1582 Martir, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.0435 and a diameter of 36.69 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.2.


1582 Martir, Naming
This minor planet was named in homage to the First Lady of Argentina, Eva Perón (1919–1952). The name translates from Spanish to "martyr" and refers to her efforts towards social justice. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center in January 1953 (M.P.C. 877). The discoverer also named the asteroids 1569 Evita, 1581 Abanderada, 1588 Descamisada and 1589 Fanatica in tribute to Perón.


1582 in Scotland
Events from the year 1582 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1582 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1582.


1582 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1582 in science
The year 1582 in science and technology included a number of events, some of which are listed here. This year sees the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, promulgated by Pope Gregory XIII in the Papal bull Inter gravissimas on February 24 and based largely on the work of Christopher Clavius. Under the Habsburg Monarchy in Spain, Portugal and Italy, together with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the year continues under the Julian calendar as normal until Thursday October 4, the next day becoming Friday October 15; France follows two months later, letting Sunday December 9 be followed by Monday December 20. Other countries switch in later years.


1583
1583 (MDLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. As of the start of 1583, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar.


1583 Antilochus
1583 Antilochus /ænˈtɪləkəs/ is a large Jupiter trojan from the Greek camp, approximately 108 kilometers (67 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 19 September 1950, by Belgian astronomer Sylvain Arend at Uccle Observatory in Belgium, and later named after the hero Antilochus from Greek mythology. The dark D-type asteroid belongs to the 20 largest Jupiter trojans and has a rotation period of 15.9 hours. It forms an asteroid pair with 3801 Thrasymedes.


1583 Antilochus, Classification and orbit
Antilochus is a dark Jovian asteroid orbiting in the leading Greek camp at Jupiter's L4 Lagrangian point, 60° ahead of its orbit in a 1:1 resonance (see Trojans in astronomy). It is also a non-family asteroid in the Jovian background population.


1583 Antilochus, Classification and orbit
It orbits the Sun at a distance of 4.9–5.4 AU once every 11 years and 7 months (4,244 days; semi-major axis of 5.13 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.05 and an inclination of 29° with respect to the ecliptic. The asteroid was first observed as 1926 VF at Heidelberg Observatory in November 1926. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Uccle in September 1950.


1583 Antilochus, Classification and orbit, Asteroid pair
In 1993, Andrea Milani suggested that Antilochus  forms an asteroid pair with 3801 Thrasymedes, using the hierarchical clustering method (HCM), which looks for groupings of neighboring asteroids based on the smallest distances between them in the proper orbital element space. Asteroid pairs, which at some point in the past had very small relative velocities, are typically formed by a collisional break-up of a parent body. Alternatively, they may have been former binary asteroids which became gravitationally unbound and are now following similar but different orbits around the Sun.


1583 Antilochus, Classification and orbit, Asteroid pair
The astronomer describes the finding as statistically significant though difficult to account for by a regular collisional event. The Antilochus–Thrasymedes pair is not listed at the Johnston's archive.


1583 Antilochus, Naming
This minor planet was named after prince Antilochus from Greek mythology. He was the youngest son of King Nestor (659 Nestor), close friend of Greek hero Achilles (588 Achilles) and commander of the Greek contingent of the Pylians during the Trojan War. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center in May 1952 (M.P.C. 770).


1583 Antilochus, Physical characteristics
In the Tholen, Barucci and Tesco classification, Antilochus is a dark D-type asteroid, with a V–I color index of 0.95. The D-type is the most common spectral type among the Jupiter trojans.


1583 Antilochus, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In December 2009 and June 2016, rotational lightcurves of Antilochus were obtained from photometric observations by American astronomer Robert Stephens at the Santana Observatory (646) and at the Center for Solar System Studies (CS3) in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 31.52 and 31.54 hours with an amplitude of 0.09 and 0.11 magnitude, respectively (U=2/2). Follow-up observations over a total of 11 nights by Stephens in August 2017 gave the so-far best-rated lightcurve with a period of 15.889±0.005 hours – which corresponds to half the period solution of the former results – and a slightly higher brightness variation of 0.12 magnitude (U=2+).


1583 Antilochus, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
Stephen's period determination supersedes previously reported results by Vincenzo Zappalà (1985; 12 h), Federico Manzini (2007; 12 h) and René Roy (2009; 22.5 h) (U=3−/3).


1583 Antilochus, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Antilochus measures between 101.62 and 111.69 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.053 and 0.063. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.0633 and a diameter of 101.62 kilometers, with Pravec's revised absolute magnitude of 8.59.


1583 Antilochus, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
Note: missing data was completed with figures from the JPL SBDB () and from the LCDB () for the WISE/NEOWISE and SIMPS catalogs, respectively. These figures are given in italics. Also, listing is incomplete above #100.


1583 in Scotland
Events from the year 1583 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1583 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1583.


1583 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1583 in science
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by BHGbot (talk | contribs) at 12:38, 18 June 2020 (WP:BHGbot 6 (List 5): fixed sort key; WP:GENFIXES). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1583 in science
The year 1583 in science and technology included a number of events, some of which are listed here.


1584
1584 (MDLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. As of the start of 1584, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar.


1584 AM
Copies of the World Radio TV Handbook (including the 1991 edition) have identified 1584 kHz as a local frequency, akin to the Class C (former Class IV) radio stations in North America which are limited to 1kW.


1584 AM
The following radio stations broadcast on AM frequency 1584 kHz:


1584 in Scotland
Events from the year 1584 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1584 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1584.


1584 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1584 in science
The year 1584 in science and technology included many events, some of which are listed here.


1585
1585 (MDLXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. As of the start of 1585, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake
The 1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake is the source of a vaguely–described tsunami along the Sanriku coast of Japan on June 11, 1585. The event was misdated to 1586 and thought to be generated by the 1586 Lima–Callao earthquake. The misdating also led to it being attributed with the deadly 1586 Tenshō earthquake (ja) (which occurred in the same year as the Peru earthquake). The source earthquake is now determined to be along the Aleutian Islands. Evidence from tsunami deposit and coral rocks in Hawaii led to the inference that this was a large megathrust earthquake occurring on the Aleutian subduction zone with a moment magnitude (Mw ) as large as 9.25.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Background
In 1586, a legend describing a wave, measuring up to two meters, struck near Tokura village in the Motoyoshi District of Miyagi Prefecture. The tsunami is also dubbed the "orphan tsunami" or "ghost tsunami" due to the uncertainties regarding the tsunami event.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Background, Tsunami event
According to Kenji Satake, a Japanese seismologist, the legend of the 1586 tsunami should be disregarded because it was a false event. There were also no historical documentation of a tsunami striking the Sanriku coast in that year.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Background, Tsunami event
In the aftermath of the deadly 1960 Valdivia earthquake and associated tsunami in Japan, Seishi Ninomiya, a researcher at Tohoku University gathered historical accounts of tsunamis in the Sanriku coasts and matched up the 1586 tsunami with a corresponding earthquake in Peru on July 9 that same year. The 8.1 Mw  Peru earthquake of 1586 ruptured an estimated 175-km-long section of the Peru-Chile megathrust. Historical descriptions of the tsunami in Callao found two very different height, 3.7 meters and 24 meters. A more accurate estimation for the 1586 Peru tsunami is 5 meters.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Background, Tsunami event
The latter was determined to be an exaggeration of the tsunami height after much evaluation. Furthermore, modelling of the Peru tsunami by a group of researchers in 2006 turned out unsuccessful in accurately matching the historical descriptions of the wave heights in Peru and Japan. Large Chilean-sourced tsunamis have been reported in Japan due to the orientation of the tsunami source, but Peru-sourced tsunamis are mostly weaker because they are not directed towards Japan, proving that the claim of a Peru tsunami in Japan is incorrect.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Background, Tsunami event
In another tsunami catalog compiled after the 1933 Sanriku earthquake, the author referenced a 1903 publication which stated that a tsunami occurred on June 11, 1585, or Tensho 13th year, 5th month and 14th day. Meanwhile, another tsunami event on January 18, 1586, was recorded, possibly associated with the 1586 Tenshō earthquake (ja). Because the Tensho earthquake occurred in 1586, the Sanriku tsunami was incorrectly dated to 1586, coincidentally matching the Peru quake as well.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Background, Hawaiian culture
The Hawaiian Islands have been known to be hit with large, distant-sourced tsunamis and locally sourced megatsunamis. The last known megatsunami occurred more than 10,000 years ago. Throughout the Holocene, tsunamis have repeatedly struck the islands leaving behind evidence of inundation in the form of deposits. Historical legends passed down by the natives have also described tsunamis hitting the island. One of these tsunamis struck Kāne‘ohe Bay on the island of Oahu. Archaeological and historical evidences showed that the tsunami occurred sometime between 1040 and 1280 A.D.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Background, Hawaiian culture
A chant composed between 1500 and 1600 described a tsunami-like event occurring on the western coast of Molokai. The chant is believed to be the oldest record of a tsunami in Hawaii. The chant goes:


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Background, Hawaiian culture
"The sun shines brightly at Kalaeola which sank into the sea. A huge wave came and killed its inhabitants, scattering them and leaving only Papala'au; their cries are all about."


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Tectonic setting
The Aleutian Islands lie near a convergent plate boundary where the Pacific Plate meets the North American Plate. The location where the plates converge is marked on the ocean floor by the Aleutian Trench. The Pacific Plate dives beneath the North American Plate along the Aleutian subduction zone which extends for approximately 4,000 km. The subduction zone is a large thrust fault capable of generating large megathrust earthquakes, sometimes tsunamigenic. The 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake and 1964 Alaska earthquake, measuring 8.6 Mw  and 9.2 Mw  respectively are examples of earthquakes on the subduction zone, both resulted in devastating tsunamis.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Evidence, Hawaii
A study of the northwestern coast of Kaua‘i in 2002 discovered evidence of a large tsunami in a layer of buried sand, similar to the tsunami deposits found after the 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Evidence, Hawaii
Earlier in 2001, at Makauwahi Sinkhole in the Makauwahi Cave complex, on the southern coast of Kaua‘i, researchers uncovered a 0.8 to 1-meter layer of deposit during an excavation of the site. The sinkhole is 30 to 35 meters wide and walls 6 to 25 meters high. The allochthonous deposit, consisting of stones and fragmented aeolianite were sourced from a distant location, confirming the occurrence of a major tsunami-like event in the Hawaiian Islands. The state of these boulders, cobbles, gravel, and sand, severely fractured and angular, concluded that they formed during one intense event. Dating of the deposits presented a time period of 1430–1665 A.D..


