12 Years a Slave (score), Reception, Critical reception
Gregory Ellwood of HitFix called it "one of Hans Zimmer's more moving scores in some time"  Brad Brevet of Rope of Silicon also praised the score in stating, "The best score in a movie I have heard this year has been Hans Zimmer's for 12 Years a Slave." and further stating "It's lovely and threatening at the same time." A.A. Dowd of The A.V. Club wrote of Zimmer's score, "pounds and roars with dread — the appropriate soundtrack for the madness of history." Mark Hughes of Forbes hails the piece as "some of [Zimmer's] best work to date, which says quite a lot" and further expands by expressing "I love the way he uses nontraditional effects and sounds, sometimes going bare-bones and simple with a single instrument, so often understated to perfection."


12 Years a Slave (score), Reception, Critical reception
Susan Wloszczyna of RogerEbert.com stated "Underscoring the cruelty is the aptly unsettling and sometimes discordant soundtrack by Hans Zimmer", noting similarities with Zimmer's predescending score for Inception whilst acknowledging differentiation in "reminiscent of his own strong work on "Inception" but to much different effect". Glenn Kay of CinemaStance wrote positively by stating, "the score by Hans Zimmer is sparse and repetitive, but incredibly effective at invoking an emotional response when it's used." Drew McWeeny of HitFix highly praised the score and said, "The score by Hans Zimmer is just as heart-breaking as the script or the performances."


12 Years a Slave (score), Reception, Critical reception
Nicholas Mennuti of Mulholland Books highly praised the score, calling it one of the best film scores of 2013, stating, "His [Zimmer] work on 12 Years A Slave comes as such a pleasant surprise" and then adding, "Zimmer does what Zimmer does best – he finds the sonic heart of Solomon Northrop ... Try not to be moved by it." Josh Hall of Soton Tab professed of the score, "Another impressive element of 12 Years a Slave is Hans Zimmer's haunting score; it closely accompanies the distressing tragedies on the screen."


12 Years a Slave (score), Reception, Critical reception
and added to it further by signifying the importance of music, "Music is a key element of the film; it is ironic that it is Solomon's musical talents that get him captured in the first place." Richard Lawson of The Wire praised the mood of Zimmer's piece by saying, "Hans Zimmer's lush score is at first eerie and foreboding, but by the movie's end has become something approaching a hymn."


12 Years a Slave (soundtrack)
Music from and Inspired by 12 Years a Slave is the soundtrack album to 12 Years a Slave. It contains two tracks from the film score composed by Hans Zimmer, three tracks co-arranged by violinist Tim Fain and Nicholas Britell, and original spiritual songs written and arranged for the film by Nicholas Britell, as well as performances by Alabama Shakes, Cody ChesnuTT, Gary Clark Jr.,  Alicia Keys, Tim Fain, Laura Mvula, Chris Cornell, Joy Williams, John Legend, and spiritual song performances from the film.


12 Years a Slave (soundtrack)
The album was released digitally on November 5 and in physical formats on November 11, 2013 by Columbia Records in the United States.


12 Years a Slave (soundtrack), Development
Having been interested in each other's work for some time, director Steve McQueen approached composer Hans Zimmer to write the score to 12 Years a Slave after filming had completed. Zimmer was, however, reluctant to accept the offer feeling he wasn't right for the job. Zimmer explained, "I felt I wasn't the guy, in a way. It was such an important, heavy, incredible subject. [ ...] It took a bit of persuading from [McQueen] to give me the confidence to do it". On April 30, 2013, it was officially announced that Zimmer was scoring the film.


12 Years a Slave (soundtrack), Commentary
12 Years a Slave is a stunningly powerful film. I was so moved when I saw it. I felt every minute of it and was so inspired to contribute to the music of the soundtrack. This album brings together some incredible artists from different places and different genres who have all been touched by the film. When artists are inspired by great art, it makes us want to create. This album is the result of that inspiration.


12 Years a Slave (soundtrack), Commentary
We chose a song called "Driva Man". It is a sparse, brooding, slow-swinging jazz number. There is no lightness in the music of "Driva' Man" because there is no mention of freedom in this song. The focus of the track is about an enslaved person reaching "quittin' time" while also trying to please the overseer to avoid getting beaten. After we watched 12 Years a Slave in our hometown of Athens, Alabama, we stumbled across this song a week later. It is a very simple song which is why we chose it to contribute to the soundtrack.


12 Years a Slave (soundtrack), Commentary
The two works, for a moment, take the audience into another time and place where you can imagine being denied your freedom: after which, one's own freedom can be better appreciated. 12 Years is one of the most important films we have ever seen and it is important to us to give back some of what the movie has given to us.


12 Years a Slave (soundtrack), Commentary
I was moved by this film and the story in a way that transcends any film experience I have ever had. I was inspired to write a hundred different songs, but finally landed on one based on what I believe is an extremely important message I took from this man's journey. Compassion, basic human rights and love must be our priorities above race, religion or commerce. Every generation needs a reminder of that simple idea.


12 and Holding
12 and Holding is a 2005 American coming-of-age drama film directed by Michael Cuesta and starring Conor Donovan, Jesse Camacho, Zoe Weizenbaum, and Jeremy Renner. The film is distributed by IFC Films and was released on May 19, 2006 in limited theaters.


12 and Holding, Plot
The film explores adolescent issues through the minds of three friends and their reactions after a boy named Rudy Carges (Conor Donovan) is killed in a tree house set on fire by teenage bullies Jeff and Kenny, who carelessly didn't find out he was inside until too late. Rudy's twin brother Jacob, a boy with a huge birthmark (also played by Donovan), decides to seek revenge against the bullies. Leonard (Jesse Camacho) who's overweight, survives the tree house fire but loses his sense of taste and smell.


12 and Holding, Plot
Leonard is prompted by his gym teacher to go on a diet, which isn't welcomed by his obese family. The boys' female friend Malee (Zoe Weizenbaum) tries to befriend an adult named Gus (Jeremy Renner), a grief-stricken patient of her therapist mother, Carla (Annabella Sciorra). Jacob's family falls apart after the death of his brother, but soon after they adopt a boy named Keith Gardner. Meanwhile, Malee begins to have a crush on Gus and changes the song for her recital to one Gus liked. As time goes by, she sees Gus as her "soul mate". She sneaks into his house one night to find him grieving. Afraid to confront him, Malee steals his gun and leaves. She gives the gun to Jacob the following day.


12 and Holding, Plot
Jacob's mother gets furious when she finds out Jeff and Kenny are being put in juvenile hall for only one year, while Jacob's father views Rudy's death as an accident. Jacob spends the next few months visiting Jeff and Kenny, and threatens them, until eventually Jeff commits suicide. Jacob befriends Kenny, soon learning he has an early release and is illegally moving to New Mexico. Meanwhile, Leonard's father decides to take his sisters to Florida instead of Leonard (who would usually go). Leonard decides to force his mother to lose weight by trapping her in the cellar.


12 and Holding, Plot
They both end up in the hospital after a gas leak in their home. Next, Jacob and Kenny agree that Jacob can go with him to New Mexico. Malee visits Gus and removes her clothes in an attempt to seduce him. Instead, Gus calls Malee's mother to come and pick her up. The next day, Gus explains to therapist Carla about the last fire he ever fought (which involved killing an injured little girl, upon the girl's request), claiming that Malee wanted him to take her pain away, as he was aware of her growing crush on him.


12 and Holding, Plot
Meanwhile, Jacob's mother tells him that Keith Gardner wasn't adopted to replace Rudy, and that she wants Kenny dead, which reminds Jacob of his planned revenge. The night of escape for Jacob finally comes and he meets up with Kenny. Jacob insists on going through a construction site which he says is a secret route. Once there, Jacob points Gus's gun at Kenny, and tells him "you killed him" before shooting him dead. Jacob buries the body and leaves. He returns in the daytime, and sees Gus spreading cement above Kenny's grave, knowing the evidence is gone.


12 and Holding, Plot
Malee begins visiting her estranged father and Leonard's family finally starts eating healthily. Jacob returns home without telling anyone what he did.


12 and Holding, Reception
12 and Holding received generally positive reviews from critics. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 73% approval rating, based on 78 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The website's consensus reads, "This shocking pre-teen drama manages, through realistic performances and a sense of empathy, to avoid exploitation and instead deliver something honest and haunting."


12 and a Half Angry Men
"12 and a Half Angry Men" is the sixteenth episode of the eleventh season and the 204th overall episode of the animated comedy series Family Guy. It aired on Fox in the United States on March 24, 2013, and is written by Ted Jessup and directed by Pete Michels. In the episode, Mayor Adam West is brought on trial for murder. Brian Griffin is on the jury and tries to clear his name. The episode was inspired by the 1957 film classic 12 Angry Men.


12 and a Half Angry Men, Plot
When an aide to Mayor Adam West is found stabbed to death, evidence that the victim attempted to blackmail the Mayor suggests the Mayor as a suspect, and he is put on trial for murder. The jury selected for the trial consists of Peter, Brian, Quagmire, Mort Goldman, Tom Tucker, Herbert, Carter, Dr. Hartman, Seamus, Bruce, Carl, and Consuela. Brian is the only one voting "not guilty" and he tries to persuade his fellow jurors that there is a reasonable doubt of the Mayor's guilt.


12 and a Half Angry Men, Plot
His insistence frustrates the others who do not trust the Mayor because he is a politician. Brian's examination of the evidence leads him to notice the paper on which the blackmail note was written matches a love letter he received from Quagmire's transgender father after they had sex. Since the paper was from the Marriot, and not from the Mayor's office to which the victim had access, Brian implied this means Mayor West was framed.


12 and a Half Angry Men, Plot
Brian agrees that if no one is convinced of the possibility of the Mayor's innocence then he will change his vote, but the vote comes up with an agreement from Herbert that there is a chance of innocence. The other jurors just want to go home. Bruce calls for a break and Quagmire berates Brian for not going along when he had the chance.


12 and a Half Angry Men, Plot
Back in the jury room, Brian questions the witness's testimony of seeing the crime during an orgy. Quagmire tries to prove that it could really happen but finds that Brian may be on to something when his demonstration proves that the witness's position could not have allowed her to look out a window during the orgy, admitting that Brian was right. The jury finds itself deadlocked at 6-6 and Tom Tucker still holds out for a guilty verdict, due to being a bigot towards people without mustaches, until Dr. Hartman convinces him otherwise.


12 and a Half Angry Men, Plot
Peter changes his vote after he finds out what "guilty" means. Later, with Carter as the lone holdout for a guilty verdict, Brian challenges his thought until Carter reveals that he felt betrayed by the Mayor, for he always endorsed West yet was not allowed to sink most of Quahog in order to further his real estate developing plans. Carter breaks down into tears and gives in on his guilty vote. Acquitted of the crime, Mayor West resumes his duties. Back at the Griffin home, Stewie is unsatisfied that they merely proved Mayor West was innocent; he reveals that more murders have occurred, proving that a maniac is still on the loose. The lights go out, prompting Stewie to say, "And we're dead."


