a solar cell is disclosed that may include a quantum dot , an electron conductor , and a bifunctional ligand disposed between the quantum dot and the electron conductor . the bifunctional ligand may include a first anchor group that bonds to the quantum dot and a second anchor group that bonds to the electron conductor . the solar cell may include a hole conductor that is configured to reduce the quantum dot once the quantum dot absorbs a photon and ejects an electron through the bifunctional ligand and into the electron conductor . the hole conductor may be a p - type polymer .