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Evidence, Hawaii
In a 2014 study of the site led by Rhett Butler, researchers from the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, National Tropical Botanical Garden and Pacific Tsunami Warning Center found the same deposit, 0.8 meters thick. They also measured the bottom of the sinkhole at 7.2 meters above the mean sea level, and location of the sinkhole 100 meters from the coast. The deposit volume is also estimated to be 600 square meters.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Evidence, Hawaii
Based on the location in which the deposit was found, the tsunami must be a very significant event. The layer deposited in the sinkhole was sourced by a tsunami much larger than anything generated by the largest Pacific earthquakes. The largest run-up height in modern times was from the 1960 Valdivia earthquake which tsunami run-up measured 3 meters. None of the recent tsunamis have been able to reach and inundate the Makauwahi Sinkhole, which lies 7.2 meters above sea level at a distance of 100 meters from the shore.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Evidence, Hawaii
Another research in 2017 revisited the site of the sinkhole to radiocarbon date plant materials in the deposit and found that the tsunami inundation occurred between 1425 and 1660 A.D. Together with the required tsunami run-up heights, the tsunami may have been associated with the misdated Sanriku tsunami of 1586.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Evidence, Japan
The Sanriku orphan tsunami may have been associated with deposited materials in near Sendai City, Miyagi which could not be explained by nearby earthquakes. Inscriptions on a monument at Tokura village, said that the tsunami struck the northeastern coast of Japan with a height of 1 to 2 meters.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Evidence, Cascadia
There is paleotsunami evidence in nine locations in Oregon, Washington and British Columbia to show that a tsunami occurred near the Cascadia subduction zone prior to the 1700 event. The next prior event in Cascadia was a less energetic tsunami event inferred to have taken place between 1402 and 1502, with an uncertainty of ± 20 years. This rules out Cascadia as the cause of the 1585 tsunami. Dating of the event however, strongly supported the Aleutian Islands as being the tsunami source.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Evidence, South America
The closest known historical earthquakes to 1585 to 1586 were the 1604 Arica, 1587 Guayllabamba and 1575 Valdivia earthquakes, which all generated tsunamis along the South American coast. However, no tsunamis from these events were ever measured on the Japanese coasts.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Evidence, Aleutian Islands
Paleotsunami studies on Sedanka Island near Amaknak Island found five large tsunami events before 1957. One of these tsunami deposits was found up to one kilometer inland and up to 18 meters above sea level. This tsunami event has been dated at 1530–1665 A.D.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Earthquake
In the same 2014 study led by Butler, researchers simulated the tsunami from a 9.25 Mw earthquake in the eastern Aleutian Islands, west of the 1946 earthquake rupture. The rupture area is 100 km by 600 km with an average slip of 35 meters on the megathrust. Their model was found to be sufficient enough to inundate the sinkhole. Along the Pacific Northwest coast, the tsunami measured a maximum of 9 meters while the mean height was 3.5 meters. The orientation of the megathrust with respect to the Hawaiian Islands allowed for much directivity of the tsunami energy. The results of the model did not rule out the possibility of other distant tsunami source locations. However, such events would have to greatly exceed the fault slip seen in other historically large events.


1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake, Future threat
At least 24 to 40 meters of slip has been accumulated since the earthquake of 1585 and it is possible for another event of a similar magnitude to occur. If a tsunami was generated, it would require just 4.5 hours of travel time to reach the Hawaiian Islands.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze
The 1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, also called the 1585 Ottoman invasion of the Shuf, was an Ottoman military campaign led by Ibrahim Pasha against the Druze and other chieftains of Mount Lebanon and its environs, then a part of the Sidon-Beirut Sanjak of the province of Damascus Eyalet. It had been traditionally considered the direct consequence of a raid by bandits in Akkar against the tribute caravan of Ibrahim Pasha, then Egypt's outgoing governor, who was on his way to Constantinople. Modern research indicates that the tribute caravan arrived intact and that the expedition was instead the culmination of Ottoman attempts to subjugate the Druze and other tribal groups in Mount Lebanon dating from 1518.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze
In 1523–1524 dozens of Druze villages were burned in the Chouf area and hundreds of Druze were killed or captured by the governor Khurram Pasha, after which a period of peace ensued. Tensions resumed in the 1560s as Druze and non-Druze local dynasties, particularly the Ma'ns, Assafs and Shihabs, acquired large quantities of prohibited firearms, which were often superior to those possessed by government troops. Military action by the Ottoman governors of Damascus in the 1570s failed to disarm the chiefs and the general population or collect tax arrears, which had been building up from the 1560s.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze
Ibrahim Pasha was appointed to "rectify the situation" in the Levant in 1583 and launched the expedition against the Druze of Mount Lebanon in the summer of 1585 as a Porte-ordered diversion from his Constantinople-bound caravan. He mobilized about 20,000 soldiers, including the Janissaries of Egypt and Damascus, as well as local chieftains, namely the Bedouin Mansur ibn Furaykh and Druze rivals of the Ma'ns. Hundreds of Druze rebels were slain, thousands of muskets were confiscated and large sums of money were collected as tax arrears by Ibrahim Pasha. The Ma'nid chief Qurqumaz, one of the principal targets of the expedition, died in hiding after refusing to surrender.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze
The following year the governor of Damascus, Ali Pasha, captured the chieftains of the local Assaf, Harfush, Tanukh and Furaykh dynasties and sent them to Constantinople. They were afterward returned to their home regions and confirmed in their tax farms. The expedition and its aftermath marked a turning point in Ottoman governance of the Levant as local chieftains were thenceforth frequently appointed as sanjak-beys (district governors). One such governor was a son of Qurqumaz, Fakhr al-Din II, who became the most powerful local force in the Levant from his appointments to the sanjaks of Sidon-Beirut and Safad in the 1590s and 1602, respectively, until his downfall in 1633.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Sources
The source used for the 1585 expedition by 19th-century chroniclers from Mount Lebanon and modern historians was the account of the Maronite patriarch and historian Istifan al-Duwayhi, which dates to c. 1668. Duwayhi's version attributes the cause of the campaign to a raid of the Constantinople-bound tribute caravan of Egypt's governor Ibrahim Pasha by bandits in Jun Akkar, a coastal area north of Tripoli. Duwayhi's account was reproduced almost identically by the 19th-century, Lebanon-based chroniclers Haydar al-Shihabi (d. 1835) and Tannus al-Shidyaq (d. 1859).


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Sources
Their accounts were the principal source used for the event by the modern historians Peter Malcolm Holt, Abdul Karim Rafeq, Kamal Salibi and Muhammad Adnan Bakhit. The year of the caravan raid was cited as 1584 by Duwayhi, and then by Rafeq, Salibi and Bakhit, while Shihabi, and in turn Holt, placed the raid in 1585.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Sources
Modern research by the historian Abdul-Rahim Abu-Husayn in the 1980s suggests that the Jun Akkar raid did not occur and that successive government–Druze hostilities from the 1520s onward culminated with the 1585 government expedition. Abu-Husayn based his reassessment of the events on contemporary and near contemporary sources, namely Ottoman government records, the accounts of the Ottoman historian Mustafa Selaniki (d. 1600), the Italian historian and traveller Giovanni Tomasso Minadoi (d. 1615) and the Damascene historians Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Tulun (d. 1576), al-Hasan al-Burini (d. 1615) and Ahmad al-Qaramani (fl. 1580s–1600s).


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background
The Ottoman Empire conquered the Levant from the Mamluks following the Battle of Marj Dabiq near Aleppo in 1516. The Ottoman sultan Selim I largely preserved the Mamluk governing structures and officials of the region. His beylerbey (provincial governor) over Damascus, Janbirdi al-Ghazali, had served the same role under the Mamluks. After Janbirdi declared himself sultan following Selim's death in 1520, the Ottomans stamped out his revolt and began to incorporate the Levant more firmly into the empire's structures.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background
The most significant challenge for the Sublime Porte (imperial Ottoman government in Constantinople) in the Levant had been the subjugation of its eastern desert and western mountainous peripheries. Selim had entrusted the pacification of Bedouin tribes and the security of the Hajj pilgrimage route between Damascus and Mecca to the powerful Sunni Muslim Bedouin dynasties of the Beqaa Valley and Jabal Nablus, the Hanash and Tarabay, respectively.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background
The area of Mount Lebanon and the port towns of Sidon and Beirut became administratively part of the Sidon-Beirut Sanjak, a district of Damascus Eyalet. Sidon-Beirut was divided into the nahiyas (subdistricts) of Beirut and Sidon along the coast, and the following nine nahiyas in the mountainous parts of the sanjak: from north to south, the Keserwan, the Matn, the Jurd, the Gharb, Iqlim al-Kharrub, three nahiyas collectively known as the Chouf and Iqlim al-Tuffah.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background
The nahiyas of the Matn, the Jurd, the Gharb and the Chouf were predominantly inhabited by Druze, followers of an 11th-century offshoot of Isma'ili Shia Islam. The Druze peasant tribesmen of southern Mount Lebanon proved challenging for the authorities to pacify, and a provincial law code from Sultan Suleiman's reign (1520–1566) referenced them as a "misguided folk where each follows his own cult" and from whom tax collection was difficult.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background
The Druze were officially considered Muslims by the Ottomans for taxation purposes, though they were not viewed as genuine Muslims by the authorities or the Sunni Muslim ulema (religious establishment). Members of the community had to pretend to be of the Sunni Muslim faith to attain any official post, were occasionally forced to pay the jizya (poll tax) reserved for Christians and Jews, and were the target of condemnatory treatises and fatwas (edicts) by the ulema of Damascus. The Druze were likewise suspicious of the Ottomans.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background
In their consistent efforts to counter their incorporation into the administrative and fiscal system, the Druze benefited from a rugged terrain, possession of firearms and sectarian and tribal cohesion, making it difficult to impose government authority in the Druze areas. Consequently, the Ottoman presence in the Druze areas, as well as the non-Druze nahiyas of Sidon-Beirut, was negligible for much of the 16th and 17th centuries, during which time local chieftains, Druze and Muslim alike, governed the area through iltizam (limited-term tax farms). Ostensibly, the appointed holders of iltizams, called multazims, were to remit taxes to the government and undertake official military duties; the local multazims did neither and were more powerful than the occasional government-appointed sanjak-bey (district governor).


