The effectiveness of methylphenidate in the management of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in people with intellectual disabilities: A systematic review. Erratum to: Long-acting methylphenidate formulations in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review of head-to-head studies Does EEG-neurofeedback improve neurocognitive functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? A systematic review and a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Adult outcome of hyperactive boys. Educational achievement, occupational rank, and psychiatric status. Impact of early school-based screening and intervention programs for ADHD on children's outcomes and access to services: follow-up of a school-based trial at age 10 years. A Systematic Review of Global Publication Trends Regarding Long-Term Outcomes of ADHD Treatment of Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Irritability: Results From the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children With ADHD (MTA) Protocol investigating the clinical utility of an objective measure of activity and attention (QbTest) on diagnostic and treatment decision-making in children and young people with ADHD—‘Assessing QbTest Utility in ADHD’ (AQUA): a randomised controlled trial A longitudinal study of risk and protective factors associated with successful transition to secondary school in youth with ADHD: prospective cohort study protocol Homeopathic treatment of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a randomised, double blind, placebo controlled crossover trial Educational and occupational outcome of hyperactive boys grown up. Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a controlled 10-year follow-up study. A Randomized Trial Examining the Effects of Aerobic Physical Activity on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms in Young Children Impulsiveness as a timing disturbance: neurocognitive abnormalities in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder during temporal processes and normalization with methylphenidate Adult outcome of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a controlled 16-year follow-up study. Atomoxetine treatment in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: what are the long-term health-related quality-of-life outcomes? Adolescent substance use in the multimodal treatment study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (MTA) as a function of childhood ADHD, random assignment to childhood treatments, and subsequent medication. Childhood hyperactivity and psychostimulants: a review of extended treatment studies. Motor vehicle driving competencies and risks in teens and young adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Long-term methylphenidate therapy in children with comorbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and chronic multiple tic disorder. Social functioning in children with ADHD treated with long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment. Development and preliminary evaluation of an integrated treatment targeting parenting and depressive symptoms in mothers of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC) in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a multi-site, placebo-controlled pilot trial. The 4-year course of tic disorders in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Atomoxetine in the Management of Children with ADHD: Effects on Quality of Life and School Functioning Long-term stimulant treatment of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
BACKGROUND The effectiveness of psychostimulants , primarily methylpheni date ( MPH ) , in the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( ADHD ) in the general population of typically growing children and adolescents is well established through many R and omised Controlled Trials ( RCTs ) . AIMS AND METHODS We carried out a systematic review of all the RCTs in people with intellectual disabilities ( ID ) that assessed effectiveness of MPH on the core ADHD symptoms . OUTCOMES AND RESULTS We included 15 papers from 13 studies that were all on children and adolescents with ID ( 315 participants were on MPH and placebo respectively ) , 12 of which used a cross over design , and one used a parallel design . On average around 40 - 50 % responded to MPH in the ID group whereas around 70 - 80 % response rate is reported among the non-ID children . Because of the heterogeneity of the outcome data it was not possible to carry out a meta- analysis . Significant adverse events included sleep difficulties and poor appetite along with weight loss and also irritability , social withdrawal and increased motor activities including tic . CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION On the basis of the poor quality evidence that is available , it seems that MPH may be effective in some but not all children and adolescents with ID and ADHD Background : The stimulant methylpheni date ( MPH ) has been a mainstay of treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) for many years . Owing to the short half-life and the issues associated with multiple daily dosing of immediate-release MPH formulations , a new generation of long-acting MPH formulations has emerged . Direct head-to-head studies of these long-acting MPH formulations are important to facilitate an evaluation of their comparative pharmacokinetics and efficacy ; however , to date , relatively few head-to-head studies have been performed . The objective of this systematic review was to compare the evidence available from head-to-head studies of long-acting MPH formulations and provide information that can guide treatment selection . Methods : A systematic literature search was conducted in MEDLINE and PsycINFO in March 2012 using the MeSH terms : attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity/drug therapy ; methylpheni date /therapeutic use and All Fields : Concerta ; Ritalin LA ; OROS and ADHD ; Medikinet ; Equasym XL and ADHD ; long-acting methylpheni date ; Diffucaps and ADHD ; SODAS and methylpheni date . No filters were applied and no language , publication date or publication status limitations were imposed . Articles were