Kinetics of the incorporation of dietary fatty acids into serum cholesteryl esters, erythrocyte membranes, and adipose tissue: an 18-month controlled study. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy on maternal and fetal erythrocyte fatty acid composition High-DHA eggs: Feasibility as a means to enhance circulating DHA in mother and infant The effects of dietary fatty acid supplementation on endothelial function and vascular tone in healthy subjects. Effects of dietary marine oils and olive oil on fatty acid composition, platelet membrane fluidity, platelet responses, and serum lipids in healthy humans Lipid peroxidation during n−3 fatty acid and vitamin E supplementation in humans Effects of Seal Oil and Tuna-Fish Oil on Platelet Parameters and Plasma Lipid Levels in Healthy Subjects EPA, but not DHA, decreases mean platelet volume in normal subjects Effect of a fish-oil concentrate on serum lipids in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy in a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Flaxseed oil and fish-oil capsule consumption alters human red blood cell n-3 fatty acid composition: a multiple-dosing trial comparing 2 sources of n-3 fatty acid. Comparison of the effects of fish and fish-oil capsules on the n 3 fatty acid content of blood cells and plasma phospholipids. Linoleate inhibits EPA incorporation from dietary fish-oil supplements in human subjects. Effect of fish-oil-enriched margarine on plasma lipids, low-density-lipoprotein particle composition, size, and susceptibility to oxidation. Fish oil supplementation modulates immune function in healthy infants. Heart rate variability and fatty acid content of blood cell membranes: a dose-response study with n-3 fatty acids. Dietary supplementation with gamma-linolenic acid or fish oil decreases T lymphocyte proliferation in healthy older humans. n-3 fatty acids induce oxidative modifications in human erythrocytes depending on dose and duration of dietary supplementation. Maturation of visual acuity is accelerated in breast-fed term infants fed baby food containing DHA-enriched egg yolk. Comparison of the absorption and effect on platelet function of a single dose of n-3 fatty acids given as fish or fish oil. Dietary substitution with an alpha-linolenic acid-rich vegetable oil increases eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations in tissues. Prolonged inhibition of platelet aggregation after n-3 fatty acid ethyl ester ingestion by healthy volunteers. Effects of fish oil on serum lipids in men during a controlled feeding trial. Effects of oils rich in eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on immune cell composition and function in healthy humans. Effects of supplementation with fish oil-derived n-3 fatty acids and gamma-linolenic acid on circulating plasma lipids and fatty acid profiles in women. Dose-dependent effects of docosahexaenoic acid-rich fish oil on erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid and blood lipid levels. Effects of Scandinavian caviar paste enriched with a stable fish oil on plasma phospholipid fatty acids and lipid peroxidation Single measurement of serum phospholipid fatty acid as a biomarker of specific fatty acid intake in middle-aged Japanese men Designer egg evaluation in a controlled trial Incorporation and washout of orally administered n-3 fatty acid ethyl esters in different plasma lipid fractions. Docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids in plasma phospholipids are divergently associated with high density lipoprotein in humans. The effect of dietary N-3 fatty acids on osmotic fragility and membrane fluidity of human erythrocytes. Impact of foods enriched with n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte n-3 levels and cardiovascular risk factors. Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and fetal accretion. Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Cardiac Biopsies From Heart Transplantation Patients: Correlation With Erythrocytes and Response to Supplementation Prostate cancer risk and consumption of fish oils: a dietary biomarker-based case–control study Effect of supplementation with different doses of DHA on the levels of circulating DHA as non-esterified fatty acid in subjects of Asian Indian background. Supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid in the last trimester of pregnancy: maternal-fetal biochemical findings. Effects of trans- and n-3 unsaturated fatty acids on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy males. An 8 weeks dietary intervention study Accuracy of weighed dietary records in studies of diet and health. Encapsulated fish oil enriched in alpha-tocopherol alters plasma phospholipid and mononuclear cell fatty acid compositions but not mononuclear cell functions. Toddler formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) improves