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Druze–Ottoman hostilities before 1585
The first known government action against the Druze occurred in 1518 during the rebellion of Nasir al-Din, the Hanash chieftain and the sanjak-bey of Sidon-Beirut, against Selim. The rebellion was suppressed by Janbirdi, who arrested and executed Nasir al-Din and captured the latter's Druze allies, the chiefs Qurqumaz, Zayn al-Din and Alam al-Din Sulayman from the Chouf-based Ma'n family and Sharaf al-Din Yahya of the Gharb-based Tanukh-Buhtur family. The four Druze chiefs were released after paying a heavy fine.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Druze–Ottoman hostilities before 1585
The beylerbey of Damascus, Khurram Pasha, launched a punitive expedition against the Chouf Druze led by the Ma'nid chiefs in 1523. Forty-three Druze villages, including Barouk, the headquarters of Qurqumaz, were burned and Ibn Tulun reported that Khurram Pasha returned to Damascus with four camel loads of Druze heads and Druze religious literature proving the religion's hostility to Sunni Islam. The expedition represented the first attempt to impose direct government authority in the Chouf. Khurram Pasha followed up by appointing subashis (police superintendents) to enforce law and order in the area, but they were killed by the Druze.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Druze–Ottoman hostilities before 1585
Khurram Pasha responded by launching a second punitive expedition against the Chouf on 18 June 1524, during which thirty villages were burned and the beylerbey returned the next day with three camel loads of Druze heads and 300 Druze women and children captives. The campaigns were lauded by the contemporary ulema and poets of Damascus. There are no further mentions of Druze rebellions or government expeditions in the sources until the late 16th century.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Druze–Ottoman hostilities before 1585
Tensions between the Druze and the Porte rose considerably as the Druze, along with other tribal and sectarian groups in Syria, acquired firearms which were at times superior to the firearms used by the Ottoman armies. The possession of firearms by non-military subjects was forbidden, though the authorities faced difficulties enforcing the ban in Syria. The Syrians obtained at least part of their arsenals from European powers intent on destabilizing Ottoman rule in Syria. The arsenals were provided using mercantile ships which docked in the Syrian ports.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Druze–Ottoman hostilities before 1585
Other sources included the Janissaries of Damascus, the timar (fief)-holders in Syria and Ottoman ships from Constantinople which came to transport grain from Syria to the imperial capital. Druze armed with long muskets attacked officials sent to collect the taxes from their subdistricts and repulsed the subsequent Ottoman raid against them at Ain Dara in 1565.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Druze–Ottoman hostilities before 1585
In an order by the Porte to the beylerbey of Damascus in August 1574, it is mentioned that the villagers of the Gharb, Jurd, Chouf and Matn owed tax arrears dating over twenty years and that the muqaddams (chieftains) of the Druze possessed large quantities of muskets; the muqaddams named in the order were the Ma'nid Qurqumaz, possibly the grandson of the above mentioned Qurqumaz, the Tanukhid Sharaf al-Din and the non-Druze chieftains Mansur ibn Hasan of the Keserwan-based Assaf family and Qasim of the Wadi al-Taym-based Shihab family.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Druze–Ottoman hostilities before 1585
The beylerbey was ordered to collect at least 6,000 muskets from the named chieftains and more from each household of the named subdistricts. The combined forces of the beylerbey of Damascus, the imperial Damascene Janissaries, the sanjak-bey of Tripoli, and an Ottoman fleet launched an expedition against the Druze that year, but they were unable to subdue and disarm them.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Druze–Ottoman hostilities before 1585
The imperial order from 1574 was renewed in February 1576, but the beylerbey of Damascus was again unable to execute the order rather complaining that the inhabitants of the Gharb, Jurd, Chouf and Matn remained in a state of rebellion, that no multazim was willing to accept the tax farm for the subdistricts and appointed emins (tax collectors) were disrespected by the populace. The Porte consequently ordered that the beylerbey destroy an unspecified number of Druze villages, arrest and punish their muqaddams and collect the tax arrears.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Druze–Ottoman hostilities before 1585
No military action was taken and the Druze continued to defy the authorities and were reported by the government to have acquired further muskets in 1582. In that year they were accused of collaborating with the Druze and Shia Muslims of the Safad Sanjak, south of Sidon-Beirut, and the Porte's order called for "get[ting] rid of [Qurqumaz] ibn Ma'n, whose trouble and evil deeds exceed all others".


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Prelude
Al-Qaramani wrote that the vizier Ibrahim Pasha was sent to Egypt and Syria in 1583 to "rectify the situation [there]". On 12 February 1585 an imperial order issued to the beylerbey of Damascus, Uveys Pasha, reaffirmed that Qurqumaz was "a rebellious chieftain ... who has gathered [around him] miscreants in the Druze community and done harm and mischief in the sanjak of Safad". Ibrahim Pasha arrived in Damascus with a tribute caravan from Egypt and a large military escort in June. He was instructed by the Porte to subdue the Druze of Mount Lebanon.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Background, Prelude
On 31 August Uveys Pasha was ordered by the Porte to cooperate with Ibrahim Pasha against the Bedouin and the Druze who had rebelled throughout Damascus Eyalet, causing damage and attacking highways. Abu-Husayn views the constant state of rebellion by the Druze and the general insubordination of chieftains in parts of Syria where the government had been unable to exercise authority as the direct cause of Ibrahim Pasha's expedition.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Expedition and follow up campaigns
Ibrahim Pasha's army consisted of the Janissaries of Egypt and Damascus, and his troops numbered about 20,000. The versions of Duwayhi and Shihabi, which add the troops of Aleppo Eyalet and Cyprus Eyalet to the expeditionary force, hold that Ibrahim Pasha's troops encamped in an area called Marj Armush and the size of the Ottoman force alone "frightened all the Arab lands". The Ottoman troops and their local backers blocked the roads to the coast and the Beqaa Valley and killed about 500 Druze elders.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Expedition and follow up campaigns
Government records confirm Ibrahim Pasha killed hundreds of Druze rebels, sent many of their heads to Constantinople and had "thus punished the rebellious community properly". Numerous villages in the Chouf were plundered and Qurqumaz went into hiding in a cave and died. The Druze and others were disarmed and tax arrears were collected, with al-Burini reporting that Ibrahim Pasha confiscated thousands of muskets and large sums of money from the Druze.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Expedition and follow up campaigns
Ibrahim Pasha used Mansur ibn Furaykh as his guide. Ibn Furaykh was a Sunni Bedouin chieftain of the Beqaa Valley and local enemy of Qurqumaz who had a reputation of hostility toward the Druze and Shias; the role attributed to Ibn Furaykh of persuading the vizier to launch the campaign by the 19th-century chroniclers was without foundation, according to Abu-Husayn. During the expedition, a number of Ma'nids and other Druze chieftains, including the Alam al-Dins of the Matn and the Sharaf al-Dins of the Gharb defected to Ibrahim Pasha, along with a significant proportion of Qurqumaz's men.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Expedition and follow up campaigns
Ibrahim Pasha arrived in Constantinople later in 1585. According to Minadoi's account he entered the Golden Horn with 24 galleys and received a welcome by a volley of artillery fire from the Topkapi Palace and large crowds. In contradiction to Duwayhi's account of the tribute having been robbed, contemporary accounts indicate it arrived in Constantinople with about 300,000–1,000,000 piasters, 173,000 gold pieces, an emerald throne for Sultan Murad III (r. 1574–1595), Arabian horses, an elephant and a giraffe.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Expedition and follow up campaigns
After the expedition, in the same year, the Sidon-Beirut Sanjak was detached from Damascus Eyalet and became part of Tripoli Eyalet, which was established in 1579. The beylerbey of Tripoli from 1579, the local chieftain of the Akkar area Yusuf Sayfa Pasha, was concomitantly dismissed, likely because of suspicions that he would compromise the government's interests for local considerations. His replacement, the veteran Ottoman commander Ja'far Pasha al-Tuwashi, was entrusted with continuing Ibrahim Pasha's suppression of the rebellion in Mount Lebanon.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Expedition and follow up campaigns
Yusuf Sayfa may have resisted his dismissal, as according to Duwayhi his territory in Akkar was raided by Ja'far Pasha. The latter was reassigned to the Safavid front within a few months and without his iron grip the territory of Sidon-Beirut drifted out of Tripoli's control and, in practice, reverted to Damascene oversight. Although Duwayhi's version holds that a number of Syrian chieftains were captured in Ibrahim Pasha's expedition and brought to Constantinople, contemporary sources indicate most of the chieftains were captured in a follow-up campaign by Ali Pasha ibn Alwan, Ibrahim Pasha's appointee as beylerbey of Damascus, in 1586.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Expedition and follow up campaigns
Among the captive chieftains were Muhammad, the Ghazir-based son and successor of the Assaf chieftain Mansur, Muhammad ibn Jamal al-Din and Mundhir, the respective Tanukhid chiefs of Aramoun and Abeih, Ali al-Harfush, the Shia chieftain of Baalbek, and Ibn Furaykh. The chieftains were well-received in Constantinople and shortly after sent back to their respective territories with confirmations of their iltizam.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Aftermath
The 1585–1586 events marked a turning point in the history of Mount Lebanon and the Levant in general under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans began to entrust local chieftains with the policing and taxation of the region by appointing them over the sanjaks of the region and granting them the title of bey (Turkish equivalent to the Arabic emir). Qurqumaz's son Fakhr al-Din II was appointed sanjak-bey of Sidon-Beirut in the early 1590s and was additionally assigned Safad Sanjak in 1602.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Aftermath
Fakhr al-Din combined lucrative commercial ties with the Italians, a privately-funded army of sekbans (musketeers), and support from Ottoman officialdom, which he guaranteed through bribes and prompt payment of taxes, to establish himself as the most powerful chieftain of the Levant until his downfall in 1633. Ali al-Harfush, who had been appointed sanjak-bey of Homs in 1585, was kept in his post during his exile in Constantinople and returned to his Baalbek headquarters by 1589. He was executed c. 1590 but his son Musa succeeded him in Baalbek and was appointed sanjak-bey of Homs in 1592.