selected if the title indicated a comparison of two or more long-acting MPH preparations in human subjects of any age ; non- systematic review articles and unpublished data were not included . Results : Of 15,295 references returned in the literature search and screened by title , 34 articles were identified for inclusion : nine articles from pharmacokinetic studies ( nine studies ) ; nine articles from laboratory school studies ( six studies ) ; two articles from r and omized controlled trials ( two studies ) ; three articles from switching studies ( two studies ) and three articles from one observational study . Conclusions : Emerging head-to-head studies provide important data on the comparative efficacy of the formulations available . At a group level , efficacy across the day generally follows the pharmacokinetic profile of the MPH formulation . No formulation is clearly superior to another ; careful consideration of patient needs and subtle differences between formulations is required to optimize treatment . For patients achieving suboptimal symptom control , switching long-acting MPH formulations may be beneficial . When switching formulations , it is usually appropriate to titrate the immediate-release component of the formulation ; a limitation of current studies is a focus on total daily dose rather than equivalent immediate-release components . Further studies are necessary to provide guidance in clinical practice , particularly in the treatment of adults and pre-school children and the impact of comorbidities and symptom severity on treatment response BACKGROUND The number of placebo-controlled r and omized studies relating to EEG-neurofeedback and its effect on neurocognition in attention-deficient/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is limited . For this reason , a double blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled study was design ed to assess the effects of  EEG-neurofeedback  on neurocognitive functioning in children with ADHD , and a systematic review on this topic was performed . METHODS Forty-one children ( 8 - 15 years ) with a DSM-IV-TR diagnosis of ADHD were r and omly allocated to EEG-neurofeedback or placebo-neurofeedback treatment for 30 sessions , twice a week . Children were stratified by age , electrophysiological state of arousal , and medication use . Neurocognitive tests of attention , executive functioning , working memory , and time processing were administered before and after treatment . Research ers , teachers , children and their parents , with the exception of the neurofeedback-therapist , were all blind to treatment assignment . Outcome measures were the changes in neurocognitive performance before and after treatment . CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION www . clinical trials.gov : NCT00723684 . RESULTS No significant treatment effect on any of the neurocognitive variables was found . A systematic review of the current literature also did not find any systematic beneficial effect of EEG-neurofeedback on neurocognitive functioning . CONCLUSION Overall , the existing literature and this study fail to support any benefit of neurofeedback on neurocognitive functioning in ADHD , possibly due to small sample sizes and other study limitations OBJECTIVE The paucity of data concerning the long-term natural history of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , a common childhood psychiatric disorder , prompted a longitudinal study to investigate the adult sequelae of the childhood disorder . DESIGN Prospect i ve study , follow-up intervals ranging from 13 to 19 years ( mean , 16 years ) , with blind systematic clinical assessment s. SUBJECTS Ninety-one white males ( mean age , 26 years ) , representing 88 % of a cohort systematic ally diagnosed as hyperactive in childhood , and 95 ( 95 % ) of comparison cases of similar race , gender , age , whose teachers had voiced no complaints about their school behavior in childhood . RESULTS Prob and s had significantly higher rates than comparisons of ADHD symptoms ( 11 % vs 1 % ) , antisocial personality disorders ( 18 % vs 2 % ) , and drug abuse disorders ( 16 % vs 4 % ) . Significant comorbidity occurred between antisocial and drug disorders . Educational and occupational achievements were significantly compromised in the prob and s. These disadvantages were independent of psychiatric status . We did not find increased rates of affective or anxiety disorders in the prob and s. CONCLUSIONS Childhood ADHD predicts specific adult psychiatric disorders , namely antisocial and drug abuse disorders . In the adolescent outcome of this cohort , we found that these disturbances were dependent on the continuation of ADHD symptoms . In contrast , in adulthood , antisocial and drug disorders appeared , in part , independent of sustained ADHD . In addition , regardless of psychiatric status , ADHD placed children at relative risk for educational and vocational disadvantage . The results do not support a relationship between childhood ADHD and adult mood or anxiety disorders OBJECTIVES To investigate the impact of early school-based screening and educational interventions on longer-term outcomes for children at risk for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and the predictive utility of teacher ratings . DESIGN A population -based 5-year follow-up of a r and omized , school-based intervention . SETTING Schools in Engl and . PARTICIPANTS Children between 4 and 5 years of age with high teacher-rated hyperactivity/inattention scores . Follow-up data were collected on 487 children in 308 schools . INTERVENTIONS Following screening , using a 2 x 2 factorial design , schools r and omly received an educational intervention ( books about ADHD for teachers ) , the names of children with high hyperactivity/inattention scores between ages 4 and 5 years ( identification ) , both educational intervention and identification , or no intervention . OUTCOME MEASURES Parent-rated hyperactivity/inattention , impairment in classroom learning , and access to specialist health services for mental health or behavioral problems . RESULTS None of the interventions were associated with improved outcomes . However , children receiving the identification -only intervention were twice as likely as children in the no-intervention group to have high hyperactivity/inattention scores at follow-up ( adjusted odds ratio , 2.11 ; 95 % confidence interval , 1.12 - 4.00 ) . Regardless of intervention , high baseline hyperactivity/inattention scores were associated with high hyperactivity/inattention and specialist health service use at follow-up . CONCLUSIONS We did not find evidence of long-term , generalizable benefits following a school-based universal screening program for ADHD . There may be adverse effects associated with labeling children at a young age There is increased global recognition of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) as a serious medical condition with long-term consequences . Although originally conceived of as a childhood disorder , ADHD is being increasingly recognized in adults . Individual geographic regions may have specific interests and objectives for the study of ADHD . A systematic review of  long-term outcomes ( LTOs ) in ADHD was conducted to evaluate research on ADHD LTOs  on a global scale . Studies that were at least 2 years in duration were examined . A total of 351 studies were identified in the final analysis . We identified nine outcomes of interest and classified studies by specific geographical regions , age groups studied and study design by region and over time . Published studies of LTOs in ADHD have increased in all geographical regions over the past three decades , with a peak number of 42 publications in 2008 . This rise in publications on ADHD LTOs may reflect a rise in global interest and recognition of consequences and impairment associated with ADHD . Although many world regions have published on ADHD LTOs , the majority of studies have emerged from the US and Canada , followed by Europe . While investigators in the US and Canada were predominantly interested in drug addiction as a LTO , European research ers were more interested in antisocial behavior , and Eastern Asian investigators focused on both of these LTOs as well as self-esteem . Geographical differences in the focus of ADHD LTO studies may reflect regional variations in cultural values . Proportionally fewer prospect i ve longitudinal studies and proportionally more retrospective and cross-sectional studies have been published in more recent decades . Finally , more studies focusing on ADHD in adolescents and adults have been conducted in recent years , and particularly adolescents in Eastern Asia . These changes in basic study design may reflect an increase in the recognition that ADHD is a lifetime chronic disorder . This systematic review analysis of publication trends in ADHD LTOs reflects geographically based interests that change over time Objective Clinical ly impairing irritability affects 25 % to 45 % of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) ; yet , we know little about what interventions are effective in treating children with ADHD and co-occurring irritability . We used data from the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children With ADHD ( MTA ) to address 3 aims : to establish whether irritability in children with ADHD can be distinguished from other symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder ( ODD ) ; to examine whether ADHD treatment is effective in treating irritability ; and to examine how irritability influences ADHD treatment outcomes . Method Secondary analyses of data from the MTA included multivariate analyses , and intent-to-treat r and om-effects regression models were used . Results Irritability was separable from other ODD symptoms . For treating irritability , systematic stimulant treatment was superior to behavioral management but not to routine community care ; a combination of stimulants and behavioral treatment was superior to community care and to behavioral treatment alone , but not to medication alone . Irritability did not moderate the impact of treatment on parent- and teacher-reported ADHD symptoms in any of the 4 treatment groups . Conclusion Treatments targeting ADHD symptoms are helpful for improving irritability in children with ADHD . Moreover , irritability does not appear to influence the response to treatment of ADHD . Clinical trial registration information Multimodal Treatment Study of Children With Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder ( MTA ) ; http://www . clinical trials.gov ; NCT00000388 Introduction The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence ( NICE ) guidelines for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) state that young people need to have access to the best evidence -based care to improve outcome . The current ‘ gold st and ard ’ ADHD diagnostic assessment combines clinical observation with subjective parent , teacher and self-reports . In routine practice , reports from multiple informants may be unavailable or contradictory , leading to diagnostic uncertainty and delay . The addition of objective tests of attention and activity may help reduce diagnostic uncertainty and delays in initiating treatment leading to improved outcomes . This trial investigates whether providing clinicians with an objective report of levels of attention , impulsivity and activity can lead to an earlier , and more accurate , clinical diagnosis and improved patient outcome . Methods and analysis This multisite r and omised controlled trial will recruit young people ( aged 6–17 years old ) who have been referred for an ADHD diagnostic assessment at Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services ( CAMHS ) and Community Paediatric clinics across Engl and . Routine clinical assessment will be augmented by the QbTest , incorporating a continuous performance test ( CPT ) and infrared motion tracking of activity . The participant will be r and omised into one of two study arms : QbOpen ( clinician has immediate access to a QbTest report ) : QbBlind ( report is withheld until the study end ) . Primary outcomes are time to diagnosis and diagnostic accuracy . Secondary outcomes include clinician 's diagnostic confidence and routine clinical outcome measures . Cost-effective analysis will be