/ (Person of Interest), Reception, Viewers
With Live +7 DVR factored in, the episode was watched by 15.30 million viewers with a 2.8 in the 18-49 demographics.


/ (Person of Interest), Reception, Critical reviews
"/" received critical acclaim from critics. Matt Fowler of IGN gave the episode an "amazing" 9 out of 10 rating and wrote in his verdict, "'/' was an amazing entry, simultaneously humanizing Root while making her into a bit of a patchwork cyborg. From here too, we get a clear glimpse of what the Season 3 endgame will be - with Root even likening Samaritan and The Machine co-existing as being a "war between two Gods." And maybe that's exactly what it is. Modern-era titans going to battle. Our mythology."


/ (Person of Interest), Reception, Critical reviews
Phil Dyess-Nugent of The A.V. Club gave the episode an "A" grade and wrote, "More and more, it's become a show about working toward redemption, which a lot of shows pretend to be just so they'll have an excuse to include lots of scenes in which their unkillable protagonist kicks a lot of ass. It's a measure of how seriously the show takes its theme that every time it adds another hero, the character seems a less likely bet for redemption than any of the previous add-ons."


/ (Person of Interest), Reception, Critical reviews
Sean McKenna of TV Fanatic gave the episode a 4.8 star rating out of 5 and wrote "'/' was an exciting hour that continued to push the boundaries of the show. There's never a dull moment as the mystery unravels, the characters entertain and the last seconds have you eager for more. Who's ready for next week?"


//Khara Hais Local Municipality
//Khara Hais Local Municipality was a local municipality in the Northern Cape province of South Africa. It fell within the ZF Mgcawu District Municipality and governs the town of Upington and surrounding rural areas. As of 2011 it the municipality has a population of approximately 93,500 people, and covers an area of 21,780 square kilometres (8,410 sq mi). The unusual spelling of the name comes from the original transcription of the Khwe language name, where the click consonant became "//".


//Khara Hais Local Municipality
After municipal elections on 3 August 2016 it was merged with the Mier Local Municipality to form the Dawid Kruiper Local Municipality.


//Khara Hais Local Municipality, Geography
The municipality area covered 21,780 square kilometres (8,410 sq mi) and stretches from the Orange River valley northwards to the international border with Botswana. Irrigation from the Orange River has produced a narrow band of irrigated land along the valley, while the rest of the municipality is desert, being the southernmost extent of the Kalahari. The Molopo and Kuruman Rivers flow intermittently through this desert area.


//Khara Hais Local Municipality, Geography
According to the 2011 census the municipality has a population of 93,494 people in 23,245 households. 65.2% of these people describe themselves as "Coloured", 23.1% as "Black African", and 9.9% as "White". 86.5% of the population speaks Afrikaans as their first language, 5.1% speak Xhosa, 3.6% speak Tswana and 1.9% speak English.


//Khara Hais Local Municipality, Geography
Most of the residents of the municipality live in the town of Upington, which has a population of 74,834. There are several smaller agricultural villages in the Orange River valley; they include (from east to west) Lamprechtsdrif (pop. 817), Karos (pop. 1,249), Leerkrans (pop. 1,383), Straussburg (pop. 1,157), Swartkop (pop. 1,652), Louisvale (pop. 4,435) and Klippunt (pop. 3,473).


//Khara Hais Local Municipality, Politics
The municipal council consisted of twenty-seven members elected by mixed-member proportional representation. Fourteen councillors were elected by first-past-the-post voting in fourteen wards, while the remaining thirteen were chosen from party lists so that the total number of party representatives was proportional to the number of votes received. In the election of 18 May 2011 the African National Congress (ANC) won a majority of sixteen seats on the council. The following table shows the results of the election.


//Khara Hais Local Municipality, Wine Industry
Most of Upington's wines are produced by Orange River Wine Cellars (OWC). The company has six depots in the area (all of them on the banks of the Orange River) at Upington, Kanoneiland, Grootdrink, Kakamas, Keimoes and Groblershoop. The wines from OWC are exported, inter alia, to Europe and the USA. A number of privately owned cellars also exist in the area. The //Khara Hais region accounts for more or less 40% of South Africa's grape exports.


/Drive
/Drive is an automotive network and popular YouTube channel with web video series dedicated to car reviews, driving adventures, motorsports coverage, and detailed looks at the manufacturing of high-end cars. Launched on January 2, 2012, /DRIVE was the first new series to air as part of Google's original content initiative. Presenters have included Michael Spinelli of Jalopnik.com, Gumball 3000 veteran Alex Roy and Chris Harris formerly of Autocar and EVO Magazine.


/Drive, riFormat
/Drive works on a quarterly schedule. Between January and March as well as July and September of every year, two shows air each week: Live and Let Drive and Tuned. Between April and June, October to December, three shows air each week: Driven, Big Muscle, and RideApart. Running every week of the year are Chris Harris on Cars, Shakedown, and After/Drive.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order)
The shows on /Drive are completely original, with the exceptions of Shakedown and Road Testament, which were moved from Fast Lane Daily.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), After/Drive
After/Drive airs every Thursday. Formerly known as "Road Testament", After/Drive is an in-studio discussion hosted by Mike Spinelli touching on automotive news, the direction the automotive industry is going, and various other automotive-themed topics, as well as interviews with key players in the industry (or opinionated enthusiasts). The discussions often revolve around a question or topic posed by the crew in advance of filming. Occasionally topics and comments are sourced from Twitter, or the website Jalopnik.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), Best Of /Drive
Best Of /Drive is the collection of videos ranging from promos, trailers, milestones reached & special features.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Big Muscle
/Big Muscle with Mike Musto, launched their 4th Season in February 2014. Mike tries to find cars with story, history, and interesting owners. The owners of the cars tend to be individual hobbyists, rather than professional shops or mechanics.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Big Muscle
Though the name of the car implies its focus is Muscle Cars, it spreads far beyond that category, into hot rods, cruisers, customs, farm trucks, and strange one-offs.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Big Muscle
The show doesn't only feature performance cars (as the others tend to), but rather spans the gamut, from dragsters to trucks to slow "cruises". A key example being the 1959 Pontiac Bonneville. The vehicles range in year from 1922 to the 1980s.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Chris Harris On Cars
/Chris Harris On Cars is a test-drive show, hosted by renowned and respected automotive journalist, Chris Harris. He is well-known, having written for magazines like Autocar UK and EVO, and finishing 13th in the 2010 24 Hours of Nürburgring, as part of a team driving a stock Porsche 911 GT3 RS.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Chris Harris On Cars
/Chris Harris On Cars airs year-round on Wednesdays. Episodes range from track days to road tests, reviews to comparisons, and sometimes a mix of everything.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Drive Central
/Drive Central airs weekly to provide a preview of the week's programming. It is (usually) hosted by Mike Spinelli.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Drive Clean
/Drive Clean hosted by Larry Kosilla, premiered on June 9, 2012. Larry is one of the most respected automotive detailers in the entire world, called upon celebrity clientele to care for the most important and delicate cars in their collection, and working for top OEMs like Bugatti. He is known for his technical knowledge and meticulous attention to detail that only comes from a deep love of cars. Other detailers might see it as a job, but Larry does it because he wants the cars to be at their very best, and he knows how to do that.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Drive Clean
Each episode of /Drive Clean is a how-to video that shows viewers techniques they can apply themselves. Some of the techniques are simple (how to properly wash a car), and others are much more technical (how to restore the paint on an extremely rare Porsche. High cinematic quality matches the level of Larry's skills, separating it from Saturday morning DIY shows.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Drive Host Competition
/Drive Host Competition was a competition held between four of the /Drive hosts (Alex Roy, Chris Harris, Leo Parente & Matt Farah) to see who could get the most views on their video in a one-week span.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Drive Moments
/Drive Moments are moments in front of and behind the camera that define /Drive.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Drive Uncut
/Drive UNCUT are uncut interview brought to you by /Drive.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Drive's 25 Hours of the 24 Hours of Le Mans Livestream
/Drive's 25 Hours of the 24 Hours of Le Mans Livestream covered the 2012 & 2013 races, featuring the /Drive hosts discussing the race and interacting with viewers. The livestream is widely regarded as the most watched motorsports event on YouTube.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Driven
/Driven is hosted by JF Musial and is "interesting people and stories within the automotive industry." It debuted in Season 2, took a hiatus in Season 3, and returned in Season 4. In the April 24th, 2012 episode of /DRIVEN, the first images of the Pagani 760RS were revealed while the DRIVE team filmed an episode at the Pagani headquarters.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Driver's Eye
/Driver's Eye are videos from a racecar driver's perspective using a helmet mounted camera.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Inside Koenigsegg
In October 2013, Executive Producer J.F. Musial claimed the debut of the next season of /Inside Koenigsegg is set for early 2014.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Inside Quattro
/Inside Quattro follows the format of /Inside Bentley and /Inside Koenigsegg, bringing viewers the inside story of Audi's  high-performance subsidiary, Quattro GmbH.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Inside Quattro
Quattro GmbH has produced cars like the Audi RS2, RS4, RS5, RS6, and Audi R8.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Live And Let Drive
/Live And Let Drive hosted by Alex Roy, debuted in Season 1 and returned for Season 3.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Live And Let Drive
Alex Roy's departure from /Drive leaves the fate of /Live And Let Drive uncertain.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Momo Slowmo
/Momo Slowmo is sponsored content by Momo (company) but provides the viewers with a quick video of all slowmo video from select races.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /My Life as a Rallyist
/My Life as a Rallyist is hosted by Ryan Symancek (a former intern of /Drive who created and filmed the show), it follows his life as he pursues the life of a rally cross driver, while also juggling a college education.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /My Life as a Rallyist
In season 1, Ryan begins building his car, and then travels to New Zealand for a semester abroad, where he finds himself in rally heaven, and behind the wheel of some very special cars.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), Porsche IMSA GT3 Cup Challenge by Yokohama
Porsche IMSA GT3 Cup Challenge by Yokohama is coverage of this race series by /Drive for 2012 & 2013. /Drive will not cover the 2014 season.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), Race of Champions 2012
Race of Champions 2012 coverage by /Drive, after acquired the North American broadcast and digital rights to the Race of Champions and Race of Nations for 2012. Leo Parente and Tommy Kendall hosted the 2012 broadcast from Bangkok Thailand.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /RideApart
/RideApart is hosted by former MotoGP racer Jamie Robinson, debuted in Season 2. It explores the entire world of motorcycles: street bikes, customs, dirt bikes, old bikes, new bikes, as well as riding tips and techniques. /RideApart is the one /Drive show that is primarily dedicated to vehicles on 2 wheels--motorcycles, the occasional quad bike, and adventure vehicles like ATVs.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Ring Tested
/Ring Tested are videos of cars being driven on the Nürburgring in Germany.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Shakedown
/Shakedown is hosted by Leo Parente, airs Fridays. /Shakedown is all race-oriented, covering anything motorsport-related. Cars, drivers, tracks, rules, and news; /Shakedown covers it all.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), SPONSORED CONTENT
SPONSORED CONTENT are videos that support the people who support /Drive.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Trackside
/Trackside is a show made up completely of raw footage filmed at various races around the world. There is no host or dialogue. The only sound in the videos is from cars themselves. Each video is designed to bring the track side/race experience to the viewer, giving the viewer a sense of being there.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Tuned
/Tuned is hosted by Matt Farah, debuted in Season 1. /Tuned focuses on vehicles that are highly modified, or one-off creations, and the people that create them. An episode usually includes a tour of the vehicle's production facility, interviews with the engineers and owners, and a test/review of the vehicle on a road or race track.