1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze, Aftermath
The historian Stefan Winter places the 1585 expedition within the context of imperial changes to the military and fiscal structures of the Levant in the late 16th century, which included the creation of the hybrid eyalet of Tripoli in 1579, which combined the military appendage sanjak of Jabala with the tax revenue-driven sanjaks of Sidon-Beirut, Homs and Salamiyah, which were governed by local chieftains and did not contribute troops for war. About the same time the Porte also began to grant lands along the upper Euphrates valley to Ottoman officers and loyal Bedouin chieftains and in 1586 created the Rakka Eyalet all toward exerting greater control of the desert interior of the Levant.


1585 Union
1585 Union, provisional designation 1947 RG, is a dark background asteroid from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 52 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 7 September 1947, by South African astronomer Ernest Johnson at the Union Observatory in Johannesburg, South Africa. The asteroid was named after the discovering observatory.


1585 Union, Orbit and classification
Union is not a member of any known asteroid family. It orbits the Sun in the outer main belt at a distance of 2.0–3.8 AU once every 5.01 years (1,830 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 26° with respect to the ecliptic.


1585 Union, Orbit and classification
In 1929, the asteroid was first identified as 1929 DB at the Uccle Observatory in Belgium. The body's observation arc begins at the Finnish Turku Observatory in February 1939, more than 17 years prior to its official discovery observation at Johannesburg.


1585 Union, Physical characteristics
Union has been characterized as a P-type asteroid by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), while the LCDB assumes a generic carbonaceous C-type.


1585 Union, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In March 1984, a rotational lightcurve of Union was obtained from photometric observations by American astronomer Richard Binzel. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 9.38 hours with a brightness variation of 0.22 magnitude (U=2). In addition, a fragmentary lightcurve with a period of 24 hours was obtained by French amateur astronomer Laurent Bernasconi in 2004 (U=1).


1585 Union, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's WISE telescope, Union measures between 49.01 and 56.014 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.0304 and 0.05.


1585 Union, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopt the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.0378 and a diameter of 50.42 kilometers. CALL also takes an absolute magnitude of 10.67 from Richard Binzel.


1585 Union, Naming
This minor planet was named after the discovering Union Observatory, also known as the Johannesburg Observatory, Transvaal Observatory (1909–1912) and Republic Observatory (1961–1971). The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center in June 1953 (M.P.C. 941).


1585 in Scotland
Events from the year 1585 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1585 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1585.


1585 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1585 in science
The year 1585 in science and technology included many events, some of which are listed here.


1585 papal conclave
The 1585 papal conclave (21–24 April), convoked after the death of Pope Gregory XIII, elected Cardinal Felice Peretti Montalto (O.F.M.Conv), who took the name of Pope Sixtus V. Forty-two of the sixty cardinals participated in the conclave. The absence of thirty percent of the cardinalate makes this conclave one of the most sparsely attended in the history of the modern Roman Catholic Church. Fourteen of Gregory XIII's thirty cardinals failed to attend, a startlingly high number.


1585 papal conclave, Proceedings
The conclave began in the Vatican on 21 April, Easter Sunday. At the opening ceremonies, out of sixty living cardinals thirty-nine were in attendance. Three more arrived later, in time to cast a vote: Andreas of Austria, Ludovico Madruzzo of Trent, and Guido Luca Ferrero of Vercelli. Two factions quickly formed. The first was led by Cardinal Ferdinando de' Medici and the second by Luigi d'Este (grandson of King Louis XII of France). They were willing to combine to make a pope, but it depended on whether they could agree on a common candidate.


1585 papal conclave, Proceedings
Early voting seemed to favour Cardinals Pier Donato Cesi and Guglielmo Sirleto, but by the next morning they had been abandoned. Wanting to avoid the potential influence of cardinals who had not yet arrived, Medici then proposed two names to D' Este: those of Cardinals Albani and Montalto, and invited him to choose. D' Este imposed conditions, however, and the projected deal, when news got out, caused much indignation. Through a series of misdirections and strategems, Medici convinced the cardinals that Montalto was not his candidate.


1585 papal conclave, Proceedings
Ludovico Cardinal Madruzzo, who was the designated leader of the Spanish faction, then arrived in Rome and had conversations with the Spanish and Imperial ambassadors before he entered conclave. Meeting immediately with d' Este, Madruccio learned of d' Este's dislike of his own favorite, Sirleto. Considering that a completely pro-Spanish pope would be as unpalatable as a completely pro-French one, he therefore declared himself to d'Este to be against Cardinal Albani, and thus in favor of Montalto. Altemps, Medici and Gesualdo then put pressure on Madruccio as well, and he was won over.


1585 papal conclave, Proceedings
As leader of the Spanish interest, he brought his own influence to bear on Andrew of Austria, Colonna, Deza (Seza), Gonzaga, Sfondrati and Spinola. With all of these adherents, Medici and d'Este still needed four votes. These could only be had in the group of Gregory XIII's cardinals organized by Alessandro Farnese, the Dean of the College of Cardinals. During that night, Cardinal Ferrero arrived.


1585 papal conclave, Proceedings
On 24 April Medici explained to Montalto all that had been done, and advised him as to how affairs should be conducted. D'Este met with Farnese, who believed that Montalto had no voting strength, and managed to further misdirect him. During a meeting in the Pauline Chapel, d' Este recruited Guastavillani, the Cardinal Camerlengo; Giambattista Castagna, the Cardinal of San Marcello; and Francesco Sforza. When the cardinals finally assembled in the Sistine Chapel, d' Este declared that it was not necessary to proceed to a ballot, since it was obvious who the new pope was. Without opposition the cardinals proceeded to do hommage ('adoration') to Felice Cardinal Peretti though, immediately afterwards, a vote was conducted by asking each cardinal to cast his vote aloud. The vote was unanimous. Cardinal François de Joyeuse arrived in Rome too late to participate in the Conclave.


1585 papal conclave, Proceedings
The coronation of Sixtus V took place on May 1. As senior cardinal deacon Cardinal de' Medici placed the tiara on his head. On May 5, he took possession of the Lateran.


1586
1586 (MDLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. As of the start of 1586, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar.


1586 Lima–Callao earthquake
The 1586 Lima–Callao earthquake (Spanish: Terremoto de Lima y Callao de 1586) occurred on July 9 along the coast of Peru, near the capital Lima. A section of the Peruvian coast, stretching from Caravelí to Trujillo, north to south, was decimated by the earthquake. Major destruction occurred in the capital city Lima as well. The estimatd moment magnitude (Mw ) 8.1 earthquake triggered a locally damaging tsunami of up to 5 meters. This was the first major earthquake to strike the city Lima since its establishment in 1535.


1586 Lima–Callao earthquake, Tectonic setting
The coast of Peru lies a 7,000-km-long convergent boundary where the oceanic Nazca Plate subducts or dives beneath the continental South American Plate. The Peru–Chile trench marks the location where the two plates meet and converge. Subduction at the plate boundary rate varies throughout the 7,000 km length, at 65 mm/yr towards the north, and up to 80 mm/yr in the south. The presence of active subduction can produce large earthquakes when elastic energy along the plate boundary (megathrust) is released suddenly after decades or centuries of accumulated strain. Earthquakes rupturing the megathrust are known as megathrust earthquakes; capable of generating tsunamis when there is sufficient and sudden uplift of the seafloor, in turn lead to the sudden displacement of the sea.


1586 Lima–Callao earthquake, Descriptions
The shock from the quake was felt at 19:00 local time on July 9, a Wednesday. The shock was accompanied by loud noises which frightened many residents, driving them out of their homes. Most residents were able to evacuate in time during the earthquake, such that the death toll was small, although there were many individuals that suffered injuries. When the quake struck, many of the residents were already out in the streets or gardens where they were safe from collapes. Damage and effects from the earthquake occurred over a 1,000 km stretch by 120 km wide area near the coast. THe earthquake was also felt in the cities Cusco and Huánuco.


1586 Lima–Callao earthquake, Descriptions
The earthquake reportedly collaped the towers of a cathedral in the city of Lima. Significant rockslides occurred at Cerro San Cristobal (es) in the Rímac District of Lima Province. The earthquake also severely damaged the residence of Fernando Torres de Portugal y Mesía, the then viceroy of Peru. Ground fissures formed in the city when the shaking was ongoing.


1586 Lima–Callao earthquake, Descriptions
The associated tsunami was documented by the viceroy of Peru in which he said the waves picked up and smashed homes, and inundated up to 250 meters inland. Even when the waves retreated, the some parts of the city was so severely flooded that it was impossible to ride a horse through. At Callao, the earthquake and tsunami destroyed many docks and warehouses. Ships were dragged far inland during the tsunami inundation. Many trees and bushes were uprooted from the ground and deposited far inland by the tsunami.


1586 Lima–Callao earthquake, Earthquake
The 1586 earthquake ruptures a 175-km-long section of the Peru-Chile subduction zone, similar in size to the 1974 earthquake, which had an estimated moment magnitude (Mw ) of 8.1, and a tsunami magnitude (Mt ) of 8.5.


