1255 Schilowa, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
Between 2005 and 2009, three rotational lightcurves of Schilowa were obtained from photometric observations by European astronomers Pierre Antonini, Laurent Bernasconi, René Roy, Reiner Stoss, Jaime Nomen, Salvador Sánchez, Raoul Behrend. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 29.536 hours (also 24 h and 29.7 h) with a brightness amplitude between 0.09 and 0.15 magnitude (U=2 and 2/2-).


1255 Schilowa, Physical characteristics, Spin axis
In 2013, an international study modeled a lightcurve from various data sources including the Uppsala Asteroid Photometric Catalogue and the Palomar Transient Factory survey. The lightcurve gave a sidereal period of 29.4674 hours and allowed for the determination of two spin axis of (156.0°, −4.0°) and (338.0°, 15.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β).


1255 Schilowa, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Schilowa measures between 32.52 and 37.24 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.071 and 0.1389. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.1273 and a diameter of 32.44 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.3.


1256
Year 1256 (MCCLVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1256 Contract
This is the current revision of this page, as edited by XXBlackburnXx (talk | contribs) at 22:38, 29 February 2020 (Reverted edits by 2409:4042:271D:4A3A:0:0:24E0:80A4 (talk) to last version by Famspear). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.


1256 Contract
A 1256 Contract, as defined in section 1256 of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code, is any regulated futures contracts, foreign currency contracts, non-equity options (broad-based stock index options (including cash-settled ones), debt options, commodity futures options, and currency options), dealer equity options, dealer security futures contracts. For U.S. Federal income tax purposes, mark-to-market accounting is used for each 1256 contract as of the end of each tax year, and such contracts are treated as dispositioned (i.e., as "closed") at year end.


1256 Contract
The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is not clear on whether QQQ, DIA and SPY options should be treated as section 1256 contracts. On one hand, these do not settle in cash (most Section 1256 contracts do), but on the other hand they meet the definition of a "broad-based" index option. Instead, the IRS grants penalty relief if a broker determines in good faith that an index is, or is not, a narrow-based index, following published guidelines.


1256 Contract, Tax advantages
Any gain or loss from a 1256 Contract is treated for tax purposes as 40% short-term gain and 60% long-term gain. Because most futures contracts are held for less than the 12-month minimum holding period for long-term capital gains tax rates, the gain from any non-1256 contract will typically be taxed at the higher short-term rate. Thus the 1256 Contract designation enhances the marketability based on the after-tax attractiveness of these products.


1256 Contract, Tax advantages
The reason for the implementation of section 1256 was the fact that traders were hedging their short term futures contracts (going long and short at the same time) to transition to the next tax year without paying the short-term capital gains tax on these positions, and were effectively making these positions qualify for long-term tax treatment.


1256 Contract, Tax advantages
Section 1256 contract net losses can be carried back three years (instead of being carried forward to the following year), starting with the earliest year, but only to a year in which there is a net Section 1256 contracts gain, and only up to the extent of such gain (the carrying back cannot produce a net operating loss for the year), using Form 1045 or an amended return.


1256 Normannia
1256 Normannia (prov. designation: 1932 PD) is a dark Hilda asteroid and slow rotator from the outermost regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 69 kilometers (40 miles) in diameter. It was discovered on 8 August 1932, by astronomer Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory in Germany. The asteroid was likely named after the Normans who gave their name to the region of Normandy in France.


1256 Normannia, Orbit and classification
Normannia is a member of the Hilda group of asteroids, which are in 3:2 orbital resonance with the gas-giant Jupiter. When applying the Hierarchical Clustering Method to its proper orbital elements, Normannia is a background asteroid that does not belong to neither the Hilda family (001) nor the Schubart family (002), the only two asteroid families known within the Hilda group.


1256 Normannia, Orbit and classification
It orbits the Sun in the outermost asteroid belt at a distance of 3.6–4.2 AU once every 7 years and 8 months (2,808 days; semi-major axis of 3.89 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with its first identification as 1930 KO at Lowell Observatory in May 1930, more than two years prior to its official discovery observation at Heidelberg.


1256 Normannia, Naming
This minor planet was probably named after the Normans ("Norseman"), mainly Danish and Norwegian Vikings who settled in the historical region of Normandy in northwestern France. The official naming citation was mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 (H 115).


1256 Normannia, Physical characteristics
In the Tholen classification, Normannia is a dark D-type asteroid. Observations by Pan-STARRS and by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) also characterized the asteroid as a D-type.


1256 Normannia, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In September 2010, a rotational lightcurve of Normannia was obtained from photometric observations by astronomers at the Palomar Transient Factory in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 488.063 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.39 magnitude (U=2). This makes it one of the Top-100 slow rotators known to exist. Other observations gave several poor lightcurves with a much shorter period between 6.4 and 18.8 hours (U=1/1/1/n.a. ).


1256 Normannia, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's WISE telescope, Normannia measures between 68.253 and 73.26 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.046 and 0.052.


1256 Normannia, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.0364 and a diameter of 69.02 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.02.


12564 Ikeller
12564 Ikeller, provisional designation 1998 SO49, is a stony Koronian asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 5 kilometers in diameter.


12564 Ikeller
The asteroid was discovered by German amateur astronomer Wolf Bickel at his private Bergisch Gladbach Observatory on 22 September 1998. It was named after the discoverer's wife, Ingeborg Bickel–Keller.


12564 Ikeller, Orbit and classification
Ikeller is a member of the Koronis family, a group of stony asteroids in the outer main-belt named after 158 Koronis. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.7–2.9 AU once every 4 years and 9 months (1,743 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.04 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic.


12564 Ikeller, Orbit and classification
The body's observation arc begins 10 years prior to its official discovery observation, with its identification as 1988 RA7 at ESO's La Silla Observatory in September 1988.


12564 Ikeller, Physical characteristics
According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Ikeller measures 5.4 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.22, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for Koronian asteroids of 0.24 and thus calculates a smaller diameter of 5.2 kilometers, as the higher the albedo (reflectivity), the smaller a body's diameter at a certain absolute magnitude (brightness).


12564 Ikeller, Physical characteristics, Lightcurve
In August 2012, a photometric lightcurve of Ikeller was obtained from photometric observations by astronomers at the Palomar Transient Factory in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 7.0423 hours with a brightness variation of 0.44 magnitude (U=2).


12564 Ikeller, Naming
This minor planet was named by the discoverer after his wife, Ingeborg Bickel–Keller (born 1941). The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 16 January 2014 (M.P.C. 86713).


1257
Year 1257 (MCCLVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1257 Imperial election
The Imperial election of 1257 was two imperial elections in the Holy Roman Empire held to select the emperor.


1257 Imperial election, Background
The Imperial elections of 1257 took place during a period known as the Great Interregnum of The Holy Roman Empire. In July 1245, Pope Innocent IV declared Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor deposed, opening a split between the factions Guelphs and Ghibellines. This led to a period of chaos, as various figures tried to become King of the Romans. With the death of Conrad IV in 1254 and his rival claimant William of Holland in 1256, an imperial election became necessary.


1257 Imperial election, Background
The two leading candidates were Alfonso X of Castile and Richard of Cornwall. The pope and King Louis IX of France initially favored Alfonso, but they were convinced by the influential relatives of Richard's sister-in-law, the Eleanor of Provence, to support Richard.


1257 Imperial election, Background
With seven electors, it was necessary to gain at least four votes. Richard was backed by three German Electoral Princes (Cologne, Mainz, and the Palatinate), while Saxony, Brandenburg, and Trier supported Alfonso X of Castile. Ottokar II of Bohemia at first backed Richard before switching his support to Alfonso, and finally returned to supporting Richard, giving Richard the required simple majority. This led to his election in 1256 as King of Germany. Richard had to bribe four of the electors to secure the election, at an enormous cost of 28,000 marks.


1257 Imperial election, Election and aftermath
Richard of Cornwall was elected but only after a highly partisan election. On May 27, 1257, Konrad von Hochstaden, archbishop of Cologne himself crowned Richard "King of the Romans" in Aachen; Like his lordships in Gascony and Poitou, his title of Germany never held much significance, and he made only four brief visits to Germany between 1257 and 1269.


1257 Móra
1257 Móra, provisional designation 1932 PE, is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 15 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 8 August 1932, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany. The asteroid was named after Hungarian astronomer Károly Móra.


1257 Móra, Orbit and classification
Móra orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.3–2.7 AU once every 3 years and 11 months (1,434 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. Identified as 1928 QA, it was first observed at Heidelberg and Algiers Observatory in 1928, extending the body's observation arc by 4 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1257 Móra, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
American astronomer Richard Binzel and French amateur astronomer René Roy obtained three rotational light curves of Móra from photometric observation taken in 1983 and 2009/11, respectively. Light curve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period between 2.28 and 2.30 hours with a change in brightness of 0.23 to 0.43 magnitude (U=3/2+/3). The short period is just above the threshold of 2.2 hours for the so-called fast rotators.


1257 Móra, Physical characteristics, Diameter, albedo and spectral type
According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Móra measures between 14.72 and 21.47 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.051 and 0.10.


1257 Móra, Physical characteristics, Diameter, albedo and spectral type
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony S-type asteroids of 0.20 and derives a shorter diameter of 10.79 kilometers, while Richard Binzel classified it as a carbonaceous C-type asteroid during his photometric observations in the 1980s.


1257 Móra, Naming
This minor planet was named in honour of Hungarian astronomer Károly Móra (1899–1938). The official naming citation was  mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 (H 116). As a curiosity, astronomer Paul Wild reshuffled the letters and numbers of the designation "1257 Mora" to construct a name for his discovery 2517 Orma in 1968 (orma also means "trace, track" in Italian).


