Maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy reduces interleukin‐13 levels in cord blood of infants at high risk of atopy Impact of early dietary gamma-linolenic acid supplementation on atopic eczema in infancy. Postnatal Fish Oil Supplementation in High-Risk Infants to Prevent Allergy: Randomized Controlled Trial Formula with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids reduces incidence of allergy in early childhood. Modulation of DNA methylation states and infant immune system by dietary supplementation with ω-3 PUFA during pregnancy in an intervention study. Effects of long-chain PUFA supplementation in infant formula on cognitive function in later childhood. Consumption of fish, butter and margarine during pregnancy and development of allergic sensitizations in the offspring: role of maternal atopy. Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy modifies neonatal allergen-specific immune responses and clinical outcomes in infants at high risk of atopy: a randomized, controlled trial. PUFA and LC-PUFA intake during the first year of life: can dietary practice achieve a guideline diet? Dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of hip fracture in men and women Fish Oil Supplementation in Pregnancy Lowers F2-isoprostanes in Neonates at High Risk of Atopy Neurodevelopmental Quotient of Healthy Term Infants at 4 Months and Feeding Practice: The Role of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Modification of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids via complementary food enhances n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid synthesis in healthy infants: a double blinded randomised controlled trial Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk in Chinese women: A prospective cohort study A randomized trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants with phenylketonuria. Prediction of cardiovascular mortality in middle-aged men by dietary and serum linoleic and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Increased n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids do not attenuate the effects of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on insulin sensitivity or triacylglycerol reduction in Indian Asians. Maternal dietary folate, folic acid and vitamin D intakes during pregnancy and lactation and the risk of cows' milk allergy in the offspring. Type of dietary fat is associated with the 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 increment in response to vitamin D supplementation. Randomised controlled trial of essential fatty acid supplementation in phenylketonuria Fish Oil Supplementation in Pregnancy Modifies Neonatal Progenitors at Birth in Infants at Risk of Atopy [Evaluation of a local infant formula enriched with polyunsaturated fatty acids produced in Israel]. Do early intake of fish and fish oil protect against eczema and doctor-diagnosed asthma at 2 years of age? A cohort study Dietary intake and status of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in a population of fish-eating and non-fish-eating meat-eaters, vegetarians, and vegans and the product-precursor ratio [corrected] of α-linolenic acid to long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: results from the EPIC-Norfolk cohort. Effect of Different Levels of Docosahexaenoic Acid Supply on Fatty Acid Status and Linoleic and &agr;-Linolenic Acid Conversion in Preterm Infants Allergic disease in infants up to 2 years of age in relation to plasma omega-3 fatty acids and maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy and lactation. Circulating and Dietary Omega‐3 and Omega‐6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Incidence of CVD in the Multi‐Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis Infant formula composition affects energetic efficiency for growth: the BeMIM study, a randomized controlled trial. Epidemiological Evidence of Relationships between Dietary Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Mortality in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Long-term supplementation with n-3 fatty acids, I: Effect on blood lipids, haemostasis and blood pressure. Can n-3 PUFA reduce cardiac arrhythmias? Results of a clinical trial. Fish, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and mortality from cardiovascular diseases in a nationwide community-based cohort of Japanese men and women the JACC (Japan Collaborative Cohort Study for Evaluation of Cancer Risk) Study. Does vitamin D intake during infancy promote the development of atopic allergy? Maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy modifies neonatal leukotriene production by cord-blood-derived neutrophils. Dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids and risk of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of multiple sclerosis Moderate fish-oil supplementation reverses low-platelet, long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid status and reduces plasma triacylglycerol concentrations in British Indo-Asians. Validation of a FFQ to estimate the intake of PUFA using plasma phospholipid fatty acids and weighed foods records. A prospective study of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids intake and lung cancer risk. Dietary supplementation of long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infants: effects on cerebral maturation Infancy-Onset Dietary Counseling of Low-Saturated-Fat Diet Improves Insulin Sensitivity in Healthy Adolescents 15–20 Years of Age Similar effects on infants of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids supplementation to pregnant and lactating women. Prevention of asthma during the first 5 years of life: a randomized controlled trial. Th1 and Th2 Chemokines, Vaccine-Induced Immunity, and Allergic Disease in Infants After Maternal ω-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation During Pregnancy and Lactation Dietary fatty acids intake and mortality in patients with heart failure. Effect of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy on infants’ allergies in first year of life: randomised controlled trial Effect of omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acid intakes from diet and supplements on plasma fatty acid levels in the first 3 years of life. Proportions and concentrations of serum n-3 fatty acids can be increased by dietary counseling during pregnancy Dietary Fatty Acids and Changes in Blood Lipids during Adolescence: The Role of Substituting Nutrient Intakes Heart rate variability and fatty acid content of blood cell membranes: a dose-response study with n-3 fatty acids. Interplay Between Different Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Men Maternal meat and fat consumption during pregnancy and suspected atopic eczema in Japanese infants aged 3-4 months: the Osaka Maternal and Child Health Study. The effect of n-3 fatty acids on lipids and lipoproteins in patients treated with chronic haemodialysis: a randomized placebo-controlled intervention study. The impact of early nutrition on incidence of allergic manifestations and common respiratory illnesses in children. Maternal fatty acid intake during pregnancy and the development of childhood overweight: a birth cohort study Dietary fatty acids intakes and rate of mild cognitive impairment. The Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging The effects of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized, double blind trial. Serum lipid and apolipoprotein levels in 4-year-old children are associated with parental levels and track over time Developmental quotient at 24 months and fatty acid composition of diet in early infancy: a follow up study Does vegetable oil attenuate the beneficial effects of fish oil in reducing risk factors for cardiovascular disease? Early neurological and neurophysiological development of the preterm infant and polyunsaturated fatty acids supply Associations between increases in plasma n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids following supplementation and decreases in anger and anxiety in substance abusers Susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in healthy volunteers supplemented with low doses of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infant formula and blood pressure in later childhood: follow up of a randomised controlled trial Rationale and study design of dietary intervention in patients polypectomized for tumors of the colorectum. Associations between Maternal Antioxidant Intakes in Pregnancy and Infant Allergic Outcomes Prevention of allergic disease during childhood by allergen avoidance: the Isle of Wight prevention study. Serum ovalbumin‐specific immunoglobulin G responses during pregnancy reflect maternal intake of dietary egg and relate to the development of allergy in early infancy Structured dietary advice incorporating walnuts achieves optimal fat and energy balance in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Biological effects of a dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation in cystic fibrosis patients: a randomized, crossover placebo-controlled trial. No Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Cognition and Mood in Individuals with Cognitive Impairment and Probable Alzheimer’s Disease: A Randomised Controlled Trial Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid exposure from early life does not affect atopy and asthma at age 5 years. Oily fish reduces plasma triacylglycerols: a primary prevention study in overweight men and women. Plant- and marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have differential effects on fasting and postprandial blood lipid concentrations and on the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in moderately hyperlipidemic subjects. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a 16-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-design multicenter study in Korea. Improved general health status in an unselected infant population following an allergen reduced dietary intervention programme The ZUFF-STUDY-PROGRAMME
Part I: study design and 6-month nutritional behaviour
 Influence of long-term intervention with dietary counseling, long-chain n-3 fatty acid supplements, or both on circulating markers of endothelial activation in men with long-standing hyperlipidemia. Fish oil intake compared with olive oil intake in late pregnancy and asthma in the offspring: 16 y of registry-based follow-up from a randomized controlled trial. Dietary n-3/long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for prevention of sporadic colorectal tumors: a randomized controlled trial in polypectomized participants. Growth and development in term infants fed long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: a double-masked, randomized, parallel, prospective, multivariate study. A Randomized Controlled Intervention With Fish Oil Versus Sunflower Oil From 9 to 18 Months of Age: Exploring Changes in Growth and Skinfold Thicknesses Serum Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Risk of Incident Type 2 Diabetes in Men: The Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study A randomized controlled trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of formula in term infants after weaning at 6 wk of age. Effect of providing a formula supplemented with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on immunity in full-term neonates. The effect of hydrolyzed cow's milk formula for allergy prevention in the first year of life: the German Infant Nutritional Intervention Study, a randomized double-blind trial. Effects of Maternal &OHgr;-3 Supplementation on Fatty Acids and on Visual and Cognitive Development Influence of feeding artificial-formula milks containing docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids on the postnatal long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status of healthy preterm infants. Neurophysiologic and neurobehavioral evidence of beneficial effects of prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake on memory function at school age. Effect of a partially hydrolyzed whey infant formula at weaning on risk of allergic disease in high-risk children: a randomized controlled trial. The Relationship of Omega 3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Red Blood Cell Membranes with Cognitive Function and Brain Structure: A Review Focussed on Alzheimer’s Disease Effect of long-term, moderate-dose supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids on monocyte procoagulant activity and release of interleukin-6 in patients with coronary artery disease. Three-year outcomes of dietary fatty acid modification and house dust mite reduction in the Childhood Asthma Prevention Study. Safety of supplementing infant formula with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and Bifidobacterium lactis in term infants: a randomised controlled trial. Gut bacteria profiles of Mus musculus at the phylum and family levels are influenced by saturation of dietary fatty acids. Impact of Early Dietary Intake and Blood Lipid Composition of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Later Visual Development Lack of effect of cold water prawns on plasma cholesterol and lipoproteins in normo-lipidaemic men. Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Depression: The SUN Project Associations of the Ratios of n-3 to n-6 Dietary Fatty Acids With Longitudinal Changes in Depressive Symptoms Among US Women. Prevention of atopic diseases in high risk babies (long-term follow-up). Reduction of leptin gene expression by dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prenatal Fish Oil Supplementation and Allergy: 6-Year Follow-up of a Randomized Controlled Trial The effect of N-6 and N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on hemostasis, blood lipids and blood pressure. The content of docosahexaenoic acid in serum phospholipid is inversely correlated with plasma homocysteine levels in patients with end-stage renal disease. Effects of prenatal fish-oil and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate supplementation on cognitive development of children at 6.5 y of age. Effects of different dietary fat types on postprandial appetite and energy expenditure. A randomized controlled trial of early dietary supply of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and mental development in term infants. Dietary Intake of Eicosapentaenoic and Docosahexaenoic Acid and Diabetic Nephropathy: Cohort Analysis of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial World Allergy Organization-McMaster University Guidelines for Allergic Disease Prevention (GLAD-P): Probiotics Relationship between omega3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status during early infancy and neurodevelopmental status at 1 year of age. Short term effects of energy restriction and dietary fat sub-type on weight loss and disease risk factors. Variable Hypocoagulant Effect of Fish Oil Intake in Humans: Modulation of Fibrinogen Level and Thrombin Generation Plant and marine derived (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids do not affect blood coagulation and fibrinolytic factors in moderately hyperlipidemic humans. Single measurement of serum phospholipid fatty acid as a biomarker of specific fatty acid intake in middle-aged Japanese men The acute and short-time effect of supplementation with the combination of n-3 fatty acids and acetylsalicylic acid on platelet function and plasma lipids. Effect of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant formula on problem solving at 10 months of age Obesity modifies the association between plasma phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acids and markers of inflammation: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis Maternal fish oil supplementation during lactation does not affect blood pressure, pulse wave velocity, or heart rate variability in 2.5-y-old children. Fish oil supplementation modulates immune function in healthy infants. Dietary fats and dietary cholesterol and risk of stroke in women. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements and cognitive decline: Singapore longitudinal aging studies Effects of high-dose fish oil supplementation during early infancy on neurodevelopment and language: a randomised controlled trial. Non-digestible oligosaccharides reduce immunoglobulin free light-chain concentrations in infants at risk for allergy. High concentrations of plasma n3 fatty acids are associated with decreased risk for late age-related macular degeneration. Effect of diet and omega-3 fatty acid intervention on asymmetric dimethylarginine A Critical Appraisal of the Role of Dietary Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Neural Indices of Term Infants: A Randomized, Controlled Trial Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. Distal Proctocolitis and n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (n-3 PUFAs): The Mucosal Effect In Situ Early diet of preterm infants and development of allergic or atopic disease: randomised prospective study. Intake of small amounts of n-3 fatty acids decreases platelet lipid peroxidation in elderly people Long-term almond supplementation without advice on food replacement induces favourable nutrient modifications to the habitual diets of free-living individuals. Dietary fat quality and risk of sudden cardiac death in women. Cardiovascular effects of B-vitamins and/or N-3 fatty acids: the SU.FOL.OM3 trial. Impact of foods enriched with n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte n-3 levels and cardiovascular risk factors. Bioavailability of n–3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) in Foods Enriched with Microencapsulated Fish Oil Dietary intake of unsaturated fatty acids and age-related cognitive decline: A 8.5-year follow-up of the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging Additive benefits of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and weight-loss in the management of cardiovascular disease risk in overweight hyperinsulinaemic women Dietary Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Do Not Influence Growth of Term Infants: A Randomized Clinical Trial Erythrocyte membrane fatty acids in multiple sclerosis patients and hot-nature dietary intervention with co-supplemented hemp-seed and evening-primrose oils. Serum fatty acid, lipid profile and dietary intake of Hong Kong Chinese omnivores and vegetarians Effects of trans- and n-3 unsaturated fatty acids on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy males. An 8 weeks dietary intervention study Effect of enterally administered n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in acute pancreatitis--a prospective randomized clinical trial. Effects of altering the ratio of dietary n-6 to n-3 fatty acids on insulin sensitivity, lipoprotein size, and postprandial lipemia in men and postmenopausal women aged 45-70 y: the OPTILIP Study. Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Prevention of Mood and Anxiety Disorders World Allergy Organization-McMaster University Guidelines for Allergic Disease Prevention (GLAD-P): Prebiotics Increased dietary α-linolenic acid has sex-specific effects upon eicosapentaenoic acid status in humans: re-examination of data from a randomised, placebo-controlled, parallel study The DIAMOND (DHA Intake And Measurement Of Neural Development) Study: a double-masked, randomized controlled clinical trial of the maturation of infant visual acuity as a function of the dietary level of docosahexaenoic acid. The Effects of Maternal Supplementation of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Visual, Neurobehavioural, and Developmental Outcomes of the Child: A Systematic Review of the Randomized Trials Influence of a healthy Nordic diet on serum fatty acid composition and associations with blood lipoproteins – results from the NORDIET study World Allergy Organization-McMaster University Guidelines for Allergic Disease Prevention (GLAD-P): Vitamin D Comparison of Breast, Cow, and Soy Feedings in the Prevention of Onset of Allergic Disease Soluble adhesion molecules in healthy subjects: a dose-response study using n-3 fatty acids. Dietary (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids up-regulate plasma leptin in insulin-resistant rats. Fish oil (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids beneficially affect biliary cholesterol nucleation time in obese women losing weight. The Effect of Fish Oil Supplementation on Heart rate in Healthy Danish Infants Dietary omega-6 fatty acid lowering increases bioavailability of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in human plasma lipid pools. The effect of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation of rams on semen quality and subsequent quality of liquid stored semen. Serum Lp(a) lipoprotein levels in patients with coronary artery disease and the influence of long-term n-3 fatty acid supplementation. Allergen avoidance in infancy and allergy at 4 years of age Hunger and satiety responses to high-fat meals of varying fatty acid composition in women with obesity. Lack of effect of foods enriched with plant- or marine-derived n-3 fatty acids on human immune function. Platelet Redox Balance in Diabetic Patients With Hypertension Improved by n-3 Fatty Acids A randomized trial of supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid-rich tuna oil and its effects on the human milk cytokines interleukin 1 beta, interleukin 6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha. Lack of effect on blood pressure by low fat diets with different fatty acid compositions [Effect of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on arachidonate and docosahexaeonic acid in healthy infants in the first four months of life]. Low-n-6 and low-n-6 plus high-n-3 diets for use in clinical research. Erythrocyte fatty acid composition in term infants fed human milk or a formula enriched with a low eicosapentanoic acid fish oil for 4 months Effects of a dietary and environmental prevention programme on the incidence of allergic symptoms in high atopic risk infants: three years follow‐up Allergic diseases among very preterm infants according to nutrition after hospital discharge. Consumption of diets with different type of fat influences triacylglycerols-rich lipoproteins particle number and size during the postprandial state. Efficacy of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after myocardial infarction: Results of GISSI-prevenzione trial The acute effects of a single very high dose of n−3 fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in healthy subjects Effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids on progression of atherosclerosis in carotid arteries. Supplementation of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids for Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized, Double-Blind, 12-Week, Placebo-Controlled Trial in Korea Probiotics in prevention of IgE-associated eczema: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Effects of bifidobacterial supplementation to pregnant women and infants in the prevention of allergy development in infants and on fecal microbiota. Dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants with phenylketonuria: a randomized controlled trial Maternal Fish Oil Supplementation in Lactation and Growth during the First 2.5 Years of Life Supplementation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, magnesium and zinc in children seeking medical advice for attention-deficit/hyperactivity problems - an observational cohort study Dietary intake of differently fed salmon; the influence on markers of human atherosclerosis. Diet and prevalence of atopic eczema in 6 to 7-year-old schoolchildren in Spain: ISAAC phase III. Fish and long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intakes during pregnancy and risk of postpartum depression: a prospective study based on a large national birth cohort. Soy consumption is not a risk factor for peanut sensitization. n-3 fatty acids induce oxidative modifications in human erythrocytes depending on dose and duration of dietary supplementation. Influence of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on infant cognitive function Effect of dietary intervention to reduce the n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio on maternal and fetal fatty acid profile and its relation to offspring growth and body composition at 1 year of age Antithetic relationship of dietary arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid on eicosanoid production in vivo. Effect of reducing the n-6:n-3 long-chain PUFA ratio during pregnancy and lactation on infant adipose tissue growth within the first year of life: an open-label randomized controlled trial. Allergies in high-risk schoolchildren after early intervention with cow's milk protein hydrolysates: 10-year results from the German Infant Nutritional Intervention (GINI) study. Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder: A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial The development and prediction of atopy in high-risk children: follow-up at age seven years in a prospective randomized study of combined maternal and infant food allergen avoidance. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial Olive oil and walnut breakfasts reduce the postprandial inflammatory response in mononuclear cells compared with a butter breakfast in healthy men. Macronutrient intake and type 2 diabetes risk in middle-aged Australian women. Results from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Effects of dietary α-linolenic acid from blended oils on biochemical indices of coronary heart disease in indians The impact of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on inflammation, insulin sensitivity and CVD risk in a group of overweight women with an inflammatory phenotype.
Background and objectives The epidemiological association between higher dietary n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) and lower prevalence of asthma , has led to interest in the role of early dietary modification in allergic disease prevention . In this study we examined the effects of maternal n‐3 (PUFA)‐rich fish oil supplementation on cord blood ( CB ) IgE and cytokine levels in neonates at risk of developing allergic disease Polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) are components of cell membranes and may play an immunomodulating role in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis ( AD ) . The goal was to determine the impact of PUFAs on AD by dietary supplementation of infants . Based on the parents ' decision on their babies ' primary feeding , mothers and newborns were r and omized to the supplementation with gamma-linolenic acid ( GLA ) or placebo for up to 6 months . Breastfed infants received GLA by supplementing their mothers . Formula diet was commercial whey hydrolysate unsupplemented with PUFAs .  Of 131 eligible infants , 24 developed AD within the first year of life . Of these , nine belonged to the exclusively breastfed group ( n = 58 ) , 14 to the combined-fed group ( n = 53 ) , and one to the never breastfed group ( n = 20 ) . We could not find an influence of GLA on the development of AD . In subjects with AD , at 1 yr of age the serum-immunoglobulin E ( IgE ) was the lowest in the GLA-supplemented group A-subjects . In the GLA-supplemented group , GLA-levels in breast milk were similar in atopic and non-atopic infants . In the non-supplemented group the GLA-content of breast milk was 0.07 % of total fatty acids in atopic infants vs. 0.17 % in non-atopic infants ( p < 0.01 ) . Dietary GLA-supplementation could not prevent AD . Interestingly , the number of infants developing AD was the lowest in never breastfed children . In infants suffering from AD , GLA-supplementation seemed to reduce total IgE in the first year of life BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE : Relative deficiency of dietary omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFA ) has been implicated in the rising allergy prevalence in Westernized countries . Fish oil supplementation may provide an intervention strategy for primary allergy prevention . The objective of this study was to assess the effect of fish oil n-3 PUFA supplementation from birth to 6 months of age on infant allergic disease . METHODS : In a double-blind r and omized controlled trial , 420 infants at high atopic risk received a daily supplement of fish oil containing 280 mg docosahexaenoic acid and 110 mg eicosapentaenoic acid or a control ( olive oil ) , from birth to age 6 months . PUFA levels were measured in 6-month-old infants ’ erythrocytes and plasma and their mothers ’ breast milk . Eczema , food allergy , asthma and sensitization were assessed in 323 infants for whom clinical follow-up was completed at 12 months of age . RESULTS : At 6 months of age , infant docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid levels were significantly higher ( both P < .05 ) and erythrocyte arachidonic acid levels were lower ( P = .003 ) in the fish oil group . Although n-3 PUFA levels at 6 months were associated with lower risk of eczema ( P = .033 ) and recurrent wheeze ( P = .027 ) , the association with eczema was not significant after multiple comparisons and there was no effect of the intervention per se on the primary study outcomes . Specifically , between-group comparisons revealed no differences in the occurrence of allergic outcomes including sensitization , eczema , asthma , or food allergy . CONCLUSIONS : Postnatal fish oil supplementation improved infant n-3 status but did not prevent childhood allergic disease BACKGROUND Allergy has sharply increased in affluent Western countries in the last 30 years . N-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 LCPUFAs ) may protect the immune system against development of allergy . METHODS We prospect ively categorized illnesses by body system in a subset of 91 children from the Kansas City cohort of the DIAMOND ( DHA Intake and Measurement of Neural Development ) study who had yearly medical records through 4 years of age . As infants , they were fed either a control formula without LCPUFA ( n = 19 ) or one of three formulas with LCPUFA from docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and arachidonic acid ( ARA ) ( n = 72 ) . RESULTS Allergic illnesses in the first year were lower in the combined LCPUFA group compared to the control . LCPUFAs significantly delayed time to first allergic illness ( p = 0.04 ) and skin allergic illness ( p = 0.03 ) and result ed in a trend to reduced wheeze/asthma ( p = 0.1 ) . If the mother had no allergies , LCPUFAs reduced the risk of any allergic diseases ( HR = 0.24 , 95 % CI = 0.1 , 0.56 , p = 0.0.001 ) and skin allergic diseases ( HR = 0.35 , 95 % CI = 0.13 , 0.93 , p = 0.04 ) . In contrast , if the mother had allergies , LCPUFAs reduced wheezing/asthma ( HR = 0.26 , 95 % CI = 0.07 , 0.9 , p = 0.02 ) . CONCLUSIONS LCPUFA supplementation during infancy reduced the risk of skin and respiratory allergic diseases in childhood with effects influenced by maternal allergies BACKGROUND Early-life exposures to tobacco smoke and some dietary factors have been identified to induce epigenetic changes in genes involved in allergy and asthma development . Omega-3 ( n-3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) intake during pregnancy could modulate key cytokines and T helper ( Th ) cell maturation ; however , little is known about the mechanism by which ω-3 PUFA could have a beneficial effect in preventing inflammatory disorders . OBJECTIVE We sought to test whether prenatal dietary supplementation with ω-3 PUFA during pregnancy may modulate epigenetic states in the infant immune system . DESIGN This study was based on a r and omized intervention trial conducted in Mexican pregnant women supplemented daily with 400 mg docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) or a placebo from 18 to 22 wk of gestation to parturition . We applied quantitative profiling of DNA methylation states in Th1 , Th2 , Th17 , and regulatory T-relevant genes as well as LINE1 repetitive elements of cord blood mononuclear cells ( n = 261 ) . RESULTS No significant difference in promoter methylation levels was shown between ω-3 PUFA-supplemented and control groups for the genes analyzed ; however , ω-3 PUFA supplementation was associated with changes in methylation levels in LINE1 repetitive elements ( P = 0.03 ) in infants of mothers who smoked during pregnancy . Furthermore , an association between the promoter methylation levels of IFNγ and IL13 was modulated by ω-3 PUFA supplementation ( P = 0.06 ) . CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that maternal supplementation with ω-3 PUFA during pregnancy may modulate global methylation levels and the Th1/Th2 balance in infants . Therefore , the epigenetic mechanisms could provide attractive targets for prenatal modulation and prevention of inflammatory disorders and potentially other related diseases in childhood and adulthood BACKGROUND Evidence is accumulating that a dietary supply of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC-PUFAs ) enhances the development of attention and efficient information processing in infants . However , it is uncertain whether LC-PUFAs in infancy influence cognitive development in later childhood . OBJECTIVE The objective was to determine the effects of dietary LC-PUFAs in infancy on measures of cognitive function at age 6 y. DESIGN Infants were r and omly assigned to receive formula containing either docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid or no LCPUFAs for a period of 4 mo . A reference breastfed group was also included . In a follow-up conducted at age 6 y , children received assessment s of intelligence quotient ( IQ ) , attention control ( Day-Night Test ) , and speed of processing on the Matching Familiar Figures Test ( MFFT ) . RESULTS At follow-up there were 71 children in the LC-PUFA group , 76 in the control group , and 88 in the breastfed group . The formula groups did not differ on measures of Full-Scale IQ ( LCPUFA mean = 98.0 ; control mean = 100.9 ) or attention control ( LCPUFA mean = 12.7 ; control mean = 12.8 ) . MFFT error scores were the same for both formula groups , but when making correct responses , the LC-PUFA group was significantly faster ( mean = 6.2 s ) than the control group [ mean = 7.8 s ; F(1 , 131 ) = 6.09 , P = 0.015 ] . CONCLUSIONS IQ scores of children who were fed a formula containing either LC-PUFAs or no LC-PUFAs did not differ at age 6 y. However , children who received LC-PUFAs were faster at processing information compared with children who received unsupplemented formula . Variation in the dietary supply of LC-PUFAs in the first months of life may have long-term consequences for the development of some cognitive functions in later childhood It has been suggested that changes in dietary habits , particularly increased consumption of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) and decreased consumption of omega-3 PUFAs may explain the increase in atopic disease seen in recent years . Furthermore , it seems possible that it is mainly prenatal or very early life environmental factors that influence the development of allergic diseases . It has also been suggested that intrauterine risk factors may act differently if mother themselves suffer from allergic disease . The aim of this study was to investigate whether the consumption of fish , butter and margarine during pregnancy might influence the development of allergic sensitizations in the offspring . The study population was divided into the offspring of allergic and non-allergic mothers . This was a retrospective cohort study enrolling 295 offspring of allergic mothers and 693 of non-allergic mothers . Information regarding maternal intake of fish , butter and margarine during pregnancy as well as other prenatal and perinatal confounding factors were retrospectively assessed by parental report via a st and ardized question naire . Atopy was determined by skin-prick tests ( SPT ) to eight prevalent inhalant allergens and two foods . In the allergic mothers ' group there is no clear correlation between maternal intakes of fish , butter and margarine  and sensitizations to food or inhalants . In the non-allergic mothers ' group there was no correlation between butter and margarine  intake and food or inhalant sensitizations . On the contrary , a protective effect of fish intake on SPT positivity was observed . In particular , frequent maternal intake ( ' 2 - 3 times/wk or more ' ) of fish reduced the risk of food sensitizations by over a third ( aOR 0.23 ; 95 % CI : 0.08 - 0.69 ) . A similar trend , even if not significant , was found for inhalants . Finally , even in the whole study population , i.e. allergic group plus non-allergic group , there was a similar trend between increased consumption of fish and decreased prevalence of SPT positivity for foods . This study shows that frequent intake of fish during pregnancy may contrast the development of SPT sensitizations for foods in the offspring of mothers without atopic disease . Therefore , larger prospect i ve studies are needed , enrolling mothers with and without allergic disease , to confirm these results BACKGROUND There is growing interest in the potential role of anti-inflammatory n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFAs ) in the prevention of allergic disease . OBJECTIVE We sought to determine whether maternal dietary supplementation with n-3 PUFAs during pregnancy could modify immune responses in infants . METHODS In a r and omized , controlled trial 98 atopic , pregnant women received fish oil ( 3.7 g n-3 PUFAs per day ) or placebo from 20 weeks ' gestation until delivery . Neonatal PUFA levels and immunologic response to allergens were measured at birth . RESULTS Eighty-three women completed the study .  Fish oil supplementation ( n = 40 ) achieved significantly higher proportions of n-3 PUFAs in neonatal erythrocyte membranes ( mean + /- SD , 17.75 % + /- 1.85 % as a percentage of total fatty acids ) compared with the control group ( n = 43 , 13.69 % + /- 1.22 % , P < .001 ) . All neonatal cytokine ( IL-5 , IL-13 , IL-10 , and IFN-gamma ) responses ( to all allergens ) tended to be lower in the fish oil group ( statistically significant only for IL-10 in response to cat ) . Although this study was not design ed to examine clinical effects , we noted that infants in the fish oil group were 3 times less likely to have a positive skin prick test to egg at 1 year of age ( odds ratio , 0.34 ; 95 % confidence interval , 0.11 to 1.02 ; P = .055 ) . Although there was no difference in the frequency of atopic dermatitis at 1 year of age , infants in the fish oil group also had significantly less severe disease ( odds ratio , 0.09 ; 95 % confidence interval , 0.01 to 0.94 ; P = .045 ) . CONCLUSIONS These data suggest a potential reduction in subsequent infant allergy after maternal PUFA supplementation . More detailed follow-up studies are required in larger cohorts to establish the robustness of these findings and to ascertain their significance in relation to longer-term modification of allergic disease in children Background : An appropriate supply of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC-PUFAs ) during early childhood may enhance cognitive development . Little attention is paid to the fatty acid ( FA ) supply during the complementary feeding period . We examined the polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) and LC-PUFAs pattern in dietary practice of two study groups and evaluated the results against the present Dietary Guidelines in Germany . Methods : The food consumption and FA pattern of dietary practice in subjects from two prospect i ve studies ( n=102 and n=184 , respectively ) at the age of 3 , 6 and 9 months was assessed by weighed diet records , and changes during the first year of life were compared with the food-based dietary guidelines for the first year of life . Results : Dietary practice in the complementary feeding period was clearly dominated by commercial food products . The FA composition in dietary practice was different from the Guideline Diet and the ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs was less favorable . Consumption of breast milk or formula was still of major importance for the intake of LC-PUFAs in the complementary feeding period . Conclusion : LC-PUFAs are predominantly provided by breast milk and formula during the first year of life and consequently decrease when milk consumption decreases . For compensation , commercial complementary food might come closer to the Guideline Diet by lowering the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio through appropriate vegetable oil along with an increase in total fat content up to the legal limit Summary Data on the impact of polyunsaturated fatty acid intake on hip fracture risk are inconsistent . We investigated this association in 75,878 women and 46,476 men and did not find a significant role for polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in the prevention of hip fractures . Introduction Polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) are important in the prevention of chronic diseases , but studies of bone health report inconsistent results . Our aim was to investigate the association between dietary PUFA  intake and risk of hip fracture in two large prospect i ve cohorts of men and women with long follow-up times and frequently up date d dietary data . Methods The study population included 75,878 women and 46,476 men free of osteoporosis at baseline .  Dietary intakes  were assessed by a food frequency question naire at baseline and several times during the follow-up . Multivariable-adjusted Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate relative risks ( RR ) . Results During 24 years of follow-up , we identified 1,051 hip fracture cases due to low or moderate trauma among the women and 529 cases among the men . In the pooled analyses , no statistically significant associations were found between intakes of total PUFA [ RR in the highest vs. lowest quintile : 0.99 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) 0.69 , 1.43 ; p value for trend is = 0.83 ] , total n-3 PUFA ( RR 0.89 , 95 % CI 0.75 , 1.06 ; p value for trend is = 0.26 ) , total n-6 PUFA ( RR 0.99 , 95 % CI 0.71 , 1.38 ; p value for trend is = 0.82 ) , n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio or individual PUFAs , and hip fracture risk . However , in women low intakes of total PUFA , total n-6 PUFA , and linoleic acid were associated with higher risk . Conclusions This study does not support a significant role for PUFA intake in the prevention of hip fractures , although low total PUFA , n-6 PUFA , or linoleic acid intakes may increase the risk in women The anti-inflammatory properties of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFA ) have suggested a potential role of these nutrients in dietary modification for prevention of allergic disease in early life . As oxidative stress is known to modify antigen presenting cell ( APC ) signalling and result ing immune responses , we examined the effects of maternal n-3 PUFA supplementation in pregnancy on markers of oxidative stress and APC function in neonates at high risk of allergy . Eighty-three pregnant atopic women were r and omised to receive 4 g daily of either fish oil ( n=40 ) or olive oil ( n=43 ) capsules in a controlled trial from 20 weeks gestation until delivery . Plasma ( cord blood ) and urinary F2-isoprostanes were measured as markers of lipid peroxidation . Cord erythrocyte fatty acids and markers of APC function ( HLA-DR expression and cytokine responses ) were measured and related to levels of plasma F2-isoprostanes . Maternal fish oil supplementation lowered plasma ( p<0.0001 ) and urinary ( p=0.06 ) F2-isoprostanes . HLA-DR expression on APC was not different between the groups . In multiple regression analysis , 28.8 % of the variance in plasma F2-isoprostanes was explained by positive relationships with erythrocyte arachidonic acid ( AA ) and monocyte HLA-DR expression and a negative relationship with erythrocyte eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) . This study shows that maternal supplementation with fish oil can attenuate neonatal lipid peroxidation . Clinical follow-up of these infants will help to determine if there are sustained effects on postnatal oxidative stress and expression of allergic disease ABSTRACT : A direct influence of dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC-PUFA ) on the developmental quotient ( DQ ) of the healthy term infant remains unexplored . To test this hypothesis , we design ed a prospect i ve study of three types of diet . Twentynine infants received a LC-PUFA-supplemented formula , 31 received a st and ard infant formula , and 30 infants were breastfed exclusively .  Neurodevelopmental response was measured by the Brunet-Lézine psychomotor development lest at 4 mo . The fatty acid status was also assessed among three diet subgroups ( 59 subjects ) at 4 mo . Formula-fed infants who received LC-PUFA supplementation scored significantly higher ( p < 0.01 ) on the Brunet-Lézine scale than infants who received the st and ard formula . Breast-fed infants also performed better than those fed the st and ard formula . Arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid levels in circulating lipids and erythrocyte phospholipids were higher among breast-fed infants and among the group fed the arachidonic- and docosahexaenoic acid-supplemented formula . These findings are suggestive that formula supplementation with one or both of these fatty acids can benefit term infants in neurodevelopmental performance Objective : To study the effect of modified polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) profiles of complementary food on long-chain ( LC ) PUFA composition in healthy infants . Design : Double blinded , r and omised , controlled intervention trial . Setting : Dortmund , Germany . Patients : Free-living sample of healthy term infants . Methods : Participants were r and omly assigned within the first 2 months of life . During the intervention period from 4 to 10 months , the control group ( n = 53 ) received commercial complementary meals with corn oil ( 3.4 g/meal ) rich in n-6 linoleic acid ( LA ) , the intervention group ( n = 49 ) received the same meals with rapeseed oil ( 1.6 g/meal ) rich in n-3 alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) .  