1586 Lima–Callao earthquake, Earthquake, Tsunami
Older descriptions of the tsunami having a height of 24 to 26 meters have been debunked and concluded as exaggerations. A more accurate height of the tsunami has been estimated at 5 meters.


1586 Lima–Callao earthquake, Earthquake, Tsunami
The tsunami was also confused as being an orphan tsunami reported along Japan's Sanriku coast due to erroneous cataloging of historical tsunamis, which also led to the confusion that it was from the 1586 Tenshō earthquake; a large Japanese earthquake. The presence of a tsunami at the Sanriku coast however, was reported in June 1585, now thought to be from the 1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake.


1586 Lima–Callao earthquake, Earthquake, Tsunami
At a monument in Tokura village near the Sanriku coast in Miyagi Prefecture, a stone monument stated that a tsunami between 1 and 2 meters in height struck the coast; the tsunami has been inferred to be of the 1585 event. Modelling of the tsunami from the 1586 earthquake in Peru suggest the tsunami was approximately 6 cm.


1586 in Scotland
Events from the year 1586 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1586 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1586.


1586 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1586 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1586 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1586 in science
The year 1586 in science and technology included a number of events, some of which are listed here.


1587
1587 (MDLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. As of the start of 1587, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election
The third free election in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in 1587, after the death of King Stefan Batory. It began on June 30, 1587, when Election Sejm was summoned in the village of Wola near Warsaw, and ended on December 27 of the same year, when King Sigismund III was crowned in Kraków’s Wawel Cathedral.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Background
Death of Stefan Batory (12 December 1586) began a third period of interregnum in 15 years. The Commonwealth was left without a monarch, since Anna Jagiellon, who was regarded as co-ruler of the country (together with her husband, Stefan Batory), had relinquished her claims to the crown. As a result, Poland - Lithuania was again ruled by an interrex, Primate and Archbishop of Gniezno, Stanisław Karnkowski, who organized the election and met with foreign envoys.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Background
At that time, the Commonwealth was deeply divided between the powerful magnates and the szlachta (nobility). Stefan Batory had been backed by noble families (the Radziwills, the Zamoyskis, the Lubomirskis), while szlachta accused him of tyranny (see also Samuel Zborowski). Furthermore, there were internal divisions between Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, also between Polish provinces (Lesser Poland, Mazovia, Greater Poland, Red Ruthenia, Royal Prussia).


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Background
The Convocation Sejm began on February 2, 1587, and was immediately marred by arguments between the magnates and the nobility.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Candidates
The Convocation Sejm began on February 2, 1587, and was immediately marred by arguments between supporters of four camps: Habsburg, Swedish (or Jagiellon), Muscovy and those who backed a Piast, or a native citizen of the Commonwealth. The Habsburg candidate was supported by the Zborowski family, Voivode of Poznań Stanislaw Gorka, Bishop of Vilnius Jerzy Radziwiłł, and Sejm Marshal Stanislaw Sedziwoj Czarnkowski. All received large sums of money from Emperor Rudolf II, but an ultra-Catholic, Habsburg candidate was regarded as a threat to religious tolerance, guaranteed by Warsaw Confederation.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Candidates
Another possible candidate, Tsar Feodor I of Russia was supported by the Lithuanians, who hoped that his election would end never-ending wars between Muscovy and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A Piast candidate was liked by the Poles, but opposed by the Lithuanians. Swedish/Jagiellon candidate, Duke Sigismund, son of Katarzyna Jagiellonka and Swedish King John III, was backed by Anna Jagiellon and one of the most powerful magnates of the Commonwealth, Jan Zamoyski. A Swedish king would guarantee freedom of Baltic Sea shipping, a Polish - Swedish alliance, aimed at Muscovy, and annexation of Estonia by Poland–Lithuania.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, The Election
Election Sejm was summoned to Wola on June 30, 1587. Polish and Lithuanian magnates came there with their own armed units, and electors were divided into two camps: pro-convocation (or pro-Habsburg), with the Zborowski brothers as their leaders, and anti-convocation, headed by Jan Zamoyski.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, The Election
For the first weeks, the Sejm was occupied by the death of Samuel Zborowski, and arguments between the Zborowski family and Jan Zamoyski. Since Zamoyski did not want to respond to any questions, rokosz was declared, with the purpose of judging Zamoyski and other officials, connected to the late King Stefan Batory. On July 27, both camps began preparation for military action, and at the last moment, the conflict was defused by Primate Stanisław Karnkowski, Voivode of Sandomierz Stanislaw Szafraniec, and Bishop of Kamieniec Podolski, Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki, who mediated between the two warring parties.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, The Election
In early August 1587, Swedish envoy Erik Larsson Sparre came to Wola, giving a speech, in which he praised Duke Sigismund. His speech impressed the nobility and the magnates, including Zamoyski, Karnkowski, Crown Marshal Andrzej Opalinski, and Albert Laski. On August 19, the Primate nominated Sigismund to the throne, but three days later, the pro-convocation camp declared Maximilian III, Archduke of Austria new king of Poland (none was supported by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania). Both Sigismund and Maximilian accepted Polish throne, which resulted in the War of the Polish Succession.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, After the Election
On September 27, 1587 in Olomouc, Maximilian Habsburg took on the title of King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and swore to observe the pacta conventa. After several weeks, he entered the Commonwealth with an army of some 5,000 (plus 1,500 Polish supporters). Maximilian planned to capture Kraków, but failed to do so, and gave up the siege on November 30.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, After the Election
On August 24, Swedish envoys Erik Brahe and Erik Larsson Sparre swore the pacta conventa, without waiting for Duke Sigismund, who was on his way from Sweden. Swedish candidate anchored at Gdańsk on September 29, and was welcomed by Bishop of Przemysl, Wojciech Baranowski. Following his father’s order, Vasa stayed on the ship, as he disagreed with one of Polish conditions, which was incorporation of Swedish-ruled Estonia into the Commonwealth. Finally, on October 7, Sigismund Vasa swore to observe the pacta conventa at the Oliwa Cathedral, and on December 9, 1587, he entered Kraków, where he was crowned on December 27.


1587 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, After the Election
On January 24, 1588, the army of Maximilian Habsburg was defeated by Jan Zamoyski in the Battle of Byczyna. Maximilian, together with his court, was interned in Krasnystaw. The conflict was ended in early spring of 1589, during the so-called Pacification Sejm. Supporters of Maximilian swore their allegiance to Sigismund, and were allowed to return to the Commonwealth.


1587 in Scotland
Events from the year 1587 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1587 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1587.


1587 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1587 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1587 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1587 in science
The year 1587 in science and technology included many events, some of which are listed here.


1587, a Year of No Significance
1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline (Chinese: 萬曆十五年; pinyin: Wanli Shiwunian) is Chinese historian Ray Huang's most famous work. First published by Yale University Press in 1981, it examines how a number of seemingly insignificant events in 1587 might have caused the downfall of the Ming dynasty.


1587, a Year of No Significance
The Chinese title, meaning "the fifteenth year of the Wanli era", is how the year 1587 was expressed in the Chinese calendar: the era name of the reigning Chinese emperor at the time, followed by which year of his reign it was.


1587, a Year of No Significance
Major figures discussed in the book besides the emperor are Grand Secretaries Zhang Juzheng and Shen Shixing, official Hai Rui, general Qi Jiguang and philosopher Li Zhi.


1587, a Year of No Significance
Although Huang had completed the manuscript by 1976, no publisher would accept it at first, as it was not serious enough for an academic work, but was too serious for popular non-fiction.


1587, a Year of No Significance
The work has been translated into a number of different languages: Chinese, Japanese, Korean, German and French.


1587, a Year of No Significance, Adaptations
1587 was adapted into a play by Zuni Icosahedron director Mathias Woo, which premièred in Hong Kong in 1999. The second production was in 2006, after Woo and Towards the Republic screenwriter Zhang Jianwei (張建偉) re-wrote the script by adding a considerable amount of Kun opera and other elements. There was a third run in 2008.


1588
1588 (MDLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. As of the start of 1588, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar.


1588 Descamisada
1588 Descamisada, provisional designation 1951 MH, is an Eos asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 18 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 27 June 1951, by astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory in La Plata, Argentina, and named in honor of Eva Perón.


1588 Descamisada, Orbit and classification
Descamisada is a member of the Eos family (606), the largest asteroid family in the outer main belt consisting of nearly 10,000 asteroids. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.8–3.2 AU once every 5 years and 3 months (1,924 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 11° with respect to the ecliptic. Descamisada's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation, as no precoveries were taken and no prior identifications were made.


1588 Descamisada, Physical characteristics
According to the surveys carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Descamisada measures 17.54 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.141. A magnitude-to-diameter conversion, gives a diameter between 14 and 36 kilometers for an assumed albedo in the range of 0.05–0.25 and an absolute magnitude of 11.3.


1588 Descamisada, Physical characteristics
As of 2017, Descamisada's spectral type, rotation period and shape remain unknown.


1588 Descamisada, Naming
This minor planet was named for Eva Perón and its name is a feminized form of "descamisado" (shirtless one) – a term used to denote the working class citizens which formed the support base of Peronism. Eva Perón, also known as "Evita", was the wife of Argentine President Juan Perón, First Lady of Argentina and idolized by millions. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center in April 1954 (M.P.C. 1069). The asteroids 1569 Evita, 1581 Abanderada, 1582 Martir and 1589 Fanatica were also discovered by Itzigsohn, and were also given names in tribute to Perón.


1588 in Scotland
Events from the year 1588 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1588 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1588.


1588 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1588 in science
The year 1588 in science and technology, Armada year, included a number of events, some of which are listed here.


1589
1589 (MDLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. As of the start of 1589, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar.


1589 Fanatica
1589 Fanatica, provisional designation 1950 RK, is a stony, Vestian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 11 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 13 September 1950, by Argentine astronomer Miguel Itzigsohn at La Plata Astronomical Observatory in La Plata, Argentina. It was named after Eva Perón.


1589 Fanatica, Orbit and classification
Based on its orbital elements, Fanatica is a S-type member of the Vesta family, which is named after 4 Vesta, the third largest body in the main-belt after the dwarf planet 1 Ceres and the minor planet 2 Pallas. Fanatica orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2–2.6 AU once every 3 years and 9 months (1,372 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 5° with respect to the ecliptic. It was first identified as A924 WC at Heidelberg Observatory in 1924, extending the body's observation arc by 26 years prior to its official discovery observation at La Plata.


1589 Fanatica, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In November 2003, a rotational lightcurve of Fanatica was obtained by astronomer Brian Warner at his Palmer Divide Observatory in Colorado. The light-curve analysis gave a rotation period of 2.58 hours with a brightness variation of 0.16 magnitude (U=3). In August 2014, photometric observations by astronomer Robert Stephens gave a period of 2.582 hours and change in brightness of 0.18 magnitude (U=3).


1589 Fanatica, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Fanatica measures between 9.31 and 12.16 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.189 and 0.388. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 12.39 kilometers, using an absolute magnitude of 11.9.


1589 Fanatica, Naming
This minor planet was named in reference to Argentine legend, Eva Perón (1919–1952), also known as "Evita", wife of Argentine President Juan Perón, First Lady of Argentina and idolized by millions. The asteroids 1569 Evita, 1581 Abanderada, 1582 Martir and 1588 Descamisada were also discovered by Itzigsohn, and were also given names in tribute to Perón. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center in April 1954 (M.P.C. 1069).


1589 in Scotland
Events from the year 1589 in the Kingdom of Scotland.


1589 in literature
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1589.


1589 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1589 in science
The year 1589 in science and technology included a number of events, some of which are listed here.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip
The rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip in 1589, known in Korean as the Gichuk oksa (기축옥사, 己丑獄事), was one of the bloodiest political purges in Korea's Joseon Dynasty. Its scale was greater than all four of the notorious literati purges combined. At that time Joseon politics was dominated by conflict between Eastern and Western factions. Neo-Confucian scholar and Easterner Jeong Yeo-rip was accused of high treason, after which as many as 1,000 Easterners were killed or exiled. (Oksa means a major case involving high treason in Korean, and there were several events named oksa during the Joseon period.)


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip
There is still much dispute about the Treason Case of 1589 because there is a wealth of conflicting historical accounts written by both factions. In the Annals of Joseon Dynasty, the official royal record of the Joseon Dynasty, the Seonjo Annals were written by the Easterners (who held power in Gwanghaegun's reign during which it was written) while the Revised Seonjo Annals were written by the Westerners who later seized power with a coup d'état that placed Injo on throne. In "Yeonryeoshil Records", unofficial history compiled by Yi Geung-don much later, Yi included accounts of the both sides and marked them in different colors to identify them as such.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Sarim's division
During King Seonjo's reign, the Sarim scholars following the Kim Jong-jik's school of Neo-Confucianism seized power after long period of persecution and purges. However, generational difference soon emerged within the Sarim faction - older generation who entered politics during predecessor Myeongjong's reign and younger generation who became officials during Seonjo's time. Their difference was reflected in their attitude toward Shim Eui-gyeom, Myeongjong's brother-in-law. The Sarim tended to regard the king's maternal relatives as corrupting influence on the court and best to be excluded from politics.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Sarim's division
But  older generation, which came to be called the Westerners because Shim's house was on the west of the palace, supported Shim for being Yi Hwang's disciple and protecting them from yet another purge of Sarim that had been planned by his uncle. However, younger generation, called Esterners because its leader Kim Hyo-won's house was on the east of the palace, regarded Shim and older Sarim officials partly responsible for excesses of Myeongjong's reign, which was notorious for corruption and abuse of Yoon Won-hyeong, Myeong's maternal uncle. Philosophically, Easterners tended to be followers of Yi Hwang and Jo Shik while the Westerners followed Yi I and Seong Hun.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Sarim's division
This division was soon brought to conflict, however, mainly because of personal grudge between Shim and Kim. When a key position in Ministry of Personnel became vacant and Kim was recommended by the predecessor, Shim opposed Kim's appointment claiming that Kim was Yoon Wong-hyeong's hanger-on. There could be no greater insult to a Sarim scholar. Kim, who was nevertheless appointed to the position, later opposed Shim's younger brother being appointed to the same position as his successor.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Sarim's division
Yi I attempted to prevent the factional split by appointing Shim Eui-gyeom and Kim Hyo-won to provincial posts away from the court and tried to arrange truce between Easterner Yi Bal and Westerner Jeong Cheol. After Yi I's death, however, the conflict between two factions became more intense as the Easterners impeached Shim Eui-gyeom, leading to his dismissal, and gained upper hand.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Jeong Yeo-rip's "revolt"
As the Easterners began to take key positions, Jeong Yeo-rip changed his affiliation from the Western to Eastern faction and criticized his teacher Yi I after his death, earning hatred and contempt of the Westerners as well as Seonjo, who greatly respected Yi I.  Jeong left the court and went back to his hometown where he formed a private society with his supporters. Called Great Common Society (대동계), anyone could join the society regardless of one's social status or gender, and they met each month to socialize together as well as study and also undergo military training.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Jeong Yeo-rip's "revolt"
It was not a secret society as it helped defeat the Japanese marauders at the local government's request in one occasion. The society spread throughout Honam region (today's Jeolla) and even beyond. One day a government official in Hwanghae province reported to King Seonjo that there was conspiracy for rebellion in his areas and that their leader was Jeong Yeo-rip.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Jeong Yeo-rip's "revolt"
There is still a great deal of dispute whether Jeong was conspiring to rebel or whether it was a  frame up concocted by the Westerners. There is also a dispute about the nature and purpose of Great Common Society. Jeong supposedly said, "the world is something to be shared and therefore there cannot be one master." He argued that the world belonged to the people, and whoever chosen by them was the king. Jeong's philosophy reflected a desire for classless society, opposition to hereditary monarchy, and possibly even republicanism.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Jeong Yeo-rip's "revolt"
Such revolutionary ideas and presence of armed supporters could not help but attract attention of his enemies. For a long time in Korean history, Jeong Yeo-rip's rebellion has been accepted as a fact even by the Easterners, but some historians note that there was no evidence except confessions from tortured followers and letters and writings discovered in his house, which could have been forged.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Jeong Yeo-rip's "revolt"
What is undisputed is that Jeong Yeo-rip's supposed rebellion led to a widespread purge of countless Easterners who had nothing to do with Jeong and died terrible deaths as a result. Jeong Cheol, head of the Western faction and a famous poet whose poems are still studied in Korean schools, was in charge of investigating the case and used the case to purge Easterners who had slightest connection with Jeong Yeo-rip. It was said that even a man who shed tears because dust entered his eyes (when Jeong Yeo-rip's body was mutilated after his suicide) was killed for suspected sympathy for Jeong Yeo-rip.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Song Yik-pil and Ahn Family
According to some accounts, the origin of Treason Case of 1589 goes back to the Third Literati Purge of 1519 during Jungjong's reign and the resulting grudge between two families. After Sarim's head Jo Gwang-jo was executed on framed charges in 1519, Right State Councillor Ahn Dang was dismissed for supporting Jo and his followers, among whom were his sons.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Song Yik-pil and Ahn Family
In 1521, Song Saryeon, Ahn's family slave who rose to become a government official of senior fifth rank under Ahn Dang's patronage, reported to King Jungjong that Ahn Dang's son was conspiring to kill Chief State Councillor Nam Gon and Shim Jeong, instigators of the Third Literati Purge of 1519. He presented a guest list for funeral of Ahn's wife as the evidence of conspirators’ meeting. At least a dozen Sarim scholars including Ahn Dang and his family were killed in this event, called False Treason Case of 1521 (Shinsa muok·신사무옥), and Song Saryeon was rewarded with promotion to high rank and Ahn family's entire possession.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Song Yik-pil and Ahn Family
One of his sons was Song Yik-pil, who became a scholar of such renown that he formed friendship with Yi I and leading Westerners who praised that his achievement was enough to cover his father's crimes. It is remarkable indeed that Song Yik-pil overcame the fact that his father not only betrayed his master and benefactor, which would be considered one of the worst sins in Confucian world, but caused one of purges against the Sarim scholars, especially Jo Gwang-jo's supporters. By Seonjo's reign, the Sarim faction took control of the government and Jo Gwang-jo and Ahn family were fully rehabilitated as their martyrs.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Song Yik-pil and Ahn Family
However, some hardline Easterners saw Song Yik-pil as the mastermind behind the Westerners and instigated the descendants of Ahn Dang to seek justice and punishment for Song Saryeon, who was then deceased after enjoying thirty years of power and wealth. After an reinvestigation in 1586, it was determined that Ahn Dang and others were falsely accused by Song Saryoen and  over 70 family members of Song Saryeon including Song Yik-pil were enslaved and given to Ahn family as compensation. Facing certain revenge from aggrieved Ahn family, the Song family scattered and became fugitives.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Song Yik-pil and Ahn Family
Song Yik-pil, who turned from a respected scholar to fugitive slave overnight, hid himself by secretly staying with leaders of the Westerners such as Jeong Cheol, his disciple and famous scholar Kim Jang-saeng, and even an Easterner like Yi San-hae. According to some accounts, it was while Song Yik-pil was in Hwanghae area that the accusation of treason was made against Jeong Yeo-rip, who lived in Honam. During the whole period when Jeong Cheol was in charge of investigating the treason case and interrogated the Easterners, Song Yik-pil was said to be staying with Jeong Cheol.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Purge of Easterners
When the accusation against Jeong Yeo-rip was first made, the Easterners held key positions and were in charge of investigating the case. The Easterners told Seonjo that Jeong Yeo-rip could not possibly be plotting a rebellion when Jeong unexpectedly committed suicide, which was considered the admission of guilt. The Westerners accused the Easterners of being half-hearted in pursuing the case, and Seonjo promoted hardline Westerner Jeong Cheol as Right State Councillor and put him in charge of investigation despite Jeong Cheol's initial refusal.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Purge of Easterners
Soon afterward, Jeong Yeo-rip's nephew began to mention names of the Easterners including Left State Councillor Jeong Eon Shin, hardliner Yi Bal, and many others (It was customary to use to torture when interrogating prisoners). Their denial of being close to Jeong Yeo-rip angered Seonjo since many of their letters were found in Jeong's house, some of which were critical of the king and his rule. (It was said that Jeong Eon Shin was told by his men that his letters with Jeong were destroyed, but they only destroyed ones that directly mentioned his name and not nicknames.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Purge of Easterners
When Jeong Eon Shin denied exchanging letters with Jeong Yeo-rip, Seonjo angrily asked, "Does he think I have no eyes?" pointing to 19 letters in which they discussed state affairs.) Jeong Cheol asked for leniency with Jeong Eun Shin, Yi Bal, and others claiming that they could not know Jeong Yeo-rip's evil side, but the Easterners claim that Jeong Cheol sought to destroy them while appearing to try to save them on the outside. Indeed, Yi Bal and his brother, Choe Young-gyeong (greatly respected scholar of Yeongnam School), and many others died in prison of torture or illness.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Purge of Easterners
(Jeong Cheol's animosity with Yi Bal was such that he even spat on him in one occasion.) Even Yi Bal's 80-year-old mother and 8-year-old son were killed (although Jeong Cheol supposedly opposed it). The treason case went on for three years, and 1,000 people were killed or exiled. (According to some accounts, the death toll was 1,000.)