1257 Samalas eruption
In 1257, a catastrophic eruption occurred at the Samalas volcano on the Indonesian island of Lombok. The event had a probable Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7, making it one of the largest volcanic eruptions during the current Holocene epoch. It created eruption columns reaching tens of kilometres into the atmosphere and pyroclastic flows that buried much of Lombok and crossed the sea to reach the neighbouring island of Sumbawa. The flows destroyed human habitations, including the city of Pamatan, which was the capital of a kingdom on Lombok. Ash from the eruption fell as far as 340 kilometres (210 mi) away in Java; the volcano deposited more than 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of rocks and ash.


1257 Samalas eruption
The eruption was witnessed by people who recorded it on the Babad Lombok, a document written on palm leaves. It left behind a large caldera that contains Lake Segara Anak. Later volcanic activity created more volcanic centres in the caldera, including the Barujari cone, which remains active. The aerosols injected into the atmosphere reduced the solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface, cooling the atmosphere for several years and leading to famines and crop failures in Europe and elsewhere, although the exact scale of the temperature anomalies and their consequences is still debated.


1257 Samalas eruption
The eruption may have helped trigger the Little Ice Age, a centuries-long cold period during the last thousand years. Before the site of the eruption was known, an examination of ice cores around the world had found a large spike in sulfate deposition around 1257, providing strong evidence of a large volcanic eruption having occurred somewhere in the world. In 2013, scientists linked the historical records about Mount Samalas to these spikes.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, General geology
Samalas (also known as Rinjani Tua) was part of what is now the Rinjani volcanic complex, on Lombok, in Indonesia. The remains of the volcano form the Segara Anak caldera, with Mount Rinjani at its eastern edge. Since the destruction of Samalas, two new volcanoes, Rombongan and Barujari, have formed in the caldera. Mount Rinjani has also been volcanically active, forming its own crater, Segara Muncar. Other volcanoes in the region include Agung, Batur, and Bratan, on the island of Bali to the west.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, General geology
Lombok is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands in the Sunda Arc of Indonesia, a subduction zone where the Australian plate subducts beneath the Eurasian plate at a rate of 7 centimetres per year (2.8 in/year). The magmas feeding Mount Samalas and Mount Rinjani are likely derived from peridotite rocks beneath Lombok, in the mantle wedge. Before the eruption, Mount Samalas may have been as tall as 4,200 ± 100 metres (13,780 ± 330 ft), based on reconstructions that extrapolate upwards from the surviving lower slopes; its current height is less than that of the neighbouring Mount Rinjani, which reaches 3,726 metres (12,224 ft).


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, General geology
The oldest geological units on Lombok are from the Oligocene-Miocene, with old volcanic units cropping out in southern parts of the island. Samalas was built up by volcanic activity before 12,000 BP. Rinjani formed between 11,940 ± 40 and 2,550 ± 50 BP, with an eruption between 5,990 ± 50 and 2,550 ± 50 BP forming the Propok Pumice with a dense rock equivalent volume of 0.1 cubic kilometres (0.024 cu mi).


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, General geology
The Rinjani Pumice, with a volume of 0.3 cubic kilometres (0.072 cu mi) dense rock equivalent, may have been deposited by an eruption from either Rinjani or Samalas; it is dated to 2,550 ± 50 BP, at the end of the time range during which Rinjani formed. The deposits from this eruption reached thicknesses of 6 centimetres (2.4 in) at 28 kilometres (17 mi) distance. Additional eruptions by either Rinjani or Samalas are dated 11,980 ± 40, 11,940 ± 40, and 6,250 ± 40 BP. Eruptive activity continued until about 500 years before 1257. Most volcanic activity now occurs at the Barujari volcano with eruptions in 1884, 1904, 1906, 1909, 1915, 1966, 1994, 2004, and 2009; Rombongan was active in 1944. Volcanic activity mostly consists of explosive eruptions and ash flows.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, General geology
The rocks of the Samalas volcano are mostly dacitic, with a SiO2 content of 62–63 percent by weight. Volcanic rocks in the Banda arc are mostly calc-alkaline ranging from basalt over andesite to dacite. The crust beneath the volcano is about 20 kilometres (12 mi) thick, and the lower extremity of the Wadati–Benioff zone is about 164 kilometres (102 mi) deep.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
The events of the 1257 eruption have been reconstructed through geological analysis of the deposits it left. The eruption probably occurred during the northern summer in September (uncertainty of 2-3 months) that year, in light of the time it would have taken for its traces to reach the polar ice sheets and be recorded in ice cores and the pattern of tephra deposits. The eruption began with a phreatic (steam explosion powered) stage that deposited 3 centimetres (1.2 in) of ash over 400 square kilometres (150 sq mi) of northwest Lombok.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
A magmatic stage followed, and lithic-rich pumice rained down, the fallout reaching a thickness of 8 centimetres (3.1 in) both upwind on East Lombok and on Bali. This was followed by lapilli rock as well as ash fallout, and pyroclastic flows that were partially confined within the valleys on Samalas's western flank. Some ash deposits were eroded by the pyroclastic flows, which created furrow structures in the ash. Pyroclastic flows crossed 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) of the Bali Sea, reaching the Gili Islands to the west of Samalas, while pumice blocks presumably covered the Alas Strait between Lombok and Sumbawa.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
The deposits show evidence of interaction of the lava with water, so this eruption phase was probably phreatomagmatic. It was followed by three pumice fallout episodes, with deposits over an area wider than was reached by any of the other eruption phases. These pumices fell up to 61 kilometres (38 mi) to the east, against the prevailing wind, in Sumbawa, where they are up to 7 centimetres (2.8 in) thick.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
The deposition of these pumices was followed by another stage of pyroclastic flow activity, probably caused by the collapse of the eruption column that generated the flows. At this time the eruption changed from an eruption-column-generating stage to a fountain-like stage and the caldera began to form. These pyroclastic flows were deflected by the topography of Lombok, filling valleys and moving around obstacles such as older volcanoes as they expanded across the island incinerating the island's vegetation. Interaction between these flows and the air triggered the formation of additional eruption clouds and secondary pyroclastic flows.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
Where the flows entered the sea north and east of Lombok, steam explosions created pumice cones on the beaches and additional secondary pyroclastic flows. Coral reefs were buried by the pyroclastic flows; some flows crossed the Alas Strait between Sumbawa and Lombok and formed deposits on Sumbawa. These pyroclastic flows reached volumes of 29 cubic kilometres (7.0 cu mi) on Lombok, and thicknesses of 35 metres (115 ft) as far as 25 kilometres (16 mi) from Samalas.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
The phases of the eruption are also known as P1 (phreatic and magmatic phase), P2 (phreatomagmatic with pyroclastic flows), P3 (Plinian) and P4 (pyroclastic flows). The duration of the P1 and P3 phases is not known individually, but the two phases combined (not including P2) lasted between 12 and 15 hours. The pyroclastic flows altered the geography of eastern Lombok, burying river valleys and extending the shoreline; a new river network developed on the volcanic deposits after the eruption. The eruption column reached a height of 39–40 kilometres (24–25 mi) during the first stage (P1), and of 38–43 kilometres (24–27 mi) during the third stage (P3); it was high enough that SO2 in it and its S isotope ratio was influenced by photolysis at high altitudes.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
Volcanic rocks ejected by the eruption covered Bali and Lombok and parts of Sumbawa. Tephra in the form of layers of fine ash from the eruption fell as far away as Java, forming part of the Muntilan Tephra, which was found on the slopes of other volcanoes of Java, but could not be linked to eruptions in these volcanic systems. This tephra is now considered to be a product of the 1257 eruption and is thus also known as the Samalas Tephra.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
It reaches thicknesses of 2–3 centimetres (0.79–1.18 in) on Mount Merapi, 15 centimetres (5.9 in) on Mount Bromo, 22 centimetres (8.7 in) at Ijen and 12–17 centimetres (4.7–6.7 in) on Bali's Agung volcano. In Lake Logung 340 kilometres (210 mi) away from Samalas on Java it is 3 centimetres (1.2 in) thick. Most of the tephra was deposited west-southwest of Samalas. Considering the thickness of Samalas Tephra found at Mount Merapi, the total volume may have reached 32–39 cubic kilometres (7.7–9.4 cu mi). The dispersal index (the surface area covered by an ash or tephra fall) of the eruption reached 7,500 square kilometres (2,900 sq mi) during the first stage and 110,500 square kilometres (42,700 sq mi) during the third stage, implying that these were a Plinian eruption and an Ultraplinian eruption respectively.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
Pumice falls with a fine graining and creamy colour from the Samalas eruption have been used as a tephrochronological marker on Bali. Tephra from the volcano was found in ice cores as far as 13,500 kilometres (8,400 mi) away, and a tephra layer sampled at Dongdao island in the South China Sea has been tentatively linked to Samalas. Ash and aerosols might have impacted humans and corals at large distances from the eruption.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
There are several estimates of the volumes expelled during the various stages of the Samalas eruption. The first stage reached a volume of 12.6–13.4 cubic kilometres (3.0–3.2 cu mi). The phreatomagmatic phase has been estimated to have had a volume of 0.9–3.5 cubic kilometres (0.22–0.84 cu mi). The total dense rock equivalent volume of the whole eruption was at least 40 cubic kilometres (9.6 cu mi). The magma erupted was trachydacitic and contained amphibole, apatite, clinopyroxene, iron sulfide, orthopyroxene, plagioclase, and titanomagnetite. It formed out of basaltic magma by fractional crystallization and had a temperature of about 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). Its eruption may have been triggered either by the entry of new magma into the magma chamber or the effects of gas bubble buoyancy.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
The eruption had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7, making it one of the largest eruptions of the current Holocene epoch. Eruptions of comparable intensity include the Kurile lake eruption (in Kamchatka, Russia) in the 7th millennium BC, the Mount Mazama (United States, Oregon) eruption in the 6th millennium BC, the Cerro Blanco (Argentina) eruption about 4,200 years ago, the Minoan eruption (in Santorini, Greece) between 1627 and 1600 BC, and the Tierra Blanca Joven eruption of Lake Ilopango (El Salvador) in the 6th century. Such large volcanic eruptions can result in catastrophic impacts on humans and widespread loss of life both close to the volcano and at greater distances.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
The eruption left the 6–7 kilometres (3.7–4.3 mi) wide Segara Anak caldera where the Samalas mountain was before; within its 700–2,800 metres (2,300–9,200 ft) high walls, a 200 metres (660 ft) deep crater lake formed called Lake Segara Anak. The Barujari cone rises 320 metres (1,050 ft) above the water of the lake and has erupted 15 times since 1847. A crater lake possibly already existed on Samalas before the eruption and supplied its phreatomagmatic phase with 0.1–0.3 cubic kilometres (0.024–0.072 cu mi) of water. Alternatively, the water could have come from aquifers. 2.1–2.9 cubic kilometres (0.50–0.70 cu mi) of rock from Rinjani collapsed into the caldera, leaving a collapse structure that cuts into Rinjani's slopes facing the Samalas caldera.


