Hormonal responses in athletes: the use of a two bout exercise protocol to detect subtle differences in (over)training status Monitoring for overreaching in rugby league players Monitoring performance, pituitary–adrenal hormones and mood profiles: how to diagnose non-functional over-reaching in male elite junior soccer players Impaired pituitary hormonal response to exhaustive exercise in overtrained endurance athletes. Decrease in heart rate variability with overtraining: assessment by the Poincaré plot analysis Effects of intranasal oxytocin on social anxiety in males with fragile X syndrome Can we detect non-functional overreaching in young elite soccer players and middle-long distance runners using field performance tests? Sex differences in the neural and behavioral response to intranasal oxytocin and vasopressin during human social interaction Oxytocin differentially alters resting state functional connectivity between amygdala subregions and emotional control networks: Inverse correlation with depressive traits Oxytocin and psychotherapy: A pilot study of its physiological, behavioral and subjective effects in males with depression Effects of intranasal oxytocin on neural processing within a socially relevant neural circuit
In overtrained athletes , several signs and symptoms have been associated with the imbalance between training and recovery . However , reliable diagnostic markers for distinguishing between well-trained , overreached ( OR ) and overtrained ( OT ) athletes are lacking . A hallmark feature of overtraining syndrome ( OTS ) is the inability to sustain intense exercise and recover for the next training or competition session . We therefore devised a test protocol utilizing two bouts of maximal work . With this test protocol we tried to establish a difference in hormonal responses between the training status of T and OR athletes . Seven well-trained cyclists participated in this study and were tested before and after a training camp . We also present the data of one OT motocross athlete who was clinical ly diagnosed as overtrained . All athletes performed two maximal exercise tests separated by 4 h. Blood was analyzed for cortisol , adrenocorticotrophic hormone ( ACTH ) , growth hormone and prolactin ( PRL ) . Performance decreased by 6 % between the first and the second exercise test in the OR group and by 11 % in the OT subject . Moreover , during the second exercise test there were more marked differences between the T and OR athletes ; in particular , the OT subject did not show an increase in some of the hormonal responses . PRL increased only by 14 % in the OT subject ’s second test and there was a 7 % decrease in ACTH . The two exercise approach enables us to detect subtle performance decrements that will not be identified by one exercise trigger . The hormonal responses to the second exercise test were different between the T and OR athletes ( the increase in the T group was higher than in the OR that was higher than in the OT ) . The results of the case presentation of an overtrained athlete provide evidence of an altered and dysfunctional hypothalamic – pituitary axis response to two bouts of maximal exercise . These findings can be used to develop markers for diagnosis of OTS and to begin to address the pathologic mechanism operative in the syndrome , as well as providing an outcome measure to evaluate possible therapeutic regimes The aim of this study was to identify indicators of non-functional overreaching ( NFOR ) in team sport athletes undertaking intensive training loads . Eighteen semi-professional rugby league players were r and omly assigned into two pair matched groups . One group completed 6 weeks of normal training ( NT ) whilst the other group was deliberately overreached through intensified training ( IT ) . Both groups then completed the same 7-day stepwise training load reduction taper . Multistage fitness test ( MSFT ) performance , $ $ \ifmmode\exp and after\dot\else\exp and after\.\fi{V}{\text{O}}_{{2\max } } $ $ , peak aerobic running velocity ( Vmax ) , maximal heart rate , vertical jump , 10-s cycle sprint performance and body mass were measured pre- and post-training period and following the taper . Hormonal , haematological and immunological parameters were also measured pre-training and following weeks 2 , 4 and 6 of training and post-taper . MANOVA for repeated measures with contrast analysis indicated that MSFT performance and $ $ \ifmmode\exp and after\dot\else\exp and after\.