where are the protons of the electron transport chain located
Electron transport chain According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient (proton gradient). This gradient is used by the FOF1 ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain.[6] The FO component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits.[7] The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the FO turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required.[8] After c subunits, protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix.[7] This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD+ and Q). The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F1 component of the complex.[9] Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein, thermogenin—present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue—provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production.[10] Synthetic uncouplers (e.g., 2,4-dinitrophenol) also exist, and, at high doses, are lethal.[citation needed]
Thalamus It is a midline symmetrical structure of two halves, within the vertebrate brain, situated between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain.
Citric acid cycle Products of the first turn of the cycle are one GTP (or ATP), three NADH, one QH2, and two CO2.
Backshore Sediments in this area are well-sorted and well-rounded. Its grain sizes are mainly coarse sand and medium sand, which are larger than that in littoral barrier dune.The sedimentary structures include parallel bedding and low-angle cross-bedding.