1257 Samalas eruption, Geology, Eruption
The eruption that formed the caldera was first recognized in 2003, and in 2004 a volume of 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) was attributed to this eruption. Early research considered that the caldera-forming eruption occurred between 1210 and 1300. In 2013, Lavigne suggested that the eruption occurred between May and October 1257, resulting in the climate changes of 1258. Several villages on Lombok are constructed on the pyroclastic flow deposits from the 1257 event.


1257 Samalas eruption, Research history
A major volcanic event in 1257–1258 was first discovered from data in ice cores; specifically increased sulfate concentrations were found in 1980 within the Crête ice core (Greenland, drilled in 1974) associated with a deposit of rhyolitic ash. The 1257–1258 layer is the third largest sulfate signal at Crête; at first a source in a volcano near Greenland had been considered but Icelandic records made no mention of eruptions around 1250 and it was found in 1988 that ice cores in Antarctica – at Byrd Station and the South Pole – also contained sulfate signals. Sulfate spikes were also found in ice cores from Ellesmere Island, Canada, and the Samalas sulfate spikes were used as stratigraphic markers for ice cores even before the volcano that caused them was known.


1257 Samalas eruption, Research history
The ice cores indicated a large sulfate spike, accompanied by tephra deposition, around 1257–1259, the largest in 7,000 years and twice the size of the spike due to the 1815 eruption of Tambora. In 2003, a dense rock equivalent volume of 200–800 cubic kilometres (48–192 cu mi) was estimated for this eruption, but it was also proposed that the eruption might have been somewhat smaller and richer in sulfur.


1257 Samalas eruption, Research history
The volcano responsible was thought to be located in the Ring of Fire but could not be identified at first; Tofua volcano in Tonga was proposed at first but dismissed, as the Tofua eruption was too small to generate the 1257 sulfate spikes. A volcanic eruption in 1256 at Harrat al-Rahat near Medina was also too small to trigger these events. Other proposals included several simultaneous eruptions. The diameter of the caldera left by the eruption was estimated to be 10–30 kilometres (6.2–18.6 mi), and the location was estimated to be close to the equator and probably north of it.


1257 Samalas eruption, Research history
While at first no clear-cut climate anomaly could be correlated to the 1257 sulfate layers, in 2000 climate phenomena were identified in medieval records of the northern hemisphere that are characteristic for volcanic eruptions. Earlier, climate alterations had been reported from studies of tree rings and climate reconstructions. The deposits showed that climate disturbances reported at that time were due to a volcanic event, the global spread indicating a tropical volcano as the cause.


1257 Samalas eruption, Research history
The suggestion that Samalas/Rinjani might be the source volcano was first raised in 2012, since the other candidate volcanoes – El Chichón and Quilotoa – did not match the chemistry of the sulfur spikes. El Chichon, Quilotoa and Okataina were also inconsistent with the timespan and size of the eruption.


1257 Samalas eruption, Research history
All houses were destroyed and swept away, floating on the sea, and many people died.


1257 Samalas eruption, Research history
The conclusive link between these events and an eruption of Samalas was made in 2013 on the basis of radiocarbon dating of trees on Lombok and the Babad Lombok, a series of writings in Old Javanese on palm leaves that described a catastrophic volcanic event on Lombok which occurred before 1300. These findings induced Franck Lavigne, a geoscientist of the Pantheon-Sorbonne University who had already suspected that a volcano on that island may be responsible, to conclude that the Samalas volcano was this volcano. The role of the Samalas eruption in the global climate events was confirmed by comparing the geochemistry of glass shards found in ice cores to that of the eruption deposits on Lombok. Later, geochemical similarities between tephra found in polar ice cores and eruption products of Samalas reinforced this localization.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Aerosol and paleoclimate data
Ice cores in the northern and southern hemisphere display sulfate spikes associated with Samalas. The signal is the strongest in the southern hemisphere over the last 1000 years; one reconstruction even considers it the strongest of the last 2500 years. It is about eight times stronger than that of Krakatau. In the northern hemisphere it is only exceeded by the signal of the destructive 1783/1784 Laki eruption; The ice core sulfate spikes have been used as a time marker in chronostratigraphic studies. Ice cores from Illimani in Bolivia contain thallium and sulfate spikes from the eruption.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Aerosol and paleoclimate data
For comparison, the 1991 eruption of Pinatubo ejected only about a tenth of the amount of sulfur erupted by Samalas. Sulfate deposition from the Samalas eruption has been noted at Svalbard, and the fallout of sulfuric acid from the volcano may have directly affected peatlands in northern Sweden. In addition, the sulfate aerosols may have extracted large amounts of the beryllium isotope 10Be from the stratosphere; such an extraction event and the subsequent deposition in ice cores may mimic changes in solar activity.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Aerosol and paleoclimate data
The amount of sulfur dioxide released by the eruption has been estimated to be 158 ± 12 million tonnes. The mass release was greater than for the Tambora eruption; Samalas may have been more effective at injecting tephra into the stratosphere, and the Samalas magma may have had a higher sulfur content. After the eruption, it probably took weeks to months for the fallout to reach large distances from the volcano. When large scale volcanic eruptions inject aerosols into the atmosphere, they can form stratospheric veils.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Aerosol and paleoclimate data
These reduce the amount of light reaching the surface and cause lower temperatures, which can lead to poor crop yields. Such sulfate aerosols in the case of the Samalas eruption may have remained at high concentrations for about three years according to findings in the Dome C ice core in Antarctica, although a smaller amount may have persisted for an additional time.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Aerosol and paleoclimate data
Other records of the eruption's impact include decreased tree growth in Mongolia between 1258 and 1262 based on tree ring data, frost rings (tree rings damaged by frost during the growth season), light tree rings in Canada and northwestern Siberia from 1258 and 1259 respectively, thin tree rings in the Sierra Nevada, California, U.S. lake sediments recording a cooling episode in northeastern China, a very wet monsoon in Vietnam, droughts in many places in the Northern Hemisphere as well as in southern Thailand cave records, and a decade-long thinning of tree rings in Norway and Sweden. Cooling may have lasted for 4–5 years based on simulations and tree ring data.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Aerosol and paleoclimate data
Another effect of the eruption-induced climate change may have been a brief decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. A decrease in the growth rate of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations was recorded after the 1992 Pinatubo eruption; several mechanisms for volcanically driven decreases in atmospheric CO2 concentration have been proposed, including colder oceans absorbing extra CO2 and releasing less of it, decreased respiration rates leading to carbon accumulation in the biosphere, and increased productivity of the biosphere due to increased scattered sunlight and the fertilization of oceans by volcanic ash.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Aerosol and paleoclimate data
The Samalas signal is only inconsistently reported from tree ring climate information, and the temperature effects were likewise limited, probably because the large sulfate output altered the average size of particles and thus their radiative forcing. Climate modelling indicated that the Samalas eruption may have reduced global temperatures by approximately 2 °C (3.6 °F), a value largely not replicated by proxy data. Better modelling with a general circulation model that includes a detailed description of the aerosol indicated that the principal temperature anomaly occurred in 1258 and continued until 1261.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Aerosol and paleoclimate data
Climate models tend to overestimate the climate impact of a volcanic eruption; one explanation is that climate models tend to assume that aerosol optical depth increases linearly with the quantity of erupted sulfur when in reality self-limiting processes limit its growth. The possible occurrence of an El Niño before the eruption may have further reduced the cooling.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Aerosol and paleoclimate data
The Samalas eruption, together with 14th century cooling, is thought to have set off a growth of ice caps and sea ice, and glaciers in Norway advanced. The advances of ice after the Samalas eruption may have strengthened and prolonged the climate effects. Later volcanic activity in 1269, 1278, and 1286 and the effects of sea ice on the North Atlantic would have further contributed to ice expansion. The glacier advances triggered by the Samalas eruption are documented on Baffin Island, where the advancing ice killed and then incorporated vegetation, conserving it. Likewise, a change in Arctic Canada from a warm climate phase to a colder one coincides with the Samalas eruption.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Simulated effects
According to 2003 reconstructions, summer cooling reached 0.69 °C (1.24 °F) in the southern hemisphere and 0.46 °C (0.83 °F) in the northern hemisphere. More recent proxy data indicate that a temperature drop of 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) occurred in 1258 and of 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) in 1259, but with differences between various geographical areas. For comparison, the radiative forcing of Pinatubo's 1991 eruption was about a seventh of that of the Samalas eruption. Sea surface temperatures too decreased by 0.3–2.2 °C (0.54–3.96 °F), triggering changes in the ocean circulations. Ocean temperature and salinity changes may have lasted for a decade. Precipitation and evaporation both decreased, evaporation reduced more than precipitation.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Simulated effects
Volcanic eruptions can also deliver bromine and chlorine into the stratosphere, where they contribute to the breakdown of ozone through their oxides chlorine monoxide and bromine monoxide. While most bromine and chlorine erupted would have been scavenged by the eruption column and thus would not have entered the stratosphere, the quantities that have been modelled for the Samalas halogen release (227 ± 18 million tonnes of chlorine and up to 1.3 ± 0.3 million tonnes of bromine) would have reduced stratospheric ozone although only a small portion of the halogens would have reached the stratosphere. One hypothesis is that the resulting increase in ultraviolet radiation on the surface of Earth may have led to widespread immunosuppression in human populations, explaining the onset of epidemics in the years following the eruption.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Climate effects
Samalas, along with the Kuwae eruption in the 1450s and Tambora in 1815, was one of the strongest cooling events in the last millennium, even more so than at the peak of the Little Ice Age. After an early warm winter 1257–1258 resulting in the early flowering of violets according to reports from France, European summers were colder after the eruption, and winters were long and cold.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Climate effects
The Samalas eruption came after the Medieval Climate Anomaly, a period early in the last millennium with unusually warm temperatures, and at a time when a period of climate stability was ending, with earlier eruptions in 1108, 1171, and 1230 already having upset global climate. Subsequent time periods displayed increased volcanic activity until the early 20th century. The time period 1250–1300 was heavily disturbed by volcanic activity, and is recorded by a moraine from a glacial advance on Disko Island, although the moraine may indicate a pre-Samalas cold spell.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Climate effects
These volcanic disturbances along with positive feedback effects from increased ice may have started the Little Ice Age even without the need for changes in solar radiation, though this theory is not without disagreement. The Little Ice Age was a period of several centuries during the last millennium during which global temperatures were depressed; the cooling was associated with volcanic eruptions.


