We investigate the radial dependence of the scaling relations of dust attenuation in nearby galaxies using integral field spectroscopy data from MaNGA. We identify ionized gas regions of kiloparsec size from MaNGA galaxies and for each region we estimate both the stellar attenuation EB  VSUBstarSUB and gas attenuation EB  VSUBgasSUB. We then quantify the correlations of 15 regionalglobal properties with EB  VSUBgasSUB and EB  VSUBstarSUB using both the feature importance obtained with the Random Forest regression technique and the Spearman correlation coefficients. The importance of stellar mass metallicity and nebular velocity dispersion found previously from studies based on the Sloan Digital Sky Survey can be reproduced if our analysis is limited to the central region of galaxies. The scaling relations of both EB  VSUBgasSUB and EB  VSUBstarSUB are found to vary strongly as one goes from the galactic center to outer regions and from Hbright regions to Hfaint regions. For EB  VSUBgasSUB N IIS II is topranked with a much higher correlation coefficient than any other property at 0 lt R  R SUB e SUB while O IIIO II outperforms N IIS II as the leading property in the outermost region. For EB  VSUBstarSUB stellar age shows the strongest correlation with noweak dependence on radial distance although SUBH SUB and specific star formation rate present similarly strong correlations with EB  VSUBstarSUB in the galactic center. We find Hbright regions to generally show stronger correlations with EB  VSUBgasSUB while Hfaint regions are more strongly correlated with EB  VSUBstarSUB although this depends on individual properties and radial distance. The implications of our results for studies of highz galaxies are discussed.
['Interstellar dust', 'Interstellar dust extinction', 'Scaling relations', 'Random Forests', '836', '837', '2031', '1935', 'Astrophysics - Astrophysics of Galaxies']
Estimating Dust Attenuation from Galactic Spectra. III. Radial Variations of Dust Attenuation Scaling Relations in MaNGA Galaxies
{'Estimating Dust Attenuation From Galactic Spectra. III. Radial variations of dust attenuation scaling relations in MaNGA galaxies': '<!-- image -->  \nNiu Li  \n1  \nand Cheng Li  \n1  \n1 Department of Astronomy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China', 'ABSTRACT': 'We investigate the radial dependence of the scaling relations of dust attenuation in nearby galaxies using integral field spectroscopy (IFS) data from MaNGA. We identify ionized gas regions of kpc sizes from MaNGA galaxies, and for each region we estimate both the stellar attenuation E ( B -V ) star and gas attenuation E ( B -V ) gas . We then quantify the correlations of 15 regional/global properties with E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star , using both the feature importance obtained with the Random Forest regression technique and the Spearman correlation coefficients. The importance of stellar mass, metallicity and nebular velocity dispersion found previously from SDSS-based studies can be reproduced if our analysis is limited to the central region of galaxies. The scaling relations of both E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star are found to strongly vary as one goes from the galactic center to outer regions, and from H α -bright regions to H α -faint regions. For E ( B -V ) gas , [N ii ]/[S ii ] is top ranked with a much higher correlation coefficient than any other property at 0 < R ≲ R e , while [O iii ]/[O ii ] outperforms [N ii ]/[S ii ] as the leading property in the outermost region. For E ( B -V ) star , stellar age shows the strongest correlation with no/weak dependence on radial distance, although Σ H α and sSFR present similarly strong correlations with E ( B -V ) star in the galactic center. We find H α -bright regions to generally show stronger correlations with E ( B -V ) gas , while H α -faint regions are more strongly correlated with E ( B -V ) star , although depending on individual properties and radial distance. The implications of our results on studies of highz galaxies are discussed.  \nKeywords: Dust attenuation - Integral field spectroscopy', '1. INTRODUCTION': "Ubiquitously distributed in interstellar medium (ISM) and accounting for only ∼ 1% of the mass of a typical galaxy (e.g. R'emy-Ruyer et al. 2014; Driver et al. 2018), dust forms through the ejecta of asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars and supernovae (e.g. Dwek 1998; Popping et al. 2017), grows by accreting gas-phase metals (Dominik & Tielens 1997; Dwek 1998; Zhukovska 2014), and can be destroyed through supernova shocks, thermal sputtering and grain collisions, or incorporated into newly formed stars (e.g., Dwek 1998; Bianchi & Ferrara 2005; Nozawa et al. 2007). Interstellar dust is composed of grains of different sizes ranging from 5 to 250 nm typically (Weingartner & Draine 2001), and made of various chemical elements (Draine 2003). The  \nCorresponding author: Niu Li & Cheng Li  \nliniu@tsinghua.edu.cn  \ncli2015@tsinghua.edu.cn  \nsize, mass and chemical composition of dust grains may evolve through various mechanisms (Asano et al. 2013).  \nDust plays important roles in the thermodynamics and chemistry of the ISM as well as star formation and radiative transfer in the host galaxy (e.g. Conroy 2013). Dust can facilitate star formation in galaxies by acting as a catalyst in the formation of molecular Hydrogen (Draine 2003) and cooling down the ISM through thermal emission in infrared (Montier & Giard 2004) and depletion of metals onto dust grains (Schneider et al. 2006). Dust grains may absorb or scatter the light emitted by stars, thus reshaping the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the galaxy, an effect known as dust attenuation or dust extinction (Galliano et al. 2018; Salim & Narayanan 2020). Dust attenuation laws can be generally characterized by three distinct properties: the dust attenuation curve (attenuation as a function of wavelength) which is approximately a power law in optical and UV, the UV bump which accounts for the excess attenuation at around 2175 ˚ A, and the relation between the stellar and nebular attenuation which is usually quanti-  \nied by comparing the optical color excess E ( B -V ) star and E ( B -V ) gas as measured from the stellar continuum and the Balmer emission lines. In a recent review article, Salim & Narayanan (2020) summarized previous studies of the attenuation curve and UV bump in galaxies of different redshifts, which have been mostly limited to global measurements of the galaxies. Spatially-resolved dust attenuation curves and the UV bump strength have recently been derived for a sample of nearby galaxies based on the Swift /UVOT data (e.g. Molina et al. 2020; Belles et al. 2023; Duffy et al. 2023; Zhou et al. 2023).  \nThe correlation between E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star was originally studied by Fanelli et al. (1988) who found E ( B -V ) gas to be significantly higher than E ( B -V ) star . Calzetti et al. (1994, 2000) analyzed a sample of local starburst galaxies and found a typical ratio of the stellarto-gas attenuation of f ≡ E ( B -V ) star / E ( B -V ) gas ≈ 0 . 44. Extensive studies in the past two decades in different types of galaxies and at different redshifts have confirmed the larger attenuation in gas than in stellar populations, but finding f to vary over a wide range, from 0.44 to ∼ 1 (e.g., Calzetti et al. 2000; Riffel et al. 2008; Reddy et al. 2010; Wuyts et al. 2011; Kashino et al. 2013; Kreckel et al. 2013; Wuyts et al. 2013; Price et al. 2014; Pannella et al. 2015; Valentino et al. 2015; Puglisi et al. 2016; Zahid et al. 2017; Buat et al. 2018; Koyama et al. 2019; Qin et al. 2019). The discrepancy between E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star may be generally explained by a two-component dust model in which the dust disk of a galaxy is formed of two components: a diffuse and optically-thin component distributed throughout the ISM, plus dense and optically-thick clouds (birth clouds) where young stars are born (e.g., Charlot & Fall 2000; Wild et al. 2011; Chevallard et al. 2013). In this model, the emission lines produced in star-forming regions are attenuated by both the dust in the birth clouds and that in the ambient ISM, while the continuum radiation of older stars is attenuated only by the diffuse dust in ISM. Consequently, if spatially-resolved observations are available, one would expect a stronger correlation between E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star in star-forming regions than in regions dominated by diffuse ionized gas (DIG), as well as a strong dependence of the value of f on the average age of stars in the ionized regions. In fact, recent studies of the spatially-resolved E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star in lowz galaxies based on integral field spectroscopy data from the Mapping Nearby Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory (MaNGA; Bundy et al. 2015) survey have produced consistent results with this model (e.g., Greener et al. 2020; Lin & Kong 2020; Li et al. 2021; Riffel et al. 2021).  \nThere have been many studies focused on the gas attenuation only, which can be easily measured from the Balmer decrement (H α /H β ) for galaxies at different redshifts, aiming to understand how E ( B -V ) gas depends on the physical properties of galaxies. These studies have established that, among many properties and fol-  \nwed by star formation rate and gas-phase metallicity, the stellar mass appear to be the most important property in driving E ( B -V ) gas for both low-redshift galaxies (e.g., Asari et al. 2007; Garn & Best 2010; Maheson et al. 2024) and high-redshift galaxies (e.g., Pannella et al. 2009; Garn et al. 2010; Whitaker et al. 2017; McLure et al. 2018; Shapley et al. 2022, 2023). As pointed out by Maheson et al. (2024), the strong dependence of dust attenuation on stellar mass is expected from simple analytical relations between dust-to-gas mass, stellar mass and metallicity. However, the previous studies have been largely based on single-fiber or slitless spectroscopy, thus limited to dust attenuation and galaxy properties measured in the central region of lowz galaxies, or the global measurements for galaxies at higher redshifts. The use of IFS data should provide valuable insights into the scaling relations of dust attenuation which essentially rely on how the two dust components are distributed across the galaxy. Based on the MaNGA data, Lin & Kong (2020) and Li et al. (2021, hereafter Paper II) have recently highlighted the significance of gas-phase metallicity and ionization level in relation to E ( B -V ) gas at kpc scales, with the [N ii ]/[S ii ] flux ratio being particularly identified as the most important property. The discrepancy between the IFS-based studies and those based on single-fiber spectroscopy data should be partly (if not fully) attributed to the different spatial resolutions of the data used in different studies. The discrepancy also strongly implies that the scaling relations of dust attenuation vary from region to region within galaxies.  \nThis work is the third of a series of papers dedicated to spatially-resolved dust attenuation in MaNGA galaxies. In Li et al. (2020, hereafter Paper I), we developed a new technique to estimate a model-independent attenuation curve from the observed optical spectrum for each spaxel in MaNGA datacubes. In Paper II, we applied this technique to approximately 8000 unique galaxies from MaNGA to investigate the correlation between E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star in both DIG and H ii regions, examining how the correlation depends on the physical properties of galaxies. A total number of 16 regional or global properties were considered. In this work, we extend the study of Paper II by further examining how the scaling relations of both E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star depend on the radial distance of the ionized regions. We will firstly concentrate on the central region of our galaxies in order to make comparisons with previous studies of single-fiber spectroscopy data. We then consider the regions at all different radial distances. We use Random Forest regression to assess the feature importance of the galactic properties, and also use the Spearman correlation coefficient to quantify the correlation strength between dust attenuation and the properties.  \nThe paper is organized as follows. In section 2 we describe the observational data, the quantities measured from the data, and the samples for our analysis. We  \nthen present our results in section 3 and discuss on the results in section 4. Finally, we summarize in section 5. Throughout this paper we assume a Λ cold dark matter cosmology model with Ω m = 0 . 3, Ω Λ = 0 . 7, and H 0 = 70 km s -1 Mpc -1 . We assume a Chabrier (2003) initial mass function (IMF).", '2. DATA': 'The data used in this work is the same as in Paper II. In this section we briefly describe the data and measurements, and refer the reader to § 2 of Paper II for a comprehensive description.', '2.1. MaNGA': "As one of the key components of the fourth-generation Sloan Digital Sky Survey project (SDSS-IV; Blanton et al. 2017), the MaNGA survey obtained IFS data for 10,010 nearby galaxies over its six-year operation from July 2014 through August 2020 (Bundy et al. 2015). MaNGA utilize 17 hexagonal science integral field units with a field of views ranging from 12 '' to 32 '' to obtain IFS datacubes covering out to 1.5 or 2.5 effective radii ( R e ) of the target galaxies (Drory et al. 2015). The target galaxies are selected from the SDSS-based catalog, NASA Sloan Atlas (NSA Blanton et al. 2011) so as to cover a stellar mass range of 5 × 10 8 M ⊙ h -2 ≤ M ∗ ≤ 3 × 10 11 M ⊙ h -2 and a redshift range of 0 . 