Fatty acid intake was assessed from dietary records throughout the intervention period . Fatty acid proportions ( % of total fatty acid ) in total plasma were analysed before and after the intervention . Results : Plasma fatty acid profiles did not differ between the intervention and control groups before the intervention . During the intervention , the only difference in fatty acid intake between the intervention and control groups was a higher intake of ALA in the intervention group , 21 % deriving from study food and a lower ratio of LA/ALA ( 10.7 vs 14.8 ) . At the end of the intervention , the plasma proportions of total n-3 fatty acids and of n-3 LC-PUFA , but not of ALA , were higher and the ratios of n-6/n-3 fatty acids were lower in the intervention group . Conclusions : Feasible dietary modifications of the precursor fatty acid profile via n-3 PUFA-rich vegetable oil favoured n-3 LC-PUFA synthesis in the complementary feeding period when LC-PUFA intake from breast milk and formula is decreasing Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women . Controversy exists regarding the role of dietary fat in breast cancer etiology . We investigated the association of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) and the ratio of n‐6 PUFAs to marine‐derived n‐3 PUFAs with  breast cancer risk in the Shanghai Women 's Health Study , a prospect i ve cohort study including 72,571 cancer‐free participants at baseline .  Dietary fatty acid intake was determined using food frequency question naires . We used Cox proportional hazards analysis to estimate the relative risks ( RRs ) and 95 % confidence intervals ( CIs ) for the association of breast cancer risk with dietary fatty acids consumption . In 583,998 person‐years of follow‐up , we identified 712 breast cancer cases . We found no association of breast cancer risk to dietary intake of linoleic acid , arachidonic acid , α‐linolenic acid or marine‐derived n‐3 PUFA . We found a statistically significant interaction between n‐6 PUFA intake , marine‐derived n‐3 PUFA intake and breast cancer risk ( p = 0.008 ) . Women with lower intake ( the lowest tertile ) of marine‐derived n‐3 PUFA and higher intake ( the highest tertile ) of n‐6 PUFA had an increase risk for breast cancer ( RR = 2.06 ; 95 % CI = 1.27–3.34 ) compared to women with higher intake ( the highest tertile ) of marine‐derived n‐3 PUFAs and lower intake ( the lowest tertile ) of n‐6 PUFAs after adjusting for potential confounders . The relative amounts of n‐6 PUFA to marine‐derived n‐3 PUFAs may be more important for breast cancer risk than individual dietary amounts of these fatty acids Forty-two infants ( 20 males , 22 females ) with classical phenylketonuria ( PKU ) entered a prospect i ve , double-blind , r and omized study to investigate the effects on biochemical and physiological outcomes of a phenylalanine-free infant formula containing a fat blend supplemented with the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC-PUFA ) , docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA , C22:6 n-3 ) , and arachidonic acid ( AA , C20:4 n-6 ) . Between entry and 20 weeks ( entry and 1y ) of age , median DHA levels in erythrocyte membrane phospholipids decreased by 15 % ( 22 % ) in the LC-PUFA supplemented group ( n=21 ) and by 61 % ( 64 % ) in the control group ( p<0.001 ; n=18 ) . A dietary supply of LC-PUFA in infants with PKU prevents the decline in DHA levels associated with a diet supplying minimal sources of LC-PUFA . DHA status in turn , independent of diet , may influence the maturation of the visual system in infants with PKU BACKGROUND Substitution of dietary polyunsaturated for saturated fat has long been recommended for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) , but only a few prospect i ve cohort studies have provided support for this advice . METHODS We assessed the association of dietary linoleic and total polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) intake with cardiovascular and overall mortality in a population -based cohort of 1551 middle-aged men . Dietary fat composition was estimated with a 4-day food record and serum fatty acid composition . RESULTS During the 15-year follow-up , 78 men died of CVD and 225 of any cause . Total fat intake was not related to CVD or overall mortality . Men with an energy-adjusted dietary intake of linoleic acid ( relative risk [ RR ] 0.39 ; 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] , 0.21 - 0.71 ) and PUFA ( RR , 0.38 ; 95 % CI , 0.20 - 0.70 ) in the upper third were less likely to die of CVD than men with intake in the lower third after adjustment for age . Multivariate adjustment weakened the association somewhat . Mortality from CVD was also lower for men with proportions of serum esterified linoleic acid ( RR , 0.42 ; 95 % CI , 0.21 - 0.80 ) and PUFA ( RR , 0.25 ; 95 % CI , 0.12 - 0.50 ) in the upper vs lower third , with some attenuation in multivariate analyses . Serum and to a lesser extent dietary linoleic acid and PUFA were also inversely associated with overall mortality . CONCLUSIONS Dietary polyunsaturated and more specifically linoleic fatty acid intake may have a substantial cardioprotective benefit that is also reflected in overall mortality . Dietary fat quality seems more important than fat quantity in the reduction of cardiovascular mortality in men BACKGROUND Indian Asians in Western countries have a higher rate of coronary artery disease than do the indigenous white population s , and this higher rate may be influenced by a dietary imbalance of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) . OBJECTIVE The objective of the study was to test the hypothesis that a high background dietary intake of n-6 PUFA attenuates the effects of fish-oil supplementation on insulin sensitivity and associated blood lipids of the metabolic syndrome . DESIGN Twenty-nine Indian Asian men were recruited to participate in a 12-wk dietary intervention trial . Volunteers were r and omly assigned to receive either a moderate or a high n-6 PUFA diet featuring modified oils and spreads over a 6-wk period . After this 6-wk period , both groups were supplemented with 4.0 g fish oil/d ( 2.5 g eicosapentaenoic acid + docosahexaenoic acid ) for an additional 6 wk in combination with the dietary treatment . Volunteers participated in a postpr and ial study and an insulin sensitivity test after the 6-wk dietary intervention and again after the fish-oil supplementation period . RESULTS There was no significant time x treatment interaction for blood lipids or insulin action after dietary intervention with the moderate or high n-6 PUFA diets in combination with fish oil . After the 6-wk period of fish oil supplementation , fasting and postpr and ial plasma triacylglycerol concentrations decreased significantly . CONCLUSION The background dietary n-6 PUFA concentration did not modulate the effect of fish-oil supplementation on blood lipids or measures of insulin sensitivity in this ethnic group Maternal nutrient intake during pregnancy and lactation potentially influences the development of allergic diseases . Cows ' milk allergy ( CMA ) is often the first manifestation of atopic diseases , but the impact of early nutritional influences on CMA has not been explored . The associations between maternal intakes of folate , folic acid and vitamin D during pregnancy and lactation were addressed in a prospect i ve , population -based birth cohort within the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Study . Mothers of 4921 children during pregnancy and 2940 children during lactation provided information on maternal dietary intake during the 8th month of pregnancy and the 3rd month of lactation using a detailed , vali date d FFQ . Information on diagnosed CMA in the offspring was obtained from a medical registry as well as queried from the parents . The Finnish food composition data base was used to calculate nutrient intake . Logistic regression was applied for statistical analyses .  Folate intake and folic acid and vitamin D supplement  use were associated with an increased risk of CMA in the offspring , whereas vitamin D intake from foods during pregnancy was associated with a decreased risk of CMA . Thus , maternal nutrient intake during pregnancy and lactation may affect the development of CMA in offspring . Supplementation with folic acid may not be beneficial in terms of CMA development , especially in children of allergic mothers . The association between dietary supplement use and CMA risk can at least partly be explained by increased health-seeking behaviour among more educated mothers who also use more dietary supplements CONTEXT Mono- and polyunsaturated fats may have opposing effects on vitamin D absorption . OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to determine whether intakes of different dietary fats are associated with the increase in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D ( 25OHD ) after supplementation with vitamin D(3 ) . DESIGN , SETTING , AND PARTICIPANTS This analysis was conducted in the active treatment arm of a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled trial of vitamin D and calcium supplementation to prevent bone loss and fracture . Subjects included 152 healthy men and women age 65 and older who were assigned to 700 IU/d vitamin D(3 ) and 500 mg/d calcium .  Intakes of monounsaturated fatty acids ( MUFA ) , polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) , and saturated fatty acids ( SFA ) were estimated by food frequency question naire . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE The change in plasma 25OHD during 2 yr  vitamin D and calcium supplementation was assessed . RESULTS The change in plasma 25OHD ( nanograms per milliliter ) during vitamin D supplementation was positively associated with MUFA , ( β = 0.94 ; P = 0.016 ) , negatively associated with PUFA , ( β = -0.93 ; P = 0.038 ) , and positively associated with the MUFA/PUFA ratio ( β = 6.46 ; P = 0.014 ) . CONCLUSION The fat composition of the diet may influence the 25OHD response to supplemental vitamin D(3 ) . Diets rich in MUFA may improve and those rich in PUFA may reduce the effectiveness of vitamin D(3 ) supplements in healthy older adults . More studies are needed to confirm these findings Objective : The long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC-PUFA ) status of children with PKU is often compromised . LC-PUFA , which are important fatty acids in the development of the CNS , can be synthesis ed endogenously from the parent essential fatty acids ( EFA ) provided dietary intakes are adequate . This study was design ed to assess the biochemical effect over a 20-week period of a phe-free protein substitute that has been supplemented with a balanced blend of n-3 and n-6 EFAs on LC-PUFA status of children with PKU . Design , setting and subjects : Fifty three community-living children aged 1–10 years diagnosed with PKU in the newborn period were recruited from seven tertiary centres in the UK and France and r and omised to a fat-free control formula or the EFA-supplemented test-treatment formula in an open , prospect i ve study . Forty four children completed the study ( 20 controls , 24 test-treatments ) . Fatty acid status was assessed at entry and 20-weeks follow-up . Three day dietary diaries were recorded at 20 weeks ' follow-up . The safety , efficacy and palatability of the test-treatment formula were also assessed . Results : The test-treatment group had significantly higher intakes of fat and EFA than the control group . There was a significant between group difference ( P=0.04 ) in increases in median docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) concentrations in erythrocyte phospholipids , which increased by 19 % in the test-treatment group and by 0.5 % in the control group over the study period . Growth and phe control were satisfactory in all subjects . Conclusions : Supplementing the diets of children with PKU with a balanced blend of n-6 and n-3 EFA improves DHA status without compromising AA status Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) may represent a mode of allergy prevention . Cord blood ( CB ) CD34 + hemopoietic progenitors are altered in infants at risk of atopy . We therefore studied the effects of dietary n-3 PUFA supplementation during pregnancy on numbers and function of progenitors in neonates at high risk of atopy . In a double-blind study , atopic , pregnant women were r and omized to receive fish oil capsules or placebo from 20 wk gestation until delivery . At birth , CB CD34 + cells were isolated and analyzed by flow cytometry for expression of cytokine ( IL-5Rα , IL-3Rα , granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor Rα ) or chemokine ( CXCR4 and CCR3 ) receptors . CB cells were also cultured in methylcellulose assays for eosinophil/basophil colony-forming cells . At age 1 y , infants were clinical ly assessed for atopic symptoms and skin tests . Percentages of CB CD34 + cell numbers were higher after n-3 PUFA than placebo .  Co-expression of cytokine or chemokine receptors on CD34 cells was not altered by n-3 PUFA supplementation . However , there were significantly more IL-5-responsive CB eosinophil/basophil colony forming units ( Eo/B-CFU ) in the fish oil , compared with the control , group . Overall , there was a positive association between CD34 + cells and IL-5-responsive Eo/B-CFU in CB and 1 y clinical outcomes , including atopic dermatitis and wheeze . Dietary n-3 PUFA supplementation during pregnancy in atopic mothers alters infant cord blood hemopoietic progenitor phenotype . This may have an impact on development of atopic disease Polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) are vital for the normal development of the brain and the eye retina in infancy . Breast milk contains significant amounts of PUFA , and compensates for their low production in infancy . Only recently a few companies with worldwide product distribution have started to enrich infant formula with PUFA . We evaluated the safety and clinical efficacy of a locally made PUFA-enriched infant formula , produced for the first time in Israel . 50 normal , full term infants participated in a prospect i ve , r and omized double-blind study . Half received a regular whey-predominant infant formula ( Materna Plus ) , and the other half a PUFA-enriched formula ( Materna Premium ) , both produced in Israel , for 30 days . Evaluation included physical examination , growth parameters , stool analysis , daily parental question naires regarding infant behavior and defecation , and developmental assessment . There were no significant differences on comparing growth parameters , infant behavior , attacks of restlessness , gas severity , or stool characteristics in the 2 groups . There were no side effects or abnormal stool findings in either group , and no differences in developmental assessment at 3 months of age . We conclude that the locally-produced PUFA-enriched infant formula is safe and clinical ly efficient . We assume that the lack of any effect on developmental indices is due to the relatively short exposure to the PUFA-enriched diet . Nevertheless , based on the recent literature , there is no doubt that PUFA supplementation is vital in improving infant brain and eye development Background There are ambiguous results regarding the role n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and fish might play in primary prevention of allergic diseases .  The aim was to investigate the association between cod liver oil and fish consumption during pregnancy and in the first year of life and  asthma and eczema  at 2 years of age . Methods From the Prevention of Allergy among Children in Trondheim study , a prospect i ve birth cohort study in primary healthcare in Trondheim , Norway , 3086 children were followed prospect ively from 1 year to approximately 2 years of age . The primary outcome variable was parental reported asthma and eczema at 2 years . Results The mean age for introducing fish in the diet was 9.1 months . Excluding children with incident eczema before 1 year , a reduced risk of developing eczema was found if the child was eating fish once a week or more , adjusted OR ( aOR ) for any kind of fish 0.62 ( 95 % CI 0.42 to 0.91 p=0.02 ) , for oily fish aOR 0.21 ( 95 % CI 0.05 to 0.86 p=0.03 ) and for lean fish aOR 0.67 ( 95 % CI 0.41 to 1.08 p=0.10 ) . The associations between maternal diet and eczema at 2 years and between the dietary factors and doctor-diagnosed asthma were all insignificant . Conclusions Fish consumption in infancy was more important than maternal fish intake during pregnancy in preventing eczema in childhood . The intake of fish per se , not specifically n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids , was most important in preventing eczema BACKGROUND Intakes of n-3 ( omega-3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) are important for health . Because fish is the major source of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , non-fish-eaters may have suboptimal n-3 PUFA status , although the importance of the conversion of plant-derived α-linolenic acid ( ALA ) to EPA and DHA is debated . OBJECTIVE The objective was to determine intakes , food sources , and status of n-3 PUFAs  according to dietary habit ( fish-eaters and non-fish-eating meat-eaters , vegetarians , or vegans ) and estimated conversion between dietary ALA and circulating long-chain n-3 PUFAs . DESIGN This study included 14,422 men and women aged 39 - 78 y from the EPIC ( European Prospect i ve Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition)-Norfolk cohort with 7-d diary data and a sub study in 4902 individuals with plasma phospholipid fatty acid measures .  Intakes and status of n-3 PUFAs were measured , and the product-precursor ratio [ corrected ] of ALA to circulating n-3 PUFAs was calculated . RESULTS Most of the dietary intake of  EPA and DHA was supplied by fish ; however , meat was the major source in meat-eaters , and spreading fats , soups , and sauces were the major sources in vegetarians . Total n-3 PUFA intakes in non-fish-eaters were 57 - 80 % of those in fish-eaters , but status differences were considerably smaller [ corrected ] . The estimated product-precursor ratio [ corrected ] was greater in women than in men and greater in non-fish-eaters than in fish-eaters . CONCLUSIONS Substantial differences in intakes and in sources of n-3 PUFAs existed between the dietary-habit groups , but the differences in status were smaller than expected , possibly because the product-precursor ratio [ corrected ] was greater in non-fish-eaters than in fish-eaters , potentially indicating increased estimated conversion of ALA . If intervention studies were to confirm these findings , it could have implication s for fish requirements Objectives : Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ( LC-PUFA ) enrichment of preterm infant formulas is recommended to meet high dem and s. Dietary LC-PUFA may inhibit endogenous LC-PUFA synthesis , thus limiting their benefit . We investigated effects of different docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) intakes on plasma and erythrocyte fatty acids and endogenous LC-PUFA synthesis in preterm infants . Methods : Forty-two preterm infants ( birth weight 1000–2200 g ) were r and omized double-blind to  preterm formulas with & ggr;-linolenic acid ( 0.4 % ) and arachidonic acid ( AA , 0.1 % ) but different DHA contents ( A : 0.04 % , B : 0.33 % , C : 0.52 % ) ; 24 received human milk ( HM : 0.51 % AA , 0.38 % DHA , nonr and omized ) . Blood was sample d on study days 0 , 14 , and 28 . Uniformly 13C-labeled linoleic acid ( 2 mg/kg ) and & agr;-linolenic acid ( 1 mg/kg ) were applied orally on day 26 and blood sample s collected 48 hours later . Results : On day 28 , group A had the lowest and group C the highest plasma phospholipid concentrations of eicosapentaenoic acid and DHA . Erythrocyte phospholipid DHA was lowest in group A , but comparable in groups B , C , and HM . Plasma and erythrocyte AA were lower in formula groups than in HM . DHA intake had no effect on DHA synthesis . LC-PUFA synthesis was lower in HM infants . Conclusions : DHA supply dose dependently increased plasma DHA . Formula DHA levels of 0.33 % matched plasma DHA status of infants fed HM . LC-PUFA synthesis was lower in infants fed HM than formulas with different DHA and low AA contents . With the LC-PUFA supplementation used , DHA in formulas did not inhibit AA or DHA synthesis We have previously reported a protective effect of maternal omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( ω-3 LCPUFA ) supplementation in pregnancy and lactation on IgE-associated eczema and food allergy in the infant during the first year of life . Here we investigate whether the effects of the LCPUFA supplementation on IgE-associated diseases last up to 2 yr of age and assess the relationship between plasma proportions of ω-3 PUFAs and the frequency and severity of infant allergic disease . 145 pregnant women , at risk of having an allergic infant , were r and omized to daily supplementation with 1.6 g eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and 1.1 g docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) or placebo starting in the 25th gestational week and continuing through 3.5 months of breastfeeding . Clinical examinations , skin prick tests and analysis of maternal and infant plasma phospholipid fatty acids and infant specific IgE were performed . No difference in the prevalence of allergic symptoms was found between the intervention groups . The cumulative incidence of IgE-associated disease was lower in the ω-3-supplemented group ( 6/54 , 13 % ) compared with the placebo group ( 19/62 , 30 % , p=0.01 ) . Higher maternal and infant proportions of DHA and EPA were associated with lower prevalence of IgE associated disease ( p=0.01 - 0.05 ) in a dose-dependent manner . Higher maternal and infant proportions of DHA and EPA were found if the infants presented none , when compared with multiple allergic symptoms , ( p<0.05 ) regardless of sensitization . In summary , the ω-3 supplementation offered no obvious preventive effect on the prevalence of clinical symptoms of allergic disease , but the decrease in cumulative incidence of IgE-associated disease seen during the first year still remained until 2 yr of age . Furthermore , high proportions of DHA and EPA in maternal and infant plasma phospholipids were associated with less IgE-associated disease and a reduced severity of the allergic phenotype Background Dietary guidelines support intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) in fish and vegetable oils . However , some controversy remains about benefits of PUFAs , and most prior studies have relied on self‐reported dietary assessment in relatively homogeneous population s. Methods and Results In a multiethnic cohort of 2837 US adults ( whites , Hispanics , African Americans , Chinese Americans ) , plasma phospholipid PUFAs were measured at baseline ( 2000–2002 ) using gas chromatography and dietary PUFAs estimated using a food frequency question naire .  Incident cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) events ( including coronary heart disease and stroke ; n=189 ) were prospect ively identified through 2010 during 19 778 person‐years of follow‐up . In multivariable‐adjusted Cox models , circulating n‐3 eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid were inversely associated with incident CVD , with extreme‐quartile hazard ratios ( 95 % CIs ) of 0.49 for eicosapentaenoic acid ( 0.30 to 0.79 ; Ptrend=0.01 ) and 0.39 for docosahexaenoic acid ( 0.22 to 0.67 ; Ptrend<0.001 ) . n‐3 Docosapentaenoic acid ( DPA ) was inversely associated with CVD in whites and Chinese , but not in other race/ethnicities ( P‐interaction=0.01 ) . No significant associations with CVD were observed for circulating n‐3 alpha‐linolenic acid or n‐6 PUFA ( linoleic acid , arachidonic acid ) . Associations with CVD of self‐reported dietary PUFA were consistent with those of the PUFA biomarkers . All associations were similar across racial‐ethnic groups , except those of docosapentaenoic acid . Conclusions Both dietary and circulating eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid , but not alpha‐linolenic acid or n‐6 PUFA , were inversely associated with CVD incidence . These findings suggest that increased consumption of n‐3 PUFA from seafood may prevent CVD development in a multiethnic population BACKGROUND & AIMS Protein source , macronutrient composition and content of long chain-polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC-PUFA ) of infant formulae may influence infant growth . We aim ed to assess the effect of a modified infant formula on growth . METHODS In a r and omized , double-blind trial , 213 healthy term infants consumed  isoenergetic study formulae ( intervention formula - IF , control formula - CF ) from the first month of life until the age of 120 days . IF ( 1.89 g protein/100 kcal ) contained α-lactalbumin ( ALAB ) and LC-PUFA , while CF ( 2.30 g protein/100 kcal ) provided st and ard whey and no LC-PUFA . Anthropometry and dietary intake were regularly assessed . A venous blood sample was obtained on day 120 . RESULTS Both formulae were well-accepted without significant differences in health related observations . Weight gain was not statistically different between formula groups ( IF : 30.2 ± 6.3 vs. CF : 28.3 ± 6.5 g/day , mean ± SD , P = 0.06 ) . Length gain was higher in IF ( 0.11 ± 0.02 vs. 0.10 ± 0.02 cm/day , P = 0.02 ) . Energy intake from formula was higher in CF at 90 and 120 days ( IF : 509 ± 117 and 528 ± 123 vs. CF : 569 ± 152 and 617 ± 169 kcal/day , P < 0.01 ) . Protein intake in CF was significantly higher at each assessment . Growth per energy intake was higher in IF compared to CF for weight ( 6.45 ± 2.01 vs. 5.67 ± 2.21 g/100 kcal , P = 0.02 ) and length ( 0.23 ± 0.08 vs. 0.20 ± 0.08 mm/100 kcal , P = 0.04 ) . CONCLUSIONS The modified infant formula with reduced protein content with added ALAB and LC-PUFA , meets infant requirements of protein for adequate growth . The increased energetic efficiency of the new infant formula might result from improved protein composition by added ALAB . Apparently minor differences in composition can markedly affect energetic efficiency for growth . The study was registered at Clinical Trials.gov ( NCT01094080 ) Abstract This evaluation of the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial data base investigated the effects of dietary PUFA on disease outcomes that may relate to polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) biochemistry . The Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial was a r and omized clinical trial in coronary heart disease ( CHD ) primary prevention involving 12,866 middle-aged men determined to be at high risk of CHD . They were assigned to either a special intervention group or a usual care group and returned to clinics on an annual basis for assessment of risk factor status . Only data on the usual care men ( n = 6,250 ) are presented , since the multi-intervention effects on the special intervention group introduce considerable analytic complexities . Mean PUFA intake estimates were calculated from four dietary recall interviews at baseline and follow-up Years 1 , 2 , and 3 and estimates for PUFA were established using absolute grams , percentage of total kilocalories , and ratios . Proportional hazards regression analysis controlling for age , race and baseline diastolic blood pressure , smoking , high and low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels , and alcohol was used to analyze dietary PUFA intakes on 10.5-year mortality rates . Results were more significant when PUFA were expressed as percentage of total kilocalories . No significant associations with mortality were detected for linoleic acid ( 18:2n-6 ) , the predominant dietary PUFA . Significant inverse associations were observed for linolenic acid ( 18:3n-3 ) on mortality from CHD ( P < 0.04 ) , all cardiovascular diseases ( CVD ) ( P < 0.03 ) , and all cause mortality ( P < 0.02 ) ; the sum of fatty acids primarily derived from fish oils ( 20:5n-3 + 22:5n-3 + 22:6n-3 ) on CHD ( P < 0.02 ) , CVD ( P < 0.006 ) , and all cause ( P < 0.02 ) mortality ; and , the ratio of 18:3n-3 to 18:2n-6 on cancer mortality ( P < 0.05 ) . Analysis using the total n-3 ( 18:3 + 20:5 + 22:5 + 22:6 ) to total n-6 ( 18:2 + 18:4 + 20:4 ) ratio was also significant on cancer mortality ( P < 0.04 ) . These findings support reports that n-3 fatty acids are protective against CVD and suggest that composition of dietary PUFA may influence CVD and cancer rates The effect of dietary supplementation with 4 g of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) daily for 9 months on blood pressure , plasma lipids and lipoproteins , platelet function , coagulation and fibrinolysis was studied in 24 healthy volunteers . Each variable was determined before , after 6 weeks and 9 months of supplementation with n-3 PUFA , and 3 months after the supplementation period had ended . Systolic and diastolic blood pressure declined after intake of n-3 PUFAs .  Plasma triglycerides were reduced , and there was a trend towards an increase in HDL-cholesterol after 9 months of supplementation , while total cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol and apolipoproteins A1 and B were unaltered . The bleeding time was increased , and plasma levels of von Willebr and factor decreased after 9 months supplementation with n-3 PUFA .  Fibrinogen levels increased , while fibrinolysis was reduced after 9 months supplementation with n-3 PUFA . Overall , no clear benefit on lipid pattern and haemostasis was achieved with respect to development of coronary heart disease Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) derived from fatty fish or fish oil may reduce the incidence of lethal myocardial infa rct ion and sudden cardiac death . This might be due to a prevention of fatal cardiac arrhythmias . So far , however , only few clinical data are available being adequate to define indications for an antiarrhythmic treatment with n-3 PUFA . In a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled study 65 patients with cardiac arrhythmias without coronary heart disease or heart failure were subdivided into 2 groups . One group ( n = 33 ) was supplemented with encapsulated fish oil ( 3g/day , equivalent to 1g/day of n-3 PUFA ) over 6 months . The other group ( n = 32 ) was given 3g/day of olive oil as placebo . In the fish oil group a decrease of serum triglycerides , total cholesterol , LDL cholesterol , plasma free fatty acids and thromboxane B2 as well as an increase of HDL cholesterol were observed . Moreover , a reduced incidence of atrial and ventricular premature complexes , couplets and triplets were documented . Accordingly , higher grade s of Lown 's classification switched to lower grade s at the end of the dietary period . No changes were seen in the placebo group . The data indicate an antiarrhythmic action of n-3 PUFA under conditions of clinical practice which might help to explain the reduced incidence of fatal myocardial infa rct ion and sudden cardiac death in cohorts on a fish-rich diet or supplemented with n-3 PUFA . Further studies elucidating the possible link between the reduced incidence of cardiac arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death by dietary intake of n-3 PUFA are warranted OBJECTIVES The objective of our study was to test the hypothesis that fish or omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) intakes would be inversely associated with risks of mortality from ischemic heart disease , cardiac arrest , heart failure , stroke , and total cardiovascular disease . BACKGROUND Data on associations of dietary intake of fish and of omega-3 PUFA with risk of cardiovascular disease among Asian societies have been limited . METHODS We conducted a prospect i ve study consisting of 57,972 Japanese men and women . Dietary intakes of fish and omega-3 PUFA were determined by food frequency question naire , and participants were followed up for 12.7 years . Hazard ratios and 95 % confidence intervals were calculated according to quintiles of fish or omega-3 PUFA intake . RESULTS We observed generally inverse associations of fish and omega-3 PUFA intakes with risks of mortality from heart failure ( multivariable hazard ratio [ 95 % confidence interval ] for highest versus lowest quintiles = 0.76 [ 0.53 to 1.09 ] for fish and 0.58 [ 0.36 to 0.93 ] for omega-3 PUFA ) . Associations with ischemic heart disease or myocardial infa rct ion were relatively weak and not statistically significant after adjustment for potential risk factors . Neither fish nor omega-3 PUFA dietary intake was associated with mortality from total stroke , its subtypes , or cardiac arrest . For mortality from total cardiovascular disease , intakes of fish and omega-3 PUFA were associated with 18 % to 19 % lower risk . CONCLUSIONS We found an inverse association between fish and omega-3 PUFA dietary intakes and cardiovascular mortality , especially for heart failure , suggesting a protective effect of fish intake on cardiovascular diseases The active metabolite of vitamin D , 1,25-(OH)2D3 , has immunomodulatory properties in addition to its more established action on bone and calcium metabolism . Recently vitamin D has been proposed as one of several environmental factors responsible for the increase in atopic diseases during the last decades . The objective of this study was to determine whether the estimated dose of dietary vitamin D3 during the first year of life is associated with atopic diseases up to the age of 6 years . In a prospect i ve birth cohort study 123 six-year-old children were investigated for the cumulative incidence of atopic dermatitis , allergic rhinitis or asthma by means of a postal question naire . Their vitamin D3 intake during infancy was recorded in a previous study and the relationship between lower or higher vitamin D3 intake and atopic illness later in childhood was assessed . Atopic manifestations were more prevalent in the group with higher intake of vitamin D3 . Although small , this study supports previous investigations suggesting a role of vitamin D intake during infancy in the development of atopic allergy later in childhood . If these findings are confirmed in prospect i ve controlled clinical trials , prevention through modified vitamin D3 supplementation in infancy could be discussed to reduce the burden of atopic illnesses Fish oil supplementation has been shown to reduce neutrophil production of inflammatory LTB4 ( leukotriene B4 ) in adults . The present study is the first to examine the effects on  neonatal neutrophil function following supplementation in pregnancy . Pregnant women with allergic disease ( n=98 ) were r and omized to receive either fish oil [ 3.7 g of n-3 long-chain PUFAs ( polyunsaturated fatty acids)/day ] or a placebo supplement for the final 20 weeks of pregnancy . Leukotriene production by neonatal neutrophils was measured after stimulation with the calcium ionophore A23187 . This was examined in relation to supplementation , cell membrane fatty acid levels and mononuclear cytokine production . Neutrophil LTB4 production was significantly reduced in neonates whose mothers had received fish oil in pregnancy . This was most evident for isomer 2 of LTB4 ( P=0.031 ) , although this was also observed for total LTB4 ( P=0.051 ) and isomer 1 ( P=0.088 ) . There was also a trend for lower production of other PUFA metabolites , namely 5-HETE ( 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid ; P=0.054 ) in the fish oil group . Accordingly , LTB4 levels were inversely related to membrane n-3 PUFA levels . Less inflammatory products ( LTB5 ) were only produced at very low levels , although there was a trend for higher levels of this metabolite in the fish oil group . Consistent with this , LTB5 levels were positively correlated with n-3 PUFA membrane levels , particularly EPA ( eicosapentanoic acid ) and negatively correlated with n-6 PUFAs . Neonates with lower neutrophil LTB4 production also had lower production of pro-inflammatory IL (interleukin)-6 responses ( r=0.35 , P=0.005 ) and regulatory IL-10 responses ( r=0.37 , P=0.003 ) by LPS (lipopolysaccharide)-stimulated neonatal mononuclear cells . In conclusion , maternal dietary changes can modify  neonatal neutrophil function . This has implication s for the early immune programming , which can be influenced by the inflammatory milieu of local tissues during initial antigen encounter . It also provides evidence of another pathway through which long-chain PUFAs status can influence early immune development BACKGROUND Previous r and omized controlled trials have demonstrated that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFA ) are beneficial in reducing symptoms of depression . However , there is limited evidence regarding the influence of dietary n-3 PUFA intake on mood in adolescents drawn from population studies . OBJECTIVE In the present investigation , we examined the relationship between dietary n-3 PUFA intake on depression symptomatology in a large prospect i ve pregnancy cohort followed for 17 years . METHODS Adolescents enrolled in the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort ( Raine ) Study completed a Food Frequency Question naire to assess dietary fatty acid intake , as well as other dietary factors at age 14 and a fasting blood sample was taken . Participants also completed the Beck Depression Inventory for Youth ( BDI-Y ) at age 14 ( N = 1,407 ) and at age 17 ( N = 995 ) . RESULTS An inverse relationship was observed between intake of both saturated fat and of n-3 PUFA  at age 14 and BDI-Y scores at both 14 and 17 years of age . However , after adjusting for energy ( kJ ) intake and other lifestyle confounders , the relationships were no longer significant . CONCLUSIONS Associations previously reported between n3 PUFA and depressive symptoms may be due to collinearity with other dietary and lifestyle factors Background : Results from previous studies on polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) intake and multiple sclerosis ( MS ) risk are conflicting . Objective : To prospect ively investigate the association between dietary intake of PUFA and MS risk . Methods : We followed 80,920 women from Nurses ’ Health Study ( 1984–2004 ) and 94,511 women from Nurses ’ Health Study II ( 1991–2009 ) who reported on diet using a vali date d food frequency question naire every 4 years and identified 479 incident MS cases during follow-up . We used Cox regression to estimate hazard ratios ( HRs ) and 95 % confidence intervals ( CIs ) , for the effect of PUFA intake on MS risk adjusting for age , latitude of residence at age 15 , ancestry , cigarette smoking , supplemental vitamin D intake , body mass index , and total energy intake . Results : Higher intake of total PUFA at baseline was associated with a lower risk of MS ( HR top vs bottom quintile : 0.67 , 95 % CI : 0.49–0.90 , p trend = 0.01 ) . Among the specific types of PUFA , only α-linolenic acid ( ALA ) was inversely associated with MS risk ( HR top vs bottom quintile : 0.61 , 95 % CI : 0.45–0.83 , p trend = 0.001 ) . The long-chain fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) were not associated with MS risk . Conclusion : Low dietary PUFA intake may be another modifiable risk factor for MS BACKGROUND The mechanisms involved in the increased mortality from coronary artery disease in British Indo-Asians are not well understood . OBJECTIVES This study aim ed to investigate whether British Indo-Asian Sikhs have higher plasma triacylglycerol concentrations , lower platelet phospholipid levels , and lower dietary intakes of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) than do age- and weight-matched Europeans and whether moderate dietary fish-oil intake can reverse these differences . DESIGN A r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , parallel , fish-oil intervention study was performed . After a 2-wk run-in period , 44 Europeans and 40 Indo-Asian Sikhs were r and omly assigned to receive either 4.0 g fish oil [ 1.5 g eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and 1.0 g docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ] or 4.0 g olive oil ( control ) daily for 12 wk . RESULTS At baseline , the Indo-Asians had significantly higher plasma triacylglycerol , small dense LDL , apolipoprotein B , and dietary and platelet phospholipid n-6 PUFA values and significantly lower long-chain n-3 PUFAs ( EPA and DHA ) than did the Europeans . A significant decrease in plasma triacylglycerol , plasma apolipoprotein B-48 , and platelet phospholipid arachidonic acid concentrations and a significant increase in plasma HDL concentrations and platelet phospholipid EPA and DHA levels were observed after fish-oil supplementation . No significant effect of ethnicity on the responses to fish-oil supplementation was observed . CONCLUSIONS Moderate fish-oil supplementation contributes to a reversal of lipid abnormalities and low n-3 PUFA levels in Indo-Asians and should be considered as an important , yet simple , dietary manipulation to reduce CAD risk in Indo-Asians with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype Due to the growing knowledge about the role of specific fatty acids in health and disease , dietary intake measurements of individual fatty acids or classes of fatty acids are becoming increasingly important . The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of the Nambour FFQ to estimate intakes of specific fatty acids , particularly PUFA .  The study population was a sub- sample of adult participants in a r and omised controlled trial of beta-carotene and sunscreen in the prevention of skin cancer ( n 43 ) .  Dietary intake was assessed by a self-administered FFQ and a weighed food record ( WFR ) . Non-fasting blood sample s were collected and analysed for plasma phospholipid fatty acids . Median intakes on the FFQ were generally higher than the WFR except for the n-3 PUFA groups , where the FFQ estimated higher intakes . Correlations between the FFQ and WFR were moderate ( r 0 x 32 - 0 x 59 ) except for trans fatty acids ( r 0 x 03 ) . Correlations between each of the dietary assessment methods and the plasma phospholipids were poor for all fatty acids other than the PUFA . Using the methods of triads approach , the FFQ validity coefficients for total n-3 fatty acids , total long chain n-3 fatty acids , EPA , arachidonic acid , docosapentaenoic acid and DHA were 0 x 50 , 0 x 63 , 0 x 45 and 0 x 62 and 0 x 62 , respectively . For most fatty acids , the FFQ adequately estimates group mean fatty acid intakes and can adequately rank individuals ; however , the ability of this FFQ to estimate trans fatty acids was poor Animal studies have shown that polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) have antineoplastic and anti-inflammatory properties . Results from epidemiologic studies on specific types of PUFAs for lung cancer risk , however , are inconclusive . We prospect ively evaluated the association of specific types of dietary PUFA intakes and lung cancer risk in two population -based cohort studies , the Shanghai Women 's Health Study ( SWHS ) and Shanghai Men 's Health Study ( SMHS ) with a total of 121,970 study participants ( i.e. , 65,076 women and 56,894 men ) .  Dietary fatty acid intakes were derived from data collected at the baseline using vali date d food frequency question naires ( FFQs ) . Cox proportional hazards model was performed to assess the association between PUFAs and lung cancer risk . Total , saturated and monounsaturated fatty acid intakes were not significantly associated with lung cancer risk . Total PUFAs intake was inversely associated with lung cancer risk [ HRs and respective 95 % CIs for quintiles 2 - 5 vs quintile 1 : 0.84 ( 0.71 - 0.98 ) , 0.97 ( 0.83 - 1.13 ) , 0.86 ( 0.74 - 1.01 ) and 0.85 ( 0.73 - 1.00 ) , ptrend = 0.11 ] . However , DHA intake was positively associated with lung cancer risk [ HRs and 95 % CIs : 1.01 ( 0.86 - 1.19 ) , 1.20 ( 1.03 - 1.41 ) , 1.21 ( 1.03 - 1.42 ) and 1.24 ( 1.05 - 1.47 ) , ptrend = 0.001 ] . The ratio of n-6 PUFAs to n-3 PUFAs ( i.e. , 7:1 ) was inversely associated with lung cancer risk , particularly among never-smokers and adenocarcinoma patients .  