1257 Samalas eruption, Climate effects, Climate effects
Other regions such as Alaska were mostly unaffected. There is little evidence that tree growth was influenced by cold in what is now the Western United States, where the eruption may have interrupted a prolonged drought period. The climate effect in Alaska may have been moderated by the nearby ocean. In 1259, western Europe and the west coastal North America had mild weather.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences
The eruption led to global disaster in 1257–1258. Very large volcanic eruptions can cause significant human hardship, including famine, away from the volcano due to their effect on climate. The social effects are often reduced by the resilience of humans.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Lombok Kingdom and Bali (Indonesia)
Western and central Indonesia at the time were divided into competing kingdoms that often built temple complexes with inscriptions documenting historical events. However, little direct historical evidence of the consequences of the Samalas eruption exists. The Babad Lombok describe how villages on Lombok were destroyed during the mid-13th century by ash, gas and lava flows, and two additional documents known as the Babad Sembalun and Babad Suwung may also reference the eruption. They are also – together with other texts – the source of the name "Samalas" while the name "Suwung" - "quiet and without life" - may, in turn, be a reference to the aftermath of the eruption.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Lombok Kingdom and Bali (Indonesia)
Mount Rinjani avalanched and Mount Salamas collapsed, followed by large flows of debris accompanied by the noise coming from boulders. These flows destroyed Pamatan. All houses were destroyed and swept away, floating on the sea, and many people died. During seven days, big earthquakes shook the Earth, stranded in Leneng, dragged by the boulder flows, People escaped and some of them climbed the hills.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Lombok Kingdom and Bali (Indonesia)
The city of Pamatan, capital of a kingdom on Lombok, was destroyed, and both disappeared from the historical record. The royal family survived the disaster according to the Javanese text, and there is no clear-cut evidence that the kingdom itself was destroyed by the eruption, as the history there is poorly known in general. Thousands of people died during the eruption although it is possible that the population of Lombok fled before the eruption.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Lombok Kingdom and Bali (Indonesia)
In Bali the number of inscriptions dropped off after the eruption, and Bali and Lombok may have been depopulated by it, possibly for generations, allowing King Kertanegara of Singhasari on Java to conquer Bali in 1284 with little resistance. The western coast of Sumbawa was depopulated and remains so to this day; presumably the local populace viewed the area devastated by the eruption as "forbidden" and this memory persisted until recent times.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Oceania and New Zealand
Historical events in Oceania are usually poorly dated, making it difficult to assess the timing and role of specific events, but there is evidence that between 1250 and 1300 there were crises in Oceania, for example at Easter Island, which may be linked with the beginning of the Little Ice Age and the Samalas eruption. Around 1300, settlements in many places of the Pacific relocated, perhaps because of a sea level drop that occurred after 1250, and the 1991 eruption of Pinatubo has been linked to small drops in sea level.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Oceania and New Zealand
Climate change triggered by the Samalas eruption and the beginning of the Little Ice Age may have led to people in Polynesia migrating southwestward in the 13th century. The first settlement of New Zealand most likely occurred 1230–1280 AD and the arrival of people there and on other islands in the region may reflect such a climate-induced migration.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Europe, Near East and Middle East
Contemporary chronicles in Europe mention unusual weather conditions in 1258. Reports from 1258 in France and England indicate a dry fog, giving the impression of a persistent cloud cover to contemporary observers. Medieval chronicles say that in 1258, the summer was cold and rainy, causing floods and bad harvests, with cold from February to June. Frost occurred in the summer 1259 according to Russian chronicles. In Europe and the Middle East, changes in atmospheric colours, storms, cold, and severe weather were reported in 1258–1259, with agricultural problems extending to North Africa. In Europe, excess rain, cold and high cloudiness damaged crops and caused famines followed by epidemics, although 1258–1259 did not lead to famines as bad as some other famines such as the Great Famine of 1315–17.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Europe, Near East and Middle East
Swollen and rotting in groups of five or six, the dead lay abandoned in pigsties, on dunghills, and in the muddy streets.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Europe, Near East and Middle East
In northwest Europe, the effects included crop failure, famine, and weather changes. A famine in London has been linked to this event; this food crisis  was not extraordinary and there were issues with harvests already before the eruption. The famine occurred at a time of political crisis between King Henry III of England and the English magnates. Witnesses reported a death toll of 15,000 to 20,000 in London. A mass burial of famine victims was found in the 1990s in the centre of London. Matthew Paris of St Albans described how until mid-August 1258, the weather alternated between cold and strong rain, causing high mortality.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Europe, Near East and Middle East
The resulting famine was severe enough that grain was imported from Germany and Holland. The price for cereal increased in Britain, France, and Italy. Outbreaks of disease occurred during this time in the Middle East and England. During and after the winter of 1258–59, exceptional weather was reported less commonly, but the winter of 1260–61 was very severe in Iceland, Italy, and elsewhere. The disruption caused by the eruption may have influenced the onset of the Mudéjar revolt of 1264–1266 in Iberia. The Flagellant movement, which is first recorded in Italy in 1260, may have originated in the social distress caused by the effects of the eruption, though warfare and other causes probably played a more important role than natural events.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Europe, Near East and Middle East, Long term consequences in Europe and the Near East
Over the long term, the cooling of the North Atlantic and sea ice expansion therein may have impacted the societies of Greenland and Iceland by restraining navigation and agriculture, perhaps allowing further climate shocks around 1425 to end the existence of the Norse settlement in Greenland. Another possible longer term consequence of the eruption was the Byzantine Empire's loss of control over western Anatolia, because of a shift in political power from Byzantine farmers to mostly Turkoman pastoralists in the area. Colder winters caused by the eruption would have impacted agriculture more severely than pastoralism.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Four Corners region, North America
The 1257 Samalas eruption took place during the Pueblo III Period in southwestern North America, during which the Mesa Verde region on the San Juan River was the site of the so-called cliff dwellings. Several sites were abandoned after the eruption, which had cooled the local climate. The Samalas eruption was one among several eruptions during this period which may have triggered climate stresses, which in turn caused strife within the society of the Ancestral Puebloans; possibly they left the northern Colorado Plateau as a consequence.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Altiplano, South America
In the Altiplano of South America, a cold and dry interval between 1200 and 1450 has been associated with the Samalas eruption and the 1280 eruption of Quilotoa volcano in Ecuador. The use of rain-fed agriculture increased in the area between the Salar de Uyuni and the Salar de Coipasa despite the climatic change, implying that the local population effectively coped with the effects of the eruption.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Northeast Asia
Problems were also recorded in China, Japan, and Korea. In Japan, the Azuma Kagami chronicle mentions that rice paddies and gardens were destroyed by the cold and wet weather, and the so-called Shôga famine may have been aggravated by bad weather in 1258 and 1259. Other effects of the eruption include a total darkening of the Moon in May 1258 during a lunar eclipse, a phenomenon also recorded from Europe; volcanic aerosols reduce the amount of sunlight scattered into Earth's shadow and thus the brightness of the eclipsed Moon.


1257 Samalas eruption, Social and historical consequences, Northeast Asia
The effects of the eruption may also have hastened the decline of the Mongol Empire, although the volcanic event is unlikely to have been the sole cause, and may have shifted its centre of power towards the Chinese part dominated by Kublai Khan which was more adapted to cold winter conditions.


1257 in Ireland, Events
A brave battle was fought by Godfrey O'Donnell, Lord of Tirconnell, in defence of his country, with the Lord Justice of Ireland, Maurice Fitzgerald, and the other English nobles of Connacht, at Creadran-Cille in Ros-cede, in the territory of Carbury, to the north of Sligo. A desperate and furious battle was fought between them: bodies were mangled, heroes were disabled, and the senses were stunned on both sides. The field was vigorously maintained by the Kinel-Connell, who made such obstinate and vigorous onsets upon the English that, in the end, they routed them with great slaughter. Godfrey himself, however, was severely wounded; for he met Maurice Fitzgerald face to face in single combat, in which they wounded each other severely. In consequence of the success of this battle, the English and the Geraldines were driven out of Lower Connacht.


