The Regius Professorships, rare honours granted by the sovereign, celebrate the key role of research in driving growth and productivity.
Only two were granted in the 20th Century, but the Queen created 12 for her Diamond Jubilee in 2012.
Universities are invited to compete for the new awards. No funding is attached.
In the past, Regius Professorships were created when a university chair was founded or endowed by a royal patron.
Before 2012, they were limited to a handful of the ancient universities, namely Oxford, Cambridge, St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Trinity College, Dublin.
The Diamond Jubilee awards expanded to include academics at another 12 universities in 2012.
The title of Regius Professor was held by the late historian Hugh Trevor-Roper and the 18th-Century poet Thomas Gray.
Universities Minister Jo Johnson said: "The UK's exceptional research and innovation capability is crucial to powering our economy and improving millions of lives.
"These new Regius Professorships will recognise the academic excellence and real-world impact of university research across the country."
Twelve prestigious professorships recognising high-quality research at UK universities are being announced to mark the Queen's 90th birthday.