/Drive, /Drive shows (in alphabetical order), /Tuned
Vehicles have been provided by both tuning shops and individual owners. In Season 1 Matt Farah drove cars from reputable tuners like BBI AutoSport (Porsche 997 Turbo S), SWITZER (Nissan GTR), STILLEN (Nissan 370Z), Hotchkis Suspension (Dodge Challenger). Other vehicles included a home-built 750 horsepower Lotus, the Blastolene "Decoliner", and Subaru rally cars.


/Drive, Television, /Drive on NBCSN
/DRIVE on NBCSN is the network's first venture into traditional television. Debuting on May 24, 2014, it immediately followed the Formula 1 Monaco Grand Prix qualifying session coverage on NBC Sports Network. Nine additional episodes of season one on NBCSN aired weekly on Thursday nights starting July 31, 2014. The second season of six episodes aired alongside NBCSN’s coverage of Formula One, IndyCar and NASCAR racing events and premiered Friday, April 17, 2015. The series concluded its third season with a one-hour special on November 12, 2016.


/Drive, Television, Off the Grid (Production)
The press release from /Drive states, "The partnership will also produce a new NBC Sports F1 original series "Off the Grid" hosted by NBC Sports F1 pit reporter Will Buxton and his producer Jason Swales. In each of the three half-hour episodes, the hosts give us a behind the scenes look inside the exclusive world of Formula One. From the paddock to the parties, experience F1 and the beautiful cities it visits like a true F1 insider."


/Drive, Reception
/Drive is one of the most popular automotive channels on YouTube, receiving over 319,000,000 views. It has developed a loyal audience with over 1,630,000 subscribers as of April 18, 2016. After a joint venture with NBCSN, there has been little new content posted  and their paid channel, /Drive+, seems to have been abandoned with no new content added since December 2015. Members of the /Drive management team have not publicly commented on whether or not the paid service will continue or what they have done with the funds accumulated in the interim. Members still subscribed are still being charged the monthly fee.


/Film
/Film, also stylized as Slashfilm, is a blog that covers movie news, reviews, interviews, and trailers. It was founded by Peter Sciretta in August 2005.


/Film, Podcasts
Six podcasts have run on the site. The /Filmcast, hosted by David Chen, Devindra Hardawar, and Jeff Cannata airs weekly and focuses on a discussion of a recently released film, along with current film news and other related entertainment topics (Adam Quigley co-hosted the show with Chen and Hardawar from 2008 to 2013). In July 2021, the show became independent from the site and was rebranded The Filmcast. The Tobolowsky Files, hosted by Chen, features character actor Stephen Tobolowsky talking about his career, life and other topics.


/Film, Podcasts
The JustifiedCast, also hosted by Chen, followed season 3 of the TV series Justified. A Cast of Kings is a podcast hosted by Chen and Joanna Robinson of Vanityfair.com in which they discuss and analyze each episode of Game of Thrones. The Ones Who Knock is Chen and Robinson's other podcast, where they dissect each episode of Breaking Bad. /Film Daily is hosted by Peter Sciretta and a rotating cast of /Film writers, where they discuss the days movie news.


/b/
/b/ (also called random) is one of the boards of 4chan. /b/ was the first board created at the establishment of the platform in 2003, and it then stood for "anime/random". While /b/ permits discussion and posting of any sort of content, the community etiquette is to self-limit discussion on /b/ of those topics which are specialities or the focus of other boards on 4chan.


/b/
Many journalists & news personnel have strong feelings towards the board, including a writer for The Washington Post who described /b/ as "an unfathomable grab-bag of the random, the gross and the downright bizarre".


/b/, Analysis
A 2011 MIT analysis examined two weeks of posts to /b/ in summer 2010. During this time, users made 5.5 million posts on /b/ in 480,000 threads. The median life of a discussion thread was four minutes; the longest in that period was six hours. The analysis found that the community mostly posts playful images and links. The same analysis found that at least 90% of the posts are anonymous, even though posters adopt and discard various claims of identity at will.


/b/, Analysis
A 2013 article noted that 4chan is a top-ranking website by popularity especially in the United States but also globally. Within 4chan, /b/ is by far the most popular and active board.


/b/, Analysis
Mainstream media has regularly reported /b/ as both requiring explanation and defying it.


/b/, Character
/b/ and /pol/ are the most notorious boards on 4chan.


/b/, Character
One of /b/'s defining features is its lack of posting rules. In general, anything that does not go against US law will not be removed. /b/ is consequently one of the only boards on 4chan where users can post grotesque and objectionable material such as gore and hate speech.


/b/, Character
/b/ is among the boards on 4chan which has a NSFW designation. Consequently, users may post NSFW content on /b/ when the 4chan moderators may restrict such postings on boards without that designation.


/b/, Character
The community at /b/ sustains various customs. Users may promise to post photos of acts of self-degradation in an attempt to barter. A 2013 research paper reported that misogyny sustains the culture at /b/.


/b/, Character
Users claim to have insider information on news events. Users ask for advice, often on romance and relationships. Users post various images containing puzzles.


/b/, Events
In October 2006, a /b/ user was arrested for threatening to bomb multiple NFL stadiums. He was sentenced to six months in prison and further six months in house arrest.


/b/, Events
In January 2012 when the United States Department of Justice took down Megaupload, Anonymous retaliated by hacking various websites including that of the Department of Justice and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. During the attacks /b/ hosted live narration of the event with early information about how to watch various websites go down.


/b/, Events
4chan hosts various live discussion events related to crimes and persuading people to mistakenly and foolishly destroy their iPhones.


/b/, Development
In the year 2009, /b/ accounted for 30% of traffic on 4chan, which had 44 image boards at the time.


/b/, Development
In response to community demand to expel "social posts" on /b/, in 2011 Moot established /soc/, the social board of 4chan.


/boot/
In Linux, and other Unix-like operating systems, the /boot/ directory holds files used in booting the operating system. The usage is standardized in the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard.


/boot/, Contents
The contents are mostly Linux kernel files or boot loader files, depending on the boot loader, most commonly (on Linux) LILO or GRUB.


/boot/, Contents, LILO
LILO may also use other files, such as message and also stores a non-boot configuration file in /etc/lilo.conf.


/boot/, Contents, GRUB
GRUB stores its files in the subdirectory grub/ (i.e. /boot/grub/). These files are mostly modules (.mod), with configuration stored in grub.cfg.


/boot/, Location
/boot/ is often simply a directory on the main (or only) hard drive partition. However, it may be a separate partition. A separate partition is generally only used when bootloaders are incapable of reading the main filesystem (e.g. SILO does not recognize XFS) or other problems not easily resolvable by users.


/dev/full
In Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD /dev/full or the always full device is a special file that always returns the error code ENOSPC (meaning "No space left on device") on writing, and provides an infinite number of zero bytes to any process that reads from it (similar to /dev/zero). This device is usually used when testing the behaviour of a program when it encounters a "disk full" error.


/dev/full, History
Support for the always-full device in Linux is documented as early as 2007. Native support was added to FreeBSD in the 11.0 release in 2016, which had previously supported it through an optional module called lindev. The full device appeared in NetBSD 8.


/dev/random
In Unix-like operating systems, /dev/random, /dev/urandom and /dev/arandom are special files that serve as pseudorandom number generators. They allow access to environmental noise collected from device drivers and other sources. /dev/random typically blocked if there was less entropy available than requested; more recently (see below, different OS's differ) it usually blocks at startup until sufficient entropy has been gathered, then unblocks permanently. The /dev/urandom device typically was never a blocking device, even if the pseudorandom number generator seed was not fully initialized with entropy since boot. /dev/arandom blocks after boot until the seed has been securely initialized with enough entropy, and then never blocks again. Not all operating systems implement the same methods for /dev/random and /dev/urandom and only a few provide /dev/arandom.


/dev/random, Example
This shell script is a random printable character generator, slightly biased:


/dev/random, Linux
Random number generation in kernel space was implemented for the first time for Linux in 1994 by Theodore Ts'o. The implementation used secure hashes rather than ciphers, to avoid cryptography export restrictions that were in place when the generator was originally designed. The implementation was also designed with the assumption that any given hash or cipher might eventually be found to be weak, and so the design is durable in the face of any such weaknesses. Fast recovery from pool compromise is not considered a requirement, because the requirements for pool compromise are sufficient for much easier and more direct attacks on unrelated parts of the operating system.


/dev/random, Linux
In Ts'o's implementation, the generator keeps an estimate of the number of bits of noise in the entropy pool. From this entropy pool random numbers are created. When read, the /dev/random device will only return random bytes within the estimated number of bits of noise in the entropy pool. When the entropy pool is empty, reads from /dev/random will block until additional environmental noise is gathered. The intent is to serve as a cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator, delivering output with entropy as large as possible. This is suggested by the authors for use in generating cryptographic keys for high-value or long-term protection.