conducted , alongside a qualitative assessment of the feasibility and acceptability of incorporating QbTest in routine practice . Ethics and dissemination The findings from the study will inform commissioners , clinicians and managers about the feasibility , acceptability , clinical utility and cost-effectiveness of incorporating QbTest into routine diagnostic assessment of young people with ADHD . The results will be su bmi tted for publication in peer- review ed journals . The study has received ethical approval . Trial registration number NCT02209116 Background Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder ( ADHD ) has a significant impact on child and adolescent development , especially in relation to school functioning and academic outcomes . Despite the transition to high school being a potentially critical period for children with ADHD , most research in this period has focused on academic outcomes . This study aims to extend previous research by describing academic , school engagement , behaviour and social-emotional outcomes for young people with ADHD in the first and third years of high school and to identify risk and protective factors predictive of differing outcomes across these four domains . Methods and design The Moving Up study is a longitudinal , prospect i ve cohort study of children with ADHD as they transition and adjust to high school ( age 12–15 years ) . Data are collected through direct assessment and child , parent and teacher surveys . The primary outcome is academic achievement , obtained by linking to st and ardised test results . Secondary outcomes include measures of behaviour , ADHD symptoms , school engagement ( attitudes and attendance ) , and social and emotional functioning , including depressive symptoms . The mean performance of the study cohort on each outcome measure will be compared to the population mean for same aged children , using t-tests . Risk and protective factors to be examined using multiple regression include a child , family and school factors know to impact academic and school functioning . Discussion The Moving up study is the first Australian study prospect ively design ed to measure a broad range of student outcomes for children with ADHD during the high school transition period . Examining both current ( cross sectional ) and earlier childhood ( longitudinal ) factors gives us the potential to learn more about risk and protective factors associated with school functioning in young people with ADHD . The richness and depth of this information could lead to more targeted and effective interventions that may alter academic and wellbeing trajectories for young people at risk of poor outcomes .The study is approved by The Royal Children ’s Hospital Melbourne Human Research Ethics Committee ( 33206 ) . Findings will be disseminated through peer- review ed journals and conference presentations An increasing number of parents turn to homeopathy for treatment of their hyperactive child . Two publications , a r and omised , partially blinded trial and a clinical observation study , conclude that homeopathy has positive effects in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . The aim of this study was to obtain scientific evidence of the effectiveness of homeopathy in ADHD . A total of 83 children aged 6–16 years , with ADHD diagnosed using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV criteria , were recruited . Prior to the r and omised , double blind , placebo controlled crossover study , they were treated with individually prescribed homeopathic medications .  62 patients , who achieved an improvement of 50 % in the Conners ’ Global Index ( CGI )  , participated in the trial . Thirteen patients did not fulfill this eligibility criterion ( CGI ) . The responders were split into two groups and received either verum for 6 weeks followed by placebo for 6 weeks ( arm A ) , or vice-versa ( arm B ) . At the beginning of the trial and after each crossover period , parents reported the CGI and patients underwent neuropsychological testing . The CGI rating was evaluated again at the end of each crossover period and twice in long-term follow-up . At entry to the crossover trial , cognitive performance such as visual global perception , impulsivity and divided attention , had improved significantly under open label treatment ( P<0.0001 ) . During the crossover trial , CGI parent – ratings were significantly lower under verum ( average 1.67 points ) than under placebo ( P = 0.0479 ) . Long-term CGI improvement reached 12 points ( 63 % , P < 0.0001 ) . Conclusion : The trial suggests scientific evidence of the effectiveness of homeopathy in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder , particularly in the areas of behavioural and cognitive functions OBJECTIVE Little is known about the adult outcome of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , a very prevalent childhood disorder that is known to affect deleteriously academic performance and other areas of child functioning . This study represents a third wave of evaluations that examine the long-term educational achievement and occupational rank of children with ADHD . METHOD This is a prospect i ve follow-up of white boys of average intelligence whose ADHD was clinical ly diagnosed according to systematic criteria at an average age of 7 years . Follow-up intervals range from 15 to 21 years ( mean , 17 years ) . At average age 24 years , 85 prob and s ( representing 82 % of the childhood cohort ) and 73 controls ( 84 % ) were directly interviewed by trained clinicians who were blind to group membership . RESULTS First , prob and s completed significantly less formal schooling than controls ( about 2 years less , on average ) . Second , prob and s had lower-ranking occupational positions than controls . Finally , these disadvantages were not accounted for by adult mental status . CONCLUSIONS The present study suggests that childhood ADHD predisposes to specific disadvantages and continues to affect important functional domains unrelated to current psychiatric diagnosis BACKGROUND Our objective was to estimate the lifetime prevalence of psychopathology in a sample of youth