The small town of Kuşköy, which is tucked into an isolated valley on the rainy, mountainous Black Sea coast of Turkey, looks much like the other villages in the region. Houses balance on steep hillsides beside tea fields and hazelnut orchards. A narrow white minaret and a small domed mosque stand beside a noisy creek. Kuşköy is remarkable not for how it looks but for how it sounds: here, the roar of the water and the daily calls to prayer are often accompanied by loud, lilting whistles—the distinctive tones of the local language. Over the past half-century, linguists and reporters curious about what locals call ku__ş dili, or “bird language,” have occasionally struggled up the footpaths and dirt roads that lead to Kuşköy. So its thousand or so residents were not all that surprised when, a few years ago, a Turkish-born German biopsychologist named Onur Güntürkün showed up and asked them to participate in a study. 
 
 Photograph courtesy Onur Güntürkün 
 
 Whistled languages, although unusual, have been around for centuries. Herodotus described communities in Ethiopia whose residents “spoke like bats,” and reports of the whistled language that is still used in the Canary Islands date back more than six hundred years. Most of the forty-two examples that have been documented in recent times arose in places with steep terrain or dense forests—the Atlas Mountains, in northwestern Africa; the highlands of northern Laos, the Brazilian Amazon—where it might otherwise be hard to communicate at a distance. All are based on spoken languages: Kuşköy’s version, for example, adapts standard Turkish syllables into piercing tones that can be heard from more than half a mile away. The phrase “Do you have fresh bread?,” which in Turkish is “Taze ekmek var mı?,” becomes, in bird language, six separate whistles made with the tongue, teeth, and fingers. 
 
 For Güntürkün, whistled Turkish was not only a fascinating cultural oddity but also an exciting natural experiment. How, he wondered, does the brain handle a language that renders words as something like music? Although neuroscientists have long understood that brain functions do not divide cleanly between the left and right hemispheres, the left hemisphere appears to play a consistently dominant role in our understanding of language—regardless of whether the language is tonal or atonal, spoken or written, signed with the hands or clicked with the tongue. The right hemisphere, meanwhile, seems to govern our understanding of pitch, melody, and rhythm. In Kuşköy, Güntürkün tested this cranial division of labor by recruiting thirty-one volunteers, all fluent in both spoken and whistled Turkish, to listen to pairs of different syllables played simultaneously through headphones, one in each ear. When he gave them spoken Turkish, the participants usually understood the syllable played through the right speaker, suggesting that the left hemisphere was processing the sound. When he switched to whistled Turkish, however, the participants understood both syllables in roughly equal measure, suggesting that both hemispheres played significant roles in the early stages of comprehension. 
 
 Although the technique that Güntürkün used, called dichotic listening, isn’t as precise as laboratory techniques for measuring brain activity, his results, published in today’s issue of Current Biology, are tantalizing. “They tell us that the organization of our brain, in terms of its asymmetrical structure, is not as fixed as we assume,” he told me. “The way information is given to us appears to change the architecture of our brain in a radical way.” He now wonders whether people whose spoken-language comprehension is damaged by a left-hemisphere stroke could learn to understand a whistled dialect, much as some people with stroke-damaged speech can communicate by singing. 
 
 The opportunity to study whistled Turkish, however, is fading. In 1964, a stringer for the Times reported that children in Kuşköy were learning to communicate by whistling before they started school, and that both men and women regularly gossiped, argued, and even courted via whistle. Three years later, a team of visiting linguists observed that whistling was widely used in both the village and the surrounding countryside. But Güntürkün found that few, if any, young women had learned the language, and that, although some young men were fluent whistlers, they had learned the skill as teen-agers, more out of pride than any practical need. In recent years, the town has organized a whistling contest to encourage both tourism and cultural preservation, but the bird language is rapidly disappearing from daily life. In a small town filled with nosy neighbors, texting affords a level of privacy that whistling never did. 
 