DHA status and respiratory health in a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of US children less than 3 years of age. The effect of supplementation with docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid derived from single cell oils on plasma and erythrocyte fatty acids of pregnant women in the second trimester. Influence of an algal triacylglycerol containing docosahexaenoic acid (22 : 6n-3) and docosapentaenoic acid (22 : 5n-6) on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy men and women. Effect of n-3 Oral Supplements on the n-6/n-3 Ratio in Young Adults Validation of a FFQ to estimate the intake of PUFA using plasma phospholipid fatty acids and weighed foods records. Susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in healthy volunteers supplemented with low doses of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Bioavailability of n–3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) in Foods Enriched with Microencapsulated Fish Oil Enhanced increase of omega-3 index in response to long-term n-3 fatty acid supplementation from triacylglycerides versus ethyl esters Effect of supplementation with dietary seal oil on selected cardiovascular risk factors and hemostatic variables in healthy male subjects. The effect of fish oil on physical aggression in schoolchildren--a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The influence of different combinations of gamma-linolenic, stearidonic and eicosapentaenoic acids on the fatty acid composition of blood lipids and mononuclear cells in human volunteers.
Tissue levels of n-3 fatty acids reflect dietary intake , but quantitative data about rate of incorporation and levels as a function of intake are scarce . We fed 58 men 0 , 3 , 6 , or 9 g/d of fish oil for 12 months and monitored fatty acids in serum cholesteryl esters , erythrocytes , and subcutaneous fat during and after supplementation .  Eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) in cholesteryl esters plateaued after 4 - 8 weeks ; the incorporation half-life was 4.8 days . Steady-state levels increased by 3.9 + /- 0.3 mass % points ( + /- SE ) for each extra gram of EPA eaten per day . Incorporation of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) was erratic ; plateau values were 1.1 + /- 0.1 mass % higher for every g/d ingested . Incorporation of EPA into erythrocyte membranes showed a half-life of 28 days ; a steady state was reached after 180 days . Each g/d increased levels by 2.1 + /- 0.1 mass % . C22:5n-3 levels increased markedly . Changes in DHA were erratic and smaller . EPA levels in adipose tissue rose also ; the change after 6 months was 67 % of that after 12 months in gluteal and 75 % in abdominal fat . After 12 months each gram per day caused an 0.11 + /- 0.01 mass % rise in gluteal fat for EPA , 0.53 + /- 0.07 for C22:5n-3 , and 0.14 + /- 0.03 for DHA . Thus , different ( n-3 ) fatty acids were incorporated with different efficiencies , possibly because of interconversions or different affinities of the enzymatic pathways involved . EPA levels in cholesteryl esters reflect intake over the past week or two , erythrocytes over the past month or two , and adipose tissue over a period of years . These findings may help in assessing the intake of ( n-3 ) fatty acids in epidemiological studies Objective : The aim of this study was to assess the effects of fish oil supplementation in pregnancy on  maternal erythrocyte fatty acid composition at different stages of pregnancy and in the post-partum period , and on neonatal  erythrocyte fatty acid composition . Design : A double-blind , r and omised , placebo-controlled study . Setting : Subiaco , Western Australia . Subjects : In all , 98 women booked for delivery at St John of God Hospital , Subiaco , were recruited from private rooms of obstetricians . In total , 83 women and their healthy full-term babies completed the study . Interventions : Women received either 4 g of fish oil ( n=52 ) ( 56 % docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and 28 % eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) or placebo ( olive oil ) ( n=46 ) per day from 20 weeks gestation until delivery . Main outcome measures : Erythrocyte phospholipid fatty acids were measured in maternal peripheral blood at 20 , 30 and 37 weeks of pregnancy and at 6 weeks post partum , and from cord blood collected at birth . Results : Compared to the control group , maternal EPA and DHA were significantly higher in the fish oil group at 30 and 37 weeks gestation , and remained elevated at 6 weeks post partum ( P<0.001 ) . The proportions of n-6 polyunsaturated ( arachidonic acid , 22:3n-6 and 22:4n-6 ) were significantly lower in the fish oil supplemented group at the same time periods ( P<0.001 ) . Similarly , the proportions of EPA and DHA