Total PUFAs and the ratio between n-6 PUFAs and n-3 PUFAs were inversely associated with lung cancer risk . This study highlights an important public health impact of PUFA intakes toward intervention/prevention programs of lung cancer Aim : To study the influence of dietary‐supplied long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on structural brain maturation in preterm infants and to investigate parameters of functional brain development , relating them to structural maturation . Other studies have suggested that dietary supplementation of long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infants may enhance their visual development . The influence on structural brain development has never been evaluated . Methods : In a prospect i ve , double‐blind study , 42 formula‐fed premature infants were r and omized to be fed either a st and ard preterm formula without long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids or an identical formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid ( 0.015 g/100 ml ) and arachidonic acid ( 0.031 g/100ml ) . Infants with significant cerebral damage , retinopathy , chronic disease or feeding problems were excluded . Follow‐up was focused on assessment of cerebral myelination by MRI . Psychomotor , mental and visual development was analysed and flash‐visual evoked potentials were recorded . Results : It was found that progress of myelination , mental and motor development and latencies of visual evoked potentials were not positively influenced by supplementation of long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids . At each test age , visual acuity was slightly better in the supplemented infants than in the non‐supplemented infants , but the difference never reached significance OBJECTIVE We reported previously that low-saturated-fat dietary counseling started in infancy improves insulin sensitivity in healthy children 9 years of age . The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of lifelong dietary counseling on insulin sensitivity in healthy adolescents between 15 and 20 years of age . In addition , we examined dietary fiber intake and the polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) + monounsaturated (MUFA)-to-saturated fatty acid ( SFA ) ratio in the intervention and control adolescents and the association of these dietary factors with homeostasis model of insulin resistance ( HOMA-IR ) . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS The study comprised adolescents participating in the r and omized , controlled Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project ( STRIP ) study , which aims to guide the study participants toward a diet beneficial for cardiovascular health . HOMA-IR was assessed annually between 15 and 20 years of age ( n = 518 ; intervention , n = 245 ; control , n = 273 ) , along with diet , BMI , pubertal status , serum cotinine concentrations , and physical activity .  Dietary counseling was given biannually during the follow-up . RESULTS HOMA-IR was lower ( 7.5 % on average ) in the intervention group than in the control group between 15 and 20 years of age ( P = 0.0051 ) . The intervention effect was similar in girls and boys . The PUFA+MUFA-to-SFA ratio was higher ( P < 0.0001 ) and the dietary fiber ( g/MJ ) intake was higher ( P = 0.0058 ) in the intervention group compared with the control group . There was no association between the PUFA+MUFA-to-/SFA ratio and HOMA-IR , whereas dietary fiber intake ( g/MJ ) was associated with HOMA-IR in girls ( P < 0.0001 ) . CONCLUSIONS Dietary counseling initiated in infancy and maintained until 20 years of age was associated with improved insulin sensitivity in adolescents OBJECTIVE There have been indications that high intake of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) during pregnancy may increase birth weight and gestational length . In addition , n-3 long-chain PUFAs may be important for the neurobiological development of the infants . High levels of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA , 22:6 n-3 ) are found in the gray matter of the cerebral cortex and in the retina , and it seems as if the availability of long-chain PUFAs may be limiting cerebral development . The fetus and the newborn are dependent on a high supply from their mothers , either via the placenta or via breast milk . We supplemented pregnant and lactating women with n-3 or n-6 long-chain PUFAs to evaluate the effect on birth weight , gestational length , and infant development . DESIGN We performed a double-blind , r and omized study recruiting 590 pregnant , healthy , nulli- or primiparous women ( 19 - 35 years old ) in weeks 17 to 19 of pregnancy . The women were provided 10 mL of either cod liver oil or corn oil daily until 3 months after delivery . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Primary outcomes were gestational length and birth weight . Electroencephalography ( EEG ) was done on the second day of life and at 3 months of age . Novelty preference ( Fagan test ) was used as an indicator of cognitive function at 6 and 9 months of age . The fatty acid pattern in umbilical plasma phospholipids and in breast milk was measured , and dietary assessment s were performed , both on the mothers during pregnancy and on the infants at 3 months of age . The growth of the infants was followed up to 1 year of age . RESULTS Three hundred forty-one mothers took part in the study until delivery . There were no significant differences in maternal body mass index before pregnancy and at birth , or parity between the 2 groups . Smoking habits and parental education were also similar in the 2 groups . The mean age of the mothers receiving cod liver oil was , by chance , 1 year higher than the age of the mothers receiving corn oil ( 28.6 [ 3.4 ] vs 27.6 [ 3.2 ] years ) . The maternal dietary intake in the 2 groups receiving cod liver oil or corn oil was similar , except for the supplementation . There were no differences in gestational length or birth weight between the cod liver oil group and the corn oil group ( 279.6 [ 9.2 ] vs 279.2 [ 9.3 ] days ; 3609 [ 493 ] vs 3618 [ 527 ] g , respectively ) . Birth length , head circumference , and placental weight were also similar in the 2 groups . The concentrations of the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5 n-3 ) , docosapentaenoic acid ( 22:5 n-3 ) , and DHA in umbilical plasma phospholipids were higher in the cod liver oil group compared with the corn oil group ( 10.8 [ 7.6 ] vs 2.5 [ 1.8 ] microg/mL , 5.0 [ 2.6 ] vs 2.9 [ 1.3 ] microg/mL , 55.8 [ 20.6 ] vs 45.3 [ 12.8 ] microg/mL , respectively ) . Neonates with high concentration of DHA in umbilical plasma phospholipids ( upper quartile ) had longer gestational length than neonates with low concentration ( lower quartile ; 282.5 [ 8.5 ] vs 275.4 [ 9.3 ] days ) . No differences in EEG scores or Fagan scores were found , but neonates with mature EEG ( N = 70 ) had a higher concentration of DHA in umbilical plasma phospholipids than neonates with immature EEG ( N = 51 ) on the second day of life . Dietary information from 251 infants at 3 months of age was collected and 85 % of these infants were exclusively breastfed , in addition to 12 % who were partly breastfed . The breast milk of mothers supplemented with cod liver oil contained more n-3 long-chain PUFAs and less n-6 long-chain PUFAs than breast milk of mothers supplemented with corn oil . There were no significant differences in infant growth during the first year of life between the 2 groups . CONCLUSIONS This study shows neither harmful nor beneficial effects of maternal supplementation of long-chain n-3 PUFAs regarding pregnancy outcome , cognitive development , or growth , as compared with supplementation with n-6 fatty acids . However , it confirms that DHA concentration may be related to gestational length and cerebral maturation of the newborn BACKGROUND Early life exposures may be important in the development of asthma and allergic disease . OBJECTIVE To test house dust mite ( HDM ) avoidance and dietary fatty acid modification , implemented throughout the first 5 years of life , as interventions to prevent asthma and allergic disease . METHODS We recruited newborns with a family history of asthma antenatally and r and omized them , separately , to HDM avoidance or control and to dietary modification or control . At age 5 years , they were assessed for asthma and eczema and had skin prick tests for atopy . RESULTS Of 616 children r and omized , 516 ( 84 % ) were evaluated at age 5 years . The HDM avoidance intervention result ed in a 61 % reduction in HDM allergen concentrations ( microg/g dust ) in the child 's bed but no difference in the prevalence of asthma , wheeze , or atopy ( P > .1 ) . The prevalence of eczema was higher in the active HDM avoidance group ( 26 % vs 19 % ; P = .06 ) . The ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids in plasma was lower in the active diet group ( 5.8 vs 7.4 ; P < .0001 ) . However , the prevalence of asthma , wheezing , eczema , or atopy did not differ between the diet groups ( P > .1 ) . CONCLUSION Further research is required to establish whether other interventions can be recommended for the prevention of asthma and allergic disease . CLINICAL IMPLICATION S House dust mite avoidance measures and dietary fatty acid modification , as implemented in this trial during infancy and early childhood , did not prevent the onset of asthma , eczema , or atopy in high-risk children We investigated whether the previously reported preventive effect of maternal ω-3 fatty acid supplementation on  IgE-associated allergic disease in infancy may be mediated by facilitating a balanced circulating Th2/Th1 chemokine profile in the infant . Vaccine-induced immune responses at 2 y of age were also evaluated . Pregnant women , at risk of having an allergic infant , were r and omized to daily supplementation with 1.6 g eicosapentaenoic acid and 1.1 g docosahexaenoic acid or placebo from the 25th gestational week through 3.5 mo of breastfeeding . Infant plasma was analyzed for chemokines ( cord blood , 3 , 12 , 24 mo ) and anti-tetanus and anti-diphtheria IgG ( 24 mo ) . High Th2-associated CC-chemokine lig and 17 ( CCL17 ) levels were associated with infant allergic disease ( p < 0.05 ) . In infants without , but not with , maternal history of allergy , the ω-3 supplementation was related to lower CCL17/CXC-chemokine lig and 11 ( CXCL11 ) ( Th2/Th1 ) ratios ( p < 0.05 ) . Furthermore , in nonallergic , but not in allergic infants , ω-3 supplementation was linked with higher Th1-associated CXCL11 levels ( p < 0.05 ) , as well as increased IgG titers to diphtheria ( p = 0.01 ) and tetanus ( p = 0.05 ) toxins . Thus , the prospect of balancing the infant immune system toward a less Th2-dominated response , by maternal ω-3 fatty acid supplementation , seems to be influenced by allergic status OBJECTIVE Dietary strategies in heart failure ( HF ) are focused on sodium and fluid restriction to minimize the risk for acute volume overload episodes . However , the importance of dietary factors beyond sodium intake in the prognosis of the disease is uncertain . The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association of macro- and micronutrients intake on 1-y mortality in patients with HF . METHODS A secondary analysis of 203 patients with chronic HF enrolled in a r and omized trial of sodium reduction was completed . Patients with a complete 3-d food record at baseline were included in this analysis ( N = 118 ) ; both control and intervention arms were combined . Three-d mean dietary intake was estimated . Cox multivariable regression analysis was used to evaluate the association between dietary factors and 1-y mortality . RESULTS Among the 118 included patients , 54 % were men , median ( 25th-75th percentiles ) age 66 y ( 52 - 75 y ) , median ejection fraction 45 % ( 30%-60 % ) , and ischemic etiology present in 49 % of patients . The association with 1-y mortality was significant for both polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ; adjusted hazard ratio [ HR ] , 0.67 ; 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] . 0.51 - 0.86 for intake as percentage of daily energy ) and saturated fatty acids ( SFA ; adjusted HR , 1.15 ; 95 % CI , 1.03 - 1.30 for intake as percentage of daily energy ) . Median of intake as percentage of daily energy was 5.3 % for PUFAs and 8.2 % for SFAs . CONCLUSIONS Intake of PUFAs and SFAs was independently associated with 1-y all-cause mortality in patients with chronic HF . Limiting dietary SFA and increasing PUFA intake may be advisable in this population Objective To determine whether dietary n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ( LCPUFA ) supplementation of pregnant women with a fetus at high risk of allergic disease reduces immunoglobulin E associated eczema or food allergy at 1 year of age . Design Follow-up of infants at high hereditary risk of allergic disease in the Docosahexaenoic Acid to Optimise Mother Infant Outcome ( DOMInO ) r and omised controlled trial . Setting Adelaide , South Australia . Participants 706 infants at high hereditary risk of developing allergic disease whose mothers were participating in the DOMInO trial . Interventions The intervention group ( n=368 ) was r and omly allocated to receive fish oil capsules ( providing 900 mg of n-3 LCPUFA daily ) from 21 weeks ’ gestation until birth ; the control group ( n=338 ) received matched vegetable oil capsules without n-3 LCPUFA . Main outcome measure Immunoglobulin E associated allergic disease ( eczema or food allergy with sensitisation ) at 1 year of age . Results No differences were seen in the overall percentage of infants with immunoglobulin E associated allergic disease between the n-3 LCPUFA and control groups ( 32/368 ( 9 % ) v 43/338 ( 13 % ) ; unadjusted relative risk 0.68 , 95 % confidence interval 0.43 to 1.05 , P=0.08 ; adjusted relative risk 0.70 , 0.45 to 1.09 , P=0.12 ) , although the percentage of infants diagnosed as having atopic eczema ( that is , eczema with associated sensitisation ) was lower in the n-3 LCPUFA group ( 26/368 ( 7 % ) v 39/338 ( 12 % ) ; unadjusted relative risk 0.61 , 0.38 to 0.98 , P=0.04 ; adjusted relative risk 0.64 , 0.40 to 1.02 , P=0.06 ) . Fewer infants were sensitised to egg in the n-3 LCPUFA group ( 34/368 ( 9 % ) v 52/338 ( 15 % ) ; unadjusted relative risk 0.61 , 0.40 to 0.91 , P=0.02 ; adjusted relative risk 0.62 , 0.41 to 0.93 , P=0.02 ) , but no difference between groups in immunoglobulin E associated food allergy was seen . Conclusion n-3 LCPUFA supplementation in pregnancy did not reduce the overall incidence of immunoglobulin E associated allergies in the first year of life , although atopic eczema and egg sensitisation were lower . Longer term follow-up is needed to determine if supplementation has an effect on respiratory allergic diseases and aeroallergen sensitisation in childhood . Trial registration Australian New Zeal and Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12610000735055 ( DOMInO trial : ACTRN12605000569606 ) BACKGROUND The optimal method for conducting omega (n-)3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) supplementation trials in children is unknown . AIM To assess the impact of n-3 and n-6 PUFA intake from the background diet on plasma levels of n-3 and n-6 PUFA in children aged 0 - 3 years , with and without n-3 supplementation . METHODS Subjects were r and omised antenatally to receive either n-3 PUFA supplements and low n-6 PUFA cooking oils and spreads or a control intervention , design ed to maintain usual fatty acid intake . Dietary intake was assessed at 18 months by 3-day weighed food record and at 3 years by food frequency question naire . Plasma phospholipids were measured at both time points . Associations were tested by regression . RESULTS N-3 PUFA intake from background diet did not significantly affect plasma n-3 levels . In contrast , n-6 PUFA intake in background diet was positively related to plasma n-6 levels in both study groups . In addition , n-6 PUFA intake from diet was negatively associated with plasma n-3 levels at 18 months and 3 years ( -0.16%/g n-6 intake , 95%CI -0.29 to -0.03 and -0.05%/g n-6 intake , 95%CI -0.09 to -0.01 , respectively ) in the active group , but not in the control group . CONCLUSION Interventions intending to increase plasma n-3 PUFA in children by n-3 supplementation should also minimise n-6 PUFA intake in the background diet Background / Objectives : The mother is an important mediator to the infant of polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) , the essential constituents of membranes particularly in the brain and retina . We here aim ed in a prospect i ve study initiated in early pregnancy to establish whether serum fatty acid ( FA ) compositions and concentrations in the mother can be modified by dietary means emphasizing counseling on a recommended diet . Subjects/ Methods : Ninety women in the first trimester of pregnancy were r and omized into intervention ( n=45 ) or  control ( n=45 ) groups . The intervention comprised individual dietary counseling advocating choice of foods that will increase the intake of unsaturated and reduce that of saturated FA . To support this , appropriate products , including spreads , were provided for consumption at home . Dietary intakes were measured from food records and serum phospholipids , cholesteryl esters and triacylglycerols FA were analyzed by gas chromatography . Results : Dietary counseling result ed in lower intake of saturated and higher intake of unsaturated FA compared with the controls . These changes were reflected in higher proportions of serum phospholipid PUFA ( mean difference between groups 0.61 % ( 95 % confidence interval , CI 0.05–1.17 ) , P=0.03 ) , docosahexaenoic acid ( 0.5 % ( 0.15–0.85 ) , P=0.01 ) , sum of n-3 FA ( 0.61 % ( 0.07–1.15 ) , P=0.03 ) and lower ratio of n-6/n-3 FA ( −0.42 % ( −0.81–0.03 ) , P=0.03 ) in the intervention group at the third trimester of pregnancy but not at 1 month postpartum . Similar changes were seen in the FA of cholesteryl esters and triacylglycerols . Conclusion : Maternal serum n-3 FA status during pregnancy can be improved by dietary means emphasizing the importance of dietary advice The relevance of dietary fatty acids ( FA ) for blood lipids should be assessed in the context of substituting nutrients . Such evidence is lacking for adolescents . This study describes prospect i ve associations of dietary FA with changes in serum lipids during adolescence , and considers the theoretical isocaloric replacements of saturated FA ( SFA ) with other FA or carbohydrates ( CHO ) .  Children from the GINIplus and LISAplus birth cohorts , with data on FA intakes ( at age 10 years ) and serum lipids ( at age 10 and 15 years ) , were included ( n = 1398 ) . Associations of SFA , monounsaturated FA ( MUFA ) , n-3 polyunsaturated FA ( n-3 PUFA ) and n-6 PUFA , with changes in low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) , high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) , triglycerides ( TAG ) , and total cholesterol to HDL ratio ( TOTAL : HDL ) , were assessed by linear regression . Substitution models assessed isocaloric replacements of SFA with MUFA , n-3 PUFA , n-6 PUFA or CHO . Higher SFA intakes were associated with decreasing TAG . No associations were observed for fatty acid intakes with LDL , HDL or TOTAL : HDL . In females , replacing SFA with CHO was associated with increasing LDL , TAG and TOTAL : HDL . Our findings confirm observations in adults , although sex-specific determinants seem relevant in our adolescent population . Overlooking the nutrient context when limiting SFA intakes might have detrimental consequences appreciable as early as adolescence BACKGROUND Dietary intake of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) may protect against sudden cardiac death , an event that may be predicted by measurement of heart rate variability ( HRV ) . OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study were to 1 ) examine the correlations between the content of fatty acids in blood cell membranes ( platelets and granulocytes ) and HRV in healthy subjects , and 2 ) assess the effect on HRV of dietary intervention with n-3 PUFA in different doses . DESIGN Sixty healthy volunteers ( 25 women and 35 men ) were r and omly assigned to 3 treatment groups in a double-blind design . Subjects received a daily supplement of either 6.6 g n-3 PUFA , 2.0 g n-3 PUFA , or placebo ( olive oil ) . A 24-h Holter recording was obtained for each subject before supplementation and after 12 wk of supplementation ; the 24-h HRV was then related to the content of fatty acids in granulocytes and platelets . RESULTS Before supplementation , positive correlations were observed in men between the content of docosahexaenoic acid in cell membranes and HRV indexes ( r = 0.50 , P < 0.01 ) , whereas such correlations were not found in women . Dietary intervention revealed a dose-dependent effect of n-3 PUFA on HRV in men , whereas no effect was found in women . CONCLUSION The study showed a beneficial effect of n-3 PUFA on  HRV in healthy men , suggesting an antiarrhythmic effect of n-3 PUFA . No such effect was observed in healthy women Background —Consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) may reduce coronary heart disease ( CHD ) risk , but n-6 PUFAs may compete with n-3 PUFA metabolism and attenuate benefits . Additionally , seafood-based , long-chain n-3 PUFAs may modify the effects of plant-based , intermediate-chain n-3 PUFAs . However , the interactions of these PUFAs in relation to CHD risk are not well established . Methods and Results —Among 45 722 men free of known cardiovascular disease in 1986 , usual dietary intake was assessed at baseline and every 4 years by using vali date d food-frequency question naires . CHD incidence was prospect ively ascertained . Over 14 years of follow-up , participants experienced 218 sudden deaths , 1521 nonfatal myocardial infa rct ions ( MIs ) , and 2306 total CHD events ( combined sudden death , other CHD deaths , and nonfatal MI ) . In multivariate-adjusted analyses , both long-chain and intermediate-chain n-3 PUFA intakes were associated with lower CHD risk , without modification by n-6 PUFA intake . For example , men with ≥ median long-chain n-3 PUFA intake ( ≥250 mg/d ) had a reduced risk of sudden death whether n-6 PUFA intake was below ( < 11.2 g/d ; hazard ratio [HR]=0.52 ; 95 % confidence interval [CI]=0.34 to 0.79 ) or above ( ≥11.2 g/d ; HR=0.60 ; 95 % CI=0.39 to 0.93 ) the median compared with men with a < median intake of both . In similar analyses , ≥ median intake of intermediate-chain n-3 PUFAs ( ≥1080 mg/d ) was associated with a reduced total CHD risk whether n-6 PUFA intake was lower ( HR=0.88 ; 95 % CI=0.78 to 0.99 ) or higher ( HR=0.89 ; 95 % CI=0.79 to 0.99 ) compared with a < median intake of both . Intermediate-chain n-3 PUFAs were particularly associated with CHD risk when long-chain n-3 PUFA intake was very low ( < 100 mg/d ) ; among these men , each 1 g/d of intermediate-chain n-3 PUFA intake was associated with an ≈50 % lower risk of nonfatal MI ( HR=0.42 ; 95 % CI=0.23 to 0.75 ) and total CHD ( HR=0.53 ; 95 % CI=0.34 to 0.83 ) . Conclusions —n-3 PUFAs from both seafood and plant sources may reduce CHD risk , with little apparent influence from background n-6 PUFA intake . Plant-based n-3 PUFAs may particularly reduce CHD risk when seafood-based n-3 PUFA intake is low , which has implication s for population s with low consumption or availability of fatty fish Interest has increased in the possibility that maternal dietary intake during pregnancy might influence the development of allergic disorders in children . The present prospect i ve study examined the association of maternal intake of selected foods high in fatty acids and specific types of fatty acids during pregnancy with the risk of suspected atopic eczema among Japanese infants aged 3 - 4 months . Subjects were 771 mother-child pairs . Information on maternal dietary intake during pregnancy was assessed with a vali date d self-administered diet history question naire . The term ' suspected atopic eczema ' was used to define an outcome based on results of our question naire completed by mothers 3 - 4 months postpartum . The risk of suspected atopic eczema was 8.4 % ( n = 65 ) . Higher maternal intake of  meat  during pregnancy was significantly associated with an increased risk of suspected atopic eczema in the offspring : the multivariate odds ratio ( OR ) for the highest vs. lowest quartile was 2.59 [ 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) : 1.15 - 6.17 , p for trend = 0.01 ] . The positive association was strengthened when the definition of the outcome was confined to a definite physician 's diagnosis of atopic eczema ( n = 35 ) : the multivariate OR between extreme quartiles was 3.53 ( 95 % CI : 1.19 - 12.23 , p for trend = 0.02 ) . No material exposure-response relationships were observed between maternal intake of eggs , dairy products , fish , total fat , saturated fatty acids , monounsaturated fatty acids , n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids , alpha-linolenic acid , eicosapentaenoic acid , docosahexaenoic acid , n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids , linoleic acid , arachidonic acid and cholesterol and the ratio of n-3 to n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid consumption and the risk of suspected atopic eczema . Higher maternal meat intake may increase the risk of infantile atopic eczema , whereas we found no evidence that maternal intake of fish and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are preventive against infantile atopic eczema BACKGROUND Patients with end-stage renal disease ( ESRD ) have an increased mortality , mainly due to cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . ESRD is accompanied by several lipid abnormalities , which may be responsible for part of the increased risk of CVD in this population . n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) lower plasma triglycerides in patients with normal renal function . The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of n-3 PUFA on serum lipid and lipoproteins in patients treated with chronic haemodialysis ( HD ) . METHODS In a double-blind r and omized placebo-controlled design , patients with documented CVD , treated with HD for a minimum of 6 months , were r and omized to treatment with n-3 PUFA or a control treatment ( olive oil ) . A dietary intake of n-3 PUFA was assessed with a dietary question naire . Plasma lipids and lipoproteins and the content of n-3 PUFA in serum phospholipids were measured at baseline and after 3 months . RESULTS Two hundred and six patients were included .  Serum phospholipid levels of n-3 PUFA were significantly higher in patients reporting a high fish intake compared to patients reporting a low fish intake . After 3 months , a significant decrease was seen in serum triglycerides in the n-3 PUFA group compared to the control group ( P = 0.01 ) . No significant effect was seen on total cholesterol , high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol , low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol , Lp(a ) or apoB. CONCLUSION In patients treated with HD , consumption of fish increases levels of n-3 PUFA . Additional supplementation with n-3 PUFA for 3 months further increases levels of n-3 PUFA and lowers serum triglycerides , but does not significantly affect other plasma lipids or lipoproteins OBJECTIVE To investigate the incidence of  allergic and respiratory diseases  through age 3 years in children fed docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)- and arachidonic acid (ARA)-supplemented formula during infancy . STUDY DESIGN Children who completed r and omized , double-blind studies of DHA/ARA-supplemented  ( 0.32%-0.36%/0.64%-0.72 % of total fatty acids , respectively ) versus nonsupplemented ( control ) formulas , fed during the first year of life , were eligible . Blinded study nurses review ed medical charts for upper respiratory infection ( URI ) , wheezing , asthma , bronchiolitis , bronchitis , allergic rhinitis , allergic conjunctivitis , otitis media , sinusitis , atopic dermatitis ( AD ) , and urticaria . RESULTS From the 2 original cohorts , 89/179 children participated ; 38/89 were fed DHA/ARA formula . The DHA/ARA group had significantly lower odds for developing URI ( odds ratio [ OR ] , 0.22 ; 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] , 0.08 - 0.58 ) , wheezing/asthma ( OR , 0.32 ; 95 % CI , 0.11 - 0.97 ) , wheezing/asthma/AD ( OR , 0.25 ; 95 % CI , 0.09 - 0.67 ) , or any allergy ( OR , 0.28 ; 95 % CI , 0.10 - 0.72 ) . The control group had significantly shorter time to first diagnosis of URI ( P = .006 ) , wheezing/asthma ( P = .03 ) , or any allergy ( P = .006 ) . CONCLUSIONS DHA/ARA supplementation was associated with delayed onset and reduced incidence of URIs and common allergic diseases up to 3 years of age BACKGROUND Maternal diet during pregnancy may contribute to the risk of offspring adiposity .  OBJECTIVES The objective of the study is to explore the associations between maternal  antenatal dietary fatty acid intake and the risk of offspring overweight and obesity at the ages of 2 to 7 years . METHODS In a prospect i ve Finnish birth cohort with 3807 mother-child pairs ,  maternal diet in  late pregnancy was assessed with a food frequency question naire . Intakes of total fatty acids and individual saturated , monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) were calculated . Generalized estimating equation models were used to study the associations of maternal dietary variables with repeatedly measured offspring overweight and obesity . RESULTS In girls , maternal intake ratio of n-6:n-3 PUFAs had a U-shaped association with obesity ( adjusted OR for the lowest 2.0 [ 95 % CI 1.27 - 3.20 ] and the highest 1.7 [ 1.03 - 2.73 ] vs. the two middle quartiles of n-6:n-3 PUFAs , p = 0.01 ) . In boys , arachidonic acid ( 20:4n-6 ) : docosahexaenoic acid + eicosapentaenoic acid ratio was associated with obesity ( adjusted OR for the lowest 1.0 [ 0.60 - 1.57 ] and the highest 0.5 [ 0.26 - 0.88 ] vs. the two middle quartiles , p = 0.02 ) . Saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids were not associated with overweight or obesity in either sex . CONCLUSIONS Maternal intakes of PUFAs in late pregnancy were associated with risk of later obesity differently in girls and boys The possible impact of diet , particularly the intake of fatty acids , on  cognitive decline and dementia  was addressed recently by several studies . We investigated the role of dietary fatty acids on the rate of mild cognitive impairment ( MCI )  in a population -based , prospect i ve study carried out on 278 and 186 nondemented elderly subjects ( 65 - 84 years ) at the 1st ( 1992 - 1993 ) and 2nd ( 1995 - 1996 ) survey from the cohort of Casamassima , Bari , Italy ( n=704 ) , one of the eight centers of the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging . During the median follow-up of 2.6 years , 18 new events of MCI were diagnosed , and high polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) intake appeared to be a protective factor against the development of MCI [ hazard ratio ( HR ) : 0.65 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) : 0.43 - 0.98 , trend-test , df=1 , p<0.04 ] . However , when we controlled for the possible confounders ( age , sex , education , Charlson comorbidity index , and total energy intake ) , the HR slightly changed , and the highly skewed 95 % CI , while not statistically significant , may be important ( HR : 0.62 , 95 % CI : 0.34 - 1.13 , p=0.12 ) . In our population , dietary fatty acids intakes were not associated with incident MCI in older age , only high PUFA intake evidence d a borderline nonsignificant trend for a protective effect against the development of MCI STUDY OBJECTIVE To determine the effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFA ) on disease variables in patients with rheumatoid arthritis . DESIGN Multicenter , r and omized , placebo controlled , double blind . SETTING Three Danish hospital Departments of Rheumatology . PATIENTS Fifty-one patients with active rheumatoid arthritis . INTERVENTION R and om allocation to 12 weeks of treatment with either six n-3 PUFA capsules ( 3.6 g ) or six capsules with fat composition as the average Danish diet . MAIN RESULTS Significant improvement of morning stiffness and joint tenderness . No significant effect on the four other assessed clinical parameters . No serious side effects . CONCLUSIONS Dietary supplementation with n-3 PUFA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis improved two out of six patient reported disease parameters . Further studies are needed to clarify the more precise role of n-3 PUFA in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis Background / Objectives : There are only a few studies linking dietary fat intake to serum lipid levels  in young children . Our objective was to prospect ively evaluate serum lipid levels from infancy to early childhood , and to explore their possible association with dietary , growth and parental factors . Subjects/ Methods : Children ( n=127 ) followed from early infancy were examined for serum lipid levels , anthropometry and dietary intake at 4 years of age . We also studied possible associations with parental anthropometric and blood biochemistry data collected from 122 mothers ’ and 118 fathers ’ when children were 4 years of age . Results : Serum concentrations of total cholesterol ( TC ) , high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( HDLC ) , low-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( LDLC ) and the apolipoprotein B/apolipoprotein A-1 ratio ( apo B/apo A-1 ) showed significant tracking from infancy to 4 years . Furthermore , children 's TC levels correlated with paternal TC level from 6 months to 4 years , but with maternal only at 4 years . In girls , both LDLC and HDLC correlated with parental LDLC and HDLC . In all children , intake of saturated fatty acids ( SAFAs ) was higher than recommended , and in 90 % of the children polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) intake was lower than recommended . Conclusions : Serum lipid levels values tracked from infancy to 4 years and were associated with parental values . Higher serum lipid levels at 4 years compared with 6–18 months of age may result from changes in the quality of dietary fat . We therefore suggest that intake of dietary fat in 4-year-old children should be more focused on quality . Furthermore , as there were strong associations between the child and parental serum lipid levels this supports the view that family-based rather than individual intervention is preferable AIM A follow up study of developmental quotient ( DQ ) at 24 months of toddlers whose diets in early infancy differed in fatty acid composition , and in whom an association between diet and DQ was observed at 4 months . METHODS 81 toddlers were distributed among three groups according to early type of diet : st and ard infant formula ( SFo , n = 30 ) ; long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ( LC-PUFA ) enriched formula ( LCPFo , n = 26 ) ; human milk ( HM , n = 25 ) . DQ at 24 months was assessed by Brunet-Lézine ’s psychomotor developmental test . A subgroup ( n = 20 ; SFo 8 ; LCPFo 6 ; HM 6 ) was tested for erythrocyte phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine . RESULTS No DQ differences were found by analysis of variance . Neither DQ nor erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid at 4 months were predictors of DQ scores at 24 months . Phosphatidylcholine arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid correlated positively , and phosphatidylcholine linoleic acid and phosphatidylethanolamine eicosapentaenoic acid negatively , with DQ . Multiple regression analysis including these variables explained 52 % of interindividual DQ variance . A strong association was found between the erythrocyte phosphatidylcholine arachidonic/linoleic acid ratio and DQ ( r= 0.75 ; p = 0.0001 ) . CONCLUSIONS The diet/DQ association found at 4 months was not predictive of DQ scores at 24 months . Irrespective of dietary or genetic factors , there appears to be a strong correlation between the LC-PUFA composition of the red cell membrane and higher neurodevelopmental performance Contradictory reports on the protective effect of fish consumption on cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) risk could be due to variations in the intake of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) . Metabolic competition between n-3 and n-6 PUFAs suggests that n-6 PUFAs in vegetable oils could attenuate the efficacy of n-3 PUFAs in fish oil to favorably alter endpoints relevant to CVD risk . We determined the effects of varying dietary amounts of fish oil on lipid and thrombotic endpoints relevant to risk factors for CVD and whether these effects were attenuated by vegetable oils . Two r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , parallel studies were conducted in human subjects fed varying amounts of n-3 and n-6 PUFAs ; n-3 PUFA intake was varied by using fish or placebo oil capsules , and n-6 PUFA intake was modified by incorporating varying amounts of safflower oil into the diet . Endpoints included changes in membrane fatty acid composition , blood lipids , and thrombotic profile . The results indicated that absolute amounts of fish oil , and not the relative amounts of fish and vegetable oil ( ratios of n-3 to n-6 PUFAs ) , determined the magnitude of the reduction of arachidonic acid and increase in eicosapentaenoic acid in phospholipids of plasma and platelets . The suppression of plasma triacylglycerols by fish oil was not affected by varying amounts of dietary n-6 PUFAs . Fibrinogen concentrations decreased with 15 g but not with 9 g fish oil/d fed at the same ratio of n-3 to n-6 PUFAs . The efficacy of fish oil in favorably modifying certain risk factors for CVD was not attenuated by vegetable oil OBJECTIVES To compare the early neurological maturation of premature newborns ( PT ) fed breast milk ( BM ) or a formula containing only 18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) (  A ) or enriched with long chain ( LC ) PUFA ( B ) . METHODS PT enrolled the 2nd day of enteral feeding ( D0 ) were fed BM  ( n = 15 ; 4 dropped out ) or r and omly assigned to A ( n = 11 ; 2 ) or B ( n = 14 ; 1 ) for at least 30 days ( D30 ) . Auditory and visual evoked potentials ( EPs ) and nerve conduction velocity ( NCV ) and plasma and red blood cell ( RBC ) phospholipid composition were determined at D0 and D30 . No difference was found between groups for the D0-D30 changes in EP parameters . The maturation of motor NCV was slower in the B group than in the two other groups . In plasma , the changes were higher in B than in the BM and A groups for linoleic acid ( P < 0.05 ) , in BM versus B group for arachidonic acid ( P < 0.02 ) . In RBC , formula groups displayed higher linoleic acid level than the BM group ( P < 0.05 ) . No difference was found between groups for the changes in arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids . CONCLUSIONS A balanced supply of n-6 and n-3 PUFA without addition of LC-PUFA allowed an adequate early maturation of the central nerve system . The effects of LC-PUFA on the maturation of NCV remain to be confirmed OBJECTIVE Mounting evidence indicates that low levels of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) play a role in the pathophysiology of a large number of psychiatric disorders . In light of the suboptimal n-3 PUFAs intake due to poor dietary habits among substance abusers and the strong associations between aggression , anxiety and substance use disorders we examined if insurance of adequate intakes of n-3 PUFAs with supplementation would decrease their anger and anxiety scores . METHOD Substance abusers ( n=22 ) were assigned to either 3 g of n-3 PUFAs , mainly eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) or soybean oil in identically looking capsules . The trial was double-blind , r and omized and lasted 3 months . Anger and anxiety scales were administered at baseline and once a month thereafter . Blood sample s were collected at baseline and at the end of the trial . RESULTS Patients ' dietary intakes of n-3 PUFAs fell below recommended levels . Assignment to n-3 PUFA treatment was accompanied by significant decreases in anger and anxiety scores compared to placebo assignment . These changes were associated with increases in plasma levels of both EPA and DHA but an increase in EPA was more robustly correlated with low end-of-trial anxiety scores and an increase in DHA was more robustly correlated with low end-of-trial anger scores . CONCLUSION These pilot data indicate that ensuring adequate n-3 PUFA intake via supplementation benefits substance abusers by reducing their anger and anxiety levels . The strong correlations between an increase in plasma EPA and lower anxiety scores and between an increase in plasma DHA and lower anger scores suggests a need for the further exploration of the differential responses to these two n-3 PUFAs in different psychiatric conditions The objective of the present study was to evaluate the oxidative susceptibility of LDL in human volunteers following supplementation with various low doses ( < 1 g/d ) of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) .  Sixty-two healthy volunteers ( thirty-seven males and twenty-five females , aged 19 - 63 years ) were recruited to take part in a r and omised placebo-controlled trial . Volunteers were required to take 0.9 , 0.6 or 0.3 g n-3 PUFA as fish oil or placebo capsules daily for 16 weeks . Susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification was assessed by measuring the production of conjugated dienes and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances in LDL oxidised by Cu2 + ( 15 microM ) or 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane ) dihydrochloride ( 1 mM ) for 5 h. Plasma fatty acid and LDL-fatty acid composition , cholesterol levels and antioxidant concentrations were also measured . While post-treatment n-3 PUFA compositions of plasma and LDL reflected the capsule contents , no meaningful differences in antioxidant concentrations or cholesterol levels were observed between the groups . Supplementation with low doses of n-3 PUFA as fish oil did not influence the oxidative susceptibility of LDL . The results of the present study suggest that moderate dietary intakes of n-3 PUFA do not significantly influence the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in vitro Abstract Objective : To determine whether supplementation of infant formula milk with long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPUFAs ) influences blood pressure  in later childhood . Design : Follow up of a multicentre , r and omised controlled trial . Setting : Four study centres in Europe . Participants : 147 formula fed children , with a reference group of 88 breastfed children . Intervention : In the original trial newborn infants were r and omised to be fed with a formula supplemented with LCPUFAs ( n=111 ) or a formula without LCPUFAs but otherwise nutritionally similar ( n=126 ) . In the present follow up study the blood pressure of the children at age 6 years was measured . Main outcome measures : Systolic , diastolic , and mean blood pressure . Results : 71 children in the  LCPUFA supplementation group ( 64 % of the original group ) and 76 children in the non-supplementation group ( 60 % ) were enrolled into the follow up study . The LCPUFA group had significantly lower mean blood pressure ( mean difference −3.0 mm Hg ( 95 % confidence interval −5.4 mm Hg to −0.5 mm Hg ) ) and diastolic blood pressure ( mean difference −3.6 mm Hg ( −6.5 mm Hg to −0.6 mm Hg ) ) than the non-supplementation group . The diastolic pressure of the breastfed children ( n=88 ( 63 % ) ) was significantly lower than that of the non-supplemented formula group but did not differ from the LCPUFA formula group . Conclusions : Dietary supplementation with LCPUFAs during infancy is associated with lower blood pressure in later childhood . Blood pressure tends to track from childhood into adult life , so early exposure to dietary LCPUFAs may reduce cardiovascular risk in adulthood . What is already known on this topic Breast milk contains long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids , and breastfed children have lower blood pressure than children fed with formula milk Blood pressure differences in childhood are known to carry through into adulthood Dietary omega 3 fatty acid supplementation can lower blood pressure in adults with hypertension What this paper adds Supplementation with long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in infancy results in lower blood pressure later in We have implemented a r and omized controlled dietary intervention in patients polypectomized for tumors of the colorectum to eluci date potential beneficial effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) on the development of colorectal tumors . Those individuals in the experimental group were advised not only to decrease their consumption of fats/oils as a whole and foods supplying n-6 PUFAs but also to increase intake of foods and supplements containing n-3 PUFAs , while those in the comparison group were caution ed to reduce intake of fats/oils as a whole . Patients ' compliance/adherence was monitored with a semi-quantitative food frequency question naire and by assessment of fatty acid concentrations in plasma , membranes of red blood cells and sigmoid colon sample s. As for endpoints to assess tumor suppressive effects of n-3 PUFAs , the number/multiplicity , sizes and incidence rates of colorectal tumors were compared between the experimental and comparison groups after 12 and 24 months of the dietary intervention . On the specified assumption , the number of pairs needed for achieving statistical significance was calculated to be approximately 60 - 80 . A r and omized controlled trial is under way to secure enough patients , sustain compliance/adherence and minimize dropouts Antioxidant intakes in pregnancy may influence fetal immune programming and the risk of allergic disease . We investigated associations between maternal intakes of β-carotene , vitamin C , vitamin E , copper and zinc , and infant allergic outcomes .  