12 and a Half Angry Men, Reception
The episode received a 2.6 rating in the 18-49 demographic and was watched by a total of 5.16 million viewers. This made it the most watched show on Fox's Animation Domination line-up that night, beating The Simpsons, Bob's Burgers and The Cleveland Show. The episode was met with mixed reviews from critics.


12 and a Half Angry Men, Reception
Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B–, saying "Every beat of the 12 Angry Men homage shows up exactly when it should, but that reliability doesn't come off as lazy, since at least some work has to go into creating all the little twists, and whoever's responsible for Quagmire's orgy recreation certainly had a bit of time on their hands." Mark Trammell of TV Equals wrote, "I don't know if I can truthfully say that '12 and a Half Angry Men' worked entirely, but it wasn't an embarrassment, either, I suppose. As those of you who got the allusion from the title already know, the main plot line was taken from the classic Twelve Angry Men, a stage play that later became the source for several movies."


12 bis
12 bis is a French publisher. The company publishes predominantly bande dessinée comic books and manga in France. It was founded in 2008 by Dominique Burdot, formerly of Glénat.


12 bis
The publisher has undertaken reprinting of previously successful works by François Bourgeon, Les Passagers du vent (the Passengers of the Wind) and Le Cycle de Cyann (The Cycle of Cyann). The company also publishes the comic book satire concerning American wine critic Robert M. Parker, Jr., Robert Parker: Les Sept Pêchés capiteux.


12 canciones de García Lorca para guitarra
12 canciones de García Lorca para guitarra (12 Songs by García Lorca for Guitar) is an album by Paco de Lucía and Ricardo Modrego. It is the second of three collaboration albums between the duo.


12 canciones de García Lorca para guitarra, Musicians
Paco de Lucía – Flamenco guitarRicardo Modrego – Flamenco guitar


12 chansons d'avant le déluge
12 chansons d'avant le déluge is the second album by experimental French singer Brigitte Fontaine, and the first by French rock singer Jacques Higelin, released in 1966 on the Productions Jacques Canetti label. It was their only real release on the label, they would go on to release a few more singles that would be collected on the 15 chansons d'avant le déluge, suite et fin album in 1976, before moving to the Saravah label.


12 cm 11th Year Type naval gun
The 12 cm 11th Year Type naval gun was a Japanese naval gun and coast defense gun used on submarines, minesweepers, and torpedo boats of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II.


12 cm 11th Year Type naval gun, Design
The 12 cm 11th Year Type was a 1922 redesign of the earlier 12 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun. The 11th Year Type was a typical built-up gun the period with a central rifled tube surrounded by layers of reinforcing tubes. There may have also been an autofretted mono-block barreled version of the same gun. Estimates on the length of the barrel range between 40 and 45 calibers.


12 cm 11th Year Type naval gun, Design
The 11th Year Type barrel rested in a ring cradle on a pedestal mount and had a hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism that consisted of one recoil cylinder below the barrel and two on top. The 11th Year Type differed from the earlier 3rd Year Type because it had a horizontal sliding-block breech and fired separate loading cased charges and projectiles while the earlier gun fired separate loading bagged charges and projectiles.


12 cm 11th Year Type naval gun, Design
The 11th Year Type was used on smaller naval vessels and submarines possibly because a cased charge was easier to load and wasn't as susceptible to water damage on wet decks. The 11th Year Type had a wider range of elevation and traverse than the 3rd Year Type but with a maximum elevation of +55°, it wasn't really a dual-purpose gun.


12 cm K.A.
The 12 cm K.A. was a Dutch fortress, siege and naval rifled bronze breechloading gun. In the Dutch army it was called Kanon Brons getrokken van 12 cm K.A.. In the Dutch navy: Kanon van 12 cm A No. 2 . It was produced in substantial numbers in the Netherlands. There were also steel and steel bronze versions.


12 cm K.A., Context, The name 12 cm K.A.
The army most often designated this gun as: 'Kanon van 12 cm K.A.'. It was a short bronze breechloading gun meant for indirect fire. K.A. stood for Kort (short) and Achterlader (breechloader). That the gun was made of bronze, was not mentioned, because all army short 12 cm breechloaders were made of bronze. The label 'short' stood for the relatively short barrel, but also that the gun was meant for indirect fire. In the army, there were also Long 12 cm guns, designated L. or Lang. These also carried a label 'bronze' or 'steel'. The navy also had a steel version of the 12 cm K.A., but kept them apart by using numbers.


12 cm K.A., Context, Procurement
In early 1870 the Dutch field artillery was very backward. In March 1871 the Minister for Defense therefore sent two artillery officers to Switzerland to study a new bronze breech loading field gun of 84 mm caliber. These officers bought a gun (the 8.4 cm Feldgeschütz Ord 1871) and 500 shot in Winterthur. In early 1872 the gun arrived and was successfully tested against the Dutch 8 cm rifled muzzle loader. Judging by its appearance the 12 cm A No. 2 gun seems to have been modeled on the 8.4 cm gun.


12 cm K.A., Development and production, Development of the 12 cm K.A.
The 12 cm gun appeared rather unexpectedly. In 1872 the Minister for War was busy modernizing the rifles. For artillery he had a 24 cm gun in production, and he planned to construct 25 15 cm guns in 1873. The only mention of a 12 cm gun, was that it would cost about 3,000 guilders. The House of Representatives then urged the minister to procure breechloader field guns. In July 1873 the minister of Defense then suddenly approved the 12 cm gun short.


12 cm K.A., Development and production, Steel Bronze
While the ministry was planning the bronze breechloaders, there were heavy doubts about the suitability of bronze for guns of medium caliber. In 1874 the Austrian army then held successful trials with a new gun invented by Franz von Uchatius. Uchatius had discovered steel bronze (staalhard brons). It was an alloy of 92% copper and 8% tin, which was made tougher by chilling and pressing it. Chilling was done by casting the bronze in an iron form which quickly chilled of the bronze. Later the gun was 'pressed' to eliminate the widening that would normally be created by firing the first shots. For the Dutch, concerns about cost and strategic vulnerability, were reason enough to switch to producing steel bronze guns according to this procedure in about 1880.


12 cm K.A., Development and production, Production for the army
In 1871 the gun foundry Maritz Company in The Hague came under control of the War Office. It would then become known as Rijks Geschutgieterij (national gun foundry). This state company would have to produce the bulk of the 12 cm K.A. 's In September 1873 there were plans to produce 20  12 cm K.A. for the army in 1874, while 400 were thought to be required. In December 1873 it became known that this was due to a capacity problem at the Rijks Geschutgieterij.


12 cm K.A., Development and production, Production for the army
In 1874 the army requirements for the 12 cm K.A. were estimated at 465 guns, excluding those for the Stelling van Amsterdam. At the same time 210 long 12 cm guns were deemed to be required. It was planned to produce 150 12 cm K.A. in 1875. Planning for 1876 was to produce 100 12 cm K.A. at 3,825 guilders a piece. On 1 January 1880 there were 379 army 12 cm K.A. available, while 526 were thought to be required.


12 cm K.A., Development and production, Production for the army
By late 1879 the Rijks Geschutgieterij had been equipped to produce steel bronze guns. By then, the bronze 12 cm K.A. was not a priority. Instead an attempt was made to produce a steel bronze 84 mm field gun, which was urgently required. When this failed these guns were bought from Krupp. The Rijks Geschutgieterij then spent the rest of 1880 casting 60 steel bronze 12 cm Long.


12 cm K.A., Development and production, Production for the navy
In 1876 there was a list of newly approved guns for the Dutch navy. It stated that there were / would be three kinds of 12 cm short guns in the navy:


12 cm K.A., Development and production, Production for the navy
Until late 1875 the Rijks Geschutgieterij had cast bronze guns for the navy. The navy then founded it own gun foundry at Rijkswerf Amsterdam, because the Minister for War did not want to produce guns for the navy due to capacity problems. In June 1877 the navy gun foundry started to operate. It cast guns designated as No. 2 . This casts some doubt about whether the Koninklijke Fabriek van Stoom- en andere werktuigen really finished guns founded by Rijks Geschutgieterij, or whether this applied to guns cast in Amsterdam from the start. In total about 43 regular 12 cm K.A. No. 2 were cast by the Rijkswerf, and 58 steel hard 12 cm K.A. No. 2 were cast by the Rijkswerf.


12 cm K.A., Development and production, Production for the navy
The production history of the 12 cm K.A. No. 2 at the Rijkswerf is well known. By 31 December 1877 19 barrels for the 12 cm K.A. No. 2 had been produced. In 1878 24 guns were cast. In 1879 no 12 cm guns were cast. In 1880 17 guns were cast. This time the guns were made of steel bronze. In 1881 9 guns were cast. In 1882 13 guns were cast. In 1883 4 guns were cast, but one of the guns from stock was rejected before getting finished. In 1884 7 guns were cast. In 1885 6 guns were cast. In 1886 only one 12 cm gun was cast. In 1889 the two last 12 cm K.A. No. 2 were cast.


12 cm K.A., Characteristics
The 12 cm gun was made of bronze. It had a breech with a Broadwell Ring. The barrel had twelve grooves of 0.15 cm depth.


12 cm K.A., Characteristics
The gun was 2.10 m long, and weighed 910 kg. The first carriage had been made from that of the 15 cm howitzer, and weighed 635 kg.


12 cm K.A., Ammunition
The first ammunition consisted of ring shells (grenades) and cannister shot. The grenade was covered with lead on the outside. It had three grooves wound with rope, to keep the barrel clean. The explosive charge was 0.59-0.60 kg. The weight of the filled grenade was 13.6 kg. It was ignited by a percussion fuze of Swiss model. The grenade was fired with a charge of 0.5 or 1.1 kg.


12 cm K.A., Ammunition
The cannister shot had a sheet metal hull. It was 21.5 cm long and weighed 11.5 kg. On 11.4 cm from the bottom it had a lead ring to position it in the tube. It contained 41 zinc bullets of 12 cm (prob. meaning circumference), each weighing 0.180 kg, and 9 composite shrapnel bullets of 1/8 each weighing 0.048 kg. The cannister shot with a charge of 1.1 kg.


12 cm K.A., Ammunition
In 1875 a shrapnel shot was designed. It had a side of 8 mm thickness, the bottom was 16 mm thick. It contained 144 lead bullets of 1/18 and 116 wooden bullets. The explosive charge was 90 grams. It weighed 13.6 kg.