with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) through young adulthood using contemporaneous diagnostic and analytic techniques . METHOD We conducted a case-control , 10-year prospect i ve study of ADHD youth . At baseline , we assessed consecutively referred male , Caucasian children with ( n=140 ) and without ( n=120 ) DSM-III-R ADHD , aged 6 - 18 years , ascertained from psychiatric and pediatric sources to allow for generalizability of results . At the 10-year follow-up , 112 ( 80 % ) and 105 ( 88 % ) of the ADHD and control children , respectively , were reassessed ( mean age 22 years ) . We created the following categories of psychiatric disorders : Major Psychopathology ( mood disorders and psychosis ) , Anxiety Disorders , Antisocial Disorders ( conduct , oppositional-defiant , and antisocial personality disorder ) , Developmental Disorders ( elimination , language , and tics disorder ) , and Substance Dependence Disorders ( alcohol , drug , and nicotine dependence ) , as measured by blinded structured diagnostic interview . RESULTS The lifetime prevalence for all categories of psychopathology were significantly greater in ADHD young adults compared to controls , with hazard ratios and 95 % confidence intervals of 6.1 ( 3.5 - 10.7 ) , 2.2 ( 1.5 - 3.2 ) , 5.9 ( 3.9 - 8.8 ) , 2.5 ( 1.7 - 3.6 ) , and 2.0 ( 1.3 - 3.0 ) , respectively , for the categories described above . CONCLUSIONS By their young adult years , ADHD youth were at high risk for a wide range of adverse psychiatric outcomes including markedly elevated rates of antisocial , addictive , mood and anxiety disorders . These prospect i ve findings provide further evidence for the high morbidity associated with ADHD across the life-cycle and stress the importance of early recognition of this disorder for prevention and intervention strategies The goal of this study was to compare the effects of before school physical activity ( PA ) and sedentary classroom-based ( SC ) interventions on the symptoms , behavior , moodiness , and peer functioning of young children ( Mage = 6.83 ) at risk for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD-risk ; n = 94 ) and typically developing children ( TD ; n = 108 ) . Children were r and omly assigned to either PA or SC and participated in the assigned intervention 31 min per day , each school day , over the course of 12 weeks . Parent and teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms ( inattention , hyperactivity/impulsivity ) , oppositional behavior , moodiness , behavior toward peers , and reputation with peers , were used as dependent variables . Primary analyses indicate that the PA intervention was more effective than the SC intervention at reducing inattention and moodiness in the home context . Less conservative follow-up analyses within ADHD status and intervention groups suggest that a PA intervention may reduce impairment associated with ADHD-risk in both home and school domains ; interpretive caution is warranted , however , given the liberal approach to these analyses . Unexpectedly , these findings also indicate the potential utility of a before school SC intervention as a tool for managing ADHD symptoms . Inclusion of a no treatment control group in future studies will enable further underst and ing of PA as an alternative management strategy for ADHD symptoms We argue that impulsiveness is characterized by compromised timing functions such as premature motor timing , decreased tolerance to delays , poor temporal foresight and steeper temporal discounting . A model illustration for the association between impulsiveness and timing deficits is the impulsiveness disorder of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . Children with ADHD have deficits in timing processes of several temporal domains and the neural substrates of these compromised timing functions are strikingly similar to the neuropathology of ADHD . We review our published and present novel functional magnetic resonance imaging data to demonstrate that ADHD children show dysfunctions in key timing regions of prefrontal , cingulate , striatal and cerebellar location during temporal processes of several time domains including time discrimination of milliseconds , motor timing to seconds and temporal discounting of longer time intervals . Given that impulsiveness , timing abnormalities and more specifically ADHD have been related to dopamine dysregulation , we tested for and demonstrated a normalization effect of all brain dysfunctions in ADHD children during time discrimination with the dopamine agonist and treatment of choice , methylpheni date . This review together with the new empirical findings demonstrates that neurocognitive dysfunctions in temporal processes are crucial to the impulsiveness disorder of ADHD and provides first evidence for normalization with a dopamine reuptake inhibitor OBJECTIVE To estimate the risks for psychopathology and functional impairments in adulthood among a longitudinal sample of youth with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) diagnosed in childhood . METHOD This was a case-controlled , 16-year ( 15 - 19 years ) prospect i ve follow-up study of ADHD . 140 boys with and 120 without DSM-III-R ADHD were recruited from pediatric and psychiatric setting s. The main outcome measures were  structured diagnostic interviews and measures of psychosocial , educational , and neuropsychological functioning . Data were collected from 1988 to 2006 . RESULTS At the 16-year follow-up , subjects with ADHD continued to significantly differ from controls in lifetime rates of antisocial , mood , anxiety , and addictive disorders , but with the exception of a higher interval prevalence of anxiety disorders ( 20 % vs 8 % ; z = 2.32 , P = .02 ) and smoking dependence ( 27 % vs 11 % ; z = 2.30 , P = .02 ) , the incidence of individual disorders in the 6-year interval between the current and prior follow-up did not differ significantly from controls . At follow-up , the ADHD subjects compared with controls were significantly ( P < .05 ) more impaired in psychosocial , educational , and neuropsychological functioning , differences that could not be accounted for by other active psychopathology . CONCLUSIONS These