01 < z < 0 . 15 with a median redshift of z ∼ 0 . 03 (Wake et al. 2017). The MaNGA spectra span a wavelength range from 3622 ˚ A to 10354 ˚ A with a spectral resolution R ∼ 2000 and an r -band signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of 4 -8 per ˚ A per 2 '' fiber at 1 -2 R e of the galaxies.  \nMaNGA raw data are reduced with the Data Reduction Pipeline (DRP; Law et al. 2016) which produces a datacube for each target galaxy with a spaxel (spatial pixel) size of 0 '' .5 × 0 '' .5 and an effective spatial resolution of ∼ 2 '' .5. The absolute flux calibration of the MaNGA spectra is < 5% for > 80% of the wavelength range. Spectral flux calibration, survey execution strategy and data quality tests are detailed in Yan et al. (2016a) and Yan et al. (2016b). Additionally, the Data Analysis Pipeline (DAP) performs full spectral fitting to the reduced datacubes, deriving measurements of stellar kinematics, emission lines, and spectral indices (Westfall et al. 2019; Belfiore et al. 2019). The final data from MaNGA including DRP and DAP products of 11,273 datacubes for 10,010 unique galaxies are released as a part of the SDSS Data Release 17 (SDSS DR17; Abdurro'uf et al. 2022). In this work, we make use of an earlier sample, the MaNGA Product Launch 9, which includes 8113 datacubes for 8000 unique galaxies, a random subset of the final sample in SDSS/DR17.", '2.2. Identifying Ionized Gas Regions': "We first identify ionized gas regions in the MaNGA galaxies, and for each region we then quantify the stellar and gas attenuation, along with other relevant prop-  \nerties. Following the methodology described in Liang et al. (2020), we apply the publicly available H ii -region finder HII EXPLORER (S'anchez et al. 2012) to the H α flux map to detect the ionized gas regions. Originally intended for identifying H ii regions, HII EXPLORER commonly applies a relatively high threshold density, for instance, H α surface brightness Σ H α > 10 39 . 5 erg s -1 kpc -2 . Instead, we opt for a much lower threshold of Σ H α > 10 37 . 5 erg s -1 kpc -2 to include DIG regions in our analysis. The identified ionized gas regions each consist of a few to tens of spaxels with similar H α surface densities by definition. We stack the spectra within each region to derive an averaged spectrum with a high S/N (Liang et al. 2020), from which we then calculate the stellar and gas attenuation, as well as other pertinent properties required for our study.  \nDue to the limitation in resolution, it is not possible to resolve individual H ii regions, which typically range in size from a few to hundreds of parsecs (e.g., Kennicutt 1984; Hunt & Hirashita 2009; Anderson et al. 2019). As a result, each of the ionized gas regions identified from MaNGA, which have a size of approximately 1 kpc, may encompass a few to hundreds of individual H ii regions, or represent a combination of DIG and H ii regions. Zhang et al. (2017) found that Σ H α can be effectively utilized to differentiate DIG-dominated regions from H ii -dominated regions within the MaNGA galaxies, with an empirical dividing value of Σ H α ∼ 10 39 erg s -1 kpc -2 . Accordingly we divide the ionized regions in our sample into two subsets, and for simplicity we will refer to H ii -dominated regions as H α -bright regions and DIG-dominated regions as H α -faint regions in what follows.", '2.3. Measuring gas and stellar attenuations and regional properties': "For each of the ionized regions as identified above, we firstly obtain a model-independent attenuation curve ( A λ -A V ) by applying the technique developed in Paper I to the stacked spectrum of the region. In this method, the observed spectrum is first decomposited into two components, separately including the small-scale features ( S ) and large-scale spectral shape ( L ), by applying a moving-average filter. The spectrum of each single stellar-population model template is also separated into the S and L components in the same way. The intrinsic dust-free model spectrum of the stellar component is then obtained by fitting the observed ratio of the smallto large-scale spectral components ( S/L ) obs to the corresponding ratio of the model spectra ( S/L ) model . Since the small- and large-scale components are affected by dust in the same way, their ratio S/L is expected to be dust-free, as long as the dust attenuation curves are similar for different stellar populations in a galactic region. Finally, A λ -A V is determined by comparing the observed spectrum with the best-fit model spectrum. Sub-  \nquently, the value of E ( B -V ) star , defined as A B -A V , is obtained from the attenuation curve.  \nNext, we use the attenuation curve to correct the effect of dust attenuation for the observed spectrum. We then perform full spectral fitting to the dust-free spectrum, and measure stellar population parameters from the best-fit spectrum of the stellar component as well as emission line parameters from the starlight-subtracted spectrum. For the spectral fitting, we employ the simple stellar population (SSP) library provided by Bruzual & Charlot (2003, hereafter BC03), which provides spectra for a comprehensive set of 1326 SSPs with 221 different ages ranging from t = 0 Gyr to t = 20 Gyr and six metallicities from Z = 0 . 005 Z ⊙ to Z = 2 . 5 Z ⊙ . The computation of SSPs is based on the Padova evolutionary track (Bertelli et al. 1994) and adopts the stellar initial mass function (IMF) of Chabrier (2003). We select a subset of 150 SSPs, covering 25 ages that are evenly spaced in log 10 t at each of the six metallicities. The effect of stellar velocity and velocity dispersion is taken into account by shifting/broadening the SSP model spectra according to the stellar velocity v ∗ and velocity dispersion σ ∗ measurements provided by the MaNGA DAP. Based on the best-fit stellar spectrum, we then obtain the following parameters to quantify the stellar populations in each region: surface density of stellar mass Σ ∗ , light-weighted stellar age t L , light-weighted stellar metallicity Z L , and the narrow-band version of the 4000 ˚ A break D n 4000 defined by Balogh et al. (1999).  \nWe subtract the best-fit stellar spectrum from the stacked spectrum, and we use Gaussian profiles to fit different emission lines, thus measuring the flux, surface density, velocity dispersion, and equivalent width (EW) of the emission lines within each region. The lines considered particularly in this work include [O ii ] λλ 3726 , 3729, H β , [O iii ] λλ 4959 , 5007, [N ii ] λλ 6548 , 6583, H α , and [S ii ] λλ 6717 , 6731. The fluxes have been corrected for attenuation, using the H α -toH β flux ratio from the observed spectrum and assuming the case-B recombination:  \nE ( B -V ) gas = 2 . 5 k ( λ H β ) -k ( λ H α ) log 10 [ (H α/ H β ) obs 2 . 