'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Awf, Personal life, Generosity
Many stories are told of 'Abd al-Rahman's personal generosity. He once furnished Muhammad's army with 1,500 camels. He bequeathed 400 dinars to the survivors of Badr and a large legacy to the widows of Muhammad. One day he brought a caravan of 700 merchant-camels into Medina. Aisha remarked, "I have heard Allah's Messenger say: 'I have seen 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf entering Paradise crawling.'" This was repeated to 'Abd al-Rahman, who replied: "If I could, I would certainly like to enter Paradise standing. I swear to you, yaa Ammah, that this entire caravan with all its merchandise, I will give in charity." And so he did.


'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Awf, Personal life, Physical Features
'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Awf was tall and bent-backed with a fine, light, rosy complexion and a handsome face. In old age he did not dye his hair. Other descriptions refer to his curly hair; lustrous, long-lashed eyes; convex nose; somewhat protruding upper teeth; thick hair under the earlobes; long, elegant neck; and thick, masculine hands and fingers. He had a limp due to the wounds that he incurred at the Battle of Uhud.


'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Awf, Death
'Abd al-Rahman died in the Medina in 32 AH (653-654 CE) at the age of 72 years. He was buried in Al-Baqi'.


'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Awf, Sunni view
Sunnis regard him as one of al-Asharatu-l Mubasharûn—the ten companions that Muhammad prophesied would enter Paradise.


'Abd al-Razzaq al-Hasani
'Abd al-Razzaq al-Hasani (Arabic: عبد الرزاق الحسني) (1903–1997) was an Iraqi historian and politician. Al-Hasani was a prominent proponent of Iraqi nationalism. He was also a proponent of Arab nationalism.


'Abd al-Razzaq al-Hasani, Early warning
Al-Hasani in a 1924 article titled "Shi'i Majority in Iraq" warned of the dangers of discrimination by the Sunni-dominated government against the Shi'a majority of Iraq's citizens as having the potential to harm attempts to forge national unity in Iraq.


'Abd al-Razzaq al-Hasani, Early warning
Al-Hasani was a strong opponent of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia and British influence in Iraq, claiming the British believed that power in the mandate belonged to them alone and not to Iraqis at all.


'Abd al-Razzaq al-Hasani, Kurdistan
Al-Hassani is noted for having written a book titled The Political History of Iraq (in the Arabic language), in which he considered the Hamrin Mountain Range as a natural border of Kurdistan. His approach towards this sensitive issue concerning the border created controversy about the ethnicity of Kirkuk city. Kirkuk is a multiethnic city in Iraq. The ethnic identity of the city has been disputed among Kurds, Turkmen, Arabs, and Assyrians. This controversial approach was also supported in the past by many foreign researchers, including Cecil J. Edmonds in his book, "Kurds, Turks and Arabs. Politics, Travel and Research in North-eastern Iraq, 1919-1925", published by London: Oxford Press, 1957.


'Abd al-Razzaq al-Hasani, Kurdistan
Al-Hassani has other famous books as "Tarikh Al-Ahwarat Al-Iraqi" ( "History of Iraqi Marshes") and "Ancient and Modern Iraq" published by Al-Irfan press, Saida, Lebanon, 1956.


'Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muhammad al-Amin
'Abd ar-Rahman, Abdurrahman or Darman was Shehu of Borno from 1853 to 1854.


'Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muhammad al-Amin, Reign of 'Abd ar-Rahman
With the help of some courtiers of Kukawa, 'Abd ar-Rahman deposed his brother Umar in November 1853 and became Shehu of Borno. He was considered too violent and tyrannical by his followers which explains why he only reigned for ten months before his brother reconquered his throne in September 1854. He was then executed, most probably in December 1854.


'Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muhammad al-Amin, 'Abd ar-Rahman as seen by Heinrich Barth
In 1851, a British expedition led by Heinrich Barth arrived in Borno. For Barth,'Abd ar-Rahman was a


'Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muhammad al-Amin, 'Abd ar-Rahman as seen by Heinrich Barth
good soldier but a man of very loose and violent character. When a youth he had committed all sorts of violence and injustice, carrying off young brides by force to indulge his passions; he was besides, a man of little intelligence. Being but a few months younger than Omar, he thought himself equally entitled to the succession; and if once admitted into a high position in the empire, he might be expected to abuse his influence on the very first opportunity


'Abd ul Jalil
'Abd ul Jalil (sometimes called Selma in older sources) was the last king in the Duguwa dynasty of the Kanem Empire. His short rule lasted from approximately 1081 until 1085, when he was overthrown by Muslim followers of Hummay, the first Muslim king of the Sefuwa dynasty.


'Abdallah ibn Ghaniya
'Abdallah ibn Ishaq ibn Muhammad ibn Ghaniya, known as 'Abdallah ibn Ghaniya (Arabic: عبد الله بن غانية) (died 1203) was a member of the Banu Ghaniya dynasty who fought against the Almohad Caliphate in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. In c. 1187 he captured the former Bani Ghaniya stronghold of Majorca in the Balearic Islands, and ruled over it until his defeat and death at the hands of the Almohads in 1203.


'Abdallah ibn Ghaniya, Career
'Abdallah was a son of Ishaq ibn Muhammad, the ruler of the Balearic Islands from c. 1156 to 1183, and the brother of 'Ali ibn Ghaniya and Yahya ibn Ghaniya, who led a fifty-year long insurgency against the Almohads in the Maghreb. He accompanied his brother 'Ali when the latter set out from the Balearics and invaded North Africa in 1184, and upon the capture of Bajjaya (Bougie) that year he and Yahya were stationed in the town, remaining there until an Almohad counteroffensive forced them to flee approximately seven months later.


'Abdallah ibn Ghaniya, Career, Balearics
Following a pro-Almohad coup in the Balearics in c. 1185, in which the Almohad commander 'Ali ibn al-Reberter reinstalled Muhammad ibn Ishaq as amir, 'Abdallah was dispatched by his brother 'Ali to retake the islands and set out with a fleet from Tripoli. After stopping in Sicily, where he received reinforcements from the Norman king William II, he made his way to Majorca and linked up with loyalist forces headed by Najah, who had maintained a resistance against Ibn al-Reberter and Muhammad. The majority of the peasantry also rallied to 'Abdallah's side, and he was quickly able to secure control of Majorca and the surrounding islands.


'Abdallah ibn Ghaniya, Career, Majorca
Upon completing his conquest of Majorca, 'Abdallah remained in charge of the island, serving there as amir on behalf of his brother 'Ali. During his rule he maintained friendly relations with Peter II of Aragon and secured a peace and commercial treaty with the Republic of Genoa in 1188, allowing the latter to establish a church and hostel for foreign merchants on Majorca. He also resumed raiding activities, particularly against Provence and Almohad possessions in eastern al-Andalus, and continued assisting his brothers in the Maghreb, sending two ships to assist Yahya ibn Ghaniya when the latter besieged Tripoli in the 1190s.


'Abdallah ibn Ghaniya, Career, Majorca
Throughout his reign in Majorca 'Abdallah was forced to contend with the Almohads, who made repeated attempts to take the Balearic Islands. Ibiza was captured by an Almohad fleet in 1187, and Menorca also fell at an unspecified date. In the winter of 1200 'Abdallah undertook an attempt to regain Ibiza, but was compelled to retreat in failure; in the following year he had more success against Menorca, taking it after a prolonged siege which saw the inhabitants resort to acts of cannibalism.


'Abdallah ibn Ghaniya, Career, 1203
'Abdallah's amirate came to an end in 1203, when the Almohads launched a major expedition to the Balearics against him. The Almohad forces, commanded by Abu al-'Ula and Abu Sa'id 'Uthman ibn Abi Hafs and consisting of 15,000 infantry, 700 archers, 1,200 cavalry, and several siege engines, encountered 'Abdallah's fleet at Menorca and destroyed it, after which they seized control of Menorca and proceeded to blockade Majorca. Although the capital was able to hold out for over two months, the defenders were eventually defeated and 'Abdallah himself was killed. The Balearic Islands were then turned into an Almohad possession, remaining in their hands until they were conquered by James I of Aragon in 1229.


'Adayga Mosque
The 'Adayga Mosque also known as Aw Musse mosque or Haji Musse mosque is small mosque in the historical Hamar Weyne district in Mogadishu.


'Adayga Mosque, Overview
The mosque can be found in the small ancient alleyways of Hamar Weyne and can be easily missed, as it is in the midst of houses. Maria Rosario La Lomia put forward the hypothesis that the mosque could have been built in the 13th century due to the similarities of the minaret of the 'Adayga to the minaret of Jama'a Xamar Weyne. The mosques name comes from the fact that you'd find a Salvadora persica tree which twigs is customarily used as a toothbrush, hence the name 'Adayga which in Somali means whitener or toothbrush. The mosque has recently been reconstructed again and has lost some of its features.


'Adud al-Dawla
Fannā (Panāh) Khusraw (Persian: پناه خسرو), better known by his laqab of ʿAḍud al-Dawla (Arabic: عضد الدولة, "Pillar of the [Abbasid] Dynasty") (September 24, 936 – March 26, 983) was an emir of the Buyid dynasty, ruling from 949 to 983, and at his height of power ruling an empire stretching from Makran to Yemen and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. He is widely regarded as the greatest monarch of the dynasty, and by the end of his reign was the most powerful ruler in the Middle East.


'Adud al-Dawla
The son of Rukn al-Dawla, Fanna Khusraw was given the title of Adud al-Dawla by the Abbasid caliph in 948 when he was made emir of Fars after the death of his childless uncle Imad al-Dawla, after which Rukn al-Dawla became the senior emir of the Buyids. In 974 Adud al-Dawla was sent by his father to save his cousin Izz al-Dawla from a rebellion. After defeating the rebel forces, he claimed the emirate of Iraq for himself, and forced his cousin to abdicate. His father, however, became angered by this decision and restored Izz al-Dawla. After the death of Adud al-Dawla's father, his cousin rebelled against him, but was defeated. Adud al-Dawla became afterwards the sole ruler of the Buyid dynasty and assumed the ancient Iranian title of Shahanshah ("King of Kings").


'Adud al-Dawla
When Adud al-Dawla became emir of Iraq, the capital city, Baghdad, was suffering from violence and instability owing to sectarian conflict. In order to bring peace and stability to the city, he ordered the banning of public demonstrations and polemics. At the same time, he patronized a number of Shia scholars such as al-Mufid, and sponsored the renovation of a number of important Shia shrines.


'Adud al-Dawla
In addition, 'Adud al-Dawla is credited with sponsoring and patronizing other scientific projects during his time. An observatory was built by his orders in Isfahan where Azophi worked. Al-Muqaddasi also reports that he ordered the construction of a great dam between Shiraz and Istakhr in 960. The dam irrigated some 300 villages in Fars province and became known as Band-e Amir (Dam of the emir). Among his other major constructions was the digging of the Haffar channel, that joined the Karun river to the Shatt al-Arab river (the confluence of the Tigris and the Euphrates). The port of Khorramshahr was built on the Haffar, at its junction with the Shatt al-Arab.