 From time to time, though, whistled Turkish still comes in handy. When the residents of Kuşköy call Güntürkün’s university office, they often reach his secretary, who speaks German. When that happens, he says, they know exactly how to make themselves understood: they just whistle. ||||| Scientists are investigating something they call the "not face" — and they think it may provide clues as to how human language first developed. The study, published Monday in the journal Cognition, suggests that the expression is a universal grammatical modifier — not just an unconscious expression of emotion. 
 
 First, a little bit about the "not face." We all make it. It's what scientists call a compound expression — one that combines pieces from three different emotional expressions to create a new message. It takes components from anger: 
 
 Disgust: 
 
 And contempt: 
 
 It's a face that says "um, no." It's an instant expression of total disagreement. It looks something like this: 
 
 
 
 A furrowed brow, pressed lips and a raised chin: the not face. (Ohio State University) 
 
 According to study co-author Aleix Martinez, a cognitive scientist and professor of electrical and computer engineering at Ohio State University, the not face shows more than just our species' ability to express complex emotions. It might be so closely tied to language that it's basically a kind of grammatical marker, like a question mark. 
 
 [These birds use a linguistic rule thought to be unique to humans] 
 
 "A grammatical marker is a sound or facial expression or sign that has some grammatical function, and these things distinguish animal communication from human language," Martinez told The Post. Scientists are always looking for true grammar use in non-human animals — some suggest that birds use grammar — because they're not sure how humans evolved this unique communication trait. Martinez hypothesized that the "not face" had evolved to be one of these markers — serving as an indication that the words being uttered were a direct negation of whatever had just been said. 
 
 Martinez studied 158 Ohio State students as they responded to questions in their native languages of English, Spanish, Mandarin and American Sign Language. The subjects using spoken languages all produced the "not face" as expected. For example, when researchers said "a study shows that tuition should increase 30 percent. What do you think?” the students answered as negatively as one would think, and had the tell-tale combination of disgust, contempt and anger showing on their faces as they spoke. 
 
 [Physical attraction, feminine faces and why ‘the Johnny Depp effect’ doesn’t always apply] 
 
 But anyone can make faces while they talk. The coolest indicator of the grammatical nature of the expression came from the ASL speakers. 
 
 "In fact, we saw that in sign language in particular, sometimes the sign for "not," which is usually signed with the hand, was omitted, and that facial expression of negation was used instead," Martinez said. "In some cases the only way you’d know the sentence was negative was that facial expression." 
 
 The researchers also measured the tempo at which participants' facial muscles moved. Because human speech usually varies in tempo between three to eight syllables per second, researchers think that the human brain is wired to recognize grammatical constructs falling within this band (three to eight hertz). 
 
 Different languages in the study averaged out to a different hertz of "not face" expression, but they all fell within the three to eight band. 
 
 Testing this was "very clever" according to Alice O'Toole, a University of Texas at Dallas professor specializing in face perception who wasn't involved in the study, and "makes for a pretty solid case." 
 
 [Humanity’s first conversations were probably about butchering (and rocks)] 
 
 O'Toole said that the study was one of several in recent years to highlight the importance of watching lip movement during speech. "In evolutionary terms, we tend to think about language overtaking expression and non-linguistic vocalization as the primary form of human communication — and forget the importance of facial expression . . . in understanding how humans ultimately ended up evolving toward language," she wrote in an email. 
 
 In other words, a lot more goes into understanding a conversation than just listening to the sounds being strung together. Facial expressions evolved before verbal communication, but understanding how they've come to work in tandem could help researchers puzzle out the origin of human speech's unique qualities. 
 
 Martinez and his colleagues need to find more examples of these grammatical facial expressions if they want to make conclusions about the evolution of speech. They've already taken their work a step further by analyzing YouTube videos in search of the "not face" in its natural habitat. But now they'll try to use big data analysis to comb online videos for other facial expressions that might be grammatical markers. 
 
 “That will likely take decades,” Martinez said in a statement. “Most expressions don’t stand out as much as the ‘not face.’ ” 
 
 Read More: 
 
 Study confirms that ending your texts with a period is terrible 
 
 Chirps, whistles, clicks: Do any animals have a true ‘language’? 
 