86 ] , (1)  \nwhere k ( λ H β ) and k ( λ H α ) are the attenuation at the wavelength of H α and H β given by the same attenuation curve as obtained above for the stellar component. Derived from the measurements of emission lines, we have estimated the following parameters to characterize properties related to the gas component: H α surface density Σ H α , H α equivalent width EW H α , H α velocity dispersion σ H α , logarithm of specific star formation rate (SFR) defined by the ratio of SFR to stellar mass sSFR, gas-phase metallicity 12+log 10 (O/H) estimated from the parameter O3N2 ≡ ([O iii ] λ 5007/H β )/([N ii ] λ 6583/H α ) (Pettini & Pagel 2004), logarithm of the flux ratio log 10 ([N ii ]/[O ii ])  \nbetween [N ii ] λ 6583 and [O ii ] λλ 3726 , 3729, logarithm of the flux ratio log 10 ([O iii ]/[O ii ]) between [O iii ] λ 5007 and [O ii ] λλ 3726 , 3729, logarithm of the flux ratio log 10 ([N ii ]/[S ii ]) between [N ii ] λ 6583 and [S ii ] λ 6717. In the subsequent sections, we employ shorthand notations in certain figures to enhance visual clarity: Z gas =12+log 10 (O/H), N2O2=log 10 [N ii ]/[O ii ], O3O2=log 10 [O iii ]/[O ii ], N2S2=log 10 [N ii ]/[S ii ].  \nIn our analysis, we refine our focus to a subset of ionized gas regions exhibiting significantly elevated S/N in both the stellar continuum and the relevant emission lines. Specifically, we stipulate a requirement of S/N > 5 for both the stellar continuum and the H α and H β lines, while a S/N > 3 criterion is imposed for the [O ii ] λλ 3726 , 3729, [O iii ] λ 5007, [N ii ] λ 6583, and [S ii ] λλ 6717 , 6731 lines. Additionally, we exclude regions classified as AGN on the Baldwin-PhillipsTerlevich diagram (BPT; Baldwin et al. 1981). We first exclude all the regions that are classified as Seyferts in the [O iii ]/H β versus [S ii ]/H α diagram. We also exclude the regions that are located within 3 '' from their galactic center and are classified as either low-ionization emission-line regions (LINER) in the [O iii ]/H β versus [S ii ]/H α diagram or as active galactic nuclei (AGN) in the [O iii ]/H β versus [N ii ]/H α diagram. The final sample includes ∼ 2 . 7 × 10 5 ionized gas regions, of which ∼ 40% are H α -faint regions and ∼ 60% are H α -bright regions.", '2.4. Regional and global properties in consideration': "This work is aimed to investigate the dependency of both E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star on a variety of physical properties at various radial distances, both at regional and global scales. In alignment with Paper II, we consider 12 regional properties: log 10 Σ H α , log 10 EW H α , sSFR, log 10 Σ ∗ , log 10 t L , Z L , D n 4000, 12+log 10 (O/H), log 10 [N ii ]/[O ii ], log 10 [O iii ]/[O ii ], log 10 [N ii ]/[S ii ], log 10 σ H α . Note that when compared to Paper II, we have omitted t M and Z M due to their similarities with t L and Z L , while additionally including σ H α which was found in Maheson et al. (2024) to be strongly correlated with E ( B -V ) gas . Furthermore, we consider three global properties: total stellar mass ( M ∗ ), morphological type ( T -type), and the r -band minor-to-major axial ratio ( b/a ). The M ∗ and b/a measurements are derived from NSA, and the T -type parameters are taken from Dom'ınguez S'anchez et al. (2018). A negative value of T -type typically corresponds to early-type morphology, whereas a positive T -type value signifies late-type morphology. In total, we consider a total of 15 properties including 12 regional properties and 3 global properties.", '3. RESULTS': "We present our results in this section. In subsection 3.1, we first focus on the gas-phase attenuation in ionized gas regions that are located less than 3 '' from the  \n<!-- image -->  \nFigure 1. Random Forest regression is employed to analyze the relationship between E ( B -V ) gas and galactic properties in the central region of galaxies. The histograms display the FI of the properties. Note that the maximum FI has been normalized to 1. Panel (a) excludes properties associated with H α flux and [N ii ]/[S ii ], whereas Panel (b) encompasses the entirety of the 15 properties under consideration. In each panel the solid/blue histogram and red histogram show the results respectively for the full sample and the subsample at z ≤ 0 . 03. The errorbar shows standard deviation of feature importance, estimated by bootstrap resampling of all the spaxels in the sample and re-training the Random Forest regression for 100 times.  \n<!-- image -->  \nFigure 2. Random Forest regression is utilized to analyze the relationship between E ( B -V ) gas and galactic properties across various radial bins, as indicated in the legend, using the unit of R e . The histograms depict the FI of the properties. It is noteworthy that the maximum FI in each radial bins has been normalized to 1.  \n<!-- image -->  \ncenter of their host galaxy, for comparison with previous SDSS-based studies (e.g., Maheson et al. 2024). In subsection 3.2, we extend the analysis of gas attenuation to the outer regions of our galaxies. Next, we consider both gas and stellar attenuations in subsection 3.3, and compare H α -bright and H α -faint regions in subsection 3.4. We note that, although we focus on gas attenuation in subsection 3.1 and subsection 3.2, the same analysis is also done for stellar attenuation. The results are consis-  \nnt with those presented in subsection 3.3 and so are not included for simplicity.", '3.1. Feature importance to gas attenuation at galactic center': "We first focus on the central regions of our galaxies. We utilize the technique of Random Forest regression to analyze the relationship between E ( B -V ) gas and the 15 regional/global properties. In practice, we use the Ran-  \ndom Forest regressor from the Python Scikit-learn package (Pedregosa et al. 2011). Figure 1 displays the result of the feature importance (FI) analysis as the solid/blue histograms. In Panel (a), following the approach outlined by Maheson et al. (2024), we exclude Σ H α , sSFR and EW H α from the analysis considering that all the three parameters are based on the H α flux which is corrected for dust attenuation through the Balmer decrement. Additionally, for this panel we omit [N ii ]/[S ii ], a parameter that was not considered in Maheson et al. (2024). As can be seen, σ H α and M ∗ emerge as the most influential properties in predicting E ( B -V ) gas , with subsequent importance attributed to Z L and [O iii ]/[O ii ], both intricately linked to stellar and gas metallicity. The results are in good agreement with Maheson et al. (2024), demonstrating that the scaling relations derived from single-fiber spectroscopy data within the SDSS are replicable when our analysis is confined to the central region of MaNGA galaxies.  \nNext, we consider all the 15 properties. As shown in Panel (b) of Figure 1, [N ii ]/[S ii ] emerges as the most important property, with a feature importance that is much higher than that of any other property. The most important property in Panel (a), σ H α is now ranked in the second position, followed by M ∗ and Σ H α which exhibit comparable levels of significance. Previous studies have shown that [N ii ]/[S ii ] is sensitive to both metallicity and ionization parameters. Specifically, this parameter exhibits an increasing trend toward higher metallicity (ionization parameter) when the ionization parameter (metallicity) is fixed (Dopita et al. 2013). As mentioned, [N ii ]/[S ii ] was found to strongly correlate with E ( B -V ) gas at kpc scales in MaNGA galaxies regardless of radial distance (Lin & Kong 2020; Li et al. 2021).  \nThe smearing effect duo to the limited spatial resolution of both SDSS and MaNGA may lead to underestimation of the parameters in galactic centers. To test the potential effect of smearing on the FI analysis, we select all the spaxels from those galaxies at z < 0 . 03, where the physical resolution is better than the full sample. The results of the FI analysis for this subsample are shown in Figure 1 as red histograms. For the analysis with the subset of parameters as shown in the left panel, obvious variation is seen between the full sample and the subsample, particularly for M ∗ , Σ ∗ and Z L . At z < 0 . 03 where the smearing effect is less severe, M ∗ is no longer the most important parameter, while regional properties Σ ∗ and Z L become more important. In contrast, for the FI analysis with all the 15 parameters as shown in the right panel, the results of the subsample are consistent with that of the full sample. This test suggests that the FI analysis is robust to the smearing effect as long as the truly relevant parameters are included. It is interesting to note that the FI of σ H α shows little variation between the two samples, a result that is true in both panels.  \n3.2. Feature importance to gas attenuation at all radii  \nWe then consider all the regions and examine how the feature importance to E ( B -V ) gas may vary as one goes from the galactic center to larger radial distances. In Figure 2, we present the FI analysis depicting the relationship between the 15 galactic properties and E ( B -V ) gas across various radial regions from the center to the outer regions. Different colors correspond to different radial bins as indicated. With an increase in distance from the galactic center, several noticeable results can be read from the figure. First, [N ii ]/[S ii ] consistently maintains a high FI across almost all the radii. Specifically, [N ii ]/[S ii ] is the leading parameter out to ∼ R e , before it gives place to Σ H α at 0 . 9 R e < R < 1 . 2 R e with a FI that is only slightly smaller than that of the new leader. Although its FI further drops at larger radii, [N ii ]/[S ii ] ends up with a relatively high FI, taking the fifth position in the largest radial bin. Second, the most important parameters identified previously in Maheson et al. (2024), the FI of M ∗ , Z L and σ H α decreases with increasing distance. In particular, σ H α experiences an immediate and dramatic decline in FI as one goes beyond the first radial bin '[0, 0]', strongly indicating that this parameter is only important in the galactic center. Third, properties associated with H α flux such as Σ H α , EW H α and sSFR exhibit much higher FI in the outer regions than in the galactic center, and they become the dominate parameters in the largest radial bin. Finally, properties linked to gas metallicity and ionization, [N ii ]/[O ii ] and [O iii ]/[O ii ] manifest significantly greater FI at larger radii. In the outermost regions, [O iii ]/[O ii ] even presents a higher FI than [N ii ]/[S ii ].  \nApparently, our findings indicate a pronounced radial variability in the FI of galactic properties to E ( B -V ) gas . This variability introduces a heightened level of complexity to the gas attenuation scaling relations, when compared to previous studies which have been mostly limited to either the galactic center or the whole galaxy.", '3.3. Radial profiles of dust attenuation scaling relation': 'To enable a direct and more intuitive comparison of the radial variations of the dust attenuation scaling relations, we further utilize the Spearman rank correlation coefficients ( ρ ) to quantify the correlation strength of both E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star with all the 15 properties and in all the radial bins. The result of this analysis is shown in Figure 3, where the two panels show the radial profiles of ρ for E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star , respectively. In each panel the different lines/colors correspond to different properties, as indicated. Note that, we show the absolute values of ρ , thus comparing the strength of correlations while ignoring whether the correlations are positive or negative.  \nFor E ( B -V ) gas , as seen from Panel (a) of Figure 3, both the relative ranks of the correlation coefficient for different properties at given radial distance and the radial variations of the correlation coefficient for given  \n<!-- image -->  \nFigure 3. Panel (a): Radial profiles of correlations between E ( B -V ) gas and galactic properties. The x-axis represents the radial distance scaled by R e from the galactic center, while the y-axis depicts the Spearman rank correlation coefficients between E ( B -V ) gas and various galactic properties at different radii. Panel (b): The symbols and lines are the same as in Panel (a) but for E ( B -V ) star .  \n<!-- image -->  \nFigure 4. The three rows describe correlations between E ( B -V ) gas and [O iii ]/[O ii ], [N ii ]/[S ii ], σ H α . The gray-scale background in each panel represents the distributions of all ionized gas regions, with the median relation and 1 σ scatter delineated by black lines. The Spearman rank correlation coefficients ( ρ ) and the range of distance to the galactic center scaled in R e are indicated in the upper-left corner.  \n<!-- image -->  \nproperty are generally consistent with what we have seen above from the analysis of FI provided by Random Forest. For instance, [N ii ]/[S ii ] presents the highest value of ρ out to R ∼ 1 . 3 R e , ranging from ρ = 0 . 76 at R = 0 to ρ ∼ 0 . 5 at 1 . 3 R e , while σ H α shows the maximum decline, starting with a relatively high value of ρ ∼ 0 . 6 and ending with ρ ∼ 0 . 15 at the largest radius. In fact, a negative gradient is seen in all the eight properties that exhibit relatively strong correlations ( ρ > 0 . 5) with E ( B -V ) gas at the galactic center. Ordered by decreasing ρ at R = 0, these properties are [N ii ]/[S ii ], M ∗ , Z L , Σ ∗ , σ H α , Σ H α , 12+log 10 (O/H), and [N ii ]/[O ii ]. In contrast, all the other 7 properties except [O iii ]/[O ii ]  \nshow no/weak radial gradient, thus maintaining relatively weak correlations ( ρ < 0 . 5) at all radial distances. The only exception, [O iii ]/[O ii ] presents significant increase with radius, starting with a low value of ρ ∼ 0 . 3 at R = 0 and reaching the maximum value of ρ ∼ 0 . 5 at R > 1 . 3 R e , even surpassing [N ii ]/[S ii ]. Figure 4 displays the distribution of individual regions on the diagrams formed by E ( B -V ) gas against [O iii ]/[O ii ], [N ii ]/[S ii ] and σ H α . Panels from left to right correspond to different distances from the galactic center, as indicated. The median relation and the 1 σ scatter are plotted as the thick line and the two thin lines in each panel. We see that, [O iii ]/[O ii ] exhibits an increasingly strong and  \nFigure 5. The three rows depict correlations between E ( B -V ) star and Σ H α , sSFR, t L . The symbols and lines are the same as in Figure 4.  \n<!-- image -->  \nnegative correlation with E ( B -V ) gas as the radius increases, while [N ii ]/[S ii ] presents a strong correlation with E ( B -V ) gas in the galactic center and maintains a relatively strong correlation in the outer regions. Regarding σ H α , a strong correlation is found only in the first radial bin, with ρ declining rapidly in the outer regions.  \nFor E ( B -V ) star , as seen from Panel (b) of Figure 3, the correlation coefficient declines for all properties except t L as one goes beyond the galactic center. As a result, in the outermost region t L becomes the only dominant parameter while all the other properties are weakly correlated with E ( B -V ) star . In the galactic center, only three properties show relatively strong correlations with ρ > 0 . 5: Σ H α , sSFR, and t L . Although Σ H α and sSFR exhibit a stronger correlation with E ( B -V ) star than t L in the center, their correlations rapidly decrease with increasing radius. The correlation coefficient of t L is roughly constant at ρ ∼ 0 . 55 -0 . 6 at all radii. These results can also be seen from Figure 5 which displays the individual regions on the diagrams of E ( B -V ) star versus Σ H α , sSFR and t L in different radial bins.  \nIn conclusion, [N ii ]/[S ii ] is the main driver of E ( B -V ) gas , while t L drives E ( B -V ) star from the center to the outer regions, consistent with our findings in Paper II. Several properties exhibit a relatively strong correlation with E ( B -V ) gas in the center, although these correlations notably weaken as the radius increases. Regarding E ( B -V ) star , only SFR-related properties are comparable to correlation of t L in the central regions.', '3.4. Radial profiles of dust attenuation scaling relation in H α -faint and H α -bright regions': 'Figure 6 displays the radial profiles of the correlation coefficient ρ for E ( B -V ) gas (left panels) and E ( B -V ) star (right panels), and for H α -faint (upper  \npanels) and H α -bright (lower panels) regions separately. For E ( B -V ) gas , we see that all of the properties present moderate or weak correlations ( ρ < 0 . 5) in H α -faint regions, while the H α -bright regions show similar results to what we have seen in Panel (a) of the previous figure. This indicates that the scaling relations of E ( B -V ) gas observed for the full sample are predominantly contributed by H α -bright regions. In addition, comparing the H α -bright regions with the full sample, we find EW H α , D n 4000, and Z L to display notably stronger correlations with E ( B -V ) gas , particularly in outer regions with R ≳ R e . Even in the outermost regions, five properties still maintain ρ > 0 . 5, with three of them displaying stronger correlations with E ( B -V ) gas compared to [N ii ]/[S ii ]. This complexity adds challenges to determining the true driving factor among these properties or establishing a scaling relation for estimating E ( B -V ) gas .  \nFor E ( B -V ) star , the result appears less complex in the sense that only a few properties show relatively strong correlations with ρ > 0 . 5 in both H α -faint and H α -bright regions and at any given radius. Nonetheless, the two types of regions are different in several aspects. First, if we only consider H α -faint regions, we find the strong correlation of E ( B -V ) star with t L as seen from Panel (b) of the previous figure remains similarly strong or even stronger over the full range of radial distance, with ρ ∼ 0 . 7 here versus ρ ∼ 0 . 6 in Figure 3. In contrast, for H α -bright regions the correlation of E ( B -V ) star with t L is only moderate, with ρ ∼ 0 . 5, though still independent of radial distance. Second, Σ H α in H α -faint regions shows no correlation with E ( B -V ) star at all radii, while Σ H α in H α -bright regions presents a radial profile of ρ similar to that of the full sample. Third, different from both t L and Σ H α , sSFR presents similar  \nFigure 6. Panel (a) and Panel (c) are Radial profiles of correlations between E ( B -V ) gas and galactic properties in H α -faint regions with Σ H α ≤ 10 39 erg s -1 kpc -2 and H α -bright regions with Σ H α > 10 39 erg s -1 kpc -2 , respectively. Panel (b) and Panel (d) are Radial profiles of correlations between E ( B -V ) star and galactic properties in H α -faint and H α -bright regions, respectively. The symbols and lines are the same as in Figure 3.  \n<!-- image -->  \n(a) Σ  \nH  \nα  \n≤  \n10  \n39  \nerg s  \n-  \n1  \nkpc  \n-  \n2  \n<!-- image -->  \n(c) Σ  \nH  \nα  \n>  \n10  \n39  \nerg s  \n-  \n1  \nkpc  \n-  \n2  \n<!-- image -->  \n<!-- image -->  \n(d) Σ  \nH  \nα  \n>  \n10  \n39  \nerg s  \n-  \n1  \nkpc  \n-  \n2  \nprofiles in H α -faint and H α -bright regions, with a moderate coefficient of ρ ∼ 0 . 5 at R = 0 and a low coefficient of ρ ∼ 0 . 2 -0 . 3 in the outermost region. Finally, we notice that, although Σ ∗ in H α -bright regions roughly follows the radial profile of the full sample, with rather weak correlations ( ρ ≲ 0 . 2) at all radii, this parameter presents almost the same profile as sSFR in H α -faint regions. This result may be understood from the fact that Σ ∗ is largely contributed by old stellar populations which are mostly associated with H α -faint regions. Considering both that H α -faint and H α -bright regions are dominated respectively by Σ ∗ and Σ H α and that sSFR is defined by the ratio of SFR (which can be estimated from Σ H α ) to Σ ∗ , it is natural to see that sSFR behaves similarly to Σ ∗ in H α -faint regions but similarly to Σ H α in H α -bright regions.', '4.1. Gas attenuation': "Our work has clearly established that [N ii ]/[S ii ] outperforms all the other properties as the most important parameter in relation to E ( B -V ) gas . This result was  \nfound in Paper II for all the ionized gas regions as a whole. We further found here that the conclusion is true for a wide range of radial distance from the galactic center out to R ≳ R e , and it holds for both H α -faint and H α -bright regions although the overall correlations in H α -faint regions are relatively weak. The physical reason behind the high importance of [N ii ]/[S ii ] to gas attenuation is not immediately clear, however. When [N ii ]/[S ii ] is excluded from the analysis, both stellar mass and metallicity are highly ranked in feature importance as shown in Figure 1, consistent with the previous SDSS-based study by Maheson et al. (2024). As pointed out by Maheson et al. (2024), the dependence of dust attenuation on stellar mass and metallicity is expected from simple analytical equations relating dust mass with gas mass and metallicity, as well as the molecular gas main sequence for resolved regions in ALMaQUEST (MGMS Lin et al. 2019). Since [N ii ]/[S ii ] is commonly employed as a diagnostic for gas-phase metallicity (e.g., P'erez-Montero & Contini 2009; Dopita et al. 2016; Teklu et al. 2020) and given the known stellar mass-metallicity relation (e.g., Tremonti et al. 2004; Koppen et al. 2007;  \nFigure 7. Predicted [N ii ]/[S ii ] versus the observed value for ionized gas regions in different radial bins as indicated in each panel. In the upper panels, the prediction is made by using Σ ∗ and 12+log 10 (O/H) as inputs to train a Random Forest regressor. In the lower panels, [O iii ]/[O ii ] is used in addition to Σ ∗ and 12+log 10 (O/H) for the prediction. In each panel, the dashed red line represents the 1:1 relation, while the solid thick and thin lines indicate the median and the 1 σ scatter of the relation.  \n<!-- image -->  \nYates et al. 2012; Dayal et al. 2013; Ma et al. 2016), one can well expect [N ii ]/[S ii ] to also strongly depend on E ( B -V ) gas . It is likely that [N ii ]/[S ii ] integrates the favorable factors in both stellar mass and metallicity, thus rendering it the most sensitive property to variations in E ( B -V ) gas , and this is the reason why the feature importance of both stellar mass and metallicity is reduced dramatically when [N ii ]/[S ii ] is included in the Random Forest analysis. To test this conjecture, we train a Random Forest regressor using Σ ∗ and 12+log 10 (O/H) as inputs to predict [N ii ]/[S ii ]. In the upper panels of Figure 7, we compare the predicted [N ii ]/[S ii ] with the observed value for ionized gas regions in different radial bins, with the correlation coefficient ρ indicated in each panel. As expected, [N ii ]/[S ii ] can be reasonably well predicted by the two properties, with ρ > 0 . 85 in all cases. This prediction is most accurate in the galactic center ( ρ = 0 . 91), and becomes slightly less accurate as the radial distance increases.  \nAnother important parameter identified in our work is [O iii ]/[O ii ] which presents similarly strong or even stronger correlations with E ( B -V ) gas in the outer regions, when compared to [N ii ]/[S ii ]. In fact, [O iii ]/[O ii ] as an indicator of ionization parameter and nitrogen enrichment can also influence [N ii ]/[S ii ]. At a fixed metallicity, [N ii ]/[S ii ] can increase with ionization parameter or primary nitrogen enrichment (Dopita et al. 2013; Blanc et al. 2015). We have repeated the above analysis, using [O iii ]/[O ii ] in addition to Σ ∗ and 12+log 10 (O/H) as inputs to train the Random Forest regressor. The result is shown in the lower panels of Figure 7. We see that the correlation between the predicted and real [N ii ]/[S ii ] becomes slightly tighter at given radial bin, with an average increase of ∼ 5% in the correlation coefficients. On one hand, this result confirms that [N ii ]/[S ii ] and [O iii ]/[O ii ] indeed share common information (e.g. ion-  \non parameter) that is closely related to dust attenuation in ionized gas. On the other hand, however, the limited improvement in predicting [N ii ]/[S ii ] by the inclusion of [O iii ]/[O ii ] strongly implies that [O iii ]/[O ii ] represents some important and distinct factor that is not fully encoded in [N ii ]/[S ii ], and this factor is very likely the ionization parameter, which plays a more important role in gas attenuation in the outer regions of galaxies when compared to [N ii ]/[S ii ].  \nThe nebular velocity dispersion as quantified by σ H α was previously found to be important in determining gas attenuation based on SDSS single fiber spectra (Maheson et al. 2024). Those authors suggested that the unexpected importance of σ H α may be understood if the nebular velocity dispersion trances the gravitational potential in the galaxy, which determines how much the galaxy can retain dust and metals against radiation pressure and gas outflows (Chisholm et al. 2015). Our finding that the strong correlation of σ H α with gas attenuation holds only in the galactic centers provides further evidence in support of their conjecture, considering that the gravitational potential well is deeper in the center than the outer regions. Alternatively, σ H α may be tracing non-gravitational motions such as outflows, which may also play important roles by pushing the dust to large radii, thus reducing the content of dust in the central region. In addition, the importance of σ H α for gas attenuation could be related to the contamination of low-ionization nuclear emission regions (LINERs) in galactic centers. As found in Law et al. (2021), regions typically associated with AGN or LINER exhibit much higher σ H α values (reaching 100-200 km/s) when compared to H ii regions located at larger radii. Figure 4 suggests that the strong correlation between σ H α and E ( B -V ) gas in galactic centers is largely attributed to the component with σ H α greater than 100 km/s. More  \nwork would be needed in future if one were to fully understand the important role of σ H α for gas attenuation in galactic centers.", '4.2. Stellar attenuation': 'The strong correlation between E ( B -V ) star and stellar age in resolved regions has been found in Paper II for all the ionized gas regions as a whole. The agedependent stellar attenuation has also been considered in some earlier studies (e.g., Panuzzo et al. 2007; Noll et al. 2009; Buat et al. 2012; Lo Faro et al. 2017; Tress et al. 2019). The result in our work further shows that the driving role of stellar age for E ( B -V ) star holds across the whole galaxy, independent of radial distance, and the strong correlation is predominantly contributed by H α -faint regions. This is expected considering that the H α -faint regions are dominated by old stellar populations. Moreover, the importance of Σ H α and sSFR in determining E ( B -V ) star in the galactic center was overlooked by Paper II due to the contamination of outer regions where the importance of Σ H α and sSFR is low. When dividing the ionized regions into H α -faint and H α -bright regions, we further find that the important role of Σ H α and sSFR holds only in H α -bright regions at the galactic center. This may be understood from the fact that the central star formation is usually associated with environments with increased dust content which in turn plays a vital role in the star formation process (e.g., Dwek 1998; Panuzzo et al. 2007; Dwek & Cherchneff 2011; Zhukovska 2014).', '4.3. Implications for highz studies': "The strong dependence of dust attenuation on stellar mass has been found also for galaxies at higher redshifts, and recent studies have consistently reported a lack of significant evolution in the relation between dust attenuation and stellar mass over a wide range of redshift from z ∼ 0 up to z ∼ 6 . 