Effects and Moderators of a Short Theory of Mind Intervention for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial Autistic traits in the general population: a twin study. Oxytocin's neurochemical effects in the medial prefrontal cortex underlie recovery of task-specific brain activity in autism: a randomized controlled trial The bidirectional association between sleep problems and autism spectrum disorder: a population-based cohort study An electrophysiologic indication of auditory processing defects in autism Nocturnal excretion of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in children and adolescents with autistic disorder Autism in adults: symptom patterns and early childhood predictors. Use of the DISCO in a community sample followed from childhood. A Chinese Mind-Body Exercise Improves Self-Control of Children with Autism: A Randomized Controlled Trial Qigong massage treatment for sensory and self-regulation problems in young children with autism: a randomized controlled trial. Autism Spectrum Conditions - Enhancing Nurture and Development (ASCEND): An evaluation of intervention support groups for parents PLAY Project Home Consultation Intervention Program for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Randomized Controlled Trial A Replication and Extension of the PEERS Intervention: Examining Effects on Social Skills and Social Anxiety in Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Limited perspective taking or “ Theory of Mind ” ( ToM ) abilities are a core deficit of autism , and many interventions are aim ed to improve ToM abilities . In this study , we investigated the effectiveness of a ToM treatment for children with autism spectrum disorders ( ASD ) and , for the first time , the moderating roles of social interaction style ( SIS ) and disruptive behavior ( DB ) , to determine which children are most likely to respond to this intervention . The trial protocol is registered at www.trialregister.nl , trial number 2327 and published before the data collection was finished ( www.trialsjournal.com ) . Children with autism aged 7–12 years ( n = 97 ) were r and omized over a waitlist control or a treatment condition . Outcome measures included ToM and emotion underst and ing , parent and teacher question naires on children 's social skills , ToM‐related social behavior , and autistic traits . Six‐month follow‐up parent reported data were collected for the treatment group . The treatment had a positive effect on ToM underst and ing , parent‐reported ToM behavior , and autistic traits , but not on parent or teacher‐reported social behavior . Passive SIS was associated with diminished treatment effects on autistic traits , but DB was unrelated to outcomes . The ToM intervention  improved conceptual social underst and ing and ToM‐related behavior of children with ASD . However , broader application of learned skills to other domains of functioning was limited . Individual differences with regard to treatment response are discussed . Autism Res 2015 , 8 : 738–748 . © 2015 International Society for Autism Research , Wiley Periodicals , BACKGROUND Recent research has indicated that autism is not a discrete disorder and that family members of autistic prob and s have an increased likelihood of exhibiting autistic symptoms with a wide range of severity , often below the threshold for a diagnosis of an autism spectrum disorder . OBJECTIVE To examine the distribution and genetic structure of autistic traits in the general population using a newly established quantitative measure of autistic traits , the Social Responsiveness Scale ( formerly known as the Social Reciprocity Scale ) . METHODS The sample consisted of 788 pairs of twins aged 7 to 15 years , r and omly selected from the pool of participants in a large epidemiologic study ( the Missouri Twin Study ) . One parent of each pair of twins completed the  Social Responsiveness Scale on each child . The data were subjected to structural equation modeling . RESULTS Autistic traits as measured by the Social Responsiveness Scale were continuously distributed and moderately to highly heritable . Levels of severity of autistic traits at or above the previously published mean for patients with pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified were found in 1.4 % of boys and 0.3 % of girls . Structural equation modeling revealed no evidence for the existence of sex-specific genetic influences , and suggested specific mechanisms by which females may be relatively protected from vulnerability to autistic traits . CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that the social deficits characteristic of autism spectrum disorders are common . Given the continuous distribution of these traits , it may be arbitrary where cutoffs are made between research design ations of being " affected " vs " unaffected " with a pervasive developmental disorder . The genes influencing autistic traits appear to be the same for boys and girls . Lower prevalence ( and severity ) of autistic traits in girls may be the result of increased sensitivity to early environmental influences that operate to promote social competency The neuropeptide oxytocin may be an effective therapeutic strategy for the currently untreatable social and communication deficits associated with autism . Our recent paper reported that oxytocin mitigated autistic behavioral deficits through