substrates are charged with a material by introducing the substrates into an evacuated vacuum container and exposing the surface of the substrates to a reactive gas which is adsorbed on the surface . the exposure is then terminated and the reactive gas adsorbed on the surface is allowed to react . the surface with the adsorbed reactive gas is exposed to a low - energy plasma discharge with ion energy e 10 on the surface of the substrate of 0 & lt ; e 10 ≦ 20 ev and an electron energy e eo of 0 ev & lt ; e eo ≦ 100 ev . the adsorbed reactive gas is allowed to react at least with the cooperation of plasma - generated ions and electrons and wherein the density of the resulting material charging on the substrate surface is controlled to have a predetermined density ranging from isolated atoms , to forming a continuous monolayer .