the following detailed description is of the best presently contemplated modes of carrying out the invention . this description is not to be taken in a limiting sense , but is made merely for the purpose of illustrating general principles of embodiments of the invention . in order to address the loss issues discussed above , a photovoltaic device based on a — dbab — type of block copolymer system , as shown in fig5 is provided . the invention is further described in “ design of a block copolymer solar cell ,” sol . energy mater . sol . cells , 79 , 257 - 264 ( 2003 ), incorporated herein by reference . in this novel block copolymer system , d is a π electron conjugated donor block with an optical gap matching the desired photon flux and energy ( i . e ., solar spectra and maximum photon flux range in case of solar cells , or optical signal wavelength in case of photo detectors ), a is a conjugated acceptor block , also with an optical gap matching the desired photon energy and maximum flux , and the energy level differences between the donor and acceptor blocks are such that it is just sufficient enough to overcome the exciton binding energy . b is a non - conjugated and flexible bridge unit with a much higher band gap than both the donor and the acceptor blocks , as shown in fig6 . since both the donor and acceptor blocks are π electron conjugated chains , good carrier transport in both donor and acceptor phases now becomes feasible . a non - conjugated and flexible bridge unit ( such as an aliphatic chain containing only a bonds ) is important because : ( 1 ) a non - conjugated bridge unit will hinder the intra - chain electron - hole recombination due to the partially insulating nature of organic single bond chains ; ( 2 ) intra - or inter - molecular energy and electron transfer or electron - hole separation can still proceed effectively through a bonds or through space under photo - excitations , as shown by m . r . wasielewski , et al ., in “ factoring through - space and through - bond contributions to rates of photoinduced electron transfer in donor - spacer - acceptor molecules ,” j . photochem . & amp ; photobiol . ( a ), 102 ( 1 ), 71 ( 1997 ), incorporated herein by reference ; ( 3 ) the flexibility of the flexible bridge unit would also enable the rigid donor and acceptor conjugated blocks more easily to phase separate and self - assemble and be less susceptible to conjugation distortion . this — dbab — backbone can be called the “ primary structure ” ( fig5 ). additionally , the substituents of donor and acceptor blocks can be fine - tuned in such a way that one could introduce forces similar to those exhibited in the derivatized regioselective polythiophenes , as shown by z . bao , et al ., to induce the π orbital closely stacked and ordered “ secondary structure ” as one example shown in fig7 . the π orbital stacked “ secondary structure ” has been found to exhibit dramatically enhanced carrier mobility due to improved π orbital overlapping . finally , through the adjustment of block size , block derivatization , and multi - layer processing protocols , a “ tertiary structure ,” as shown in fig8 where a “ hex ” or columnar - type block copolymer morphology is vertically sandwiched between a larger work function positive electrode ( e . g ., ito - coated transparent sheet or glass ) and a smaller work force function negative electrode e . g ., aluminum or calcium ) can be realized , as shown in fig9 . even better , a thin donor layer can be sandwiched between the lwfe and block copolymer layer and a thin acceptor layer can be sandwiched between the swfe and block copolymer layer , as shown in fig1 . this second device structure would enable a desired asymmetry and favorable chemical potential gradient for asymmetric ( selective ) carrier diffusion and collection under even the two same electrodes . since the diameter of each donor or acceptor block column can be conveniently controlled via synthesis and processing to be within the typical organic exciton diffusion range of 10 - 100 nm , every photo - induced exciton will be in convenient reach of a donor / acceptor interface . at the same time , photo - generated carriers can diffuse more smoothly to their respective electrodes via a truly “ bicontinuous ” or “ channeled ” block copolymer “ hex ” or related columnar morphology . while the increased donor and acceptor interface size and phase morphology will dramatically minimize the exciton and carrier losses , it nevertheless may also increase the carrier recombination at the same interfaces . however , this charge recombination typically occurs on the microseconds or slower timescale , and this is in contrast to the ultra - fast femto - second charge separation rate at the same interface . therefore , the charge carrier recombination does not appear to be of a major concern for solar cell applications where the radiation is continuous . the charge recombination may also be minimized by fine - tuning the energy levels of the materials , as the energy level differences also affect charge recombination rate . this block copolymer photovoltaic device may , to a certain degree , minimize a dye - sensitized solar cell ( dssc ), as reported by m . graetzel , et al ., in “ molecular photovoltaics ,” acct . chem . res ., 33 , 269 ( 2000 ), incorporated herein by reference , yet with whole donor / acceptor interface