'Adud al-Dawla, Early life
Fanna Khusraw was born in Isfahan on September 24, 936, he was the son of Rukn al-Dawla, who was the brother of Imad al-Dawla and Mu'izz al-Dawla. According to Ibn Isfandiyar, Fanna Khusraw's mother was the daughter of the Daylamite Firuzanid nobleman al-Hasan ibn al-Fairuzan, who was the cousin of the prominent Daylamite military leader Makan ibn Kaki.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Rule in Fars
In 948, Fanna Khusraw was chosen by his uncle Imad al-Dawla as his successor because he had no heir. Imad al-Dawla died in December 949, and thus Fanna Khusraw became the new ruler of Fars. However, this appointment was not accepted by a group of Daylamite officers, who shortly rebelled against Fanna Khusraw. Rukn al-Dawla quickly left for southern Iran to save his son, and was joined by the vizier of Mu'izz al-Dawla for the same purpose. Together they defeated the rebels and put Fanna Khusraw on the throne in Shiraz.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Rule in Fars
Fanna Khusraw then requested the title of "Taj al-Dawla" (Crown of the state) from the Abbasid caliph. However, to Mu'izz al-Dawla, the title of "Taj" ("crown") implied that Fanna Khusraw was the superior ruler of the Buyid Empire, provoking a reaction from him, and making him decline Fanna Khusraw's request. A more suitable title ("Adud al-Dawla") ("Pillar of the Abbasid dynasty") was instead chosen. Adud al-Dawla was only thirteen when he was crowned as the ruler of Fars, and was educated there by his tutor Abu 'l-Fadl ibn al-'Amid.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Rule in Fars
After the death of Imad al-Dawla in 949, Adud al-Dawla's father Rukn al-Dawla, who was the most powerful of the Buyid rulers, claimed the title of senior emir, which Mu'izz al-Dawla and Adud al-Dawla recognized. In 955, a Daylamite military officer named Muhammad ibn Makan seized Isfahan from Rukn al-Dawla. Adud al-Dawla then marched towards the city and recaptured it from Muhammad ibn Makan. Another Daylamite military officer named Ruzbahan also shortly rebelled against Mu'izz al-Dawla, while his brother Bullaka rebelled against Adud al-Dawla at Shiraz. Abu 'l-Fadl ibn al-'Amid, however, managed to suppress the rebellion.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Rule in Fars
In 966, Adud al-Dawla and Mu'izz al-Dawla made a campaign to impose Buyid rule in Oman. Mu'izz al-Dawla died in 967, and was succeeded by his eldest son Izz al-Dawla as emir of Iraq. The same year, Adud al-Dawla aided the Ziyarid Bisutun in securing the Ziyarid throne from his brother Qabus. Adud al-Dawla and Bisutun then made an alliance, and Bisutun married a daughter of Adud al-Dawla, while he married a daughter of Bisutun.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Campaigns in eastern Iran
In 967, Adud al-Dawla took advantage of the quarrel between the Ilyasid ruler Muhammad ibn Ilyas and his son in Kerman to annex the province to his domain. Mu'izz al-Dawla had already attempted to conquer the province but was defeated by the Ilyasids. Adud al-Dawla conquered all of Kerman, and appointed his son Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris as the viceroy of the province, while a Daylamite officer named Kurkir ibn Justan was appointed as the chief captain of the army of Kerman.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Campaigns in eastern Iran
In the next year, Adud al-Dawla negotiated peace with the Saffarid ruler Khalaf ibn Ahmad, who agreed to recognize Buyid authority. In 969/970, Sulaiman, the son of Muhammad ibn Ilyas, wanted to regain his kingdom of Kerman, and invaded the region. Adud al-Dawla managed to defeat the army of Sulaiman and continued to expand his domains to the strait of Hormuz. During his campaign in southern Iran, many Iranian tribes converted to Islam and pledged allegiance to him. In August/September 971, Adud al-Dawla launched a punitive expedition against the Baloch tribes who had declared independence. Adud al-Dawla defeated them on January 8, 972, and installed loyal landowners to control the region. Afterwards, Adud al-Dawla and his father Rukn al-Dawla signed a peace treaty with the Samanids by paying them 150,000 dinars. In the same year, Adud al-Dawla conquered most of Oman, including its capital, Sohar.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Rebellion of Sebük-Tegin and aftermath
In 974, Izz al-Dawla was trapped in Wasit by his troops who, under their leader, Sebük-Tegin, had rebelled against him. Adud al-Dawla quickly left Fars to quell the rebellion, where he inflicted a decisive defeat on the rebels on January 30, 975, who under their new leader, Alptakin, fled to Syria. Adud al-Dawla then forced Izz al-Dawla to abdicate in his favor on March 12, 975. Rukn al-Dawla, greatly angered at this action, complained to Adud al-Dawla that the line of Mu'izz al-Dawla could not be removed from power. Adud al-Dawla tried to make amends with his father by offering tribute to him, but Rukn al-Dawla rejected his offer, and then restored Izz al-Dawla as the ruler of Iraq. The consequences of the restoration would later lead to war between Izz al-Dawla and Adud al-Dawla after Rukn al-Dawla's death.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Rebellion of Sebük-Tegin and aftermath
In 975 Adud al-Dawla launched an expedition to take Bam and defeated another son of Muhammad ibn Ilyas who sought to reconquer Kerman.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Struggle for power in Iraq and war with the Hamdanids
On September 16, 976, Rukn al-Dawla, the last of the first generation Buyids, died. After his death, Izz al-Dawla prepared to take revenge against Adud al-Dawla. He made an alliance with his brother, Fakhr al-Dawla, his father's successor to the territories around Hamadan. He also made an alliance with the Hamdanids of northern Iraq, the Hasanwayhid ruler Hasanwayh, and the ruler of the marshy areas of southern Iraq. However, Mu'ayyad al-Dawla, the third son of Rukn al-Dawla, remained loyal to his eldest brother.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Struggle for power in Iraq and war with the Hamdanids
Izz al-Dawla then stopped recognizing the rule of his cousin Adud al-Dawla, and stopped mentioning his name during Friday prayers. Adud al-Dawla, greatly outraged by his cousin, marched towards Khuzestan and easily defeated him in Ahvaz on July 1, 977. Izz al-Dawla then asked Adud al-Dawla for permission to retire and settle in Syria. However, on the road to Syria, Izz al-Dawla became convinced by Abu Taghlib, the Hamdanid ruler of Mosul, to go fight again against his cousin. On May 29, 978, Izz al-Dawla, along with Abu Taghlib, invaded the domains of Adud al-Dawla and fought against him near Samarra. Izz al-Dawla was once again defeated, and was captured and executed at the orders of Adud al-Dawla.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Struggle for power in Iraq and war with the Hamdanids
Adud al-Dawla then marched to Mosul and captured the city, which forced Abu Taghlib to flee to the Byzantine city of Anzitene, where he asked for aid. Adud al-Dawla then spent one year in Mosul to consolidate his power, while his army was completing the conquest of Diyar Bakr and Diyar Mudar. The important Hamdanid city of Mayyafariqin was shortly captured by them, which forced Abu Taghlib to flee to Rahba from where he tried to negotiate peace with Adud al-Dawla. Unlike the rest of the Buyids who had held the region temporarily, Adud al-Dawla had complete control of the region during the rest of his reign.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Struggle for power in Iraq and war with the Hamdanids
Adud al-Dawla, now the ruler of Iraq, then took control of the territories under the control of the Bedouins and Kurds. He also killed almost all the sons of Hasanwayh, and appointed Badr ibn Hasanwayh, the last surviving son of Hasanwayh, as the ruler of the Hasanwayhid dynasty. It should be understood that during that period the word "Kurd" meant nomad. He then subdued the Shayban tribe, and fought against Hasan ibn 'Imran, the ruler of Batihah. He was, however, defeated, and made peace with Hasan who agreed to recognize his authority. During the same period, Adud al-Dawla had Izz al-Dawla's former vizier Ibn Baqiyya arrested, blinded, and then trampled to death by elephants. His corpse was thereafter impaled at the head of the bridge in Baghdad, where it would remain until Adud al-Dawla's death.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, War in northern Iran
During the same period, Bisutun died, and his kingdom was thrown into civil war; his governor of Tabaristan, Dubaj ibn Bani, supported his son as the new Ziyarid ruler, while Bisutun's brother Qabus claimed the throne for himself. Adud al-Dawla quickly sent an army to aid Qabus against Dubaj. Qabus managed to defeat him and capture the son of Bisutun in Simnan. Adud al-Dawla then made the Abbasid caliph give Qabus the title of Shams al-Ma'ali.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, War in northern Iran
In May 979, Adud al-Dawla invaded the territories of his brother Fakhr al-Dawla, who was forced to flee to Qazvin and then to Nishapur, a large part of his troops deserted. Adud al-Dawla then moved to Kerman and later Kermanshah where he set up a governor. In August/September 980, Adud al-Dawla captured Hamadan and occupied the south and east area of the city.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, War in northern Iran
Shortly after, in October/November of the same year, Sahib ibn Abbad, the vizier of Adud al-Dawla's younger brother Mu'ayyad al-Dawla, arrived from Ray to negotiate a transfer of power in the city in favor of his master. Adud al-Dawla recognized his younger brother Mu'ayyad because of his loyalty, and gave him the troops of Fakhr al-Dawla and helped him conquer Tabaristan and Gorgan from Qabus, who had betrayed Adud al-Dawla by giving refuge to Fakhr al-Dawla. Mu'ayyad al-Dawla shortly managed to conquer these two provinces.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Consolidation of the Empire and peace negotiations with the Byzantines
Adud al-Dawla was now the senior ruler of the Buyid Empire, and several rulers such as the Hamdanids, Saffarids, Shahinids, Hasanwayhids and even other lesser rulers who controlled Yemen, including its surrounding regions, acknowledged his authority. Other regions, such as Makran, were also under Buyid control.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Consolidation of the Empire and peace negotiations with the Byzantines
Adud al-Dawla then returned to Baghdad, where he built and restored several buildings in the city. He also stopped the quarrel between the Daylamites and Turks of the Buyid army. In 980, the Byzantine rebel Bardas Skleros fled to Mayyafariqin. When he arrived, he sent his brother to Baghdad to offer his allegiance to Adud al-Dawla and make an alliance against the Byzantines, which Adud al-Dawla accepted.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Consolidation of the Empire and peace negotiations with the Byzantines
A Byzantine envoy from Constantinople shortly arrived in Baghdad and tried to persuade Adud al-Dawla to hand over the rebel, but he refused, keeping the rebel and some of his family members in Baghdad for the rest of his reign, thus strengthening his diplomatic position with the Byzantines. In 981, Adud al-Dawla sent Abu Bakr Baqillani to Constantinople to negotiate peace. However, he was most likely sent to spy on the Byzantines and how their military functioned, since Adud al-Dawla was planning to invade Byzantine territory.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Consolidation of the Empire and peace negotiations with the Byzantines
In 982, Adud al-Dawla sent another envoy to Constantinople, this time, Abu Ishaq ibn Shahram, who, after spending three months in the city, concluded a 10-year peace treaty with them. One year later, a Byzantine envoy arrived back in Baghdad, but Adud al-Dawla was too ill to bring an end to the negotiations. In the end, the 10-year peace treaty was finally completed, and the Byzantines also agreed to mention Adud al-Dawla's name in the Friday prayer in Constantinople.