long-term prospect i ve findings provide further evidence for the high morbidity associated with ADHD across the life cycle , stressing the importance of early recognition of this disorder for prevention and early intervention strategies . These findings also indicate that , in adulthood , ADHD confers significant risks for impairment that can not be accounted for by other psychopathology OBJECTIVE Numerous investigations have examined the efficacy of pharmacological treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) in children . However , relatively few studies have addressed the impact of treatment on long-term subjective , psychosocial outcomes , such as health-related quality of life ( HRQL ) . This study examines the long-term effects of pharmacological treatment with atomoxetine on HRQL in children and adolescents with ADHD . METHODS Participants included 6- to 17-year-old children and adolescents ( n = 912 ) with ADHD enrolled in a 24-month , multicenter , open-label trial of atomoxetine . Outcomes included clinician ratings of ADHD , parent ratings of ADHD , and a widely used measure of HRQL ( The Child Health Question naire ( CHQ ) ) . Treatment response rates were calculated based on a CHQ improvement of at least 1 st and ard error of measurement . RESULTS Significant improvements in HRQL were found following both acute and long-term treatment for psychosocial but not physical health . Of participants who completed treatment ( n = 312 or 34.2 % of those enrolled ) , 81 % responded to acute treatment and 78 % responded to long-term treatment . Improvements noted after acute treatment were maintained during long-term treatment with the majority of participants ( 86 % ) continuing to respond to treatment . CONCLUSIONS Atomoxetine is associated with improvements in HRQL , and the improvements are generally stable over time OBJECTIVE To determine long-term effects on substance use and substance use disorder ( SUD ) , up to 8 years after childhood enrollment , of the r and omly assigned 14-month treatments in the multisite Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder ( MTA ; n = 436 ) ; to test whether medication at follow-up , cumulative psychostimulant treatment over time , or both relate to substance use/SUD ; and to compare substance use/SUD in the ADHD sample to the non-ADHD childhood classmate comparison group ( n = 261 ) . METHOD Mixed-effects regression models with planned contrasts were used for all tests except the important cumulative stimulant treatment question , for which propensity score matching analysis was used . RESULTS The originally r and omized treatment groups did not differ significantly on substance use/SUD by the 8-year follow-up or earlier ( mean age = 17 years ) . Neither medication at follow-up ( mostly stimulants ) nor cumulative stimulant treatment was associated with adolescent substance use/SUD . Substance use at all time points , including use of two or more substances and SUD , were each greater in the ADHD than in the non-ADHD sample s , regardless of sex . CONCLUSIONS Medication for ADHD did not protect from , or contribute to , visible risk of substance use or SUD by adolescence , whether analyzed as r and omized treatment assignment in childhood , as medication at follow-up , or as cumulative stimulant treatment over an 8-year follow-up from childhood . These results suggest the need to identify alternative or adjunctive adolescent-focused approaches to substance abuse prevention and treatment for boys and girls with ADHD , especially given their increased risk for use and abuse of multiple substances that is not improved with stimulant medication . Clinical trial registration information-Multimodal Treatment Study of Children With Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder ( MTA ) ; http:// clinical trials.gov/ ; NCT00000388 ABSTRACT Clinical trials with a treatment duration of at least 3 months were review ed to determine the effect of psychostimulants on the core symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and on its commonly associated features . Eighteen studies were identified : 17 were studies of  methylpheni date  , 1 was a study of dextroamphetamine , and none involved  pemoline  or  slow-release stimulants . Eleven of these studies were r and omized controlled trials , whereas seven employed quasi-experimental design s without r and omization . The results of r and omized controlled trials showed that psychostimulants provided greater benefit than did the nonr and omized trials , suggesting that the efficacy of extended treatment may have been underestimated because more seriously disturbed children were assigned to medication treatment than to control treatments in nonr and omized trials . Evidence from the more definitive r and omized controlled trials indicates that stimulants are more effective in ameliorating the core behavioral symptoms of ADHD ( restlessness , inattentiveness , impulsiveness ) than placebos , nonpharmacological therapies , or no treatment-at least in 3 - 7-month trials . During extended psychostimulant treatment , few children become symptom-free , clinical effects may diminish with time , and improvement dissipates rapidly upon discontinuation of medication . There is minimal evidence that extended stimulant treatment improves cognitive deficits or associated problems such as conduct disturbance , low self-esteem , poor peer relationships , or academic underachievement . The belief that stimulants do not improve the long-term prognosis of  children with ADHD  may be based on weakly design ed studies that focus on associated rather than core symptoms . A failure to assign patients of similar clinical severity to different treatment conditions may also have contributed to obscuring the efficacy of extended psychostimulant treatments PURPOSE To evaluate the motor vehicle driving knowledge , skills , and negative driving outcomes of older teens and young adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . LOCATION A university medical center clinic for adult ADHD . SUBJECTS A total of 25 young adults with ADHD and 23 young adults without ADHD 17 to 30 years old drawn from the community and equated for age , gender , and educational level . MEASURES  Structured interview , behavior ratings by self- and others , video test of driving knowledge , computer simulated driving test , and official motor vehicle records .  