5 (e.g. Shapley et al. 2022, 2023; Maheson et al. 2024). Studies of high -z galaxies are mostly limited to either measurements of global properties due to poor angular resolution of ground-based observations, or small samples of spatially resolved properties from space telescopes with poor spectral resolution. In most cases where ground-based observations are used, the best available seeing ∼ 0 . 6 '' roughly corresponds to ∼ 4 -5 kpc at z > 1. Our work has revealed strong radial variations in the dust attenuation scaling relations in nearby galaxies, which (if hold true also at higher redshifts) could be barely resolved with current observations of highz galaxies. It is unclear to what extent the lack of evolution in the attenuation-mass relation found in previous studies is caused by the poor angular resolution of the data. In addition, the significantly different attenuation relations as found in H α -faint and H α -bright regions need to be considered when interpreting results at high redshifts, because the relative contribution of star-forming regions to the global dust attenuation rela-  \nted to be a function of redshift given the evolution of the cosmic star formation rate density (e.g. Madau & Dickinson 2014).", '5. SUMMARY': 'This is the third paper of a series of studies on resolved dust attenuation in nearby galaxies. In the previous two papers, we have developed a new technique to estimate a model-independent attenuation curve from a given optical spectrum of MaNGA galaxies (Paper I), which has enabled us to study the correlations of both stellar and gas attenuations at kpc scales with a large number of regional/global properties of nearby galaxies (Paper II). In this work we have extended our study by further examining the radial variations of the dust attenuation relations, using the same data as in Paper II. We apply the Random Forest regression technique to obtain the feature importance (FI) of all the regional/global properties in relation to E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) gas . We also calculate the Spearman correlation coefficients ( ρ ) to quantify the strength of the correlations between dust attenuation and galactic properties. We perform these analyses for ionized regions in different radial bins separately, and for H α -bright regions and H α -faint regions separately.  \nFirst of all, the dust attenuation scaling relations obtained previously from single-fiber spectroscopy data within the SDSS are reproducible when our analysis is confined to the central region of MaNGA galaxies.  \n- · If [N ii ]/[S ii ] is not included in the analysis as in previous studies, nebular velocity dispersion ( σ H α ), global stellar mass ( M ∗ ), luminosityweighted stellar metallicity ( Z L ) and surface stellar mass density (Σ ∗ ) are found to be most important for E ( B -V ) gas . This result is in good agreement with previous SDSS-based studies. If included, [N ii ]/[S ii ] outperforms all other properties as the most important property in the galactic center in relation to E ( B -V ) gas .\n- · For E ( B -V ) gas , following [N ii ]/[S ii ], quite a number of properties including σ H α , M ∗ , Σ ∗ , Z L , H α surface brightness (Σ H α ), gas-phase metallicity (12+log 10 O/H) and the [N ii ]/[O ii ] line ratio (N2O2) exhibit relatively high feature importance and strong correlation coefficient. For E ( B -V ) star , in contrast, only a few properties (Σ H α , sSFR, and t L ) show relatively strong correlations in the galactic center.  \nWhen considering regions at all radii, the scaling relations of both E ( B -V ) gas and E ( B -V ) star are found to strongly vary as one goes from the galactic center towards outer regions, and from H α -faint regions and H α -bright regions.  \n- · For E ( B -V ) gas , [N ii ]/[S ii ] is top ranked in feature importance and presents a much higher correla-  \non coefficient than any other properties and over a wide range of radial distance from R = 0 out to R ∼ R e . In the outermost regions ( R > 1 . 2 R e ), [O iii ]/[O ii ] outperforms [N ii ]/[S ii ] as the leading property in relation to E ( B -V ) gas , although [N ii ]/[S ii ] still remains a comparably high correlation coefficient.  \n- · For E ( B -V ) star , stellar age t L shows a strong correlation with ρ ∼ 0 . 55 -0 . 6 only weakly dependent on radial distance, making itself the most important property over all radii except the galactic center where H α surface density (Σ H α ) and specific star formation rate (sSFR) present similarly strong correlations. The correlation strengths of the latter two properties decline rapidly with radial distance.\n- · When dividing the ionized regions into H α -bright regions and H α -faint regions, we find the former to generally show stronger correlations with E ( B -V ) gas and the latter to be more strongly correlated with E ( B -V ) star , although depending on individual properties and radial distance.', 'ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS': "We are grateful to the anonymous referee whose comments have helped improve this paper. This work is supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (grant NO. 2022YFA1602902), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant Nos. 12433003, 11821303, 11973030).  \nFunding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the U.S.  \nDepartment of Energy Office of Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS-IV acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org.  \nSDSS-IV is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, HarvardSmithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Instituto de Astrof'ısica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU) / University of Tokyo, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz Institut fur Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut fur Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut fur Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-Planck-Institut fur Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical Observatories of China, New Mexico State University, New York University, University of Notre Dame, Observat'ario Nacional / MCTI, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Aut'onoma de M'exico, University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and Yale University.  \nSoftware: Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013, 2018), Scikit-learn (Pedregosa et al. 2011)", 'REFERENCES': 'Abdurro\'uf, Accetta, K., Aerts, C., et al. 2022, ApJS, 259, 35, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ac4414 Anderson, L. 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