'Adud al-Dawla, Reign, Consolidation of the Empire and peace negotiations with the Byzantines
Sahib ibn Abbad is known to have said the following about this event: "he [Adud al-Dawla] has done what no kings of the Arabs nor any Chosroes [kings] of the Persians could – he has Syria and the two Iraqs, and he is close to the Despot of Byzantium and the Maghribi by his continuous correspondence."


'Adud al-Dawla, Administration and contributions
Adud al-Dawla kept his court in Shiraz. He visited Baghdad frequently and kept some of his viziers there, one of them being a Christian named Nasir ibn Harun. Furthermore, he had several Zoroastrian statesmen who served him, such as Abu Sahl Sa'id ibn Fadl al-Majusi, who served as his representative in Baghdad before his conquest of Iraq; Abu'l-Faraj Mansur ibn Sahl al-Majusi, who served as his financial minister; and Bahram ibn Ardashir al-Majusi. Adud al-Dawla seems to have greatly respected their religion.


'Adud al-Dawla, Administration and contributions
Under him the Buyid kingdom flourished. His policies were liberal so there were no riots during his reign. He embellished Baghdad with numerous public buildings, including the famous al-'Adudi Hospital. It was the largest hospital of that time, and was destroyed during the Mongol conquests. Many prominent figures worked at the hospital, such as 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi and Ibn Marzuban.


'Adud al-Dawla, Administration and contributions
Adud al-Dawla also build caravanserai's and dams. Shiraz particularly benefited from this work: there, he built a palace with three hundred and sixty rooms with advanced wind towers for air conditioning. The population of Shiraz had increased so much during his reign that he built a satellite city nearby for his army, named Kard-i Fannā Khusraw ("made by Fanna Khusraw")--a clear reference to the names that the Sasanians gave their foundations.


'Adud al-Dawla, Administration and contributions
There were two annual festivals in the city: the first commemorated the day when water pipes reached the city; the second, the anniversary of the city's foundation. Both celebrations were instituted by Adud al-Dawla on the model of the holiday of Nowruz, the Iranian New Year.


'Adud al-Dawla, Administration and contributions
All these activities greatly expanded the economy of Fars so that the tax income was tripled in the 10th century. His contributions to the enrichment of Fars made it a region of relative stability and prosperity for the culture of Iran during the Seljuq and Mongol invasions.


'Adud al-Dawla, Family
Adud al-Dawla, in order to maintain peace, established marriage ties with several rulers: his daughter was married to the Abbasid caliph at-Ta'i, while another was married to the Samanids and the Ziyarid ruler Bisutun. Adud al-Dawla himself had several wives, which included the daughter of Bisutun; the daughter of Manadhar, a Justanid king; and the daughter of Siyahgil, a Giilite king. From these wives, Adud al-Dawla had several sons: Abu'l-Husain Ahmad and Abu Tahir Firuzshah, from the daughter of Manadhar; Abu Kalijar Marzuban, from the daughter of Siyahgil; and Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris, from a Turkic concubine.


'Adud al-Dawla, Family
Adud al-Dawla also had a younger son named Baha' al-Dawla. Abu'l-Husain Ahmad was supported by his mother and his uncle, Fuladh ibn Manadhar, as the heir to the Buyid Empire. However, Abu Kalijar Marzuban, because of his more prominent descent, was appointed as heir to the Buyid Empire by Adud al-Dawla.


'Adud al-Dawla, Death and succession
Adud al-Dawla died at Baghdad on March 26, 983, and was buried in Najaf. His son Abu Kalijar Marzuban, who was in Baghdad at the time of his death, first kept his death secret in order to ensure his succession and avoid civil war. When he made the death of his father public, he was given the title of "Samsam al-Dawla". However, Adud al-Dawla's other son, Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris, challenged the authority of Samsam al-Dawla, resulting in a civil war.


'Adud al-Dawla, Legacy
Adud al-Dawla, like the previous Buyid rulers, maintained the Abbasids in Baghdad, which gave legitimacy to his dynasty in the eyes of some Sunni Muslims. However, he showed more interest than his predecessors to the pre-Islamic culture of Iran, and was proud of his Iranian origin. He visited Persepolis alongside Marasfand, the Zoroastrian chief priest (mobad) of Kazerun, who read the pre-Islamic inscriptions in the city for him. Adud al-Dawla later left an inscription in the city, which tells about his awareness of being heir of an ancient pre-Islamic civilization. Adud al-Dawla even claimed descent from the Sasanian king Bahram V Gor, minted coins of him wearing a Sasanian type crown, which carried the traditional Sasanian inscription, Shahanshah, may his glory increase. The reverse side of the coin said: May Shah Fanna Khusraw live long.


'Adud al-Dawla, Legacy
However, he still preferred Arabic authors to Persian ones. There is very little evidence of his interest in Persian poetry. He spoke Arabic, wrote in Arabic and was proud to be a student of a famous Arab grammarian. He studied science in Arabic, including astronomy and mathematics. Many books written in Arabic were dedicated to him whether religious or secular. Apparently showing interest in Arabic rather than Persian, Adud al-Dawla followed the mainstream of intellectual life in a provincial town where culture was dominated by Arabic and Persian.


'Adud al-Dawla, Legacy
Like many of his contemporaries, he does not seem to have felt that his admiration for the pre-Islamic Iranian civilization conflicted with his Muslim Shiite faith. According to some accounts, he repaired the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, and built a mausoleum of Ali in Najaf, which is today known as the Imam Ali Mosque. He is said to have been generous to a prominent Shiite theologian, but did not follow a Shiite religious policy and was tolerant to the Sunnis. He even tried to get closer to the Sunnis by giving his daughter in marriage to the caliph, which was a failure because the caliph refused to consummate the marriage.


'Agojo so'jo
'Agojo so'jo (Tewa: 'Big star') is a god in Native American Tewa mythology. He represents the Morning star, the brightest star in the morning.


'Agojo so'jo
'Agojo so'jo was the husband of the Evening Star. They were once mortals, but when the Evening Star died, 'agojo so'jo pursued her. Once 'agojo so'jo reached his wife, he could not bring himself to sleep with her, so he escaped. The Evening Star then gave chase to her husband. This eternal pursuit continues, presumably representing the transition of day and night. In San Juan Tewa stories, the wife sometimes overtake the husband, as the wife, thought to be deceased and without a heart, is a faster runner.


'Agojo so'jo
'Agojo so'jo is associated with warfare, and was addressed during times of war. He is also considered to be the messenger of the Sun.


'Agojo so'jo
His name is alternately transliterated as 'agoyo so'yu, 'agcjcsċ'jċ, and he is also known as agoyonohuseh (Tewa: 'Dark Star Man'). There was also a Nambé Tewa clan named after the deity.


'Agojo so'jo
The Hano Tewa worships a similar deity known as Ponu'chona. Ponu'chona is also identified with the morning star, and is associated with animals and hunting. Hunters would leave food offering for Ponu'chona. Similarly, the San Juan Tewa had a tale in which the Morning Star set free animals from the sky corral and distribute them on earth.


'Ain Mallaha
'Ain Mallaha, also known as Eynan, was an Epipalaeolithic ("Final Old Stone Age") settlement belonging to the Natufian culture, built and settled circa 10,000–8,000 BCE. The settlement is an example of hunter-gatherer sedentism, a crucial step in the transition from foraging to farming.


'Ain Mallaha
'Ain Mallaha has one of the earliest known archaeological evidence of dog domestication.


'Ain Mallaha, The village
This site is located in northern Israel, 25 kilometres (16 mi) north of the Sea of Galilee, and is in an area surrounded by hills and located by an ancient lake, Lake Huleh. At the time of its Natufian inhabitance, the area was heavily forested in oak, almond, and pistachio trees.


'Ain Mallaha, The village
Evidence of settlement at Mallaha or 'Ain Mallaha dates back to the Mesolithic period at circa 10,000 BCE. The first permanent village settlement of pre-agricultural times in Israel, Kathleen Kenyon describes the material remains found there as Natufian. The Natufian village was colonized in three phases. The first two phases had massive stone-built structures with smaller ones in the third phase. These phases occurred from 12,000 to 9600 BCE. The dwellings were cut into the earth, had subterranean floors, and walls that were built of dry stone.


'Ain Mallaha, The village
Wooden posts supported the roofs, which were probably thatches with brushwood or animal hides. Hearths were located within the dwellings. Kenyon describes the Natufian village as consisting of 50 circular, semi-subterranean, one-room huts, paved with flat slabs and surrounded by stone walls up to 1.2 meters (3.9 ft) high. The floors and walls of the homes were decorated in solid white or red, a simple and popular decorative motif in the Near East at the time.


'Ain Mallaha, Diet
The inhabitants of 'Ain Mallaha were sedentary hunter gatherers; it is likely that they lived in 'Ain Mallaha year round, gathering food from the surrounding wild stands of edible vegetation, and hunting local game. The inhabitants used hand mortars for grinding wild nuts and grain, and stone sickles for cutting plants from wild stands. Many of these sickle stones hold "sickle-gloss," indicating they had been used to cut large numbers of plant stems, most likely wild wheat and barley. The inhabitants are known to have eaten gazelle, fallow deer, wild boar, red and roe deer, hare, tortoise, reptiles, and fish.


'Ain Mallaha, Diet
The inhabitants appear to have subsisted on fish from nearby Lake Hula, as well as by hunting and gathering; no evidence of animal domestication or cultivation has been found, with the conspicuous exception of dogs (see Burial customs).


'Ain Mallaha, Burial customs
It is likely that entire families were buried in the remains of their own houses, the houses being subsequently abandoned. During excavation, Perrot found one dwelling to contain the graves of 11 men, women, and children, many of them wearing elaborate decorations made from dentalium shells. In another dwelling (131), twelve individuals were found, one buried with her hand resting on the body of a small puppy. This burial of a human being with a domestic dog represents the earliest known archaeological evidence of dog domestication. One of the female burials has disarranged body parts and gazelle horn-cores placed near the head, David Wengrow has used this as evidence for the deep-history animal-human composites.


'Ain Mallaha, Excavation
'Ain Mallaha was discovered in 1954 and salvage excavations were carried out under the supervision of J. Perrot, M. Lechevalier and Francois Valla of the CNRS.


'Ain Mallaha, Excavation
Limestone and basalt mortars, Eynan, Early Natufian, circa 12000 BC (Israel Museum, Jerusalem)


'Ain Mallaha, Excavation
Stone Mortars from Eynan, Natufian period, 12500-9500 BC(Israel Museum, Jerusalem)


'Ain Mallaha, Excavation
Basalt sharpening stones, Eynan and Nahal Oren, Natufian Culture, 12500-9500 BC (Israel Museum, Jerusalem)


'Ajam of Kuwait
Ajam of Kuwait or Ayam of Kuwait are Kuwaiti citizens of Iranian origin, who migrated to Kuwait over the past 300 years. Historically, Persian ports provided most of Kuwait's economic needs. Marafi Behbahani was one of the first merchants to settle in Kuwait in the 18th century.