were significantly higher ( P<0.001 ) , and those of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids arachidonic acid , 20:3n-6 , 22:3n-6 and 22:4n-6 were significantly lower ( P<0.001 ) , in erythrocytes from neonates in the fish oil group , compared to those in the control group . Conclusions : Fish oil supplementation from 20 weeks of pregnancy until birth is an effective means of enhancing n-3 fatty acid status of both mothers and neonates . Furthermore , the changes in maternal erythrocyte fatty acid composition are retained until at least 6 weeks post partum . It is essential to assess the effects of concomitant decreases in arachidonic acid status before any dietary recommendations can be made . Sponsorship : The study was supported by grants from the NH & MRC and Raine Medical Research Foundation , Australia Dietary DHA enhances infant  attention and visual development . Because the DHA content of red blood cells and plasma lipids varies approximately threefold in pregnancy , maternal DHA status may influence subsequent infant function . It would be feasible to study the effects of higher maternal  DHA intake on infant development if dietary intake of DHA could be increased by a reliable means . This study was design ed to determine whether women provided with one dozen high-DHA hen eggs ( 135 mg DHA/egg ) would consume the eggs and have higher blood DHA levels than women consuming ordinary eggs  ( 18 mg DHA/egg ) . The study was a r and omized , double-masked comparison of the effect of eggs with different concentrations of DHA on intake and blood lipid DHA content of women and their infants . A third nonr and omized group ate few eggs . In this study , DHA intake reported from eggs was eightfold higher in the high-DHA egg group compared to the ordinary egg group . Including all groups , DHA intake ranged from 0 to 284 mg/d . In this intake range , maternal blood lipid DHA content at enrollment best predicted DHA content at delivery , accounting for 36.5 and 51.7 % of the variance in ordinary and high-DHA egg intake groups , respectively . The high-DHA vs. ordinary egg groups had similar maternal and cord blood lipid DHA , but there was a positive relationship between maternal plasma phospholipid DHA and daily DHA intake from eggs controlled for study duration ( r=0.278 , P=0.048 ) . DHA intake and birth weight were also correlated ( r=0.299 , P=0.041 ) . High-DHA eggs were well accepted and increased DHA intake . Other benefits of DHA intake during pregnancy were also suggested OBJECTIVE Evaluation of the effects of supplementation of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on vascular tone and endothelial function in healthy men and women aged 40 to 65 years . METHODS In a double-blind , r and omised , placebo controlled study , 173 healthy volunteers took one of six oil supplements  for 8 months . Supplements were placebo , oleic acid rich sunflower oil , evening primrose oil , soya bean oil , tuna fish oil , and tuna/evening primrose oil mix .  Endothelium-dependent and independent vascular responses were measured in the forearm skin using laser Doppler imaging following iontophoretic applications of acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside , respectively . RESULTS Acetylcholine , but not sodium nitroprusside responses were significantly improved after tuna oil supplementation ( P=0.02 ) . Additionally , there were significant positive correlations between acetylcholine responses and n-3 fatty acid levels in the plasma and erythrocyte membrane phospholipids after tuna oil supplementation . No significant changes in vascular response were seen after supplementation with any of the other oils . CONCLUSIONS Fish oil supplementation has a beneficial effect on endothelial function , even in normal healthy subjects . Modification of the diet by an increase of 6 % in eicosapentaenoic acid and 27 % in docosahexaenoic acid ( equivalent to eating oily fish 2 - 3 times/week ) might have significant beneficial effects on cardiovascular function and health The influence of various dietary marine oils and olive oil on fatty acid composition of  serum and platelets and effects on platelets and serum lipids were investigated as part of an extensive study of the effects of these oils on parameters associated with cardiovascular/thrombotic diseases . Healthy volunteers ( 266 ) consumed 15 mL/d of cod liver oil ( CLO ) ; whale blubber oil ( refined or unrefined ) ; mixtures of seal blubber oil and CLO ; or olive oil/CLO for 12 wk . In the CLO , seal oil/CLO , and whale oil groups , serum levels of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) were increased . In platelets , EPA was increased in the CLO , seal/CLO , and olive oil/CLO groups . The localization of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the triacylglycerols did not