12 cm K.A., Use, Effectiveness
Even while the first 12 cm K.A. were produced, it became clear that bronze was less suitable for guns that required a heavier powder charge. Therefore the government wanted to order a coiled steel 15 cm gun and a coiled steel 12 cm long gun in 1875 for tests.


12 cm K.A., Use, Army use
The 12 cm K.A. would be almost immediately put to use in the 1873 Second Aceh Expedition. In preparation 4 machine guns, 18 bronze RML's of 12 cm, and 8 12 cm K.A. were sent to the Dutch East Indies. During the expedition the 12 cm K.A. played a major role in the conquest of Banda Aceh, where it easily silenced the Aceh artillery. By 1879 the 12 cm K.A. was not so modern anymore. While it was still appreciated, the power of the 12 cm K.A. was classified as rather weak, and only suitably at short range.


12 cm K.A., Use, Navy use
In total the navy had 189 12 cm K.A. of all numbers in stock on 1 July 1886. Of some ships it is known that they had either the 12 cm A No. 2 or the steel 12 cm A No. 1. In general the 12 cm A No. 2 was used by ships in the Dutch East Indies that were meant for internal security. Ships that were meant to combat foreign enemies, e.g. the Atjeh-class cruisers generally mounted the steel version.


12 cm K.A., Gallery
Drawing of carriage for Dutch 12 cm rifled bronze breechloader on flat keel barge (uitlegger).


12 cm K.A., Gallery
Drawing of Dutch breechloader 12 cm K.A. on siege carriage.


12 cm K.A., Gallery
Drawing of Dutch 12 cm K.A. gun on siege carriage IJ. 'IJ' is undoubtedly short for IJzer.


12 cm Kanone C/80
The 12 cm Kanone C/80 was a fortress and siege gun developed after the Franco-Prussian War and used by Germany before and during World War I.


12 cm Kanone C/80, History
After the Franco-Prussian War, the Army began to study replacements for its 12 cm Kanone C/64 breech loaded cannons. Although Prussian artillery had outclassed their French rivals during the war the breech mechanism they used was weak and there was a tendency for barrels to burst due to premature detonation of shells. In 1873 a new gun which retained the same 120.3 mm (4.74 in) caliber as the previous gun and designated the 12 cm Kanone C/73 was introduced to replace the C/64 but it had poor range so it was quickly replaced. The new gun designated the 12 cm Kanone C/80 was assigned to fortress and siege artillery regiments of the Army.


12 cm Kanone C/80, Design
During the Franco-Prussian war, large numbers of French bronze cannons were captured and this material was melted down and used to build the new 12 cm Kanone C/80 and the smaller 9 cm Kanone C/79. The C/80 would use the same rounded breech block introduced on the C/73 to avoid the stress fractures which caused catastrophic failures in the square blocked C/64. This type of breech was known as a cylindro-prismatic breech which was a predecessor of Krupp's horizontal sliding-block and the gun used separate-loading, bagged charges and projectiles.


12 cm Kanone C/80, Design
The C/80 was fairly conventional for its time and most nations had similar guns such as its Russian cousin the 42-line fortress and siege gun Pattern of 1877 or its French rival the Canon de 120 mm modèle 1878. Like many of its contemporaries, the C/80 had a tall and narrow box trail carriage built from bolted iron plates with two wooden 12-spoke wheels. The carriages were tall because the guns were designed to sit behind a parapet with the barrel overhanging the front in the fortress artillery role or behind a trench or berm in the siege role.


12 cm Kanone C/80, Design
Like many of its contemporaries, the C/80's carriage did not have a recoil mechanism or a gun shield. However, when used in a fortress the guns could be connected to an external recoil mechanism which connected to a steel eye on a concrete firing platform and a hook on the carriage between the wheels. For siege gun use a wooden firing platform could be assembled ahead of time and the guns could attach to the same type of recoil mechanism.


12 cm Kanone C/80, Design
A set of wooden ramps were also placed behind the wheels and when the gun fired the wheels rolled up the ramp and was returned to position by gravity. There was also no traverse so the gun had to be levered into position to aim. A drawback of this system was the gun had to be re-aimed each time which lowered the rate of fire. For transport, the gun was attached to a limber for towing by a horse team or artillery tractor.


12 cm Kanone C/80, World War I
The majority of military planners before the First World War were wedded to the concept of fighting an offensive war of rapid maneuver which in a time before mechanization meant a focus on cavalry and light horse artillery firing shrapnel shells. Since the C/80 was heavier and wasn't designed with field use in mind it was employed as a fortress gun. However, once the Western Front stagnated and trench warfare set in fortresses, armories, coastal fortifications, and museums were scoured for artillery to send to the front. A combination of factors led the Germans to issue C/80's to their troops as replacements.


12 cm Kanone C/80, World War I
Although new guns with superior performance were introduced the C/80 remained in service until the end of the war due to the sheer number in service.


12 cm Kanone C/80, Photo Gallery
A battery of either 9 cm Kanone C/79's or 12 cm Kanone C/80's. There was a six-gun battery of each type at Tsingtao.


12 cm Kanone C/80, Photo Gallery
German artillery captured during the Battle of the Somme. The tall gun in the center without wheels is either a C/79 or C/80.


12 cm Kanone C/80, Photo Gallery
Both guns used the same carriage and were visually very similar with only a 700 mm (28 in) difference in barrel length.


12 cm Lang brons
The 12 cm Lang brons was a 19th-century Dutch siege gun. It was a locally produced steel bronze version of the 12 cm Lang staal.


12 cm Lang brons, Context, The Dutch army adopts breechloading
After the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) the Netherlands started to modernize its army. The most urgent measures were the procurement of heavy coastal artillery, a process which had already started after the 1862 Battle of Hampton Roads. Next came the procurement of breechloading rifles for the infantry, and the modernization of the siege artillery and the field artillery. This led to the procurement of the breechloading bronze 12 cm K.A. and 8 cm A. brons. These guns were produced domestically, starting in 1874.


12 cm Lang brons, Context, The Dutch army adopts breechloading
Meanwhile, it had become clear that steel rifled breechloaders were superior to bronze rifled breechloaders. In 1876 20 15 cm zwaar staal guns and 60 12 cm Lang staal guns were therefore bought at Krupp. The 12 cm Lang staal gun would cost 7,980 mark or 13,200 guilders a piece, including the carriage and everything else. 833 guns of 12 cm Lang were thought to be needed. On 1 January 1880 there were 126 12 cm Lang staal available in the Netherlands. 32 still had to be delivered.


12 cm Lang brons, Context, Steel bronze
In the mid 1870s Franz von Uchatius invented steel bronze. This was a bronze alloy that contained only 8% tin instead of the usual 11.5%. A steel bronze gun was cast using a technique called gravity die casting, using a metal form. This increased the density of especially the outer layers of the metal when cast, because these cooled off rapidly. The density of the inner layers was increased even further. This was done by repeatedly driving objects of slightly increasing diameter through the tube. Produced in this way, a steel bronze gun could withstand the effects of the increased explosive force of the latest artillery almost as well as cast steel did.


12 cm Lang brons, Context, Steel bronze
For many countries the invention of steel bronze was important, because they were not able to produce cast steel guns. In the Netherlands, the Rijks Geschutgieterij (national gun foundry) could be adapted to cast steel bronze guns. Casting steel guns was not feasible for the Dutch. The first Dutch attempt at a steel bronze gun centered on producing a steel bronze field gun to replace the 8.4 cm Feldgeschütz Ord 1871. Three steel bronze 8.5 cm guns were constructed in the second half of 1879. The trial of these guns was positive with regard to using steel bronze, but nevertheless showed some problems. It all led the Ministry of Defense to buy the 8 cm staal at Krupp in Germany.


12 cm Lang brons, History, Available capacity at Rijks Geschutgieterij
The decision to buy the new 8.4 cm field gun in Germany, instead of producing a local steel bronze version, freed up production capacity at the Rijks Geschutgieterij. It meant that the Ministry of War could order a steel bronze version of the 12 cm Lang at Rijks Geschutgieterij, instead of ordering more of these expensive guns in Germany. In this respect the decision to buy the new 8,4 cm field gun in Germany actually saved expenses!


12 cm Lang brons, History, Available capacity at Rijks Geschutgieterij
The cost difference between the steel and steel bronze versions of the 12 cm Lang was 3,200 guilders per gun. At the time 193 12 cm Lang were still thought to be required immediately. The switch to producing the 12 cm Lang brons implied that the minister put an end to the procurement of more 12 cm Lang staal from Krupp. This is indeed what happened.


12 cm Lang brons, History, Production of the 12 cm Lang brons
60 12 cm Lang brons were planned to be cast by the Rijks Geschutgieterij (national gun foundry) in the Hague in 1880. On 1 January 1883 the total number of available both steel and steel bronze 12 cm Lang guns was 248. Implying that 90 had already been made. 12 more 12 cm Lang brons would still be delivered on 1 January 1883. At least 105 more 12 cm Lang were still thought to be required.


12 cm Lang brons, History, Replacement
Both the 12 cm Lang brons and the steel version quickly became obsolete after 1897. In that year the Canon de 75 modèle 1897, the first gun with a recoil mechanism was introduced. In 1927 the Dutch reassigned the 15 cm zwaar staal and the 12 cm staal to the field artillery, where they would serve in World War II. What happened to the 12 cm Lang brons is not that clear.


12 cm Lang brons, Characteristics, The barrel
The characteristics of the 12 cm Lang brons were the same as those of the 12 cm Lang staal. The barrel was exactly the same on the inside, which allowed the guns to be used in the same way. Of course the metal of the barrel differed, and therefore its weight differed. The bronze version weighed 1,500 kg as opposed to the 1,420 kg of the steel version. While the steel version had a round breech, the bronze version had a flat breech platte wig. There was a small difference in the allowed maximum explosive pressure inside the barrel. For the steel version, this was 2,000 atm. For the 12 cm Lang brons it was 1,800 atm. Therefore the maximum range for the steel gun was 7,100 m, while for the steel bronze guns this was 6,500 m.


12 cm Lang brons, Characteristics, The barrel
The exterior form of the bronze barrel was also different, which was a consequence of the bronze version being cast, while the steel version was built up. On the outside the 12 cm Lang brons gun barrel can be distinguished from the 12 cm Lang staal by the steel version having a large ring over the breech. It makes that towards the breech, the diameter of the steel version decreases again. Furthermore, on the muzzle side of the trunnions, the steel version becomes smaller in abrupt steps, a consequence of the built-up construction. At the same place the bronze version has a regular decrease in diameter.


12 cm Lang brons, Characteristics, Transport
The 12 cm Lang brons was just as immobile as the steel version of the gun. Unlike the steel version, it was not repurposed to become a field gun.