'Ajam of Kuwait
The majority of Shia Kuwaiti citizens are of Iranian ancestry. Some Kuwaitis of Iranian origin are Sunni  Muslims such as the Al-Kandari and Al-Awadhi families of Larestani ancestry. Iranian Balochi families first immigrated to Kuwait in the 19th century. Some Kuwaitis of Iranian Balochi origin are Sunni. Although historically the term Ajam included both Sunni and Shia in Kuwait, nowadays in modern-day Kuwait, the term Ajam almost exclusively refers to Shia only; which is partly due to political sensitivities following the 1979 Iranian Revolution.


'Ajam of Kuwait, Pre-oil Kuwait City
Most Ajam (both Sunni and Shia) resided in the Sharq historical district in the old Kuwait City, thereby forming a linguistic enclave which preserved the language for generations until the discovery of oil. They communicated in Persian between each other, and did not frequently mingle with Arabic speakers who resided in other districts of Kuwait City until after the industrialisation of Kuwait City which scattered people who lived in the districts of Kuwait City to the suburbs. The linguistic enclave was not present any longer therefore the Ajam had to learn Kuwaiti Arabic to survive in the new environment.


'Ajam of Kuwait, Pre-oil Kuwait City
In the pre-oil era, Ajam introduced many new things to Kuwait. For instance, the first hotel in Kuwait in the later years of pre-oil era was built by Yusuf Behbehani; the first telephone in Kuwait was brought by M. Marafie; the first radio agency in Kuwait was established by M. Marafie in 1935; and the first refrigerator in Kuwait was imported by M. Marafie in 1934. Murad Behbehani was the first person to officially introduce television to Kuwait. He was the founder of Kuwait Television (KTV) before the company was nationalized by the government.


'Ajam of Kuwait, Failaka Island
The majority of Kuwaitis from Failaka Island are of Iranian ancestry. They originally migrated to Failaka from the Iranian coast, mainly Kharg Island and Bandar Lengeh. These people are commonly known as the Huwala in the GCC states. They are predominantly Sunni Muslims and speak Arabic fluently, although prior to the discovery of oil they also spoke Persian fluently. The most important Huwala settlement in Failaka Island pertained to 40 families who migrated from the Iranian island Kharg to Failaka in the years 1841-1842.


'Ajam of Kuwait, Failaka Island
The most recent settlement occurred in the early 1930s after the imposition of the unveiling law by Reza Shah. A minority of Failaka Island's Kuwaiti families are Shia Persians, they were noted as having their own hussainiyas and the older generations were frequent Arabic speakers, unlike the Kuwaiti Shia of Persian origin in mainland Kuwait City at the time.


'Ajam of Kuwait, Language
Historically, the Ajam in Kuwait spoke the Kuwaiti Persian language fluently. The Persian sub-dialects of Larestani, Khonji, Bastaki and Gerashi have influenced the vocabulary of Kuwaiti Arabic. The  Ajam of Kuwait originate from different Iranian ethnic groups including Lurs, Iranian Arab, Azerbaijani, and Kurd. There are also Kuwaiti Ajam of Sayyid origin especially those from the Al-Musawi family.


'Ajde, kroči
"'Ajde, kroči" (Cyrillic: 'Ајде, крочи; "Come on, step in") is a song which was the Montenegrin entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2007. It was sung by Stevan Faddy and selected by televoting in the Montenegrin national final MontenegroSong 2007, where it received 4,749 votes.


'Ajde, kroči
The song is composed by Slaven Knezović, composer of No Name's "Zauvijek moja" and the lyrics are written by Milan Perić, who also wrote the lyrics for previous songs that represented Yugoslavia in the Eurovision Song Contest ("Džuli" in 1983; "Ciao, amore" in 1984); as well as the Serbia and Montenegro entries ("Zauvijek moja" in 2005 and the disqualified entry "Moja ljubavi" in 2006). On March 12, 2007, the official video was released, filmed on many different locations such as Budva's old town, Ćatovića Mlini restaurant in Morinj, Ada Bojana.


'Ajde, kroči
The entry was performed in the semifinals of the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki, Finland on May 10, 2007 at number 07, following Georgia's  Sopho Khalvashi with "Visionary Dream" and preceding Switzerland's entrant DJ Bobo with "Vampires Are Alive". It failed to finish in the top 10 and therefore didn't qualify to the final on May 12, which means that Montenegro will have to enter the semi-final once more next year. It finished 22nd in the semi-final (along with Estonia), earning 33 points.


'Ajjur
'Ajjur (Arabic: عجّور) was a Palestinian Arab village of over 3,700 inhabitants in 1945, located  24 kilometres (15 mi) northwest of Hebron. It became depopulated in 1948 after several  military assaults by Israeli military forces. Agur, Tzafririm, Givat Yeshayahu, Li-On, and Tirosh were built on the village lands.


'Ajjur, History
Near 'Ajjur, at Khirbet Jannaba al-Fauqa, was a probable site of the Battle of Ajnadayn, waged in the 7th-century CE between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire, and which resulted in a decisive Rashidun victory, incorporating most of Palestine into the domains of Islam. The village of 'Ajjur itself was built during early Fatimid rule in the region in the early twelfth century CE. A mosque was built during this period, and continued to serve 'Ajjur's community until its demise. The village 'Ajjur is believed to be named after "a sort of cucumber."


'Ajjur, History, Ottoman era
Arab chronicler Mujir ad-Din reported that he passed through 'Ajjur on his way from Gaza to Jerusalem in the early sixteenth century, when the village was a part of the Ottoman Empire. By 1596, 'Ajjur was a part of the nahiya ("subdistrict") of Gaza, part of Sanjak Gaza, with 35 Muslim households; an estimated 193 persons. It paid a find tax rate of 33,3 % on agricultural products, including  wheat, barley, fruit, vineyards, beehives, and goats; a total of 5,500 akçe


'Ajjur, History, Ottoman era
In 1838 Edward Robinson noted the village as being "small", located in the Gaza district. The villagers were Muslim.


'Ajjur, History, Ottoman era
In 1863 Victor Guérin estimated the population to be around 800. Guérin further noted that several houses, including that of the local Sheikh, were  built partly with ancient stones. Socin found from an official Ottoman village list from about 1870  that  'Ajjur  had 86  houses and a population of 254, though the population count included  men, only. Hartmann  found that 'Ajjur  had 120  houses.


'Ajjur, History, Ottoman era
In the 1882, the PEF's  Survey of Western Palestine (SWP) described  'Ajjur as a small village containing olive trees, with most of its houses clustered together, but some dispersed to the west and south. A private school named Abu Hasan was established in this time period.


'Ajjur, History, Ottoman era
In 1896 the population of  'Ajjur was estimated to be about 1,767 persons.


'Ajjur, History, British Mandate era
In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted  by the British Mandate authorities, 'Ajjur had a population of 2,073 inhabitants, all Muslim, increasing in  the 1931 census to 2,917; 4 Christians and the rest Muslims, in a total of 566 residential houses.


'Ajjur, History, British Mandate era
During this period, 'Ajjur became economically active in its vicinity. It held a Friday market or souk that attracted consumers and merchants from nearby towns and villages. A second school was founded in the village in 1934, which served students from nearby villages as well as from 'Ajjur. Like other Arab villages in Palestine at the time, 'Ajjur depended on agriculture, which was the basis of its economy. The main crops were olives and wheat. The second most important economic activity was animal husbandry, in particular, goat herding.


'Ajjur, History, British Mandate era
Animal ownership was a symbol of social status and pride in the village, and residents gave affectionate names to certain types of animals. Animal herding caused seasonal movement by herders to distant dwellings from the village site, but still in its vicinity such as, Khirbet al-Sura and Khirbet al-'Ammuriyya. Shoe making, carpentry, and tanning were other common occupations in 'Ajjur.


'Ajjur, History, British Mandate era
In  the 1945 statistics, 'Ajjur had a  population of 3,730; 10 Christians and 3,720 Muslims, with a total of 58,074 dunams of land. Of this, 2,428 dunums  were irrigated or used for plantations,  25,227 dunams used for  cereals, while 171 dunams were built-up (urban) areas.


'Ajjur, History, 1948 War and aftermath
On 23 October 1948, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the Fourth Battalion of Israel's Giv'ati Brigade occupied 'Ajjur in the northern front of Operation Yoav, unifying Israeli military operations in the southern and western fronts. Most of 'Ajjur's inhabitants had fled prior to this assault—their flight was triggered by an earlier attack, on 23 July-24.


'Ajjur, History, 1948 War and aftermath
In 1992, the Palestinian historian Walid Khalidi described the village: "Only three houses remain; two are deserted and one has been turned into a warehouse. One of the deserted houses is a two-storey stone structure that has a large, triple-arched front porch." Petersen, who inspected the place in 1994, noted "a large two-storey building with a vaulted arcade on the northern side. The upper part of the building is today used as a house whilst the lower part appears to be abandoned (although it remains locked).


'Ajjur, History, 1948 War and aftermath
The arcade consists of three cross-vaulted bays resting on two free-standing piers and two engaged piers at either end. On the outer (north) face of each of the two central piers there is a stone carved with two rosettes which appears to be part of a classical entablature. The outer arches is emphasised by a flat hood moulding. Each bay is covered with a cross-vault which reaches a height of approximately 4m. [..] The upper floor is reached by an external staircase on the east side leading to a walled terrace above the arcade. [


'Ajjur, History, 1948 War and aftermath
..] The identity or function of this building is not known although its design and orientation indicate that it may be a mosque." In 2000, Meron Benvenisti observed that: "Three large, beautiful structures, which were located outside the village amid orchards of fruit trees, have been renovated, and Jewish families live in them. In one, chamber music concerts are held."


'Akbara
Akbara (Arabic: عكبرة) is an Arab village in the Israeli municipality of Safed, which included in 2010 more than 200 families. It is 2.5 km south of Safed City. The village was rebuilt in 1977, close to the old village destroyed in 1948 during  the 1947–1949 Palestine war.


'Akbara, Location
The village of 'Akbara was situated 2.5 km south of Safad, along the two sides of a deep wadi that ran north–south. Southeast of the village lay Khirbet al-'Uqeiba, identified as the Roman village Achabare, or Acchabaron. This khirba was a populated village as late as 1904.


'Akbara, History
The first 'Akbara mention is during Second Temple period by Josephus Flavius, he noted the rock of Acchabaron (Ακχαβαρων πετραν) among the places in the Upper Galilee he fortified as a preparation for the  Jewish Revolt. At the time Josephus Flavius was commanding Jewish rebel forces fighting Romans  in the Galilee.


'Akbara, History
The nearby Khirbet al-'Uqeiba was first excavated during the Mandate period, and was shown to contain remains such as building foundations, hewn stones, and wine presses. Cisterns, tombs, oil press and walls of ancient synagogue  have also been found. Foerster identifies the ruins as the  "early Galilean type" synagogue. Above the settlement, a 135 m high vertical cliff is located. There are one hundred and twenty-nine natural and man-made caves interconnected by passages in the cliff. According to tradition, those caves were used for shelter by Jews during their war with Romans. During archeological excavations, coins from Dor and Sepphoris were found in the caves, dating to the Roman emperor Trajan period.