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Purge of Easterners
However, it was Seonjo who probably played a greater role than anyone else in turning Jeong Yeo-rip's treason case to widespread purge that it became. Sarim's division strengthened the king's power, and the purge was focused on hardline Easterners (Jeong Yeo-rip, Yi Bal) as opposed to moderate Easterners (Yi San-hae, Yu Seong-ryong) who came out unscathed. Hardline Easterners were the most radical of the Sarim factions. In contrast, Yi San-hae and Yu Seong-ryong were protected by Seonjo when their names came up in the treason case. Later Seonjo would blame Jeong Cheol for excesses of Treason Case of 1589.


1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, Aftermath
The Treason Case of 1589 is significant as the moment when the conflict within Sarim faction was irrevocably marred with bad blood, becoming struggle of life and death that characterized much periods of Joseon politics. The Eastern faction was further split between hardline Northerners and moderate Southerners over the question of punishing Jeong Cheol and other Westerners. The Northern faction came on top and continued the cycle of revenge for earlier wrongs. The Treason Case of 1589 is also blamed for Joseon's unpreparedness and poor showing in the Japanese Invasion of 1592 three years later. Some historians blame Treason Case of 1589 for the subsequent discrimination against Honam region as land of rebellion, whose effect is still felt today. It is also remembered today for Jeong Yeo-rip's revolutionary ideas ahead of its time.


158A
158A is a train carriage built by H. Cegielski in Poznań. The train carriage is built for national and international passenger transportation with a maximum speed of 200 km/h on tracks with a width of 1435 mm.


158A, Specification, Carriage Body Structure
The chassis and bodywork is a welded structure made of carbon steel with high strength and resistance to corrosion. The whole carriage is covered with corrosion protection, which, together with a covering paint ensures long-term durability of the wagon body. The spaces in the internal walls and the roof is covered with damping mats of a non-combustible material.


158A, Specification, Passenger Compartment
In the interior of the passenger compartment there are arranged in series, seats made out of wool fabric. Above the windows there are placed racks for luggage and a panel fitted with individual lighting for each seat, the monitor includes the lighting setup and seating reservation. Above each carriage door there is a display with information regarding the time, speed and railway stations. The interior lighting for the carriage is made up of uses LED lamps.


158P/Kowal–LINEAR
158P/Kowal–LINEAR is a periodic comet in the Solar System that has an orbit out by Jupiter.


158P/Kowal–LINEAR
The Minor Planet Center had the comet coming to perihelion on 9 May 2021, and JPL had the comet coming to perihelion on 12 May 2021. A close approach to Jupiter on 24 July 2022 will notably lift the orbit and increase the orbital period. The next perihelion passage will be in 2036 at a distance of 5.2 AU from the Sun.


158th Airlift Squadron
The 158th Airlift Squadron (158 AS) is a unit of the Georgia Air National Guard's 165th Airlift Wing (165 AW) located at Savannah Air National Guard Base, Georgia. The 158th is equipped with the C-130H Hercules and is operationally-gained by the Air Mobility Command (AMC).


158th Airlift Squadron, Overview
158th Airlift Squadron flies the C-130H3 Hercules, which performs the tactical portion of the airlift mission. The aircraft is capable of operating from rough, dirt strips and is the prime transport for air dropping troops and equipment into hostile areas.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, World War II
Activated in late 1942. Trained under First Air Force in northeastern United States with P-40 Warhawks, also performing Air Defense as part of Norfolk and Philadelphia Fighter Wings. Deployed to European Theater of Operations, June 1943, being equipped with P-47 Thunderbolts in England. Assigned as a heavy bomber escort squadron under VIII Fighter Command. Re -equipped with long-range P-51D Mustangs, July 1944, Thunderbolts being transferred to IX Fighter Command as tactical fighter-bombers supporting ground forces in France. Performed bomber escort missions until the end of the war in Europe, April 1945.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, World War II
Squadron demobilized in England during the summer of 1945, inactivated in United States as a paper unit, October 1945. Became part of postwar Georgia Air National Guard in May 1946.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard
The wartime 351st Fighter Squadron was re-activated and re-designated as the 158th Fighter Squadron, and was allotted to the Georgia Air National Guard, on 24 May 1946. It was organized at Chatham Field(Chatham Army Air Field)(Also known as Travis Field), Savannah, Georgia, and was extended federal recognition on 20 August 1946 by the National Guard Bureau. The 158th Fighter Squadron was entitled to the history, honors, and colors of the 351st Fighter Squadron.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard
The squadron was equipped with F-47N Thunderbolts and was temporarily assigned to the 54th Fighter Wing on 20 August, then permanently to the 116th Fighter Group on 9 September 1946. The 116th Fighter Group consisted of the 158th and the 128th Fighter Squadron at Marietta Army Airfield, near Atlanta. In March 1949, the 158th moved to Hunter AFB, near Savannah. As part of the Continental Air Command Fourteenth Air Force, the unit trained for tactical fighter missions and air-to-air combat.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Combat in Korean War
The 158th Fighter Squadron and its parent 116th Fighter Group were federalized on 10 October 1950 due to the Korean War. In November the units were assigned initially to Tactical Air Command (TAC) and moved to George AFB, California where they were joined by the 159th Fighter Squadron (Jet Propelled) from the Florida ANG and the 196th Fighter Squadron (Jet Propelled) from the California ANG. On 11 November the 116th was changed in status to become the 116th Fighter-Bomber Wing. At George the three fighter squadrons were equipped with F-80C Shooting Stars and began operational training.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Combat in Korean War
After losing many of their F-80 pilots to assignment to Far East Air Force as replacements, all three squadrons were forced to transfer pilots between themselves in order to maintain a balance of qualified pilots, and they were no longer individual squadrons of Georgia, Florida and California. In April 1951 116th Fighter Bomber Wing (FBW) began receiving brand new F-84E Thunderjets directly from Republic. On 14 May the 116th FBW received a Warning Order for an impending transfer, and they expected to be transferred to Europe.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Combat in Korean War
With a Readiness Date of 25 June, the 116th FBW was ready to move, and by 1 July they had sent their seventy-five F-84Es to the New York POE for shipment to France. However, on 3 July 1951 they received orders transferring them to Japan. Fifty-four F-84Es had to be obtained from Bergstrom AFB, Texas and Langley AFB, Virginia as partial replacements for these Thunderjets.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Combat in Korean War
The 116th FBG with the 158th and 159th FBS's departed from San Diego on the transport aircraft carrier USS Windham Bay on 12 July, while the 196th FBS had preceded them by two days on the USS Sitkoh Bay. The USAF, having learned from the expensive previous experience with open air transportation of the F-84 on an aircraft carrier deck, heavily protected their F-84s this time with cosmoline and tarpaulins. The wing off-loaded at Yokosuka Naval Base, Japan, between 24 and 27 July, with their aircraft being barged to Kisarazu, Japan, for cleaning and preparation for flight. Regardless of the care taken, thirty-three F-84s suffered some degree of salt damage.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Combat in Korean War
Two squadrons, the 158th and 159th FBSs, were then sent to Misawa Air Base, Japan, while the 196th was established at Chitose Air Base, Japan. Their initial role was to serve as an augmentation of Japanese air defenses, and their op¬erational training began on 6 August. The 116th FBW remained on garrison duty in Japan into fall 1951. During that period they concentrated on providing air-to-ground support to Army units training in Japan as well as assisting in providing aerial defense of northern Japan as a supplement to the other air defense units.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Combat in Korean War
On 30 November 1951 the 159th FBS was alerted for a combat role, and on 2 December they dispatched sixteen F-84Es to Taegu AB (K-2), South Korea. The 159th FBS flew their first combat mission of twelve Thunderjets to rail targets at Wonsan in southeastern North Korea that morning. Three F-84s suffered flak damage. They then returned again that afternoon. The following day they again returned to Wonsan two fly two more strikes. Further missions were flown on 4 and 5 December, and then on 6 December they sent twelve F-84s to Sinanju and Sunchon, also in North Korea on a rail cutting mission, and then returned to Misawa AB.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Combat in Korean War
On 12 December the 1116th FBW pilots flew eighty-eight effective combat sorties. On 15 December the 158th FBS was attacking a train when they were jumped by North Korean MiG-15s that attacked from 20,000 feet in pairs from the F-84s Six O'clock High position. Captain Paul Mitchel, flying as "Able 3" saw two MiGs behind two F-84s, so he came in behind them and closed to 100 feet, firing on the MiG leader's wingman. The MiG pilot bailed out, and his leader slowed down to see what was happening, so Mitchel fired on him, too, scoring some hits.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Combat in Korean War
Mitchel was credited with 1-0-1, obtaining the last officially credited F-84 MiG kill during the Korean War, and the only "kill" for the 116th FBW. The following day, 16 December, the 158th FBS lost their only aircraft attributed to enemy action during the conflict. While strafing ox carts south of Pyongyang Captain David Mather, "George 3", was hit by antiaircraft fire and his F-84 burst into flames. His wingman told him to bail out, and Mather's canopy was seen to come off, but the F-84 crashed before he could get out. On 18 December the 158th FBS returned to Japan.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Combat in Korean War
The 196th FBS started for Taegu AB (K-2) on 26 December for their turn, but didn't get there until 28 December, because of weather problems. The 196th FBS flew missions from K-2 until 3 January 1952, mostly close air support, with a 70% accuracy, and returned to Japan on 4 January 1952. The 116th FBG returned to combat on 26 May 1952. The first mission was with sixteen F-84Es that flew from Misawa to Chitose AB for a pilot briefing, and then after arming with 500-pound general-purpose bombs, they took off for an attack against Sariwon, in southwestern North Korea. The F-84s were refueled en route by KB-29 Superfortress tankers near Taegu, South Korea, upon their return from the target, which gave any aircraft unable to be aerial refueled an alternate landing spot. After refueling the mission landed at Johnson Air Base, Japan, and resumed the air defense mission.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Combat in Korean War
On 10 June 1952 the 116th FBW was relieved from assignment to TAC and reassigned to Far East Air Force without personnel. The Guardsmen were returned to the United States; the jets and equipment of the wing were then re-designated as the 474th Fighter-Bomber Wing and assigned to Fifth Air Force.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Air Defense Command
The 116th Fighter-Bomber Wing status was returned to a Group designation, and the unit was returned to the Georgia Air National Guard. At this time the Group was restructured to include the 128th at Dobbins AFB and the 158th Fighter Squadron was returned to Chatham AFB. Initially upon their return to State Control both squadrons were equipped with the long-range F-51H Mustang and given an air defense mission. The 116th was assigned to Air Defense Command (ADC), being assigned to the 35th Air Division with a mission of the air defense of the Southeastern United States.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Air Defense Command
Commencing in July 1953 the 158th began conversion to F-84D Thunderjet, yet most were not received until mid summer. On 1 July 1955 the 158th was re-designated as the 158th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron and converted the swept-wing F-84F Thunderstreak in March 1957.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Air Defense Command
On 10 July 1958 the 165th Fighter Interceptor Group was activated at Savannah with the 158th FIS assigned as their flying unit. The 158th FIS then switched to the F-86L Sabre Interceptor in 1958, a day/night/all-weather aircraft designed to be integrated into the ADC SAGE interceptor direction and control system. In 1958, the 116th implemented the ADC Runway Alert Program, in which interceptors of the 128th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron were committed to a five-minute runway alert.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Airlift mission
Reorganization came in 1962 when the unit transitioned from a fighter mission to an airlift mission The 158th Fighter Squadron became 158th Air Transport Squadron on 1 July 1962 assigned to the 165th Air Group. They traded in its Sabre interceptors for 4-engines C-97 Stratofreighter transports. With air transportation recognized as a critical wartime need, the squadron was re-designated the 128th Air Transport Squadron (Heavy). The 116th ATG was assigned to the MATS Eastern Transport Air Force, (EASTAF), and the squadron flew long-distance transport missions in support of Air Force requirements, frequently sending aircraft to the Caribbean, Europe Greenland, and the Middle East in support of Air Force requirements.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Airlift mission
In 1966 MATS became the Military Airlift Command (MAC) and EASTAF became the MAC Twenty-First Air Force. The 116th ATG was upgraded to the C-124 Globemaster II strategic heavy airlifter in 1967. Due to requirements generated by the Vietnam War, missions were flown across the Pacific to Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, South Vietnam, Okinawa and Thailand.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Airlift mission
On 8 August 1975, the first of the C-130E aircraft, aptly named "Hercules", came to the City of Savannah at the international airport to replace the older C-124's. While the C-124's were being retired from the Air Force inventory, the C-130s were arriving at the 165th Tactical Airlift Group.