\fi{V}{\text{O}}_{{2\max } } $ $ were significantly reduced in the IT group over time and condition , indicating that a state of overreaching was attained . However , the only biochemical measure that was significantly different between the IT and NT group was the glutamine to glutamate ( Gln/Glu ) ratio even though testosterone , testosterone to cortisol ( T/C ) ratio , plasma glutamate , and CK activity were significantly changed after training in both groups . Positive endurance and power performance changes were observed post-taper in the IT group confirming NFOR . These changes were associated with increases in the T/C ratio and the Gln/Glu ratio and decreases in plasma glutamate and CK activity . These results indicate that although there was no single reliable biochemical marker of NFOR in these athletes , the Gln/Glu ratio and MSFT test may be useful measures for monitoring responses to IT in team sport athletes Objective To verify if in male elite junior soccer players a minimum 1-month performance decrease is accompanied by a mood profile and hormone levels typical of non-functional over-reaching ( NFOR ) . Design A prospect i ve case-control study using a monthly performance monitor with a st and ardised field test to detect the performance changes . Players with a performance decrease lasting at least 1 month were compared with control players without a performance decrease on mood scores and pre-exercise and postexercise levels of stress hormones . Setting Sporting field and sports medical laboratory . Participants Ninety-four young elite soccer players were monitored during the 2006–2008 seasons . Twenty-one players were invited to the laboratory , seven of whom showed a significant performance decrease . Main outcome measures Performance change over time , scores on the profile of mood states and premaximal and postmaximal exercise serum levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) , growth hormone ( GH ) and cortisol . Results Players with a performance decrease showed psychological and hormonal changes typical of the non-functional state of over-reaching . Scores were higher on depression and anger , whereas the resting GH levels and ACTH levels after maximal exercise were reduced . ACTH and GH were capable of classifying all but one player correctly as either NFOR or control . Conclusions Performance-related criteria in field tests are capable of identifying players with worsened mood and adaptations of the endocrine system that fit the definition of NFOR . Performance , mood and hormone levels may therefore be considered as valid instruments to diagnose NFOR in young elite soccer players The aim of the present prospect i ve longitudinal study was to investigate the hormonal response in overtrained athletes at rest and during exercise consisting of a short-term exhaustive endurance test on a cycle ergometer at an intensity 10 % above the individual anaerobic threshold . Over a period of 19+/-1 months , 17 male endurance athletes ( cyclists and triathletes ; age 23.4+/-1.6 yr ; VO2max . 61.2+/-1.8 mL x min(-1 ) x kg(-1 ) ; means+/-SEM ) were examined five times on two separate days under st and ardized conditions . Short-term overtraining states ( OT , N=15 ) were primarily induced by an increase of frequency of high-intensive bouts of exercise or competitions without increase of the total amount of training . OT was compared with normal training states intraindividually ( NS , N=62 ) . During OT , the time to exhaustion of the exercise test was significantly decreased by 27 % on average . At rest and during exercise , the concentrations in plasma and the nocturnal excretion in urine of free epinephrine and norepinephrine were not significantly changed during OT . At physical rest , the concentrations of ( free ) testosterone , cortisol , luteinizing hormone , follicle-stimulating hormone , adrenocorticotropic hormone , growth hormone , and insulin during OT were comparable with those during NS . A significantly ( P < 0.025 ) lower maximal exercise-induced increase of the adrenocorticotropic hormone and growth hormone , as well as a trend for a decrease of cortisol ( P=0.060 ) and insulin ( P=0.036 ) , was measured . The response of free catecholamines as well as the ergometric performance of an all-out 30-s test was unchanged . Serum urea , uric acid , ferritin , and activity of creatine kinase showed no differences between conditions . In conclusion , the results confirm the hypothesis of a hypothalamo-pituitary dysregulation during OT expressed by an impaired response of pituitary hormones to exhaustive short-endurance exercise Numerous symptoms have been associated with the overtraining syndrome ( OT ) , including changes in autonomic function . Heart rate variability ( HRV ) provides non‐invasive data about the autonomic regulation of heart rate in real‐life conditions . The aims