'Akbara, History
Akbara/Akbari/Akbora/Akborin is mentioned several times in Rabbinic literature as early as second half of the third century CE. According to some traditions Rabbi Yannai disciplines lived in 'Akbara forming an agricultural community; R. Yannai established a bet midrash there. The earliest mention of this bet midrash is in the context of discussions between Rabbi Yohanan and sages of 'Akbara. According to Talmud school of Rabbi Jose bar Abin was also in Akbara. Several of the rabbis mentioned in Pirkei Avot lived in 'Akbara.


'Akbara, History
Akbara is mentioned as the burial place of several Talmudic sages: Rabbi Nehurai also Rabbi Yannai and Rabbi Dostai his son are buried "in the gardens" "by the spring". According to tradition, the body of Rabbi Elazar ben Simeon was laying for twenty two years in his widow's garret in Akbara since he told her not to allow his colleagues to bury him. Rabbi Elazar ben Simeon feared to be dishonoured due to his aid to the Romans.


'Akbara, History
The local Jewish community is attested during Fatimid rule of 969 to 1099 by the Cairo Geniza. Samuel ben Samson visited 'Akbara during his 1210 Palestine pilgrimage, he described the tomb of Rabbi Meir he had found there. In 1258 Jacob of Paris visited Akbara and found there, according to Pirkei Avot, tombs of Rabbi Nehurai.


'Akbara, History, Ottoman era
'Akbara, was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Moshe Basola visited the village In 1522 and said that he had found there "destroyed synagogue, 3 cubits high remaining on two sides". Later in 1968 the remains of the synagogue were identified by Foester. In the census of 1596 the village was part of the  nahiya ("subdistrict") of Jira, part of Liwa Safad, with a population of 36 households and 1 bachelor, all Muslims. It paid taxes on a number of crops and produce, including wheat, barley, summer crops,   olives, occasional revenues, goats,  beehives, and a press which was either used for processing grapes or olives; a total of 6,115 akçe. 6/24 of the revenue went to a waqf.


'Akbara, History, Ottoman era
In 1648 a Turkish traveler Evliya Tshelebi visited Galilee and reflected on history of Akbara cliff caves, which according to tradition were used as a shelter by Jews: "The children of Israel escaped the plague and hid inthese caves. Then Allah sent them a bad spirit which caused them to perish within the caves. Their skeletons, heaped together, can be seen there to this day."


'Akbara, History, Ottoman era
In 1838, it was noted as a village in the Safad district, while in 1875 Victor Guérin visited, and described it: "The ruins of Akbara cover a hillock whose slopes were formerly sustained by walls forming terraces; the threshing floors of an Arab village occupy the summit. Round these are grouped the remains of ancient constructions now overthrown." "The village lies on the east of the wady. It is dominated by a platform on which foundations can be traced of a rectangular enclosure called el Kuneiseh, measuring thirty paces in length by twenty-three in breadth. It stands east and west, and was firmly constructed of good cut stones. The interior is at present given up to cultivation. This enclosure seems to have been once a Christian church."


'Akbara, History, Ottoman era
In 1881, the PEF's Survey of Western Palestine (SWP)  described Akbara as a village built of stone and adobe with about 90 inhabitants who cultivated olive and fig trees.


'Akbara, History, Ottoman era
A population list from about 1887 showed  Akbara to have about 335 inhabitants, all Muslims.


'Akbara, History, British Mandate era
In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Akbara  had a population of 147; all Muslims, increasing in the 1931 census to 275, still all  Muslims, in a total of 49 houses.


'Akbara, History, British Mandate era
During this  period the village houses were made of masonry. In  the  1945 statistics the population was 390 Muslims,  and the total land area was 3,224  dunums;  2,222 dunums was used for  cereals, 199 dunums were irrigated or used for orchards, while 6 dunams were built-up (urban) land.


'Akbara, History, Israeli era
During the siege of Safad 'Akbara was targeted for occupation in line with Plan D. The Hagana attack was launched on 9 May and completed by the Palmach first battalion. It was found that many of the villagers had fled due to news of Deir Yassin and 'Ein al Zeitun, the village was then blown up and destroyed.


'Akbara, History, Israeli era
On 25 May 1948, during Operation Yiftah, under the command of Yigal Allon, Galilee was cleared of its Palestinian Arab population. The Palmach's First Battalion. Following the 25 May exodus of al-Khisas the last 55 villagers who had remained in their homes for just over a year were 'transferred' by Israeli forces despite having good relations and collaborating with Jewish settlements in the area.


'Akbara, History, Israeli era
During the night of 5/6 June 1949, the village of al-Khisas was surrounded by trucks and the villagers were forced into the trucks ’with kicks, curses and maltreatment,’ in the words of a Mapam Knesset member, Elizer Peri, quoted by Morris: "The remaining villagers said that they had been ’forced with their hands to destroy their dwellings,’ and had been treated like ’cattle.’ They were then dumped on a bare, sun-scorched hillside near the village of ’Akbara [by then an abandoned Palestinian Arab village] where they were left ’wandering in the wilderness, thirsty and hungry.’ They lived there under inhuman conditions for years afterwards," along with the inhabitants of at least two other villages (Qaddita and al-Ja'una) expelled in similar circumstances. The expellees remained at ’Akbara for eighteen years until agreeing to resettlement in Wadi Hamam.


'Akbara, History, Israeli era
Salman Abu-Sitta, author of the Atlas of Palestine, estimated that the number of Palestinian refugees from 'Akbara in 1998 was 1,852 people.


'Akbara, History, Israeli era
Of what remains of 'Akbara's built structures, Walid Khalidi wrote in 1992 that, "The original inhabitants of the village were replaced by "internal" refugees from Qaddita villages several kilometers north of Safad. Since 1980, however, these internal refugees have been gradually relocated to the nearby, planned village of 'Akbara, 0.5 km west of the old village site. As a precondition of the relocation, each family was required to demolish its home in the former village. Today, fifteen of the old houses still stand on the site, in addition to the school. The new village of 'Akbara was placed under the administration of the city of Safad in 1977. It is now a neighbourhood of the city of Safed.


'Akilotoa
'Akilotoa (subtitled Anthology 1994–2006) is the first greatest hits album by Australian vocal duo, Vika and Linda. The album is a two-disc, 28-track collection spanning 12 years from 1994 to 2006 and includes songs from five studio albums Vika and Linda, Princess Tabu, Two Wings, Love Is Mighty Close and Between Two Shores as well as live albums Live and Acoustic and Tell the Angels, a re-recorded version of "Down by the Jetty" and "Never Let Me Go" by The Black Sorrows. The album debuted at number 1 on the ARIA Charts, earning the duo their first number one album. In doing so, they became the first Australian sister duo to top the ARIA Albums Chart.


'Akilotoa, Background
The title references their family heritage from Tonga. Vika Bull said "The title is pronounced exactly as it reads [and] it has lots of different meaning in Tongan. It actually means 'cascading' in the Tongan dictionary." About the album's release, the duo said "It's like a little stepping stone before we go into the next part of our career. It was always on the back burner. We had productive years and then there's been a bit of a gap. Before we do a new record we want to acknowledge the past and then we can move on. We are proud of it."


'Akilotoa, Release and promotion
To coincide with the release, Vika and Linda hosted a virtual album launch with a live performance and question and answer with Brian Nankervis, which was live-streamed on their Facebook page on 21 June 2020.


'Akilotoa, Critical reception
Zoë Radas from Stack Magazine wrote: "The voices of Vika and Linda Bull have marinaded our ears in gorgeous sound waves for almost four decades" describing their sound as "unique, supple, and always bursting with spirit."


'Akilotoa, Critical reception
Kathy McCabe from Perth Now felt that "You forget just how many great songs they have until you run down the track list. Their regular appearances at festivals in the past decade coupled with their new social media fandom, has given their audience a generational refresh."


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari
'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari (Arabic: علاء الدين البخاري), was a Hanafi jurist (faqih), Maturidi theologian, commentator of the Qur'an (mufassir), and a mystic (Sufi). Sa'id Foudah suggest that he followed the Naqshbandi path.


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari
He is perhaps best known for issuing a fatwa (a legal ruling) whereby anyone that gives Ibn Taymiyya the title "Shaykh al-Islam" is a disbeliever, and authored a book against him entitled "Muljimat al-Mujassima" (Arabic: ملجمة المجسمة, lit. ' Curbing the Anthropomorphists').


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari
Ibn Nasir al-Din al-Dimashqi (d. 846/1438) countered this fatwa by authoring Al-Radd al-Wafir 'ala man Za'am anna man Samma Ibn Taymiyya Shaykh al-Islam Kafir (Arabic: الرد الوافر على من زعم أن من سمى ابن تيمية شيخ الإسلام كافر), in which he listed all the authorities who had ever written in praise of Ibn Taymiyya or called him Shaykh al-Islam.


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari
He was born in Persia in 779 A.H./1377 A.D., and grew up in Bukhara and later travelled extensively to India, Arabia, Egypt and Syria. After involving himself in debates in Cairo between supporters and opponents of Ibn 'Arabi, he moved to Damascus where he composed the "Fadihat al-Mulhidin wa Nasihat al-Muwahhidin" (Arabic: فاضحة الملحدين وناصحة الموحدين, lit. ' The Humiliation of the Heretics and Admonition of the Unitarians') and also proceeded to attack Ibn Taymiyya, to the anger of the city's Hanbalis.


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari
He was praised by some scholars of his time, like Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, and Badr al-Din al-'Ayni.


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari, Life
He was born in Bilad al-'Ajam (Persia was often called Bilad al-'Ajam [land of 'Ajam]) and educated in Bukhara, where he studied under Sa'd al-Din al-Taftazani. It was from him that al-Bukhari inherited a profound dislike for monistic philosophy, which he saw as synonymous with Ibn 'Arabi and his followers. Al-Bukhari traveled widely in Iran and Central Asia searching for competent religious. From an early age he excelled in traditional and rational sciences such as the Qur'an, hadith, rhetoric, logic, poetry, and dialectics. He also studied classical Sufi manuals and was seen by many as an accomplished Sufi master.


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari, Life
A well-rounded individual with broad intellectual horizons, al-Bukhari for some time resided in India, where his preaching and lectures earned him great popularity among Indian Muslims. Having favorably impressed a local ruler, al-Bukhari was invited to serve as his personal religious tutor and advisor. However, a man of principle, he soon fell out with his Indian patron and left the Subcontinent for Mecca, where he lived for several years until the Mamluk sultan Bars Bay (r. 825/1422-841/1438) invited him to the Egyptian capital.


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari, Life
Soon after his arrival, he was embroiled in a vociferous public dispute over Ibn 'Arabi's orthodoxy, in the course of which he clashed with the influential Maliki qadi of Egypt, Muhammad al-Bisati (d. 842/1438), who advised caution in this matter. Following a public altercation with his opponent, an angry al-Bukhari took ostentatious leave of Cairo to the great chagrin of his Egyptian partisans.