/dev/random, Linux
A counterpart to /dev/random is /dev/urandom ("unlimited"/non-blocking random source) which reuses the internal pool to produce more pseudo-random bits. This means that the call will not block, but the output may contain less entropy than the corresponding read from /dev/random. While /dev/urandom is still intended as a pseudorandom number generator suitable for most cryptographic purposes, the authors of the corresponding man page note that, theoretically, there may exist an as-yet-unpublished attack on the algorithm used by /dev/urandom, and that users concerned about such an attack should use /dev/random instead. However such an attack is unlikely to come into existence, because once the entropy pool is unpredictable it doesn't leak security by a reduced number of bits.


/dev/random, Linux
It is also possible to write to /dev/random. This allows any user to mix random data into the pool. Non -random data is harmless, because only a privileged user can issue the ioctl needed to increase the entropy estimate. The current amount of entropy and the size of the Linux kernel entropy pool, both measured in bits, are available in /proc/sys/kernel/random/ and can be displayed by the command cat /proc/sys/kernel/random/entropy_avail and cat /proc/sys/kernel/random/poolsize respectively.


/dev/random, Linux
Gutterman, Pinkas, & Reinman in March 2006 published a detailed cryptographic analysis of the Linux random number generator in which they describe several weaknesses. Perhaps the most severe issue they report is with embedded or Live CD systems, such as routers and diskless clients, for which the bootup state is predictable and the available supply of entropy from the environment may be limited. For a system with non-volatile memory, they recommend saving some state from the RNG at shutdown so that it can be included in the RNG state on the next reboot.


/dev/random, Linux
In the case of a router for which network traffic represents the primary available source of entropy, they note that saving state across reboots "would require potential attackers to either eavesdrop on all network traffic" from when the router is first put into service, or obtain direct access to the router's internal state. This issue, they note, is particularly critical in the case of a wireless router whose network traffic can be captured from a distance, and which may be using the RNG to generate keys for data encryption.


/dev/random, Linux
The Linux kernel provides support for several hardware random number generators, should they be installed. The raw output of such a device may be obtained from /dev/hwrng.


/dev/random, Linux
With Linux kernel 3.16 and newer, the kernel itself mixes data from hardware random number generators into /dev/random on a sliding scale based on the definable entropy estimation quality of the HWRNG. This means that no userspace daemon, such as rngd from rng-tools, is needed to do that job. With Linux kernel 3.17+, the VirtIO RNG was modified to have a default quality defined above 0, and as such, is currently the only HWRNG mixed into /dev/random by default.


/dev/random, Linux
The entropy pool can be improved by programs like timer_entropyd, haveged, randomsound etc. With rng-tools, hardware random number generators like Entropy Key, etc. can write to /dev/random. The diehard tests programs dieharder, diehard and ent can test these random number generators.


/dev/random, Linux
In January 2014, Daniel J. Bernstein published a critique of how Linux mixes different sources of entropy. He outlines an attack in which one source of entropy capable of monitoring the other sources of entropy could modify its output to nullify the randomness of the other sources of entropy. Consider the function H(x,y,z){\displaystyle H(x,y,z)} where H is a hash function and x, y, and z are sources of entropy with z being the output of a CPU based malicious HRNG Z:


/dev/random, Linux
Bernstein estimated that an attacker would need to repeat H(x,y,r){\displaystyle H(x,y,r)} 16 times to compromise DSA and ECDSA. This is possible because Linux reseeds H on an ongoing basis instead of using a single high quality seed.


/dev/random, Linux
In October 2016, with the release of Linux kernel version 4.8, the kernel's /dev/urandom was switched over to a ChaCha20-based cryptographic pseudorandom number generator (CPRNG) implementation by Theodore Ts'o, based on Bernstein's well-regarded stream cipher ChaCha20.


/dev/random, Linux
In 2020, the Linux kernel version 5.6 /dev/random only blocks when the CPRNG hasn't initialized. Once initialized, /dev/random and /dev/urandom behave the same.


/dev/random, FreeBSD
The FreeBSD operating system provides a /dev/urandom link to /dev/random. Both block only until properly seeded. FreeBSD's PRNG (Fortuna) reseeds regularly, and does not attempt to estimate entropy. On a system with small amount of network and disk activity, reseeding is done after a fraction of a second.


/dev/random, OpenBSD
Since OpenBSD 5.1 (May 1, 2012) /dev/random and /dev/arandom use an algorithm based on RC4 but renamed, because of intellectual property reasons, ARC4. While random number generation here uses system entropy gathered in several ways, the ARC4 algorithm provides a fail-safe, ensuring that a rapid and high quality pseudo-random number stream is provided even when the pool is in a low entropy state. The system automatically uses hardware random number generators (such as those provided on some Intel PCI hubs) if they are available, through the OpenBSD Cryptographic Framework.


/dev/random, OpenBSD
As of OpenBSD 5.5 (May 1, 2014), the arc4random() call used for OpenBSD's random devices no longer uses ARC4, but ChaCha20 (arc4random name might be reconsidered as A Replacement Call for Random). NetBSD's implementation of the legacy arc4random() API has also been switched over to ChaCha20 as well.


/dev/random, macOS, iOS and other Apple OSes
All Apple OSes have moved to Fortuna since at least December 2019, possibly earlier. It is based on SHA-256. Multiple entropy sources such as the secure enclave RNG, boot phase timing jitter, hardware interrupt (timing assumed) are used. RDSEED/RDRAND is used on Intel-based Macs that support it. Seed (entropy) data is also stored for subsequent reboots.


/dev/random, macOS, iOS and other Apple OSes
Prior to the change, macOS and iOS used 160-bit Yarrow based on SHA-1.


/dev/random, macOS, iOS and other Apple OSes
There is no difference between /dev/random and /dev/urandom; both behave identically.


/dev/random, Other operating systems
/dev/random and /dev/urandom are also available on Solaris,NetBSD,Tru64 UNIX 5.1B, AIX 5.2 and HP-UX 11i v2. As with FreeBSD, AIX implements its own Yarrow-based design, however AIX uses considerably fewer entropy sources than the standard /dev/random implementation and stops refilling the pool when it thinks it contains enough entropy.


/dev/random, Other operating systems
In Windows NT, similar functionality is delivered by ksecdd.sys, but reading the special file \Device\KsecDD does not work as in UNIX. The documented methods to generate cryptographically random bytes are CryptGenRandom and RtlGenRandom.


/dev/random, Other operating systems
While DOS does not naturally provide such functionality, there is an open-source third-party driver called noise.sys, which functions similarly in that it creates two devices, RANDOM$ and URANDOM$, which are also accessible as /DEV/RANDOM$ and /DEV/URANDOM$, that programs can access for random data.


/dev/random, Other operating systems
The Linux emulator Cygwin on Windows provide implementations of both /dev/random and /dev/urandom, which can be used in scripts and programs.


/dev/random, EGD as an alternative
A software program called EGD (entropy gathering daemon) is a common alternative for Unix systems that do not support the /dev/random device. It is a user-space daemon, which provides high-quality cryptographic random data. Some cryptographic software such as OpenSSL, GNU Privacy Guard, and the Apache HTTP Server support using EGD when a /dev/random device is not available. OpenSSL disabled support for the EGD daemon by default in OpenSSL 1.1.0; applications should check for support using the OPENSSL_NO_EGD preprocessor macro.


/dev/random, EGD as an alternative
EGD gathers random entropy from various sources, processes it to remove bias and improve cryptographic quality, and then makes it available over a Unix domain socket (with /dev/egd-pool being a common choice) or over a TCP socket. The entropy gathering usually entails periodically forking subprocesses to query attributes of the system that are likely to be frequently changing and unpredictable, such as monitoring CPU, I/O, and network usage as well as the contents of various log files and temporary directories.


/dev/random, EGD as an alternative
EGD communicates with other programs that need random data using a simple protocol. The client connects to an EGD socket and sends a command, identified by the value of the first octet:


/dev/zero
/dev/zero is a special file in Unix-like operating systems that provides as many null characters (ASCII NUL, 0x00) as are read from it. One of the typical uses is to provide a character stream for initializing data storage.


/dev/zero, Function
Read operations from /dev/zero return as many null characters (0x00) as requested in the read operation.


/dev/zero, Function
Unlike /dev/null, /dev/zero may be used as a source, not only as a sink for data. All write operations to /dev/zero succeed with no other effects. However, /dev/null is more commonly used for this purpose.


/dev/zero, Function
When /dev/zero is memory-mapped, e.g., with mmap, to the virtual address space, it is equivalent to using anonymous memory; i.e. memory not connected to any file.


/dev/zero, History
/dev/zero was introduced in 1988 by SunOS-4.0 in order to allow a mappable BSS segment for shared libraries using anonymous memory. HP-UX 8.x introduced the MAP_ANONYMOUS flag for mmap(), which maps anonymous memory directly without a need to open /dev/zero. Since the late 1990s, MAP_ANONYMOUS or MAP_ANON are supported by most UNIX versions, removing the original purpose of /dev/zero.


/dev/zero, Examples
The dd Unix utility program reads octet streams from a source to a destination, possibly performing data conversions in the process. Destroying existing data on a file system partition (low-level formatting):


/dev/zero, Examples
Creating a 1 MiB file, called foobar, filled with null characters:


/dev/zero, Examples
Note: The block size value can be given in SI (decimal) values, e.g. in GB, MB, etc. To create a 1 GB file one would simply type:


/dev/zero, Examples
Note: Instead of creating a real file with only zero bytes, many file systems also support the creation of sparse files which returns zeros upon reading but use less actual space.


/e/ (operating system)
/e/ (formerly Eelo) is a free and open-source Android-based mobile operating system and associated online services. The operating system is a fork of LineageOS and Android. The custom firmware is developed by the /e/ Foundation, which was founded by French entrepreneur Gaël Duval. /e/ is presented as privacy software that does not contain proprietary Google apps or services, and challenges the public to "find any parts of the system or default applications that are still leaking data to Google."


/e/ (operating system), Software
/e/ is based on LineageOS, a fork of the CyanogenMod and Android operating systems. /e/ uses MicroG as a free and open-source replacement for Google Play Services, and Mozilla Location Service for geolocation.


/e/ (operating system), History
In 2017, Mandrake Linux creator Gaël Duval proposed the concept of an operating system without privacy-invasive software as a "non-profit project 'in the public interest'". Duval wrote, "Apple, Google, Facebook etc., business models are harmful for our economical and social environments". The operating system was initially called Eelo; the name was inspired by moray eels, which Duval saw as "fish that can hide in the sea". Duval launched a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign with an initial goal of €25,000, and received at least €71,000 from contributors.


/e/ (operating system), History
ECORP SAS, a privately-held corporation founded in 2018 with Gael Duval President and Alexis Noetinger General Director, operates the online store selling phones with /e/ operating system pre-installed, and the included online services.


/e/ (operating system), History
Eelo was subsequently renamed to /e/ in July 2018 due to a conflict with the "eelloo" trademark, which was owned by human resources company Meurs HRM B.V.


/e/ (operating system), History
Beta versions of /e/ were released for 20 to 30 smartphone models in September 2018. As of November 2019 /e/ supported 89 smartphone models. As of April 2020, /e/ was teaming with Fairphone to sell phones.


/e/ (operating system), History
ESolutions SAS, a privately-held corporation, was formed in January 2020 with Ecorp SAS listed as President and Alexis Noetinger as General Director. ESolutions operates the online store for sales of phones and cloud storage subscriptions.


/e/ (operating system), Reception
The Free Software Foundation declined to endorse /e/ because it "contains nonfree libraries". Ross Rubin of Fast Company described /e/'s strategy as a "Google-like approach" of maximizing user adoption, in contrast to hardware manufacturer and software developer Purism's "Apple-like approach" of vertical integration. Jack Wallen of TechRepublic believed that /e/ will "prove Android can exist without Google", but predicted that the operating system would not appeal to ordinary smartphone users.


/e/ (operating system), Reception
Sascha Segan of PC Magazine was "encouraged by /e/, and by its determination to create an easy-to-use (and, hopefully, easy to install) alternative," but was "queasy about the sources of third-party apps on /e/." He also defended /e/ against InfoSec Handbook's criticisms, which /e/ "took to heart and has been working on it in public bug threads anyone can read online." Steven Vaughan-Nichols reviewed a refurbished Samsung phone with pre-installed /e/ paralleling Android 8.1, and found it to be "quite stable," but said "applications can be a pain" and "installing /e/ is a monster of a job."


/e/ (operating system), Reception
In November 2020, Tim Anderson of The Register said installation of /e/ is "not for the fainthearted" (sic) but the operating system "feels lightweight and responsive" because of "fewer background services than on a typical Android device." In February 2021 Ferdinand Thommes of Linux News .de published a submitted review of Fairphone 3 with pre-installed /e/. They called it "very expensive" and said on initial startup, an operating system update was needed, which took about 15 minutes.


/e/ (operating system), Reception
After a few minutes the Bliss Launcher was "annoying" so they replaced it with a different launcher from F-Droid, which took "about 3 hours." Fingerprint sensing did not work reliably initially or after a sensor replacement. /e/ support was friendly, competent and quick responding. "Despite all the negative points" they "can recommend both device and operating system."


/e/ (operating system), Reception
A 2021 study looked at six Android distributions including /e/ and found it to be the only one that didn't send any tracking information to its vendor.


/pol/
/pol/, short for "politically incorrect", is a political discussion board on 4chan. The board has been noted for its racist,white supremacist, antisemitic, misogynistic, and transphobic content.


/pol/
The board serves partly as a "containment" area on 4chan: a place to divert trolls and extremists. /pol/ has been successful in spreading fake news into the mainstream media. A number of /pol/ boards exist or have existed on other imageboards than 4chan, such as on 8chan.


/pol/, Overview
Much of the content on /pol/ relies heavily on memes to further spread ideas. One of the most popular memes found on the board during the period surrounding the 2016 US presidential election was that of Pepe the Frog, which has been deemed a hate symbol in some contexts by the Anti- Defamation League due to its use in uniforms, places, and people associated with Nazism, the Ku Klux Klan, and antisemitism. Many have questioned the sincerity of users on /pol/ as possible trolls.


/pol/, Overview
Common board content involves discussion of current news. A 2020 report categorized about 36% of news sources frequently posted to the board by American users as "junk news", a category that includes sources considered to be propaganda, sensationalist, or conspiracy theory content.


/pol/, Overview
While 4chan's /pol/ board is the most popular board under the "/pol/" name, versions on other websites have existed. These include Kohlchan, 8chan (later 8kun), 16chan, Shitchan, and Endchan, with some less popular "/pol/" themed boards accessible through the Tor network on sites such as 9chan and Neinchan.


/pol/, Overview
As of July 2021, over 140,000 posts are made on /pol/ every day. This is the most of any board on the site, and makes up about 15% of all posts made on the site every day. Certain events caused a spike in activity on /pol/: the 2016 United States Presidential Election, Donald Trump photo op at St. John's Church, the 2020 Presidential Election, and the 2021 attack on the US Capitol.


/pol/, History
Prior to the creation of /pol/, there were two boards intended for discussing news that had been added and removed from the site. The first of these was /n/, which was added on 8 April 2006. Thus, it replaced /n/'s previous topic of animals and nature. (The topic of animals and nature itself was moved to the /an/ board). /n/'s topic was changed to transportation on 19 February 2008, without moving the news topic to another board, effectively removing it.


/pol/, History
Another news board, /new/, was later added on 25 January 2010. It was deleted a year later on 17 January 2011 because, according to 4chan's creator and ex-administrator Christopher Poole, it had "devolved into /stormfront/". This was comparing /new/ to Stormfront, which is the oldest and largest Holocaust-denialist white supremacist site. According to Christine Lagorio-Chafkin, /pol/ was created by "4chan's founder [...] to siphon off and contain the overtly xenophobic and racist comments and memes from other wings of 4chan." This has led to /pol/ acquiring the nickname of a "containment board", because its purpose is to keep far-right and generally political content off of 4chan's other boards.


/pol/, History, Notable events
Screenshots of Trayvon Martin's hacked social media accounts were initially posted to /pol/ in 2015.


/pol/, History, Notable events
After the 2015 Umpqua Community College shooting, /pol/ began attempting to circulate on social media claims that comedian Sam Hyde was the perpetrator of a mass shooting event or terrorist attack. They repeated this after several other mass shootings, in attempts to troll mainstream news outlets into reporting Hyde as the attacker. According to BBC News, CNN mistakenly included Hyde's image on their coverage of the Umpqua shooting. After the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, a Google search for a different man's name returned a /pol/ thread in the "top stories" section falsely identifying him as the shooter. A spokesperson for Google said that the thread had appeared because search queries and news about the man were rare, allowing for the thread to appear in results, but that the thread did not appear in broader searches about the Las Vegas shooting.


/pol/, History, Notable events
Users of /pol/ engaged in coordinated attacks on LaBeouf, Rönkkö & Turner's HEWILLNOTDIVIDE.US, a 2017 performance art project made to protest Donald Trump's presidency. Users also organised the It's OK to be white poster campaign the same year.


/pol/, History, Notable events
In 2017, users of /pol/ co-ordinated a campaign to convince mainstream news organisations that the OK gesture was a white power symbol, later the OK gesture became used unironically by white supremacists.


/pol/, History, Notable events
In 2019, 4chan and 8chan were temporarily blocked by Australian internet service providers for containing videos of the Christchurch mosque shootings. Before the shootings, the shooter posted on 8chan's /pol/ board.


/pol/, History, Notable events
In late February and early March 2021, users on /pol/ boosted a social media trend called "super straight", which they said was a new sexuality describing heterosexuals who would never have a sexual relationship with transgender people. The trend began with a later-deleted TikTok video by a user who said he had created the term because he was tired of being called transphobic. The Daily Dot stated that "trolls, bigots, and trans-exclusionary radical feminists" were "reframing their harassment of transgender people" through this trend.


/pol/, History, Notable events
The trend spread to other platforms as well, including Twitter, and 4chan users were eager to "red pill" those in the Generation Z age group, create division among LGBTQ communities, and use the language of LGBTQ rights to troll leftists. Some 4chan members used Nazi symbols in their symbolism, including the logo of Adolf Hitler's Schutzstaffel, which also used SS as an acronym. Colours associated with "super straight", often used in the form of flags, were black and orange.


/pol/, Reception and influence
/pol/ has been characterised as predominantly racist and sexist, with many of its posts taking explicitly alt-right and neo-Nazi points of view. In particular, the board is infamous for the prevalence of antisemitic threads and memes. The most common anti-Semitic meme on /pol/ is the Happy Merchant. Southern Poverty Law Center regards /pol/'s rhetorical style as widely emulated by white supremacist websites such as The Daily Stormer; the Stormer's editor, Andrew Anglin, concurred. Many /pol/ users favoured Donald Trump during his 2016 United States presidential campaign. Upon his election, a /pol/ moderator embedded a pro-Trump video at the top of all of the board's pages.


/pol/, Reception and influence, As a potential honeypot
Many have speculated whether the website is kept online as a honeypot for far-right groups, or to monitor extremists. In 2015, an Australian Department of Defence graduate used /pol/ to share classified information, only to be caught by another former Department of Defence worker browsing the site. Within /pol/, suspected agents of various intelligence communities are called "Glowniggers", a reference to the computer programmer Terry A. Davis who said "The CIA Niggers glow in the dark, you can see them if you're driving, you just run them over, that's what you do." Because of this, suspicious posts are deemed to be "glowing" and "glowposting" is a common phrase on the forum.


/pol/, Reception and influence, Alleged moderator racism
In 2020, several past and current moderators spoke to Vice Media's Motherboard about what they perceived as racist intent behind /pol/ and 4chan as a whole. They described how the manager of 4chan's volunteer "janitors", a moderator known as RapeApe, wishes to generate right-wing discussion on /pol/ and has dissuaded janitors from banning users for racism. Additionally, they noted how janitors were often fired whenever they held left-wing opinions. Hiroyuki Nishimura was described as letting RapeApe have full control of the site. Neither Nishimura nor RapeApe responded to Vice Media's requests for comment, but RapeApe did, however, provide a video of two naked men dancing.


/pol/, Analysis
According to a 2017 longitudinal study, using a dataset of over 8 million posts, /pol/ is a diverse ecosystem with users well-distributed around the world. The percentage of posts containing hate speech ranges from 4.15% (e.g., in Indonesia, Arab countries) to 30% (e.g., China, Bahamas, Cyprus). Elevated use of hate speech is seen in Western European countries (e.g., Italy, Spain, Greece, and France).


/pol/, Analysis
A separate 2017 quantitative analysis found that /pol/ was an important influencer of news content on Twitter, with the board contributing 3% of mainstream news links and 1.96% of alternative news links on Twitter (as a fraction of all links co-appearing on Twitter, Reddit, and 4chan). The researchers concluded that "'fringe' communities often succeed in spreading alternative news to mainstream social networks."


/pol/, Analysis
Following the announcement of a COVID-19 lockdown occurring in Wuhan, China in January 2020, an international team of researchers noted an increase of anti-Chinese sentiment on /pol/ in reaction to the events surrounding the virus outbreak, in an analysis which also examined similar activity on Twitter.


/pol/, Analysis
According to a 2020 report by the British charity Community Security Trust, many threads contain "explicit calls for Jews to be killed".


/pol/, Analysis
A study with data collected from April 2020 to June 2020 and published in Perspectives on Terrorism in February 2021 analyzed the popularity and content present on different /pol/ boards. To analyze board content, they examined which word sets were most common per board. They found that schisms were characteristic of this subculture, with splinter communities being less popular and more extreme on average. For example, discussion on 8kun's /pol/ board contained more racial content than did 4chan's much more popular /pol/ board, which hosted racist content as well. Neinchan, hosted on the Tor network, was indicated as having among the most extreme /pol/ boards, albeit with low traffic. The researchers indicated that academic work examining this subculture of far-right imageboards was lacking.


/rif
/rif is a pop-rock band formed in Bandung, Indonesia in 1995. The group comprises vocalist Andy, guitarist Jikun, drummer Maggi, guitarist Ovy and bassist Teddy.


/rif
/rif are known for their hit singles, such as "Radja", "Bunga", "Si Hebat", "Aku Ingin" and "Loe Toe Ye". The first album titled Radja (King), released in 1997.


/rif
Earlier in 2013, they release a compilation album which consist of new arrangement of their songs from their previous albums and several new songs such as "Party Lagi" and "Aku Tahu Ini Cinta", in the album they also cover two 1980s rock song of Ikang Fawzi ("Preman") dan Anggun C. Sasmi ("Takut feat. Judika").


/æ/ raising
In the sociolinguistics of the English language, /æ/ raising or short-a raising is a phenomenon by which the "short a" vowel /æ/ (listen), the TRAP/BATH vowel (found in such words as ash, bath, man, lamp, pal, rag, sack, trap, etc. ), is pronounced with a raising of the tongue. In most American and many Canadian English accents, /æ/ raising is specifically /æ/ tensing: a combination of greater raising, fronting, lengthening, and gliding that occurs only in certain words or environments. The most common context for tensing /æ/ throughout North American English, regardless of dialect, is when this vowel appears before a nasal consonant (thus, for example, commonly in fan, but rarely in fat).


/æ/ raising
The realization of this "tense" (as opposed to "lax") /æ/ varies from [æ̝ˑ] to [ɛə] to [eə] to [ɪə], and can be dependent on the particular dialect or even speaker. One common realization is [ɛə], a transcription that will be used throughout this article to represent the tensed pronunciation.


/æ/ raising
Variable raising of /æ/ (and /æɔ/, the MOUTH vowel transcribed with ⟨aʊ⟩ in General American) before nasal consonants also occurs in Australian English.


/æ/ raising, Distinction between phonemic and non-phonemic /æ/ raising
Short-a (or /æ/) tensing has two possible forms: either non-phonemic ("continuous") or phonemic ("split"). In General American, for example, the word man can be pronounced on a continuum from the lax-vowel [mæn] to the tense-vowel [mɛən], but the latter pronunciation is much more common. However, both vowel qualities are considered possible variations (allophones) of the single "short a" phoneme in man. Therefore, General American uses a continuous system in which a tensed allophone does not demonstrate that a new phoneme has splintered off from the original.


/æ/ raising, Distinction between phonemic and non-phonemic /æ/ raising
In some American English dialects, however, including the New York City and Philadelphia ones, the "short a" sound can actually split into two entirely distinct phonemes and so using a tense vowel rather than a lax vowel could change the meanings of words or phrases. For instance, in traditional Philadelphia English, the surname Manning must be pronounced with a lax vowel as /ˈmænɪŋ/. If it is pronounced tensely as /ˈmɛənɪŋ/, it may be perceived by a Philadelphian as an entirely different word: the verb manning (as in "He was manning the vehicle").


/æ/ raising, Distinction between phonemic and non-phonemic /æ/ raising
Therefore, such dialects have a phonemic split of the "short a" vowel, sometimes called a "short-a split system". The relationship between two words (like Manning and manning) that differ in only a single differentiating sound is known as a minimal pair. Here are further examples of minimal pairs of the short a that use the Philadelphia and General American accents for reference as, respectively, phonemic and non-phonemic accents:


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems
In a North American short-a phonemic split system (or, simply, a short-a split), the terms "raising" and "tensing" can be used interchangeably. Phonemic tensing occurs in the dialects of New York City and the Mid-Atlantic States (centering on the cities of Philadelphia and Baltimore). It is similar in its word patterns but not in its resulting pronunciation to the trap-bath split of certain British English accents, notably the London and Received Pronunciation dialects, which creates a new "broad a" phoneme from words that elsewhere retain a "short a" sound.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems
The environment of "broad a" overlaps with that of /æ/ tensing in that it occurs before voiceless fricatives in the same syllable and before nasals in certain environments, and both phenomena involve replacement of the short lax vowel /æ/ with a longer and tenser vowel. However, the "broad a" is lower and backer than [æ], and the result of /æ/ tensing is higher and fronter.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems
It is also related to the bad–lad split of some Southern British and Australian dialects in which a short flat /æ/ is lengthened to [æː] in some conditions. The most significant differences from the Philadelphia system described here are that dialects that split bad–lad have the "broad a" phenomenon, which then prevents the split; 'sad' is long; and lengthening can occur before /ɡ/ and /l/.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, New York City
In the traditional New York accent, the tense /ɛə/ is traditionally an entirely separate phoneme from /æ/ as a result of a phonemic split. The distribution between /æ/ and /ɛə/ is largely predictable. In New York, tensing occurs in closed syllables before /n/, /m/, /f/, /θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, and voiced stops (/b g d/). In open syllables, /æ/ tends to stay lax, regardless of the following consonant. (Contrasting that with the distinction between /ɒ/ and /ɔ/, Labov et al. reported that, in New York, /sæd/ and /sɛəd/ were heard as the same word, but /sɒd/ and /sɔd/ were heard as two different words, suggesting minimal pairs of /æ/ and /ɛə/ to be not as likely in New York City as in Philadelphia.)


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, New York City
The New York split system has also diffused, often with slightly different conditioning, into Albany, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and nearby parts of New Jersey.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Northern New Jersey
In Northern New Jersey, Labov finds the New York City system, but with some variability. East of the Hackensack River, by Hoboken, Elizabeth, and Jersey City, Labov finds the split with no more variation than in the city itself.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Northern New Jersey
Between the Hackensack and Passaic Rivers, Labov finds speakers typically lack the function word constraint. Thus, am, can (the verb), an, and and all typically result with tense /ɛə/. Labov also reports variable tensing in open syllables, resulting in potential tensing of planet and fashionable.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Northern New Jersey
West of the Passaic River, /æ/-tensing only occurs before nasals.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Albany
Like in Northern New Jersey, Labov finds that the New York split system has also diffused in Albany with some alterations. Although the function is lost in Northern New Jersey, Labov reports that the function constraint is weakened only in Albany. Thus, can, an, and has may be tensed while have and had may be lax. Also, the open syllable constraint is variable in Northern New Jersey, but Labov reports that in Albany, that constraint is absent altogether. Thus, national, cashew, family, camera, planet, and manner are all tense.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Older Cincinnati
Labov finds the remnants of the New York split system present in the now-declining traditional dialect of Cincinnati, with similar variations to Northern New Jersey and Albany. Like in Albany, the open-syllable constraint is completely absent. However, the function word and is reported as being lax.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Older Cincinnati
Labov further reports consistently laxing before /g/. In New York, tensing before voiced fricatives is variable, but it is reported as consistent in Cincinnati.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, New Orleans
Labov finds the New York split system in New Orleans with similar variations. As in older Cincinnati, tensing may also occur before voiced fricatives. As in Northern New Jersey, the function constraint is virtually absent. However, closer to the split of New York City proper, the open syllable constraint is still retained. Also, the tense variant [ɛə] appears to always be present before voiced fricatives like /v/ and /z/.


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Philadelphia and Baltimore
Philadelphia and Baltimore use a different short-a system than New York City, but it is similar in that it is also a split system. Tensing does not occur before voiced stops and /ʃ/, with the only exceptions being mad, bad, and glad. Here are further examples that are true for Philadelphia and Baltimore, as well as for New York City:


/æ/ raising, Phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Philadelphia and Baltimore
Philadelphia/Baltimore exceptions include the New York exceptions listed above, as well as the following:


/æ/ raising, Non-phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Before nasals
Most American and many Canadian English speakers, at the very least, display an /æ/ that is raised (tensed) and diphthongized before the front nasals /m/ and /n/, such as in camp, man, ram, pan, ran, clamber, Sammy, which are otherwise lower and laxer. However, they fail to split the "short a" into two contrasting phonemes, which the New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Yat accents do.


/æ/ raising, Non-phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Before nasals
A common form is what William Labov calls the "nasal system" in which /æ/ is raised and tensed most severely but not necessarily exclusively before nasal consonants, regardless of whether there is a syllabic or morphemic boundary present. The nasal system is found in several separate and unrelated dialect regions, including the southern Midwest, northern New Jersey, Florida, and parts of Canada, but it is most prominent, the difference between the two allophones of /æ/ being the greatest and speakers with the nasal system being most concentrated, in eastern New England, including in in Boston.


/æ/ raising, Non-phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Before nasals
More widespread among speakers of the Western United States, Canada, and the southern Midwest is a "continuous system," which also revolves around "short a" before nasal consonants but has a less-extreme raising of the tongue than the "nasal system." Most varieties of General American English fall under that category.


/æ/ raising, Non-phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Before nasals
The system resembles the nasal system in that /æ/ is usually raised and tensed to [ɛə] before nasals, but instead of a sharp divide between a high, tense allophone before nasals and a low, lax one before other consonants, allophones of /æ/ occupy a continuum of varying degrees of height and tenseness between both extremes, with a variety of phonetic and phonological factors interacting (sometimes differently in different dialects) to determine the height and tenseness of any particular example of /æ/.