RESULTS ADHD young adults were cited more often for speeding , were more likely to have had their licenses suspended , were involved in more crashes , were more likely to have had crashes causing bodily injury , and were rated by themselves and others as using poorer driving habits . Official driving records corroborated these negative outcomes . Although no group differences in driving knowledge were evident , young adults with ADHD had more crashes , scrapes , and erratic steering during the computer-stimulated driving test than did the control subjects . CONCLUSIONS Findings supported previous research suggesting that greater driving risks are associated with ADHD and suggested that ADHD does not interfere with driving knowledge so much as with actual performance ( motor control ) during vehicle operation BACKGROUND This study examined changes in attention-deficit hyperactivity ( ADHD ) behaviors and motor and vocal tics during long-term treatment with methylpheni date . METHODS Thirty-four prepubertal children with ADHD and chronic multiple tic disorder ( who had participated in an 8-week , double-blind , placebo-controlled methylpheni date evaluation ) were evaluated at 6-month intervals for 2 years as part of a prospect i ve , nonblind , follow-up study . Treatment effects were assessed using direct observations of child behavior in a simulated ( clinic-based ) classroom and behavior rating scales completed by parents and physician . Videotapes of the simulated classroom were scored by coders who were blind to treatment status . RESULTS There was no evidence ( group data ) that motor tics or vocal tics changed in frequency or severity during maintenance therapy compared with diagnostic or initial double-blind placebo evaluations . Behavioral improvements demonstrated during the acute drug trial were maintained during follow-up . There was no evidence ( group data ) of clinical ly significant adverse drug effects on cardiovascular function or growth at the end of 2 years of treatment . CONCLUSIONS Long-term treatment with methylpheni date seems to be safe and effective for the management of ADHD behaviors in many ( but not necessarily all ) children with mild to moderate tic disorder . Nevertheless , careful clinical monitoring is m and atory to rule out the possibility of drug-induced tic exacerbation in individual patients OBJECTIVE To test that methylpheni date combined with intensive multimodal psychosocial intervention , which includes social skills training , significantly enhances social functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) compared with methylpheni date alone and methylpheni date plus nonspecific psychosocial treatment ( attention control ) . METHOD One hundred three children with ADHD ( ages 7 - 9 ) , free of conduct and learning disorders , who responded to short-term methylpheni date were r and omized for 2 years to receive ( 1 ) methylpheni date alone , ( 2 ) methylpheni date plus multimodal psychosocial treatment that included social skills training , or ( 3 ) methylpheni date plus attention control treatment . Assessment s included parent , child , and teacher ratings of social function and direct school observations in gym . RESULTS No advantage was found on any measure of social functioning for the combination treatment over methylpheni date alone or methylpheni date plus attention control . Significant improvement occurred across all treatments and continued over 2 years . CONCLUSIONS In young children with ADHD , there is no support for clinic-based social skills training as part of a long-term psychosocial intervention to improve social behavior . Significant benefits from methylpheni date were stable over 2 years OBJECTIVE More than 50 % of mothers of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) have a lifetime history of major depressive disorder ( MDD ) . Maternal depressive symptoms are associated with impaired parenting and predict adverse developmental and treatment outcomes for children with ADHD . For these reasons , we developed and examined the preliminary efficacy of an integrated treatment targeting parenting and depressive symptoms for mothers of children with ADHD . This integrated intervention incorporated elements of 2 evidence -based treatments : behavioral parent training ( BPT ) and cognitive behavioral depression treatment . METHOD Ninety-eight mothers with at least mild depressive symptoms were r and omized to receive either st and ard BPT ( n = 51 ) or the integrated parenting intervention for ADHD ( IPI-A ; n = 47 ) . Participants were assessed at baseline , posttreatment , and 3- to 6-month follow-up on measures of ( a ) self-reported maternal depressive symptoms , ( b ) observed positive and negative parenting , and ( c ) observed and mother-reported child disruptive behavior and mother-reported child and family impairment . RESULTS The IPI-A produced effects of small to moderate magnitude relative to BPT  on maternal depressive symptoms , observed negative parenting , observed child deviance , and child impairment at posttreatment and on maternal depressive symptoms , child disruptive behavior , child impairment and family functioning at follow-up . Contrary to expectations , the BPT group demonstrated moderate to large effects relative to IPI-A on observed positive parenting at follow-up . CONCLUSIONS This treatment development study provides encouraging preliminary support for the integrated intervention targeting parenting and depressive symptoms in mothers of children with ADHD . Future studies should examine whether this integrated intervention improves long-term developmental outcomes for children with ADHD . ( PsycINFO Data base Record ( c ) 2013 APA , all rights reserved ) OBJECTIVE To determine whether acetyl-L-carnitine ( ALC ) , a metabolite necessary for energy metabolism and essential fatty acid anabolism , might help attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . Trials in Down 's syndrome , migraine , and Alzheimer 