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari, Life
In Syria, where he settled after his departure, al-Bukhari kept thinking about his "humiliation" at the hands of al-Bisati and composed a lengthy refutation of Ibn 'Arabi and his school, titled "Fadihat al-Mulhidin wa Nasihat al-Muwahhidin" (Arabic: فاضحة الملحدين وناصحة الموحدين, lit. ' The Humiliation of the Heretics and Admonition of the Unitarians') Or, in another translation: (transl. The Dishonoring of the Infidels and the Counseling of the Champions of God's Oneness). Simultaneously, he got himself involved in another fierce controversy. Ironically, this time his target was Ibn 'Arabi's archenemy, Ibn Taymiyya, whom al-Bukhari accused of certain juridical "innovations."


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari, Life
Al-Bukhari's critique caused a great uproar in Syria that was home to many influential followers of Ibn Taymiyya. Unmindful of the wide opposition to his critique among his Syrian colleagues, al-Bukhari boldly demanded that Ibn Taymiyya be divested of his honorific title of shaykh al-Islam, proclaiming everyone who refused to do so an unbeliever. His condemnation of Ibn Taymiyya drew severe criticism and eventually a book-size refutation by the Shafi'i scholar Ibn Nasir al-Din al-Dimashqi (d. 838/1434)27 who sent his opus to Egyptian scholars for approval.


'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari, Life
As one might expect, upon receipt of this work, Muhammad al-Bisati seized the opportunity to denounce his former prosecutor as an ignoramus and troublemaker. Al-Bukhari's acrimonious polemic with the Syrian supporters of Ibn Taymiyya did not cause him to forget about his hostility to Ibn 'Arabi, whom he continued to accuse of heresy and juridical incompetence.


'Alawi dynasty
The 'Alawi dynasty (Arabic: سلالة العلويين الفيلاليين, Sulālat al-ʿAlawiyyīn al-Fīlālīyn) – also rendered in English as Alaouite, 'Alawid, or Alawite – is the current Moroccan royal family and reigning dynasty. They are an Arab sharifian dynasty and claim descent from the prophet Muhammad through one of his relatives.


'Alawi dynasty
The dynasty rose to power in the 17th century, beginning with Moulay al-Sharif who was declared sultan of the Tafilalt region in 1631. His son Al-Rashid, ruling from 1664 to 1672, was able to unite and pacify the country after a long period of regional divisions caused by the weakening of the Saadi Dynasty. His brother Isma'il presided over a period of strong central rule between 1672 and 1727, one of the longest reigns of any Moroccan sultan. After Isma'il's death the country was plunged into disarray as his sons fought over his succession, but order was re-established under the long reign of Muhammad ibn Abdallah in the second half of the 18th century. The 19th century was marked by the growing influence of European powers.


'Alawi dynasty
The 'Alawis ruled as sovereign sultans up until 1912, when the French Protectorate and Spanish Protectorate were imposed on Morocco. They were retained as symbolic sultans under colonial rule. When the country regained its independence in 1956, Mohammed V, who had supported the nationalist cause, resumed the 'Alawi role as independent head of state. Shortly afterwards he adopted the title of "King" instead of "Sultan". His successors, Hassan II and Mohammed VI, have continued the dynasty's rule under the same title.


'Alawi dynasty, Name
The dynasty claims descent from Muhammad via Hasan, the son of the Caliph Ali. The name "Alaouite" (from the French transliteration) or 'Alawi (Arabic: علوي) stems either from the name of Ali (the father of Hasan), from which the dynasty ultimately traces its descent, or from the name of the dynasty's early founder Ali al-Sharif of the Tafilalt. The honorific title moulay (also transliterated as mawlay or mulay), meaning "my lord", was also commonly used in conjunction with the names of sultans.


'Alawi dynasty, Name
The state and empire ruled by the 'Alawis was also known in some periods as the "Sharifian Empire" (الإيالة الشريفة in Arabic) or Empire Chérifien in French according to the Treaty of Fes). This name was still in official usage until 1956 (when Morocco regained its independence from colonial rule), and is also used by historians to refer to the preceding Saadian state, which was also ruled by a sharifian dynasty.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Origins
The 'Alawis were a family of sharifian religious notables (or shurafa) who claimed descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad via his descendant Hasan, the son of Ali and of Muhammad's daughter Fatimah. According to the dynasty's official historians, the family migrated from the Hijaz (in Arabia) to the Tafilalt during the 12th or 13th century at the request of the locals who hoped that the presence of a sharifian family would benefit the region. It is possible that the 'Alawis were merely one of many Arab families who moved westwards to Morocco during this period. The Tafilalt was an oasis region in the Ziz Valley in eastern Morocco and the site of Sijilmasa, historically an important terminus of the trans-Saharan trade routes.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Origins
Little is known of 'Alawi history prior to the 17th century. In the early 15th century they appear to have had a reputation as holy warriors, but did not yet have a political status. This was the example of one family member, Ali al-Sharif (not to be confused with the later 'Alawi by the same name below), who participated in battles against the Portuguese and Spanish in Ceuta (Sebta) and Tangier and who was also invited by the Nasrids of Granada to fight against Castile on the Iberian Peninsula. By the 17th century, however, they had evidently become the main leaders of the Tafilalt.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Origins
Their status as shurafa (descendants of Muhammad) was part of the reason for their success, as in this era many communities in Morocco increasingly saw sharifian status as the best claim to political legitimacy. The Saadian dynasty, which ruled Morocco in the 16th century and early 17th century prior to the rise of the 'Alawis, was also a sharifian dynasty and played an important role in establishing this model of political-religious legitimacy.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
The family's rise to power took place in the context of early-to-mid-17th century Morocco, when the power of the Saadian sultans of Marrakesh was in serious decline and multiple regional factions fought for control of the country. Among the most powerful of these factions were the Dala'iyya or Dala'is, a federation of Amazigh (Berbers) in the Middle Atlas who increasingly dominated central Morocco at this time, reaching the peak of their power in the 1640s. Another, was 'Ali Abu Hassun al-Simlali (or Abu Hassun), who had become leader of the Sous valley since 1614.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
When Abu Hassun extended his control to the Tafilalt region in 1631, the Dala'iyya in turn sent forces to enforce their own influence in the area. The local inhabitants chose as their leader the 'Alawi family head, Muhammad al-Sharif – known as Moulay Ali al-Sharif, Moulay al-Sharif, or Muhammad I – recognizing him as sultan. Moulay al-Sharif led an attack against Abu Hassun's garrison at Tabu'samt in 1635 or 1636 (1045 AH) but failed to expel them. Abu Hassun forced him to go into exile to the Sous valley, but also treated him well; among other things, Abu Hassun gifted him a concubine who later gave birth to one of his sons, Isma'il.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
While their father remained in exile, al-Sharif's sons took up the struggle. His son Muhammad (or Muhammad II), became the leader after 1635 and successfully led another rebellion which expelled Abu Hassun's forces in 1640 or 1641 (1050 AH). With this success, he was proclaimed sultan in place of his father. However, the Dala'iyya invaded the region again in 1646 and forced him to acknowledge their control over all the territory west and south of Sijilmasa, leaving him effectively without a realm. Unable to oppose them, Muhammad instead decided to expand in the opposite direction, to the northeast.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
He advanced as far as al-Aghwat and Tlemcen in Algeria (which was part of the Ottoman Empire at the time) in 1650, won the loyalty of several Arab tribes of the Banu Ma'qil in this region, and made his new base at Oujda. His forays into Ottoman Algeria provoked a response from the Ottomans, who sent an army that chased him back to Sijilmasa. In negotiations with an Ottoman legation from Algiers, Muhammad agreed not to cross into Ottoman territory again.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
Despite these latest setbacks, the 'Alawis' influence slowly grew, partly thanks to their continued alliance with certain Arab tribes of the region. In June 1650 the leaders of Fez (or more specifically Fes el-Bali, the old city), with the support of the local Arab tribes, rejected the authority of the Dala'iyya and invited Muhammad to join them. Soon after he arrived, however, the Dala'iyya army approached the city and the local leaders, realizing they did not have enough strength to oppose them, stopped their uprising and asked Muhammad to leave.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
Moulay al-Sharif finally died in 1659, and this provoked a succession struggle between Muhammad and one of his brothers, al-Rashid. Some of the details of this conflict are unclear, but initially al-Rashid appears to have fled Sijilmasa in fear of his brother and took refuge with the Dala'iyya in the Middle Atlas. He then moved around northern Morocco, spending time in Fez, before settling in Angad (northeastern Morocco today). He managed to secure an alliance with the same Banu Ma'qil Arab tribes who had previously supported his brother and also with the Ait Yaznasin, an Amazigh tribe.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
These groups recognized him as sultan in 1663, while around the same time Muhammad made a new base for himself as far west as Azrou. The power of the Dala'iyya was in decline, and both brothers sought to take advantage of this, but both stood in each other's way. When Muhammad attacked Angad to force his brother's submission in 1663 or early 1664, he was instead defeated and killed.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
By this time, the Dala'iyya's realm, which once extended over most of central Morocco, had largely receded to their original home in the Middle Atlas. Al-Rashid was left in control of the 'Alawi forces and in less than a decade he managed to extend 'Alawi control over almost all of Morocco, reuniting the country under a new sharifian dynasty. Early on, he won over more rural Arab tribes to his side and integrated them into his military system.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
Also known as guich tribes ("Army" tribes, also transliterated as gish), they became one of his most important means of imposing control over regions and cities. In 1664 he had taken control of Taza, but Fez rejected his authority and a siege of the city in 1665 failed. After further campaigning in the Rif region, where he won more support, Al-Rashid returned and secured the city's surrender in June 1666.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
He made the city his capital, but settled his military tribes in other lands and in a new kasbah outside the city (Kasbah Cherarda today) to head off complaints from the city's inhabitants about their behaviour. He then defeated the remnants of the Dala'iyya by invading and destroying their capital in the Middle Atlas in June 1668. In July he captured Marrakesh from Abdul Karim Abu Bakr Al-Shabani, who had ruled the city since assassinating his nephew Ahmad al-Abbas, the last Saadian sultan. His forces occupied the Sous valley and the Anti-