Antioxidant intakes of pregnant women ( n = 420 ) assessed prospect ively by a food frequency question naire , were examined in relation to allergic outcomes at 1 year of age ( n = 300 ) . The main relationships with allergic outcomes were seen with dietary vitamin C and copper . Specifically , higher maternal dietary vitamin C intake was associated with a reduced risk of any diagnosed infant allergic disease and wheeze . After adjustment for potential confounders the relationship with wheeze remained statistically significant . There was also an inverse linear relationship between vitamin C and food allergy . Higher dietary copper intake was associated with reduced risk of eczema , wheeze and any allergic disease . The relationship with wheeze and any allergic disease remained statistically significant in multivariate analysis , and there was also an inverse linear relationship between copper and food allergy . However , these relationships were only seen for nutrients present in food . There were no relationships between β-carotene , vitamin E or zinc and any allergic outcomes . In summary , this study suggests that maternal diet of fresh foods rich in vitamin C is associated with reduced risk of infant wheeze , and that copper intake is associated with reduced risk of several allergic outcomes BACKGROUND Early life allergen exposure may increase the risk of childhood allergy , but the protective effect of reduction in allergen exposure remains uncertain . OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of reduction in food and house dust mite ( HDM ) allergen exposure in infancy in preventing asthma and allergy . METHODS Infants , at higher risk because of family predisposition , were recruited prenatally and r and omized to prophylactic ( n = 58 ) and control ( n = 62 ) groups . Prophylactic group infants were either breast-fed with mother on a low allergen diet or given an extensively hydrolyzed formula . Exposure to HDM was reduced by the use of an acaricide and mattress covers . The control group followed st and ard advice .  Development of allergic diseases and sensitization to common allergens ( atopy ) was assessed blindly at ages 1 , 2 , 4 , and 8 years in all 120 children . RESULTS Repeated measurement analysis , adjusted for all relevant confounding variables , confirmed a preventive effect on asthma : adjusted odds ratio ( OR ) , 0.24 ; 95 % CI , 0.09 - 0.66 ; P = .005 ; atopic dermatitis , OR , 0.23 ; CI , 0.08 - 0.64 ; P = .005 ; rhinitis , OR , 0.42 ; CI , 0.19 - 0.92 ; P = .03 ; and atopy , OR , 0.13 ; CI , 0.05 - 0.32 ; P < .001 . The protective effect was primarily observed in the subgroup of children with persistent disease ( symptoms at all visits ) and in those with evidence of allergic sensitization . CONCLUSION Allergic diseases can be reduced , for at least the first 8 years of life , by combined food and HDM allergen avoidance in infancy . CLINICAL IMPLICATION S Strict food and HDM allergen avoidance should be considered for prevention of allergy in high-risk infants Background The value of allergen elimination diets during pregnancy for primary prevention of infant allergy has been question ed . However , dietary compliance may influence effectiveness OBJECTIVE A cardioprotective dietary fat profile is recommended for the treatment of type 2 diabetes . The clinical feasibility of advice strategies targeting specific fatty acid intakes and the extent to which they can be achieved by free-living population s needs to be tested . Walnuts , with high n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) content , may help optimize fatty acid intakes , but regular consumption might increase total fat and energy intakes . This study examined whether advice that refers to a total dietary pattern inclusive of walnuts would result in low-fat energy-controlled diets with optimal dietary fat proportions for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS A parallel- design , controlled trial was completed by 55 free-living men and women with established type 2 diabetes mellitus . Participants were r and omly assigned to one of three groups : low-fat ( general advice ) , modified low-fat ( total diet advice using exchange lists to differentiate PUFA-rich foods ) , walnut-specific ( modified low fat including 30 g walnuts/day ) .  Dietary intakes and clinical outcomes were measured at baseline , and at 3 and 6 months . Dietary goals were : less than 10 % of energy from saturated fat , 7 % to 10 % of energy from PUFA , adequate n-3 PUFA ( > or=2.22 g alpha-linolenic acid , > or=0.65 g eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA]+docosahexaenoic acid [ DHA ] ) and n-6 to n-3 ratio less than 10 . The proportion of subjects achieving dietary goals and major food sources of fat were determined . RESULTS At baseline , dietary intakes were not significantly different between groups . No group and few individuals ( 10 % ) were consuming adequate PUFA , with meat the main source of dietary fat ( 22 % total dietary fat ) . At 3 and 6 months , energy and macronutrient intakes were similar among groups . The walnut group , however , was the only group to achieve all fatty acid intake targets ( P < .01 ) , and had the greatest proportion of subjects achieving targets ( P < .05 ) . Walnuts were the main source of dietary fat ( 31 % ) and n-3 PUFA ( 50 % ) , while 350 g oily fish/day provided a further 17 % n-3 PUFA consumed by this group . CONCLUSIONS Specific advice for the regular inclusion of walnuts in the context of the total diet helps achieve optimal fat intake proportions without adverse effects on total fat or energy intakes  in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus BACKGROUND AND AIMS Various anti-inflammatory therapies , including dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) supplementation , have been investigated in cystic fibrosis ( CF ) patients . To further explore this nutritional approach , biological effects of an omega-3 PUFA oral liquid supplementation were measured in 17 CF patients in a double-blind , r and omized , crossover without a washout period and placebo-controlled study . METHODS CF patients ( age : 18+/-9 year ; weight : 43+/-13 kg ) received a liquid dietary supplementation either enriched or not in omega-3 PUFA ( 390 - 1170 mg/day according to patient weight ) during two 6-month periods . RESULTS Increase in eicosapentaenoic acid was observed in neutrophil membrane following omega-3 PUFA dietary supplementation ( from 0.7+/-0.6 to 1.6+/-0.6 micromol% , P<0.01 ) . The leukotriene B(4 ) ( LTB(4))/leukotriene B(5 ) ( LTB(5 ) ) ratio was decreased ( from 72+/-27 to 24+/-7 , P<0.001 ) in CF patients taking omega-3 PUFA supplements . In contrast , omega-3 PUFA supplementation affected neither internalization of IL-8 receptors following IL-8 exposure , nor IL-8-induced neutrophil chemotaxis . CONCLUSION Our results show that omega-3 PUFA are incorporated in neutrophil membranes . The subsequent decrease in LTB(4)/LTB(5 ) ratio suggests that , in such conditions , neutrophils may produce less pro-inflammatory mediators from the acid arachidonic pathway . These data indicate that omega-3 PUFA intake may have anti-inflammatory effect that still need to be assessed by long-term studies following large groups of patients Findings from epidemiological and observational studies have indicated that diets high in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) such as docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) may reduce the risk of cognitive decline and Alzheimer ’s disease ( AD ) . To determine if increasing intake of DHA and EPA through supplementation is beneficial to cognition and mood in individuals with cognitive impairment no dementia ( CIND ) or Alzheimer ’s disease ( AD ) a four month , r and omised , double-blind , placebo controlled study was conducted . Fifty-seven participants with CIND and nineteen with AD were r and omised to receive either omega-3 PUFAs ( 600 mg EPA and 625 mg DHA per day ) or placebo ( olive oil ) over a four month period . Elevating depleted levels of EPA and DHA through supplementation in individuals with CIND or AD was found to have negligible beneficial effect on their cognition or mood . These findings confirm an overall negligible benefit of omega-3 PUFA supplementation for those with cognitive impairment and dementia . More intervention studies need to be undertaken with longer study duration s and larger sample sizes . It may prove fruitful to examine effects of different doses as well as effects in other dementia subtypes BACKGROUND The Childhood Asthma Prevention Study was a r and omized controlled trial conducted in children with a family history of asthma in whom  omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and restriction of dietary omega-6 fatty acids did not prevent asthma , eczema , or atopy at age 5 years . OBJECTIVE We sought to examine the relation of all measures of omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids with outcomes at age 5 years in the whole birth cohort , regardless of r and omization group . METHODS Plasma fatty acids were measured at 18 months , 3 years , and 5 years . Compliance with the fatty acid supplements was estimated every 6 months . Dietary intake  was assessed at 18 months by means of weighed-food record and at 3 years by means of food-frequency question naire . At age 5 years , 516 children were examined for wheeze and eczema  ( question naire ) and atopy ( skin prick tests , n = 488 ) . Multiple logistic regression was used to evaluate associations between exposures and outcomes . RESULTS Plasma levels of omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids were not associated with wheeze , eczema , or atopy at age 5 years ( P = .11-.96 ) . Overall , fatty acid exposure , measured as plasma levels , dietary intake , and compliance with supplements , was not associated with any respiratory or allergic outcomes ( P = .35-.59 ) . CONCLUSION This observational analysis of the cohort , using the full range of observed variation in omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid exposure , supports the negative findings of the r and omized controlled trial . CLINICAL IMPLICATION S Modification of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids in early childhood is not helpful in preventing atopy and asthma OBJECTIVE Previous studies have demonstrated benefits of high-dose long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( LC omega-3 PUFA ) supplements on  metabolic risk .  Effects of increased dietary omega-3 PUFA , via oily fish and /or plant-derived omega-3 PUFAs , are less clear and may be modulated by the omega-6:omega-3 PUFA of the habitual diet . This study examined the effect on  cardiovascular disease risk markers of reducing dietary omega-6:omega-3 PUFA by changes in linoleic acid : alpha-linolenic acid ( LA : LNA ) and /or increasing LC omega-3 PUFA . It tested whether decreases in LA : LNA modulate effects of LC omega-3 PUFA . METHODS One hundred forty-two subjects , recruited to a 24-wk r and omized study , were assigned to a control group or one of four interventions . Intervention groups received two portions of oily fish ( 4.5 g eicosapentaenoic acid + docosahexanoic acid ) or white fish ( 0.7 g eicosapentaenoic acid + docosahexanoic acid ) per week , and replaced habitual household fats with ones high in sunflower ( high LA : LNA ) or rapeseed ( low LA : LNA ) oil . RESULTS Modest dietary manipulations of omega-6 and omega-3 PUFAs result ed in significant group x time interactions for serum triacylglycerols ( TAGs ; P = 0.05 ) ; at 24 wk the control and two oily fish groups showed lower TAG than did the white fish/sunflower group ( P = 0.05 ) . Reductions in TAG , associated with increased oily fish intakes , were maximized when combined with lower dietary LA : LNA . There were no significant changes in several other cardiovascular disease risk markers . CONCLUSIONS Two portions of oily fish per week led to significant reductions in TAG relative to consumption of two portions of white fish per week . Changes in TAG were maximized when combined with lower LA : LNA BACKGROUND Dietary alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) can be converted to long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) in humans and may reproduce some of the beneficial effects of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on cardiovascular disease risk factors . OBJECTIVE This study aim ed to compare the effects of increased dietary intakes of ALA and EPA+DHA on a range of atherogenic risk factors . DESIGN This was a placebo-controlled , parallel study involving 150 moderately hyperlipidemic subjects r and omly assigned to 1 of 5 interventions :  0.8 or 1.7 g EPA+DHA/d  , 4.5 or 9.5 g ALA/d , or an n-6 PUFA control for 6 mo . Fatty acids were incorporated into 25 g of fat spread and 3 capsules to be consumed daily . RESULTS The change in fasting or postpr and ial lipid , glucose , or insulin concentrations or in blood pressure was not significantly different after any of the n-3 PUFA interventions compared with the n-6 PUFA control . The mean ( + /- SEM ) change in fasting triacylglycerols after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention ( -7.7 + /- 4.99 % ) was significantly ( P < 0.05 ) different from the change after the 9.5-g/d ALA intervention ( 10.9 + /- 4.5 % ) . The ex vivo susceptibility of LDL to oxidation was higher after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention than after the control and ALA interventions ( P < 0.05 ) . There was no significant change in plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations or in whole plasma antioxidant status in any of the groups . CONCLUSION At estimated biologically equivalent intakes , dietary ALA and EPA+DHA have different physiologic effects N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) have anti-inflammatory effects and may be useful for the treatment of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA).We examined the efficacy of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) supplementation on RA on top of st and ard anti-inflammatory treatment . Patients with RA were r and omized into two groups in a double-blind , placebo-controlled , parallel- design multicenter study . One hundred nine patients received five capsules of either n-3 PUFA ( 2.090 g of EPA and 1.165 g of DHA ) or high-oleic-acid sunflower oil for 16 weeks . Eighty-one patients completed the study , and no adverse effects were reported . Dietary intake did not change significantly during the study . There were significant increases in n-3 PUFA and EPA levels in erythrocytes in the n-3 PUFA group versus the placebo group , but decreases in n-6 PUFA , 18:2n6 , 20:4n6 and 18:1n9 levels in the n-3 PUFA group versus the placebo group . N-3 PUFA supplementation had no significant effects on nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug ( NSAID ) requirements , clinical symptoms of RA or the concentration of cytokines , eicosanoids and bone turnover markers . However , n-3 PUFA supplementation significantly decreased NSAID requirements and leukotriene B4 levels in patients who weighed more than 55 kg . Our results suggest that n-3 PUFA supplementation has no significant effect on RA but may decrease the requirement for NSAIDs in Korean patients with RA who weigh more than 55 kg Summary Background : The best nutritional option for newborn infants is mother 's milk . However , some newborn babies may not be exlusively breastfed during the first months of life , potentially leading to reduced overall health status and the early onset of allergic diseases in some infants . Considerable research has been devoted to the development and assessment of infant nutrition programmes , particularly to the prevention of allergies in high-risk infants . However , equal numbers of infants with and without an elevated familial risk of allergies will eventually develop allergic diseases . Therefore , optimizing nutritional programmes for the early infant population as a whole is an important – but as yet insufficiently studied – area of investigation . Moreover , although safe and effective nutrition must primarily support healthy development of the infant , few studies have evaluated the overall health benefits of nutritional interventions , but have focussed on specific allergic manifestations . In animal models , an allergen-reduced moderate whey hydrolysate formula ( pHF , Nestlé Beba HA ) induces the development of oral tolerance towards cow 's milk proteins , without inducing sensitization . In infants with a high risk for allergies , pHF formulae reduce the early onset of allergic disease during the first 5 years of life by approximately 50 % compared with a dietary regimen of unaltered proteins . At present , very little is known about the overall health benefits of such a dietary intervention on the unselected infant population as a whole . Aim of the study : The aim of our prospect i ve , controlled study was to investigate the overall health benefits of an allergen-reduced nutritional programme in a newborn infant population unselected for atopic risk factors . The population in our study was a comparable as possible to the general population of healthy newborn infants . Our study included exclusive breastfeeding , use of a moderate whey hydrolysate formula ( pHF , Nestlé Beba HA ) if infant formula was needed , and delayed introduction of low-allergenic weaning foods . The study included assessment s of compliance with the dietary programme , and evaluated nutritional habits , growth , and overall health status for 24 months . The health evaluation included allergic manifestations but die – by purpose – not define or evaluate them specifically . Part I of this paper gives results for nutritional habits during the first 6 months of life , Part II gives results for growth and general health status for the same time period , Part III will present feeding habits during the second half of the first year of life , and Part IV will present results to 24 months of age . The complete study report is published as a supplement to this journal . Methods : Nuritional assignment was to demographically comparable intervention ( Z ) or control ( FF ) cohorts according to the infant 's place of birth . In the intervention cohort ( Z , n=564 ) , the recommended dietary regimen was breastfeeding and /or the pHF formula , with no weaning food before 4 months of age . In the control cohort ( FF , n=566 ) , there was no intervention . Longitudinal diet groups , defined for 4 months , excluding dropouts and noncompliants , were exclusive breastfeeding ( eBF , Z , n=201 , FF , n=162 ) , partial breastfeeding ( pBF , Z , n=222 , FF , n=311 ) , or non-breastfeeding ( nBF , Z , n=42 , FF , n=62 ) . Imbalances between groups and cohorts in confounding factors that could influence health-related symptoms were integrated as covariates into the main analyses using logistic regression . Nutritional surveillance was carried out using continuous prospect i ve monitoring . Results : The overall rate of breastfeeding , irrespective of partial or excluive breastfeeding or the additional use of weaning foods , was similar in both cohorts at 4 and 6 months . However , from ages 3 to 6 month , significantly more Z than FF infants were excluively breastfed ( p<0.05 ) , and weaning foods were introduced at a significantly later age in Z than FF ( 22 versus 18 weeks ; p<0.0001 ) . Infants in the Z cohort received fewer different kinds of weaning foods compared with FF ( 2 versus 10 ; p<0.0001 ) . Six-month rates of dropout were very low in both groups ( Z=4.3 % , FF=1.8 % ) and compliance with the programme was excellent over the strict intervention period of 4 months ( Z=86.9 % ) until the sixth month . Conclusions : A dietary recommendation that promotes breastfeeding , includes a moderate whey hydrolysate formula ( Nestlé Beba HA ) , and delays the introduction of highly allergenic weaning foods ( an allergen-reduced dietary regimen ) significantly increases breastfeeding and delays weaning in a normal infant population without any compliance problem to the moderate hydroysate formula that is quite often seen in the eHF . The regimen was followed closely , with a high degree of compliance and a low dropout rate compared with previous allergy-prevention studies . Compliance with the dietary regimen was excellent over the 4 months of intervention and throughout the following 2 months BACKGROUND Dietary factors and very-long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFAs ) may influence the atherothrombotic process . Elevated concentrations of circulating cell adhesion molecules , thrombomodulin ( TM ) , von Willebr and factor ( vWF ) , and tissue-type plasminogen activator antigen ( tPAag ) are related to atherothrombotic cardiovascular disease . OBJECTIVE The r and omized Diet and Omega-3 Intervention Trial ( DOIT ) targeted a comparison of the effect of 3-y dietary counseling , n-3 PUFA supplementation ( 2.4 g/d ) , or both on circulating markers of endothelial activation . DESIGN The study included 563 elderly men with long-st and ing hyperlipidemia . The men were r and omly assigned by factorial design into 4 groups : control ( no dietary counseling and placebo capsules ) , dietary counseling ( and placebo capsules ) , n-3 PUFA supplementation ( no dietary counseling ) , and dietary counseling and n-3 PUFA supplementation . RESULTS Serum concentrations of fatty acids reflected good compliance . Dietary counseling was followed by significantly reduced concentrations of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 ( sICAM-1 ; P < 0.001 ) , sTM ( P = 0.004 ) , and tPAag ( P < 0.001 ) than in subjects without dietary counseling . After n-3 PUFA supplementation , significantly reduced concentrations of sICAM-1 ( P < 0.001 ) and sTM ( P = 0.006 ) were observed when compared with subjects receiving placebo capsules . An increase in tPAag was not significantly different from that observed in subjects receiving placebo capsules . For sICAM-1 , a significant effect was observed for both interventions combined . CONCLUSIONS Each intervention ( dietary counseling or n-3 PUFA supplements ) reduced sTM and sICAM-1 concentrations , indicating decreased endothelial activation . The tPAag increase in the groups not receiving dietary counseling ( pooled ) , which indicates progression of atherosclerosis , was significantly counteracted by dietary counseling BACKGROUND Evidence suggests that asthma is rooted in the intrauterine environment and that intake of marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFAs ) in pregnancy may have immunomodulatory effects on the child . OBJECTIVE Our aim was to examine whether increasing maternal intake of n-3 PUFAs in pregnancy may affect offspring risk of asthma . DESIGN In 1990 , a population -based sample of 533 women with normal pregnancies were r and omly assigned 2:1:1 to receive four 1-g gelatin capsules/d with fish oil providing 2.7 g n-3 PUFAs ( n = 266 ) ; four 1-g , similar-looking capsules/d with olive oil ( n = 136 ) ; or no oil capsules ( n = 131 ) . Women were recruited and r and omly assigned around gestation week 30 and asked to take capsules until delivery . Among 531 live-born children , 528 were identified in registries and 523 were still alive by August 2006 .  Diagnoses from the International Coding of Diseases version 10 were extracted from a m and atory registry that recorded diagnoses reported from hospital contacts . RESULTS During the 16 y that passed since childbirth , 19 children from the fish oil  and  olive oil groups had received an asthma-related diagnosis ; 10 had received the diagnosis allergic asthma . The hazard rate of asthma was reduced by 63 % ( 95 % CI : 8 % , 85 % ; P = 0.03 ) , whereas the hazard rate of allergic asthma was reduced by 87 % ( 95 % CI : 40 % , 97 % ; P = 0.01 ) in the fish oil compared with the olive oil group . CONCLUSION Under the assumption that intake of olive oil in the dose provided here was inert , our results support that increasing n-3 PUFAs in late pregnancy may carry an important prophylactic potential in relation to offspring asthma To address preventive effects of n-3 PUFAs/LC n-3 PUFAs on CRTs , a r and omized controlled trial was conducted . One-hundred four experimental group participants were advised to increase intake of n-3 PUFAs , including fish/shell fish , fish oil supplements and perilla oils , and to decrease consumption of n-6 PUFAs and fats/oils as a whole for 24 months .  One-hundred one control group participants were only caution ed to reduce consumption of fats/oils as a whole . R and om allocation was satisfactorily attained , and participants sufficiently complied with our regimen . Intakes , plasma concentrations , and compositions of the RBC and sigmoid colon membranes of n-3 PUFAs , LC n-3 PUFAs , EPA and DHA increased , and the ratios of n-6 PUFAs/n-3 PUFAs and AA/LC n-3 PUFAs decreased without any adverse response . Twenty-four months after the intervention , the multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio ( 95 % confidence intervals ) was estimated to be 0.805 ( 0.536 - 1.209 ) with a signal towards the reduced CRT incidence OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effects of dietary intake of the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids , arachidonic acid ( AA ) , and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on multiple indices of infant growth and development . DESIGN A double-masked , r and omized , parallel trial was conducted with term infants fed formulas with or without AA+DHA for 1 year ( N = 239 ) . Reference groups of breastfed infants ( N = 165 ) weaned to formulas with and without AA+DHA  were also studied . Infants in the formula groups were r and omized at < /=9 days of age to a control formula with no AA or DHA ( n = 77 ) or 1 of 2 otherwise identical formulas containing AA+DHA ( AA , 0.46 % and DHA , 0.14 % of total fatty acids ) from either egg-derived triglyceride ( egg-DTG [ n=80 ] ) or fish oil and fungal oil ( fish/fungal [ n = 82 ] ) at levels similar to the average in breast milk sample s as measured in the reference group . All formulas contained 50 % of energy from fat with the essential dietary fatty acids , linoleic acid ( 20 % fatty acids ) and alpha-linolenic acid ( 2 % fatty acids ) . The main study outcomes were AA and DHA levels in plasma and red blood cells , and multiple measures of infant development at multiple ages from birth to 14 months : growth , visual acuity , information processing , general development , language , and temperament . RESULTS  AA and DHA levels in plasma and red cells were higher in AA+DHA-supplemented groups than in the control formula group and comparable to those in reference groups . No developmental test results distinguished these groups . Expected differences in family demographics associated with breastfeeding were found , but no advantages to breastfeeding on any of the developmental outcome demonstrated . CONCLUSIONS These findings do not support adding AA+DHA to formulas containing 10 % energy as linoleic acid and 1 % energy as alpha-linolenic acid to enhance growth , visual acuity , information processing , general development , language , or temperament in healthy , term infants during the first 14 months after birth.infant development , breast feeding , infant formula , long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids , docosahexaenoic acid n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 LCPUFA ) , from fish oil ( FO ) , in rodents have been shown to reduce adipogenesis . Evidence of an effect on adipose tissue mass in humans is limited , and no studies have specifically aim ed to eluci date this in infancy . To explore whether n-3 LCPUFA intake affects adipose tissue growth , we r and omly allocated 154 healthy infants to daily supplementation with FO or sunflower oil ( SO ) from 9 to 18 mo of age and measured z-score changes in various anthropometric assessment s of body size and skinfold thicknesses and plasma adipokine concentrations . Among the 133 completing infants , erythrocyte n-3 PUFA increased more in those receiving FO than in infants receiving SO [ 12.2 ± 0.7 ( mean ± SE ) versus 2.0 ± 0.4 fatty acid percentage ( FA% ) , p < 0.001 ] with a concomitant larger decrease in n-6 PUFA ( −8.9 ± 0.7 versus −0.9 ± 0.6 FA% , p < 0.001 ) . We found no association between FO  consumption relative to  SO consumption and any of the anthropometric measures related to the size of the fat mass , but infants in the FO group had a lower skinfold ratio ( triceps/subscapular ) at 18 mo than those in SO group ( p = 0.02 ) . Our findings do not support the hypothesis that dietary n-3 LCPUFA is important for infant fat mass , but future studies testing this specifically are warranted OBJECTIVE The relationship between fish or omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) and type 2 diabetes is inconclusive . Even contaminants in fish , such as mercury , may modify the effects . We investigated the associations between serum omega-3 PUFAs eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) , docosapentaenoic acid ( DPA ) , docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , α-linolenic acid ( ALA ) , hair mercury , and risk of incident type 2 diabetes in middle-aged and older Finnish men . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS A total of 2,212 men from the prospect i ve , population -based Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Risk Factor study , aged 42–60 years and free of type 2 diabetes at baseline in 1984–1989 , were investigated . Serum PUFA and hair mercury were used as biomarkers for exposure . Dietary intakes  were assessed with 4-day food recording . Type 2 diabetes was assessed by self-administered question naires and fasting and 2-h oral glucose tolerance test blood glucose measurement at re-examination rounds 4 , 11 , and 20 years after the baseline and by record linkage to hospital discharge registry and reimbursement register on diabetes medication expenses . Cox proportional hazards models were used to analyze associations . RESULTS During the average follow-up of 19.3 years , 422 men developed type 2 diabetes . Men in the highest versus the lowest serum EPA + DPA + DHA quartile had 33 % lower multivariate-adjusted risk for type 2 diabetes ( 95 % CI 13–49 ; P trend 0.01 ) . No statistically significant associations were observed with serum or dietary ALA , dietary fish or EPA + DHA , or hair mercury . CONCLUSIONS Serum long-chain omega-3 PUFA concentration , an objective biomarker for fish intake , was associated with long-term lower risk of type 2 diabetes BACKGROUND The critical period during which the dietary supply of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPs ) may influence the maturation of cortical function in term infants is unknown . OBJECTIVE The aim of the present study was to determine the relative importance for maturation of the visual cortex of the dietary supply of LCPs during the first 6 wk of life compared with that during weeks 7 - 52 . DESIGN A r and omized controlled clinical trial of LCP supplementation in 65 healthy term infants who were weaned from breast-feeding at 6 wk of age was conducted to determine whether the dietary supply of LCPs after weaning influenced the maturation of visual acuity and stereoacuity . RESULTS Despite a dietary supply of LCPs from breast milk during the first 6 wk of life , infants who were weaned to formula that did not provide LCPs had significantly poorer visual acuity at 17 , 26 , and 52 wk of age and significantly poorer stereoacuity at 17 wk of age than did infants who were weaned to LCP-supplemented formula .  Better acuity and stereoacuity at 17 wk was correlated with higher concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid in plasma . Better acuity at 52 wk was correlated with higher concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid in plasma and red blood cells . No significant effects of diet on growth were found . CONCLUSION The results suggest that the critical period during which the dietary supply of LCPs can influence the maturation of cortical function extends beyond 6 wk of age To determine the effect of feeding formula containing long-chain PUFA ( LCP ) on immune function , healthy term infants were r and omised at age 2 weeks to either a st and ard term formula ( Formula ; n 14 ) or the same formula supplemented with the LCP 20 : 4n-6 and 22 : 6n-3 ( Formula+LCP ; n 16 ) . Peripheral blood was collected at 2 and 6 weeks to measure immune cell response ( the rate of [3H]thymidine uptake and cytokine production after stimulation with phytohaemagglutinin ( PHA ) ) . Compared with cells from infants receiving only human milk ( HM ) , the rate of [3H]thymidine uptake in response to PHA , but not IL-2 production , was lower for Formula+LCP infants ( P < 0.05 ) . Compared with HM-fed infants , Formula-fed infants ( but not Formula+LCP infants ) produced more TNF-alpha ( unstimulated ) and had a fewer CD3+CD44 + cells before stimulation and fewer CD11c+ cells post-stimulation ( P < 0.05 ) . However , compared with Formula-fed infants , the Formula+LCP infants had an immune cell distribution ( higher percentage CD3+CD44 + and CD4+CD28 + cells ) and cytokine profile ( lower production of TNF-alpha post-stimulation ) that did not differ from HM infants . Additionally , it was found that feeding infants formula during the first 10 d of life influenced immune function . These infants had a higher percentage of CD3 + , CD4+CD28 + , and lower percentage of CD14 + cells and produced more TNF-alpha and interferon-gamma after PHA stimulation than HM-fed infants ( P < 0.05 ) . These results demonstrate that early diet influences both the presence of specific cell types and function of infant blood immune cells . Since many diseases have a strong immunological component , these immune changes may be of physiological importance to the developing infant BACKGROUND The potential of extensively or partially hydrolyzed formulas to reduce the risks for allergies is controversial . OBJECTIVE We sought to assess the preventive effect of differently hydrolyzed formulas compared with cow 's milk formula ( CMF ) in high-risk infants . METHODS Between 1995 and 1998 , 2252 infants with a hereditary risk for atopy were enrolled in the German Infant Nutritional Intervention Study and r and omly assigned at birth to one of 4 blinded formulas : CMF , partially hydrolyzed whey formula , extensively hydrolyzed whey formula , and extensively hydrolyzed casein formula ( eHF-C ) . The primary end point at 1 year of age was the presence of allergic manifestation , which was defined as atopic dermatitis ( AD ) , gastrointestinal manifestation of food allergy , allergic urticaria , or a combination of these factors . RESULTS At 12 months per protocol , analysis was performed on 945 infants exposed to study formula : 304 ( 13.5 % ) infants had left the study , 138 ( 6.1 % ) infants were excluded because of noncompliance , and 865 infants were exclusively breast-fed the first 4 months of life . The incidence of allergic manifestation was significantly reduced by using eHF-C compared with CMF ( 9 % vs 16 % ; adjusted OR , 0.51 ; 95 % CI , 0.28 - 0.92 ) , and the incidence of AD was significantly reduced by using eHF-C ( OR , 0.42 ; 95 % CI , 0.22 - 0.79 ) and partially hydrolyzed whey formula ( OR , 0.56 ; 95 % CI , 0.32 - 0.99 ) . Family history of AD was a significant risk factor and modified the preventive effect of the hydrolysates . CONCLUSIONS Prevention of allergic diseases in the first year of life is feasible by means of dietary intervention but influenced by family history of AD . The preventive effect of each hydrolyzed formula needs to be clinical ly evaluated Objectives : The aim of the present study was to eluci date whether a dairy drink enriched with & ohgr;-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ( LC-PUFA ) could have an impact on the lipid profile of the mother and the newborn , and also whether this intervention could affect the newborns ’ visual and cognitive development . Methods : A total of 110 pregnant women were r and omly assigned to one of the following intervention groups : control group ( n = 54 ) , taking 400 mL/day of the control dairy drink , and supplemented group ( fish oil [ FO ] ) ( n = 56 ) , taking 400 mL/day of the fish oil – enriched dairy drink ( including ∼400 mg eicosapentaenoic acid – docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]/day ) . During the study , the mothers ’ diets were supervised by a nutritionist to encourage compliance with present recommendations of FA intake . Blood fatty acid profiles were determined in the mother 's ( at enrollment , at delivery , and at 2.5 and 4 months ) and newborn ( at delivery and at 2.5 months ) placenta and breast milk ( colostrum and at 1 , 2 , and 4 months ) . Pattern reversal visual evoked potentials ( VEPs ) ( at 2.5 and 7.5 months ) and Bayley test ( at 12 months ) were recorded . Results : DHA percentage was higher in plasma , erythrocyte membranes , and breast milk sample s from the FO group . The ratio of nervonic acid was also higher in plasma and erythrocyte lipids of the mother and newborn 's blood sample s from the FO group . No differences were observed in the Bayley test . No differences were observed in VEPs between both groups . We observed a shorter latency , however , in the lower visual angle ( 7.5′ ) in the boys of the supplemented group . Conclusions : Omega-3 LC-PUFA dietary supplement during pregnancy and lactation influenced the mother and newborn 's fatty acid profile and nervonic acid content but did not show effects on visual and cognitive/psychomotor development In view of the importance of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCP ) for growth and development of fetal and infant neural tissue , the influence of the dietary n-3 and n-6 LCP intake on the LCP status of forty-three preterm infants ( birth weight < 1800 g ) was studied . Thirty-one formula-fed infants were r and omly assigned to receive a conventional formula lacking LCP ( n 16 ) , or an 22:6n-3- and 20:4n-6-enriched formula ( n 15 ) ; twelve infants received their own mother 's breast milk .  Fatty acid compositions of plasma and erythrocyte ( RBC ) phospholipids ( PL ) were determined in umbilical venous blood , in weekly postnatal sample s until day 35 of life and , for the formula-fed infants , at 3 months of corrected age . Both in plasma ( P < 0.001 ) and RBC ( P < 0.01 ) PL , the changes with time until day 35 for 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 in the two groups of formula-fed infants were significantly different , with higher values , comparable with those of human-milk-fed infants , in the LCP-enriched-formula group . At 3 months of corrected age , differences between the two formula-fed groups were even more pronounced . In conclusion , adding 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 to artificial formulas in balanced ratios and in amounts similar to those found in preterm human milk raises both the 22:6n-3 and the 20:4n-6 status of formulated preterm infants to values found for human-milk-fed preterm infants . Additional studies are necessary to evaluate the potentially favourable effects of this combined addition on the neurodevelopmental outcome of preterm infants BACKGROUND The beneficial effects of prenatal and early postnatal intakes of omega-3 ( n-3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) on cognitive development during infancy are well recognized . However , few studies have examined the extent to which these benefits continue to be evident in childhood . OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to examine the relation of n-3 PUFAs and seafood-contaminant intake with memory function in school-age children from a fish-eating community . DESIGN In a prospect i ve , longitudinal study in A rct ic Quebec , we assessed Inuit children ( n = 154 ; mean age : 11.3 y ) by using a continuous visual recognition task to measure 2 event-related potential components related to recognition memory processing : the FN400 and the late positive component ( LPC ) . Children were also examined by using 2 well-established neurobehavioral assessment s of memory : the Digit span forward from Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children , 4th edition , and the California Verbal Learning Test-Children 's Version . RESULTS Repeated- measures analyses of variance revealed that children with higher cord plasma concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , which is an important n-3 PUFA , had a shorter FN400 latency and a larger LPC amplitude ; and higher plasma DHA concentrations at the time of testing were associated with increased FN400 amplitude . Cord DHA-related effects were observed regardless of seafood-contaminant amounts . Multiple regression analyses also showed positive associations between cord DHA concentrations and performance on neurobehavioral assessment s of memory . CONCLUSION To our knowledge , this study provides the first neurophysiologic and neurobehavioral evidence of long-term beneficial effects of n-3 PUFA intake in utero on memory function in school-age children BACKGROUND Partially hydrolyzed whey formula ( pHWF ) has been recommended for infants with a family history of allergic disease at the cessation of exclusive breast-feeding to promote oral tolerance and prevent allergic diseases . OBJECTIVE To determine whether feeding infants pHWF reduces their risk of allergic disease . METHODS A single-blind ( participant ) r and omized controlled trial was conducted to compare allergic outcomes between infants fed a conventional cow 's milk formula , a pHWF , or a soy formula . Before birth , 620 infants with a family history of allergic disease were recruited and r and omized to receive the allocated formula at cessation of breast-feeding . Skin prick tests to 6 common allergens ( milk , egg , peanut , dust mite , rye grass , and cat d and er ) were performed at 6 , 12 , and 24 months . The primary outcome was development of allergic manifestations ( eczema and food reactions ) measured 18 times in the first 2 years of life . RESULTS Follow-up was complete for 93 % ( 575/620 ) at 2 years and 80 % ( 495/620 ) at 6 or 7 years of age . There was no evidence that infants allocated to the pHWF ( odds ratio , 1.21 ; 95 % CI , 0.81 - 1.80 ) or the soy formula ( odds ratio , 1.26 ; 95 % CI , 0.84 - 1.88 ) were at a lower risk of allergic manifestations in infancy compared with conventional formula . There was also no evidence of reduced risk of skin prick test reactivity or childhood allergic disease . CONCLUSION Despite current dietary guidelines , we found no evidence to support recommending the use of pHWF at weaning for the prevention of allergic disease in high-risk infants Significant research attention has focussed on the identification of nutraceutical agents for the prevention of  cognitive decline as a natural means of cognitive preservation in the elderly . There is some evidence for a reduction of brain omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFAs ) in normal aging and in Alzheimer ’s disease . n-3 PUFAs exhibit anti-inflammatory and anti-amyloidogenic properties as well as being able to reduce tau phosphorylation . Many observational studies have demonstrated a link between n-3 PUFAs and cognitive aging , and some , but not all , r and omized controlled trials have demonstrated a benefit of n-3 PUFA supplementation on cognition , particularly in those subjects with mild cognitive impairment . The identification of a biomarker that reflects n-3 PUFA intake over time and consequent tissue levels is required . In this narrative review we discuss the evidence associating red blood cell membrane n-3 PUFAs with cognitive function and structural brain changes associated with Alzheimer ’s disease The influence of a moderate dietary supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( omega-3 PUFAs ) ( 3.4 g eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids per day ) for six months on lipopolysaccharide ( LPS ) stimulated monocyte procoagulant activity ( PCA ) was studied in two series of experiments , evaluating the plasma and cellular phases , respectively . In the first series , st and ard cryopreserved monocyte cultures were examined in heparin plasma of atherosclerotic patients ( n = 24 , 12 given omega-3 PUFAs , 12 controls ) . In the second series , monocytes from patients ( n = 32 , 16 given omega-3 PUFAs , 16 controls ) were investigated in a st and ard plasma milieu . Plasma and monocytes were obtained from the test subjects before as well as after six months of omega-3 PUFA supplementation . Monocyte PCA , measured by the formation of fibrinopeptide A , was not significantly different when comparing plasma and monocytes from the subjects supplemented with omega-3 PUFAs with plasma and monocytes , respectively , from the control subjects . In the second series of experiments we also determined the LPS induced release of interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) , which was not significantly different in the two groups . However , a strong correlation between the stimulated monocyte IL-6 release and PCA was demonstrated ( r = 0.70 , p = 0.00001 ) , probably reflecting an individual inflammatory response pattern BACKGROUND Two factors thought to influence the risk of asthma are the promoting effect of sensitization to house dust mites and the preventive effect of increased omega-3 fatty acids . Although house dust mite allergen avoidance has been used as a preventive strategy in several trials , the effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in the primary prevention of asthma and allergic disease is not known . OBJECTIVE To measure the effects of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids and house dust mite allergen avoidance in children with a family history of asthma . METHODS A total of 616 children at high risk of asthma were enrolled antenatally in a r and omized controlled trial , and 526 children remained in the trial at age 3 years . The outcomes were symptoms of allergic disease and allergen sensitization . RESULTS There was a significant 10.0 % ( 95 % CI , 3.7 - 16.4 ) reduction in the prevalence of cough in atopic children in the active diet group ( P=.003 ; number needed to treat , 10 ) but a negligible 1.1 % ( 95 % CI , -7.1 to 9.5 ) reduction cough among nonatopic children . There was a 7.2 % ( 95 % CI , 10.11 - 14.3 ) reduction in sensitization to house dust mite in the active allergen avoidance group ( P=.05 ; number needed to treat , 14 ) . No significant differences in wheeze were found with either intervention . CONCLUSION These results suggest that our interventions , design ed to be used in simple public health campaigns , may have a role in preventing the development of allergic sensitization and airways disease in early childhood . This offers the prospect of reducing allergic disease in later life Probiotics and long-chain PUFA ( LC-PUFA ) may be beneficial supplements for infants who are not breast-fed . The aim of the present study is to evaluate the safety of an infant formula containing the LC-PUFA DHA and arachidonic acid ( AA ) and the probiotic Bifidobacterium lactis by comparing the growth rate of infants fed the supplemented and unsupplemented formulas . One hundred and forty-two healthy , term infants were enrolled in a single-centre , r and omised , double-blind , controlled , parallel-group trial , and allocated to receive either st and ard or probiotic and LC-PUFA-containing experimental formulas . The infants were fed with their assigned formulas for 7 months . The primary outcome ( weight gain ) and the secondary outcomes ( length , head circumference and formula tolerance ) were measured throughout the study . LC-PUFA status was assessed at 4 months of age and immune response to childhood vaccines was measured at 7 months of age . There was no significant difference in growth between the two groups . The 90 % CI for the difference in mean weight gain was - 0.08 , 3.1 g in the intention-to-treat population and 0.1 - 3.8 g in the per protocol population , which lay within the predefined boundaries of equivalence , - 3.9 - 3.9 . There were no significant differences in mean length and head circumference . DHA and AA concentrations were higher in infants in the experimental formula group compared with the control formula group . No influence of the supplements on the response to vaccines was observed . Growth characteristics of term infants fed the starter formula containing a probiotic and LC-PUFA were similar to st and ard formula-fed infants BACKGROUND Mammalian gut microbiota have been implicated in a variety of functions including the breakdown of ingested nutrients , the regulation of energy intake and storage , the control of immune system development and activity , and the synthesis of novel chemicals . Previous studies have shown that feeding mammalian hosts a high-fat diet shifts gut bacteria at the phylum level to reduce the ratio of Bacteroidetes-to-Firmicutes , while feeding hosts a fat-restricted diet increases this ratio . However , few studies have investigated the differential effects of fatty acid type on gut bacterial profile . METHODS Over a 14-week period , Mus musculus were fed a diet rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFAs ) , omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-6 PUFAs ) , or saturated fatty acids ( SFAs ) . Fecal pellets were collected before and after the treatment period from 12 r and omly selected mice ( 4 per treatment group ) . Bacterial DNA was extracted from the pellets and characterized by analysis of the hypervariable V3 region of the 16S rRNA . Nominal logistic regression models were used to assess shifts in microbial profile at the phylum and family levels in response to diet . RESULTS A significant decrease in the proportion of phylum Bacteroidetes species was observed for mice fed any of the three diets over time . However , the SFA-rich diet group showed a significantly greater decrease in Bacteroidetes proportion ( -28 % ) than did either the n-3 PUFA group ( -10 % ) or the n-6 PUFA group ( -12 % ) . At the family level , a significant decrease in proportion of Porphyromonadaceae was observed for mice fed the n-6 PUFA-rich diet , and a significant decrease in proportion of Lachnospiraceae was observed for mice fed the SFA-rich diet . There was no significant effect of diet type on body mass change . CONCLUSION Our results indicate that SFAs have stronger effects than PUFAs in shifting gut microbiota profiles toward those typical of obese individuals , and that dietary fatty acid saturation influences shifts in gut microbiota independently of changes in body mass Background In contrast to human milk , current infant formulas in the United States do not contain ω3 and ω6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids . This may lead to suboptimal blood lipid fatty acid profiles and to a measurable diminution of visual function in developing term infants . The need for docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid supplementation in the infant diet was evaluated in a double-blind , r and omized clinical trial . Methods Healthy term infants were r and omized to diets of ( 1 ) commercial formula , ( 2 ) docosahexaenoic acid – enriched formula ( 0.35 % of total fatty acids ) , or ( 3 ) docosahexaenoic acid– ( 0.36 % ) and arachidonic acid– ( 0.72 % ) enriched formula .  