/æ/ raising, Non-phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Before nasals
The pattern most characteristic of Southern American English does not use /æ/ raising at all but uses what has been called the "Southern drawl" instead, with /æ/ becoming in essence a triphthong [ æjə]. However, many speakers from the South still use the nasal /æ/-raising system described above, particularly in Charleston, Atlanta, and Florida. Also, some speakers from the New Orleans area have been reported to have a system that is very similar to the phonemic split of New York.


/æ/ raising, Non-phonemic /æ/ raising systems, Before /ɡ, ŋ/
For speakers in much of Canada and in the North-Central and the Northwestern United States, a following /ɡ/ (as in magazine, rag, bags, etc.) or /ŋ/ (as in bang, pang, gangster, angler, etc.) tenses an /æ/ as much as or more than a following nasal does. In Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Central Canada, a merger of /æ/ with /eɪ/ before /ɡ/ has been reported, making bag, for example, rhyme with vague.


/æ/ raising, Non-phonemic /æ/ raising systems, General /æ/ raising
In accents that have undergone the Northern cities vowel shift, mostly those of the Inland Northern United States, the phoneme /æ/ is raised and diphthongized in all possible environments: a "general raising" system. The Inland North dialect is spoken in such areas as Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse. However, a reversal of the raising (except before nasal consonants) has been observed in at least some communities in which it has been studied, including Lansing, Michigan, and Syracuse, New York.


/æ/ raising, Australian English
In Australian English, /æ/ and the backing diphthong /æɔ/ (which corresponds to /aʊ/ in General American and RP) may be raised to [ɛː, ɛɔ] before nasal consonants. In the case of /æ/, the raised allophone approaches the DRESS vowel /e/ but is typically somewhat longer, similar to the SQUARE vowel /eː/. In the case of /æɔ/, it is only the first element that is variably raised, the second element remains unchanged.


/æ/ raising, Australian English
For some speakers this raising is substantial, yet for others it is nonexistent.


0
0 (zero) is a number, and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. It fulfills a central role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers, real numbers, and many other algebraic structures. As a digit, 0 is used as a placeholder in place value systems. Names for the number 0 in English include zero, nought (UK), naught (US; /nɔːt/), nil, or—in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter "O"—oh or o (/oʊ/). Informal or slang terms for zero include zilch and zip. Ought and aught (/ɔːt/), as well as cipher, have also been used historically.


0, Etymology
The word zero came into the English language via French zéro from the Italian zero, a contraction of the Venetian zevero form of Italian zefiro via ṣafira or ṣifr. In pre-Islamic time the word ṣifr (Arabic صفر) had the meaning "empty". Sifr evolved to mean zero when it was used to translate śūnya (Sanskrit: शून्य) from India. The first known English use of zero was in 1598.


0, Etymology
The Italian mathematician Fibonacci (c. 1170–1250), who grew up in North Africa and is credited with introducing the decimal system to Europe, used the term zephyrum. This became zefiro in Italian, and was then contracted to zero in Venetian. The Italian word zefiro was already in existence (meaning "west wind" from Latin and Greek zephyrus) and may have influenced the spelling when transcribing Arabic ṣifr.


0, Etymology, Modern usage
Depending on the context, there may be different words used for the number zero, or the concept of zero. For the simple notion of lacking, the words "nothing" and "none" are often used. Sometimes, the word "nought" or "naught" is used. It is often called "oh" in the context of telephone numbers. Slang words for zero include "zip", "zilch", "nada", and "scratch."


0, Etymology, Modern usage
"Nil" is used for many sports in British English. Several sports have specific words for a score of zero, such as "love" in tennis – from French l'oeuf, "the egg" – and "duck" in cricket, a shortening of "duck's egg"; "goose egg" is another general slang term used for zero.


0, History, Ancient Near East
Ancient Egyptian numerals were of base 10. They used hieroglyphs for the digits and were not positional. By 1770 BC, the Egyptians had a symbol for zero in accounting texts. The symbol nfr, meaning beautiful, was also used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids, and distances were measured relative to the base line as being above or below this line.


0, History, Ancient Near East
By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, the Babylonian mathematics had a sophisticated sexagesimal positional numeral system. The lack of a positional value (or zero) was indicated by a space between sexagesimal numerals. In a tablet unearthed at Kish (dating to as early as 700 BC), the scribe Bêl-bân-aplu used three hooks as a placeholder in the same Babylonian system. By 300 BC, a punctuation symbol (two slanted wedges) was co-opted to serve as this placeholder.


0, History, Ancient Near East
The Babylonian placeholder was not a true zero because it was not used alone, nor was it used at the end of a number. Thus numbers like 2 and 120 (2×60), 3 and 180 (3×60), 4 and 240 (4×60) looked the same, because the larger numbers lacked a final sexagesimal placeholder. Only context could differentiate them.


0, History, Pre-Columbian Americas
The Mesoamerican Long Count calendar developed in south-central Mexico and Central America required the use of zero as a placeholder within its vigesimal (base-20) positional numeral system. Many different glyphs, including this partial quatrefoil——were used as a zero symbol for these Long Count dates, the earliest of which (on Stela 2 at Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas) has a date of 36 BC.


0, History, Pre-Columbian Americas
Since the eight earliest Long Count dates appear outside the Maya homeland, it is generally believed that the use of zero in the Americas predated the Maya and was possibly the invention of the Olmecs. Many of the earliest Long Count dates were found within the Olmec heartland, although the Olmec civilization ended by the 4th century BC, several centuries before the earliest known Long Count dates.


0, History, Pre-Columbian Americas
Although zero became an integral part of Maya numerals, with a different, empty tortoise-like "shell shape" used for many depictions of the "zero" numeral, it is assumed not to have influenced Old World numeral systems.


0, History, Pre-Columbian Americas
Quipu, a knotted cord device, used in the Inca Empire and its predecessor societies in the Andean region to record accounting and other digital data, is encoded in a base ten positional system. Zero is represented by the absence of a knot in the appropriate position.


0, History, Classical antiquity
The ancient Greeks had no symbol for zero (μηδέν), and did not use a digit placeholder for it. They seemed unsure about the status of zero as a number. They asked themselves, "How can nothing be something? ", leading to philosophical and, by the medieval period, religious arguments about the nature and existence of zero and the vacuum. The paradoxes of Zeno of Elea depend in large part on the uncertain interpretation of zero.


0, History, Classical antiquity
By AD 150, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for zero (—°) in his work on mathematical astronomy called the Syntaxis Mathematica, also known as the Almagest. This Hellenistic zero was perhaps the earliest documented use of a numeral representing zero in the Old World. Ptolemy used it many times in his Almagest (VI.8) for the magnitude of solar and lunar eclipses. It represented the value of both digits and minutes of immersion at first and last contact.


0, History, Classical antiquity
Digits varied continuously from 0 to 12 to 0 as the Moon passed over the Sun (a triangular pulse), where twelve digits was the angular diameter of the Sun. Minutes of immersion was tabulated from 0′0″ to 31′20″ to 0′0″, where 0′0″ used the symbol as a placeholder in two positions of his sexagesimal positional numeral system, while the combination meant a zero angle.


0, History, Classical antiquity
Minutes of immersion was also a continuous function 1/12 31′20″ √d(24−d) (a triangular pulse with convex sides), where d was the digit function and 31′20″ was the sum of the radii of the Sun's and Moon's discs. Ptolemy's symbol was a placeholder as well as a number used by two continuous mathematical functions, one within another, so it meant zero, not none.


0, History, Classical antiquity
The earliest use of zero in the calculation of the Julian Easter occurred before AD 311, at the first entry in a table of epacts as preserved in an Ethiopic document for the years AD 311 to 369, using a Ge'ez word for "none" (English translation is "0" elsewhere) alongside Ge'ez numerals (based on Greek numerals), which was translated from an equivalent table published by the Church of Alexandria in Medieval Greek. This use was repeated in AD 525 in an equivalent table, that was translated via the Latin nulla or "none" by Dionysius Exiguus, alongside Roman numerals. When division produced zero as a remainder, nihil, meaning "nothing", was used. These medieval zeros were used by all future medieval calculators of Easter. The initial "N" was used as a zero symbol in a table of Roman numerals by Bede—or his colleagues around AD 725.


0, History, China
The Sūnzĭ Suànjīng, of unknown date but estimated to be dated from the 1st to 5th centuries AD, and Japanese records dated from the 18th century, describe how the c. 4th century BC Chinese counting rods system enabled one to perform decimal calculations.


0, History, China
As noted in Xiahou Yang's Suanjing (425–468 AD) that states that to multiply or divide a number by 10, 100, 1000, or 10000, all one needs to do, with rods on the counting board, is to move them forwards, or back, by 1, 2, 3, or 4 places, According to A History of Mathematics, the rods "gave the decimal representation of a number, with an empty space denoting zero." The counting rod system is considered a positional notation system.


0, History, China
In AD 690, Empress Wǔ promulgated Zetian characters, one of which was "〇"; originally meaning 'star', it subsequently [when?] came to represent zero.


0, History, China
Zero was not treated as a number at that time, but as a "vacant position". Qín Jiǔsháo's 1247 Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections is the oldest surviving Chinese mathematical text using a round symbol for zero. Chinese authors had been familiar with the idea of negative numbers by the Han Dynasty (2nd century AD), as seen in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.


0, History, India
Pingala (c. 3rd/2nd century BC), a Sanskrit prosody scholar, used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), a notation similar to Morse code. Pingala used the Sanskrit word śūnya explicitly to refer to zero.


0, History, India
The concept of zero as a written digit in the decimal place value notation was developed in India, presumably as early as during the Gupta period (c. 5th century), with the oldest unambiguous evidence dating to the 7th century.


0, History, India
A symbol for zero, a large dot likely to be the precursor of the still-current hollow symbol, is used throughout the Bakhshali manuscript, a practical manual on arithmetic for merchants. In 2017, three samples from the manuscript were shown by radiocarbon dating to come from three different centuries: from AD 224–383, AD 680–779, and AD 885–993, making it South Asia's oldest recorded use of the zero symbol. It is not known how the birch bark fragments from different centuries forming the manuscript came to be packaged together.