covered by photo - sensitizing dyes ( band gap matched donor or acceptor units ), and that both donor and acceptor phases are solids with good orbital overlap . additionally , with appropriate adjustment of donor and acceptor block sizes and their substituents , energy levels , or with attachment of better photon energy matched sensitizing dyes on the polymer backbone , it is expected that the photon loss , the exciton loss , and the carrier loss ( including charge recombination ) issues can all be addressed and optimized simultaneously in one such — dbab — type block copolymer photovoltaic device . in order to examine or test the feasibility of this block copolymer solar cell design , a specific — dbab — type of block copolymer was recently synthesized and characterized , and some opto - electronic studies are already in progress , as reported by s . sun , et al ., see , e . g ., “ synthesis and characterization of a novel — bdba — block copolymer system for light harvesting applications ,” in organic photovoltaics iii , spie , 4801 , 114 - 124 ( 2003 ), incorporated herein by reference , and “ conjugated block copolymers for opto - electronic functions ,” syn . met . 137 , 883 - 884 ( 2003 ), incorporated herein by reference . as briefly summarized earlier , a — dbab — or similar analogs , such as — dba —, — dbabd —, — abdba —, etc ., as shown schematically in fig5 is essential in this invention . both donor and acceptor are conjugated chain ( or block ), with the donor having higher lumo / homo levels than the acceptor block , and with the energy level difference preferably closer to the exciton binding energy corresponding to the type of conjugated units , e . g ., 0 . 4 - 0 . 5 ev for ppv type conjugated polymers . additionally , the lumo / homo optical gap of both donor and acceptor preferably match the photon energy , e . g ., 1 . 3 - 2 . 0 ev in case of solar cell applications . typically , the homo / lumo levels in organic materials can be adjusted via electro - active group substitutions on the conjugated chain . the lumo / homo values may be estimated using certain known theoretical models and calculation methods as described by j . l . bredas , et al ., in “ chain - length dependence of electronic and electrochemical properties of conjugated systems : polyacetylene , polyphenylene , polythiophene , and polypyrrole ,” j . am . chem ., 105 , 6555 - 6559 ( 1983 ), incorporated herein by reference , or may be experimentally measured after the materials are synthesized as elaborated below . the size ( or main chain length ) of the donor or acceptor conjugated chain should be no shorter than the typical size of an intra - chain exciton corresponding to the type of conjugated units , and no longer than the average exciton diffusion length corresponding to the type of conjugated units . in ppv for example , the conjugated chain size is preferably between 2 - 10 nm ( corresponding to 3 - 15 phenylene - vinylene repeating units ). the bridge chain should be such that , after coupling with a donor on one end and an acceptor on the other end , at least three consecutive single ( σ ) bonds exist on the bridge chain , and the lumo level of the bridge is higher than the lumo of both the donor and acceptor chains , and that the homo level of the bridge is lower than the homo of both the donor and acceptor chains , as shown in fig6 . in general , most aliphatic chains containing only single ( σ ) bonds can satisfy this lumo / homo energy level requirement . a minimum of three consecutive single bonds would not only ensure a non - conjugated large band gap energy barrier between the two conjugated chains , it also enables the bridge a 180 ° bending capacity from the “ primary structure ” shape , as shown in fig5 to the vertically stacked “ secondary structure ,” as shown in fig7 . while a number of ways or strategies may be used to synthesize the target — dbab — type of block copolymers , at least one strategy or method follows : a two - end functionalized donor chain , a two - end functionalized acceptor chain , and a two - end functionalized bridge chain are synthesized first and separately , and the end functional group of each chain should be such that both donor and acceptor chains will react and couple with the bridge chain , yet the donor chain will not react with the acceptor chain and vice - versa , and each chain will not react with itself . once individual chains are prepared , then either the donor or the acceptor chain is added by drops to an excess amount of the bridge chain , such that predominantly — bdb — or — bab — units are formed first . then — bdb — can react with acceptor ( a ) chain in a 1 : 1 molar ratio , or the — bab — chain can react with the donor ( d ) chain in a 1 : 1 molar ratio . thus , the final conjugated units of — dbab — can be synthesized . such a synthetic protocol has already been demonstrated experimentally by s . sun , et al ., in “ synthesis and characterization of a novel — bdba — block copolymer system for light harvesting applications ,” in organic photovoltaics iii , spie proc ., 4801 , 114 - 124 ( 2003 ), incorporated herein by reference , and as shown in fig1 . once the donor ( d ) and acceptor ( a ) chains are synthesized , their lumo / homo levels should be measured or determined first before proceeding further . the experimental determination of lumo / homo levels of organic