12 cm Lang brons, Operations, The steel 12 cm Lang becomes part of the field artillery
In December 1927 the siege artillery regiment ceased to exist as a unit. It was replaced by two regiments of dismounted artillery, one in Gorinchem, and one in Naarden. These contained the steel 15 cm and 12 cm Lang guns, which would be made more mobile, so they could serve as field artillery.


12 cm Lang brons, Operations, The steel 12 cm Lang becomes part of the field artillery
It is not clear what happened to the 12 cm Lang brons guns. It's clear that they did not become part of the army artillery, but it's not clear whether any further use was made of these guns.


12 cm Lang staal
The 12 cm Lang staal was a 19th century Dutch siege gun made by Krupp. It was used by the Dutch field artillery in World War II.


12 cm Lang staal, Context, The Dutch army adopts breechloading
The Franco-Prussian War, and the subsequent establishment of the German empire scared the Dutch government. Suddenly, the long neglected army got a lot of attention. However, decades of neglect could not be remedied in a few years. The most urgent measures consisted of procuring breechloading rifles and guns, which had been successfully used in that war. Meanwhile, the construction of fortresses and super heavy artillery for coastal defense against armored ships took a huge chunk out of the budgets. In these circumstances, procurement of the bronze 12 cm K.A. and 8 cm A. brons was a step in the right direction. This was also the case because they were produced domestically for a modest price, starting in 1874.


12 cm Lang staal, Context, Procurement of steel guns
By 1875 it was clear that in a direct artillery duel, the Dutch bronze guns would be at a severe disadvantage against the newest steel guns. Therefore, these bronze guns would have to be supplemented with a number of steel (staal) guns. For 1876, the plan for the siege artillery was to procure 40 15 cm Lang staal L/24 (15 cm zwaar staal) guns at 22,570 guilders a piece all included, 20 12 cm Lang staal at 13,200 guilders a piece ditto, and 100 12 cm K.A. brons at 3,825 guilders a piece ditto.


12 cm Lang staal, Context, Procurement of steel guns
For trials of the foreseen guns, single steel guns of 15 cm, 12 cm, and 8.7 cm(!) were bought in 1875. In December 1875 the Minister of War declared that the inclusion of the 8,7 cm under the siege artillery was a mistake. Even while the procurement was urgent, no more than 40 15 cm zwaar staal guns, and 20 12 cm Lang staal siege guns to be ordered at Krupp were brought on the budget for 1876. It was sound practice to limit the first series, and it was not even clear whether Krupp could deliver more. The trials would serve to specify alterations which would make the guns fit with the rest of the Dutch equipment.


12 cm Lang staal, Context, Procurement of steel guns
In December 1875, 833 guns of 12 cm Lang were thought to be needed, while 585 12 cm Lang were present on 1 January 1875. From the context it can be derived that 12 cm Lang referred to 12 cm Long guns in general, and that many of these were simply 12-pounder smooth bore muzzle loaders.


12 cm Lang staal, Context, The 12 cm Lang staal is ordered
In September 1876 trials with the 15 cm zwaar staal and 12 cm Lang staal were held at the Krupp trial grounds. The results were very positive. Meanwhile, comparative trials in the Netherlands between the 8 cm A. Brons and the Krupp 8,7 mm steel breechloader led the artillery committee to recommend steel field guns. In light of the trials at the Krupp grounds, the Minister of War then decided to contract with Krupp. However, for the money that was voted on the 1876 budget, he bought less 15 cm zwaar staal guns and more 12 cm Lang staal guns.


12 cm Lang staal, Context, The 12 cm Lang staal is ordered
The House of Representatives was not amused, and wanted to know how many guns had been bought at Krupp for which price. In December 1876 the minister replied that the state had 20 15 cm zwaar staal guns and 60 12 cm Lang staal guns on order at Krupp. The 12 cm Lang staal gun would cost 7,980 mark, same price as before. For 1877 the Minister of War then asked money for 100 12 cm Lang staal.


12 cm Lang staal, Context, The 12 cm Lang staal is ordered
In November 1877 the Minister of War deemed 132 12 cm Lang staal to be required for the first line of the new Dutch Water Line. 62 had already been bought on the budgets for 1876 and 1877. Therefore, the minister asked for money for 57 more guns on the 1878 budget. On the final budget for 1879, a new Minister of War asked budget for 40 12 cm Lang staal, and little else. On 1 January 1880 there were 126 12 cm Lang staal available in the Netherlands. 32 still had to be delivered.


12 cm Lang staal, Context, The 12 cm Lang brons
In 1880 a new steel bronze gun, the 12 cm Lang brons appeared. 60 were planned to be made by the Rijks Geschutgieterij (national gun foundry) in the Hague in 1880. The cost difference between the versions was 3,200 guilders per gun, while 193 12 cm Lang were still thought to be required. The switch to producing the 12 cm Lang brons meant that the minister put an end to the procurement of more 12 cm Lang staal from Krupp.


12 cm Lang staal, Context, The 12 cm Lang brons
This is indeed what happened. On 1 January 1883 the available total of both steel and steel bronze 12 cm Lang was 248. 12 more 12 cm Lang brons would still be delivered. At least 105 more 12 cm Lang were thought to be required.


12 cm Lang staal, Context, Gradual replacement
The 12 cm Lang staal quickly became obsolete after 1897. In that year the Canon de 75 modèle 1897, the first gun with a recoil mechanism was introduced.


12 cm Lang staal, Characteristics, Barrel
The barrel of the 12 cm Lang staal was made by Krupp. It was a built-up gun barrel. It was 2,925 mm long and weighed 1,420 kg.


12 cm Lang staal, Characteristics, Barrel
The caliber was 120 mm at the muzzle. The powder chamber was 29.2 cm long, and had a diameter of 125 mm.


12 cm Lang staal, Characteristics, Carriage
The carriage of the 12 cm Lang staal was made of steel. Gun barrel and carriage had a total weight of 2,790 kg. Others have 2,940 kg, and the carriage itself weighing 1,520 kg. It meant that the gun could not just be placed on any underground.. It generally required the underground to be prepared in advance by placing a wooden floor, which was brought along. In combat this made that the gun could not exercise the artillery roles that required some mobility.


12 cm Lang staal, Characteristics, Transport
For short distances on plane and solid underground, the carriage could be moved, with or without gun. For this a siege limber could be used. The siege limber was a limber without an ammunition box or seats, or basically an axle with wheels and a pole to connect the horses.


12 cm Lang staal, Characteristics, Transport
For more serious transport, the barrel would be moved so it's trunnions did not rest in their normal high position, but in a lower transport position. Moving the barrel required an iron sheerleg (vestingbok)


12 cm Lang staal, Characteristics, Transport
On rough terrain, or over larger distances, the siege limber was required. In most cases gun and carriage were then moved separately. Here the character of the 12 cm Lang staal as a siege gun again shows clearly. It was way too slow to follow the army.


12 cm Lang staal, Characteristics, Transport
As part of the siege artillery, the 12 cm Lang staal batteries would always rely on hired horses. In order to be towed, they required four, preferably heavy, horses. This seems to be in contradiction to the lighter field guns having six horses. The difference was that the 12 cm Lang horses moved only in walk (c. 7 km/h). The field artillery had to move faster, especially the horse artillery, which could move at a canter (16–27 km/h). In the early thirties there were exercises with heavy horses hired from farmers. The Belgian horse promised to be more suitable than the Oldenburgers. However, they proved much slower than military horses, making only 4.5 km/h.


12 cm Lang staal, Characteristics, Transport
When the gun was re-assigned from the siege artillery to the field artillery, some changes were made. The regular wooden floor was replaced by a simpler 'field' version of 1,280 kg, which could be laid in about 30 minutes, instead of about 5 hours. To allow easier pulling in the field, the wheels of the carriage got 40 cm wide steel tires, and the tail of the carriage got a wide steel plate. The wheels of the limber got 15 cm wide steel tires. This was also when the exercises with hired horses started. For the 12 cm Lang staal it proved that with hired horses, on the paved road, four horses were enough, but in terrain six horses were required.


12 cm Lang staal, Characteristics, Transport
Later, motorized traction became so powerful that the gun could easily be moved in one piece. However, this did not mean that the gun was assigned motorized traction.


12 cm Lang staal, Capabilities
The first serious tests of the gun were done by Krupp in Dülmen in June 1875. With a charge of 3.1 kg of prismatic powder, and a projectile of 14 kg, the average velocity was 469.1 m/s at 50 meters from the muzzle with a pressure of 1,900 atm. With 3.3 kg of another kind of gunpowder it was 466.1 m/s and a pressure of 1,383 atm. The first kind of powder gave the highest velocity.


12 cm Lang staal, Capabilities
In the subsequent Dutch trials, which started in April 1876 many kinds of gunpowder were tested. Most of it was coarse gunpowder of about 350 grains per kg. Krupp had determined that the gas pressure inside the gun should not exceed 2,000 atm, and that a suitable gunpowder should propel the projectile to at least 465 m/s at 50 m from the muzzle.


12 cm Lang staal, Capabilities
The next round of Dutch tests was done with a new set of two guns, which had grooves inside the chamber, and of which the 12 cm gun fired a heavier 16.7 kg projectile. With a charge of 3.3 kg a velocity of 450.6 m/s was achieved. With 3.5 kg this was 462.6 m/s, but then pressure was 1,950 atm.


12 cm Lang staal, Capabilities
The trials were then invalidated by a change that was made to the guns as a result of trials in Germany. The change was that the angle of the grooves was changed from constant to progressive. After some tests, the commission noted very significant differences with regard to atmospheric pressure in July. After many investigations, it was found that in warm weather there was a slight increase in velocity, and a much higher increase in gas pressure inside the guns. The difference could be as much as 7 m/s and 145 atm.


12 cm Lang staal, Capabilities
With a charge of 3 kg black gunpowder the initial velocity of the 20.3 kg shrapnel shell was 394 m/s.


12 cm Lang staal, Capabilities
In 1928 some changes had been made to simplify the breech, and to prevent the escape of gasses. This increased the rate of fire to 3 shots every 2 minutes. By then range was about 7,500 m. In 1933 the gun was to get new aiming devices. It seems that an attempt to increase the range of the 12 cm Lang staal failed in 1934.


12 cm Lang staal, Ammunition
Some shrapnel shot (granaatkartets) delivered by Krupp was tested on Scheveningen beach in 1879. The shell had 185 bullets of 25 gram each, made of an alloy of lead and antimony. The explosive charge at the back of the shell was 125 gram. The complete shell weighed 20.3 kg.


12 cm Lang staal, Operations, Post World War I
In December 1918 the Society Ons Leger (our army) gave a demonstration in The Hague to show the differences between modern and obsolete artillery. The message was that with the old heavy artillery, taking up a position took way too much time. Before the floor for a gun like the 12 cm Lang staal was laid, and the ammunition had been brought forward, an enemy with more accurate modern artillery would have destroyed the obsolete artillery from a distance which was outside of range for the old guns. That is if the old gun would even be ready fire before getting destroyed.