'Alawi dynasty, History, Rise to power
Atlas in the south, forced Salé and its pirate republic to acknowledge his authority, while in the north he was in control of Ksar al-Kebir and the region around Tangier. Al-Rashid had thus succeeded in reuniting the country under one rule. He was not able to enjoy this success for very long, however, and died young in 1672 while in Marrakesh.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
Upon al-Rashid's death his younger brother Isma'il became sultan. As sultan, Isma'il's 55-year reign was one of longest in Moroccan history. He distinguished himself as a ruler who wished to establish a unified Moroccan state as the absolute authority in the land, independent of any particular group within Morocco – in contrast to previous dynasties which relied on certain tribes or regions as the base of their power.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
He succeeded in part by creating a new army composed of Black slaves (the 'Abid al-Bukhari) from Sub-Saharan Africa (or descendants of previously-imported slaves), many of them Muslims, whose loyalty was to him alone. Isma'il himself was half Black, his mother having been a Black concubine of Moulay Sharif. This standing army also made effective use of modern artillery. He continuously led military campaigns against rebels, rivals, and European positions along the Moroccan coast.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
In practice, he still had to rely on various groups to control outlying areas, but he nonetheless succeeded in retaking many coastal cities occupied by England and Spain and managed to enforce direct order and heavy taxation throughout his territories. He put a definitive end to Ottoman attempts to gain influence in Morocco and established Morocco on more equal diplomatic footing with European powers in part by forcing them to ransom Christian captives at his court. These Christians were mostly captured by Moroccan pirate fleets which he heavily sponsored as a means of both revenue and warfare.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
While in captivity, prisoners were often forced into labour on his construction projects. All of these activities and policies gave him a reputation for ruthlessness and cruelty among European writers and a mixed reputation among Moroccan historians as well, though he is credited with unifying Morocco under strong (but brutal) leadership.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
He also moved the capital from Fes to Meknes, where he built a vast imperial kasbah, a vast fortified palace-city whose construction continued throughout his reign. He also built fortifications across the country, especially along its eastern frontier, which many of his 'Abid troops garrisoned. This was partly a response to continued Ottoman interference in Morocco, which Isma'il managed to stop after many difficulties and rebellions.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
Al-Khadr Ghaylan, a former leader in northern Morocco who fled to Ottoman Algiers during al-Rashid's advance, returned to Tetouan at the beginning of Isma'il's reign with Ottoman help and led a rebellion in the north which was joined by the people of Fes. He recognized Isma'il's nephew, Ahmad ibn Mahriz, as sultan, who in turn had managed to take control of Marrakesh and was recognized also by the tribes of the Sous valley. Ghaylan was defeated and killed in 1673, and a month later Fez was brought back under control.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
Ahmad ibn Mahriz was only defeated and killed in 1686 near Taroudant. Meanwhile, the Ottomans supported further dissidents via Ahmad al-Dala'i, the grandson of Muhammad al-Hajj who had led the Dala'iyya to dominion over a large part of Morocco earlier that century, prior to Moulay Rashid's rise. The Dala'is had been expelled to Tlemcen but and they returned to the Middle Atlas at the instigation of the Ottomans and under Ahmad's leadership in 1677. They managed to defeat Isma'il's forces and control Tadla for a time, but where defeated in April 1678 near Wadi al-'Abid.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
Ahmad al-Dala'i escaped and eventually died in early 1680. After the defeat of the Dala'is and of his nephew, Isma'il was finally able to impose his rule without serious challenge over all of Morocco and was able to push back against Ottoman influence. After Ghaylan's defeat he sent raids and military expeditions into Ottoman Algeria in 1679, 1682, and 1695-96. A final expedition in 1701 ended poorly. Afterwards, peace was re-established and the Ottomans agreed to recognize Morocco's eastern frontier near Oujda.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
Isma'il also sought to project renewed Moroccan power abroad and in former territories. Following the decline of central rule in the late Saadian period earlier that century, the Pashalik of Timbuktu, created after Ahmad al-Mansur's invasion of the Songhay Empire, had become de facto independent and the trans-Saharan trade routes fell into decline. The 'Alawis became masters over the oasis of Tuat (present-day Algeria) in 1645, but Isma'il established direct control there from 1676 onwards.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
In 1678-79 he organized a major military expedition to the south, forcing the Emirates of Trarza and Brakna to become his vassals and extending his overlordship up to the Senegal River. In 1694 he appointed a qadi to control in Taghaza (present-day northern Mali) on behalf of Morocco. Later, in 1724, he sent an army to support Trarza (present-day Mauritania) against the French presence in Senegal and also used the opportunity to appoint his own governor in Shinqit (Chinguetti). Despite this reassertion of control, trans-Saharan trade did not resume in the long-term on the same levels it existed before the 17th century.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
In 1662 Portuguese-controlled Tangier was transferred to English control as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to Charles II. Moulay Isma'il besieged the city unsuccessfully in 1679, but this pressure, along with attacks from local Muslim mujahidin (also known as the "Army of the Rif"), persuaded the English to evacuate Tangier in 1684. Moulay Ismail immediately claimed the city and sponsored its Muslim resettlement, but granted local authority to 'Ali ar-Rifi, the governor of Tetouan who had played an active part in besieging the city and became the chieftain of northern Morocco around this time.


'Alawi dynasty, History, The reign of Moulay Ismail
Isma'il also conquered Spanish-controlled Mahdiya in 1681, Al-Ara'ish (Larache) in 1689, and Asilah in 1691. Moreover, he sponsored Moroccan pirates which preyed on European merchant ships. Despite this, he also allowed Europeans merchants to trade inside Morocco, but he strictly regulated their activities and forced them to negotiate with his government for permission, allowing him to efficiently collect taxes on trade. Isma'il also allowed European countries, often through the proxy of Spanish Franciscan friars, to negotiate ransoms for the release of Christians captured by pirates or in battle. He also pursued relations with Louis XIV of France starting in 1682, hoping to secure an alliance against Spain, but France was less interested in this idea and relations eventually collapsed after 1718.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Disorder and civil war under Isma'il's sons
After Moulay Isma'il's death, Morocco was plunged into one of its greatest periods of turmoil between 1727 and 1757, with Isma'il's sons fighting for control of the sultanate and never holding onto power for long. Isma'il had left hundreds of sons who were theoretically eligible for the throne. Conflict between his sons was compounded by rebellions against the heavily taxing and autocratic government which Isma'il had previously imposed.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Disorder and civil war under Isma'il's sons
Furthermore, the 'Abid of Isma'il's reign came to wield enormous power and were able to install or depose sultans according to their interests throughout this period, though they also had to compete with the guich tribes and some of the Amazigh (Berber) tribes. Meknes remained the capital and the scene of most of these political changes, but Fez was also a key player. Ahmad adh-Dhahabi was the first to succeed his father but was immediately contested and ruled twice only briefly before his death in 1729, with his brother Abd al-Malik ruling in between his reigns in 1728.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Disorder and civil war under Isma'il's sons
After this his brother Abdallah ruled for most of the period between 1729 and 1757 but was deposed four times. Abdallah was initially supported by the 'Abid but eventually made enemies of them after 1733. Eventually he was able to gain advantage over them by forming an alliance with the Amazigh tribe of Ait Idrasin, the Oudaya guich tribe, and the leaders of Fez (whom he alienated early on but later reconciled with). This alliance steadily wore down the 'Abid's power and paved the way for their submission in the later part of the 18th century.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Disorder and civil war under Isma'il's sons
In this period, the north of Morocco also became virtually independent of the central government, being ruled instead by Ahmad ibn 'Ali ar-Rifi, the son of 'Ali ar-Rifi whom Moulay Isma'il had granted local authority in the region of Tangier. Ahmad ar-Rifi used Tangier as the capital of his territory and profited from an arms trade with the English at Gibraltar, with whom he also established diplomatic relations. Sultan Ahmad adh-Dhahabi had tried to appoint his own governor in Tetouan to undermine Ar-Rifi's power in 1727, but without success.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Disorder and civil war under Isma'il's sons
Ahmad ar-Rifi was initially uninterested in the politics playing out in Meknes, but became embroiled due to an alliance he formed with al-Mustadi', one of the ephemeral sultans installed by the 'Abid installed in May 1738. When Al-Mustadi' was in turn deposed in January 1740 to accommodate Abdallah's return to power, Ar-Rifi opposed the latter and invaded Fez in 1741. Abdallah's alliance of factions was able to finally defeat and kill him in 1743, and soon after the sultan's authority was re-established along the coastal cities of Morocco.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Restoration of authority under Muhammad ibn Abdallah
Order and control was only firmly re-established under Abdallah's son, Moulay Muhammad ibn Abdallah (Muhammad III), who became sultan in 1757 after spending time as viceroy in Marrakesh. Many of the 'Abid had by then deserted their contingents and joined the common population of the country, and Muhammad was able to reorganize those who remained into his own elite military corps. The Oudaya, who had supported his father but had been a burden on the population of Fez where they lived, became the main challenge to the new sultan's power.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Restoration of authority under Muhammad ibn Abdallah
In 1760 he was forced to march with an army to Fez where he arrested their leaders and destroyed their contingents, killing many of their soldiers. In the aftermath the sultan created a new, much smaller, Oudaya regiment which was given new commanders and garrisoned in Meknes instead. Later, in 1775, he tried to distance the 'Abid from power by ordering their transfer from Meknes to Tangier in the north. The 'Abid resisted him and attempted to proclaim his son Yazid (the later Moulay Yazid) as sultan, but the latter soon changed his mind and was reconciled with his father.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Restoration of authority under Muhammad ibn Abdallah
After this, Muhammad dispersed the 'Abid contingents to garrisons in Tangier, Larache, Rabat, Marrakesh and the Sous, where they continued to cause trouble until 1782. These disturbances were compounded by drought and severe famine between 1776 and 1782 and an outbreak of plague in 1779-1780, which killed many Moroccans and forced the sultan to import wheat, reduce taxes, and distribute food and funds to locals and tribal leaders in order to alleviate the suffering. By now, however, the improved authority of the sultan allowed the central government to weather these difficulties and crises.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Restoration of authority under Muhammad ibn Abdallah
Muhammad ibn Abdallah maintained the peace in part through a relatively more decentralized regime and lighter taxes, relying instead on greater trade with Europe to make up the revenues. In line with this policy, in 1764 he founded Essaouira, a new port city through which he funnelled European trade with Marrakesh. The last Portuguese outpost on the Moroccan coast, Mazagan (al-Jadida today), was taken by Morocco in 1729, leaving only the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla as the remaining European outposts in Morocco.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Restoration of authority under Muhammad ibn Abdallah
Muhammad also signed a Treaty of Friendship with the United States in 1787 after becoming the first head of state to recognize the new country. He was interested in scholarly pursuits and also cultivated a productive relationship with the ulama, or Muslim religious scholars, who supported some of his initiatives and reforms.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Restoration of authority under Muhammad ibn Abdallah
Muhammad's opening of Morocco to international trade was not welcomed by some, however. After his death in 1790, his son and successor Moulay Yazid ruled with more xenophobia and violence, punished Jewish communities, and launched an ill-fated attack against Spanish-held Ceuta in 1792 in which he was mortally wounded. After his death, he was succeeded by his brother Suleyman (or Moulay Slimane), though the latter had to defeat two more brothers who contested the throne: Maslama in the north and Hisham in Marrakesh to the south. Suleyman brought trade with Europe nearly to a halt.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Restoration of authority under Muhammad ibn Abdallah
Although less violent and bigoted than Yazid, was still portrayed by European sources as xenophobic. Some of this lack of engagement with Europe was likely a consequence of the Napoleonic Wars, during which England blockaded parts of Europe and both France and Spain threatened Morocco into not taking any side. After 1811 Suleyman also pushed a fundamentalist Wahhabist ideology at home and attempted to suppress local Sufi orders and brotherhoods, in spite of their popularity and despite his own membership in the Tijaniyya order.