materials may use standard literature procedures , for instance , those described by s . janietz , et al ., in “ electrochemical determination of the ionization potential and electron affinity of poly9 , 9 - dioctylfluorene ,” appl . phy . lett ., 73 , 2453 - 2455 ( 1998 ), incorporated herein by reference . once the measured lumo / homo values indeed satisfy or meet the criteria set forth in this invention , then final — dbab — type block copolymer synthesis can proceed according to the protocol described above . photovoltaic devices ( cells ) can be fabricated as follows : for the first device , shown in fig9 the photovoltaic block copolymer samples first need to be dissolved in an appropriate solvent that can be conveniently dried . then the polymer solution needs to be filtered ( preferably using a 0 . 2 micron pore size ptfe filter , i . e ., teflon ®) to remove large insoluble particles . the sample solution can then be either spin coated or simply drop dried onto a pre - cleaned india tin oxide ( ito ) conducting glass slide . the thickness of the thin film can be controlled in a number of ways , such as concentration of the solution , the spin coating speed ( in case of spin coating ), etc . the solvent residue can be removed by heating , exposure to a vacuum , or a combination of both , such as in a heated vacuum oven . the film thickness can be measured using a number of methods or tools ; one such method is to use a commercially available profilometer . the thickness of the film needs to be controlled ; if the film is too thick , photo - generated carrier loss would become larger , particularly for amorphous thin films without any molecular self - assembly . however , if the film is too thin , photon loss would be more severe as absorption is best when the film thickness is close to the wavelength of the photon . for solar energy applications , since the maximum solar photon flux is between 600 - 900 nm , an ideal thickness should be in this range . yet in reality , due to the carrier loss problem , a balanced approach has to be applied ; therefore , a 100 - 200 nm thick photovoltaic polymer layer is desirable and is typically applied in most organic pv cells fabricated so far . block copolymer supramolecular structure or morphology , defined as “ secondary ” and “ tertiary ” structures in this invention , is very critical for exciton diffusion , charge separation , and , particularly , carrier transportation . for instance , schwartz , et al ., in “ control of energy transfer in oriented conjugated polymer - mesoporous silica composites ,” science , 288 , 652 ( 2000 ), incorporated herein by reference , demonstrated that the energy transfer ( exciton diffusion ) in a ppv system is more effective between the parallel aligned conjugated chains ( inter - chain ) than within the chain ( intra - chain ); however , charge carrier transportation is more effective or faster along the conjugated chain ( intra - chain ) than between the conjugated chains ( inter - chain ). this is one of the reasons that the example “ secondary ” and “ tertiary ” structures in this invention , as shown in fig7 - 8 , are desirable and particularly beneficial for photovoltaic functions , since the excitons generated anywhere can now diffuse , or couple , among the vertically aligned conjugated chains efficiently , and the charged carriers will be able to transport efficiently along the vertically aligned conjugated chain to the respective top and bottom electrodes . block copolymer supramolecular structures and morphologies can be manipulated or controlled using a variety of methods . for instance , by using different film forming methods , such as spin coating or drop drying , by changing solvent or concentration , by simple heating after films are dried ( also called thermal annealing ), and by applying certain external forces such as magnetic , electric , or optical forces . for instance , for the example “ secondary structure ,” as shown in fig7 since the charges ( positive and negative ) can move more effectively along the conjugated chain direction , the external magnetic fields , electric fields , or polarized light could be a driving force for the preferential alignment of the rigid conjugated chains to the electric field direction . recent reports of solar cell performance improvement after certain thermal and electrical post - treatments of a conjugated polymer / fullerene binary thin film may be evidence of such morphology improvements , as reported by f . padinger , et al ., in “ effects of postproduction treatment on plastic solar cells ,” adv . funct . mater ., 13 , 1 - 4 ( 2003 ), incorporated herein by reference . finally , a smaller work function metal electrode , such as aluminum , can be deposited on top of the block copolymer thin film using a standard vacuum thermal evaporation method . [ 0059 ] fig1 shows an example of a half - ito covered photovoltaic device fabricated using the above - mentioned protocol . in this example device fabrication , for instance , a 20 × 40 mm sized ito glass slide was immersed halfway into a concentrated sulfuric acid / chromerge cleaning solution for over 8 hours in order to dissolve part of the ito covered area completely . the purpose of using a partially covered ito glass is to avoid a possible electrode touching induced short circuit by creating an aluminum electrode contact area where