0, History, India
The Lokavibhāga, a Jain text on cosmology surviving in a medieval Sanskrit translation of the Prakrit original, which is internally dated to AD 458 (Saka era 380), uses a decimal place-value system, including a zero. In this text, śūnya ("void, empty") is also used to refer to zero.


0, History, India
The Aryabhatiya (c. 500), states sthānāt sthānaṁ daśaguṇaṁ syāt "from place to place each is ten times the preceding."


0, History, India
Rules governing the use of zero appeared in Brahmagupta's Brahmasputha Siddhanta (7th century), which states the sum of zero with itself as zero, and incorrectly division by zero as:


0, History, India
A positive or negative number when divided by zero is a fraction with the zero as denominator. Zero divided by a negative or positive number is either zero or is expressed as a fraction with zero as numerator and the finite quantity as denominator. Zero divided by zero is zero.


0, History, India, Epigraphy
There are numerous copper plate inscriptions, with the same small o in them, some of them possibly dated to the 6th century, but their date or authenticity may be open to doubt.


0, History, India, Epigraphy
A stone tablet found in the ruins of a temple near Sambor on the Mekong, Kratié Province, Cambodia, includes the inscription of "605" in Khmer numerals (a set of numeral glyphs for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system). The number is the year of the inscription in the Saka era, corresponding to a date of AD 683.


0, History, India, Epigraphy
The first known use of special glyphs for the decimal digits that includes the indubitable appearance of a symbol for the digit zero, a small circle, appears on a stone inscription found at the Chaturbhuj Temple, Gwalior, in India, dated 876. Zero is also used as a placeholder in the Bakhshali manuscript, portions of which date from AD 224–383.


0, History, Middle Ages, Transmission to Islamic culture
The Arabic-language inheritance of science was largely Greek, followed by Hindu influences. In 773, at Al-Mansur's behest, translations were made of many ancient treatises including Greek, Roman, Indian, and others.


0, History, Middle Ages, Transmission to Islamic culture
In AD 813, astronomical tables were prepared by a Persian mathematician, Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, using Hindu numerals; and about 825, he published a book synthesizing Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution to mathematics including an explanation of the use of zero. This book was later translated into Latin in the 12th century under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum. This title means "al-Khwarizmi on the Numerals of the Indians". The word "Algoritmi" was the translator's Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name, and the word "Algorithm" or "Algorism" started to acquire a meaning of any arithmetic based on decimals.


0, History, Middle Ages, Transmission to Islamic culture
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Khwarizmi, in 976, stated that if no number appears in the place of tens in a calculation, a little circle should be used "to keep the rows". This circle was called ṣifr.


0, History, Middle Ages, Transmission to Europe
The Hindu–Arabic numeral system (base 10) reached Western Europe in the 11th century, via Al-Andalus, through Spanish Muslims, the Moors, together with knowledge of classical  astronomy and instruments like the astrolabe; Gerbert of Aurillac is credited with reintroducing the lost teachings into Catholic Europe. For this reason, the numerals came to be known in Europe as "Arabic numerals". The Italian mathematician Fibonacci or Leonardo of Pisa was instrumental in bringing the system into European mathematics in 1202, stating:


0, History, Middle Ages, Transmission to Europe
After my father's appointment by his homeland as state official in the customs house of Bugia for the Pisan merchants who thronged to it, he took charge; and in view of its future usefulness and convenience, had me in my boyhood come to him and there wanted me to devote myself to and be instructed in the study of calculation for some days.


0, History, Middle Ages, Transmission to Europe
There, following my introduction, as a consequence of marvelous instruction in the art, to the nine digits of the Hindus, the knowledge of the art very much appealed to me before all others, and for it I realized that all its aspects were studied in Egypt, Syria, Greece, Sicily, and Provence, with their varying methods; and at these places thereafter, while on business. I pursued my study in depth and learned the give-and-take of disputation.


0, History, Middle Ages, Transmission to Europe
But all this even, and the algorism, as well as the art of Pythagoras, I considered as almost a mistake in respect to the method of the Hindus (Modus Indorum). Therefore, embracing more stringently that method of the Hindus, and taking stricter pains in its study, while adding certain things from my own understanding and inserting also certain things from the niceties of Euclid's geometric art. I have striven to compose this book in its entirety as understandably as I could, dividing it into fifteen chapters.


0, History, Middle Ages, Transmission to Europe
Almost everything which I have introduced I have displayed with exact proof, in order that those further seeking this knowledge, with its pre-eminent method, might be instructed, and further, in order that the Latin people might not be discovered to be without it, as they have been up to now. If I have perchance omitted anything more or less proper or necessary, I beg indulgence, since there is no one who is blameless and utterly provident in all things. The nine Indian figures are: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. With these nine figures, and with the sign 0  ... any number may be written.


0, History, Middle Ages, Transmission to Europe
Here Leonardo of Pisa uses the phrase "sign 0", indicating it is like a sign to do operations like addition or multiplication. From the 13th century, manuals on calculation (adding, multiplying, extracting roots, etc.) became common in Europe where they were called algorismus after the Persian mathematician al-Khwārizmī. The most popular was written by Johannes de Sacrobosco, about 1235 and was one of the earliest scientific books to be printed in 1488. Until the late 15th century, Hindu–Arabic numerals seem to have predominated among mathematicians, while merchants preferred to use the Roman numerals. In the 16th century, they became commonly used in Europe.


0, Mathematics
0 is the integer immediately preceding 1. Zero is an even number because it is divisible by 2 with no remainder. 0 is neither positive nor negative, or both positive and negative. Many definitions include 0 as a natural number, in which case it is the only natural number that is not positive. Zero is a number which quantifies a count or an amount of null size. In most cultures, 0 was identified before the idea of negative things (i.e., quantities less than zero) was accepted.


0, Mathematics
As a value or a number, zero is not the same as the digit zero, used in numeral systems with positional notation. Successive positions of digits have higher weights, so the digit zero is used inside a numeral to skip a position and give appropriate weights to the preceding and following digits. A zero digit is not always necessary in a positional number system (e.g., the number 02). In some instances, a leading zero may be used to distinguish a number.


0, Mathematics, Elementary algebra
The number 0 is the smallest non-negative integer. The natural number following 0 is 1 and no natural number precedes 0. The number 0 may or may not be considered a natural number, but it is an integer, and hence a rational number and a real number (as well as an algebraic number and a complex number).


0, Mathematics, Elementary algebra
The number 0 is neither positive nor negative, and is usually displayed as the central number in a number line. It is neither a prime number nor a composite number. It cannot be prime because it has an infinite number of factors, and cannot be composite because it cannot be expressed as a product of prime numbers (as 0 must always be one of the factors). Zero is, however, even (i.e. a multiple of 2, as well as being a multiple of any other integer, rational, or real number).


0, Mathematics, Elementary algebra
The following are some basic (elementary) rules for dealing with the number 0. These rules apply for any real or complex number x, unless otherwise stated.


0, Mathematics, Elementary algebra
The expression 0/0, which may be obtained in an attempt to determine the limit of an expression of the form f(x)/g(x) as a result of applying the lim operator independently to both operands of the fraction, is a so-called "indeterminate form". That does not simply mean that the limit sought is necessarily undefined; rather, it means that the limit of f(x)/g(x), if it exists, must be found by another method, such as l'Hôpital's rule.


0, Mathematics, Elementary algebra
The sum of 0 numbers (the empty sum) is 0, and the product of 0 numbers (the empty product) is 1. The factorial 0! evaluates to 1, as a special case of the empty product.


0, Physics
The value zero plays a special role for many physical quantities. For some quantities, the zero level is naturally distinguished from all other levels, whereas for others it is more or less arbitrarily chosen. For example, for an absolute temperature (as measured in kelvins), zero is the lowest possible value (negative temperatures are defined, but negative-temperature systems are not actually colder). This is in contrast to for example temperatures on the Celsius scale, where zero is arbitrarily defined to be at the freezing point of water.


0, Physics
Measuring sound intensity in decibels or phons, the zero level is arbitrarily set at a reference value—for example, at a value for the threshold of hearing. In physics, the zero-point energy is the lowest possible energy that a quantum mechanical physical system may possess and is the energy of the ground state of the system.


0, Chemistry
Zero has been proposed as the atomic number of the theoretical element tetraneutron. It has been shown that a cluster of four neutrons may be stable enough to be considered an atom in its own right. This would create an element with no protons and no charge on its nucleus.


0, Chemistry
As early as 1926, Andreas von Antropoff coined the term neutronium for a conjectured form of matter made up of neutrons with no protons, which he placed as the chemical element of atomic number zero at the head of his new version of the periodic table. It was subsequently placed as a noble gas in the middle of several spiral representations of the periodic system for classifying the chemical elements.


0, Computer science
The most common practice throughout human history has been to start counting at one, and this is the practice in early classic computer programming languages such as Fortran and COBOL. However, in the late 1950s LISP introduced zero-based numbering for arrays while Algol 58 introduced completely flexible basing for array subscripts (allowing any positive, negative, or zero integer as base for array subscripts), and most subsequent programming languages adopted one or other of these positions.


0, Computer science
For example, the elements of an array are numbered starting from 0 in C, so that for an array of n items the sequence of array indices runs from 0 to n−1. This permits an array element's location to be calculated by adding the index directly to address of the array, whereas 1-based languages precalculate the array's base address to be the position one element before the first.


0, Computer science
There can be confusion between 0- and 1-based indexing, for example Java's JDBC indexes parameters from 1 although Java itself uses 0-based indexing.


0, Computer science
In databases, it is possible for a field not to have a value. It is then said to have a null value. For numeric fields it is not the value zero. For text fields this is not blank nor the empty string. The presence of null values leads to three-valued logic. No longer is a condition either true or false, but it can be undetermined. Any computation including a null value delivers a null result.


0, Computer science
A null pointer is a pointer in a computer program that does not point to any object or function. In C, the integer constant 0 is converted into the null pointer at compile time when it appears in a pointer context, and so 0 is a standard way to refer to the null pointer in code. However, the internal representation of the null pointer may be any bit pattern (possibly different values for different data types).


0, Computer science
In mathematics −0 = +0 = 0; both −0 and +0 represent exactly the same number, i.e., there is no "positive zero" or "negative zero" distinct from zero. However, in some computer hardware signed number representations, zero has two distinct representations, a positive one grouped with the positive numbers and a negative one grouped with the negatives; this kind of dual representation is known as signed zero, with the latter form sometimes called negative zero. These representations include the signed magnitude and one's complement binary integer representations (but not the two's complement binary form used in most modern computers), and most floating point number representations (such as IEEE 754 and IBM S/390 floating point formats).


0, Computer science
In binary, 0 represents the value for "off", which means no electricity flow.


0, Computer science
Zero is the value of false in many programming languages.


0, Computer science
The Unix epoch (the date and time associated with a zero timestamp) begins the midnight before the first of January 1970.


0, Computer science
The Classic Mac OS epoch and Palm OS epoch (the date and time associated with a zero timestamp) begins the midnight before the first of January 1904.


0, Computer science
Many APIs and operating systems that require applications to return an integer value as an exit status typically use zero to indicate success and non-zero values to indicate specific error or warning conditions.


0, Computer science
Programmers often use a slashed zero to avoid confusion with the letter "O".


0, Symbols and representations
The modern numerical digit 0 is usually written as a circle or ellipse. Traditionally, many print typefaces made the capital letter O more rounded than the narrower, elliptical digit 0. Typewriters originally made no distinction in shape between O and 0; some models did not even have a separate key for the digit 0. The distinction came into prominence on modern character displays.


0, Symbols and representations
A slashed zero can be used to distinguish the number from the letter. The digit 0 with a dot in the center seems to have originated as an option on IBM 3270 displays and has continued with some modern computer typefaces such as Andalé Mono, and in some airline reservation systems. One variation uses a short vertical bar instead of the dot. Some fonts designed for use with computers made one of the capital-O–digit-0 pair more rounded and the other more angular (closer to a rectangle). A further distinction is made in falsification-hindering typeface as used on German car number plates by slitting open the digit 0 on the upper right side. Sometimes the digit 0 is used either exclusively, or not at all, to avoid confusion altogether.


0, Year label
In the BC calendar era, the year 1 BC is the first year before AD 1; there is not a year zero. By contrast, in astronomical year numbering, the year 1 BC is numbered 0, the year 2 BC is numbered −1, and so forth.


0 (album)
0 is the second studio album by the Icelandic musical project Low Roar, released in 2014 through Tonequake.


0 (album)
"I'll Keep Coming" and "Easy Way Out" became well known in 2016 when they were featured as the trailer music for Hideo Kojima's video game Death Stranding, in addition to an episode of Killjoys.


0 + 2 = 1
0 + 2 = 1 is the fifth full-length album by Canadian punk band Nomeansno. Released in 1991, it was the fourth and final studio album to feature Nomeansno's longtime guitarist Andy Kerr. The proper follow-up to their most popular album, Wrong, the record was somewhat polarizing but generally well received by critics.


0 + 2 = 1, Background and recording
By 1991, the members of Nomeansno had quit their day jobs and focused on their band, which was developing an increasingly large audience in Europe and North America. They had finished supporting their most widely acclaimed record, Wrong, the promotional tour for which yielded the live album Live + Cuddly. They recorded The Sky Is Falling and I Want My Mommy collaboratively with former Dead Kennedys vocalist Jello Biafra earlier in the year before beginning work on the proper follow-up to Wrong.


0 + 2 = 1, Background and recording
In July, the band returned to Profile Sound Studios to record with Cecil English. They tracked 19 songs during the sessions, 11 of which appeared on the final record. The songs included a mix of hardcore punk, progressive rock, and experimentation, as well as "straightforward swinging grooves" as in the opening song "Now."


0 + 2 = 1, Background and recording
All eight of the outtakes were eventually released. Two tracks, covers of The Subhumans's "Oh Canaduh" and D.O.A. 's "New Age," were issued as a 7-inch record on Allied Recordings later that year. Another, a cover of the track "Forward to Death," was included on the Dead Kennedys tribute album Virus 100. The remaining five outtakes were packaged with four demos and released as the 0 + 2 = 1 ½ compilation in 2010. Each of these five outtakes appeared on subsequent Nomeansno releases: "Cats, Sex, and Nazis" and "I Need You" on Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? (1993), "Blinding Light" on Mr. Right & Mr. Wrong: One Down & Two to Go (1994), and "Lost" on The Worldhood of the World (As Such) (1995).


0 + 2 = 1, Release
The album was issued on CD, LP, and cassette by Alternative Tentacles in 1991. To support it, the band toured extensively in North America and Europe. Guitarist Andy Kerr left the band after the tour to emigrate to the Netherlands, and the band returned to its original two-piece formation of brothers Rob and John Wright.


0 + 2 = 1, Release
Nomeansno bought the rights to their back catalogue from Alternative Tentacles in 2002, and reissued 0 + 2 = 1 on CD and double LP in 2007.


0 + 2 = 1, Reception
The album was received fairly well by critics. Writing for Ox Fanzine, Joachim Hiller argued that the record helped to solidify the band's "godlike status" through "complex rhythms, harrowing chants, and unorthodox guitar work." In a retrospective review, AllMusic critic Adam Bregman assessed the album as "among their most far-out records" and worried that "[t]he songs here are incredibly long and somewhat repetitive." Nonetheless, Bregman concluded that the album "has a lot of great moments stretched out over a record that's way too long" and awarded it three out of five stars.


0 + 2 = 1 ½
0 + 2 = 1 ½ is a compilation album by Vancouver punk band Nomeansno. Recorded in 1991 and released as a digital album in 2010, it includes five outtakes and four demo tracks recorded for 0 + 2 = 1, Nomeansno's fifth full-length record and final album to feature Nomeansno's longtime guitarist Andy Kerr.


0 + 2 = 1 ½, Background and release
In July 1991, Nomeansno returned to Profile Sound Studios to record their follow-up to the album Wrong with producer Cecil English. They recorded 19 songs during the sessions, of which 11 appeared on the final record, 0 + 2 = 1 on Alternative Tentacles, two on the "Oh Canaduh" 7-inch EP on Allied Recordings, and one on the Dead Kennedys tribute album Virus 100. The remaining five outtakes were ultimately re-recorded for subsequent Nomeansno albums, but went unreleased in these earlier forms for 19 years.


0 + 2 = 1 ½, Background and release
Andy Kerr, who departed the band after the touring in support of the album's release, later rediscovered the outtakes and demo versions of unused songs from the era. Ultimately, the band released these as 0 + 2 = 1 ½, a digitally released compilation through their own Wrong Records imprint. The album was initially issued as a free download.


0 A.D. (video game)
0 A.D. is a free and open-source real-time strategy video game under development by Wildfire Games. It is a historical war and economy game focusing on the years between 500 BC and 1 BC, with the years between 1 AD and 500 AD planned to be developed in the future. The game is cross-platform, playable on Windows, macOS, Linux, FreeBSD, and OpenBSD. It is composed entirely of free software and free media, using the GNU GPLv2 (or later) license for the game engine source code, and the CC BY-SA license for the game art and music.


0 A.D. (video game), Gameplay
0 A.D. features the traditional real-time strategy gameplay components of building a base, developing an economy, training an army, engaging in combat, and researching new technologies. The game includes multiple units and buildings specific to each civilization as well as both land and naval units.


0 A.D. (video game), Gameplay
During the game, the player advances from "village phase", to "town phase", to "city phase". The phases represent the sizes of settlements in history, and every phase unlocks new units, buildings, and technologies.


0 A.D. (video game), Gameplay
Multiplayer functionality is implemented using peer-to-peer networking, without a central server.


0 A.D. (video game), Development
0 A.D. originally began in 2001 as a comprehensive total conversion mod concept for Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings. The development team later decided that making the project as a mod was too limiting to their creative freedom, and elected to move their art and ideas to an in-house engine, making it a standalone game.


0 A.D. (video game), Development
The historical accuracy of the game elements has been the highest development priority. Unit and building names are shown in the original language of the civilization they belong to, and they are also translated into the language in which the user is playing the game. There is also a strong focus on attempting to provide a high visual accuracy of unit armor, weapons, and buildings.


0 A.D. (video game), Development
On 10 July 2009, Wildfire Games released the source code for 0 A.D. under the GNU GPLv2 (or later) license, and made the artwork available under the CC BY-SA license.


0 A.D. (video game), Development
There were around ten to fifteen people working on 0 A.D. around 23 March 2010; but since development started, over 100 people have contributed to the project. On 5 September 2013, an Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign was started with a US$160,000 goal. They raised a total of US$33,251 to be used to hire a programmer. The majority of the project's finances are managed by the Software in the Public Interest organisation. There is no official release date set for the finished version of the game.


0 A.D. (video game), Development
The composers of the music in the game are Omri Lahav, Jeff Willet, Mike Skalandunas, and Shlomi Nogay. A 26-track soundtrack was released on 8 June 2018.


0 A.D. (video game), Reception
In 2012, 0 A.D. received second place in the IndieDB Player's Choice Upcoming Indie Game of the Year competition. 0 A.D. has been generally well received. It was voted as LinuxQuestions.org "Open Source Game of the Year for 2013". Between 2010 and June 2021, the game was downloaded from Sourceforge.net over 1.3 million times.


0 Avenue
0 Avenue is a road in the Lower Mainland, British Columbia straddling the Canada–United States border, stretching from Surrey to Abbotsford. The road runs parallel to the physical border between Canada and the United States.


0 Avenue
The road begins near the Peace Arch Border Crossing, and continues eastward for 28.9 kilometres (18.0 mi), with gaps around the Pacific Highway and Lynden–Aldergrove Border Crossings. Boundary Road on the US side runs for 1.5 miles along 0 Avenue and again one mile to the west, with many cameras watching the border, before the U.S. road ends at the Lynden–Aldergrove Border Crossing. 0 Avenue continues west along the northern border of Peace Arch Historical State Park to Peace Arch Crossing. Small pedestrian bridges cross a trench on the border. At the eastern end of 0 Avenue, the road turns north.


0 Avenue
The road is a haven for smugglers, even though the border controls have tightened up since the September 11 attacks. The first known drug tunnel along the Canada–United States border was found east of the Lynden–Aldergrove crossing in 2005. Some asylum seekers have also tried to move to Canada from the U.S. via 0 Avenue.


0 Day Attack on Earth
0 Day Attack on Earth is an action shooter video game developed by Japanese studio Gulti and published by Square Enix for the Xbox 360. The game was released on December 23, 2009, and revolves around players defending Paris, New York, and Tokyo from an alien assault.