of the study were to : ( i ) characterize the HRV profile of seven athletes ( OA ) diagnosed as suffering of OT , compared with eight healthy sedentary ( C ) and eight trained ( T ) subjects during supine rest and 60 ° upright , and ( ii ) compare the traditional time‐ and frequency‐domain analysis assessment of HRV with the non‐linear Poincaré plot analysis . In the latter each R‐R interval is plotted as a function of the previous one , and the st and ard deviations of the instantaneous ( SD1 ) and long‐term R‐R interval variability are calculated . Total power was higher in T than in C and OA both in supine ( 1158 ± 1137 , 6092 ± 3554 and 2970 ± 2947 ms2 for C , T and OA , respectively ) and in upright ( 640 ± 499 , 1814 ± 806 and 1092 ± 712 ms2 for C , T and OA , respectively ; P<0·05 ) positions . In supine position , indicators of parasympathetic activity to the sinus node were higher in T compared with C and OA ( high‐frequency power : 419·1 ± 381·2 , 1105·3 ± 781·4 and 463·7 ± 715·8 ms2 for C , T and OA , respectively ; P<0·05 ; SD1 : 29·5 ± 18·5 , 75·2 ± 17·2 and 37·6 ± 27·5 for C , T and OA , respectively ; P<0·05 ) . OA had a marked predominance of sympathetic activity regardless of the position ( LF/HF were 0·47 ± 0·35 , 0·47 ± 0·50 and 3·96 ± 5·71 in supine position for C , T and OA , respectively , and 2·09 ± 2·17 , 7·22 ± 6·82 and 12·04 ± 10·36 in upright position for C , T and OA , respectively ) . The changes in HRV indexes induced by the upright posture were greater in T than in OA . The shape of the Poincaré plots allowed the distinction between the three groups , with wide and narrow shapes in T and OA , respectively , compared with C. As Poincaré plot parameters are easy to compute and associated with the ‘ width ’ of the scatter gram , they corroborate the traditional time‐ and frequency‐domain analysis . We suggest that they could be used to indicate fatigue and /or prevent OT Fragile X syndrome ( FXS ) is a rare inherited genetic disorder causing severe intellectual disability and autistic-like symptoms . Individuals with FXS , males in particular , often exhibit extreme eye gaze avoidance and hyperarousal when they encounter stressful social situations . We investigated whether oxytocin ( OT ) , a hormone with prosocial and anxiolytic effects , could alleviate symptoms of social anxiety in this population . A r and omized double-blind placebo-controlled single-dose trial was performed with intranasal administration of placebo , 24 IU OT and 48 IU OT . Measures of eye gaze frequency , heart rate , respiratory sinus arrhythmia ( RSA ) , heart rate variability ( HRV ) and salivary cortisol were obtained during a structured social challenge conducted 50 min following OT administration . Ten low-functioning males with FXS ( aged 13 - 28 years ) traveled to Stanford for the initial visit : 8 completed the study .  Eye gaze frequency improved significantly in response to the 24 IU OT dose and salivary cortisol levels decreased significantly in response to the 48 IU OT dose . There was no effect of OT on heart rate , RSA or HRV although individual plots of the heart rate data suggested that OT increased heart rate in some participants and decreased heart rate in others . These findings suggest that intranasal administration of OT may ameliorate some symptoms of social anxiety in patients with FXS . Further double-blind placebo-controlled studies of OT , conducted in combination with behavioral treatment programs , may be warranted Objective To study whether field performance tests can make a valid distinction between non-functionally overreaching ( NFO ) athletes and control athletes . Design Monthly field performance tests were used to determine a performance decrement ( PD ) throughout a season . Athletes with a minimum of 1 month PD were compared with control athletes without a PD on mood characteristics and resting levels of stress hormones . Setting Sporting field and sports medical laboratory . Participants 129 young elite athletes , 77 soccer players and 52 middle-long distance runners were followed prospect ively during the 2006–2007 season . Fifteen of them were invited to the laboratory . Eight athletes showed a performance decrease lasting longer than 1 month , and seven athletes without a performance decrease acted as their controls . Main outcome measures Performance changes over time were measured using field tests .  