12 cm Lang staal, Operations, Post World War I
There were many suggestions to make part of the siege artillery more mobile. In the 1920s the 12 cm Lang staal took part in several exercises. The first of these was an exercise in 1926. More exercises followed in 1927.


12 cm Lang staal, Operations, Becomes part of the field artillery
In December 1927 the siege artillery regiment ceased to exist as a unit. It was replaced by two regiments of dismounted artillery, one in Gorinchem, and one in Naarden. These would then be made mobile, so they could serve as field artillery. An improvement or repair, which was planned in 1926, was a change to the breech of the 12 cm Lang staal. It was to put an end to disturbances in its operation. There was also a change to the ammunition to increase range. These changes were necessary in every scenario where the gun was to be used.


12 cm Lang staal, Operations, Becomes part of the field artillery
There were doubts about making the 12 cm Lang staal mobile. This led to measures to get rid of the wooden floor (see above). However, the other main shortcomings of the gun, i.e. the very low rate of fire, and taking aim by moving the tail, could not be remedied economically. Therefore, the firepower of the gun remained very substandard. The cost of making the guns more mobile, was primarily in assigning the soldiers and transport means required to move the guns.


12 cm Lang staal, Operations, Becomes part of the field artillery
As such, these cost could not be justified by the small increase in fire power that it would give. Therefore, there were ideas that only the strictly necessary measures, and the measures for getting rid of the floor would be executed. The gun would then continue to be organized in units which would only be transported after the front had stabilized.


12 cm Lang staal, Operations, Becomes part of the field artillery
In March 1931 exercises were held near Breda with a battery of 4 12 cm Lang staal which had been reassigned from the siege artillery to the field army. Later in 1931, the regiment of unmounted artillery from Gorinchem held an exercise near Breda. The regiment was embarked in Gorinchem, and disembarked in Oosterhout. In Oosterhout horses from the 3rd Artillery regiment from Breda took the guns in tow.


12 cm Lang staal, Operations, Becomes part of the field artillery
In 1934 it was thought that the 12 cm Lang staal would finally be retired. The international situation might have prevented this. In March 1936 the 13th and 14th Artillery regiment were armed with the 12 cm Lang staal.


12 cm Luftminenwerfer M 16
The 12 cm Luftminenwerfer M 16 (Pneumatic trench mortar) was a medium mortar used by Austria-Hungary in World War I. It was developed by Austria Metal Works in Brno from their earlier, rejected, 8 cm project. It was a rigid-recoil, smooth-bore, breech-loading design that had to be levered around to aim at new targets. It was very simple in that the shell closed the top of the chamber and was retained by a "gripper" until the air pressure was deemed sufficient and the gripper was manually released, which fired the weapon. An additional barrel could be fitted to extend the range. A cylinder of compressed air was good for eleven shots.


12 cm Luftminenwerfer M 16
After an evaluation on 23 November 1915 it was deemed superior to the German designs already in service (10.5 cm Luftminenwerfer M 15 and 15 cm Luftminenwerfer M 15 M. E.) in range and accuracy and a batch of 100 mortars and 50,000 bombs was ordered at the beginning of 1916. Some 280 were at the front by the end of 1916 and 930 by the end of 1917. In addition to Austria Metal Works it was produced by Brand & L'Huillier and the machine factory at Brno-Köningsfeld. Some improvements must have been made over the course of the production run because late-war documents refer to the original design as the M 16a (alte? ), but what exactly was changed is unknown.


12 cm Minenwerfer M 15
The 12 cm Minenwerfer M 15 (Trench mortar) was a medium mortar used by Austria-Hungary in World War I. It was designed by the Army's own Technisches und Administratives Militär-Komitee (TMK) as an enlarged 9 cm Minenwerfer M 14 in 1915. The War Ministry decided to order 50 from the TMK, but the latter preferred only to produce 10 and switch the remaining 40 to the 14 cm Minenwerfer M 15, but no response was made by the Ministry. The TMZ placed an order for the 10 mortars from Teudloff & Dittrich in Vienna at the end of 1915. A follow on order for another hundred was canceled in February 1916.


12 cm felthaubits/m32
The 12 cm felthaubits/m32 was a howitzer used by Norway in World War II. Captured guns were given a German designation after the Invasion of Norway as the 12 cm leFH 376(n). Two batteries of Artillerie-Abteilung 477, which served in Finland during the war, were equipped with 12 cm Norwegian howitzers, which might included these guns.


12 cm felthaubits/m32
Eight were built during the 1930s to replace the obsolescent Rheinmetall 12 cm leFH 08, which was known in Norwegian service as the 12 cm felthaubits/m08. They served with the single heavy artillery battalion of the Norwegian Army in 1940, but were unable to get ammunition during the campaign and were evacuated into Sweden, according to one source.


12 cm felthaubits/m32
It was equipped with rubber-rimmed steel wheels for motorized towing.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70
The 12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70 ("12 cm automatic turret gun model 1970"), also known as ERSTA (Ersättning Tungt Artilleri or "Replacement Heavy Artillery") was developed to defend vital points like seaports from enemy landing ships, as well as area denial and fire support, even on a nuclear battlefield. Due to political cost-cutting requirements, the number of 12/70 batteries built in Sweden was limited to six. For the same reason, some protection aspects were abandoned.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, History
In the 1960s, the Swedish Coastal Artillery sought to replace several older heavy artillery systems. A study called ERSTA (Ersättning Tungt Artilleri – "Replacement Heavy Artillery") was initiated to ascertain which alternative (conventional artillery, rocket artillery or missiles) would be best for heavy coastal defense.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, History, The ERSTA study
The ERSTA study was a 1960s Swedish coastal defense study aimed at determining what would become the next heavy coastal defense system. A 120 mm automatic gun system was eventually selected.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, History, The ERSTA study
Rb 08 anti-ship missile installations were seriously considered but abandoned, possibly because much of that project may have been exposed to the Soviet Union by Stig Wennerström, the spy who also leaked vital information about the air defense system STRIL 60.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, History, Deployment
Several locations were studied and suggested for 12/70 batteries, and 10 locations were eventually selected and constructed in two series. In the end, due to funding issues, only the first series of six batteries was built starting in 1971. Additional cost-cutting measures had to be taken so EMP protection was severely reduced and the supporting installation of each gun was made smaller by replacing the full featured kitchen with a less capable galley and reducing the overall size of the crew quarters.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, System description
Each 12/70 battery consists of three fully independent gun emplacements, a command center, ranging stations and a close-in defense system with AA guns, mortar positions and troop shelters. There were 2 different kinds of 12/70 installation, known by their Bofors designations TAPJ 9101 and TAPJ 9102 (TAPJ is an acronym for TornAutomatPJäs). The 9101 system was designed to be installed in a large hole blasted in the bedrock, while 9102 was a variant which did not require such a deep hole and would be installed in a large hole dug in soil, i.e., where no stable rock was available. On both variants the hole is plugged with several meters of densely reinforced special concrete.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, System description, Turret and gun system
The 12/70 gun is a fully automatic, water-cooled vertical sliding wedge design mounted in an armored turret which is electrically traversed under computer control while the elevation motor is controlled manually (presumably a cost-cutting measure). It is fed from a magazine several meters below ground where the crew uses special air-cushion carts to feed cartridges onto a loading table. From the loading table the cartridge is fed through a hoist system and loaded into the gun using a pendulum loader.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, System description, Turret and gun system
Spent cartridges are passed down a chute into a space at the bottom of the gun well, which is over 18 m (59 ft) deep on tapj 9101 and a few meters less on tapj 9102. The turret is manned by three men (gun commander, traverse operator and elevation operator) with the rest of the gun crew working in the magazine or the installation below.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, System description, Turret and gun system
To protect the gun system from ground shockwaves and overpressure in case of a nuclear detonation, the barrel is lowered into its storage position in a special "ground attachment fork" and the turret is hydraulically lowered and anchored to its foundation. The muzzle is automatically sealed when the barrel is lowered into storage position.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, System description, Turret and gun system
During a nuclear attack, the turret crew may not stay in the turret because of the initial radiation, but they may reoccupy it and be ready to fight immediately after the attack thanks to a special liner which reduces induced radiation to such a point that it is safe to immediately reoccupy the turret.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, System description, Supporting installation
Each gun emplacement is supported by an installation which contains power supply, accommodation and a galley. This enables at least 60 days endurance when cut off from the outside world. It consists of a steel-framed structure placed on rubber cushions for protection from ground shockwaves. On a type 9101 emplacement, this installation is a 3-story structure placed below the magazine.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, System description, Supporting installation
The command and control center is a larger installation consisting of a 5-story building of a similar design which also has a more capable kitchen and a sickbay with surgery capability. In addition to cables and ordinary radio masts, the 12/70 command features reserve masts which are normally stored in silos below ground and may be raised as needed.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, System description, Fire control
The 12/70 system marked the first use of the ArtE 724 digital fire control system. This may be fed information from several type of ranging stations, chiefly a radar system called HSRR which consists of a radar antenna normally stored below ground under an armored hatch. At least two surveillance radars are attached to the battery, and when a target is detected the HSRR may be raised and used for ranging reducing the time it is exposed above ground.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, System description, Fire control
The other main ranging instrument is a laser rangefinder called AML 702 installed along with a low-light TV camera in an armored turret called the "laser eye". This can be remote controlled from the ranging station or command center and takes the place of the periscopes used in older installations.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, Second series
A second series of four ERSTA batteries was planned but never realized as political priorities changed in the late 1970s, downplaying the threat of a nuclear attack. The fire control and radar systems meant for series #2 were redirected to a few older installations that were modernized in the mid-1980s as a very cheap and effective way to improve performance.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, Modifications and final disposal
The Swedish 12/70 system was slated for modernization in the early 2000s but with the 1999 decision to abandon all invasion defense it was selected for scrapping instead. One gun emplacement, gun #3 at Landsort, has been declared a State Construction Memorial and will be preserved, although it is unclear if it can be shown to the public other than on special occasions due to its remote location, modern accessibility requirements etc.


12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70, Norwegian export
In the late 1980s eight guns were exported to Norway, where they were installed in two 3-gun batteries and one 2-gun battery between 1989 and 1994. Unlike the Swedish installations the Norwegians decided to implement EMP protection and enlarge the supporting installations in order to improve crew comfort. The Norwegian installations, being about 10 years newer, also feature a more modern fire control and communications system. All guns were mothballed in 2001, seven of the guns were dismantled in 2012/2013. One gun at Meløyvær Fortress is preserved along with the command central as a museum.


12 cm/12 short naval gun
The 12 cm/12 short naval gun was a naval gun used by the Imperial Japanese Navy to defend merchant ships and land bases during World War II.