there is no ito conducting layer right below . then the whole ito glass was submerged briefly into a cleaning solution and was then rinsed with water and ethanol and dried . the ito slide was then spin coated with approximately 100 nm thick polymer film from a polymer solution . after the film is dried , an aluminum electrode approximately 100 nm thick was vacuum deposited on top of the polymer film . the active area of the photovoltaic cell is defined by the area where aluminum is overlapping with an ito layer . the active area size may be used to calculate the current density as defined by the total measured current divided by the active area . in this example fabrication , the active area is 10 × 10 mm . once the photovoltaic cell is fabricated , the photo current can be measured by irradiating the cell from the transparent ito glass slide and , at the same time , measuring the current from the ito ( positive ) electrode to the aluminum ( negative ) electrode using a sensitive current meter . fig1 shows the photocurrent density comparison between several photovoltaic cells fabricated from 100 nm thick film of ( 1 ) an ro - ppv ( donor ) and an sf - ppv - i ( acceptor ) based — dbab — block copolymer ; and ( 2 ) ro - ppv / sf - ppv - i equal molar blend ; and ( 3 ) commercially available meh - ppv / fullerenes equal molar blend ; and ( 4 ) current densities without light radiation ( dark current ). the light source in this case was a 150 w xe lamp with a 15 × 15 mm beam size and a wavelength tunable by a monochromator inside an isa fluoromax - 3 fluorescence spectrophotometer . the intensity of the light is about 0 . 01 sun ( one sun equals 100 mw / cm 2 ). as fig1 demonstrates , the peak photocurrent of the — dbab — film was almost doubled in comparison to the simple d / a blend . while the shape of the photocurrent versus wavelength reflects both materials &# 39 ; optical ( photon ) absorptions as well as light intensity variations , the significant photo current magnitude improvement at the same wavelength is a reflection of either ( a ) the increased donor / acceptor interface ; or ( b ) better film morphology or smoother carrier transportation pathways ; or ( c ) both factors . thus , even these very preliminary and not yet optimized tests reveal the superiority of this invention . additionally , in order to further enhance charged carrier collections at the electrodes , a thin layer ( about 1 nm thick ) of lithium fluoride ( lif ) can be vacuum deposited between the photoactive materials layer and the ( metal ) negative electrode , and a thin ( 50 - 100 nm ) poly ( ethylene dioxythiophene )/ polystyrene sulfonic acid ( pss / pedot ) layer can be spin coated ( from an aqueous solution ) between the ito glass and the photoactive materials layer . both lif and pss / pedot are commercially available and have been known to improve the carrier collection at the respective electrodes , as shown by c . brabec , et al ., in “ organic photovoltaics : concepts and realization ,” springer , berlin ( 2003 ), incorporated herein by reference . finally , a second photovoltaic device can also be fabricated , as shown in fig1 . now a thin donor layer ( with thickness less than the average exciton diffusion range , such as 10 nm in case of ppv ) is added between the positive electrode and the photovoltaic block copolymer layer , and another thin acceptor layer ( also with a thickness less than the average exciton diffusion length ) is also added between the photovoltaic block copolymer layer and the negative electrode . additionally , a 50 - 100 nm thick pss / pedot layer can also be added between the positive electrode ( such as an ito electrode ) and the donor layer , and a 1 nm thick lif layer can also be added between the acceptor layer and the negative electrode layer ( such as an al electrode ) in order to enhance carrier collection at both electrodes . in practice , it is desirable and also critical that , when depositing ( either spin coating or drop drying ) the second donor layer on top of the first pss / pedot layer , the solvent dissolving the donor will not dissolve the dried pss / pedot layer . the same principle is also applicable for the third block copolymer layer in reference to the second donor layer , and to the fourth acceptor layer in reference to the — dbab — block layer , and so on . one major advantage of this second photovoltaic cell is that the added donor and acceptor layers would create a desire asymmetry ( or photo - induced chemical potential gradient ) in the photoactive medium itself ( without electrodes ), so that even if the two electrodes are the same , asymmetric voltage or current would still be generated by light radiation where the donor layer side would gather more photo - generated holes and therefore constitute the positive electrode side , and the acceptor layer would be rich in photo - generated electrons and therefore constitute a negative electrode side . this contemplated arrangement may be achieved in a variety of configurations . while there has been described what are believed to be the preferred embodiment of the present invention , those skilled in the art will recognize that other and further changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit of the invention , and it is intended to claim all such changes and modifications as fall within the true scope of the invention .