the restoration of activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex ( vmPFC ) , as demonstrated with functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) during a socio-communication task . However , it is unknown whether oxytocin exhibited effects at the neuronal level , which was outside of the specific task examined . In the same r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , within-subject cross-over clinical trial in which a single dose of intranasal oxytocin ( 24 IU ) was administered to 40 men with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder ( UMIN000002241/000004393 ) , we measured  N-acetylaspartate ( NAA ) levels , a marker for neuronal energy dem and , in the vmPFC using 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy ( 1H-MRS ) . The differences in the NAA levels between the oxytocin and placebo sessions were associated with oxytocin-induced fMRI signal changes in the vmPFC . The oxytocin-induced  increases in the fMRI signal could be predicted by the NAA differences between the oxytocin and placebo sessions ( P=0.002 ) , an effect that remained after controlling for variability in the time between the fMRI and 1H-MRS scans ( P=0.006 ) and the order of administration of oxytocin and placebo ( P=0.001 ) . Furthermore , path analysis showed that the NAA differences in the vmPFC triggered increases in the task-dependent fMRI signals in the vmPFC , which consequently led to improvements in the socio-communication difficulties associated with autism . The present study suggests that the beneficial effects of oxytocin are not limited to the autistic behavior elicited by our psychological task , but may generalize to other autistic behavioral problems associated with the vmPFC Background Sleep difficulties are prevalent in children with autism spectrum disorder ( ASD ) . The temporal nature of the association between sleep problems and ASD is unclear because longitudinal studies are lacking . Our aim is to clarify whether sleep problems precede and worsen autistic traits and ASD or occur as a consequence of the disorder . Methods Repeated sleep measures were available at 1.5 , 3 , 6 , and 9 years of age in 5151 children participating in the Generation R Study , a large prospect i ve birth cohort in the Netherl and s. Autistic traits were determined with the Pervasive Developmental Problems score ( PDP ) of the Child Behavior Checklist ( CBCL ) at 1.5 and 3 years and the Social Responsiveness Scale ( SRS ) at 6 years . This cohort included 81 children diagnosed with ASD . Results Sleep problems in early childhood were prospect ively associated with a higher SRS score , but not when correcting for baseline PDP score . By contrast , a higher SRS score and an ASD diagnosis were associated with more sleep problems at later ages , even when adjusting for baseline sleep problems . Likewise , a trajectory of increasing sleep problems was associated with ASD . Conclusions Sleep problems and ASD are not bidirectionally associated . Sleep problems do not precede and worsen autistic behavior but rather co-occur with autistic traits in early childhood . Over time , children with ASD have an increase in sleep problems , whereas typically developing children have a decrease in sleep problems . Our findings suggest that sleep problems are part of the construct ASD Averaged  evoked potentials ( EPs ) to clicks , r and om pitch changes ( signals ) , and r and om deletions of stimuli within a regular train of tones were examined in five autistic and five normal children .  Brainstem auditory EPs were abnormal in one of the autistic patients . The early cortical EP components P60 and N100 showed no differences across groups , whereas the P200 component of the cortical responses to clicks , as well as the late positive component ( P300 ) to the pitch changes and deleted stimuli , were significantly smaller in the autistic subjects as a group . Furthermore , when P200 and P300 amplitudes were averaged across conditions for the individual subjects , these components were smaller in every autistic subject than in any of the normal subjects . These results are consistent with the view that there are auditory defects in autism that may sometimes involve lower levels of neural transmission as manifested by abnormalities in the brainstem and auditory EP , but are more consistently manifest in higher aspects of processing that involve the registration and storage of stimulus information . It is suggested that the severe language disorder in childhood autism may be secondary to the basic deficits in higher auditory processing BACKGROUND Many studies in autistic disorder report sleep problems and altered circadian rhythms , suggesting abnormalities in melatonin physiology . Additionally , melatonin , a pineal gl and hormone produced from serotonin , is of special interest in autistic disorder given reported alterations in central and peripheral serotonin neurobiology . METHODS Nocturnal urinary excretion of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin was measured by radioimmunoassay in groups of children and adolescents with autistic disorder ( n = 49 ) and normal control individuals ( n = 88 ) matched on age , sex , and Tanner stage of puberty . RESULTS Nocturnal 6-sulphatoxymelatonin excretion rate was significantly and substantially lower in patients with autism than in normal controls ( mean + /- SEM , .75 + /- .11 vs. 1.80 + /- .17 microg/hr , p = .0001 ) , and was significantly negatively correlated with severity of autistic impairments in verbal communication and play ( p < .05 ) . CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate clearly that nocturnal production of melatonin is reduced in autism . Further research is warranted in order to underst and the mechanisms underlying the lower melatonin production , to assess the impact of altered melatonin on the pathophysiology and behavioral expression of autistic disorder , and to determine the utility of melatonin administration in individuals with autism BACKGROUND Few studies have looked at the very long-term outcome of individuals with autism who were diagnosed in childhood . METHODS A longitudinal , prospect i ve , community-based follow-up study of adults who had received the diagnosis of autism ( classic and atypical ) in childhood ( n = 105 ) was conducted . A structured interview ( the Diagnostic Interview for Social and COmmunication disorders -- the DISCO ) was used in order to evaluate symptoms and symptom patterns 13 - 22 years after original diagnosis . Childhood measures , including IQ-level at time of childhood diagnosis and communicative speech registered before age 5 years , were studied in relation to the presence of autism symptoms at follow-up . RESULTS The classical and atypical autism groups were fairly homogeneously impaired in terms of symptoms in the social interaction category whereas other common childhood autism symptoms , including maladaptive and stereotyped behaviours , were more variable in the study group at follow-up . Odd responses to sensory stimuli were still extremely common . Speech before 5 years of age , IQ , gender , diagnosed medical disorder and onset of epilepsy before 5 years were variables that correlated to outcome on the DISCO algorithm for autistic spectrum disorders ( Wing & Gould , 1979 ) concerning style and quality of social interaction , communication style and pattern of self-chosen activities . CONCLUSIONS Social interaction problems were still present in the vast majority of adults with autism/atypical autism , but behavioural impairments were much more variable in adulthood . Almost all cases were reported to show persistent perceptual problems . Certain childhood measures were found to prospect ively predict adult social interaction style , communication type , and pattern of self-chosen activities , which still met diagnostic criteria for autism/atypical autism in adulthood Self-control problems commonly manifest as temper outbursts and repetitive/rigid/impulsive behaviors , in children with autism spectrum disorders ( ASD ) , which often contributes to learning difficulties and caregiver burden . The present study aims to compare the effect of a traditional Chinese Chan-based mind-body exercise , Nei Yang Gong , with that of the conventional Progressive Muscle Relaxation ( PMR ) technique in enhancing the self-control of children with ASD . Forty-six age- and IQ-matched ASD children were r and omly assigned to receive group training in Nei Yang Gong ( experimental group ) or PMR ( control group ) twice per week for four weeks . The participants ’ self-control was measured by three neuropsychological tests and parental rating on st and ardized question naires  , and the underlying neural mechanism was assessed by the participants ’ brain EEG activity during an inhibitory-control task before and after intervention . The results show that the experimental group demonstrated significantly greater improvement in self-control than the control group , which concurs with the parental reports of reduced autistic symptoms and increased control of temper and behaviors . In addition , the experimental group showed enhanced EEG activity in the anterior cingulate cortex , a region that mediates self-control , whereas the PMR group did not . The present findings support the potential application of Chinese Chan-based mind-body exercises as a form of neuropsychological rehabilitation for patients with self-control problems . Chinese Clinical Trial Registry ; Registration No. : ChiCTR-TRC-12002561 ; URL : www.chictr.org Autism is commonly associated with sensory and self-regulatory disturbances . This article presents a r and omized controlled study evaluating the effect of a 5-month intervention directed toward improving sensory impairment , digestion , and sleep in 46 children with autism < age 6 . The intervention , Qigong Sensory Training ( QST ) , is a qigong massage intervention based in Chinese medicine . It is two-pronged : Trainers work with children directly 20 times over 5 months , and parents give the massage daily to their children . Improvement was evaluated in two setting s -- preschool and home -- by teachers ( blind to group ) and parents . Teacher evaluations showed that treated children had significant classroom improvement of social and language skills and reduction in autistic behavior compared with wait-list control participants . These findings were confirmed by parent data , indicating that the gains had generalized across context s. A model and supporting data for underst and ing and treating sensory and self-regulation problems in autism is presented There is relatively little evidence about the effectiveness of parent-training programmes for children with autism spectrum conditions ( ASCs ) . Here we evaluate a programme developed to fill a gap in the provision of parent interventions after EarlyBird , which is only available for parents of pre-school ASC children . This programme ( ASCEND ) has now been running for five years . Question naires were used to evaluate seven consecutive 11-session programmes from 2004 to 2007 , involving 79 parents representing 58 children . We measured satisfaction ratings in all seven groups ; the latter five groups ( 59 parents representing 44 children ) were given  Developmental Behaviour Checklists ( DBCs )  and  parental knowledge question naires pre- and post-course . Eighty-eight per cent of respondents found the course useful or very useful while parental knowledge and skills improved significantly across a range of learning outcomes . DBC scores showed significant changes post-course for total problem behaviours and disruptive/antisocial behaviours , with a trend towards reductions in anxiety as reported by parents . Changes in behaviour scores moderately correlated with specific learning items relating to improved skills in behaviour management . This preliminary evaluation suggests that the course produces positive outcomes in terms of parent satisfaction , parent learning and perceived changes in child behaviour , although further independent analysis is required in the form of a r and omized controlled trial Objective : To evaluate the effectiveness of the Play and Language for Autistic Youngsters ( PLAY ) Project Home Consultation model , in combination with usual community services ( CS ) , to improve parent-child interaction , child development , and autism symptomatology in young children with autism spectrum disorders ( ASDs ) compared with CS only . Methods : Children ( N = 128 ) with autism or PDD-NOS ( DSM-4 criteria ) aged 2 years 8 months to 5 years 11 months and recruited from 5 disability agencies in 4 US states were r and omized in two 1-year cohorts . Using videotape and written feedback within a developmental framework , PLAY consultants coached caregivers monthly for 12 months to improve caregiver-child interaction . CS included speech/ language and occupational therapy and public education services . Primary outcomes included change in parent-child interactions , language and development , and autism-related diagnostic category/symptoms . Secondary outcomes included parent stress and depression and home consultant fidelity . Data were collected pre- and post-intervention . Results : Using intent-to-treat analysis ( ITT ) , large treatment effects were evident for parent and child interactional behaviors on the Maternal and Child Behavior Rating Scales . Child language and developmental quotient did not differ over time by group , although functional development improved significantly . PLAY children improved in diagnostic categories on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule ( ADOS ) . PLAY caregivers ' stress did not increase , and depressive symptomatology decreased . Home consultants administered the intervention with fidelity . Conclusions : PLAY intervention demonstrated substantial changes in parent-child interaction without increasing parents ' stress/depression . ADOS findings must be interpreted cautiously because results do not align with clinical experience . PLAY offers communities a relatively inexpensive effective intervention for children with ASD and their parents This study aim ed to evaluate the Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills ( PEERS : Laugeson et al. in J Autism Dev Disord 39(4):596–606 , 2009 ) . PEERS focuses on improving friendship quality and social skills among adolescents with higher-functioning ASD . 58 participants aged 11–16 years-old were r and omly assigned to either an immediate treatment or waitlist comparison group . Results revealed , in comparison to the waitlist group , that the experimental treatment group significantly improved their knowledge of PEERS concepts and friendship skills , increased in their amount of get-togethers , and decreased in their levels of social anxiety , core autistic symptoms , and problem behaviors from pre-to post-PEERS . This study provides the first independent replication and extension of the empirically-supported PEERS social skills intervention for adolescents with ASD
The results show different consistency across studies between the three types of timing ability .
The highest consistency of results showing atypical time perception abilities is found in high-level time perception studies .
It remains unclear if autism is characterized by a fundamental time perception impairment .
Overall , there are a number of studies that show differences between autistic and non-autistic individuals , but some studies do not find such differences .
Group differences are more consistent across studies using complex tasks rather than simpler more fundamental timing tasks .
Problems with timing and time perception have been suggested as key characteristics of autism spectrum condition ( ASC ) .
Studies and personal accounts from clinicians , parents , caregivers , and self-reports from autistic people themselves often refer to problems with time .
Although a number of empirical studies have examined aspects relating to time in autistic individuals , there remains no clear consensus on whether or how timing mechanisms may be affected in autism .