'Alawi dynasty, History, European influence and confrontation in the 19th century
Suleyman's successor, Abd al-Rahman (or Abderrahmane; ruled 1822–1859), tried to reinforce national unity by recruiting local elites of the country and orchestrating military campaigns designed to bolster his image as a defender of Islam against encroaching European powers. The French conquest of Algeria in 1830, however, destabilized the region and put the sultan in a very difficult position. Wide popular support for the Algerians against the French led Morocco to allow the flow of aid and arms to the resistance movement led by Emir Abd al-Qadir, while the Moroccan ulama delivered a fatwa for a supporting jihad in 1837.


'Alawi dynasty, History, European influence and confrontation in the 19th century
On the other hand, Abd al-Rahman was reluctant to provide the French with a clear reason to attack Morocco if he ever intervened. He managed to maintain the appearance of neutrality until 1844, when he was compelled to provide refuge to Abd al-Qadir in Morocco. The French, led by the marshall Bugeaud, pursued him and thoroughly routed the Moroccan army at the Battle of Isly, near Oujda, on August 14. At the same time, the French navy bombarded Tangiers on August 6 and bombarded Mogador (Essaouira) on August 16.


'Alawi dynasty, History, European influence and confrontation in the 19th century
In the aftermath, Morocco signed the Convention of Lalla Maghnia on March 18, 1845. The treaty made the superior power of France clear and forced the sultan to recognize French authority over Algeria. Abd al-Qadir turned rebel against the sultan and took refuge in the Rif region until his surrender to the French in 1848.


'Alawi dynasty, History, European influence and confrontation in the 19th century
The next confrontation, the Hispano-Moroccan War, took place from 1859 to 1860 , and the subsequent Treaty of Wad Ras led the Moroccan government to take a massive British loan larger than its national reserves to pay off its war debt to Spain.


'Alawi dynasty, History, European influence and confrontation in the 19th century
In the latter part of the 19th century Morocco's instability resulted in European countries intervening to protect investments and to demand economic concessions. Sultan Hassan I called for the Madrid Conference of 1880 in response to France and Spain's abuse of the protégé system, but the result was an increased European presence in Morocco—in the form of advisors, doctors, businessmen, adventurers, and even missionaries.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Crisis and installation of French and Spanish Protectorates
After Sultan Abdelaziz appointed his brother Abdelhafid as viceroy of Marrakesh, the latter sought to have him overthrown by fomenting distrust over Abdelaziz's European ties. Abdelhafid was aided by Madani al-Glaoui, older brother of T'hami, one of the Caids of the Atlas. He was assisted in the training of his troops by Andrew Belton (Kaid), a British officer and veteran of the Second Boer War. For a brief period, Abdelaziz reigned from Rabat while Abdelhafid reigned in Marrakesh and Fes and a conflict known as the Hafidiya (1907-1908) ensued. In 1908 Abdelaziz was defeated in battle. In 1909, Abdelhafid became the recognized leader of Morocco.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Crisis and installation of French and Spanish Protectorates
In 1911, rebellion broke out against the sultan. This led to the Agadir Crisis, also known as the Second Moroccan Crisis. These events led Abdelhafid to abdicate after signing the Treaty of Fes on 30 March 1912, which made Morocco a French protectorate. He signed his abdication only when on the quay in Rabat, with the ship that would take him to France already waiting. When news of the treaty finally leaked to the Moroccan populace, it was met with immediate and violent backlash in the Intifada of Fes. His brother Youssef was proclaimed Sultan by the French administration several months later (13 August 1912). At the same time a large part of northern Morocco was placed under Spanish control.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
Under colonial rule the institution of the sultan was formally preserved as part of a French policy of indirect rule, or at least the appearance of indirect rule. Under the French Protectorate, the 'Alawi sultans still had some prerogatives such as the power to sign or veto dahirs (decrees). In the Spanish zone, a khalifa (caliph, meaning "deputy") was appointed who acted as a representative of the sultan. In practice, however, the sultan was a puppet of the new regime and many parts of the population saw the dynasty as collaborators with the French. The French colonial administration was headed by the French resident-general, the first of whom was Hubert Lyautey, who enacted many of the policies that set the tone for France's colonial regime in Morocco.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
Moulay Youssef died unexpectedly in 1927 and his youngest son, Muhammad (Mohammed ben Youssef or Mohammed V), was acclaimed as the new sultan, at the age of 18. By the guidance of the French regime, he had spent most of his life growing up in relative isolation inside the royal palace in Meknes and Rabat. These restrictions on his interactions with the outside world continued in large part even after he ascended to the throne.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
However, over the course of his reign he became increasingly associated with the Moroccan nationalist movement, eventually becoming a strong symbol in the cause for independence. The nationalists, for their part, and in contrast with other anti-colonial movements like the Salafis, saw the sultan as a potentially useful tool in the struggle against French rule.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
Some of Mohammed V's initial interactions with nationalists came during the crisis caused by the so-called "Berber Dahir". Among other things at this time , the sultan received a delegation from Fez which presented a list of grievances about the new French policy, and had discussions with Allal al-Fassi where he apparently expressed that he had been misled by the French residency when signing it and vowed to cede no further rights of his country.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
The sultan refrained from openly associating with the nationalist movement in the 1930s, but nonetheless resisted French attempts to shift the terms of the Protectorate during the interwar years. He reaffirmed Morocco's loyalty to France in 1939, at the beginning of the World War II. After the fall of France to the Germans and the advent of the Vichy regime, however, the sultan increasingly charted his own course, successfully pushing some reform initiatives related to education, even as the Vichy regime encouraged him to make several well-publicized trips abroad to bolster his legitimacy and that of the colonial system.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
In 1942 the Allies landed on the Moroccan Atlantic coast as part of their invasion of North Africa against Axis occupation. This momentous change also allowed the sultan more political manoeuvring room, and during the Anfa Conference in 1943, which Allied leaders attended, Mohammed V was left alone at one time with President Roosevelt, who expressed support for Moroccan independence after the war. The encounter was the sultan's first face-to-face interaction with another head of state without the mediating presence of the French officials. In the fall of the same year, the sultan encouraged the formation of the official Istiqlal ("Independence") Party and the drafting of the Manifesto of Independence that called for a constitutional monarchy with democratic institutions.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
These moves were strongly opposed by the French, but the sultan continued to steadily defy them. Another watershed event was the Tangier Speech of 1947, delivered in the Mendoubia Gardens of Tangier during the first visit of a Moroccan sultan to the city since Moulay Hassan I in 1889. The speech made a number of significant points including support for Arab nationalism, a generally anti-colonial ideology, and an expression of gratitude for American support of Moroccan aspirations while omitting the usual statements of support for the French Protectorate.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
In the following years the tensions increased, with French officials slowly acknowledging the need for Moroccan independence but stressing for slower reforms rather than rapid sovereignty. The French enlisted many powerful collaborators such Thami el-Glaoui to organize a campaign of public opposition to the sultan and demands for his abdication – also known as the "Qa'id Affair" – in the spring of 1953. The political confrontation came to a head in August of that year.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
On August 13 the royal palace in Rabat was surrounded and closed off by Protectorate military forces and police, and on August 16 Thami and allied Moroccan leaders formally declared Mohammed Ben 'Arafa, a little-known member of the 'Alawi family, as sultan. On August 20 the French resident-general, Auguste Guillaume, presented demands to the sultan for his abdication and his agreement to go into exile. The sultan refused to abdicate, and that afternoon he and his sons were escorted at gunpoint from the palace and onto a plane. He and his family were eventually exiled to Madagascar.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
The exile of the sultan did not alleviate French difficulties in Morocco, and an insurgency broke out which targeted both the regime and its collaborators with boycott campaigns as well as acts of violence. Several assassination attempts were made against the new puppet sultan, Mohammed Ben 'Arafa, and one of the boycott campaigns was aimed at the country's mosques due to prayers being said in the new sultan's name. Eventually, with the decolonialization process under way in Tunisia and the independence war in Algeria, the French agreed to negotiate Morocco's independence at a conference on August 23, 1955.


'Alawi dynasty, History, Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
By October 1 Mohammed Ben 'Arafa had abdicated and later that month even Thami el-Glaoui supported Mohammed V's return. The sultan returned landed at Rabat-Salé Airport at 11:42 am on November 16, greeted by cheering crowds. The French-Moroccan Declaration of Independence was formally signed on March 2, 1956, and Tangier was reintegrated to Morocco later that year. In 1957 Mohammed V adopted the official title of "King", which has since been used by his successors, Hassan II and Mohammed VI.


'Ali Akbar Khata'i
ʿAli Akbar Khata'i (modern Turkish: Ali Ekber Hıtai; fl. ca. 1500–1516) was an early 16th-century Persian traveler and writer. Although there is no certainty about his origin, we know that by 1515 he came to (or returned to) Istanbul, where he published Ḵaṭāy-nāma , which is considered one of the most complete travel notes about the Ming China . His work, originally written in Persian, was later translated into Turkish, and became influential in the Turkish- and Persian-speaking Muslim world.


'Ali Akbar Khata'i
As with other Middle Eastern personages, there are a great number of ways to transcribe 'Ali Akbar's name. For example, Encyclopedia Iranica uses the spelling ʿAlī Akbar Ḵeṭāʾī.


'Ali Akbar Khata'i, Life
Nothing much is known for sure about 'Ali Akbar's origin and early life. While he created his book in Istanbul, he may have been born elsewhere in the Islamic World - perhaps, as Aly Mazahéri suggested, based on textual references, even as far as in Transoxania (Bukhara).


'Ali Akbar Khata'i, Life
Some researchers think that ʿAlī Akbar's name may indicate his Shi'ite origin. However, his text praises the Four Righteous Caliphs (venerated by the Sunnis), so even if born and raised a Shi'ite, he must have changed his religious affiliation due to the changing political situation.


'Ali Akbar Khata'i, Life
ʿAlī Akbar is thought to have been a merchant by some authors. He refers to himself as a qalandar (dervish) a few times in his book; however, this may be just a figurative expression, emphasizing his humbleness, rather than a literal description of a membership in a dervish order.


'Ali Akbar Khata'i, Life
The epithet "Khata'i" in ʿAli Akbar's name means "of China", presumably referring to him having traveled to and lived in China. While it is usually thought that at least some of the material in Khataynameh is based on the author's first hand experiences in China, at least one scholar of Khataynameh - Lin Yih-Min, who translated the book into modern Turkish - believes that ʿAlī Akbar (much like Juan González de Mendoza and perhaps Marco Polo) did not actually travel to China, and his work is thus completely based on others' reports.


'Ali Akbar Khata'i, The Khataynameh
ʿAlī Akbar's Khataynameh ("The Book of China"), written in Persian, was completed in 1516 in Istanbul, and issued in 1520.


'Ali Akbar Khata'i, The Khataynameh
ʿAlī Akbar's work, also known as Kanun-name,  was translated into Ottoman Turkish in 1582. His work was used by later Turkish authors; in particular, it was one of the main sources of information on China used by Katip Çelebi in his Jihān-numā, along with an earlier work by a Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh.