 1929, the battalion was awarded the theatre of war honour The Great War, 1916–17.


175th (Medicine Hat) Battalion, CEF
Perpetuation of the 175th Battalion was assigned to the Alberta Regiment in 1920. When this regiment split in two in 1924, the South Alberta Regiment carried the perpetuation. The South Alberta Regiment merged into the South Alberta Light Horse (29th Armoured Regiment) in 1954, and this regiment (now simply the South Alberta Light Horse) carries on the perpetuation of the 175th Battalion.


175th Fighter Squadron
The 175th Fighter Squadron is a unit of the South Dakota Air National Guard 's 114th Operations Group stationed at Joe Foss Field Air National Guard Station, Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The 175th is equipped with the F-16C/D Fighting Falcon.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II
The squadron was first activated as the 387th Fighter Squadron, one of the original squadrons of the 365th Fighter Group at Richmond Army Air Base on 15 May 1943. The squadron trained with Republic P-47 Thunderbolts. The unit moved to RAF Gosfield, England in December 1943, where it became part of IX Fighter Command. The squadron's first mission, flown on 22 February, was a bomber support sweep of short duration over enemy-held territory. Early missions were flown in support of Eighth Air Force Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomber operations. Later, the 387th flew dive-bombing missions to attack such targets as bridges, aerodromes, rail facilities, gun positions, and V-weapon sites prior to the Operation Overlord, the landings at Normandy.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II
The 387th began its move to the Continent, taking up residence at Azeville Airfield, France on 27 June 1944 to provide tactical air for the United States First Army. On the Continent, the squadron moved rapidly from one airfield to another, eventually winding up at Fritzlar Airfield, Germany on V-E Day.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II
After the end of hostilities, the 387th Fighter Squadron took part in the disarmament program until June, then returned to the United States in September 1945, and was inactivated at Camp Myles Standish, Massachusetts on 22 September 1945.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard
On 24 May 1946, the United States Army Air Forces, in response to dramatic postwar military budget cuts imposed by President Harry S. Truman, allocated inactive unit designations to the National Guard Bureau for the formation of an Air Force National Guard. These unit designations were allotted and transferred to various State National Guard bureaus to provide them unit designations to re-establish them as Air National Guard units. The wartime 387th Fighter Squadron was redesignated as the 175th Fighter Squadron and allotted to the National Guard on 24 May 1946.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard
The War Department authorized the establishment of Air National Guard Squadrons, Groups and Wings in 48 States. The formation of a South Dakota – Iowa Air National Guard and assignment of Col. Frederick Gray Jr., who was a veteran fighter pilot having served with the Eighth Air Force and The RAF, as group instructor for both units, was announced by Brigadier General Charles H. Grahl, Iowa Adjutant General, at Des Moines, Iowa on 26 June 1946. Squadrons of the Air Force, each with 34 planes of various types, were located in Sioux Falls, at Sioux City and Des Moines, Iowa.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard
Air Guardsmen under Col. Gray were trained to throw 102 planes into battle within 12 days. Lt . Col . Ted Arndt assistant to the Adjutant General surveyed local air field facilities, making note of buildings and installations to be needed by the new Air Force. The South Dakota Air National Guard 175th Fighter Squadron, with Thirteen officers, was approved by Col. E.A. Beckwith, Adjutant General, Rapid City, South Dakota on 20 September 1946. The 175th Fighter Squadron was assigned to the 132d Fighter Wing, Des Moines, Iowa.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard
The unit was equipped with the F-51D Mustang, and several types of support aircraft. 18 September 1947, however, is considered the South Dakota Air National Guard's official birth concurrent with the establishment of the United States Air Force as a separate branch of the United States military under the National Security Act.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard
After the 175th Fighter Squadron was organized and was extended federal recognition on 20 September 1946. The squadron was equipped with North American F-51D Mustangs and was assigned to several fighter groups in sequence, finally to the 133d Fighter Group of the Minnesota Air National Guard, although the squadron remained under the jurisdiction of the South Dakota Military Department. The mission of the 175th Fighter Squadron was to train for air defense.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Air Defense
On 2 March 1951 the 175th was federalized and brought to active duty due to the Korean War. It became the 175th Fighter-Intercepotr Squadron and remained assigned to the 133d Fighter-Interceptor Group but now was part of Air Defense Command (ADC). In August it moved to Rapid City Air Force Base, South Dakota. Its mission was air defense of the area, particularly of the Convair B-36 Peacemaker bombers of the 28th Bombardment Wing stationed there.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Air Defense
In a major reorganization of ADC responding to its difficulty under the existing wing base organizational structure in deploying fighter squadrons to best advantage, ADC replaced its groups and wings with regional organizations. The 133d Group was inactivated and the squadron was reassigned to the 31st Air Division on 6 February 1952. It was released from active duty on 1 December 1952 and its mission, personnel and aircraft were assumed by the 54th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, which was activated the same day.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Air Defense
The squadron returned to the control of the State of South Dakota on 1 December 1952 and was activated at Sioux Falls the same day. In September 1953 the squadron began to keep two of its F-51D Mustangs on alert status 14 hours a day. On 1 November 1954, the 175th began the transition from the piston engine, propeller driven, F-51D to its first jet aircraft, the Lockheed F-94A Starfire interceptor.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Air Defense
On 16 April 1956, the 175th was reorganized on the model used by its gaining command, ADC, and the 114th Fighter-Interceptor Group was established. The 175th FIS became the group's flying squadron. Support units assigned to the group were the 114th Material Squadron, 114th Air Base Squadron and the 114th USAF Dispensary.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Air Defense
During the 1950s and 1960s, unit aircraft were upgraded by ADC as newer interceptors became available to the Air National Guard. Northrop F-89 Scorpions were received in 1958 and Convair F-102A Delta Dagger supersonic aircraft in 1960.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Tactical Air Command
In 1970 ADC was reducing its interceptor force, as the chances of a bomber attack by the Soviet Union seemed remote in the age of Intercontinental ballistic missiles. The squadron was redesignated the 175th Tactical Fighter Squadron on 23 May 1970 when the gaining command for the 114th Group became Tactical Air Command (TAC). The 175th began receiving North American F-100 Super Sabre fighters that were being withdrawn from service in the Vietnam War.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Tactical Air Command
News was received in March 1976 that the unit's F-100D aircraft would be replaced by LTV A-7D Corsair II jets. The last Super Sabres left Joe Foss Field in June 1977. In 1979, the unit began a 12-year era of participation in Operation Coronet Cove at Howard Air Force Base providing for defense of the Panama Canal. Both aircrew and support personnel deployed to Howard in the summer of 1979 during the Nicaraguan crisis. The unit was awarded an Armed Forces Expeditionary Streamer for combat duty as a part of Operation Just Cause, the operation to replace Manuel Noriega with a democratic government in Panama during 1989–1990.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Tactical Air Command
TAC retiring the A-7D in the late 1980s, and National Guard units flying the Corsair II transitioned from the A-7 to the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. The first F-16 for the 175th Squadron arrived on 14 August 1991. In June 1993 the squadron deployed eight aircraft to Brustem Air Base, Belgium in Operation Coronet Dart, supporting the European exercise Central Enterprise 1993.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Tactical Air Command
In December 1993 the squadron deployed again, this time for their first combat deployment with the F-16. Stationed at Incirlik Air Base, Turkey, the squadron flew missions over Northern Iraq to guard the no-fly zone to protect Kurdish refugees. Combat air patrol missions were flown over the northern "No Fly Zone" of Iraq from December 1993 to January 1994.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Tactical Air Command
The 114th Fighter Group was redesignated the 114th Fighter Wing in October 1995 when the National Guard adopted the Objective Wing organization of the regular Air Force, and the squadron was assigned to the 114th's new 114th Operations Group. The unit subsequently supported Operation Northern Watch, based out of Turkey in 1995 and 2002, and Operation Southern Watch flying from Kuwait in 1998 and Saudi Arabia in 2001.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Global War on Terrorism
A new chapter was opened in the history of the Air National Guard with the terrorist attacks on America on 11 September 2001. In addition to the unit's ongoing tasking as part of the Air Expeditionary Force, unit members were activated to support Operation Noble Eagle, the activation of reservists to provide security within the United States and Operation Enduring Freedom, the Global War on Terrorism. Deployments during the 2000s included three to Balad Air Base, Iraq (October to December 2006; June to September 2008 and January to April 2010).


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Global War on Terrorism
On 25 October 2005 an F-16 of the unit was attempting to take fuel from a McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender. The boom operator's accidental oscillation of the refueling boom caused damage to both aircraft. Both were able to land safely, but one jet suffered more than $930,000 of damage. During 2007 the squadron was the recipient of the National Guard Bureau's Winston P. Wilson Trophy. The trophy goes to the most outstanding Air National Guard unit and is awarded annually. Three years later the squadron would win the trophy again in 2010.


175th Fighter Squadron, History, South Dakota Air National Guard, Global War on Terrorism
The 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommended that the 175th Fighter Squadron retire its older block 30 F-16s and upgrade to the block 40. The first F-16C block 30 to depart was 'Cujo' on 7 May 2010 for storage with the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group. Over the next five months the 175th received Block 40 "Vipers" from all three squadrons of the 388th Fighter Wing at Hill Air Force Base, but predominantly from the inactivating 34th Fighter Squadron.


175th Fighter Squadron, References, Bibliography
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website .


175th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery
175th Heavy Anti- Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery (175th HAA Rgt) was an air defence unit of the British Army formed during World War II. It served in defence of the vital naval and air base at Gibraltar.


175th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery, Origin
175th HAA Regiment was formed in October 1942 by taking an experienced battery from each of three existing Heavy Anti- Aircraft (HAA) regiments of Anti- Aircraft Command:


175th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery, Training
The new Regimental Headquarters (RHQ) was formed at Clifton, Bristol, on 3 October 1942 and attached to 46 AA Bde, but in early November its three batteries were still scattered around the country: 375 HAA Bty attached to 60 AA Bde in South West England, 386 to 1 AA Group in London and 441 still with 55 AA Bde. In December the regiment with its batteries now concentrated was transferred to 63 AA Bde in Scotland, where AA Command units were often sent for training. In April 1943 the regiment left AA Command and came under War Office control, preparatory to proceeding overseas.


175th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery, Gibraltar
On 23 May 1943, 175th HAA Rgt, with 375, 386 and 441 HAA Btys, arrived in Gibraltar from the United Kingdom to relieve 82nd (Essex) HAA Rgt. It came under the command of 15 AA Bde, and 228 (Edinburgh) HAA Bty from the recently disbanded 13th HAA Rgt was attached to it from 27 May. On 25 August 228 HAA Bty left Gibraltar and was relieved by 596 HAA Bty transferred from 177th HAA Rgt in the UK.


175th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery, Gibraltar
The vital naval base and airfield on Gibraltar had been overflown and sometimes attacked by Vichy French, Italian and German aircraft during 1940–42, and the AA defences had reached peak strength in early 1943. Ironically, after 175th HAA Rgt arrived there were only two or three reconnaissance overflights during 1943. By the end of the year, with Italy out of the war and the German forces in Italy in retreat, it was clear that the Axis powers could no longer mount an effective air strike against Gibraltar. A reduction in the AA defences began in order to release men urgently needed elsewhere.


175th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery, Gibraltar
In February 1944 the rundown started with the disbandment of 15 AA Bde HQ, overall command of the AA defences passing to the fortress's HQ Royal Artillery. On 7 March RHQ of 175th HAA Rgt took over operational control of 451 LAA Bty from 141st Light AA Rgt which was being withdrawn, together with 1 RDF Bty (radar), 1 AA 'Z' Troop (Z Battery rocket launchers) and 142 Gun Operations Room. Then on 20 August 596 HAA Bty and 1 AA 'Z' Trp left Gibraltar.


175th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery, Gibraltar
By September there were only 16 operational HAA guns in the fortress, the remainder being in a state of care and maintenance only. Finally, on 26 October, 441 HAA and 451 LAA Btys were disbanded as the men were sent back to the UK, and 1 Radar Bty became independent; there were no other changes to the end of the war.


175th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery, Postwar
In the postwar reorganisation of the Royal Artillery, RHQ of 175th HAA Rgt was redesignated 113 HAA Rgt (replacing the disbanded 113th HAA Rgt) on 1 April 1947, with 375 HAA, 386 HAA and 441 (now LAA) Btys becoming 328, 329 and 330 HAA Btys. But on 1 May 1947 the regiment was disbanded, retroactive to 1 April 1947.


175th Infantry Regiment (United States)
The 175th Infantry Regiment ("Fifth Maryland") is an infantry regiment of the Maryland Army National Guard. It is one of several National Guard units with colonial roots and campaign credit for the War of 1812.


175th Infantry Regiment (United States), History
Mordecai Gist, a young Baltimore merchant, organized a militia company on 3 December 1774. This company was the nucleus of Baltimore's Fifth Regiment which—expanded, modified, and undergoing occasional changes in designation—has enjoyed an uninterrupted history down to the present 175th Infantry (Fifth Maryland), Maryland Army National Guard. The unit is the seventh oldest regiment in the United States.


175th Infantry Regiment (United States), History, Revolutionary War
By 1774 the people of Maryland had become thoroughly aroused over the troubles around Boston, especially the blockading of the port as the consequence of the "Boston Tea Party." Their reaction to the British actions in October 1774 was to burn tea, and the brig Peggy Stewart in which the tea had arrived, during daylight in Annapolis Harbor. Hostilities having begun, an assembly of delegates from the various counties met in Annapolis in November to discuss measures for armed resistance and to adopt resolutions for defense.


175th Infantry Regiment (United States), History, Revolutionary War
In this tense atmosphere, Mordecai Gist of Baltimore organized a company of militia, which assumed the title "The Baltimore Independent Cadets." On 3 December 1774, 58 young men of the town signed an agreement to "form ourselves into a body or company in order to learn the military discipline," and each agreed to provide himself with a uniform consisting of "a coat turnd up with Buff, and trimd with Yellow Mettal, or Gold Buttons, White Stockings & black Cloth half Boots," and to equip himself with arms and ammunition. And so was organized the first uniformed military company in Maryland,  the parent from which the Fifth Regiment sprung in the early days of the war just two years later.


175th Infantry Regiment (United States), History, Revolutionary War
The battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill were fought in Massachusetts during the spring of 1775. On 1 January 1776, the Maryland Assembly voted to organize and send its first regiment of soldiers to the Continental Army. This consisted of nine companies, the eighth of which was Gist's "Independent Cadets." Gist became Major in the new regiment and the command of the company passed to Samuel Smith, later to become major general, Mayor of Baltimore, and United States Senator from Maryland. Thus organized, Smallwood's Regiment, so-called after its commander Colonel William Smallwood, left on 10 July 1776 to join General Washington's army. It marched to Philadelphia, and from there was promptly dispatched by John Hancock, President of the Congress, to the "Flying Camp" of the army before New York.


175th Infantry Regiment (United States), History, Revolutionary War
On 27 August 1776 the Continentals fought a large British Army force. Smallwood's men, led by Major Gist, lost nearly half of their number at the Battle of Long Island in an attempt to halt the British advance. The British, under General Howe, flanked the American positions, and General Washington ordered a withdrawal to the mainland. In order to allow the army to escape capture, Smallwood's men were ordered to attack the British forces and hold them long enough to give the American army time to withdraw across Long Island Sound.