1257 in Ireland, Events
On the same day Mac Griffin, an illustrious knight, was taken prisoner by O'Donnell's people; and Sligo was afterwards burned and totally plundered by them. Donough, the son of Cormac O'Donnell, was killed in the heat of this battle of Creadran. They (O'Donnell's people) then returned home in consequence of O'Donnell's wounds; but, were it not that his wounds had oppressed him, he would have routed his enemies to the River Moy. Godfrey, on his return, prostrated and demolished the castle which had been erected by the English a short time before, at Cael-uisce, to carry on the war against the Kinel-Connell.


1257 in Ireland, Events
Maurice Fitzgerald, for some time Lord Justice of Ireland, and the destroyer of the Irish, died.


1258
Year 1258 (MCCLVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1258 Sicilia
1258 Sicilia, provisional designation 1932 PG, is a dark background asteroid from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 44 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 8 August 1932, by astronomer Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory in southwest Germany. The asteroid was named after the Italian island of Sicily.


1258 Sicilia, Orbit and classification
Sicilia is a non-family asteroid of the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the outer asteroid belt at a distance of 3.0–3.3 AU once every 5 years and 8 months (2,076 days; semi-major axis of 3.19 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.04 and an inclination of 8° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg in 1932.


1258 Sicilia, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
In May 2010, a first rotational lightcurve of Sicilia was obtained from photometric observations by astronomers at the Oakley Southern Sky Observatory (E09) in Australia. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 13.500 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.19 magnitude (U=3-).


1258 Sicilia, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite, the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, and the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, Sicilia measures between 36.83 and 52.529 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.0369 and 0.07.


1258 Sicilia, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link largely agrees with IRAS and derives an albedo of 0.0470 and a diameter of 44.39 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.7.


1258 Sicilia, Naming
This minor planet was named after the Italian island of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea. The official naming citation was mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 (H 116).


1259
Year 1259 (MCCLIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.


1259 Ógyalla
1259 Ógyalla, provisional designation 1933 BT, is a Themistian asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 32 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 29 January 1933, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany. The asteroid was named for the Hurbanovo Observatory (551).


1259 Ógyalla, Orbit and classification
Ógyalla is a member of the Themis family, the 9th largest main-belt asteroid family of nearly 5,000 asteroids with nearly coplanar ecliptical orbits. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.7–3.5 AU once every 5 years and 6 months (1,997 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.13 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic. It was first identified as 1928 DJ1 and 1928 FO at the discovering observatory in 1928, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 5 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1259 Ógyalla, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
A rotational lightcurve of Ógyalla was obtained by the Spanish Photometric Asteroid Analysis Group (OBAS) in June 2016. Light curve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 17.334 hours with a brightness variation of 0.41 magnitude (U=3). In September 2012, photometric observations at the Palomar Transient Factory gave a period of 17.2669 and 17.3038 hours with an amplitude of 0.27 and 0.25 in the R- and S-band, respectively (U=2/2).


1259 Ógyalla, Physical characteristics, Rotation period
The first lightcurve was already obtained in 1974, by Swedish astronomer Claes-Ingvar Lagerkvist at Uppsala Observatory from photographic photometry, but it was only fragmentary and gave a tentative period of 12 hours (U=1).


1259 Ógyalla, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Ógyalla measures between 26.59 and 36.11 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.064 and 0.10 (without preliminary results). The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) derives an albedo of 0.0916 and a diameter of 33.31 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.6. CALL also classifies it as a stony S-type asteroid (as it does with all Themistians).


1259 Ógyalla, Naming
This minor planet was named for the Hurbanovo Observatory (IAU code: 551; formerly known as O'Gyalla Observatory), a seismological, meteorological and astronomical observatory in the former Hungarian city of Ógyalla. Since 1948, the city belongs to Slovakia and is now known as Hurbanovo. The official naming citation was mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 (H 116).


125P/Spacewatch
125P/Spacewatch, is a periodic Jupiter-family comet. It was discovered on September 8, 1991, by Tom Gehrels using the 0.91 m Spacewatch telescope at the Kitt Peak National Observatory. It has a diameter of 1.6 km.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade
The 125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade was an infantry brigade formation of the British Army that saw active service during both the First and Second World Wars. It was assigned to the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division and served in the Middle East and later in the trenches of the Western Front in the First World War. In the Second World War the brigade, now redesignated 125th Infantry Brigade, fought in Belgium and France before being evacuated at Dunkirk and was then converted into 10th Armoured Brigade.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade
Throughout its existence the brigade was composed almost entirely of battalions of the Lancashire Fusiliers, except for a few brief months in the early half of the Second World War.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Formation
Upon the creation of the Territorial Force in April 1908, the four Volunteer battalions attached to the Lancashire Fusiliers were organised into a brigade within the East Lancashire Division. The battalions were drawn from the Lancashire towns of Bury (5th Battalion), Rochdale (6th Battalion) and Salford (7th and 8th battalions), with Brigade HQ at Preston.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War
On the outbreak of the First World War, the East Lancashire Division mobilised and was sent to Egypt to relieve Regular Army troops of the British Army. Those men who had not volunteered for overseas service were left behind, together with floods of recruits, to form 2nd Line battalions (2/5th–2/8th Lancashire Fusiliers) in a 2nd East Lancashire Division. The 1st Line battalions were then renumbered 1/5th–1/8th. On 26 May 1915 the East Lancashire Division was renamed 42nd (East Lancashire) Division, and the Lancashire Fusilier Brigade was numbered 125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade. (In August 1915 the 2nd Line brigade became 197th (2/1st Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade in 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division.)


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Order of battle
The 125th Brigade was constituted as follows during the war:Brigadier-General C.H. FrithBrigadier-General H. Fargus from 23 June 1917


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Order of battle
When British infantry brigades on the Western Front were reduced to three battalions in February 1918, 1/6th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers left and joined 197th (2/1st Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade of the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division, where it merged with the 2/6th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers and became the 6th Battalion once again.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Gallipoli
In early May 1915, the 42nd Division embarked from Alexandria for Cape Helles on the Gallipoli Peninsula, where Allied troops had landed a few days earlier. 125th Brigade was the first part of the division to go into action, at the Second Battle of Krithia under the command of the Regular 29th Division. It then reverted to 42nd Division, and took part in the Third Battle of Krithia and Battle of Krithia Vineyard. The fighting was 'a singularly brainless and suicidal type of warfare', and virtually nothing was achieved in any of these attacks, at the cost of heavy casualties.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Gallipoli
Two brigades (the other being 126th (1/1st East Lancashire) Brigade) of 42nd Division attacked on the second day of the Krithia Vineyard battle: 'By nightfall both brigades were back in their old lines, with the exception of some parties of the 6th and 7th Lancashire Fusiliers, who defended the Vineyard against repeated Turkish attacks until, after a bitter and pointless struggle during the following five days, a trench dug across the centre of this worthless tract of scrub became the British front line'. After this failure, the Helles front was shut down and no further attacks were made. Five months later, following repeated failures elsewhere, the whole Gallipoli Campaign ended in evacuation back to Egypt.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Recuperation
The 42nd Division returned to Egypt in January 1916 with less than half the strength with which it had set out. It was stationed in Egypt for the next year, defending the Suez Canal and taking part in the Battle of Romani (4–5 August).


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Western Front
In February and March 1917, the whole of 42nd Division moved from Egypt to France to reinforce the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the Western Front, where it remained for the rest of the war. After re-equipping and training for trench warfare in a 'quiet sector' with Fourth Army, 42nd Division relieved 15th (Scottish) Division in Fifth Army in the Ypres Sector at the end of August. On 6 September 125th Brigade carried out an unsuccessful attack on strongly-held German pillboxes around Iberian, Borry, and Beck House Farms. The small amount of ground they took was given up the next day.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Western Front
The 42nd Division was then returned to holding quiet sectors, at Nieuport and then Givenchy. It was now part of IV Corps in Third Army, in which it remained for the rest of the war. During the German Army's Spring Offensive (Operation Michael or the First Battles of the Somme 1918), the troops of 42nd Division took part in the Battle of Bapaume (24–25 March), First Battle of Arras (28 March) and the Battle of Ancre (5 April).