Eighty-seven infants completed the 17-week nutritional trial , and 58 were observed until 52 weeks of life . A reference group was exclusively breast fed for at least 17 weeks ( n = 29 ) . Outcome measures included electroretinographic responses , visual evoked potentials , and blood fatty acid analysis in infants at birth and at 6 , 17 , and 52 weeks of age . Results Commercial formula-fed infants had 30 % to 50 % lower content of docosahexaenoic acid in total red blood cell lipids during the 17-week feeding trial compared with breast-fed infants . Significant differences persisted at the 1-year follow-up . Arachidonic acid content was consistently reduced in the commercial formula group by 15 % to 20 % . Infants fed long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid – enriched formulas had docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid blood lipid profiles resembling those of human milk-fed infants . Infants receiving this enriched formula had more mature electroretinographic responses than commercial formula-fed infants at 6 weeks of age . Human milk-fed and docosahexaenoic acid-enriched formula-fed infants had better visual acuity than commercial formula-fed infants at both 17 and 52 weeks of age . Early ( 17-week ) fatty acid profiles in blood lipids were correlated with later ( 52-week ) visual function development in study infants . Conclusions Results from this clinical trial demonstrate that long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of formula in term infants produces blood lipid fatty acid profiles that are similar to those observed in breast-fed infants . This supplementation leads to better visual function later in life ( i.e. , 1 year of age ) than that shown by infants fed commercial formula OBJECTIVE Dietary guidelines for the prevention of coronary heart disease ( CHD ) have restricted the intake of foods rich in dietary cholesterol , on the grounds that the dietary cholesterol will increase blood cholesterol . In the case of shellfish , this recommendation may limit the intake of a valuable dietary source of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC n-3 PUFA ) . The objective of this study was to undertake a dietary intervention to determine the effects of cold water prawns on plasma lipids and lipoproteins . METHODS 23 healthy male subjects were r and omised to receive either 225 g of cold water prawns or an equivalent weight of fish ( ' crab ' ) sticks as a control for 12 weeks in a cross-over design . Blood sample s were taken at the beginning and end of each intervention for the determination of plasma lipids and lipoproteins by routine enzymatic assays and iodixanol density gradient centrifugation respectively . RESULTS The diets were well matched for the intake of total energy and macronutrients , and body weight remained stable throughout the study . The prawn intervention increased the intake of dietary cholesterol to 750 mg/d against 200 mg/d on the control . The intake of LC n-3 PUFA from prawns was estimated to be between 0.5 - 0.7 g/d . The consumption of prawns produced no significant effects on the concentration of plasma total or LDL cholesterol , triacylglycerol , HDL cholesterol or apolipoproteins A-I and B relative to the control , or within each intervention group over time . There was also no significant effect on LDL density ( particle size ) relative to the control , or any difference between and within treatments in total plasma lipoprotein profiles by density gradient centrifugation . CONCLUSION These findings provide evidence to suggest that the consumption of cold water prawns , at least in healthy , male subjects , should not be restricted on the grounds of this seafood producing an adverse effect on plasma LDL cholesterol Emerging evidence relates some nutritional factors to depression risk . However , there is a scarcity of longitudinal assessment s on this relationship . Objective To evaluate the association between fatty acid intake or the use of culinary fats and depression incidence in a Mediterranean population . Material and Methods Prospect i ve cohort study ( 1999–2010 ) of 12,059 Spanish university graduates ( mean age : 37.5 years ) initially free of depression with permanently open enrolment . At baseline , a 136-item vali date d food frequency question naire was used to estimate the intake of fatty acids ( saturated fatty acids ( SFA ) , polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) , trans unsaturated fatty acids ( TFA ) and monounsaturated fatty acids ( MUFA ) and culinary fats ( olive oil , seed oils , butter and margarine ) During follow-up participants were classified as incident cases of depression if they reported a new clinical diagnosis of depression by a physician and /or initiated the use of antidepressant drugs . Cox regression models were used to calculate Hazard Ratios ( HR ) of incident depression and their 95 % confidence intervals ( CI ) for successive quintiles of fats . Results During follow-up ( median : 6.1 years ) , 657 new cases of depression were identified . Multivariable-adjusted HR ( 95 % CI ) for depression incidence across successive quintiles of TFA intake were : 1 ( ref ) , 1.08 ( 0.82–1.43 ) , 1.17 ( 0.88–1.53 ) , 1.28 ( 0.97–1.68 ) , 1.42 ( 1.09–1.84 ) with a significant dose-response relationship ( p for trend = 0.003 ) . Results did not substantially change after adjusting for potential lifestyle or dietary confounders , including adherence to a Mediterranean Dietary Pattern . On the other h and , an inverse and significant dose-response relationship was obtained for MUFA ( p for trend = 0.05 ) and PUFA ( p for trend = 0.03 ) intake . Conclusions A detrimental relationship was found between TFA intake and depression risk , whereas weak inverse associations were found for MUFA , PUFA and olive oil . These findings suggest that cardiovascular disease and depression may share some common nutritional determinants related to subtypes of fat intake In the present study , we examined longitudinal changes in  self-reported depressive symptoms  ( and related domains ) in relation to baseline intakes of n-3 fatty acids ( absolute and relative to n-6 fatty acids ) . Sex-specific associations were evaluated in a prospect i ve cohort of adults ( n = 2,053 ) from Baltimore , Maryl and , who were 30 - 64 years of age at baseline and were followed for a mean of 4.65 ( st and ard deviation , 0.93 ) years ( 2004 - 2013 ) . Using mean intakes of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids reported on two 24-hour dietary recalls , we estimated the ratios of n-3 to n-6 fatty acids for both highly unsaturated fatty acids ( ≥20 carbon atoms ) ( HUFAs ) and polyunsaturated fatty acids ( ≥18 carbon atoms ) ( PUFAs ) . Outcomes included total and domain-specific scores on the 20-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies -Depression scale . Based on mixed-effects regression models , among women , both higher n-3 HUFA : n-6 PUFA and n-3 PUFA : n-6 PUFA ratios were associated with a slower rate of increase in total Center for Epidemiologic Studies -Depression scores over time . Higher n-3 HUFA : n-6 HUFA ratios were associated with slower increases in somatic complaints in men , whereas among women , higher n-3 HUFA : n-6 PUFA and n-3 PUFA : n-6 PUFA ratios were both linked to putative longitudinal improvement in positive affect over time . Among US adults , n-3:n-6 dietary fatty acid ratio was associated with longitudinal changes in depressive symptoms , with a higher ratio linked to a slower increase in depressive symptoms over time , particularly among women Several studies have demonstrated that dietary and environmental manipulations in the first months of life have a protective effect on the development of allergic diseases in babies " at risk " of atopy . We have prospect ively followed up 174 " high risk " infants who underwent dietary and environmental manipulations , such as exclusive breast-feeding for the first 6 months of life , supplemented if necessary with soy-protein formula ( Isomil , Abbott ) , delayed weaning beyond the 6th month of life , and rigorous environmental manipulations for the elimination of house-dust mite and passive smoking . The low prevalence of atopic disease ( 10 % ) and the trivial course of the allergic manifestations in this " at risk " population confirm the effectiveness of this preventive program . Moreover , this study demonstrates that the incidence of atopic dermatitis peaks at 6 months , and decreases until it disappears . Food allergy appears only at 6 months and may disappear later . The incidence of asthma peaks at 6 and 36 months and decreases at low levels in the intervals . Allergic rhinitis develops not sooner than 36 months Supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) for 6 weeks did not alter plasma leptin concentrations in male smokers . Changes in dietary intake of saturated fatty acids ( FA ) correlated positively , whereas changes in the intake of PUFA correlated negatively to changes in plasma leptin levels . A 3-week n-3 PUFA-enriched diet , as compared with a 3-week lard-enriched diet , induced lower plasma leptin concentration and reduced leptin mRNA expression in rat epididymal adipose tissue . In the human trophoblast cell line ( BeWo ) , n-3 PUFA had a dose- and time-dependent effect on leptin expression . One mM of eicosapentaenoic acid or docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) reduced leptin expression by 71 % and 78 % , respectively , as compared with control , after 72 h. There was no effect on expression of the signal transducing form of the leptin receptor . In BeWo cells transfected with the human leptin promoter , we found that n-3 PUFA reduced leptin promoter activity ; in contrast saturated and monounsaturated FA had no effect on leptin promoter activity . The transcription factors peroxysomal proliferator activated receptor gamma and sterol regulatory element binding protein-1 mRNAs were reduced after incubation with n-3 PUFA , whereas the expression of CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha was unchanged . DHA-reduced leptin expression was abolished in BeWo cells grown in cholesterol-free medium . In conclusion , n-3 FA decreased leptin gene expression both in vivo and in vitro . The direct effects of PUFA on leptin promoter activity indicate a specific regulatory action of FA on leptin expression BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE : Evidence from r and omized controlled trials in early infancy suggest that prenatal supplementation with Ω-3 ( n-3 ) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPUFA ) reduces the incidence of allergic disease characterized by an immunoglobulin E ( IgE ) response . We aim ed to determine whether protective effects were evident in the 6-year-old offspring of women supplemented with n-3 rich fish oil during pregnancy . METHODS : Six-year follow-up of children ( n = 706 ) with a family history of allergic disease from the Docosahexaenoic Acid to Optimize Mother Infant Outcome ( DOMInO ) trial . Women were r and omly allocated to receive n-3 LCPUFA-rich fish oil capsules ( 800 mg/d docosahexaenoic acid DHA and 100mg/d eicosapentaenoic acid ) or vegetable oil capsules ( without n-3 LCPUFA ) . Allergic disease symptoms including eczema , wheeze , rhinitis , and rhino-conjunctivitis , were assessed using the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood question naire and sensitization to allergens was measured by skin prick test . RESULTS : There was no difference in the percentage of children with any IgE-associated allergic disease between the n-3 LCPUFA and control groups ( 116/367 [ 31.5 % ] vs 106/336 [ 31.5 % ] ; adjusted relative risk , 1.04 ; 95 % confidence interval , 0.82–1.33 ; P = .73 ) . There was a reduction in the percentage of children sensitized to house dust mite Dermatophagoides farinae ( 49/367 [ 13.4 % ] vs 68/336 [ 20.3 % ] ; adjusted relative risk , 0.67 , 95 % confidence interval , 0.44–1.00 ; P = .0495 ) . CONCLUSIONS : Prenatal n-3 LCPUFA supplementation did not reduce IgE-associated allergic disease at 6 years of age . Secondary outcomes were suggestive of a protective effect of the intervention on the incidence of D. farinae sensitization Diverging results from studies of marine oil supplementation to western diets initiated the undertaking of a double-blind crossover study , with administration to healthy volunteers for 4 weeks of either 10 g of fish oil or 10 g of vegetable oil . Each oil containing approx . 40 % of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) respectively . During the n-3 PUFA period , systolic blood pressure , plasma total lipids , triglycerides and VLDL concentrations fell significantly whereas plasma antithrombin-III ( AT-III ) rose . Cutaneous bleeding time increased significantly . In contrast only AT-III rose during the n-6 PUFA feeding , however , more marked than during the n-3 oil period . It is concluded that a n-3 PUFA oil supplement to the western diet exerts an effect that generally is considered as beneficial in terms of the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases . It is in this respect superior to that of n-6 PUFA , stressing the necessity of a more differentiated approach to advice on dietary PUFA enrichment than presently is exerted Patients with end-stage renal disease ( ESRD ) have a high morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease . An elevated homocysteine level is an independent predictor of cardiovascular events in patients with ESRD . Interestingly , some studies have found an inverse relationship between the content of marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) and homocysteine levels , but data are ambiguous . In patients with ESRD , we hypothesized that serum phospholipid n-3 PUFA content would inversely correlate with homocysteine levels in plasma and that supplementation with n-3 PUFA would reduce plasma homocysteine levels . In a double-blind , r and omized , controlled design , 206 patients with documented cardiovascular disease and treated with hemodialysis for a minimum of 6 months were r and omized to treatment with daily supplement of 1.7 g n-3 PUFA or placebo ( olive oil ) for 3 months . The content of n-3 PUFA in serum phospholipids and homocysteine levels in plasma were measured at baseline and after 3 months of intervention . A dietary question naire was filled out at baseline , and study participants were divided into groups of low , intermediate , and high fish intake . Docosahexaenoic acid was inversely correlated with homocysteine at baseline ( coefficient = -0.161 ; P = .03 ) . Homocysteine was not related to self-reported fish intake . Supplementation with n-3 PUFA  did not reduce homocysteine levels compared with placebo ( mean ± SD difference , -0.3 ± 7.8 versus 0.3 ± 7.1 ; P = .58 ) . The content of docosahexaenoic acid in serum phospholipids is inversely correlated with plasma homocysteine levels , and supplementation with n-3 PUFA does not reduce homocysteine levels in patients with ESRD BACKGROUND The influence of prenatal long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC-PUFAs ) and folate on neurologic development remains controversial . OBJECTIVE The objective was to assess the long-term effects of n-3 ( omega-3 ) LC-PUFA supplementation , 5-methyltetrahydrofolate ( 5-MTHF ) supplementation , or both in pregnant women on cognitive development of offspring at 6.5 y of age . DESIGN This was a follow-up study of the NUHEAL ( Nutraceuticals for a Healthier Life ) cohort . Healthy pregnant women in 3 European centers were r and omly assigned to 4 intervention groups . From the 20th week of pregnancy until delivery , they received a daily supplement of 500 mg docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) + 150 mg eicosapentaenoic acid [ fish oil ( FO ) ] , 400 μg 5-MTHF , or both or a placebo .  Infants received formula containing 0.5 % DHA and 0.4 % arachidonic acid ( AA ) if they were born to mothers receiving FO supplements or were virtually free of DHA and AA until the age of 6 mo if they belonged to the groups that were not supplemented with FO . Fatty acids and folate concentrations were determined in maternal blood at weeks 20 and 30 of pregnancy , at delivery , and in cord blood . Cognitive function was assessed at 6.5 y of age with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children ( K-ABC ) . RESULTS We observed no significant differences in K-ABC scores between intervention groups . Higher DHA in maternal erythrocytes at delivery was associated with a Mental Processing Composite Score higher than the 50th percentile in the offspring . CONCLUSION We observed no significant effect of supplementation on the cognitive function of children , but maternal DHA status may be related to later cognitive function in children . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT01180933 OBJECTIVE Observational studies suggest that monounsaturated ( MUFA ) and trans fatty acids ( TRANS ) are more fattening than polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) . Therefore , the aim of this study was to investigate the acute effect of intake of PUFA , MUFA , or TRANS on appetite and energy expenditure ( EE ) . RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES Three test meals were r and omly given in a cross-over design to 19 overweight ( BMI : 26.8 + /- 0.4 kg/m2 ) , young ( 25.2 + /- 0.7 years ) men . The fat-rich breakfasts ( 0.8 g fat/kg body weight , 60 % energy from fat ) varied only in the source of C:18-fat . EE was measured continuously in a respiration chamber , and appetite sensations were rated by visual analog scales before and every 30 minutes , for 5 hours , after the meal . After 5 hours , an ad libitum meal was served , and energy intake was registered . Sensory evaluations of all meals were given using visual analog scales . Data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA . RESULTS There were no differences in basal or postpr and ial values of appetite ratings and EE , in subsequent ad libitum energy intake , or in the sensory evaluation of the test meals among the 3 test days . DISCUSSION Giving acutely large amounts of MUFA , PUFA , or TRANS did not impose any differences in appetite and EE in overweight humans . However , studies with extended protocol s and other subject groups are warranted to investigate the long-term effect of dietary fat quality on the regulation of energy balance and body weight The effects of dietary docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) supply during infancy on later cognitive development of healthy term infants were evaluated in a r and omized clinical trial of infant formula milk supplemented with 0.35 % DHA or with 0.36 % DHA and 0.72 % arachidonic acid ( AA ) , or control formula which provided no DHA or AA .  Fifty-six 18-month-old children ( 26 male , 30 female ) who were enrolled in the trial within the first 5 days of life and fed the assigned diet to 17 weeks of age were tested using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development , 2nd edition ( BSID-II ) ( Bayley 1993 ) at the Retina Foundation of the Southwest , Dallas , TX . These children had also been assessed at 4 months and 12 months of age for blood fatty-acid composition , sweep visual evoked potential ( VEP ) acuity , and forced-choice preferential looking ( FPL ) acuity ( Birch et al. 1998 ) . Supplementation of infant formula with DHA+AA was associated with a mean increase of 7 points on the Mental Development Index ( MDI ) of the BSID-II . Both the cognitive and motor subscales of the MDI showed a significant developmental age advantage for DHA- and DHA+AA-supplemented groups over the control group . While a similar trend was found for the language subscale , it did not reach statistical significance . Neither the Psychomotor Development Index nor the Behavior Rating Scale of the BSID-II showed significant differences among diet groups , consistent with a specific advantage of DHA supplementation on mental development . Significant correlations between plasma and RBC-DHA at 4 months of age but not at 12 months of age and MDI at 18 months of age suggest that early dietary supply of DHA was a major dietary determinant of improved performance on the MDI OBJECTIVE To investigate the association between dietary n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 LC-PUFAs ) and the degree and development of albuminuria in type 1 diabetes . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS We analyzed longitudinal data from 1,436 participants in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial . We defined the average intake of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid from diet histories . Urinary albumin excretion rates ( UAERs ) were measured over 24 h ; incident albuminuria was considered the first occurrence of an UAER > 40 mg/24 h sustained for ≥1 year in normoalbuminuric individuals . RESULTS In a mean follow-up of 6.5 years , we observed a lower mean UAER ( difference 22.7 mg/24 h [ 95 % CI 1.6–43.8 ) ] ) in the top versus the bottom third of dietary n-3 LC-PUFAs , but we found no association with incident albuminuria . CONCLUSIONS Dietary n-3 LC-PUFAs appear inversely associated with the degree but not with the incidence of albuminuria in type 1 diabetes . These findings require further investigation in prospect i ve studies Background Prevalence of  allergic diseases in infants , whose parents and siblings do not have allergy , is approximately 10 % and reaches 20–30 % in those with an allergic first-degree relative . Intestinal microbiota may modulate immunologic and inflammatory systemic responses and , thus , influence development of sensitization and allergy . Probiotics have been reported to modulate immune responses and their supplementation has been proposed as a preventive intervention . Objective The World Allergy Organization ( WAO ) convened a guideline panel to develop evidence -based recommendations about the use of probiotics in the prevention of allergy . Methods We identified the most relevant clinical questions and performed a systematic review of r and omized controlled trials of probiotics for the prevention of allergy . We followed the Grading of Recommendations Assessment , Development and Evaluation ( GRADE ) approach to develop recommendations . We search ed for and review ed the evidence about health effects , patient values and preferences , and re source use ( up to November 2014 ) . We followed the GRADE evidence -to-decision framework to develop recommendations . Results Currently available evidence does not indicate that probiotic supplementation  reduces the risk of developing allergy in children . However , considering all critical outcomes in this context , the WAO guideline panel determined that there is a likely net benefit from using probiotics result ing primarily from prevention of eczema . The WAO guideline panel suggests : a ) using probiotics in pregnant women at high risk for having an allergic child ; b ) using probiotics in women who breastfeed infants at high risk of developing allergy ; and c ) using probiotics in infants at high risk of developing allergy . All recommendations are conditional and supported by very low quality evidence . Conclusions WAO recommendations about probiotic supplementation for prevention of allergy are intended to support parents , clinicians and other health care professionals in their decisions whether to use probiotics in pregnancy and during breastfeeding , and whether to give them to infants OBJECTIVE To determine the influence of alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ; 18 : 3omega3 ) intake and , hence , the influence of plasma and /or erythrocyte phospholipid content of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ; 22 : 6omega3 ) during early infancy on neurodevelopmental outcome of term infants . METHODS The Bayley Scales of Infant Development ( second edition ) , the Clinical Adaptive Test/ Clinical Linguistic and Auditory Milestone Scale ( CAT/CLAMS ) and the Gross Motor Scale of the Revised Gesell Developmental Inventory were administered at a mean age of 12.26 + /- 0.94 months to 44 normal term infants enrolled in a study evaluating the effects of infant formulas differing only in ALA content ( 0.4 , 1.0 , 1.7 and 3.2 % of total fatty acids ) . RESULTS As reported previously [ Jensen et al. , Lipids 13 ( 1996 ) 107 ; J. Pediatr . 131 ( 1997 ) 200 ] , the group fed the formula with the lowest ALA content had the lowest mean plasma and erythrocyte phospholipid DHA contents at 4 months of age . This group also had the lowest mean score on every neurodevelopmental measure . The difference in mean gross motor developmental quotient of this group versus the group fed the formula with 1.0 % ALA but not of the other groups was statistically significant ( P < 0.05 ) . Across the groups , motor indices correlated positively with each other and with the plasma phospholipid DHA content at 4 months of age ( P=0.02 - 0.03 ) . The CLAMS developmental quotient correlated with the erythrocyte phospholipid content of 20 : 5omega3 ( P < 0.01 ) but not with DHA . CONCLUSIONS These statistically significant correlations suggest that the omega3 fatty acid status during early infancy may be important with respect to neurodevelopmental status at 1 year of age and highlight the need for further studies of this possibility BACKGROUND AND AIMS Decreasing energy intake relative to energy expenditure is the indisputable tenet of weight loss . In addition to caloric restriction modification of the type of dietary fat may provide further benefits . The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of energy restriction alone and with dietary fat modification on weight loss and adiposity , as well as on risk factors for obesity related disease . METHODS AND RESULTS One-hundred and fifty overweight men and women were r and omized into a 3month controlled trial with four low fat ( 30 % energy ) dietary arms : ( 1 ) isocaloric ( LF ) ; ( 2 ) isocaloric with 10 % polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LF-PUFA ) ; ( 3 ) low calorie ( LF-LC ) ( -2MJ ) ; ( 4 ) low calorie with 10 % PUFA ( LF-PUFA-LC ) . Primary outcomes were changes in body weight and body fat and secondary outcomes were changes in fasting levels of leptin , insulin , glucose , lipids and erythrocyte fatty acids . Changes in dietary intake were assessed using 3day food records . One-hundred and twenty-two participants entered the study and 95 completed the study . All groups lost weight and body fat ( P<0.0001 time effect for both ) , but the LC groups lost more weight ( P=0.026 for diet effect ) . All groups reduced total cholesterol levels ( P<0.0001 time effect and P=0.017 intervention effect ) , but the LC and PUFA groups were better at reducing triacylglycerol levels ( P=0.056 diet effect ) . HDL increased with LF-LC and LF-PUFA but not with LF-PUFA-LC ( 0.042 diet effect ) . The LF and LF-LC groups reported greater dietary fat reductions than the two PUFA groups ( P=0.043 ) . CONCLUSION Energy restriction has the most potent effect on weight loss and lipids , but fat modification is also beneficial when energy restriction is more modest Objective —The beneficial effect of dietary fish oil , rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) , on cardiovascular disease is multifactorial and may partly rely on their anticoagulant action . We studied how fish oil intake influenced thrombin generation in plasma and which factors were involved herein . Methods and Results —Twenty-five healthy males with borderline overweight received 3.0 g omega-3 PUFAs daily for 4 weeks . Fish oil intake reduced plasma triglycerides and lowered platelet integrin activation , as well as plasma levels of fibrinogen and factor V , but had no effect on vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors . Before fish oil intake , thrombin generation ( reflecting the coagulant potential ) considerably varied between plasmas from individual subjects , which were partly explained by variation in prothrombin , antithrombin , fibrinogen , and factor V levels . Fish oil intake reduced thrombin generation in the presence and absence of platelets . This reduction correlated with the fish oil effect on fibrinogen and factor V levels . Interestingly , the lowering effect of fish oil on thrombin generation and fibrinogen clustered around subjects with high fibrinogen carrying a structural fibrinogen α-chain polymorphism . Conclusions —Dietary omega-3 PUFAs provoke a hypocoagulant , vitamin K-independent effect in humans , the degree of which may depend on fibrinogen level Dietary alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) can be converted to long-chain ( n-3 ) PUFA in humans and may potentially reproduce the beneficial effects of eicosapentaenoic ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic ( DHA ) acids on risk factors for coronary heart disease ( CHD ) . This study compared the effects of increased intakes of ALA with those of dietary EPA and DHA on blood coagulation and fibrinolytic factors in fasting subjects . A placebo-controlled , parallel study was conducted in 150 moderately hyperlipidemic subjects , age 25 - 72 y. Subjects were r and omly assigned to one of five interventions and consumed a total intake of 0.8 or 1.7g/d EPA+DHA , 4.5 or 9.5g/d ALA or control ( linoleic acid ; LA ) for 6 mo . Fatty acids were incorporated into 25 g of fat spread , which replaced the subject 's normal spread and three capsules . Long-term supplementation with either dietary EPA+DHA or estimated biologically equivalent amounts of ALA did not affect factors VIIa , VIIc , VIIag , XIIa , XIIag , fibrinogen concentrations , plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 or tissue plasminogen activator activity compared with the control . ( n-3 ) PUFA of plant or marine origin do not differ from one another or from LA in their effect on a range of blood coagulation and fibrinolytic factors Objective : To assess the utility of serum phospholipid fatty acid ( FA ) levels as a biochemical indicator of habitual dietary fatty acid intake in Japanese , whose diet is characterized by low fat intake and high intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) of marine origin . Subjects and methods : Eighty-seven male volunteers from four public health center districts that were part of the Japan Public Health Center based Prospect i ve Study ( JPHC Study ) cohort I , were included in this study . Habitual intake of fatty acid was obtained by 7 day weighed dietary records four times ( in one area only twice ) in 1994–1995 . Blood was collected twice , in February and August of the same year , and the composition of FA in serum phospholipid was analyzed by gas chromatography . The correlation coefficient between serum phospholipid FA levels and fatty acid intake was calculated . Results : High correlations were observed for eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) , docosapentaenoic acid ( DPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , which are marine origin n-3 PUFA ( r=0.75 , 0.49 , 0.50 , respectively ) . No significant correlation was observed for saturated fatty acid ( SFA ) , although the monounsaturated fatty acid ( MUFA ) , palmitoleic acid and oleic acid intake were moderately correlated ( r=0.22 , 0.35 , respectively ) . The correlations for EPA , DPA and DHA were similar in both sample s collected in February and August . Conclusions : These data suggest that in population s with a high and stable over time intake of n-3 PUFA of marine origin , a single measurement of serum phospholipids reflects the ranking of habitual intake of marine origin n-3 PUFA.European Journal of Clinical Nutrition ( 2001 ) 55 , Antiplatelet therapy with acetylsalicylic acid ( ASA ) is commonly used to reduce the risk of cardio- and cerebrovascular events . Fish consumption has been inversely related to coronary disease , which has been partly attributed to an inhibitory effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFA ) on platelet production of tromboxane A2 . In this study , we investigated the acute and short-time effect of supplementation with n-3 PUFA and intravenous ASA on platelet function , platelet fatty acid composition and plasma lipids .  Eighteen healthy men were r and omly allocated to a daily intake of 10 g n-3 PUFA or placebo . After this supplement ( 14 h and 14 days ) , blood was sample d before and after intravenous injection of 100 mg ASA . n-3 PUFA given for 14 days caused a minor inhibition of platelet reactivity but negligible compared to 100 mg ASA . No additive effect of n-3 PUFA and ASA could be demonstrated BACKGROUND Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPUFA ) are important for normal visual and brain development . Although present in human milk , LCPUFA have until recently been absent from artificial formulas , and infants may have limited ability to synthesis e LCPUFA . To determine the clinical significance of this relative deficiency of LCPUFA , we undertook a r and omised trial of the relation between LCPUFA supplementation and infant cognitive behaviour . METHODS 44 term infants had been r and omised to a formula supplemented with LCPUFA ( 21 ) or not supplemented with LCPUFA ( 23 ) , which they had taken from birth to age 4 months .  Infant cognitive behaviour was assessed at 10 months of age by a means-end problem-solving test -- the intentional execution of a sequence of steps to achieve a goal . The problem required three intermediate steps to achieve the final goal , uncovering and retrieving a hidden toy . FINDINGS Infants who received LCPUFA-supplemented formula had significantly more intentional solutions than infants who received the no-LCPUFA formula ( median 2.0 vs 0 , p=0.021 ) . Intention scores ( median 14.0 vs 11.5 [ maximum 18 ] ) were also increased in this group ( p=0.035 ) . INTERPRETATION These findings suggest that term infants may benefit from LCPUFA supplementation , and that the effects persist beyond the period of supplementation . Since higher problem-solving scores in infancy are related to higher childhood IQ scores , supplementation with LCPUFA may be important for the development of childhood intelligence Background and objective : Systemic inflammation is a well-known risk factor for diseases such as atherosclerosis and is augmented by the presence of obesity . In addition , it has been shown that inflammation may be negatively influenced by certain macronutrients , specifically the omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids . The primary aim of this study is to determine whether obesity modifies the association between plasma phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) and markers of inflammation and endothelial activation in Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis ( MESA ) participants .Subjects : A sample of 2848 adults ( 25 % African American , Chinese , Hispanic , and White ) r and omly selected from the MESA cohort . Measurements : Relative plasma PUFA concentrations were determined using gas chromatography-flame ionization detection . Levels of three inflammatory markers ( high-sensitivity C-reactive protein , interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor-receptor 1 ) and two endothelial activation markers ( soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( sICAM-1 ) and E-selectin ) were determined with enzyme immunoassays . Linear regression analysis was used to evaluate the relationship between these markers and plasma PUFAs . Results : Obesity modified the associations of linoleic acid ( Pint=0.01 ) , dihomo-γ-linolenic ( Pint=0.07 ) and eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) ( Pint=0.04 ) with sICAM-1 concentrations ; in addition , obesity modified the association of IL-6 with dihomo-γ-linolenic ( Pint=0.01 ) . In obese individuals  , sICAM-1 was inversely related to EPA levels ( P=0.02 ) , but directly related to linoleic acid levels ( P<0.001 ) . Conversely , sICAM-1 was inversely related to linoleic acid levels in normal weight individuals ( P=0.04 ) . IL-6 concentrations were significantly and directly related to dihomo-γ-linolenic acid ( DGLA ) in normal weight ( P=0.01 ) and obese participants ( P<0.001 ) , but the scale of increase across tertiles was greater in obese adults . Main effects of fatty acid and inflammatory marker associations are also reported . Conclusion : The modifying effect of obesity on the association of plasma PUFAs with IL-6 and sICAM-1 suggests differences in fatty acid metabolism and may also have implication s in dietary fatty acid intake for obese individuals , particularly for linoleic and EPAs . Further study is warranted to confirm and explain the strong associations of DGLA with inflammatory and endothelial activation markers Maternal ( n-3 ) PUFA deficiency is associated with higher  blood pressure ( BP ) later in life in rat offspring , and early intake of ( n-3 ) PUFA in formula-fed infants was shown to modify later BP . BP , heart rate ( HR ) , and heart rate variability ( HRV ) are affected by dietary ( n-3 ) PUFA in adults . In this study , we investigated whether fish oil ( FO ) supplementation of lactating mothers could modify BP , pulse wave velocity ( PWV ) , and HRV in their children after 2 y. Mothers with low fish intake were r and omly assigned to FO or olive oil ( OO ) supplementation for the first 4 mo after delivery . A reference group of mothers with a high habitual fish intake ( HFI ) was also followed . At the follow-up study at 2.5 y of age , BP and PWV were measured , and electrocardiograms were recorded for 0.5 h. FO supplementation significantly increased RBC levels of long-chain ( n-3 ) PUFA of the 4 mo-old children , but at 2.5 y , the FO and OO groups did not differ . BP , PWV , HR , and HRV also did not differ among the groups . However , for all 3 groups , the children 's intake of ( n-3 ) PUFA at 2.5 y was negatively correlated with mean arterial pressure after adjustment for outdoor temperature ( r = -0.245 , P = 0.04 ) . In conclusion , maternal FO supplementation had no overall effect on BP , PWV , or HRV of the children , indicating that ( n-3 ) PUFA intake of Danish mothers may be sufficient in this sense . However , children 's dietary intake of ( n-3 ) PUFA might have a beneficial effect on BP in childhood ( n-3 ) PUFA influence immune function  in adults and may also affect immune maturation during development . This r and omized trial is , to our knowledge , the first to investigate whether fish oil supplementation in late infancy modifies immune responses . The study was a 2 x 2 intervention in 64 healthy Danish infants , who received cow 's milk or infant formula alone or with fish oil ( FO ) ( 3.4 + /- 1.1 mL/d ) from 9 to 12 mo of age . Before and after the intervention , fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membranes , plasma IgE , C-reactive protein , and soluble IL-2 receptor concentrations were measured . TNF-alpha , INF-gamma , and IL-10 concentrations in whole-blood cultures , stimulated for 22 h with LPS+phytohemaglutinin ( PHA ) or Lactobacillus paracasei , were also determined . IgA was measured in feces when infants were 10 mo of age . FO supplementation effectively raised erythrocyte ( n-3 ) PUFA ( P < 0.001 ) , increased L. paracasei-induced INF-gamma ( P = 0.05 ) and tended to reduce LPS+PHA-induced IL-10 ( P = 0.08 ) . The FO intervention did not affect any of the other analyzed immune variables . The erythrocyte content of eicosapentanoic acid was negatively associated with LPS+PHA-induced IL-10 ( r = -0.38 , P = 0.02 ) . Feeding milk rather than formula did not affect cytokine production , but plasma soluble IL-2 receptor concentration was greater in the formula group than in the cow 's milk group ( P = 0.03 ) . Since the capacity to produce INF-gamma has been proposed as a maturation marker for the immune system in early life , this study suggests a faster immune maturation with FO supplementation with no apparent reduction in immune activation . The implication s for later health need further investigation BACKGROUND Whether intakes of dietary fat and cholesterol are associated with risk of stroke remain unclear . We examined the associations between intakes of total fat , specific types of fat , and cholesterol and risk of stroke  in a prospect i ve cohort of women . METHODS The study population consisted of 34,670 women , aged 49 - 83 years , in the Swedish Mammography Cohort who were free of cardiovascular disease and completed a food-frequency question naire in 1997 . Cox proportional hazard regression models were used to estimate relative risks ( RR ) with 95 % confidence intervals ( CI ) . RESULTS During a mean follow-up of 10.4 years , we ascertained 1680 stroke events , including 1310 cerebral infa rct ions , 233 hemorrhagic strokes , and 137 unspecified strokes . After adjustment for other stroke risk factors , intake of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) was inversely associated with risk of total stroke . The multivariable RR of total stroke for the highest compared with the lowest quintile of long-chain omega-3 PUFA intake was 0.84 ( 95 % CI , 0.72 - 0.99 ; P for trend=0.04 ) .  