12 cm/12 short naval gun, History
Since Japan is an island nation with relatively few resources it relied upon a large merchant fleet to import the resources needed for its industry and economy. As Japanese shipping losses mounted during World War II the Japanese began to organize their shipping into escorted convoys and they began arming their merchant ships to defend against attacks from Allied surface combatants, submarines and carrier-based aircraft. The 12cm/12 short naval gun was a multi-purpose gun introduced during 1941 which combined the roles of naval gun, anti-aircraft gun, coastal defense gun, and anti-submarine gun.


12 cm/12 short naval gun, Design
The 12 cm/12 short naval gun was an autofretted monoblock gun with an interrupted screw breech that fired fixed QF ammunition. The trunnioned gun barrel had a hydro-spring recoil mechanism above and below the barrel and was mounted on a center pivot H/A L/A gun mount. The gun was normally mounted on merchant ships below 5,000 GRT and also saw use on land as a coastal defense gun on hills overlooking Japanese harbors and installations or as an anti-aircraft gun. It was described as being a light and easy to handle hand trained weapon that could be loaded at any angle by inexperienced gun crews. However, its rate of elevation/traverse 13° a second was considered too slow for effective anti-aircraft use.


12 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun
12 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun was a Japanese naval gun and coast defense gun used on destroyers, and torpedo boats of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II.


12 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun, Design and development
The 12 cm/45 gun designed in 1895 was an indigenous variant of an Elswick Ordnance Company export design known as the Pattern Y. The Japanese designation was the "Type 41". Later in 1921 the 12 cm/45 gun was used as the basis for a high-angle anti-aircraft gun, designated the 12 cm/45 10th Year Type. The "Third Year Type" refers to the Welin breech block used and this should not be confused with the later Type 3 12 cm AA Gun developed by the Imperial Japanese Army in 1943. In the Japanese Army artillery naming system, "Type 3" refers to the year of introduction, rather than the type of breech block used.


12 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun, Design and development
A re-design in 1922 called the 12 cm 11th Year Type naval gun (Model 1922) with a shorter gun barrel and a horizontal sliding breech-block was used on submarines and torpedo boats. The 12 cm/45 was manually loaded and fired a 20.3 kg (45 lb) high-explosive, an illumination shell or after 1943 an anti-submarine shell.


12 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun, Design and development
In addition to its shipboard role it was widely deployed as a coastal defense gun for Japanese bases in the Pacific and was one of the more common types found by Allied forces.


12 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun, Gallery
3rd Year Type guns used in a coastal defense role.


12 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun, Gallery
Two Japanese guns at Fort Siloso - Sentosa Island, Singapore.


12 dage
"12 dage" is a song by Danish singer Medina from her third studio album For altid. It was released as the fourth single from the album on 26 March 2012. The song peaked at number 8 on the Danish Singles Chart.


12 dage, Music video
A music video to accompany the release of "12 dage" was first released onto YouTube on 26 March 2012 at a total length of four minutes and thirty-six seconds.


12 de Janeiro
12 de Janeiro (January 12th) is the first solo album released by Brazilian musician Nando Reis. The track "E.T.C" was later recorded live by Cássia Eller on her Acústico MTV album, and became a big hit. Until November 1995, it had sold 25,000 copies, a disappointment for Reis, who considered that the label was to blame because "some songs performed well on the radio, but there were no CDs at the stores". By August 1997, it had reached the 27,300 mark.


12 de Janeiro
The track "Meu Aniversário" was composed as a heavier version for Titãs' 1993 album Titanomaquia, but the band rejected it because it was still too light and different from the rest of the tracks. Nevertheless, it was featured at the band's rarities compilation album E-collection. The track "Bom Dia" was inspired by his children Theodoro and Sophia.


12 de Janeiro
Reis invited his friend Cássia Eller to do  duet with him on the song "Fiz o Que Pude", but the label denied it, according to him, claiming that the presence of a more famous artist would "shift the audience's focus".


12 de Janeiro, Track listing
All music is composed by Nando Reis, unless otherwise noted.


12 de Octubre Football Club
12 de Octubre Football Club is a Paraguayan football club from the city of Itauguá that currently plays in the Primera Division, the top division of Football in Paraguay. Founded in 1914, the club's home venue is Estadio Luis Alberto Salinas Tanasio.


12 de Octubre Football Club
The club is the only club outside the Asuncion Metropolitan Area to win a league title.


12 de Octubre Football Club, History
The club was founded on August 14, 1914 by the Tanasio family. The name of the club, 12 de Octubre, was chosen in honor of Columbus Day. The club's colors were chosen based on some flowers a school teacher had. The team played in the regional leagues from their foundation until they were promoted to the first division B in 1996. The following year, they won the División Intermedia, and were promoted to the Primera Division.


12 de Octubre Football Club, History
In 2001, they placed 10th in the Apertura and 3rd in the Clausura. Their placement in the Clausura qualified them for the Liguilla, which they won and gave them a spot in the 2002 Copa Libertadores. In the tournament, they were eliminated in the group stage after finishing 3rd in a group that contained Gremio, Cienciano, and Oriente Petrolero. However, they still managed to record 3 wins: 1-0 against powerhouse Gremio and Cienciano, and 3-2 against Oriente Petrolero.


12 de Octubre Football Club, History
In the 2002 season they finished runner up in the Apertura tournament behind Sportivo Luqueño and won the Clausura tournament but lost in the absolute finals against Libertad 2-6 on aggregate. Despite losing the finals, their overall standing, which was first in the aggregate table, gave them a spot in the 2003 Copa Libertadores, where they were knocked out by finishing last in the group stage and only winning one game against Ecuador's El Nacional.


12 de Octubre Football Club, History
They weren't as successful as the previous year during the next season, as they finished 9th and 7th in the Apertura and Clausura tournaments respectively.


12 de Octubre Football Club, History
In 2007, 12 de Octubre arrived to the last matchday of the Clausura, after having a poor season, one step away from being relegated. They had to play against their rival for the fight of permanence, Sportivo Trinidense. Only a victory could save the club. In the 85th minute, Trinidense scored and were winning 1-0. But in the final minutes of the game when it seemed like their relegation was secured, the score was turned around with goals from Diego Miranda and Elvis Marecos, and the game finished 2-1.


12 de Octubre Football Club, History
For the moment the club was saving itself from being relegated but they still had to play Club General Díaz from the city of Luque. The first leg was won by General Diaz 2-1 in Luque. At halftime in the second leg, the score was 2-2 (3-4 on aggregate), which put 12 de Octubre in a tough position again. However, with great effort and the support from the fans, they turned things around by winning the game 4-2 (5-4 on aggregate) with goals from Hugo Notario, Francisco Esteche, Diego Miranda, and Domingo Ortiz. The victory secured their permanence in the Primera Division for the next season.


12 de Octubre Football Club, History
In 2009, after finishing with the second worst average of points obtained in the last three seasons, the team once again had to play the promotion/relegation playoff. They faced Sport Colombia, where they lost 3-0 on penalties after drawing 3-3 on aggregate. This meant that 12 de Octubre was relegated to the Segunda Division after 11 years in the top flight.


12 de Octubre Football Club, History
In 2010, the team had an irregular season in the Segunda Division, reaching both top and bottom of the table but finishing mid table at the end of the season. For the 2011 season, Jacinto Elizeche was appointed as the team's manager, although the poor results throughout the season brought about his dismissal. Estanislao Struway succeeded him as manager, but the results under his spell did not improve, and the team was relegated to the Tercera Division that season with Struway also being sacked.


12 de Octubre Football Club, History
In 2012, in their first participation in the third division, they were champions with only 3 games lost. With this they returned to the Segunda Division in 2013 with only a year of absence.


12 de Octubre Football Club, History
The 2013 season was a good one for the club. It finished runner-up behind champion 3 de Febrero, and achieved promotion back to the top tier for the 2014 season.


12 de Octubre Football Club, Stadium
The stadium was opened in 1965 and has a capacity of 10,000. It was called Estadio Juan Canuto Pettengill until 2016, when it was changed to Estadio Luis Alberto Salinas Tanasio in honor of Luis Salinas, ex president of the club. The stadium was expanded with the addition of an east stand in 2003, and received floodlights the following year.


12 de Octubre Football Club, Current squad
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.


12 de Octubre Football Club, Gallery
Former striker Fredy Bareiro played for the club in the early 2000's


12 de Octubre Football Club, Gallery
Salvador Cabañas began his career at the club and later returned for another stint in 2012 until 2003


12 de Octubre Football Club, Gallery
Dario Veron began his career at the club before playing in Chile and Mexico and for the Paraguay national team


12 de Octubre metro station
12 de Octubre is a Panama Metro station on Line 1. Construction of the station began on 17 March 2012 and it was one of the first 11 stations when the metro began operations on 6 April 2014. It is the first of six elevated stations when travelling towards the San Isidro terminus.


12 de Octubre metro station
Located in the district of the same name, the station is the closest to Panamá Viejo, the original site of Panama city. In its first year of operations, 12 de Octubre was the eighth most used station of the twelve on the network at that time, carrying 8% of the system's users at peak times.


12 equal temperament
Twelve-tone equal temperament is the musical system that divides the octave into 12 parts, all of which are equally tempered (equally spaced) on a logarithmic scale, with a ratio equal to the 12th root of 2 (12√2 ≈ 1.05946). That resulting smallest interval, 1⁄12 the width of an octave, is called a semitone or half step.


12 equal temperament
Twelve-tone equal temperament is the most widespread system in music today. It has been the predominant tuning system of Western music, starting with classical music, since the 18th century, and Europe almost exclusively used approximations of it for millennia before that. It has also been used in other cultures.


12 equal temperament
In modern times, 12-TET is usually tuned relative to a standard pitch of 440 Hz, called A440, meaning one note, A, is tuned to 440 hertz and all other notes are defined as some multiple of semitones apart from it, either higher or lower in frequency. The standard pitch has not always been 440 Hz. It has varied and generally risen over the past few hundred years.


12 equal temperament, History
The two figures frequently credited with the achievement of exact calculation of twelve-tone equal temperament are Zhu Zaiyu (also romanized as Chu-Tsaiyu. Chinese: 朱載堉) in 1584 and Simon Stevin in 1585. According to Fritz A. Kuttner, a critic of the theory, it is known that "Chu-Tsaiyu presented a highly precise, simple and ingenious method for arithmetic calculation of equal temperament mono-chords in 1584" and that "Simon Stevin offered a mathematical definition of equal temperament plus a somewhat less precise computation of the corresponding numerical values in 1585 or later." The developments occurred independently.