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Western Front
Then, during the Allied Hundred Days Offensive, it participated in the Battle of Albert (21–23 August) where Lance Corporal Edward Smith of the 1/5th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers was awarded the Victoria Cross. The brigade later fought in the Second Battle of Bapaume (31 August–3 September) during the fighting on the Somme.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Western Front
On the Hindenburg Line it was in the Battle of the Canal du Nord, where the Official History records that 125th Brigade's advance at 07.52 on 27 September 'was met by very heavy fire in front from machine guns which the barrage did not seem to have touched, and from Beaucamp on the right ... It reached an intermediate objective about five hundred yards from the front line and towards noon a little beyond this; but there it had to remain'.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Western Front
However IV Corps renewed the attack after dark: 'The night was very dark and rainy, but the attack was a complete success; the enemy was surprised; very little opposition was encountered and many prisoners were taken. Under barrages moving a hundred yards in 5 minutes, the front lines of the 125th and 127th Brigades of the 42nd Division ... went forward in succession'. 42nd Division resumed the attack the following afternoon (28 September), 'when the 125th and 126th brigades (the latter passing through the 127th), after some opposition, reached the top of Welsh Ridge, the objective of the division'.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Western Front
Third Army's advance in Picardy culminated in the Battle of the Selle from 17 to 23 October. On 23 October 42nd Division was given the task of taking three successive objectives before the New Zealand Division passed through to continue the attack. 125th Brigade led the attack with two battalions in front, but in spite of a defensive smoke barrage they suffered considerably from enemy shelling during assembly. The defenders of Beaurain 'made a stout resistance and there was hard fighting in the early stages of the attack, men on both sides being killed by the bayonet'. The left of 125th Brigade reached its objective by 04.45, but the rest of the line did not do so until 08.00. The New Zealanders passed through and successfully reached their objectives.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Western Front
The division was then withdrawn into reserve and halted around Beauvois-en-Cambrésis from 24 October until the advance was resumed on 3 November. On 7 November the 42nd Division was tasked to take the high ground west of Hautmont and if possible to capture the town. The division was held up by enfilade fire from the right, and 126th Brigade did no more than occupy some of the high ground. 125th Brigade was therefore ordered to pass through it the next morning and advance to the objective.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Western Front
But the 126th, 'in an endeavour to atone for its slowness on the 7th', pushed on and reached Hautmont before 125th could catch up. The 125th was unable to cross the Sambre because the pontoons had not arrived, so it retraced its steps to its overnight billets near Pont sur Sambre and crossed there. The brigade then forced back the enemy rearguards, and after dark its patrols went forward and cleared them off the high ground near Fort d'Hautmont, one of the outer forts of the Fortress of Maubeuge.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, First World War, Western Front
On 9 November the brigade encountered no resistance in reaching its assigned objective, and by 10 November the most forward troops were  on the Maubeuge–Avesnes-sur-Helpe road. This was the end of the fighting, because the Armistice with Germany came into the effect the following day. In December the division moved into quarters in the Charleroi area and by mid-March 1919 most of its troops had gone home for demobilisation.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Interwar years
The Territorial Force was disbanded after the Great War and so both the brigade and division were also disbanded. However, the division reformed in 1920 in the Territorial Army, which was formed on a similar basis as the Territorial Force. The brigade was also reformed, now as the 125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Infantry Brigade, again with all four Territorial battalions of the Lancashire Fusiliers.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Interwar years
Unlike the other infantry brigades in the division, the 125th Brigade's organisation remained much the same. However, in the late 1930s the Territorial Army's infantry was reorganised and, with a reduced need for so many infantry units, many of them were converted into other roles, mainly anti-aircraft or searchlight units, of either the Royal Artillery or Royal Engineers. As a result, the 7th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers was transferred to the Royal Engineers and converted into the 39th (The Lancashire Fusiliers) Anti - Aircraft Battalion, Royal Engineers, equipped with searchlights, and joined the 33rd (Western) Anti - Aircraft Group, 2nd Anti - Aircraft Division. It appears they were not replaced in the brigade. Shortly after, in 1939, the brigade was redesignated the 125th Infantry Brigade.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Second World War
The brigade and division, and the rest of the Territorial Army, were mobilised on 1 September 1939, the day the German Army launched its invasion of Poland. The Second World War officially began two days later, on 3 September 1939, and the men of the brigade and division were called up for full-time war service. Once again the 125th Infantry Brigade was composed of three battalions of the Lancashire Fusiliers. Both the brigade and division immediately began training in preparation for eventual overseas service.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Second World War, France and Dunkirk
The 125th Brigade, commanded at the time by Brigadier George Sutton a Territorial officer, landed in France on 15 April 1940 with the rest of the 42nd Division and became part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). The division came under command of III Corps, under Lieutenant-General Sir Ronald Adam, which also included the Regular 5th Infantry Division and Territorial 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division. Both the 42nd and 44th Divisions had, before deployment to France, been held back from reinforcing the BEF in order to participate in potential operations in Northern Europe, although this had never came to fruition.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Second World War, France and Dunkirk
In early May the 1/8th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers was exchanged with the 1st Battalion, Border Regiment from 4th Infantry Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, another Regular formation. This was part of the BEF's official policy of mixing the Regular and Territorial Armies and was intended to, in theory, strengthen the TA divisions.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Second World War, France and Dunkirk
After the defeat at the hands of the German Army during the Battle of France, the brigade, after sustaining very heavy casualties, was evacuated from Dunkirk on 30 May 1940. With the 42nd Division, the brigade would spend most of its time in the United Kingdom reforming and absorbing large numbers of men who had been conscripted into military service as replacements, on home defence and training to repel an expected German invasion. In December, the 1st Battalion, Border Regiment was transferred to 31st Independent Infantry Brigade and was replaced by 9th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers, a newly raised hostilities-only unit created only a few months before in June.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Second World War, Conversion
On 1 November 1941, 42nd Division was converted to 42nd Armoured Division, and 125th Brigade was renamed 10th Armoured Brigade. 1/5th, 1/6th and 9th Lancashire Fusiliers (a war service battalion raised in June 1940) became respectively the 108th, 109th and 143rd regiments of the Royal Armoured Corps. Like all infantry units transferred to the Royal Armoured Corps, they still maintained their infantry cap badges on the black beret of the Royal Armoured Corps.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Second World War, Conversion
When the 10th Armoured Brigade was scheduled for disbandment in late 1943, Members of Parliament for the Lancashire towns complained about the loss of their Territorial battalions. Nevertheless, the disbandment went ahead in November 1943. Of the battalions, only the 5th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers was reconstituted after the war.


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Second World War, Order of battle
The 125th Infantry Brigade was constituted as follows during the war:


125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, Second World War, Commanders
The following officers commanded 125th Infantry Brigade during the war:


125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal
The 125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal (French: Médaille commémorative du 125e anniversaire de la Confédération du Canada) is a commemorative medal struck by the Royal Canadian Mint to commemorate the 125th anniversary of the Confederation of Canada and was awarded to Canadians who were deemed to have made a significant contribution to their fellow citizens, to their community, or to Canada. Nominations were submitted to lieutenant governors and territorial commissioners, senators, members of parliament, provincial governments, the Public Service Commission of Canada, the Canadian Forces, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and various federal government departments, as well as organizations throughout the country, and some 42,000 medals were awarded.


125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal
The medal's design was approved by the Canadian monarch, Elizabeth II. It is in the form of a 36 millimetres (1.4 in) diameter, rhodium plated copper and zinc alloy disc with, on the obverse, the image of the Royal Cypher surmounted by a St. Edward's Crown (symbolising the sovereign as fount of honour) all superimposed on a large single maple leaf and circumscribed with the words CONFEDERATION • CONFÉDÉRATION above and the years 1867 — 1992 below.


125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal
The medal's reverse shows the shield of the Royal Arms of Canada encircled by the motto ribbon of the Order of Canada and ensigned by the crest of the Canadian arms (a crowned lion holding a maple leaf in the right front paw), all above the country's national motto, A MARI USQUE AD MARE. This medallion is worn at the left chest, suspended on a 31.8mm wide ribbon with blue edging and white between with five vertical red stripes arranged equally, each of those representing 25 year intervals, thus totalling 125 years.


125th Anniversary Çayyolu Stage
125th Anniversary Çayyolu Stage (Turkish: 125. Yıl Çayyolu Sahnesi), is a theatre in Çayyolu suburb of Çankaya district in Ankara, Turkey. It is operated by the Turkish State Theatres.


125th Battalion, CEF
The 125th Battalion (1st Overseas Battalion of 38th Regiment Dufferin Rifles),  CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War. Based in Brantford, Ontario, the unit began recruiting in late 1915 throughout Brant County. After sailing to England in August 1916, the battalion was absorbed into the 8th Reserve Battalion on April 16, 1918. The 125th Battalion, CEF had one Officer Commanding: Lieut-Col. .


125th Battalion, CEF
The 125th Battalion is perpetuated by the 56th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA.


125th Brigade Support Battalion (United States)
125 Brigade Support Battalion The 125th Forward Support Battalion was constituted in 1936 at the 3rd Battalion, 49th Quartermaster Regiment and activated on 1 April 1942 at Berkeley, California, as the 3rd Battalion, 49th Quartermaster Truck Regiment. The 3rd Battalion was broken up and separated in 1943 and its element reorganized and redesignated. On 17 December 1943 the Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment was redesignated as the Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment, 125th Quartermaster Battalion, Mobile. In 1946, the battalion was converted to the 125th Transportation Corps Truck Battalion and inactivated.


125th Brigade Support Battalion (United States)
The 125th was reactivated in Germany in 1955 and redesignated in 1957 as the 125th Transportation Battalion. While in Germany the unit was inactivated in 1959, activated in 1962 and deactivated in 1965. On 1 May 1987, the 125th Forward Support Battalion was activated in Germany along with Alpha, Bravo and Charlie companies. The 125th was assigned to the 3rd Brigade of the 1st Armored Division. The 125th Forward Support Battalion was temporarily moved to Fort Lewis, Washington and deactivated in 1995.


125th Brigade Support Battalion (United States)
It was not until 16 February 1996 that the 125th Forward Support Battalion with the 3rd Brigade of the 1st Armored Division found its home at Fort Riley, Kansas. At that time, the 596th Signal Company was attached to the 125th, allowing the battalion to provide logistics support, maintenance support, medical support and communication support for the entire Brigade. 125th FSB was included in operation Iraqi freedom in March 2003 – February 2004 Ramadia Iraq(Camp payne). Than again deployed to Iraq in 2005–2006 at Taji, Iraq. Inactivated on 15 March 2008 at Fort Riley, Kansas.


125th Brigade Support Battalion (United States)
The 125th Brigade Support Battalion was redesignated and reactivated on 16 August 2009, at Fort Bliss, Texas in support of the 3rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team, 1st Armored Division, the first BCT of its kind in the 1st Armored Division. On order, the 125th Brigade Support Battalion deploys to a designated theater, conducts full spectrum combat service support operations in a joint or combined environment and redeploys to home station.


125th Delaware General Assembly
The 125th Delaware General Assembly was a meeting of the legislative branch of the state government, consisting of the Delaware Senate and the Delaware House of Representatives. Elections were held the first Tuesday after November 1 and terms began in Dover on the first Tuesday in January. This date was January 7, 1969, which was two weeks before the beginning of the first administrative year of Governor Russell W. Peterson and Eugene Bookhammer as Lieutenant Governor.


125th Delaware General Assembly
Currently the distribution of seats for both houses was based on a court interpreted interpretation of the federal 1960 census. It resulted in a large shift in membership numbers to the New Castle County area and ruling that the election districts would abandonment of county lines for their boundaries, but could design whatever district boundaries that would accomplish such population equals. Subsequent census were adjusted such boundaries to continue such adjectives, the next being in 1972.