158th Airlift Squadron, History, Georgia Air National Guard, Airlift mission
The 158th received seven new C-130H Hercules aircraft directly from the Lockheed Factory manufactured for the unit during September and October 1981. On 15 April 1992, the unit was redesignated the 165th Airlift Group. On 1 October 1995, the unit received its current designation, the 165th Airlift Wing.


158th Aviation Regiment (United States)
The 158th Aviation Regiment is an aviation regiment of the United States Army.


158th Aviation Regiment (United States)
It traces its heritage to the 158th Aviation Battalion. Company A, 158th Aviation Battalion, was activated in the Regular Army on 25 July 1968 at Fort Carson, Colorado; and Company C on the same date at Fort Riley, KS. Both became an element of the 101st Airborne Division. Company A was inactivated on 19 April 1979 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky; Company C on 16 October 1986 at Fort Campbell.


158th Aviation Regiment (United States)
Both Companies A and C were redesignated as Battalion HHCs on 16 September 1987, for the 1st and 3rd Battalions, respectively.


158th Aviation Regiment (United States), 1st Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment
The 1st Assault Helicopter Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment, nicknamed the "Ghostriders", is headquartered at Conroe, Texas. The battalion flies UH-60 Black Hawks as part of the United States Army Reserve's 11th Theater Aviation Command. The battalion traces its lineage to Company A, 158th Aviation Battalion, activated on 25 July 1968, for assignment to the 101st Airborne Division (airmobile). The division, already in Vietnam, was transitioning from a parachute unit to a helicopter-transported airmobile unit.


158th Aviation Regiment (United States), 2nd Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment
The 2nd Battalion was constituted on 25 July 1968, in the regular army as Company B, 158th Aviation Battalion, nickname "Lancers" an element of the 101st Airborne Division (airmobile), and activated at Fort Carson, Colorado. It was reorganized and redesignated on 16 September 1987, as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 2nd Battalion, 158th Aviation, and relieved from assignment to the 101st Airborne Division (air assault)(organic elements concurrently constituted and activated), and on 15 September 1996 it was inactivated at Fort Hood, Texas.


158th Aviation Regiment (United States), 2nd Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment
Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 2nd Battalion, 158th Aviation was redesignated on 16 October 1997 as Company B, 158th Aviation, and activated at Fort Hood, Texas, and then redesignated again on 1 October 2005 as Company B, 158th Aviation Regiment. It was inactivated there on 15 January 2008. On 17 October 2011 it was redesignated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 2nd Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment, and activated at Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington (organic elements concurrently activated).


158th Aviation Regiment (United States), 3rd Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment
The 3rd Battalion was activated on 25 July 1968 in the regular army as Company C, 158th Aviation Battalion, an element of the 101st Airborne Division (airmobile), at Fort Riley, Kansas. It was inactivated 16 October 1986 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky and relieved from assignment to the 101st Airborne Division (air assault). The unit was redesignated 16 September 1987 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 3rd Battalion, 158th Aviation, but withdrawn from the regular army on 16 September 1988 and allotted to the army reserve at Glenview, Illinois, where it was inactivated and re-allotted to the regular army.


158th Aviation Regiment (United States), 3rd Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment
The battalion was concurrently redesignated as Company C, 158th Aviation and activated in Germany. It was redesignated on 16 October 2000 as the 3d Battalion, 158th Aviation. As of mid-2001, a detachment from Foxtrot Company, 159th Aviation Regiment, was deployed to Camp Able Sentry, Macedonia, in support of KFOR and Operation Joint Guardian.


158th Aviation Regiment (United States), Company D, 158th Aviation Regiment
Company D was activated on 25 July 1968 in the regular army as Company D, 158th Aviation Battalion, an element of the 101st Airborne Division (airmobile), and activated at Fort Carson, Colorado. It was inactivated on 30 September 1981 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, and relieved from assignment to the 101st Airborne Division (air assault), then redesignated on 16 September 1987 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 4th Battalion, 158th Aviation, relieved from allotment to the regular army, allotted to the army reserve, and activated at Fort Devens, Massachusetts (organic elements concurrently constituted and activated).


158th Aviation Regiment (United States), Company D, 158th Aviation Regiment
It was inactivated there on 1 September 1996. Redesignated on 16 October 1997 as Company D, 158th Aviation, it was relieved from allotment to the army reserve, allotted to the regular army, and activated in Germany, where it was again inactivated on 15 October 2000. Nine days later it was relieved from allotment to the regular army, allotted again to the army reserve, and subsequently activated on 16 September 2002 at Victorville, California.


158th Aviation Regiment (United States), 5th Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment
The 5th Battalion was reorganized and redesignated in 1987 as a parent regiment under the United States Army Regimental System. On 18 September 1987 at Giebelstadt Army Airfield (GAAF) in Giebelstadt, Germany, the lineage of Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 158th Aviation Battalion was reflagged as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 5th Battalion, 158th Aviation, which was constituted and activated, using the assets of the 11th Aviation Battalion. The battalion's organic elements were subsequently constituted and activated. During the 1990s the 5th Battalion an element of the 12th Aviation Brigade, was the largest aviation battalion in the US Army.


158th Aviation Regiment (United States), 5th Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment
Units of the battalion were located in Giebelstadt and Wiesbaden, Germany and Aviano, Italy, and their mission included transportation of personnel and equipment. During combat or peacekeeping missions the 5th Battalion was also responsible for transporting V Corps leaders throughout the area of operations. Unit aircraft were a mixture of UH-60 Blackhawks and CH-47 Chinooks. Companies A and E of the battalion were located at Wiesbaden Air Base (WAB) in Wiesbaden, while Company B, activated on 16 October 1998, was stationed in Aviano. The activation of Company C at WAB was, at that time, projected for January 2000.