Profile of Mood States and resting levels of adrenocorticotrophic hormone ( ACTH ) and cortisol in blood were measured in the laboratory . Results PD athletes showed several symptoms typical of the non-functional state of overreaching ( OR ) . The PD group scored higher on depression and anger than controls . They also showed a specific pattern of correlations between negative mood subscales ( tension , fatigue and depression ) , which was absent in controls . ACTH levels at rest were similar , but lower cortisol levels in PD athletes pointed at a blunted cortisol response . Cortisol levels were decoupled from ACTH levels only in PD athletes . Conclusions Implementing performance-related criteria in field tests can help coaches and sports physicians to distinguish NFO athletes from athletes with balanced workload and recovery Both oxytocin ( OT ) and vasopressin ( AVP ) are known to modulate social behavior , and dysfunction in both systems has been postulated as a potential cause of certain psychiatric disorders that involve social behavioral deficits . In particular , there is growing interest in intranasal OT as a potential treatment for certain psychiatric disorders , and preliminary pre- clinical and clinical studies suggest efficacy in alleviating some of the associated symptoms . However , the vast majority of research participants in these studies have been male , and there is evidence for sexually differentiated effects of nonapeptides in both humans and non-human animals . To date , no study has investigated the effect of intranasal OT on brain function in human males and females within the same paradigm . Previously , in a r and omized , placebo-controlled , double-blind fMRI study , we reported effects of intranasal OT and AVP on behavior and brain activity of human males as they played an interactive social game known as the Prisoner 's Dilemma Game . Here , we present findings from an identical study in human females , and compare these with our findings from males . Overall , we find that both behavioral and neural responses to intranasal OT and AVP are highly sexually differentiated . In women , AVP increased conciliatory behavior , and both OT and AVP caused women to treat computer partners more like humans . In men , AVP increased reciprocation of cooperation from both human and computer partners . However , no specific drug effects on behavior were shared between men and women . During cooperative interactions , both OT and AVP increased brain activity in men within areas rich in OT and AVP receptors and in areas playing a key role in reward , social bonding , arousal and memory ( e.g. , the striatum , basal forebrain , insula , amygdala and hippocampus ) , whereas OT and AVP either had no effect or in some cases actually decreased brain activity in these regions in women . OT treatment rendered neural responses of males more similar to responses of females in the placebo group and vice versa , raising the prospect of an inverted u-shaped dose response to central OT levels . These findings emphasize the need to fully characterize the effects of intranasal OT and AVP in both males and females and at multiple doses before widespread clinical application will be warranted ABSTRACT The hypothalamic neuropeptide oxytocin ( OT ) has received increasing attention for its role in modulating social‐emotional processes across species . Previous studies on using intranasal‐OT in humans point to a crucial engagement of the amygdala in the observed neuromodulatory effects of OT under task and rest conditions . However , the amygdala is not a single homogenous structure , but rather a set of structurally and functionally heterogeneous nuclei that show distinct patterns of connectivity with limbic and frontal emotion‐processing regions . To determine potential differential effects of OT on functional connectivity of the amygdala subregions , 79 male participants underwent resting‐state fMRI following r and omized intranasal‐OT or placebo administration .  In line with previous studies OT increased the connectivity of the total amygdala with dorso‐medial prefrontal regions engaged in emotion regulation . In addition , OT enhanced coupling of the total amygdala with cerebellar regions . Importantly , OT differentially altered the connectivity of amygdala subregions with distinct up‐stream cortical nodes , particularly prefrontal/parietal , and cerebellar down‐stream regions . OT‐induced  increased connectivity with cerebellar regions were largely driven by effects on the centromedial and basolateral subregions , whereas increased connectivity with prefrontal regions were largely mediated by right superficial and basolateral subregions . OT decreased connectivity of the centromedial subregions with core hubs of the emotional face processing network in temporal , occipital and parietal regions . Preliminary findings suggest that effects on the superficial amygdala‐prefrontal pathway were inversely