125th Delaware General Assembly
In the 124th Delaware General Assembly session both chambers had a Republican majority.


125th Delaware General Assembly, Members, Senate
About half the State Senators were elected every two years for a four-year term, except the decade district redesign year, when all served two years. They were designed for equal populations from all districts and its accomplishment occasionally included some territory from two counties.


125th Delaware General Assembly, Members, House of Representative
All the State Representatives were elected every two years for a two-year term. They were designed for equal populations from all districts and its accomplishment occasionally included some territory from two counties.


125th Division (2nd Formation)(People's Republic of China)
1st Independent Division of Guangdong Provincial Military District(Chinese: 广东省军区独立第1师) was formed in September 1966 from Artillery Firing Range of Guangzhou Military Region and twelve independent battalions of Guangdong Provincial Military District.


125th Division (2nd Formation)(People's Republic of China)
The division was composed of 3 infantry regiments (1st to 3rd) and 2 artillery battalions (artillery and antiaircraft artillery).


125th Division (2nd Formation)(People's Republic of China)
In September 1968 its 3rd regiment was detached and renamed as 114th Garrison Regiment. The division itself was transferred to 42nd Army Corps and renamed as 125th Army Division(Chinese: 陆军第125师). The division was composed of 373rd, 374th and 375th Infantry Regiments, and Artillery Regiment.


125th Division (2nd Formation)(People's Republic of China)
In 1979 the division took part in the Sino-Vietnamese War.


125th Division (2nd Formation)(People's Republic of China)
In 1985 the division was disbanded. Its 373rd and 374th Infantry Regiments were transferred to 126th Infantry Division. In September 1989 374th Regiment was disbanded. 373rd Infantry Regiment is now 373rd Regiment, 126th Armed Police Mobile Division.


125th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)
The 125th Division (第125師団, Dai-hyakunijūgo Shidan) was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the Eiki Division (英機兵団, Eiki Heidan). It was formed 16 January in Heihe as a binary division, later upgraded to triangular division. It was a part of a batch of eight simultaneously created divisions: the 121st, 122nd, 123rd, 124th, 125th, 126th, 127th and 128th Divisions. The nucleus for the formation was the remnants of the transferred 57th Division plus the 7th and 13th Independent Border Guards units.


125th Division (Imperial Japanese Army), History
The 125th Division formation was complete in February 1945 and was initially assigned to the 4th Army. In June 1945, the division was sent to Tonghua, Jilin. In July 1945, the 274th Infantry Regiment, a divisional artillery company, a transport company, an ordnance company and a veterinary department were sent to Harbin to become the nucleus of the 149th Division. At the news of the Soviet invasion of Manchuria 9 August 1945 the 125th Division was reassigned to the 30th Army.


125th Division (Imperial Japanese Army), History
In early August 1945, the 125th division was reinforced by 134th Independent Mixed Brigade.


125th Division (Imperial Japanese Army), History
9-11 August 1945, the division has received contradictory orders, and did not move. The 125th Division was still building a fortifications at Tonghua at the time of the surrender of Japan. The division has surrendered to the Red Army 24 August 1945 and was completely disarmed 26 August 1945. Although parts of the division were taken prisoner by Soviet forces in September - October 1945, still a lot of personnel remained in Tonghua, until about 3000 Japanese soldiers and civilians either died in fighting or were summarily executed in the Tonghua Incident on 3 February 1946. This was an attempted Japanese rebellion with the goal of rescuing Empress Wanrong from the Eighth Route Army.


125th Field Artillery Regiment
The 125th Field Artillery Regiment is a field artillery regiment of the Minnesota Army National Guard. The regiment's 1st Battalion is the 155mm, self-propelled cannon battalion assigned to the 1st Armored Brigade Combat Team, 34th Infantry Division.


125th Fighter Squadron
The 125th Fighter Squadron (125 FS) is a unit of the Oklahoma Air National Guard 138th Fighter Wing located at Tulsa Air National Guard Base, Oklahoma. The 125th is equipped with the Block 42 F-16C Fighting Falcon.


125th Fighter Squadron
The squadron is a descendant organization of the 125th Aero Squadron, established on 30 July 1940. It was one of the 29 original National Guard Observation Squadrons of the United States Army National Guard formed before World War II.


125th Fighter Squadron, History
The Oklahoma Air National Guard originated during the pre World War II formation of Army National Guard aviation units. In July 1940 the War Department allotted the 125th Observation Squadron to the Oklahoma National Guard. Organized in Tulsa, the squadron was equipped with 0-38 aircraft. It was federally recognized on 31 January 1941.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II
Seven months after its federal recognition, the 125th Observation Squadron was federalized and ordered into active service on 15 September 1941. The 125th was assigned to the 68th Observation Group at Fort Sill. In March 1942 the unit was transferred to the 77th Observation Group. It operated as the 125th Observation Squadron (Light) until July 1942, when it was again designated the 125th Observation Squadron. During the remainder of 1942 it trained with various aircraft at Fort Sill and other installations. In April 1943 the 125th was renamed the 125th Liaison Squadron. Transferred to Texas, it joined the Second Air Force Support Command and was re-equipped with L-5 Sentinel aircraft. In January 1944 the squadron became a part of the 76th Tactical Reconnaissance Group.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, World War II
The 125th arrived in England in June 1944 and was assigned to the Ninth Air Force. Deployed to the U.S. Ninth Army, units of the 125th arrived in France in August 1944 and served with the Twelfth and Sixth army groups. In November 1944 the 125th was assigned to the XIX Tactical Air Command (Provisional) and then to the IX Fighter Command. After V-E Day the 125th was transferred to the XII Tactical Air Command of the Army of Occupation.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Oklahoma Air National Guard
The wartime 125th Liaison Squadron was re-designated as the 125th Fighter Squadron and allotted to the Oklahoma Air National Guard, on 24 May 1946. It was organized at Tulsa Municipal Airport, Oklahoma, and was extended federal recognition on 15 February 1947 by the National Guard Bureau. The 1125th Fighter Squadron was bestowed the history, honors, and colors of the 125th Liaison Squadron and all predecessor units. The squadron was equipped with F-51D Mustang Fighters and was assigned to the Missouri ANG 71st Fighter Wing, an umbrella unit of early ANG units in the midwest. The squadron was assigned the mission for air defense of the State of Oklahoma.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Oklahoma Air National Guard
On 18 December 1947, the 125th FS was transferred to the newly recognized Oklahoma ANG 137th Fighter Group and joined the 185th Fighter Squadron at Norman. The Norman-based 137th Fighter Group provided command and logistical support. The 125th then performed training missions over Northern Oklahoma and the panhandle; the 188th trained over Southern Oklahoma to the Texas border.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Oklahoma Air National Guard
In June 1950, the 125th began re-equipping from F-51D Mustangs to F-84B Thunderjets. The F-84s were received from Republic after refurbishing, the aircraft seeing previous service with the 14th or 20th Fighter Groups.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Korean War federalization
The 125th and its parent 137th Fighter Group were federalized and ordered to active service on 10 October 1950 due to the Korean War, becoming part of Ninth Air Force, Tactical Air Command (TAC). On 27 November 1950, it was moved to Alexandria AFB, Louisiana, where it was joined with the Kansas ANG 127th Fighter Squadron and Georgia ANG 128th Fighter Squadron. The 137th Fighter-Bomber Wing was scheduled for deployment to the new Chaumont-Semoutiers AB, France, as part of the United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE).