Dietary cholesterol  was positively associated with risk of total stroke ( highest versus lowest quintile : RR=1.20 ; 95 % CI , 1.00 - 1.44 ; P for trend=0.01 ) and cerebral infa rct ion ( corresponding RR=1.29 ; 95 % CI , 1.05 - 1.58 ; P for trend=0.004 ) . Total fat , saturated fat , monounsaturated fat , polyunsaturated fat , α-linolenic acid , and omega-6 PUFA intakes were not associated with stroke . CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that intake of long-chain omega-3 PUFAs is inversely associated with risk of stroke , whereas dietary cholesterol is positively associated with risk Objective To determine the association between long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( n-3 PUFA ) supplements intake and cognitive decline in an older Chinese population . Design Prospect i ve cohort study . Setting : The Singapore Longitudinal Aging Studies ( SLAS ) , a community-based study in urban region of Singapore . Participants : 1,475 Chinese adults aged ≥55 years .  MeasurementOmega-3 PUFA supplements intake and Mini-Mental State Examination ( MMSE ) were assessed at baseline . MMSE was reassessed at a median of 1.5 years after baseline and cognitive decline was defined as at least 2-points drop in MMSE score from baseline to follow-up . Odds ratios ( ORs ) of association between n-3 PUFA supplements intake and cognitive decline were calculated in logistic regression models controlling for baseline confounding variables . Results Daily n-3 PUFA supplements intake was significantly ( p=0.024 ) associated with lower risk of cognitive decline ( OR=0.37 , 95 % C.I. 0.16–0.87 ) after controlling for age , gender , education , number of medical comorbidity , the presence of vascular risk factors/diseases , smoking , alcohol drinking , depression , APOE e4 allele carrier status , nutritional status , level of leisure activities , baseline MMSE and length of follow-up . The association remained significant ( p=0.015 ) after excluding participants with baseline cognitive impairment ( MMSE<24 ) , diabetes , stroke , and cardiac diseases ( OR=0.23 , 95 % C.I. 0.07–0.75 ) . No statistically significant association ( OR=1.02 , 95 % C.I. 0.81–1.27 ) of fish consumption with cognitive decline was found . Conclusion Daily n-3 PUFA supplements consumption was independently associated with less cognitive decline in elderly Chinese n-3 Long-chain PUFA ( LC-PUFA ) intake during infancy is important for neurodevelopment ; however , previous studies of n-3 LC-PUFA supplementation have been inconclusive possibly due to an insufficient dose and limited methods of assessment . The present study aim ed to evaluate the effects of direct supplementation with high-dose fish oil ( FO ) on infant neurodevelopmental outcomes and language . In the present r and omised , double-blind , placebo-controlled trial , 420 healthy term infants were assigned to receive a DHA-enriched FO supplement ( containing at least 250 mg DHA/d and 60 mg EPA/d ) or a placebo ( olive oil ) from birth to 6 months . Assessment occurred at 18 months via the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development ( 3rd edition ; BSID-III ) and the Child Behavior Checklist . Language assessment occurred at 12 and 18 months via the Macarthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory .  The FO group had significantly higher erythrocyte DHA ( P = 0·03 ) and plasma phospholipid DHA ( P = 0·01 ) levels at 6 months of age relative to placebo . In a small subset analysis ( about 40 % of the total population ) , children in the FO group had significantly higher percentile ranks of both later developing gestures at 12 and 18 months ( P = 0·007 ; P = 0·002 , respectively ) and the total number of gestures ( P = 0·023 ; P = 0·006 , respectively ) . There was no significant difference between the groups in the st and ard or composite scores of the BSID-III . The results suggest that improved postnatal n-3 LC-PUFA intake in the first 6 months of life using high-dose infant FO supplementation was not beneficial to global infant neurodevelopment . However , some indication of benefits to early communicative development was observed Prebiotic oligosaccharides influence the intestinal microbiota and can positively modulate the infant 's immune system . It was demonstrated that a special prebiotic mixture ( Immunofortis ( ® ) ) of short-chain galacto-oligosaccharides ( scGOS ) and long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides ( lcFOS ) can reduce the cumulative incidence of atopic dermatitis ( AD ) in infants at risk for allergy as determined using the AD symptom score ( SCORAD ) . Additionally , it was shown very recently that immunoglobulin free light-chain ( Ig-fLC ) might be involved in the pathophysiology of allergic disease . Increased Ig-fLC concentrations were found in patients suffering from AD , cow 's milk allergy , allergic rhinitis , or asthma . In this study , the effect of supplementation of scGOS/lcFOS on the Ig-fLC plasma concentrations in infants at risk for allergy was assessed . The plasma kappa and lambda Ig-fLC concentrations were measured in a double-blind , placebo-controlled , r and omized trial , in which infants at risk for developing allergic disease received a  hypoallergenic whey formula containing 8 g/l of the scGOS/lcFOS mixture ( n = 34 ) or maltodextrin as a placebo ( n=40 ) for 6 months . After intervention , plasma sample s were collected , and total plasma concentrations of lambda and kappa Ig-fLC were analyzed using ELISA . Total kappa and lambda Ig-fLC plasma concentrations were higher in infants suffering from AD when compared to infants without any sign of AD . In infants receiving the prebiotic mixture  , the Ig-fLC levels were significantly lower compared to the placebo-fed infants ( p<0.001 ) . Interestingly , lambda Ig-fLC concentrations were positively correlated with total IgE ( p<0.05 ) . These data demonstrate for the first time that the specific scGOS/lcFOS mixture lowered kappa and lambda Ig-fLC plasma concentrations in infants at high risk for allergies when compared to infants receiving placebo formula . Because Ig-fLC concentrations were increased in infants suffering from AD , this may have contributed , at least in part , to the reduced incidence in AD as described previously . This suggests a possible role for Ig-fLC in the pathophysiology of AD in infants at risk for allergy development High dietary intakes of n3 ( ω3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) and fish have been consistently associated with a decreased risk for age-related macular degeneration ( AMD ) .  We assessed the associations of  late AMD  with plasma n3 PUFA , a nutritional biomarker of n3 PUFA status . The Antioxydants Lipides Essentiels Nutrition et Maladies Occulaires ( Alienor ) Study is a prospect i ve , population -based study on nutrition and age-related eye diseases performed in 963 residents of Bordeaux ( France ) aged ≥73 y. Participants had a first eye examination in 2006 - 2008 and were followed for 31 mo on average . Plasma fatty acids were measured by GC from fasting blood sample s collected in 1999 - 2001 . AMD was grade d from non-mydriatic color retinal photographs at all examinations and spectral domain optical coherence tomography at follow-up . After adjustment for age , gender , smoking , education , physical activity , plasma HDL-cholesterol , plasma triglycerides , CFH Y402H , apoE4 , and ARMS2 A69S polymorphisms , and follow-up time , high plasma total n3 PUFA was associated with a reduced risk for late AMD [ OR = 0.62 for 1-SD increase ( 95 % CI : 0.44 - 0.88 ) ; P = 0.008 ] . Associations were similar for plasma 18:3n3 [ OR = 0.62 ( 95 % CI : 0.43 - 0.88 ) ; P = 0.008 ] and n3 long-chain PUFA [ OR = 0.65 ( 95 % CI : 0.46 - 0.92 ) ; P = 0.01 ] . This study gives further support to the potential role of n3 PUFAs in the prevention of late AMD and highlights the necessity of r and omized clinical trials to determine more accurately the value of n3 PUFAs as a means of reducing AMD incidence Background and aim Impaired vasodilatation has been suggested to be caused by inhibition of nitric oxide generation by the recently described asymmetric dimethylarginine ( ADMA ) . In the present study we wanted to explore whether n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) supplementation and /or diet intervention have beneficial influence on endothelial function assessed as plasma levels of ADMA and L-arginine . Methods A male population ( n = 563 , age 70 ± 6 yrs ) with long-st and ing hyperlipidemia , characterized as high risk individuals in 1970–72 , was included , r and omly allocated to receive placebo n-3 PUFA capsules ( corn oil ) and no dietary advice ( control group ) , dietary advice ( Mediterranean type ) , n-3 PUFA capsules , or dietary advice and n-3 PUFA combined and followed for 3 years . Fasting blood sample s were drawn at baseline and the end of the study . Results Compliance with both intervention regimens were demonstrated by changes in serum fatty acids and by recordings from a food frequency question naire . No influence of either regimens on ADMA levels were obtained . However , n-3 PUFA supplementation was accompanied by a significant increase in L-arginine levels , different from the decrease observed in the placebo group ( p < 0.05 ) . In individuals with low body mass index ( < 26 kg/m2 ) , the decrease in L-arginine on placebo was strengthened ( p = 0.01 ) , and the L-arginine/ADMA ratio was also significantly reduced ( p = 0.04 ) . Conclusion In this rather large r and omized intervention study , ADMA levels were not influenced by n-3 PUFA supplementation or dietary counselling . n-3 PUFA did , however , counteract the age-related reduction in L-arginine seen on placebo , especially in lean individuals , which might be discussed as an improvement of endothelial function Objective . To determine whether dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPUFA ) , such as docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and arachidonic acid , affect visual evoked potential ( VEP ) acuity of formula-fed infants , relative to breastfed infants . A secondary objective was to assess the effect of LCPUFA on Bayley 's mental developmental index ( MDI ) and psychomotor developmental index ( PDI ) . Methods . Formula-fed infants were r and omly allocated , in a double-blind manner , to either a placebo ( no LCPUFA;n = 21 ) , DHA supplemented ( n = 23 ) , or DHA+arachidonic acid supplemented formula ( n = 24 ) . Infants were fed their assigned formula from the first week of life until 1 year of age . A parallel reference group of breastfed infants was recruited and followed ( n = 46 ) . Infant VEP acuity was assessed at 16 and 34 weeks , and Bayley 's MDI and PDI were assessed at 1 and 2 years of age . Results . There were no differences among the r and omized formula groups for VEP acuity at either 16 or 34 weeks of age . Breastfed infants had better VEP acuity at 34 weeks of age , but not at 16 weeks , compared with all formula-fed infants . Bayley 's MDI and PDI were similar in the 3 formula-fed groups at 1 and 2 years . Breastfed infants had higher MDI scores than formula-fed infants at 2 years of age even after adjusting for environmental variables . Conclusions . LCPUFA supplementation did not influence VEP acuity development in these well-nourished , formula-fed infants OBJECTIVES Docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ; 22:6 n-3 ) and arachidonic acid ( AA ; 20:4 n-6 ) are important for development of the central nervous system in mammals . There is a growth spurt in the human brain during the last trimester of pregnancy and the first postnatal months , with a large increase in the cerebral content of AA and DHA .  The fetus and the newborn infant depend on maternal supply of DHA and AA . Our hypothesis was that maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy and lactation is marginal and that high intake of this fatty acid would benefit the child . We examined the effect of supplementing pregnant and lactating women with very-long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ; cod liver oil ) on mental development of the children , compared with maternal supplementation with long-chain n-6 PUFAs ( corn oil ) . METHODS The study was r and omized and double-blinded . Pregnant women were recruited in week 18 of pregnancy to take 10 mL of cod liver oil or corn oil until 3 months after delivery . The cod liver oil contained 1183 mg/10 mL DHA , 803 mg/10 mL eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5 n-3 ) , and a total of 2494 mg/10 mL summation operator n-3 PUFAs . The corn oil contained 4747 mg/10 mL linoleic acid ( 18:2 n-6 ) and 92 mg/10 mL alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3 n-3 ) . The amount of fat-soluble vitamins was identical in the 2 oils ( 117 micro g/mL vitamin A , 1 micro g/mL vitamin D , and 1.4 mg/mL dl-alpha-tocopherol ) . A total of 590 pregnant women were recruited to the study , and 341 mothers took part in the study until giving birth . All infants of these women were scheduled for assessment of cognitive function at 6 and 9 months of age , and 262 complied with the request . As part of the protocol , 135 subjects from this population were invited for intelligence testing  with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children ( K-ABC ) at 4 years of age . Of the 135 invited children , 90 came for assessment . Six children did not complete the examination . The K-ABC is a measure of intelligence and achievement design ed for children aged 2.5 years through 12.5 years . This multisubtest battery comprises 4 scales : Sequential Processing , Simultaneous Processing , Achievement ( not used in the present study ) , and Nonverbal Abilities . The Sequential Processing and Simultaneous Processing scales are hypothesized to reflect the child 's style of problem solving and information processing . Scores from these 2 scales are combined to form a Mental Processing Composite , which serves as the measure of intelligence in the K-ABC . RESULTS We received dietary information from 76 infants ( 41 in the cod liver oil group and 35 in the corn oil group ) , documenting that all of them were breastfed at 3 months of age . Children who were born to mothers who had taken cod liver oil ( n = 48 ) during pregnancy and lactation scored higher on the Mental Processing Composite of the K-ABC at 4 years of age as compared with children whose mothers had taken  corn oil  ( n = 36 ; 106.4 [ 7.4 ] vs 102.3 [ 11.3 ] ) . The Mental Processing Composite score correlated significantly with head circumference at birth ( r = 0.23 ) , but no relation was found with birth weight or gestational length . The children 's mental processing scores at 4 years of age correlated significantly with maternal intake of DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid during pregnancy . In a multiple regression model , maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy was the only variable of statistical significance for the children 's mental processing scores at 4 years of age . CONCLUSION Maternal intake of very-long-chain n-3 PUFAs during pregnancy and lactation may be favorable for later mental development of children It has been postulated that patients with ulcerative colitis ( UC ) have altered reactivity of gut-associated lymphoid tissue . In such cases there is intense infiltration of the mucosa with immune competent cells and associated tissue damage . We have shown previously that the dietary supplementation with the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFAs ) , eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) , and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) results in significant systemic immune suppression . The aim of this study , therefore , was to evaluate the in situ effect of n-3 PUFAs on distal proctocolitis . Each patient received either fish oil extract ( EPA 3.2 g , DHA 2.4 g ) ( n = 9 ) or sunflower oil ( n = 9 ) daily in a double blind manner for six months . Monthly assessment included : ( 1 ) disease activity using clinical , sigmoidoscopic , and histological scores and ( 2 ) immunohistochemical analysis ( immunoglobulins , CD profiles ) of rectal biopsy specimens ( before and after six months supplementation ) using monoclonal antibodies and quantitative computer-assisted video image analysis . Prior to receiving supplementation , patients with proctocolitis ( n = 18 ) showed significantly higher numbers of cells expressing CD3 ( pan T cells ) and HLA-DR and IgM containing cells compared with non-colitic controls ( n = 8) . Six months supplementation with n-3 PUFAs result ed in significant reduction in the number of cells expressing CD3 and HLA and the percentage of cells containing IgM. There was no significant change in the CD20 nor the percentage of IgG or IgA containing cells in either group of patients with procto-colitis . In patients receiving n-3 PUFA supplementation , there was improvement in the disease activity and histological scores , compared with pretreatment evaluation . This study has demonstrated both evidence of suppression of in situ immune reactivity and concurrent reduction in disease activity in patients with proctocolitis receiving n-3 PUFA supplementation . This may have important implication for therapy in patients with ulcerative colitis OBJECTIVE --To study the effect of early diet on the development of allergic reactions in infants born preterm . DESIGN --Two r and omised prospect i ve trails . In trail A infants were r and omly allocated banked donor milk or preterm formula as their sole diet or ( separately r and omised ) as a supplement to their mother 's expressed breast milk . In trial B infants were allocated term or preterm formula . A blind follow up examination was done 18 months after the expected date of birth . SETTING --Neonatal units of hospitals in Cambridge , Ipswich , King 's Lynn , Norwich , and Sheffield . Outpatient follow up . PARTICIPANTS --777 Infants with a birth weight less than 1850 g born during 1982 to 1984 . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES --Development of eczema , allergic reactions to food or drugs , and asthma or wheezing by nine and 18 months after term . Whenever possible the observations were confirmed by rechallenge or clinical examination . RESULTS --At 18 months after term there was no difference in the incidence of allergic reactions between dietary groups in either trial . In the subgroup of infants with a family history of atopy , however , those in trial A who received preterm formula rather than human milk had a significantly greater risk of developing one or more allergic reactions ( notably eczema ) by 18 months ( odds ratio 3.6 ; 95 % confidence interval 1.4 to 9.1 ) . CONCLUSIONS --Feeding neonates on formulas based on cows ' milk , including those with a high protein content , did not increase the overall risk of allergy . Nevertheless , in the subgroup with a family history of atopy early exposure to cows ' milk increased the risk of a wide range of allergic reactions , especially eczema Free radical damage has long been believed to be a risk factor for the degenerative processes which accompany aging ( 1 ) . Reactive oxygen species initiate a wide variety of oxidative reactions , including peroxidation of lipids , and contribute to the process of aging , as well as age-related pathology such as cardiovascular diseases . Moreover , platelet activation is believed to play a role in the development of such diseases , and an increased reactivity to most aggregating agents of platelets was reported in elderly people . An exacerbated arachidonic acid metabolism was also found , as well as a significant lowered vitamin E and glutathione peroxidase activity ( 2 ) . On the other h and , epidemiologic studies suggest that consumption of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) may protect against thromboembolic diseases ( 3 ) . Especially , eicosapentaenoic ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic ( DHA ) acids could be responsible for such beneficial effects . However , an increase of n-3 PUFA in membrane phospholipids may enhance membrane susceptibility to lipid peroxidation and thus counteract these beneficial effects . In this context , the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of low intake of n-3 PUFA on platelets from elderly people . In a r and omized double-blind study , 20 healthy subjects ( 70 - 83 yr ) were carefully selected . Ten subjects ingested one capsule of 600 mg ( corresponding to 150 mg DHA and 30 mg EPA ) of RO-PUFA triglyceride ( Roche ) per day and 10 others ingested one capsule of 600 mg sunflower oil as placebo during 42 d. RO-PUFA and placebo capsules contained 1900 and 600 ppm of o~-tocopherol , respectively , representing at most 5 % of the recommended daily allowance . Blood anticoagulated with ACD ( acid/citrate/dextrose ) was drawn before ( day 0 ) and after oil supplementation ( day 42 ) . Platelets were isolated and several biochemical parameters were measured . The low intake of n-3 PUFA modestly affected platelet aggregation . Indeed , a tendency to decrease the percentage of thrombin-induced aggregation in RO-PUFA group was observed . Although no modification in the composition of platelet total phospholipids appeared after the oil intake , a slight but Epidemiological and metabolic studies have shown that regular nut consumption may protect against risk of heart disease and diabetes . None has investigated the effect of adding nuts to a self-selected habitual diet ( containing little or no nuts ) on dietary patterns . The present study evaluated the impact of long-term almond supplementation in healthy men ( n 43 ) and women ( n 38 ) aged 25 - 70 years on nutrient profile and nutrient displacement . All subjects were followed for 1 year . During the first 6 months , subjects followed their habitual diets ; in the second 6 months , subjects added almonds to their diets . Diets were assessed by seven r and om 24 h telephone diet recalls during each diet period . On average , the almond supplement was 52 g/d ( about forty-two nuts ) containing 1286 kJ. When subjects changed from their habitual diet to the almond-supplemented diet , the intakes of MUFA , PUFA , fibre , vegetable protein , alpha-tocopherol , Cu and Mg significantly ( P<0.05 ) increased by 42 , 24 , 12 , 19 , 66 , 15 and 23 % respectively ; the intakes of trans fatty acids , animal protein , Na , cholesterol and sugars significantly ( P<0.05 ) decreased by 14 , 9 , 21 , 17 and 13 % respectively . These spontaneous nutrient changes closely match the dietary recommendations to prevent cardiovascular and other chronic diseases . Displacement estimates for total energy , total protein , total fat , SFA , MUFA , PUFA , total fibre , Ca , Fe , Mg , P , K , Zn and alpha-tocopherol ranged from 16 to 98 % ; the estimates for total food weight , carbohydrate , sugars and Se were > 245 % . A daily supplement of almonds can induce favourable nutrient modifications for chronic disease prevention to an individual 's habitual diet BACKGROUND Dietary n-3 PUFAs are inversely associated with risk of sudden cardiac death ( SCD ) ; however , little is known about other fats and SCD . Furthermore , concerns have been raised that high n-6 PUFA intake may attenuate the benefits of n-3 PUFAs . OBJECTIVE We examined associations and selected interactions between dietary fatty acids , expressed as a proportion of total fat and SCD . DESIGN We conducted a prospect i ve cohort study among 91,981 women aged 34 - 59 y from the Nurses ' Health Study in 1980 . Over 30 y , we documented 385 SCDs . RESULTS In multivariable models , women in the highest compared with the lowest quintile of SFA intake had an RR of SCD of 1.44 ( 95 % CI : 1.04 , 1.98 ) . Conversely , women in the highest compared with the lowest quintile of PUFA intake had an RR of SCD of 0.57 ( 95 % CI : 0.41 , 0.78 ) . Intakes of n-6 and n-3 PUFAs were both significantly associated with a lower risk of SCD , and n-6 PUFAs did not modify the association between n-3 PUFAs and SCD . MUFAs and trans fats were not associated with SCD risk . After further adjustment for coronary heart disease ( CHD ) and CHD risk factors potentially in the causal pathway , the association between PUFAs and SCD remained significant , whereas the association for SFAs was no longer significant . CONCLUSIONS Intake of PUFAs as a proportion of fat was inversely associated with SCD risk , independent of traditional CHD risk factors . These results support dietary guidelines to improve dietary fat quality by replacing intake of SFAs with n-6 and n-3 PUFAs BACKGROUND Mechanisms involved in coronary stenosis evolution are different than those involved in clinical events . Because of differential vascular effects , N-3 polyunsatured fatty acids ( PUFA ) and B vitamins could have differential effects on different types of cardiovascular clinical events in high-risk patients . METHODS We analyzed the effects of n-3 PUFA and of B vitamins on both coronary revascularization and on hard coronary events risks in a subgroup of the SU.FOL.OM3 trial , a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled secondary prevention trial . Data were analyzed according to the intention-to-treat principle , with the use of Cox proportional-hazards models . RESULTS After a mean follow-up of 4.2 ± 1.0 years among the 1,863 participants with coronary heart disease , 163 coronary revascularizations were performed , and 95 patients experienced a hard coronary event . Neither treatment with n-3 PUFA , nor treatment with B vitamins was associated with any significant effect on the occurrence of hard coronary events . Allocation to n-3 PUFA was not associated with any significant effect on coronary revascularization . However , treatment with B vitamins was associated with a statistically significant 52 % increase in the risk of coronary revascularization ( multivariate HR : 1.52 ; 95 % CI : [ 1.11 - 2.10 ] ; p=0.01 ) . CONCLUSIONS Neither n-3 PUFA , nor B vitamins  reduced the rates of hard coronary events and of coronary revascularization .  Furthermore , B vitamins  significantly increased the rate of coronary revascularization . Consistent with the findings of previous trials , our results do not support the routine use of dietary supplements containing n-3 PUFA and argue against using dietary supplements containing B-vitamins in coronary patients in secondary cardiovascular prevention Consumption of fish or fish oils rich in the n-3 long chain PUFA EPA and DHA may improve multiple risk factors for CVD . The objective of this study was to determine whether regular consumption of foods enriched with n-3 long-chain PUFA can improve n-3 long-chain PUFA status ( erythrocytes ) and cardiovascular health .  Overweight volunteers with high levels of triacylglycerols ( TG ; > 1.6 mmol/l ) were enrolled in a 6-month dietary intervention trial conducted in Adelaide ( n 47 ) and Perth ( n 39 ) , and r and omised to consume control foods or n-3-enriched foods  to achieve an EPA + DHA intake of 1 g/d . Test foods were substituted for equivalent foods in their regular diet .  Erythrocyte fatty acids , plasma TG and other CVD risk factors were monitored at 0 , 3 and 6 months . There were no significant differences between groups for blood pressure , arterial compliance , glucose , insulin , lipids , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) or urinary 11-dehydro-thromboxane B2 ( TXB2 ) over 6 months , even though regular consumption of n-3-enriched foods increased  EPA + DHA intake from 0.2 to 1.0 g/d . However , the n-3 long-chain PUFA content of erythrocytes increased by 35 and 53 % at 3 and 6 months , respectively , in subjects consuming the n-3-enriched foods . These increases were positively associated with measures of arterial compliance and negatively associated with serum CRP and urinary 11-dehydro-TXB2 excretion . Sustainable increases in dietary intakes and erythrocyte levels of n-3 long-chain PUFA can be achieved through regular consumption of suitably enriched processed foods . Such increases may be associated with reduced CV risk Objective : Incorporation of fish oil into food products provides a means of increasing n–3 fatty acid intake , particularly in population s where fish consumption remains low . The aim of the present study was to evaluate the bioavailability of n–3 PUFA in microencapsulated fish-oil-enriched foods compared with an equal amount of n–3 PUFAs contained in fish oil capsules . Methods : Twenty-five healthy female volunteers were r and omly assigned to one of two groups for the 4-week intervention : one group received 0.9 g of n–3 PUFA/day as fish oil capsule ( capsule group ) , while the second group ( food group ) received an equal amount of n–3 PUFA/day from enriched foods . Baseline and post-intervention sample s were analysed for platelet fatty acid composition . Results : There was no significant difference in the change in platelet arachidonic acid ( AA ) , eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) , or docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) between the two groups following the intervention . Conclusions : The results indicate that n–3 PUFA from microencapsulated fish-oil-enriched foods are as bioavailable as n–3 PUFA in a capsule . Fortification of foods with microencapsulated fish oil , therefore , offers an effective way of increasing n–3 PUFA intakes and status in line with current dietary recommendations There is evidence from a population -based study of an inverse relationship between monounsaturated fatty acids ( MUFA ) energy intake and age-related cognitive decline ( ARCD ) , while high polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) intake was positively associated with cognitive impairment in elderly subjects . We investigated the possible role of MUFA and PUFA on age-related cognitive changes . A population -based , prospect i ve study was carried out on 278 , 186 , and 95 nondemented elderly subjects ( 65 - 84 years ) evaluated for global cognitive functions ( Mini-Mental State Examination , MMSE ) at the first ( 1992 - 1993 ) , second ( 1995 - 1996 ) , and third survey ( 2000 - 2001 ) , respectively , from the r and omized cohort of Casamassima , Bari , Italy ( n=704 ) , one of the eight centers of the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging ( ILSA ) .  MUFA and PUFA intakes were assessed at baseline with a semi-quantitative food frequency question naire . High MUFA and PUFA energy intakes and total energy intake were significantly associated with a better cognitive performance in a 8.5-year follow-up . In this prospect i ve population -based study on older nondemented subjects with a typical Mediterranean diet , high MUFA and PUFA intakes appeared to be protective against ARCD Background : Obesity , inflammation , insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) risk are inter-related . Both weight-loss and long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC n-3 PUFA ) are independently known to reduce metabolic risk , but the combined effects are unclear . Objective : This study examines whether addition of LC n-3 PUFA to a low fat/high carbohydrate weight-loss programme results in greater improvements in inflammation , insulin sensitivity and CVD risk , than weight-loss alone . Design : One hundred and sixteen overweight insulin-resistant women entered a 24-week r and omised intervention study . Thirty-nine women were r and omised to a weight-loss programme , with LC n-3 PUFA ( WLFO ) , 38 to a weight-loss programme with placebo oil ( WLPO ) , and 39 to receive placebo oil , with no weight-loss programme ( control ) . Results : Ninety-three women completed the study ( 35 WLFO , 32 WLPO and 26 control ) , with significant weight-loss in WLFO ( 10.8±1.0 % ) and WLPO ( 12.4±1.0 % ) compared to the control group ( P<0.0001 ) . The WLFO , but not WLPO or control group , showed significant increases in adipose tissue LC n-3 PUFA ( 0.34±0.20 vs 0.17±0.10 and 0.16±0.10 % DHA , P<0.0001 ) . Weight-loss showed significant improvements in insulin sensitivity ( P<0.001 ) , lipid profile ( triglycerides P<0.05 ) and inflammation ( sialic acid P<0.05 ) . Time*group effects showed significant decreases in triglycerides ( P<0.05 ) and increases in adiponectin ( P<0.01 ) with LC n-3 PUFA , in the WLFO vs WLPO groups . Conclusions : Weight-loss improved risk factors associated with CVD , with some additional benefits of LC n-3 PUFA on triglycerides and adiponectin . Given the current low dietary intake of LC n-3 PUFA , greater attention should be given to increase these fatty acids in the treatment of obesity Objective . To determine if dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPUFA ) affect the growth of formula-fed infants relative to breastfed infants . Methods . A r and omized , double-blind trial of three formula-fed groups and a parallel reference group of breastfed infants was conducted . The three treatments were a placebo ( no LCPUFA ) , docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) supplemented , and DHA plus arachidonic acid supplemented formulas fed for 12 months . Infant weight , length , head circumference , and fatty acid status were assessed at 6 , 16 , 34 weeks , and 1 year of age . Anthropometrics were repeated at 2 years of age . Results . There were no differences between the r and omized formula groups for weight , length , or head circumference even after adjustment for gender , gestational age , and the actual age at assessment . Post hoc regressions demonstrated a small negative association between DHA status at 16 weeks of age and weight at 1 and 2 years . Conclusions . Dietary LCPUFA do not influence growth of healthy term infants to a clinical ly significant degree The risk of developing multiple sclerosis ( MS ) is associated with increased dietary intake of saturated fatty acids . For many years it has been suspected that this disease might be associated with an imbalance between unsaturated and saturated fatty acids . We determined erythrocyte membrane fatty acids levels in Hot nature dietary intervention with co-supplemented hemp seed and evening primrose oils in multiple sclerosis patients . To determine the erythrocyte membrane fatty acids levels and correlate it with exp and ed disability status scale ( EDSS ) at baseline after 6 months intervention in MS patients by gas chromatography , in this double blind , r and omized trial , 100 RRMS patients with EDSS<6 were allocated into three groups : " Group A " that received co-supplemented hemp seed and evening primrose oils with advised Hot nature diet . " Group B " received olive oil and " Group C " received the co-supplemented oils . The results showed that the mean follow-up was 180 ± 2.9SD days ( N=65 , 23 M and 42 F aged 34.25 ± 8.07 years with disease duration of 6.80 ± 4.33 years ) . There was no significant difference in the study parameters at baseline . After 6 months , EDSS , Immunological parameters and the erythrocyte cell membrane with regard to specific fatty acids showed improvement in the group A and C , whereas there was worsening condition for the group B after the intervention . We concluded that Hot-nature dietary intervention with co-supplemented hemp seed and evening primrose oils caused an increase PUFAs in MS patients  and improvement in the erythrocyte membrane fatty acids composition . This could be an indication of restored plasma stores , and a reflection of disease severity reduction Objective : To examine the serum fatty acid and lipid profiles and dietary intake of  Hong Kong Chinese omnivores and vegetarians  with respect to cardiovascular health . Design : R and om population survey stratified by age and sex . Subjects : One-hundred and ninety-four omnivore subjects ( 81 men , 113 women ) age 25–70 y , and 60 ovo-lacto-vegetarian adults ( 15 men , 45 women ) age 30–55 y. Measurements : Nutrient quantitation was by a food frequency method . Serum fatty acids were analysed by  gas chromatography , and serum lipid  by st and ard laboratory methods . Results : Compared with omnivores , vegetarians had higher serum concentrations of polyunsaturated ( PUFA ) and monosaturated fatty acids ( MUFA ) , and lower saturated fatty acids ( SFA ) , long chain omega-3 and trans fatty acids ( TFA ) . They also had lower serum cholesterol and higher apoA-I concentrations , but the LDL/HDL ratio was not different . The ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids intake was higher in vegetarians . Compared with results from population s with higher incidences of coronary heart disease , while lower myristic and palmitic acid concentrations and higher eicosapentaneoic ( EPA ) and docosahexanoic acid ( DHA ) may partly account for the difference in incidence , linoleic acid concentration was higher . Although the Chinese vegetarian diet may be beneficial for heart health in that antioxidant and fibre intakes are higher and saturated fat lower , the low EPA and DHA due to omission from dietary source and suppressed formation by high linoleic acid level , and the presence of TFA in the diet , may exert an opposite effect . Conclusion : There are some favourable features in the serum fatty acid profile in the Hong Kong Chinese population with respect to cardiovascular health , but the consumption of TFA is of concern . The Chinese vegetarian diet also contains some adverse features . Sponsorship : This study is partly sponsored by the Hong Kong Health Services Research Grant . European Journal Of Clinical Nutrition ( 2000 ) 24 , Background : Studies of long-term intake of industrially produced trans fatty acids ( TFA ) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) suggest opposite effects on cardiovascular disease risk . Common mechanisms of action are probable . Objective : To examine the effects on cardiovascular risk markers of dietary enrichment with TFA or n-3 PUFA . Design : R and omized , double-blind , parallel intervention trial . Setting : Department of Human Nutrition , The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University . Subjects : In all , 87 healthy males included , 79 completed . Intervention : Subjects were r and omly assigned to 8 weeks of a daily intake of 33 g of experimental fats from either partially hydrogenated soy oil containing 20 g of TFA , 12 g of fish oil with approximately 4 g of n-3 PUFA and 21 g of control fat , or 33 g of control fat . The experimental fats were incorporated into bakery products .  Plasma lipids , blood pressure , heart rate variability ( HRV ) , arterial dilatory capacity , compliance , and distensibility were recorded before and after intervention and at follow-up 12 weeks after the intervention . Results : High-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( HDL-C ) decreased in the TFA group and triglycerides and mean arterial blood pressure decreased in the n-3 PUFA group compared to the control group . HRV , arterial dilatory capacity , compliance , and distensibility were unchanged . Conclusion : The results indicate that the association between coronary heart disease risk and intake of TFA and n-3 PUFA relates only modestly to changes in traditional risk markers . Sponsorship : Danish Medical Research Council ( Grant no. 22 - 01 - 0390 ) , Center of Advanced Food Research ( Copenhagen , Denmark ) ( Grant no. KVL-R-2001 - 107 ) , the Danish Heart Association ( Grant no. 99 - 2 - 3 - 45 - 22748 ) , Novozymes ( Bagsvaerd , Denmark ) , Aarhus Olie ( Aarhus , Denmark ) , and from private sources . The experimental fats were provided by Pronova Biocare ( Aalesund , Norway ) and Aarhus Olie ( Aarhus , Denmark ) BACKGROUND In acute pancreatitis ( AP ) administration of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) might change the course of the disease through modulation of eicosanoid synthesis . PATIENTS AND METHODS In a prospect i ve , r and omized clinical trial from 28 patients with moderate-severe AP , 14 received n-3 PUFAs ( fish oil ) enterally ( 3.3g/day for 5 - 7 days ) . Measurement of erythrocyte superoxide-dysmutase ( SOD ) activity , serum total antioxidant status ( TAS ) , vitamin A and E , fatty acids , C-reactive protein , transthyretin concentrations were performed at admission , day 3 , 7 and 14 . RESULTS The n-3 to n-6 LCPUFA ratios increased significantly in serum lipids of the patients receiving n-3 PUFA supplementation , whereas remained unchanged in the controls . Supplementation result ed in significant decrease in length of hospitalization ( 13.07+/-6.70 vs. 19.28+/-7.18 days , P<0.05 ) and jejunal feeding ( 10.57+/-6.70 vs. 17.57+/-10.52 , P<0.05 ) . Complications developed in 6/14 ( 42 % ) of treated and 9/14 ( 64 % ) of control patients . The SOD activity was significantly higher at day 3 in the supplemented group ( P<0.05 ) , but there were no significant differences between the two groups in other antioxidants and acute phase reactants . CONCLUSION The use of enteral formula enriched with n-3 PUFAs in the treatment of AP seems to have clinical benefits based upon the shortened time of jejunal feeding and hospital stay BACKGROUND Insulin resistance is associated with elevated plasma triacylglycerol , low HDL concentrations , elevated postpr and ial lipemia , and a predominance of small , dense LDLs ( sdLDLs ) . It has been hypothesized that the dietary ratio of n-6 to n-3 ( n-6:n-3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) may have favorable effects on these risk factors by increasing insulin sensitivity . OBJECTIVE The objective was to measure changes in insulin sensitivity , lipoprotein size , and postpr and ial lipemia after a 6-mo alteration in n-6:n-3 . DESIGN In a r and omized , parallel design in 258 subjects aged 45 - 70 y , we compared 4 diets providing 6 % of energy as PUFAs with an n-6:n-3 between 5:1 and 3:1 with a control diet that had an n-6:n-3 of 10:1 . The diets were enriched in alpha-linolenic acid , eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , or both . Insulin sensitivity was assessed with the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance and the revised quantitative insulin sensitivity test . RESULTS Dietary intervention did not influence insulin sensitivity or postpr and ial lipase activities . Fasting and postpr and ial triacylglycerol concentrations were lower , and the proportion of sdLDLs decreased ( by 12.7 % ; 95 % CI : -22.9 % , 2.4 % ) , with an n-6:n-3 of approximately 3:1 , which was achieved by the addition of long-chain n-3 PUFAs ( EPA and DHA ) . CONCLUSIONS Decreasing the n-6:n-3 does not influence insulin sensitivity or lipase activities in older subjects . The reduction in plasma triacylglycerol after an increased intake of n-3 long-chain PUFAs results in favorable changes in LDL size Psychiatric disorders in general , and major depression and anxiety disorders in particular , account for a large burden of disability , morbidity and premature mortality worldwide . Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) have a range of neurobiological activities in modulation of neurotransmitters , anti-inflammation , anti-oxidation and neuroplasticity , which could contribute to psychotropic effects . Here we review ed recent research on the benefits of omega-3 PUFA supplements in prevention against  major depression , bipolar disorders , interferon-α-induced depression patients with chronic hepatitis C viral infection , and posttraumatic stress disorder . The biological mechanisms underlying omega-3 PUFAs ’ psychotropic effects are proposed and review ed . Nutrition is a modifiable environmental factor that might be important in prevention medicine , which have been applied for many years in the secondary prevention of heart disease with omega-3 PUFAs . This review extends the notion that nutrition in psychiatry is a modifiable environmental factor and calls for more research es on prospect i ve clinical studies to justify the preventive application of omega-3 PUFAs in daily practice Background The prevalence of allergic diseases in infants , whose parents and siblings do not have allergy , is approximately 10 % and reaches 20–30 % in those with an allergic first-degree relative . Intestinal microbiota may modulate immunologic and inflammatory systemic responses and , thus , influence development of sensitization and allergy . Prebiotics – non-digestible oligosaccharides that stimulate growth of probiotic bacteria – have been reported to modulate immune responses and their supplementation has been proposed as a preventive intervention . Objective The World Allergy Organization ( WAO ) convened a guideline panel to develop evidence -based recommendations about the use of prebiotics in the prevention of allergy . Methods The WAO guideline panel identified the most relevant clinical questions about the use of prebiotics for the prevention of allergy . We performed a systematic review of r and omized controlled trials of prebiotics , and review ed the evidence about patient values and preferences , and re source requirements ( up to January 2015 , with an up date on July 29 , 2015 ) . We followed the Grading of Recommendations Assessment , Development and Evaluation ( GRADE ) approach to develop recommendations . Results Based on GRADE evidence to decision frameworks , the WAO guideline panel suggests using prebiotic supplementation in not-exclusively breastfed infants and not using prebiotic supplementation in exclusively breastfed infants . Both recommendations are conditional and based on very low certainty of the evidence . We found no experimental or observational study of prebiotic supplementation  in pregnant women or in breastfeeding mothers . Thus , the WAO guideline panel chose not to provide a recommendation about prebiotic supplementation in pregnancy or during breastfeeding , at this time . Conclusions WAO recommendations about prebiotic supplementation for the prevention of allergy are intended to support parents , clinicians and other health care professionals in their decisions whether or not to use prebiotics for the purpose of preventing allergies in healthy , term infants Background There is a metabolic pathway by which mammals can convert the omega-3 ( n-3 ) essential fatty acid α-linolenic acid ( ALA ) into longer-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC n-3 PUFA ) including eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) . As far as we know there are currently no studies that have specifically examined sex differences in the LC n-3 PUFA response to increased dietary ALA intake in humans , although acute studies with isotope-labelled ALA identified that women have a significantly greater capacity to synthesis e EPA and DHA from ALA compared to men . Findings Available data from a placebo-controlled , r and omised study were re-examined to identify whether there are sex differences in the LC n-3 PUFA response to increased dietary ALA intake in humans . There was a significant difference between sexes in the response to increased  dietary ALA  , with women having a significantly greater increase in the EPA content of plasma phospholipids ( mean + 2.0 % of total fatty acids ) after six months of an ALA-rich diet compared to men ( mean + 0.7 % , P = 0.039 ) . Age and BMI were identified as predictors of response to dietary ALA among women . Conclusions Women show a greater increase in circulating EPA than men during increased dietary ALA consumption . Further underst and ing of individual variation in the response to dietary ALA could inform nutrition advice , with recommendations being specifically tailored according to habitual diet , sex , age and BMI BACKGROUND The range of human milk docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) concentrations worldwide is much broader than the range explored in r and omized clinical trials to date . OBJECTIVE The primary objective was to determine the effect of 4 amounts of DHA supplementation on the visual acuity of formula-fed infants at 12 mo of age . Secondary objectives were to evaluate visual acuity maturation , red blood cell fatty acids , tolerance , anthropometric measures , and adverse events . DESIGN This double-masked , r and omized trial was conducted at 2 sites ( Dallas and Kansas City ) . Three hundred forty-three healthy , term , formula-fed infants were enrolled at 1 - 9 d of age and were r and omly assigned to be fed 1 of the following 4 infant formulas containing equivalent nutrient amounts , except for long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids : control ( 0 % DHA ) , 0.32 % DHA , 0.64 % DHA , or 0.96 % DHA ; DHA-supplemented formulas also provided 0.64 % arachidonic acid .  Visual acuity was measured by visual evoked potentials in 244 infants who completed the 12-mo primary outcome examination . RESULTS Infants fed control formula had significantly poorer visual evoked potential visual acuity at 12 mo of age than did infants who received any of the DHA-supplemented formulas ( P < 0.001 ) . There were no significant differences in visual evoked potential visual acuity between the 3 amounts of DHA supplementation for either site at any age tested . CONCLUSIONS DHA supplementation of infant formula at 0.32 % of total fatty acids improves visual acuity . Higher amounts of DHA supplementation were not associated with additional improvement of visual acuity . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT00753818 Polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) use in pregnancy has been promoted as beneficial for visual and neurobehavioural development in the fetus . However , no systematic review of the r and omized trials has been conducted . The objective of this review was to evaluate potential advantages of this regiment by review ing all r and omized trials in pregnancy . Methods . Systematic review of r and omized controlled studies comparing cognitive and visual achievements among infants whose mothers were treated and untreated with PUFA during gestation . Results . Nine studies met the inclusion criteria , three focusing on  visual and six on neurobehavioural development . Due to differing outcome measurements in the infants , the studies could not be combined into a formal meta- analysis . Synthesizing the existing data , for both visual and neurobehavioural development , most studies could not show sustained benefits to infant cognition or visual development . Conclusion . At the present time a recommendation to change practice and supplement all expecting mothers with PUFA  to improve offspring vision or neurobehavioural function is not supported by existing evidence Background The fatty acid ( FA ) composition of serum lipids is related to the quality of dietary fat intake . Objective To investigate the effects of a  healthy Nordic diet ( ND ) on the FA composition of serum cholesterol esters ( CE-FA ) and assess the associations between changes in the serum CE-FA composition and blood lipoproteins during a controlled dietary intervention . Design The NORDIET trial was a 6-week r and omised , controlled , parallel-group dietary intervention study that included 86 adults ( 53±8 years ) with elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( LDL-C ) . Serum CE-FA composition was measured using gas chromatography . Diet history interviews were conducted , and daily intake was assessed using checklists . Results Food and nutrient intake data indicated that there was a reduction in the intake of fat from dairy and meat products and an increase in the consumption of fatty fish with the ND . The levels of saturated fatty acids in cholesterol esters ( CE-SFA ) 14:0 , 15:0 , and 18:0 , but not 16:0 , showed a significant decrease after intake of ND compared to the control diet ( p<0.01 ) . Also , a significant increase in serum 22:6n – 3 was observed compared with the control diet ( p<0.01 ) . The changes in CE-SFA 14:0 , 15:0 , and 18:0 correlated positively with changes in LDL-C , HDL-C , LDL-C/HDL-C , ApoA1 , and ApoB ( p<0.01 ) , respectively , whereas the changes in polyunsaturated fatty acids in cholesterol esters ( CE-PUFA ) 22:6n – 3 were negatively correlated with changes in the corresponding serum lipids . Conclusions The decreased intake of saturated fat and increased intake of n-3 PUFA in a  healthy ND is partly reflected by changes in the serum CE-FA composition , which are associated with an improved serum lipoprotein pattern Background The prevalence of allergic diseases is approximately 10 % in infants whose parents and siblings do not have allergic diseases and 20–30 % in those with an allergic first-degree relative .  Vitamin D is involved in the regulation of the immune system and it may play a role in the development , severity and course of asthma and other allergic diseases . Objective The World Allergy Organization ( WAO ) convened a guideline panel to develop evidence -based recommendations addressing the use of vitamin D in primary prevention of allergic diseases . Methods Our WAO guideline panel identified the most relevant clinical questions and performed a systematic review of r and omized controlled trials and non-r and omized studies ( NRS ) , specifically cohort and case-control studies , of vitamin D supplementation for the prevention of allergic diseases . We also review ed the evidence about values and preferences , and re source requirements ( up to January 2015 , with an up date on January 30 , 2016 ) . We followed the Grading of Recommendations Assessment , Development and Evaluation ( GRADE ) approach to develop recommendations . Results Having review ed the currently available evidence , the WAO guideline panel found no support for the hypothesis that vitamin D supplementation reduces the risk of developing allergic diseases in children . The WAO guideline panel suggest not using vitamin D in pregnant women , breastfeeding mothers , or healthy term infants as a means of preventing the development of allergic diseases . This recommendation does not apply to those mothers and infants who have other indications for prophylactic or therapeutic use of vitamin D. The panel ’s recommendations are conditional and supported by very low certainty evidence . Conclusions WAO recommendations about vitamin D supplementation for the prevention of allergic diseases support parents , clinicians and other health care professionals in their decisions whether or not to use vitamin D in preventing allergic diseases in healthy , term infants It has been reported that the feeding of cow 's milk may enhance the development of atopy in predisposed infants . A prospect i ve study following children from birth through 15 years of age in a private pediatric practice was design ed to determine if the food ingested during the first months of life is related to the development of atopy in the offspring of allergic families . Each of 328 children with a positive family history of allergy was assigned to one of three groups . according to the feeding preference of the parents : 48 were fed breast milk ; 79 , soy-based formula ; and 201 , cow 's milk formula . All groups had egg , citrus , tomato , and wheat restrictions as well as inhalant allergen avoidance . These were compared to a control group of 580 children with no family history of allergy . Breast fed infants were found to have approximately one-half the incidence of atopy of cow 's milk or soy formula fed infants from atopic families when followed for up to 15 years . Soy feeding produced no advantage over cow 's milk in the prophylaxis of allergic disease . There was a threefold increase in clinical ly apparent atopic disease in offspring of allergic families when compared to controls but only a two-fold increase if the infant was breast fed . These results support the hypothesis that breast feeding and delay of exposure to known allergens may reduce the frequency of clinical allergic disease in the offspring of allergic families BACKGROUND AND AIM Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) may protect against atherosclerotic disease , and serum levels of soluble cellular adhesion molecules ( sCAMs ) possibly reflect the inflammatory process underlying atherosclerosis . We studied the effect of n-3 PUFA dietary supplementation on the serum levels of sP-selectin , soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( sICAM-1 ) and soluble vascular adhesion molecule-1 ( sVCAM-1 ) , and the correlation between sCAMs and the fatty acid composition of granulocyte membranes . METHODS AND RESULTS Sixty healthy volunteers were r and omly assigned to receive a daily supplement of n-3 PUFA 6.6 g , n-3 PUFA 2.0 g , or olive oil for 12 weeks in a double blind design . A significant negative correlation was found between serum sICAM-1 levels and the DHA content of granulocyte membranes at entry . After supplementation with 6.6 g of n-3 PUFA , there was a significant decrease only in sP-selectin , which a gender sub analysis showed to be more marked in men . Among the women , there was a significant decrease in sICAM-1 in the PUFA 2.0 g group and a significant increase in sVCAM-1 in the PUFA 6.6 g group . CONCLUSIONS The results indicate that high-dose supplementation with n-3 PUFA decreases sP-selectin levels in healthy subjects , thus suggesting a decrease in platelet reactivity or endothelial activation . However , the effect of n-3 PUFA on sCAMs is complex and may depend on gender and n-3 PUFA dose The study was design ed to evaluate the chronic regulation of plasma leptin by dietary ( n-3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) in insulin-resistant , sucrose-fed rats . Male Sprague-Dawley rats were r and omly assigned to consume for 3 or 6 wk a diet containing 57.5 % ( g/100 g ) sucrose and 14 % lipids as either fish oil ( SF ) or control oils ( SC ) . After 3 and 6 wk of consuming the SF diet , plasma leptin was 70 % ( P < 0.001 ) and 75 % ( P < 0.05 ) greater , respectively , than in rats fed the SC diet . The same result was found when plasma leptin was adjusted by total fat mass , as measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry . Despite high leptin levels , food intake of rats fed the SF diet was greater than in SC-fed rats without any difference in body weight or total fat mass . After 3 wk , accumulated leptin in epididymal and retroperitoneal adipose tissue was higher in the SF-fed rats than in the SC-fed rats . However , after 6 wk , tissue leptin in the SF-fed rats did not differ from that of the SC-fed rats . The SF diet increased adipose tissue glucose transporter-4 protein quantity and prevented the sucrose-induced elevations in plasma triglycerides and free fatty acids . When all SC- and SF-fed rats ( both diets and feeding duration s ) were considered , plasma leptin levels were positively correlated with body weight ( r = 0.5 , P < 0.0001 ) and with total fat mass ( r = 0.5 , P < 0.0005 ) . These results suggest that plasma leptin at a given time could be inappropriately high for a given fat mass in insulin-sensitive rats fed ( n-3 ) PUFA It has been reported that intake of ( n-3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) reduces the risk of coronary heart disease and decreases biliary cholesterol saturation in the bile of gallstone patients . We investigated the effect of n-3 PUFA on cholesterol saturation index ( CSI ) and nucleation time ( NT ) in obese subjects who were losing weight . This was a double-blind , placebo-controlled clinical trial . Obese women ( n = 35 ) with a body mass index ( BMI ) > or = 30 kg/m(2 ) , with no prior history of gallstones or cholecystectomy by ultrasound were first studied to ensure absence of stones or biliary sludge . The women were then assigned to a hypocaloric regimen [ 5.02 MJ ( 1200 kcal)/d ] and to receive 1200 mg/d of ursodeoxycholic acid ( UDCA ) , 11.3 g/d of ( n-3 ) PUFA or a placebo for 6 wk . BMI , CSI and NT were recorded at baseline and at the end of the experimental period . BMI decreased 5.75 + /- 2.7%/mo ( range , 1.5 - 12.42%/mo ) during the experiment . The CSI did not change in any of the groups . Cholesterol NT decreased significantly in the UDCA and placebo groups , but not in the ( n-3 ) PUFA group . None of the women had developed gallstones at 6 wk . These results suggest that ( n-3 ) PUFA maintain the CSI and NT in obese women during rapid weight loss , which probably results in the prevention of cholesterol gallstone formation Polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids ( n-3PUFA ) may improve brain development and prevent cardiovascular disease . Heart rhythm is autonomically controlled and among the affected cardiovascular risk markers in adults . The aim of the study was to examine whether fish oil supplementation in late infancy could modify heart rate ( HR ) and heart rate variability ( HRV ) . In a 2 × 2-intervention , 83 healthy Danish infants were r and omized to ± fish oil ( 3.4 ± 1.1 mL/d ) and cow 's milk or infant formula from 9 to 12 mo of age . In 57 infants , 0.5-h ECG recordings were successfully obtained before and after the intervention and erythrocyte fatty acid composition was determined in 30 of these . Fish oil supplementation raised erythrocyte n-3PUFA content ( p < 0.001 ) . No significant group differences were seen in HR or HRV . However , a fish-oil × gender interaction was observed on mean RR interval ( p = 0.001 ) with a 6 % longer mean RR interval in fish-oil-supplemented boys ( p = 0.007 ) . Irrespective of gender , there was a positive association between the 9- and 12-mo changes in RR interval and erythrocyte n-3PUFA ( p < 0.001 ) . In infants with confirmed changes in erythrocyte n-3PUFA , mean RR interval was found to be longer ( p = 0.011 ) in the fish-oil-supplemented groups . The study suggests that fish oil may affect heart rhythm in infants similar to that observed in adults . This may imply low n-3PUFA-status in late infancy and n-3PUFA influence on CNS function BACKGROUND Dietary linoleic acid ( LA , 18:2n-6 ) lowering  in rats reduces n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) plasma concentrations and increases n-3 PUFA ( eicosapentaenoic ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ) concentrations . OBJECTIVE To evaluate the extent to which 12 weeks of dietary n-6 PUFA lowering , with or without increased dietary n-3 PUFAs , alters unesterified and esterified plasma n-6 and n-3 PUFA concentrations in subjects with chronic headache . DESIGN Secondary analysis of a r and omized trial . Subjects with chronic headache were r and omized for 12 weeks to ( 1 ) average n-3 , low n-6 ( L6 ) diet ; or ( 2 ) high n-3 , low n-6 LA ( H3-L6 ) diet .  Esterified and unesterified plasma fatty acids were quantified at baseline ( 0 weeks ) and after 12 weeks on a diet . RESULTS Compared to baseline , the L6 diet reduced esterified plasma LA and increased esterified n-3 PUFA concentrations ( nmol/ml ) , but did not significantly change plasma arachidonic acid ( AA , 20:4n-6 ) concentration . In addition , unesterified EPA concentration was increased significantly among unesterified fatty acids . The H3-L6 diet decreased esterified LA and AA concentrations , and produced more marked increases in esterified and unesterified n-3 PUFA concentrations . CONCLUSION Dietary n-6 PUFA lowering for 12 weeks significantly reduces LA and increases n-3 PUFA concentrations in plasma , without altering plasma AA concentration . A concurrent increase in dietary n-3 PUFAs for 12 weeks further increases n-3 PUFA plasma concentrations and reduces AA The objective of this study was to examine the effect of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) supplementation of rams on semen quality and subsequent sperm function of liquid stored semen .  Mature rams of proven fertility were individually housed and were blocked according to breed , body weight , and body condition score and r and omly allocated within block to one of two dietary treatments ( N = 7 per treatment ) . Rams were offered a base diet of hay and concentrate , with the concentrate enriched with either : ( 1 ) saturated palmitic acid ( CON ) or ( 2 ) high n-3 PUFA fish oil ( FO ) supplements . Both lipid supplements were added at 2 % ( wt/wt ) of the total diet as fed and both were partially rumen-protected . The animals were fed their respective diets for a total of 9 weeks and blood sample s were collected on weeks 0 ( pre-experimental ) , 4 , and 9 , relative to initial allocation of diet ( week 0 ) , for measurement of plasma concentration of fatty acids , metabolites , insulin like growth factor 1 ( IGF-1 ) and insulin . Semen was collected from each ram ( on 1 day in each week ) in weeks 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 , and 9 , and each ejaculate was assessed for volume , wave motion , and concentration of sperm , after which it was diluted in a skim milk-based extender and stored at 4 ° C . A second ejaculate was collected on weeks 4 , 7 , and 9 , centrifuged , and the sperm frozen for subsequent lipid analysis . A sample of semen from each ram was assessed at 24 , 48 , and 72 hours after collection for sperm progressive linear motion , ability to penetrate artificial mucus , and the ability to resist lipid peroxidation ( at 24 and 48 hours only ) using the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances assay . There was no effect of diet on plasma insulin concentrations or on any of the metabolites measured , however , there was a diet by week interaction for plasma IGF-1 concentration ( P < 0.05 ) . This was manifested as the FO supplemented rams having higher IGF-1 concentrations on week 9 compared with the control treatment ( P < 0.05 ) , but not at the earlier sampling date s. Compared with the pre-experimental values , supplementation with FO increased plasma concentrations of total n-3 PUFAs by 3.1-fold and decreased n-6 PUFA concentrations by 1.84-fold . Consequently , the ratio of n-6 to n-3 PUFA was decreased in the FO-supplemented rams ( P < 0.001 ) . Dietary supplementation with FO increased the concentration of eicosapentaenoic acid in sperm from week 4 to 9 by 2.7-fold ( P < 0.05 ) leading to a 1.5-fold increase in total n-3 PUFA in the same period . Ejaculates collected from rams supplemented with FO yielded a higher semen concentration ( P < 0.05 ) , however , there was no difference between diets on any of the other semen quality parameters including semen volume , wave motion , progressive linear motion , ability to penetrate artificial mucus , or ability to resist lipid peroxidation . In conclusion , dietary supplementation of rams with n-3 PUFA successfully increased the n-3 PUFA content of plasma and sperm but has limited effects on the quality of liquid stored semen The serum levels of  Lp(a ) lipoprotein ( Lp(a ) ) were determined preoperatively in 601 patients with coronary artery disease , undergoing bypass operations .  Compared with a reference group of 99 apparently healthy individuals , the Lp(a ) levels were higher in the patient group ( 7.7 mg dl-1 vs. 5.1 mg dl-1 , p = 0.012 ) . In the patient group , there was a weak , but significant negative correlation between the Lp(a ) levels and age ( r = -0.10 , p = 0.017 ) , and in both groups the women had higher Lp(a ) levels than the men . In the patients we found no significant correlations between Lp(a ) and other serum lipids or lipoproteins , nor between Lp(a ) and variables in the fibrinolytic system . We investigated the long-term effects of supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFAs ) on the Lp(a ) concentrations . Postoperatively , in a r and omized fashion , 280 of the patients received 4 g of an n-3 PUFA concentrate ( containing > 85 % of long-chain n-3 PUFAs ) per day , whereas 269 patients comprised the control group . The fatty acids in serum phospholipids were monitored , and a significant increase in the phospholipid n-3 fatty acids was noted in the n-3 PUFA group , as opposed to the virtually unchanged amounts in the control group . The Lp(a ) levels were determined again after 6 months , and , compared with the control group , n-3 PUFA supplementation had no overall effect on the serum Lp(a ) levels In an attempt to prevent or reduce the manifestations of atopic disease , a group of infants considered to be genetically at high risk of atopy was entered in a prenatally r and omized , controlled study . A prophylactic group ( n= 58 ) was either breast‐fed with their mothers excluding foods regarded as highly antigenic from their diets , or given an extensively hydrolysed formula . In addition , strenuous efforts were made to reduce exposure to the house‐dust mite by application of acaricide to the bedroom and living room carpets and upholstered furniture . A control group ( n= 62 )  was fed conventionally by breast or on formula , and no specific environmental measures were taken . The results ( previously reported ) after 1 year showed significantly less total allergy , asthma , and eczema in the prophylactic group . Similar results were obtained at 2 years although the reduction in asthma no longer achieved statistical significance . However , there was significantly less sensitization , as shown by a battery of skin prick tests ( SPTs ) , to both dietary allergens and aeroallergens in the prophylactic group . A11 the children have now been review ed at the age of 4 years , and SPTs to a wide range of dietary allergens and aeroallergens have been performed . The control group continues to show more total allergy ( odds ratio [ OR ] 2.73 , 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] 1.21–6.13 , P<0.02 ) , definite allergy ( allergic symptoms plus positive SPT ) ( OR 5.6 , CI 1.8–17.9 , P<0.005 ) , and eczema ( OR 3.4 , CI 1.2–10.1 , P<0.05 ) . More control children have positive SPTs ( OR 3.7 , CI 1.3–10.0 , P<0.02 ) . A dual approach to the prevention of allergic disease , avoiding as far as possible sensitization to food and aeroallergens , significantly reduces the risk of atopic disease . This should be reserved for infants considered at very high risk of atopy , and close medical and dietetic supervision must be available OBJECTIVE Determine subjective and physiological appetite responses and ad libitum intake to high-fat ( HF ) meals rich in either monounsaturated ( MUFAs ) , polyunsaturated ( PUFAs ) , or saturated fatty acids ( SFAs ) in women with obesity . METHODS In this single-blind crossover study , three HF meals ( 70 % of energy ) rich in MUFAs , PUFAs , or SFAs in 16 women with obesity were tested . At each visit , anthropometrics and a fasting blood sample were collected . Participants then consumed one of the HF meals , and postpr and ial blood draws and visual analog scale ( VAS ) measures were collected over 5 h. An ad libitum buffet lunch was provided 5 h after the HF meal . RESULTS Decrease in ghrelin was significantly greater for PUFA ( P < 0.05 ) and MUFA ( P < 0.01 ) vs. SFA while the increase in peptide YY was significantly greater for PUFA vs. both SFA and MUFA ( P < 0.05 ) . Change in glucagon-like peptide-1 , VAS measurements , or total energy consumed at the buffet showed no differences between HF meals ( ns ) . CONCLUSIONS Fatty acid composition differentially affected physiological markers of hunger and satiety . However , it was unable to show changes in subjective appetite ratings or changes in energy intake when alterations were made to fatty acid composition from an acute HF meal BACKGROUND Greatly increasing dietary flaxseed oil [ rich in the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) ] or fish oil [ rich in the long-chain n-3 PUFAs eicosapentaenoic ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic ( DHA ) acids ] can reduce markers of immune cell function . The effects of more modest doses are unclear , and it is not known whether ALA has the same effects as its long-chain derivatives . OBJECTIVE The objective was to determine the effects of enriching the diet with ALA or EPA+DHA on immune outcomes representing key functions of human neutrophils , monocytes , and lymphocytes . DESIGN In a placebo-controlled , double-blind , parallel study , 150 healthy men and women aged 25 - 72 y were r and omly assigned to 1 of 5 interventions : placebo ( no additional n-3 PUFAs ) , 4.5 or 9.5 g ALA/d , and 0.77 or 1.7 g EPA+DHA/d for 6 mo . The n-3 PUFAs were provided in 25 g fat spread plus 3 oil capsules . Blood sample s were taken at 0 , 3 , and 6 mo . RESULTS The fatty acid composition of peripheral blood mononuclear cell phospholipids was significantly different in the groups with higher intakes of ALA or EPA+DHA . The interventions did not alter the percentages of neutrophils or monocytes engaged in phagocytosis of Escherichia coli or in phagocytic activity , the percentages of neutrophils or monocytes undergoing oxidative burst in response to E. coli or phorbol ester , the proliferation of lymphocytes in response to a T cell mitogen , the production of numerous cytokines by monocytes and lymphocytes , or the in vivo delayed-type hypersensitivity response . CONCLUSION An intake of < or= 9.5 g ALA/d or < or= 1.7 g EPA+DHA/d does not alter the functional activity of neutrophils , monocytes , or lymphocytes , but it changes the fatty acid composition of mononuclear cells OBJECTIVE Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus ( T2DM ) are at increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease , largely as a result of defective production of cardioprotective nitric oxide and a concomitant rise in oxidative stress . Dietary interventions that could reverse this trend would be extremely beneficial . Here we investigated whether dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( n-3 PUFA ) supplementation positively affected platelet nitroso-redox imbalance . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS We r and omized hypertensive T2DM patients ( T2DM HT ; n = 22 ) and age- and -sex matched hypertensive study participants without diabetes ( HT alone ; n = 23 ) in a double-blind , crossover fashion to receive 8 weeks of n-3 PUFAs ( 1.8 g eicosapentaenoic acid and 1.5 g docosahexaenoic acid ) or identical olive oil capsules ( placebo ) , with an intervening 8-week washout period . Platelet nitrite and superoxide were measured and compared before and after treatment ; 8-isoprostane was determined by ELISA and subcellular compartmentalization of the NAD(P)H oxidase subunit p47-phox examined by Western blotting . RESULTS The n-3 PUFA supplementation reduced 8-isoprostane and superoxide levels in platelets from T2DM HT , but not HT alone , participants , without effect on nitrite production . This coincided with a significant decrease in p47-phox membrane localization and a similar reduction in superoxide to that achieved with apocynin . At baseline , a subcohort of T2DM HT and HT alone participants showed evidence of nitric oxide synthase (NOS)–derived superoxide production , indicating defective enzymatic activity . This was reversed significantly in T2DM HT participants after treatment , demonstrating improved NOS function . CONCLUSIONS Our finding that n-3 PUFAs diminish platelet superoxide production in T2DM HT patients in vivo suggests a therapeutic role for these agents in reducing the vascular-derived oxidative stress associated with diabetes BACKGROUND Increased consumption of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) has been recommended during pregnancy and lactation . The production of proinflammatory cytokines by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells ( P BMC s ) can be modified by dietary n-3 PUFAs . OBJECTIVE We sought to determine whether dietary supplementation of lactating women with docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) can modulate the concentration of cytokines in the aqueous phase of human milk and the production of cytokines by human milk cells ( HMCs ) and P BMC s. DESIGN In this double-blind , prospect i ve , r and omized trial , mothers of healthy full-term infants were asked to consume daily a nutritional supplement of 2000 mg oil containing either placebo ( n = 40 ) , 300 mg DHA + 70 mg eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ; n = 40 ) , or 600 mg DHA + 140 mg EPA ( n = 40 ) . The fatty acid composition of plasma , P BMC s , milk , and HMCs from lactating mothers at 4 wk postpartum was measured by gas chromatography . The concentration of interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha in milk and the production of interleukin 1beta , tumor necrosis factor alpha , and interleukin 6 by P BMC s and HMCs after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay . RESULTS At 4 wk postpartum , 82 mothers were still breast-feeding their infants .  DHA increases in maternal plasma , P BMC s , milk , and HMCs were proportional to dietary DHA . There was no relation between tissue DHA status and cytokine concentrations . CONCLUSIONS Consumption of < or = 600 mg DHA and 140 mg EPA/d for 4 wk increased n-3 PUFA concentrations in relevant tissues but did not cause perturbations in cytokine concentrations in human milk We compared the effects on blood pressure ( BP ) of three isocaloric diets with reduced total fat and saturated fatty acid ( SAFA ) contents but with different proportions of monounsaturated ( MUFA ) and polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) . Diet LF ( low fat ) provided 20 en% fat ( 7.9 % SAFA , 7.8 % MUFA , 3.0 % PUFA ) ; diet HP ( high PUFA ) 26 en% fat ( 7.5 % SAFA , 8.2 % MUFA , 8.1 % PUFA ) , and diet HM ( high MUFA ) 26 en% fat ( 7.3 % SAFA , 14.1 % MUFA , 3.2 % PUFA ) . The diets were consumed for 8 weeks ( intervention ) preceded by 2 weeks and followed by 8 weeks on a habitual diet ( baseline/ switchback ) with 33–34 en% fat ( 13–14 % SAFA , 12 % MUFA , 6 % PUFA ) . Forty-five free-living couples were r and omly allocated into the three diet groups , and 43 men and 44 women completed the study .  BP was measured weekly with an automatic device . Compliance to diet was monitored by repeated food records , serum fatty acid compositions , and weekly visits to a nutritionist . Both systolic BP ( SBP ) and diastolic BP ( DBP ) remained unchanged throughout the study in all three groups . The weight-adjusted mean ( s.e.m . ) BP values showed changes in SBP of + 1.7 ( 1.8 ) , −0.4 ( 1.7 ) , and + 1.9 ( 1.9 ) mm Hg on the LF , HP , and HM diets , respectively ( difference NS ) , and DBP of + 0.1 ( 1.0 ) , + 0.6 ( 1.0 ) , and −0.3 ( 1.0 ) mm Hg , respectively ( difference NS ) between the last 2 weeks of the baseline and intervention periods . The expected fatty acid intakes were achieved , and there were no between-group differences in change of body weight , intake of dietary fibre and potassium , and 24-h sodium excretion . A reduction in total fat and SAFA intake and changes in the proportions of dietary MUFA and PUFA did not affect the BP levels of this normotensive population with an adequate intake of PUFA at baseline Fatty acid compositions of plasma phospholipids ( PL ) , triglycerides ( TG ) and sterol esters ( STE ) were measured by high resolution capillary gas-liquid chromatography in formula fed healthy infants at the ages of 5 days and 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 months . The infants were r and omly assigned to receive either conventional infant formula ( F , n = 10 ) without long-chain polyunsaturates ( LCP ) or the same formula supplemented with LCP ( LCP-F , n = 12 ) in amounts and ratios similar to those characteristic to human milk . From the age of 1 month onwards , percentage contributions of the principal omega-6 LCP , arachidonic acid were significantly higher in plasma lipids of infants fed LCP-F than in those receiving conventional formula without dietary LCP . Values of the principal omega-3 LCP , docosahexaenoic acid were also significantly lower in the infants fed conventional formula than in those receiving LCP-F throughout the study . The data obtained indicate that from the formula supplemented with LCP both arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids were effectively absorbed and incorporated into infantile plasma lipids . Recent data of the literature suggest that supplementation of infant formula with LCP may beneficially influence visual and psychomotor development also in healthy , term infants Few trials have evaluated the metabolic effects and health outcomes of lowering dietary n-6 PUFA . The objectives of the present paper were ( 1 ) to report the methods employed to lower dietary n-6 PUFA , while either increasing or maintaining n-3 PUFA intake and ( 2 ) to vali date our methods with 24 h recalls and erythrocyte fatty acid analyses . A total of sixty-seven subjects were r and omised to either ( 1 ) an average-n-3 PUFA , low-n-6 PUFA ( L6 ) intervention design ed to lower linoleic acid ( LA ; # 2·5 % of energy ( en% ) ) and arachidonic acid ( # 60 mg/d ) , while maintaining an average US intake of n-3 PUFA or ( 2 ) a high-n-3 PUFA , low-n-6 PUFA ( H3-L6 ) intervention design ed to lower n-6 LA , while increasing the n-3 PUFA a-linolenic acid ( ALA ; $ 1·5 en% ) and EPA þ DHA ( $ 1000 mg/d ) . Pre- and intraintervention nutrient intakes were estimated with six 24 h dietary recalls per subject . Both groups achieved the targeted reductions in dietary LA to # 2·5 en% ( median LA 2·45 ( 2·1 , 3·1 ) ; P,0·001 ) . Intakes of n-3 PUFA did not change for the L6 group . Target increases in n-3 ALA ( median 1·6 en% , ( 1·3 , 2·0 ) , P,0·001 ) and EPA þ DHA ( 1482 mg , ( 374 , 2558 ) , P,0·001 ) were achieved in the H3-L6 group . Dietary changes were vali date d by corresponding changes in erythrocyte n-6 and n-3 fatty acid composition . Dietary LA can be lowered to # 2·5 en% , with or without concurrent increases in dietary n-3 PUFA , in an outpatient clinical trial setting using this integrated diet method Abstract When term infants are fed st and ard formula that does not contain long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LC-PUFA ) , they still show lower levels of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) in red blood cell ( RBC ) phospholipids by several weeks or months postnatally . This study was design ed in order to evaluate a potential alternative for supplementing term infant formulas with DHA by adding a high-DHA/low-eicosapentanoic acid fish oil to levels similar to that in human milk ( 0.3 % ) . A total of 37 term infants were included in the study at 3 days of life .  DHA concentrations remained stable between inclusion and 4 months of life at around 8 % of the RBC phospholipids in the LC-PUFA enriched formula-fed group whereas it decreased significantly in the st and ard formula-fed group . In the human milk-fed group , RBC DHA concentrations at 4 months of age were significantly lower than that at birth and were significantly correlated with the duration of breast feeding ( r = 0.85 ; P = 0.0002 ) . A significant decrease of arachidonic acid between inclusion and 4 months of age was observed in the enriched formula-fed group and reached a mean value at 4 months , which was significantly lower than that observed in the human milk or st and ard formula-fed groups ( P < 0.0001 ) . Conclusion Supplementing term formulas with a high-docosahexaenoic acid/low-eicosapentanoic acid fish oil up to 4 months of age is efficient in improving docosahexaenoic acid status , however it increases the risk of impaired n-6 fatty acid status ABSTRACT A prospect i ve case‐control study is presented to assess an allergy prevention programme in children up to 36 months of age . Infants born at three maternity hospitals were followed from birth : 279 infants with high atopic risk ( intervention group ) were compared with 80 infants with similar atopic risk but no intervention ( non‐intervention group ) . The intervention programme included dietary measures ( exclusive and prolonged milk feeding diet followed by a hypoantigenic weaning diet ) and environmental measures ( avoidance of parental smoking in the presence of the babies , day care > 2 years of life ) . Mothers in this group who had insufficient breast milk were r and omly assigned to one of two coded formulas : either a hydrolysed milk formula ( Nidina HA , Nestlé ) or a conventional adapted formula ( Nan , Nestlé ) . Other environmental measures remained the same as for the breastfeeding mothers . The non‐intervention group were either breastfed or received the usual Italian milk feeding and weaning diet , without environmental advice . The main outcome measures were anthropometric measurements and allergic disease manifestations . Normal anthropometric data were observed both in the intervention group and in the nonintervention group . The incidence of allergic manifestations was much lower in the intervention group than in the nonintervention group at 1 year ( 11.5 versus 54.4 % , respectively ) and at 2 years ( 14.9 versus 65.6 % ) and 3 years ( 20.6 versus 74.1 % ) . Atopic dermatitis and recurrent wheezing were found in both the intervention group and the non‐intervention group from birth up to the second year of life , while urticaria and gastrointestinal disorders were only present in the non‐intervention group in the first year of life . Conjunctivitis and rhinitis were present after the second year in both the intervention group and the non‐intervention group . Relapse of the same allergic symptom was less in the intervention group ( 13.0 % ) than in the non‐intervention group ( 36.9 % ) . In comparison to the non‐intervention group , there were fewer intervention group cases with two or more different allergic symptoms ( 8.7 versus 32.6 % ) , and they were more likely to avoid steroid treatment ( 0 versus 10.8 % ) and hospital admission ( 0 versus 6.5 % ) . Babies in the non‐intervention group fed with adapted formula were more likely to develop allergies than breastfed babies in the same group . In the intervention group the breastfed infants had the lowest incidence of allergic symptoms , followed by the infants fed the hydrolysed formula ( ns ) . Infants in the intervention group fed the adapted formula had significantly more allergies than the breastfed and hydrolysed milk fed infants , although less than their counterparts in the non‐intervention group . Of the affected subjects in the intervention group , 80.4 % were RAST and /or Prick positive to food or inhalant allergens . Total serum IgE values detected at birth in the intervention group were not predictive , but at 1 and 2 years of age , IgE values more than 2 SD above the mean in asymptomatic babies were found to predictive for later allergy . In breastfed babies the total IgE level at 1 and 2 years of age was lower than in the other two feeding groups . Of the various factors tested in the non‐intervention group , the following were the most important in the pathogenesis of allergic symptoms : ( i ) formula implementation begun in the first week of life ; ( ii ) early weaning ( < 4 months ) ; ( iii ) feeding beef ( < 6 months ) ; ( iv ) early introduction of cow 's milk ( < 6 months ) ; and ( v ) parental smoking in the presence of the babies and early day care admission ( < 2 years of life ) . All the preventive measures used in this study ( exclusive breastfeeding and /or hydrolysed milk feeding , delayed and selective introduction of solid foods , and environmental advice ) were effective at the third year of follow‐up , greatly reducing allergic manifestations in high atopic risk babies in comparison with those not receiving these interventions To determine whether a cow 's milk-based human milk fortifier ( HMF ) added to mother 's milk while breastfeeding or a cow 's milk-based preterm formula compared to exclusively mother 's milk after hospital discharge , increases the incidence of developing allergic diseases among very preterm infants ( VPI ) during the first year of life . Of a cohort of 324 VPI ( gestational age 24 - 32 wk ) , the exclusively breastfed VPI were shortly before discharge r and omized to breastfeeding without fortification or supplementing with a fortifier .  