's disease showed benefit for attention . A preliminary trial in ADHD using L-carnitine reported significant benefit . METHOD A multi-site 16-week pilot study r and omized 112 children ( 83 boys , 29 girls ) age 5 - 12 with systematic ally diagnosed ADHD to placebo or ALC in weight-based doses from 500 to 1500 mg b.i.d . The 2001 revisions of the Conners ' parent and teacher scales ( including DSM-IV ADHD symptoms ) were administered at baseline , 8 , 12 , and 16 weeks . Analyses were ANOVA of change from baseline to 16 weeks with treatment , center , and treatment-by-center interaction as independent variables . RESULTS The primary intent-to-treat analysis , of 9 DSM-IV teacher-rated inattentive symptoms , was not significant . However , secondary analyses were interesting . There was significant ( p = 0.02 ) moderation by subtype : superiority of ALC over placebo in the inattentive type , with an opposite tendency in combined type . There was also a geographic effect ( p = 0.047 ) . Side effects were negligible ; electrocardiograms , lab work , and physical exam unremarkable . CONCLUSION ALC appears safe , but with no effect on the overall ADHD population ( especially combined type ) . It deserves further exploration for possible benefit specifically in the inattentive type BACKGROUND Despite long-st and ing clinical concerns , relatively little is known about the comorbidity between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and tic disorders . Therefore , we examined tic disorders in an ongoing prospect i ve follow-up study of male subjects with ADHD , a sample unselected for any comorbid disorder . METHODS One hundred twenty-eight male children and adolescents with ADHD and 110 male controls were comprehensively evaluated at baseline and 4 years later . We characterized tic disorders along with a wide range of neuropsychiatric correlates , including other comorbid disorders and indices of psychosocial function in multiple domains ( school , cognitive , social , and family ) . RESULTS Compared with controls , subjects with ADHD showed more tic disorders at baseline and more new onsets were reported at follow-up . Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and tic disorders appeared to be independent in course : in contrast to low rates of ADHD remission , tic disorders mostly remitted . The age-adjusted rate of ADHD remission was 20 % and that of tic remission , 65 % . Tic disorders had little effect on the psychosocial functioning of subjects with ADHD . CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that comorbidity with a tic disorder has a limited effect on ADHD outcome . However , because of the relatively small sample of subjects with tic disorders , our conclusions should be considered preliminary until confirmed in larger studies of medicated and unmedicated children with ADHD with and without tic disorders The purpose of this study was to examine in a controlled trial the effects of atomoxetine on the management of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) symptoms and functional impairments at school and at home . Participants were 153 children ( age 8 to 12 years ) diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder who were r and omized to double-blind treatment with either atomoxetine  ( n = 101 ) or placebo  ( n = 52 ) . Findings revealed significant improvements both for parent and teacher ratings of behavior for children receiving atomoxetine therapy . Children also were reported to evidence a trend toward better response to active medication than to placebo for health-related quality of life as rated by parents . No significant effects were revealed for the teacher ratings of academic productivity . Data were interpreted to provide support for the efficacy of atomoxetine on the symptoms associated with ADHD . The effects of atomoxetine on other functional outcomes including academic performance and health-related outcomes are of interest , albeit less compelling for this particular investigation , than for the effects on overt symptom display BACKGROUND We wanted to study the effects of amphetamine on symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) over a longer period than has been reported in previous studies of central stimulants in this condition . METHODS Sixty-two children , aged 6 to 11 years , meeting DSM-III-R symptom criteria for ADHD participated in a parallel-group design , r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled study of amphetamine treatment . Treatment was not restricted to children with " pure " ADHD , ie , some had comorbid diagnoses . In the amphetamine group , children received active treatment for 15 months . RESULTS Amphetamine was clearly superior to placebo in reducing inattention , hyperactivity , and other disruptive behavior problems and tended to lead to improved results on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children -- Revised . Treatment failure rate was considerably lower and time to treatment failure was longer in the amphetamine group . Adverse effects were few and relatively mild . CONCLUSION The results of this long-term , placebo-controlled study of the central stimulant amphetamine in the treatment of ADHD indicate that there are remaining positive effects of the drug 15 months after starting treatment
Results suggest there is moderate-to-high-level evidence that combined pharmacological and behavioral interventions , and pharmacological interventions alone can be effective in managing the core ADHD symptoms and academic performance at 14 months .
However , the effect size may decrease beyond this period .
This review has highlighted the paucity and limitations of the evidence investigating the long-term outcomes of recommended interventions for managing ADHD symptoms .
There is little evidence to suggest that the effects observed over the relatively short term are maintained throughout longer periods of impairment .
PURPOSE To systematic ally identify and review the currently available evidence on the long-term outcomes of recommended attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) interventions following r and omized controlled trials with children and young people .