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Korean War federalization
At Alexandria, the unit was scheduled for conversion training in the F-84G Thunderjet. Deployment of the wing was delayed, however, by the need to transfer its pilots to Korea from training and delays in receiving engines for the F-84Gs, as well as the ongoing construction at Chaumont AB. As no F-84Gs were available, F-84Ds were furnished by TAC and along with the F-84Bs, the unit trained in the jet aircraft.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Korean War federalization
Training and delays continued throughout 1951. Due to these delays, many of the activated National Guard airmen were released from active duty and never deployed to France. F-84G models were finally received in the spring of 1951 and the Guardsmen were able to train in long-range endurance missions. However, ongoing delays in France kept the 137th in Louisiana for over a year.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Korean War federalization
With mostly regular Air Force personnel and all the delays behind them, the remaining Guardsmen departed Louisiana on 5 May 1952 for Europe; however, the 128th inherited a base that was little more than acres of mud where wheat fields used to be. The only hardened facilities at Chaumont were a concrete runway and a handful of tarpaper shacks. The 127th wound up being stationed by USAFE at Neubiberg Air Base, West Germany until the facilities in France were suitable for military use. The aircraft arrived at Chaumont on 25 June, being the first USAF tactical air fighters to be based permanently in France, albeit working mostly in tents and temporary wooden buildings on their new base.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Korean War federalization
The Guardsmen of the 125th ended their active-duty tour in France and returned to the United States in late June, leaving their F-84G Thunderjets in Europe.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Air Defense mission
The 125th returned from France and was reformed in Tulsa in July 1952, being assigned to Tactical Air Command as a Fighter-Bomber squadron. It was re-equipped with F-51D Mustangs, owing to the lack of jet aircraft available. The squadron continued to train in the Mustang until 1954 when obsolescent F-80C Shooting Star jets were received.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Air Defense mission
In 1957 the Oklahoma Air National Guard was given a fighter-interceptor mission in Air Defense Command (ADC), and on 1 August, the 125th Fighter-Bomber Squadron was authorized to expand to a group level. The 138th Fighter-Interceptor Group was authorized and extended federal recognition by the National Guard Bureau. The 125th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron becoming the group's flying unit. Other support squadrons assigned into the group were the 138th Headquarters, 138th Material Squadron (Maintenance), 138th Combat Support Squadron, and the 138th USAF Dispensary.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Air Defense mission
With the Fighter-Interceptor mission assignment, the 125th also assumed ADC runway alert program on full 24-hour basis – with armed jet fighters ready to "scramble" at a moment's notice. This event brought the group into the daily combat operational program of the USAF, placing us on "the end of the runway" alongside regular USAF-Air Defense Fighter Squadrons. The obsolescent F-80 day fighters were upgraded to the all-weather/day/night F-86D Sabre Interceptor by the end of the year. In June 1959 the squadron traded their F-86Ds for the upgraded F-86L Sabre Interceptor with uprated afterburning engines and new electronics.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Air Transport mission
In January 1960, the 138th FIS was reassigned to Military Air Transport Service (MATS), trading in its Sabre interceptors for 4-engined C-97 Stratofreighter transports. With air transportation recognized as a critical wartime need, the unit was re-designated the 138th Air Transport Wing (Heavy) with the 125th Air Transport Squadron. During the 1961 Berlin Crisis, both the Group and squadron were federalized on 1 October 1961. From Tulsa, the 125th ATS augmented MATS airlift capability worldwide in support of the Air Force’s needs. It returned again to Oklahoma state control on 31 August 1962.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Air Transport mission
Throughout the 1960s, the 125th flew long-distance transport missions in support of Air Force requirements, frequently sending aircraft to the Caribbean, Europe, Australia, Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, and during the Vietnam War, to both South Vietnam, Okinawa and Thailand. The C-97s were retired in 1968 and the unit was transferred to Military Airlift Command (MAC), being re-equipped with C-124C Globemaster II heavy transports. The Group continued to fly long-distance intercontinental airlift flights until the Globemasters were retired at the end of 1972.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Tactical Fighter mission
With the retirement of the Globemasters, the 138th was transferred to Tactical Air Command on 25 January 1973, with the 125th Tactical Fighter Squadron being re-equipped with veteran F-100D/F Super Sabre tactical fighter bombers that were returning from the Vietnam War. The Super Sabre was dedicated fighter-bomber, with no concession being made to a secondary air-superiority role and the squadron trained in using the fighter for ground support. Beginning in 1975, the 125th began a NATO commitment, with squadron aircraft and personnel deploying to the United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) for Autumn Forge/Cold Fire/Reforger exercises.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Tactical Fighter mission
In 1978, the F-100s were being retired, and they were replaced with A-7D Corsair II subsonic tactical close air support aircraft from the 23d Tactical Fighter Wing, England AFB, Louisiana along with the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing, Myrtle Beach AFB, South Carolina which were converting to the A-10 Thunderbolt II. The aircraft had excellent accuracy with the aid of an automatic electronic navigation and weapons delivery system. Although designed primarily as a ground attack aircraft, it also had limited air-to-air combat capability. In 1980, the 125th received the new twin-seat A-7K trainer and also received the Low Altitude Night Attack modification to the A-7D.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Modern era
Early in the 1990s with the declared end of the Cold War and the continued decline in military budgets, the Air Force restructured to meet changes in strategic requirements, decreasing personnel, and a smaller infrastructure. The 138th adopted the new USAF "Objective Organization" in early 1992, with the word "tactical" being eliminated from its designation and becoming the 138th Fighter Group. Tactical Air Command was inactivated on 1 June, being replaced by the new Air Combat Command (ACC).


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Modern era
The 125th Fighter Squadron flew A-7D's until 1993 when it began to receive Block 42 F-16C/D Fighting Falcons, replacing the venerable A-7D in the attack roles. Most of these aircraft came from the 51st Fighter Wing, Osan Air Base, South Korea and the 20th Fighter Wing, Shaw AFB, South Carolina, which units' were trading in Block 42 for more advanced F-16s. The 125th, although an Air National Guard unit, which were mostly tasked with air defense of US mainland, was tasked with a conventional attack mission. This was already the case in the A-7D and even in the F-100 era.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Modern era
The squadron was one of the first Air National Guard units to be equipped with the Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night, or LANTIRN system to be able to illuminate their own ground targets. At the time of conversion this unit was one of the most advanced within the Air National Guard.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Modern era
In mid-1996, the Air Force, in response to budget cuts, and changing world situations, began experimenting with Air Expeditionary organizations. The Air Expeditionary Force (AEF) concept was developed that would mix Active-Duty, Reserve and Air National Guard elements into a combined force. Instead of entire permanent units deploying as "Provisional" as in the 1991 Gulf War, Expeditionary units are composed of "aviation packages" from several wings, including active-duty Air Force, the Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard, would be married together to carry out the assigned deployment rotation.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Modern era
In October 1996, the 125th Expeditionary Fighter Squadron (125 EFS) was first formed from 138th FW personnel and aircraft and deployed to Incirlik Air Base, Turkey, to join with other active-duty and national guard squadrons as part of Operation Northern Watch. This mission was part of a multi-unit Air National Guard "rainbow" deployment involving the Air National Guard block 42 F-16 squadrons. Each squadron provided eight aircraft to a total of 24 aircraft deployed. The 125th EFS returned to Tulsa and was inactivated on 7 January 1997. Further Northern Watch activations of the 125th EFS and subsequent deployments to Incirlik AB occurred in the spring of 1998 and fall of 2001.


125th Fighter Squadron, History, Modern era
The 125th Expeditionary Fighter Squadron has also been deployed to Al Jaber Air Base, Kuwait for Operation Southern Watch in 2001, and  to Balad Air Base, Iraq in 2007 and 2008 as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom. In 2011, the 125th EFS deployed to Al Assad Iraq for the final time, when more than 200 members deployed there to provide air support to the final drawdown of U.S. and coalition forces, being able to respond quickly to any needs troops in combat may have as they left the country.


125th Fighter Wing
The 125th Fighter Wing (125 FW) is a unit of the Florida Air National Guard, stationed at Jacksonville Air National Guard Base, Florida. If activated to federal service with the United States Air Force, the 125 FW is gained by the Air Combat Command.


125th Fighter Wing, Overview
As an Air National Guard unit, the 125th Fighter Wing has a dual mission - one state and one federal. The state mission under Title 32 of the United States Code (Title 32 USC) is to provide trained and equipped personnel to protect life and property and to preserve peace, order, and public safety under the Governor of the State of Florida as part of the Florida Air National Guard.


125th Fighter Wing, Overview
The federal mission under Title 10 USC is to provide fully trained and qualified personnel to the Commander, United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM) / North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in time of war or national emergency for the defense of the North American continent, with operational responsibility for the 125 FW as a U.S. Air Force unit falling to the Air Combat Command (ACC). The 125 FW is also available to other combatant commanders for forward deployment in order to perform air superiority/air dominance missions in other theaters outside of the United States.


125th Fighter Wing, Overview
In addition to its primary installation, the Jacksonville Air National Guard Base at Jacksonville International Airport, the 125 FW also maintains an alert detachment of F-15 Eagle fighter aircraft at Detachment 1, 125 FW, Operating Location AA (OL-AA) at Homestead Air Reserve Base in South Florida. The overall wing organization comprises over 1100 citizen airmen in a combination of full-time Active Guard and Reserve (AGR) and Air Reserve Technicians (ART) and traditional part-time drilling air guardsman (TG) categories.


125th Fighter Wing, History
On 1 July 1956, the Florida Air National Guard's 159th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was authorized to expand to a group level, and the 125th Fighter-Interceptor Group was established by the National Guard Bureau. The 159th FIS becoming the group's flying squadron. Other squadrons assigned into the group were the 125th Headquarters, 125th Material Squadron (Maintenance), 125th Combat Support Squadron, and the 125th USAF Dispensary.


125th Fighter Wing, History
With the establishment of the 125th FIG, the unit converted to the F-86D (Dog) Sabre with the primary mission of continental air defense of the southeastern United States. In 1958, the 125th became the first Air National Guard unit to earn the right to compete in the Air Defense Command's annual WILLIAM TELL Weapons Meet, and was the first team ever to fire a perfect score in that competition.


125th Fighter Wing, History
In July 1960, the 125th converted from the F-86D to the all-weather, supersonic F-102A and F-102B Delta Dagger. In 1968, following completion of the new Jacksonville International Airport, the 125 FIG relocated from the Jacksonville Imeson Airport to a newly constructed military installation, the current Jacksonville Air National Guard Base, at the new airport. With the concurrent closure of Imeson Airport to all flight operations and its conversion to an industrial park, the 125 FIG vacated its former facilities and turned over same to the City of Jacksonville.


125th Fighter Wing, History
In 1965, given increased Soviet Air Force aircraft operations in Cuba, the 125 FIG established Operating Location Alfa Alfa (OL-AA) and 125 FIG, Detachment 1, at Homestead Air Reserve Base, Florida to provide air defense ready alert fighter aircraft in the southern portion of Florida. This same alert detachment continues operations today at the present day Homestead Air Reserve Base with 125th aircraft, pilots and support personnel periodically rotated from home station in Jacksonville.


125th Fighter Wing, History
In January 1968, Air Defense Command was renamed Aerospace Defense Command (ADC) and continued to be the 125 FIG's gaining command.


125th Fighter Wing, History
In July 1974, the 125 FIG converted to the F-106A and F-106B Delta Dart. Only one year after the F-106 conversion, the unit again earned the right to compete that year's annual Air Force air-to-air weapons competition, WILLIAM TELL '76, at Tyndall AFB, Florida.


125th Fighter Wing, History
In March 1980, ADC was inactivated and the air defense mission transferred to Tactical Air Command (TAC). TAC then became the gaining command for the 125 FIG.


125th Fighter Wing, History
In April 1987, the 125th converted to the F-16A and F-16B Fighting Falcon, a multi-role fighter that was subsequently modified as the F-16ADF, specifically designed for the Air Defense role. The 125th was the first ANG unit to assume NORAD Air Defense Alert with the F-16ADF, the first operational F-16ADF unit to employ the AIM-7 Sparrow III missile and the first F-16ADF unit to sit alert with the AIM-7 missile.