12 equal temperament, History
Kenneth Robinson attributes the invention of equal temperament to Zhu Zaiyu and provides textual quotations as evidence. Zhu Zaiyu is quoted as saying that, in a text dating from 1584, "I have founded a new system. I establish one foot as the number from which the others are to be extracted, and using proportions I extract them. Altogether one has to find the exact figures for the pitch-pipers in twelve operations." Kuttner disagrees and remarks that his claim "cannot be considered correct without major qualifications." Kuttner proposes that neither Zhu Zaiyu or Simon Stevin achieved equal temperament and that neither of the two should be treated as inventors.


12 equal temperament, History, China, Early history
A complete set of bronze chime bells, among many musical instruments found in the tomb of the Marquis Yi of Zeng (early Warring States, c. 5th century BCE in the Chinese Bronze Age), covers five full 7-note octaves in the key of C Major, including 12 note semi-tones in the middle of the range.


12 equal temperament, History, China, Early history
An approximation for equal temperament was described by He Chengtian, a mathematician of Southern and Northern Dynasties who lived from 370–447. He came out with the earliest recorded approximate numerical sequence in relation to equal temperament in history: 900 849 802 758 715 677 638 601 570 536 509.5 479 450.


12 equal temperament, History, China, Zhu Zaiyu
Zhu Zaiyu (朱載堉), a prince of the Ming court, spent thirty years on research based on the equal temperament idea originally postulated by his father. He described his new pitch theory in his Fusion of Music and Calendar 律暦融通 published in 1580. This was followed by the publication of a detailed account of the new theory of the equal temperament with a precise numerical specification for 12-TET in his 5,000-page work Complete Compendium of Music and Pitch (Yuelü quan shu 樂律全書) in 1584. An extended account is also given by Joseph Needham. Zhu obtained his result mathematically by dividing the length of string and pipe successively by 12√2 ≈ 1.059463, and for pipe length by 24√2, such that after twelve divisions (an octave) the length was divided by a factor of 2:


12 equal temperament, History, China, Zhu Zaiyu
Similarly, after 84 divisions (7 octaves) the length was divided by a factor of 128:


12 equal temperament, History, China, Zhu Zaiyu
Zhu Zaiyu has been credited as the first person to solve the equal temperament problem mathematically. At least one researcher has proposed that Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit in China recorded this work in his personal journal and may have transmitted the work back to Europe. (Standard resources on the topic make no mention of any such transfer.) In 1620, Zhu's work was referenced by a European mathematician. Murray Barbour said, "The first known appearance in print of the correct figures for equal temperament was in China, where Prince Tsaiyü's brilliant solution remains an enigma." The 19th-century German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz wrote in On the Sensations of Tone that a Chinese prince (see below) introduced a scale of seven notes, and that the division of the octave into twelve semitones was discovered in China.


12 equal temperament, History, China, Zhu Zaiyu
Zhu Zaiyu illustrated his equal temperament theory by the construction of a set of 36 bamboo tuning pipes ranging in 3 octaves, with instructions of the type of bamboo, color of paint, and detailed specification on their length and inner and outer diameters. He also constructed a 12-string tuning instrument, with a set of tuning pitch pipes hidden inside its bottom cavity. In 1890, Victor-Charles Mahillon, curator of the Conservatoire museum in Brussels, duplicated a set of pitch pipes according to Zhu Zaiyu's specification. He said that the Chinese theory of tones knew more about the length of pitch pipes than its Western counterpart, and that the set of pipes duplicated according to the Zaiyu data proved the accuracy of this theory.


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Early history
One of the earliest discussions of equal temperament occurs in the writing of Aristoxenus in the 4th century BC.


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Early history
Vincenzo Galilei (father of Galileo Galilei) was one of the first practical advocates of twelve-tone equal temperament. He composed a set of dance suites on each of the 12 notes of the chromatic scale in all the "transposition keys", and published also, in his 1584 "Fronimo", 24 + 1 ricercars. He used the 18:17 ratio for fretting the lute (although some adjustment was necessary for pure octaves).


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Early history
Galilei's countryman and fellow lutenist Giacomo Gorzanis had written music based on equal temperament by 1567. Gorzanis was not the only lutenist to explore all modes or keys: Francesco Spinacino wrote a "Recercare de tutti li Toni" (Ricercar in all the Tones) as early as 1507. In the 17th century lutenist-composer John Wilson wrote a set of 30 preludes including 24 in all the major/minor keys. Henricus Grammateus drew a close approximation to equal temperament in 1518. The first tuning rules in equal temperament were given by Giovani Maria Lanfranco in his "Scintille de musica". Zarlino in his polemic with Galilei initially opposed equal temperament but eventually conceded to it in relation to the lute in his Sopplimenti musicali in 1588.


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Simon Stevin
The first mention of equal temperament related to the twelfth root of two in the West appeared in Simon Stevin's manuscript Van De Spiegheling der singconst (ca. 1605), published posthumously nearly three centuries later in 1884. However, due to insufficient accuracy of his calculation, many of the chord length numbers he obtained were off by one or two units from the correct values. As a result, the frequency ratios of Simon Stevin's chords has no unified ratio, but one ratio per tone, which is claimed by Gene Cho as incorrect.


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Simon Stevin
The following were Simon Stevin's chord length from Van de Spiegheling der singconst:


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Simon Stevin
A generation later, French mathematician Marin Mersenne presented several equal temperedchord lengths obtained by Jean Beaugrand, Ismael Bouillaud, and Jean Galle.


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Simon Stevin
In 1630 Johann Faulhaber published a 100-cent monochord table, which contained several errors due to his use of logarithmic tables. He did not explain how he obtained his results.


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Baroque era
From 1450 to about 1800, plucked instrument players (lutenists and guitarists) generally favored equal temperament, and the Brossard lute Manuscript compiled in the last quarter of the 17th century contains a series of 18 preludes attributed to Bocquet written in all keys, including the last prelude, entitled Prelude sur tous les tons, which enharmonically modulates through all keys. Angelo Michele Bartolotti published a series of passacaglias in all keys, with connecting enharmonically modulating passages. Among the 17th-century keyboard composers Girolamo Frescobaldi advocated equal temperament. Some theorists, such as Giuseppe Tartini, were opposed to the adoption of equal temperament; they felt that degrading the purity of each chord degraded the aesthetic appeal of music, although Andreas Werckmeister emphatically advocated equal temperament in his 1707 treatise published posthumously.


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Baroque era
Twelve-tone equal temperament took hold for a variety of reasons. It was a convenient fit for the existing keyboard design, and permitted total harmonic freedom with the burden of moderate impurity in every interval, particularly imperfect consonances. This allowed greater expression through enharmonic modulation, which became extremely important in the 18th century in music of such composers as Francesco Geminiani, Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach and Johann Gottfried Müthel. Twelve-tone equal temperament did have some disadvantages, such as imperfect thirds, but as Europe switched to equal temperament, it changed the music that it wrote in order to accommodate the system and minimize dissonance.


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Baroque era
The progress of equal temperament from the mid-18th century on is described with detail in quite a few modern scholarly publications: it was already the temperament of choice during the Classical era (second half of the 18th century), and it became standard during the Early Romantic era (first decade of the 19th century), except for organs that switched to it more gradually, completing only in the second decade of the 19th century. (In England, some cathedral organists and choirmasters held out against it even after that date; Samuel Sebastian Wesley, for instance, opposed it all along. He died in 1876.)


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Baroque era
A precise equal temperament is possible using the 17th-century Sabbatini method of splitting the octave first into three tempered major thirds. This was also proposed by several writers during the Classical era. Tuning without beat rates but employing several checks, achieving virtually modern accuracy, was already done in the first decades of the 19th century. Using beat rates, first proposed in 1749, became common after their diffusion by Helmholtz and Ellis in the second half of the 19th century. The ultimate precision was available with 2-decimal tables published by White in 1917.


12 equal temperament, History, Europe, Baroque era
It is in the environment of equal temperament that the new styles of symmetrical tonality and polytonality, atonal music such as that written with the twelve tone technique or serialism, and jazz (at least its piano component) developed and flourished.


12 equal temperament, Mathematical properties
In twelve-tone equal temperament, which divides the octave into 12 equal parts, the width of a semitone, i.e. the frequency ratio of the interval between two adjacent notes, is the twelfth root of two:


12 equal temperament, Mathematical properties, Calculating absolute frequencies
To find the frequency, Pn, of a note in 12-TET, the following definition may be used:


12 equal temperament, Mathematical properties, Calculating absolute frequencies
In this formula Pn refers to the pitch, or frequency (usually in hertz), you are trying to find. Pa refers to the frequency of a reference pitch. n and a refer to numbers assigned to the desired pitch and the reference pitch, respectively. These two numbers are from a list of consecutive integers assigned to consecutive semitones. For example, A4 (the reference pitch) is the 49th key from the left end of a piano (tuned to 440 Hz), and C4 (middle C), and F#4 are the 40th and 46th key respectively. These numbers can be used to find the frequency of C4 and F#4 :