associated with levels of sub clinical depression , possibly indicating that OT modulation may be blunted in the context of increased pathological load . Together , the present findings suggest a subregional‐specific modulatory role of OT on amygdala‐centered emotion processing networks in humans . HighlightsEffects of oxytocin ( OT ) on amygdala subregional rsFC were examined . OT differentially altered rsFC of amygdala subregions . Increased connectivity with PFC regions were driven by SF and BLA.OT  decreased rsFC of the CM with the face processing network . Effects on the SF‐mPFC pathway were associated with depression Individual psychotherapy is an important treatment for a number of psychiatric conditions and involves a unique form of human attachment . This raises the question of whether oxytocin ( OT ) , the paradigmatic " attachment hormone " , may have benefits in this context . In this r and omized , double-blind , crossover trial , we gave male psychiatric out patients with major depressive disorder 40 IU  intranasal OT or placebo before a videotaped session with a therapist and measured a number of subjective , physiological , and behavioral parameters . We report three main findings . Surprisingly - in contrast to prior reports of OT 's anxiolytic properties - we found OT caused an increase in anxiety over the course of the therapy session . Secondly , though it had no main effect on cortisol , eye contact , or overall behavior , we did find that OT caused a decrease in nonverbal behaviors that cut off social contact , after controlling for level of depressive symptoms . Lastly , we replicated prior findings that OT improves social cognition ( performance on the reading the mind in the eyes test ( RMET ) ) , albeit in a depressed patient group . These results inform future studies of oxytocin and psychotherapy and suggest that in certain clinical population s and context s , OT has heterogeneous subjective effects which may include acute anxiogenesis . Moreover , the similarity of some of these acute effects to those of single-dose serotonergic antidepressants raises interesting questions about the potential antidepressant benefits of chronic OT administration Dysregulation of the Mirror Neuron System ( MNS ) in schizophrenia ( SCZ ) may underlie the cognitive and behavioral manifestations of social dysfunction associated with that disorder . In healthy subjects  intranasal ( IN ) oxytocin ( OT ) improves neural processing in the MNS and is associated with improved social cognition . OT 's brain effects can be measured through its modulation of the MNS by suppressing EEG mu-b and electrical activity ( 8 - 13Hz ) in response to motion perception . Although IN OT 's effects on social cognition have been tested in SCZ , OT 's impact on the MNS has not been evaluated to date . Therefore , we design ed a study to investigate the effects of two different OT doses on biological motion-induced mu suppression in SCZ and healthy subjects .  EEG recordings  were taken after each subject received a single IN administration of placebo , OT-24IU and OT-48IU in r and omized order in a double-blind crossover design . The results provide support for  OT 's  regulation of the MNS in both healthy and SCZ subjects , with the optimal dose dependent on diagnostic group and sex of subject . A statistically significant response was seen in SCZ males only , indicating a heightened sensitivity to those effects , although sex hormone related effects can not be ruled out . In general , OT appears to have positive effects on neural circuitry that supports social cognition and socially adaptive behaviors
Basal levels of hormones were mostly normal in athletes with OTS/FOR/NFOR compared with healthy athletes .
Distinctly , stimulation tests , mainly performed in maximal exercise conditions , showed blunted GH and ACTH responses in OTS/FOR/NFOR athletes , whereas cortisol and plasma catecholamines showed conflicting findings and the other hormones responded normally .
Conclusion Basal hormone levels are not good predictor but blunted ACTH and GH responses to stimulation tests may be good predictors of OTS/FOR/NFOR
Background Overtraining syndrome ( OTS ) , functional ( FOR ) and non-functional overreaching ( NFOR ) are conditions diagnosed in athletes with decreased performance and fatigue , triggered by metabolic , immune , hormonal and other dysfunctions and result ed from an imbalance between training stress and proper recovery .
Despite previous descriptions , there is a lack of a review that discloses all hormonal findings in OTS/FOR/NFOR .
The aim of this systematic review is to evaluate whether and which roles hormones play in OTS/FOR/NFOR .