Those not breastfed were fed a preterm formula . The intervention period was from discharge until 4 months corrected age ( CA ) . Follow-up was performed at 4 and 12 months CA including specific IgE to a panel of allergens at 4 months CA . The incidence during and prevalence at 12 months CA of recurrent wheezing ( RW ) was 39.2 % and 32.7 % , while atopic dermatitis ( AD ) was 18.0 % and 12.1 % , respectively . Predisposition to allergic disease increased the risk of developing AD ( p=0.04 ) [ OR 2.6 ( 95 % CI 1.0 - 6.4 ) ] and the risk of developing RW ( p=0.02 ) [ OR 2.7 ( 95 % CI 1.2 - 6.3 ) ] . Boys had an increased risk of developing RW ( p=0.003 ) [ OR 3.1 ( 95 % CI 1.5 - 6.5 ) ] . No difference was found between nutrition groups . None developed food allergy . Compared to exclusively breastfed , VPI supplemented with HMF or fed exclusively a preterm formula for 4 months did not have an increased risk of developing allergic diseases during the first year of life BACKGROUND AND AIMS Previous evidence suggests that dietary fat could influence the composition and size of triacylglycerols-rich lipoproteins ( TRL ) . In a controlled intervention study on healthy subjects , we evaluated the influence of 3 dietary interventions , with different types of fat on postpr and ial TRL particle size and number . METHODS AND RESULTS Volunteers followed three different diets for four weeks each , according to a r and omized crossover design . Western diet : 15 % protein , 47 % carbohydrates ( CHO ) , 38 % fat ( 22 % saturated fatty acid ( SFA ) ) ; Mediterranean diet : 15 % protein , 47 % CHO , 38 % fat ( 24 % monounsaturated fatty acid ( MUFA ) ) ; high CHO enriched with ALNA diet : 15 % protein , 55 % CHO , < 30 % fat ( 8 % polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) ) . After a 12-h fast , volunteers consumed a breakfast with 1 g fat and 7 mg cholesterol per kg body weight and a fat composition similar to that consumed in each of the diets : Butter meal : 35 % SFA ; Olive oil meal : 36 % MUFA ; Walnut meal : 16 % PUFA , 4 % α-linolenic acid . Tryglicerides ( TG ) in TRL ( large and small TRL ) were determined by ultracentrifugation and size and number of lipoprotein particles were measured with Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy at different time points . The olive oil meal reduced the number of total TRL postpr and ial particles compared with the other meals ( P=0.002 ) . Moreover , the olive oil meal also increased the TRL particle size compared with the walnut meal ( P=0.001 ) . CONCLUSION Our data showed that short-term intake of the Mediterranean diet and the acute intake of an olive oil meal lead to the formation of a reduced number and higher-size TRL particle compared with other fat sources . These novel findings have implication s for underst and ing the postpr and ial lipoprotein mechanisms , and could favour the lower cardiovascular risk in Mediterranean countries Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto Miocardio (GISSI)-Prevenzione was conceived as a population , pragmatic trial on patients with recent myocardial infa rct ions conducted in the framework of the Italian public health system . In GISSI-Prevenzione , patients were invited to follow Mediterranean dietary habits , and were treated with up-to- date preventive pharmacological interventions . Long-term n-3 PUFA ( 1 g daily ) but not vitamin E ( 300 mg daily ) , was beneficial for death and for combined death , nonfatal myocardial infa rct ion , and stroke . All the benefit , however , was attributable to the decrease in risk for overall , cardiovascular , cardiac , coronary , and sudden death . At variance with the orientation of a scientific scenario largely dominated by the “ cholesterol-heart hypothesis ” , GISSI-Prevenzione results indicate n-3 PUFA ( virtually devoid of any cholesterol-lowering effect ) as a relevant pharmacological treatment for secondary prevention after myocardial infa rct ion . As to the relevance and comparability of GISSI-Prevenzione results , up to 5.7 lives could be saved every 1000 patients with previous myocardial infa rct ion treated with n-3 PUFA ( 1 g daily ) per year . Such a result is comparable to that observed in the Long-Term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease ( LIPID ) trial , where 5.2 lives could be saved per 1000 hypercholesterolemic , coronary heart disease patients treated with pravastatin for 1 yr . The choice of a relatively low-dose regimen ( 1-g capsule daily ) more acceptable for long-term treatment in a population of patients following Mediterranean dietary habits  , and the pattern of effects seen in GISSI-Prevenzione ( namely , reduction of overall mortality with no decrease in the rate of nonfatal myocardial infa rct ion ) all strongly suggest that n-3 PUFA treatment should be considered a recommended new component of secondary prevention . The importance of this combined/additive effect is further suggested by the analyses of the interplay between diet and n-3 PUFA : There is an interesting direct correlation between size of the effect and “ correctness ” of background diets . It can be anticipated that a conceptual barrier must be overcome : A “ dietary drug ” should be added to “ dietary advice ” , which remains fundamental to allow this statement to become true in clinical practice Forty healthy volunteers were allocated in a double blind , r and omized study to receive either 20 g of n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) or 20 g of n−6 PUFA at their evening meal . The effect on plasma lipids and lipoproteins of this single dose of fish oilvs . corn oil was studied the next morning , 14 h after ingestion . Plasma triglycerides and very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol significantly decreased ( 33 % ) after n−3 PUFA ( P<0.001 ) , and significantly ( P<0.01 ) more than after intake of n−6 PUFA . The decrease in plasma triglycerides after n−3 PUFA ingestion was more pronounced in subjects with higher baseline levels of triglycerides ( P<0.001 ) . Total cholesterol decreased after both supplements , but did not differ between the supplements . Low density lipoprotein-cholesterol did not change , and high density lipoprotein-cholesterol significantly decreased in subjects given n−3 PUFA compared to baseline , but not when compared to subjects receiving n−6 PUFA . In conclusion , we have shown that a single very high dose of n−3 PUFA has a pronounced hypotriglyceridemic effect , which is directly related to the initial plasma level OBJECTIVE Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( omega-3 PUFA ) from fish oil slow atherosclerosis progression in coronary arteries , as we showed in a r and omized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial . Embedded in this trial , the present study examined the influence of 2 years of dietary supplementation with 1.65 g omega-3 PUFA per day on progression of carotid atherosclerosis in 223 patients with coronary artery disease . METHODS Coronary angiography , a comprehensive clinical examination , and intima-media thickness measurement by B-mode ultrasound of the carotid arteries ( common , internal and bifurcation ) , were performed at the study start and study end . An expert panel visually evaluated the global change of carotid atherosclerosis on a semiquantitative scale . A second outcome measure was the change of overall mean maximum intima-media thickness . RESULTS One hundred and seventy-one patients completed the study . In the global change score , 38 % of the patients in the fish oil group and 35 % in the placebo group showed progression . Global change was not different between intervention groups . Mean maximum intima-media thickness increased by 0.07+/-0.13 mm and 0.05+/-0.11 mm in the fish oil and placebo group , respectively ( mean+/-S.D. , P=0.24 ) . No correlation was found between the change in carotid and coronary arteries . CONCLUSIONS In this group of selected patients with documented coronary artery disease  omega-3 PUFA given for 2 years did not demonstrate an effect on slowing progression of atherosclerosis in carotid arteries as measured by ultrasound Background : Controversy over the efficacy of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) in depression continues to this day . The present study investigated the hypothesis that n-3 PUFA supplementation reduces depressive symptoms in Korean patients with major depressive disorder . Methods : In a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , 12-week , parallel-group trial , 35 patients with Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale Korean version ( CES-D-K ) scores ≥25 and depression confirmed by a psychiatrist were assigned to take either 3 capsules of n-3 PUFAs ( 1,140 mg of EPA + 600 mg of DHA ; n = 18 ) or placebo ( olive oil + safflower oil ; n = 17 ) . Results : Supplementation with n-3 PUFAs significantly reduced Clinical Global Impression Improvement ( CGI-I ) scores as compared with intake of placebo using intention-to-treat analysis with last-observation-carried-forward after adjusting for energy , fat , and fish intake . However , the CES-D-K , Hamilton Depression Rating Scale-17 , and Clinical Global Impression Scale scores did not significantly differ between the n-3 PUFA and placebo groups . After supplementation with n-3 PUFAs , the erythrocyte levels of n-3 PUFAs were significantly increased , but n-6 PUFA levels were decreased . Conclusions : n-3 PUFAs demonstrated an advantage over placebo that did not reach clinical significance , although CGI-I score was significantly decreased in the n-3 PUFA group as compared with the placebo group BACKGROUND An altered microbial exposure may underlie the increase of allergic diseases in affluent societies .  Probiotics may alleviate and even prevent eczema in infants . OBJECTIVE To prevent eczema and sensitization in infants with a family history of allergic disease by oral supplementation with the probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri . METHODS Double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled trial , which comprised 232 families with allergic disease , of whom 188 completed the study . The mothers received L reuteri ATCC 55730 ( 1 x 10(8 ) colony forming units ) daily from gestational week 36 until delivery . Their babies then continued with the same product from birth until 12 months of age and were followed up for another year . Primary outcome was allergic disease , with or without positive skin prick test or circulating IgE to food allergens . RESULTS The cumulative incidence of eczema was similar , 36 % in the treated versus 34 % in the placebo group . The L reuteri group had less IgE-associated eczema during the second year , 8 % versus 20 % ( P = .02 ) , however . Skin prick test reactivity was also less common in the treated than in the placebo group , significantly so for infants with mothers with allergies , 14 % versus 31 % ( P = .02 ) . Wheeze and other potentially allergic diseases were not affected . CONCLUSION Although a preventive effect of probiotics on infant eczema was not confirmed , the treated infants had less IgE-associated eczema at 2 years of age and therefore possibly run a reduced risk to develop later respiratory allergic disease . CLINICAL IMPLICATION Probiotics may reduce the incidence of IgE-associated eczema in infancy BACKGROUND Probiotic administration may be a useful method for preventing allergies in infants ; however , there have been controversial results about the efficacy . We investigated the effects of bifidobacterial supplementation on the risk of developing allergic diseases in the Japanese population . METHODS In an open trial , we gave Bifidobacterium breve M-16V and Bifidobacterium longum BB536 prenatally to 130 mothers beginning 1 month prior to delivery and postnatally to their infants for 6 months . Another 36 mother-infant pairs served as controls and did not receive the bifidobacterial supplementation . Development of allergic symptoms in the infants was assessed at 4 , 10 and 18 months of age . Fecal sample s were collected from the mothers and infants . RESULTS The risk of developing eczema/atopic dermatitis ( AD ) during the first 18 months of life was significantly reduced in infants in the probiotic group ( OR : 0.231 [ 95 % CI : 0.084 - 0.628 ] and 0.304 [ 0.105 - 0.892 ] at 10 and 18 months of age , respectively ) . Pyrosequencing analyses indicated an altered composition of the fecal microbiota at 4 months for infants who developed eczema/AD at 4 and 10 months of age . The proportion of Proteobacteria was significantly lower ( P = 0.007 ) in mothers at the time of delivery who received the supplementation when compared with the control group and was positively correlated ( r = 0.283 , P = 0.024 ) with that of infants at 4 months of age . No adverse effects were related to the use of probiotics . CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that the prenatal and postnatal supplementation of bifidobacteria is effective in primary preventing allergic diseases . Some limited changes in the composition of fecal microbiota by the bifidobacterial supplementation were observed Summary Background Pre- and postnatal tissue accretion of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPUFA ) has been related to visual and cognitive development in healthy children in several studies . Children with phenylketonuria ( PKU ) consume diets with very low contents of preformed LCPUFA . We studied prospect ively the LCPUFA status in infants with PKU without or with LCPUFA supplementation during the first year of life . Subjects and methods Infants with PKU were enrolled at diagnosis ( < 4 weeks of age ) and r and omized double blind to phenylalanine-free amino acid supplements without LCPUFA ( n=11 ) or with both arachidonic ( AA , 0.46 wt% ) and docosahexaenoic acids ( DHA , 0.27 wt% ) ( n=10 ) . At enrolment and again at 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 9 and 12 months , plasma phospholipid fatty acids were measured and dietary intakes were calculated from dietary protocol s. Results Unsupplemented patients showed a marked LCPUFA depletion to levels clearly below those observed in healthy breast-fed infants . In contrast , supplemented infants had stable and higher LCPUFA levels than unsupplemented infants , reaching significant differences for AA values at 3 , 4 and 6 months , and for DHA values at 1 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 9 and 12 months . Plasma phospholipid levels correlated closely with estimated dietary intakes of preformed LCPUFA . Conclusion Low LCPUFA intakes with PKU diets induce marked depletion of AA and particularly of DHA in the first year of life . Thus endogenous synthesis of LCPUFA from precursors supplied by diet seems unable to compensate for low LCPUFA intakes . LCPUFA supplementation of PKU diets during the first year of life effectively enhances LCPUFA status to levels comparable to those of healthy breast-fed infants Fish oil addition to infant formulas has raised concern on whether increased intake of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ( n-3LCPUFA ) affects infant growth .  The objective of this study was to determine whether maternal fish oil supplementation during 0–4 mo of lactation influences growth in infancy and early childhood . In a r and omized , blinded intervention trial , lactating Danish mothers with a fish intake below the population median were r and omized to 4.5 g/d fish oil or olive oil . A reference group of 53 mothers with a fish intake in the highest quartile of the population and their infants were included in the study .  Head circumference , weight , length , skinfold thickness , and waist circumference of children were measured at 2 , 4 , and 9 mo and at 2.5 y. One hundred children completed the intervention trial , and 72 were followed up at 2.5 y together with 29 from the reference group .  Growth in weight , length , and head circumference did not differ between the r and omized groups up to 9 mo , but at 2.5 y , body composition differed significantly . Children in the fish oil group had larger waist circumference body mass index ( BMI ; 0.6 kg/m2 ; p = 0.022 ) , and head circumference compared with those in the olive oil group . Adjusted for sex , ponderal index at birth and current energy intake , BMI at 2.5 y was associated with docosahexaenoic acid in maternal erythrocytes after the intervention . In conclusion , the n-3LCPUFA intake of lactating mothers may be important for growth of young children . The long-term effect on weight and BMI remains to be investigated Background Polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential nutrients for humans . They are structural and functional components of cell membranes and pre-stages of the hormonally and immunologically active eicosanoids . Recent discoveries have shown that the long-chained omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) also play an important role in the central nervous system . They are essential for normal brain functioning including attention and other neuropsychological skills . Material s and methods In our large observational study we monitored 810 children from 5 to 12 years of age referred for medical help and recommended for consuming polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) in combination with zinc and magnesium by a physician over a period of at least 3 months . The food supplement ESPRICO ® ( further on referred to as the food supplement ) is developed on the basis of current nutritional science and containing a combination of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids as well as magnesium and zinc . Study objective was to evaluate the nutritional effects of the PUFA-zinc-magnesium combination on symptoms of attention deficit , impulsivity , and hyperactivity as well as on emotional problems and sleep related parameters . Assessment was performed by internationally st and ardised evaluation scales , i.e. SNAP-IV and SDQ . Tolerance ( adverse events ) and acceptance ( compliance ) of the dietary therapy were documented . Results After 12 weeks of consumption of a combination of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids as well as magnesium and zinc most subjects showed a considerable reduction in symptoms of attention deficit and hyperactivity/impulsivity assessed by SNAP-IV . Further , the assessment by SDQ revealed fewer emotional problems at the end of the study period compared to baseline and also sleeping disorders . Mainly problems to fall asleep , decreased during the 12 week nutritional therapy . Regarding safety , no serious adverse events occurred . A total of 16 adverse events with a possible causal relationship to the study medication were reported by 14 children ( 1.7 % ) and only 5.2 % of the children discontinued the study due to acceptance problems . Continuation of consumption of the food supplement was recommended by the paediatricians for 61.1 % of the children . Conclusion Our results suggest a beneficial effect of a combination of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids as well as magnesium and zinc consumption on attentional , behavioural , and emotional problems of children and adolescents . Thus , considering the behavioural benefit in combination with the low risk due to a good safety profile , the dietary supplementation with PUFA in combination with zinc and magnesium can be recommended BACKGROUND Cardioprotective effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFAs ) of marine origin are well recognized . Because of the shortness of marine re sources vegetable oils are increasingly used in fish farming . The effects on human health of fish fed on vegetable oils are largely unknown . METHODS In a double-blinded intervention study , 60 patients with coronary heart disease ( CHD ) were r and omly allocated to three groups consuming approximately 700 g per week for 6 weeks of differently fed Atlantic salmon : 100 % fish oil ( FO ) , 100 % rapeseed oil ( RO ) or 50 % of each ( FO/RO ) , result ing in fillets with high , intermediate and low levels of marine n-3 PUFAs . Patient analyses before and after the intervention period included serum fatty acid profile , serum lipoproteins , and markers of vascular inflammation . RESULTS The serum fatty acid profiles of the patients after the intervention mirrored those of the corresponding salmon fillets and the respective salmon feeds . Significant differences between the groups were obtained , especially for the levels of total n-3 PUFAs and the n-3/n-6 FA ratio , which were markedly increased in the FO group in contrast to the two other groups ( P < 0.02 for all ) . Additionally , significant reductions of serum triglycerides and of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and interleukin-6 were obtained in patients receiving the FO diet when compared with the two other groups ( P < 0.05 for all ) . CONCLUSIONS Tailor-made Atlantic salmon fillets very high in n-3 PUFAs of marine origin seem to impose favourable biochemical changes in patients with CHD when compared with ingestion of fillets with intermediate and low levels of marine n-3 PUFAs , when replaced by rapeseed oil BACKGROUND The prevalence of atopic dermatitis ( AD ) , a chronic skin disease , has increased substantially in recent decades , and different factors have been implicated in its etiology . Although dietary habits are being investigated , few conclusive findings have been reported . Nevertheless , increased consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) and a diet poor in antioxidants have been related to AD . OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study were to investigate the association between AD , the intake of different foods , and the effect of a Mediterranean diet among Spanish schoolchildren aged 6 to 7 . METHODS We performed a cross-sectional study with 20 106 schoolchildren aged 6 - 7 years from 10 different areas of Spain . The participation rate was 76.50 % . The prevalence of AD was assessed using the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood question naire and the criteria of the Spanish Academy of Dermatology . To calculate the Mediterranean diet score , we classified food into 2 groups : Mediterranean food , including fruit , seafood , vegetables , pulses , cereals , pasta , rice , and potatoes ; and non-Mediterranean food , including meat , milk , and fast food . RESULTS Milk was negatively associated with AD . Butter and nuts also were negatively associated , although statistical significance was only reached when these foods were consumed 3 or more times a week . CONCLUSIONS We found no association between the  Mediterranean diet score  and AD and a positive association between AD and obesity BACKGROUND Mothers may be reluctant to receive medical treatment of  postpartum depression ( PPD ) , despite the detrimental consequences the disorder can impose on mother and child . Research on alternative methods of prevention and treatment of PPD is warranted . Previous studies have suggested that long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) might have a beneficial effect on depression . OBJECTIVE The objective was to explore the association between intake of fish and n-3 PUFAs during pregnancy and PPD in the Danish National Birth Cohort ( DNBC ) . DESIGN Exposure information from the DNBC was linked to the Danish patient and prescription registries for data on clinical ly identified cases of depression up to 1 y postpartum . Intake of fish and n-3 PUFAs was assessed in midpregnancy with a food-frequency question naire . Admission to the hospital for PPD ( PPD-admission ) and prescription of antidepressants ( PPD-prescription ) were treated as separate outcomes . A total of 54,202 women were included in the present study sample . RESULTS Rates of depression were 0.3 % ( PPD-admission ) and 1.6 % ( PPD-prescription ) . No association was observed between fish intake and risk of PPD-admission [ crude odds ratio of 1.01 ( 95 % CI : 0.52 , 1.97 ) and adjusted odds ratio of 0.82 ( 95 % CI : 0.42 , 1.64 ) ] , whereas a higher risk of PPD-prescription was found for the lowest compared with the highest fish intake group [ crude odds ratio of 1.61 ( 95 % CI : 1.26 , 2.06 ) and adjusted odds ratio of 1.46 ( 95 % CI : 1.12 , 1.90 ) ] . No association was observed with respect to n-3 PUFA intake . CONCLUSION Overall , our data from a large prospect i ve cohort linked with high- quality registers showed little evidence to support an association between intake of fish or n-3 PUFAs and PPD BACKGROUND A recent cohort study suggested that intake of soy milk or soy formula was associated with peanut allergy . If this finding is confirmed , it suggests an avenue for modification of diet as a peanut allergy prevention strategy . OBJECTIVE To investigate the relationship between soy consumption and peanut sensitization in a prospect i ve cohort study of children . METHODS A total of 620 babies with a family history of allergic disease were recruited . Dietary information was obtained from telephone interviews every 4 weeks from birth until 15 months and then again at 18 months and 2 years . Skin prick tests to peanut , milk , and egg were performed at 6 , 12 , and 24 months . A wheal size > or = 3 mm was considered positive for sensitization . RESULTS Children whose parents elected to introduce soy formula or soy milk into their children 's diet were more likely to be sensitized to peanuts at 2 years ( odds ratio , 2.02 ; 95 % CI , 1.04 - 3.92 ; P = .039 ) . However , this relationship was explained by feeding of soy to children who had siblings with milk allergy or were themselves sensitized to milk . After adjusting for these factors , there was no evidence of an association between soy consumption and peanut sensitization ( odds ratio , 1.34 ; 95 % CI , 0.64 - 2.79 ; P = .434 ) . CONCLUSION The association between soy consumption and peanut sensitization is not causal but merely a result of preferential use of soy milk in infants with a personal or family history of cow 's milk allergy . Future studies should take the confounding effects related to dietary modifications by parents into account when investigating the association between diet and childhood allergic diseases The present work was performed to study an optimal dose and duration of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) supplementation that would not result in harmful modifications of oxidative cell metabolism . Forty healthy subjects were divided into four groups that received 2.5 g/d eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) + docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , 5.1 g EPA + DHA/d , 7.7 g EPA + DHA/d , or placebo .  Fatty acid composition , tocopherol status , and susceptibility to lipid peroxidation induced in vitro by 2,2'-azobis-(2-amidinopropane ) ( AAPH ) were evaluated in human red blood cell ( RBC ) membranes on days 30 and 180 . n-3 PUFA treatment increased EPA and DHA concentrations in RBC membranes in a time-dependent manner in all of the n-3 PUFA groups . These modifications occurred with concomitant dose- and time-dependent increases in the membrane unsaturation index . After 30 d of treatment with n-3 PUFAs , alpha-to-copherol significantly increased in RBC membranes of the intermediate- and high-dose groups . Because of the higher concentration of this antioxidant in these groups , the susceptibility of RBC membranes to peroxidation was decreased . However , after 180 d of treatment , alpha-tocopherol decreased to baseline values and AAPH-induced lipid peroxidation increased in a dose-dependent manner . These results show that high doses of dietary n-3 PUFAs , as well as long-time treatments , affect human RBC susceptibility to lipid peroxidation by changes in fatty acid composition and tocopherol content Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPUFA ) are important for normal visual and cortical development . In a previous study of the effects of LCPUFA on cognitive function of term infants at the age of 3 mon , we indicated that infants with evidence of reduced growth parameters at birth and impaired attention control as manifested by a late peak fixation during infant habituation assessment may benefit from LCPUFA supplementation . The aim of this prospect i ve study was to determine whether LCPUFA supplementation and late peak fixation are related to means-end problem-solving ability in these same infants at the age of 9 mon . Term infants ( 58 ) were r and omized to one of two formulas containing either LCPUFA or no LCPUFA and completed 4 mon of feeding with their formula .  Cognitive function was assessed at 3 mon of age by measures of infant habituation . Infants ( 20 LCPUFA and 20 no-LCPUFA )  completed the problem-solving assessment at 9 mon . The no-LCPUFA group had lower scores on both measures of intention and number of solutions , but neither of these differences was significant . Analysis of covariance for the effects of group and peak fixation , covaried with gestation and birth weight , showed that the number of solutions was significantly reduced in the late peak-fixation infants receiving no LCPUFA ( P<0.02 ) . Intention scores tended to be reduced in this group ( P<0.06 ) . The late peak-fixation infants who received LCPUFA had solution and intention scores similar to early peak-fixation infants receiving LCPUFA or no LCPUFA . These findings suggest that in term infants who have reduced growth parameters at birth and who show evidence of impaired attention control , information processing and problem-solving ability in infancy may be enhanced by LCPUFA supplementation Background / Objective : Evidence is accumulating that the long-chain PUFA ( LCPUFA ) are associated with offspring growth and body composition . We investigated the relationship between LCPUFAs in red blood cells ( RBCs ) of pregnant women/breastfeeding mothers and umbilical cord RBCs of their neonates with infant growth and body composition ⩽1 year of age . Subjects/ Methods : In an open-label r and omized , controlled trial , 208 healthy pregnant women received a dietary intervention ( daily supplementation with 1200 mg n-3 LCPUFAs and dietary counseling to reduce arachidonic acid ( AA ) intake ) from the 15th week of gestation until 4 months of lactation or followed their habitual diet . Fatty acids of plasma phospholipids ( PLs ) and RBCs from maternal and cord blood were determined and associated with infant body weight , body mass index ( BMI ) , lean body mass and fat mass assessed by skinfold thickness measurements and ultrasonography . Results : Dietary intervention significantly reduced the n-6/n-3 LCPUFA ratio in maternal and cord-blood plasma PLs and RBCs . Maternal RBCs docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , n-3 LCPUFAs and n-6 LCPUFAs at the 32nd week of gestation were positively related to birth weight . Maternal n-3 LCPUFAs , n-6 LCPUFAs and AA were positively associated with birth length . Maternal RBCs AA and n-6 LCPUFAs were significantly negatively related to BMI and Ponderal Index at 1 year postpartum , but not to fat mass . Conclusion : Maternal DHA , AA , total n-3 LCPUFAs and n-6 LCPUFAs might serve as prenatal growth factors , while n-6 LCPUFAs also seems to regulate postnatal growth . The maternal n-6/n-3 LCPUFA ratio does not appear to have a role in adipose tissue development during early postnatal life Eicosanoids are oxidative derivatives of arachidonic acid . When produced in excessive amounts , many are proinflammatory and /or prothrombotic agents . N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) have been used to attenuate tissue arachidonic acid ( AA , 20:4 n-6 ) levels and thus modulate eicosanoid production . However , there is growing evidence that dietary arachidonic acid may also be able to modulate eicosanoid formation by enriching tissue phospholipids with AA . Therefore , the effects of dietary AA and n-3 PUFA are in diametric opposition . This study investigates the antithetic relationship of dietary AA and eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA , 20:5 n-3 ) on fatty acid composition of hepatic phospholipids and eicosanoid production in vivo . Forty-nine CD-1 male mice were r and omly divided into four dietary groups . Identical diets were supplemented with ethyl esters ( 1.5 % w/w ) of the following fatty acids : oleic acid ( OA , 18:1 n-9 ) , AA , EPA or AA+EPA . After 4 weeks on diet , peritoneal cells were stimulated in vivo with opsonized zymosan and the peritoneal exu date s were analyzed for eicosanoid production ( PGE2 , 6-keto-PGF1 alpha , TXB2 , LTB4 , LTE4 , and LTE5 ) . Hepatic phospholipids were enriched with AA when AA was included in the diet , and EPA was enriched at the expense of AA when EPA was added to the diet . However , when AA was added to the diet containing equivalent amounts of EPA ( AA+EPA ) , any effect EPA had on modulating hepatic phospholipid fatty acid composition was almost completely eliminated . Similar effects were observed with eicosanoid production . The pooled eicosanoid production in the AA group was 41 % and 300 % higher compared to the OA ( control ) and EPA groups , respectively . ( ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS BACKGROUND The composition of long-chain PUFAs ( LCPUFAs ) in the maternal diet may affect obesity risk in the mother 's offspring . OBJECTIVE We hypothesized that a reduction in the n-6 (omega-6):n-3 ( omega-3 ) LCPUFA ratio in the diet of pregnant women and breastfeeding mothers may prevent expansive adipose tissue growth in their infants during the first year of life . DESIGN In a r and omized controlled trial , 208 healthy pregnant women were r and omly assigned to an intervention ( 1200 mg n-3 LCPUFAs as a supplement per day and a concomitant reduction in arachidonic acid intake ) or a control diet from the 15th wk of pregnancy to 4 mo of lactation . The primary outcome was infant fat mass estimated by skinfold thickness ( SFT ) measurements at 4 body sites at 3 - 5 d , 6 wk , and 4 and 12 mo postpartum . Secondary endpoints included sonographic assessment of abdominal subcutaneous and preperitoneal fat , fat distribution , and child growth . RESULTS Infants did not differ in the sum of their 4 SFTs at ≤1 y of life [ intervention : 24.1 ± 4.4 mm ( n = 85 ) ; control : 24.1 ± 4.1 mm ( n = 80 ) ; mean difference : -0.0 mm ( 95 % CI : -1.3 , 1.3 mm ) ] or in growth . Likewise , longitudinal ultrasonography showed no significant differences in abdominal fat mass or fat distribution . CONCLUSIONS We showed no evidence that supplementation with n-3 fatty acids and instructions to reduce arachidonic acid intake during pregnancy and lactation relevantly affects fat mass in offspring during the first year of life . Prospect i ve long-term studies are needed to explore the efficacy of this dietary approach for primary prevention . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT00362089 BACKGROUND The long-term effect of nutritional intervention with hydrolysate infant formulas on  allergic manifestations in high-risk children is uncertain . OBJECTIVE We sought to investigate the effect of hydrolysate infant formulas on allergic phenotypes in children with family history of allergies at school age . METHODS We analyzed data from participants of the prospect i ve German Infant Nutritional Intervention study after 10 years of follow-up . At birth , children were r and omly assigned to receive , for the first 4 months , one of 4 blinded formulas as breast milk substitute , if necessary : partially hydrolyzed whey formula ( pHF-W ) , extensively hydrolyzed whey formula ( eHF-W ) , extensively hydrolyzed casein formula ( eHF-C ) , or st and ard cow 's milk formula . Outcomes were parent-reported , physician-diagnosed allergic diseases . Log-binomial regression models were used for statistical analysis . RESULTS The relative risk for the cumulative incidence of any allergic disease in the intention-to-treat analysis ( n = 2252 ) was 0.87 ( 95 % CI , 0.77 - 0.99 ) for pHF-W , 0.94 ( 95 % CI , 0.83 - 1.07 ) for eHF-W , and 0.83 ( 95 % CI , 0.72 - 0.95 ) for eHF-C compared with st and ard cow 's milk formula . The corresponding figures for atopic eczema/dermatits ( AD ) were 0.82 ( 95 % CI , 0.68 - 1.00 ) , 0.91 ( 95 % CI , 0.76 - 1.10 ) , and 0.72 ( 95 % CI , 0.58 - 0.88 ) , respectively . In the per- protocol analysis ( n = 988 ) effects were stronger . The period prevalence of AD at 7 to 10 years was significantly reduced with eHF-C in this analysis , but there was no preventive effect on asthma or allergic rhinitis . CONCLUSION The significant preventive effect on the cumulative incidence of allergic diseases , particularly AD , with pHF-W and eHF-C persisted until 10 years without rebound , whereas eHF-W showed no significant risk reduction . There is insufficient evidence of ongoing preventive activity at 7 to 10 years of age Patients with depression have been extensively reported to be associated with the abnormality of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) , including significantly low eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in cell tissue contents ( red blood cell membrane , plasma , etc . ) and dietary intake . However , more evidence is needed to support its relation . In this study , we conducted an 8-week , double-blind , placebo-controlled trial , comparing omega-3 PUFAs ( 6.6 g/day ) [ corrected ] with placebo , on the top of the usual treatment , in 28 patients with major depressive disorder . Patients in the omega-3 PUFA group had a significantly decreased score on the 21-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression than those in the placebo group ( P < 0.001 ) . From the preliminary findings in this study , omega-3 PUFAs could improve the short-term course of illness and were well tolerated in patients with major depressive disorder BACKGROUND The natural history of allergic disease and its potential for prevention merit close examination because of the explosive worldwide increase in the prevalence and morbidity of atopic disorders . This study examines the development of atopy at age 7 years in 165 children in a high-risk cohort , previously reported from birth to age 4 years . METHODS In this prospect i ve , r and omized , controlled study of food allergen avoidance in infancy , the prophylactic-treated group consisted of infants whose mothers avoided cow 's milk , egg , and peanut during the last trimester of pregnancy and lactation and who , themselves ,  avoided cow 's milk until age 1 year ( casein hydrolysate supplementation before age 1 ) , egg until age 2 years , and peanut and fish until age 3 years . The control group consisted of maternal/infant pairs who followed st and ard feeding practice s. RESULTS Despite a significant reduction in food allergy and milk sensitization before age 2 years , none of the following differed between the groups at age 7 years : food allergy , atopic dermatitis , allergic rhinitis , asthma , any atopic disease , lung function , food or aeroallergen sensitization , serum IgE level , or presence of nasal eosinophils or nasal basophilic cells .  Children with food allergy by 4 years evidence d higher 7-year ( current ) prevalences of allergic rhinitis and asthma ( p < 0.01 ) . Atopic diseases/parameters at age 7 years were shown , by multivariate analysis ( p < 0.05 ) , to be associated with several genetic and environmental risk factors ( male gender , maternal nonwhite ethnicity and asthma , and household smoking ) , as well as predictive atopic markers during infancy ( elevated serum IgE level ; egg , cow 's milk , and peanut sensitization ; and nasal eosinophils and nasal basophilic cells ) . CONCLUSIONS These findings help to : ( 1 ) eluci date the natural history of atopic disease in high-risk children ; ( 2 ) document the progression of allergy from atopic dermatitis , food allergy , and food sensitization to respiratory allergy and aeroallergen sensitization despite food allergy prevention in infancy ; ( 3 ) identify allergy predictive markers ; and ( 4 ) exp and our appreciation of the interactions of genetic and environmental factors in the development of atopy BACKGROUND There is conflicting evidence on the benefits of foods rich in vitamin E ( alpha-tocopherol ) , n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) , and their pharmacological substitutes . We investigated the effects of these substances as supplements in patients who had myocardial infa rct ion . METHODS From October , 1993 , to September , 1995 , 11,324 patients surviving recent ( < or = 3 months ) myocardial infa rct ion were r and omly assigned supplements of n-3 PUFA ( 1 g daily , n=2836 ) , vitamin E ( 300 mg daily , n=2830 ) , both ( n=2830 ) , or none ( control , n=2828 ) for 3.5 years . The primary combined efficacy endpoint was death , non-fatal myocardial infa rct ion , and stroke . Intention-to-treat analyses were done according to a factorial design ( two-way ) and by treatment group ( four-way ) . FINDINGS Treatment with n-3 PUFA , but not vitamin E , significantly lowered the risk of the primary endpoint ( relative-risk decrease 10 % [ 95 % CI 1 - 18 ] by two-way analysis , 15 % [ 2 - 26 ] by four-way analysis ) . Benefit was attributable to a decrease in the risk of death ( 14 % [ 3 - 24 ] two-way , 20 % [ 6 - 33 ] four-way ) and cardiovascular death ( 17 % [ 3 - 29 ] two-way , 30 % [ 13 - 44 ] four-way ) . The effect of the combined treatment was similar to that for n-3 PUFA for the primary endpoint ( 14 % [ 1 - 26 ] ) and for fatal events ( 20 % [ 5 - 33 ] ) . INTERPRETATION Dietary supplementation with n-3 PUFA led to a clinical ly important and statistically significant benefit . Vitamin E had no benefit . Its effects on fatal cardiovascular events require further exploration BACKGROUND Inflammation is crucial in all stages of atherosclerosis , and few studies have investigated the effect of dietary fat on markers of inflammation related to this disease during the postpr and ial period . OBJECTIVE To evaluate the chronic effects of dietary fat on the postpr and ial expression of proinflammatory genes in peripheral blood mononuclear cells ( P BMC s ) in healthy subjects . DESIGN 20 healthy men followed three different diets for 4 weeks each , according to a r and omized crossover design : Western diet : 15 % protein , 47 % carbohydrates ( CHO ) , 38 % fat ( 22 % saturated fatty acid ( SFA ) ) ; Mediterranean diet : 15 % protein , 47 % CHO , 38 % fat ( 24 % monounsaturated fatty acid ( MUFA ) ) ; CHO-rich and n-3 diet : 15 % protein , 55 % CHO , < 30 % fat ( 8 % polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) ) . After 12-h fast , volunteers were given a breakfast with a fat composition similar to that consumed in each of the diets-butter breakfast : 35 % SFA ; olive oil breakfast : 36 % MUFA ; walnut breakfast : 16 % PUFA , 4 % alpha-linolenic acid ( LNA ) . RESULTS The butter breakfast induced a higher increase in tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha messenger RNA ( mRNA ) expression than the olive oil or walnut breakfasts ( P=0.014 ) in P BMC s. Moreover , we found a higher postpr and ial response in the mRNA of interleukin (IL)-6 with the intake of butter and olive oil breakfasts than with the walnut breakfast ( P=0.025 ) in these cells . However , the effects of the three fatty breakfasts on the plasma concentrations of these proinflammatory parameters showed no significant differences ( P = N.S. ) . CONCLUSION Consumption of a butter-enriched meal elicits greater postpr and ial expression of proinflammatory cytokine mRNA in P BMC s , compared to the olive oil and walnut breakfasts OBJECTIVE To investigate the association between macronutrient intake and  type 2 diabetes risk in middle-aged Australian women . DESIGN A prospect i ve cohort study , with 6 years ( 2002 - 2007 ) of follow up . Dietary intake was assessed with a vali date d FFQ . Relative risks with 95 % confidence intervals were used to examine risk associations . SETTING Australian Longitudinal Study on Women 's Health , Australia . SUBJECTS Australian women ( n 8370 ) from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women 's Health aged 45 - 50 years and free of type 2 diabetes at baseline . RESULTS After 6 years of follow-up , 311 women developed type 2 diabetes . After adjusting for sociodemographic , lifestyle and other dietary risk factors , MUFA , total n-3 PUFA , α-linolenic acid and total n-6 PUFA intakes were positively associated with the incidence of type 2 diabetes . The relative risks for type 2 diabetes for the highest compared with the lowest quintiles were 1·64 ( 95 % CI 1·06 , 2·54 ) , P = 0·04 for MUFA ; 1·55 ( 95 % CI 1·03 , 2·32 ) , P = 0·01 for n-3 PUFA ; 1·84 ( 95 % CI 1·25 , 2·71 ) , P < 0·01 for α-linolenic acid ; and 1·60 ( 95 % CI 1·03 , 2·48 ) , P = 0·04 for n-6 PUFA . Other dietary macronutrients were not significantly associated with diabetes risk . CONCLUSIONS The data indicate that consumption of MUFA , n-3 PUFA and n-6 PUFA may influence the risk of developing type 2 diabetes in women PUFA of the n−6 and n−3 series have beneficial effects on key risk factors of coronary heart disease ( CHD ) . Our earlier studies on the intake of FA and on the FA composition of plasma and platelet phospholipids suggested the need to improve the n−3 PUFA nutritional status in the Indian population . The present long-term study was conducted on 80 middle-aged Indian subjects ( 40 men and 40 women ) using the subjects ' own home-prepared diets to evaluate the effects of dietary n−3 PUFA on biochemical indices of CHD risk .  Substitution of Blend G ( equal proportions of groundnut and canola oils ) for groundnut oil or substitution of Blend S ( equal proportions of sunflower and canola oils ) for sunflower oil  increased α-linolenic acid ( ALNA ) fourfold and decreased the linoleic acid (LA)/ALNA ratio from 35 to 6 and 65 to 9 , respectively . Twelve subjects ( six men and six women ) who received Blend G were switched back to groundnut oil and were administered 0.3 g daily of long-chain ( LC ) n−3 PUFA from fish oil . At the end of the trial period for both blends in both sexes , plasma lipid and apolipoprotein levels had not changed , and ADP-induced aggregation had decreased . In plasma and platelet phospholipids , LA as well as LCn-3 PUFA had increased , suggesting competition between LA and ALNA for metabolism into the respective LC-PUFA . Fish oil supplementation  increased LCn-3 PUFA in plasma and platelet phospholipids , decreased ADP-induced platelet aggregation , and increased plasma cholesterol . On the basis of the increased LCn-3 PUFA in plasma phospholipids , it was calculated that 0.75 % energy ( en% ) ( 2.2 g ) ALNA ( from vegetable oils ) may be required to increase LCn-3 PUFA to about the same extent as 0.1 en% ( 0.3 g ) LCn-3 PUFA ( from fish oils ) . Since both n−6 and n−3 PUFA play a critical role in fetal growth and development and in the programming of diet-related chronic diseases in adults , an improvement in the n−3 PUFA nutritional status in cereal-based diets through long-term use of cooking oils containing 25–40 % LA and 4 % ALNA may contribute to the prevention of CHD in Indians BACKGROUND Inflammation is strongly related to obesity and the risk of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . The metabolic benefits of long chain ( LC ) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) may be attributable to its anti-inflammatory properties . OBJECTIVE To investigate whether an individual 's habitual inflammatory status influences the impact of a LC n-3 PUFA intervention on CVD risk . DESIGN The study was a r and omized crossover design . Subjects received LC n-3 PUFA capsules or a placebo for 12 weeks , with 4-week washout between phases . Thirty women , in the top and bottom tertiles of baseline sialic acid concentration , formed raised inflammatory status ( top , n = 12 ) and reference ( bottom , n = 18 ) groups . Baseline data were analysed using one-way anova , differences between treatment phases were calculated at each timepoint and analysed using a r and om effects model . RESULTS At baseline , the raised inflammatory status group had significantly higher body mass index and area under the curve ( AUC ) insulin than the reference group . With LC n-3 PUFA supplementation , both groups showed significantly higher plasma eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid at 4 and 12 weeks ( p < 0.001 ) , and lower triacylglycerols ( 4 weeks p < 0.01 and 12 weeks p < 0.05 ) . The difference in AUC insulin between the two treatment phases at 12 weeks was significantly greater in the raised inflammatory status group compared to the reference group ( p < 0.05 ) . Inflammatory markers were significantly lower after 12 weeks LC n-3 PUFA supplementation compared to baseline ( C-reactive protein p < 0.05 and interleukin-6 p < 0.01 ) , but there was no significant group effect . CONCLUSIONS Habitual inflammatory status influences the impact of LC n-3 PUFA supplementation , but it is not clear whether the effect of LC n-3 PUFA on AUC insulin is mediated through inflammatory mechanisms
There is no evidence that PUFA supplementation in infancy has an effect on infant or childhood allergy , asthma , dermatitis/eczema or food allergy .
However , the quality of evidence was very low .
There was insufficient evidence to determine an effect on allergic rhinitis
BACKGROUND Early dietary intakes may influence the development of allergic disease .
It is important to determine if dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) given as supplements or added to infant formula prevent the development of allergy .
OBJECTIVES To determine the effect of higher PUFA intake during infancy to prevent allergic disease .