12 equal temperament, Just intervals
The intervals of 12-TET closely approximate some intervals in just intonation.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, By limit
12-TET is very accurate in the 3-limit, but as one increases prime limits to 11, it gradually gets worse by about a sixth of a semitone each time. Its eleventh and thirteenth harmonics are extremely inaccurate. 12-TET's seventeenth and nineteenth harmonics are almost as accurate as its third harmonic, but by this point, the prime limit has gotten too high to sound consonant to most people.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, By limit, 3-limit
12-TET has a very good approximation of the perfect fifth (3/2) and its inversion, the perfect fourth (4/3), especially for the division of the octave into a relatively small number of tones. Specifically, a just perfect fifth is slightly less than two cents, which is a fiftieth of a semitone, sharper than the equally-tempered approximation.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, By limit, 3-limit
Because the major tone (9/8) is simply two perfect fifths minus an octave, and its inversion, the Pythagorean minor seventh (16/9), is simply two perfect fourths combined, they, for the most part, retain the accuracy of their predecessors; the error is doubled, but it remains small—so small, in fact, that humans cannot perceive it. One can continue to use fractions with higher powers of three, the next two being 27/16 and 32/27, but as the terms of the fractions grow larger, they become less pleasing to the ear.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, By limit, 5-limit
12-TET's approximation of the fifth harmonic (5/4) is between a sixth and a seventh of a semitone off. Because intervals that are less than a quarter of a scale step off still sound in tune, 12-TET has an in-tune fifth harmonic that can be used to generate other five-limit intervals, such as 5/3 and 8/5, with similarly-sized errors. Western music takes advantage of the in-tune fifth harmonic, for example using it in the 4:5:6 arithmetic sequence.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, By limit, 7-limit
12-TET's approximation of the seventh harmonic (7/4) is about a third of a semitone off. Because the error is greater than a quarter of a semitone, seven-limit intervals in 12-TET tend to sound out of tune. In the tritone fractions 7/5 and 10/7, the errors of the fifth and seventh harmonics partially cancel each other out so that the just fractions are within a quarter of a semitone of their equally-tempered equivalents, but the tritone still sounds dissonant to most people.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, By limit, 11- and 13-limits
The eleventh harmonic (11/8) is about 550 cents, meaning that it falls almost exactly between the nearest two equally-tempered intervals in 12-TET and therefore is not approximated by either. In fact, 11/8 is almost as far from any equally-tempered approximation as possible in 12-TET. The thirteenth harmonic (13/8) is almost as bad. However, this means that the fraction 13/11 (and also its inversion, 22/13) is accurately approximated by 12-TET (specifically by three semitones) because the errors of the eleventh and thirteenth harmonics cancel each other out.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, By limit, 11- and 13-limits
However, most people are not used to the eleventh and thirteenth harmonics, so this fraction would not sound consonant to most people. Similarly, the error of the eleventh or thirteenth harmonic could be mostly canceled out by the error of the seventh harmonic, but for the same reason as before, most people would not find the resulting fractions consonant.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, By limit, 17- and 19-limits
The seventeenth harmonic (17/16) is only about 5 cents sharper than one semitone in 12-TET. It can be combined with 12-TET's approximation of the third harmonic in order to yield 17/12, which is, as the next Pell approximation after 7/5, only about three cents away from the equally-tempered tritone (the square root of two), and 17/9, which is only one cent away from 12-TET's major seventh.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, By limit, 17- and 19-limits
The nineteenth harmonic is only about two and a half cents flatter than three of 12-TET's semitones, so it can likewise be combined with the third harmonic to yield 19/12, which is about four and a half cents flatter than an equally-tempered minor sixth, and 19/18, which is about six and a half cents flatter than a semitone. However, because 17 and 19 are rather large for consonant ratios and most people are unfamiliar with 17-limit and 19-limit intervals, 17-limit and 19-limit intervals are not useful for most purposes, so they can likely not be judged as playing a part in any consonances of 12-TET.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, Table
In the following table the sizes of various just intervals are compared against their equal-tempered counterparts, given as a ratio as well as cents. Differences of less than six cents cannot be noticed by most people, and intervals that are  more than a quarter of a step, which in this case is 25 cents, off sound out of tune.


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, Commas
12-TET tempers out several commas, meaning that there are several fractions close to 1⁄1 that are treated as 1⁄1 by 12-TET due to its mapping of different fractions to the same equally-tempered interval. For example, 729⁄512 (36⁄29) and 1024⁄729 (210⁄36) are each mapped to the tritone, so they are treated as the same interval; therefore, their quotient, 531441⁄524288 (312⁄219) is mapped to/treated as unison. This is the Pythagorean comma, and it is 12-TET's only 3-limit comma. However, as one increases the prime limit and includes more intervals, the number of commas increases. 12-TET's most important five-limit comma is  81⁄80 (34⁄24×51), which is known as the syntonic comma and is the factor between Pythagorean thirds and sixths and their just counterparts. 12-TET's other 5-limit commas include:


12 equal temperament, Just intervals, Commas
One of the 7-limit commas that 12-TET tempers out is the septimal kleisma, which is equal to 225⁄224, or 32×52⁄25×71. 12-TET's other 7-limit commas include:


12 equal temperament, Similar tuning systems
Historically, multiple tuning systems have been used that can be seen as slight variations of 12-TEDO, with twelve notes per octave but with some variation among interval sizes so that the notes are not quite equally-spaced. One example of this a three-limit scale where equally-tempered perfect fifths of 700 cents are replaced with justly-intoned perfect fifths of 701.955 cents. Because the two intervals differ by less than 2 cents, or 1⁄600 of an octave, the two scales are very similar. In fact, the Chinese developed 3-limit just intonation at least a century before He Chengtian created the sequence of 12-TEDO.


12 equal temperament, Similar tuning systems
Likewise, Pythagorean tuning, which was developed by ancient Greeks, was the predominant system in Europe until during the Renaissance, when Europeans realized that dissonant intervals such as 81⁄64 could be made more consonant by tempering them to simpler ratios like 5⁄4, resulting in Europe developing a series of meantone temperaments that slightly modified the interval sizes but could still be viewed as an approximate of 12-TEDO.


12 equal temperament, Similar tuning systems
Due to meantone temperaments' tendency to concentrate error onto one enharmonic perfect fifth, making it very dissonant, European music theorists, such as Andreas Werckmeister, Johann Philipp Kirnberger, Francesco Antonio Vallotti, and Thomas Young, created various well temperaments with the goal of dividing up the commas in order to reduce the dissonance of the worst-affected intervals. Werckmeister and Kirnberger were each dissatisfied with his first temperament and therefore created multiple temperaments, the latter temperaments more closely approximating equal temperament than the former temperaments. Likewise, Europe as a whole gradually transitioned from meantone and well temperaments to 12-TEDO, the system that it still uses today.


12 equal temperament, Subsets
While some types of music, such as serialism, use all twelve notes of 12-TEDO, most music only uses notes from a particular subset of 12-TEDO known as a scale. Many different types of scales exist.


12 equal temperament, Subsets
The most popular type of scale in 12-TEDO is meantone. Meantone refers to any scale where all of its notes are consecutive on the circle of fifths. Meantone scales of different sizes exist, and some meantone scales used include five-note meantone, seven-note meantone, and nine-note meantone. Meantone is present in the design of Western instruments. For example, the keys of a piano and its predecessors are structured so that the white keys form a seven-note meantone scale and the black keys form a five-note meantone scale. Another example is that guitars and other string instruments with at least five strings are typically tuned so that their open strings form a five-note meantone scale.


12 equal temperament, Subsets
Other scales used in 12-TEDO include the ascending melodic minor scale, the harmonic minor, the harmonic major, the diminished scale, and the in scale.


12 foot dinghy
The Twelve Foot Dinghy was designed by George Cockshott, an amateur boat designer from Southport, England in response to a 1912 design contest. It became the first one-design racing dinghy to achieve international recognition. The class was granted the 'International' status by the IYRU in 1919 and remained this status until 1964 when it was revoked by the same authority. The class was selected as the dinghy class for the Olympics in 1920 & 1928. In 1924 the French wanted to use an alternate French design.


12 foot dinghy, Boat Racing Association (B.R.A.)
In 1913 there was published in England a new rating rule for yachts of all sizes. The rule was prepared by the self -styled 'Boat Racing Association' under the chairmanship of Lt. Col. J. T. Bucknill at a meeting in November 1912. B.R.A. felt that ordinary racing sailors were not catered for by the YRA (Yacht Racing Association) rating rules. Initially there was to be a class of 18 footer rating, which was to be smaller than a 6m. Other sizes of yachts were intended to follow, including a 12-foot and a 20 foot.


12 foot dinghy, Boat Racing Association (B.R.A.)
The B.R.A. rating formula was:Rating in feet= (Length + Square root of sail area) divided by 4 + (length x square root of sail area) divided by 3 x cube root of weight.


12 foot dinghy, Boat Racing Association (B.R.A.)
The class is known in some quarters as '(Section 5) The International One-Design 12 Foot Dinghy Class' as it is the smallest and 5th design approved by the International Conference of Nations held in 1919.


12 foot dinghy, The Future of the Class
Since the revoking of the International status the 12 foot Dinghy became a National class in many countries. This however resulted in deviations in the class rules between the different Nationalities. In 2006 the foundation of the international association were laid at a meeting in the Hotel Jolanda, Portofino, Italy this was followed by another meeting in Tuzla, Turkey in October 2007. During this time much progress has been made towards re-establishing the 12' Dinghy as a truly international class. However this did not resulted in a single set of class rules so far.


12 foot dinghy, The Future of the Class
The 12 feet dinghy is one of the Vintage Yachting Classes at the 2018 Vintage Yachting Games in Copenhagen.


12 foot dinghy, The Future of the Class
In June 2020 Lough Ree Yacht Club in Ireland had planned to celebrate their 250th. centenary with a Clinkerfest regatta including International 12 foot dinghies from Netherlands, and Germany but Government Covid regulations prevented it from taking place.


12 foot dinghy, The Future of the Class
Also in 2020 the centenary regatta in Ostende to commemorate 100 years since the first Olympic regatta for dinghies was postponed for the same reason.


12 foot dinghy, The World Dinghy Championships
In 1924, The Brussels Royal Yacht Club held the first World Dinghy Championships.


12 foot dinghy, The World Dinghy Championships
In 1925, The Royal Munster Yacht Club held the second World Dinghy Championships in Crosshaven, Co. Cork, Irish Free State.


12 foot dinghy, The Alternative Designs
Following the success of the George Cockshott design, there was a suggestion in 1920 that the Cockshott design be replaced by a (superior?) design by Frank Morgan Giles, who suggested that his design was superior to the design created by Cockshott who was a mere amateur. Morgan Giles persuaded the British that his design was superior, but he was unable to convince the Dutch or Italians.


12 foot dinghy, The Alternative Designs, Dublin Bay 12 footer (DBSC)
Due to the type of short steep waves which occur in Dublin Bay, Ireland, some owners of the Dun Laoghaire International 12 footers under the recommendation of J.J. O'Leary, modified the design in the 1960s to reduce the amount of water taken over the bow.


12 foot dinghy, The Alternative Designs, Dublin Bay 12 footer (DBSC)
They modified the design by putting a small foredeck with washboards, inserting a new mast step aft of the existing step, cutting a circular hole in the forward thwart, moving the mast aft, shortening the boom, cutting down the size of the mainsail, and hoisting a small jib borrowed from the other Dublin Bay classic dinghy class the Water Wag. The modification was declared a success, and the modified fleet sailed and raced for about another 10 years. No alterations were made to the hull, or underwater appendages - so the alterations should be reversible.


12 foot dinghy, The Alternative Designs, The Irish Championships
In the 1920s till the 1950s there were fleets in Royal Munster Yacht Club, Sutton Dinghy Club, Howth, Baltimore, Clontarf Yacht and Boat Club, and Seapoint Boat Club. The first 'International Dinghy Championship' was held by the Royal Munster Yacht Club in Cork Harbour on 12, 13 and 14 August 1925.


12 foot dinghy, The Alternative Designs, The Irish Championships
In 2011 the first Irish combined DBSC 12 foot and int. 12 foot Championships for at least 40 years was held at the Royal St George Yacht Club. Boats of the International Design and the Dublin Bay rig sailed against each other as equals in 2011, which was won by Gail Varian in a DBSC rigged boat.


12 foot dinghy, The Alternative Designs, The Irish Championships
In 2015 in Dun Laoghaire harbour and in the waters outside the harbour, the second Irish championship of recent years took placed under the Royal St. George Yacht Club burgee on 30 August. George Miller in 'Pixie' an Internationally rigged boat won overall.