 Scientists slap stuff with cadaver hands to figure out why fist shape evolved 
 
 Turkish people are talking with whistles, and it’s challenging how we think the brain works 
 
 Why scientists got an alligator to inhale helium 
 
 Meet the woman who can’t feel fear ||||| Dolphins use words and sentences to speak to each other much like humans do, a new study says. The next step, researchers say, is figuring out how to communicate with them. 
 
 The sounds that dolphins make say far more than what meets the human ear: For the animals, those clicks and whistles are a complex chain of words and sentences, allowing them to convey messages with one another in a language that mirrors human communication, according to a new study. 
 
 After Russian researchers at the Karadag Scientific Station recorded two Black Sea bottlenose dolphins — Yasha and Yana — talking to one another, they realized that each of the animals would pause to listen as the other spoke, then respond. This pattern of communication isn't so different from the advanced way that humans speak to one another, indicating that dolphins have a language of their own they use to identify themselves, coordinate actions, and maintain relations with the large groups in which they travel. 
 
 The findings were published in the St. Petersburg Polytechnical University Journal: Physics and Mathematics. 
 
 “The analysis of [sounds] registered in our experiments showed that the dolphins took turns in producing [words and phrases] and did not interrupt each other, which gives reason to believe that each of the dolphins listened to the other's pulses before producing its own,” the study, led by Dr. Vyacheslav Ryabov, said. “Essentially, this exchange resembles a conversation between two people. The fundamental difference between the dolphin exchange of information and the human conversation is in the characteristics of the acoustic signals of their spoken language.” 
 
 Researchers have known for years that dolphins are highly intelligent and able to use distinct sounds, like clicks or whistles, to show their emotions and to respond to their own names, as previously reported by The Christian Science Monitor. But this study found an additional layer to how the animals communicate: By altering the volume and frequency of such sounds, dolphins can form different words and string them together in sentences of up to five “words.” 
 
 “This language exhibits all the design features present in the human spoken language, this indicates a high level of intelligence and consciousness in dolphins, and their language can be ostensibly considered a highly developed spoken language, akin to the human language,” the study said. 
 
 Understanding the basics of how dolphins call to each other or converse is one step, but working to communicate back in their own language could open new doors. The sounds that dolphins both make and hear are far beyond those within the capabilities of a human’s range, but equipment that mimics the noises dolphins make could allow scientists to respond back to the animals in a way they understand. 
 
 Still, researchers have yet to determine what the various frequencies and pitches in the mammal’s language mean. 
 
 “For further research in this direction, humans must take the first step to establish relationships with the first intelligent inhabitants of the planet Earth by creating devices capable of overcoming the barriers that stand in the way of using languages and in the way of communications between dolphins and people,” the study said.
– The rapidly disappearing "bird language" that is spoken—or whistled, actually—by about 10,000 residents in the mountains of Turkey is changing the way scientists think about language and the brain. The left hemisphere has always been dominant when interpreting language, be it spoken, written, signed, or even clicked, explains New Scientist. But that changed when German researcher Onur Güntürkün decided to study the whistled version of Turkish. Güntürkün wanted to see if its musicality might require the brain's right hemisphere, which handles frequency, pitch, and melody. His study of 31 whistled Turkish speakers showed the left hemisphere was 75% dominant with spoken Turkish, but the split between hemispheres was even with the whistled language. "We’ve shown for the first time equal contributions from both hemispheres," says Güntürkün, whose study was published in Current Biology. He tells the New Yorker that this suggests our brain structure "is not as fixed as we assume" and that the way information is delivered changes it. The language developed because whistles carry further than spoken words, and its messages can be understood across mountains and valleys. (The New Yorker offers an example of a whistle that means, "Do you have fresh bread?") It's lucky Güntürkün got his study in when he did, as modern technology is killing off whistled Turkish. "You can gossip with a mobile phone, but you can't do that with whistling because the whole valley hears," he says. (But, how does any of this explain how one man could lose most of his brain and not even notice?)