seem to influence their absorption . Intake of oleic acid is poorly reflected in serum and platelets . No significant differences in triacylglycerols ( IG ) , total cholesterol , or high density lipoprotein cholesterol were observed , even though TG were reduced in the CLO , CLO/seal oil , and whale oil groups . Mean platelet volume increased significantly in both whale oil groups and the CLO/olive oil group . Platelet count was significantly reduced in the refined whale oil group only . Lipopolysaccharide-stimulated blood tended to generate less thromboxane B2 in CLO , CLO/seal , and CLO/olive groups . The whale oils tended to reduce in vivo release of β-thromboglobulin . In conclusion , intake of various marine oils causes changes in platelet membranes that are favorably antithrombotic . The combination of CLO and olive oil may produce better effects than these oils given separately . The changes in platelet function are directly associated with alterations of fatty acid composition in platelet membranes The purpose of this study was to investigate in healthy humans the effect of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) intake , alone or in combination with dL-α-tocopherol acetate ( vitamin E ) supplements on lipid peroxidation . Eightly men were r and omly assigned in a double-blind fashion to take daily for 6 wk either menhaden oil ( 6.26 g , n−3 fatty acids ) or olive oil supplements with either vitamin E ( 900 IU ) or its placebo . Antioxidant vitamins , phospholipid composition , malondialdehyde ( MDA ) , and lipid peroxides were measured in the plasma at baseline and week 6 . At the same time , breath alkane output was measured . Plasma α-tocopherol concentration increased in those receiving vitamin E ( P<0.0001 ) . In those supplemented with n−3 fatty acids , EPA and DHA increased in plasma phospholipids ( P<0.0001 ) and plasma MDA and lipid peroxides increased ( P<0.001 and P<0.05 , respectively ) . Breath alkane output did not change significantly and vitamin E intake did not prevent the increase in lipid peroxidation during menhaden oil supplementation . The results demonstrate that supplementing the diet with n−3 fatty acids result ed in an increase in lipid peroxidation , as measured by plasma MDA release and lipid peroxide products , which was not suppressed by vitamin E supplementation Fish are a rich source of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , two long-chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids ( LC n-3 PUFA ) with cardiovascular benefits . A related but less-investigated LC n-3 PUFA , docosapentaenoic acid ( DPA ) , is more common in seal oil and pasture-fed red meats . This study compared indicators of platelet function and plasma lipids in healthy volunteers given supplements containing these different fatty acids ( FA ) for 14 days . Subjects , r and omised into three groups of ten , consumed capsules of tuna oil ( 210 mg EPA , 30 mg DPA , 810 mg DHA ) , seal oil ( 340 mg EPA , 230 mg DPA , 450 mg DHA ) or placebo ( sunola ) oil . Supplementary LC n-3 PUFA levels were approximately 1 g/day in both fish and seal oil groups . Baseline dietary FA and other nutrient intakes were similar in all groups . Both fish and seal oil elevated platelet DHA levels ( P < 0.01 ) . Seal oil also raised platelet DPA and EPA levels ( P < 0.01 ) , and decreased p-selectin ( P = 0.01 ) , a platelet activation marker negatively associated with DPA ( P = 0.03 ) and EPA ( P < 0.01 ) but not DHA . Plasma triacylglycerol decreased ( P = 0.03 ) and HDL-cholesterol levels increased ( P = 0.01 ) with seal oil only . Hence , seal oil may be more efficient than fish oil at promoting healthy plasma lipid profiles and lowering thrombotic risk , possibly due to its high DPA as well as EPA content The first indication of platelet activation is an increase in mean platelet volume ( MPV ) . n−3 FA are known to inhibit platelet function and to reduce the risk for coronary heart disease . The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of FPA and DHA on MPV . Healthy subjects received olive oil placebo for 4 wk and then were r and omly assigned to receive 4 g of ethyl esters of either safflower oil ( n=11 ) , EPA ( n=10 ) , or DHA ( n=12 ) for 4 wk . At the end of placebo run-in and treatment periods , MPV ( fL ; mean±SEM ) and platelet count ( PLT-CT ; 103/μL blood ) were measured in the basal state and after ex vivo stimulation with collagen ( 10 μg/mL ) , cold ( 4 ° C ) , and heat ( 37 ° C ) . Unlike DHA , EPA lowered MPV as compared with safflower oil ( 7.2±0.1 vs. 7.5±0.1 fL ; P<0.05 ) and raised PLT-CT ( 211±18 vs. 192±18 103/μL ; P<0.05 ) in the fasting state . Collagen and cold significantly increased MPV whereas heat lowered MPV regardless of treatment . All stimuli decreased PLT-CT . EPA significantly increased platelet EPA ( 0.2±0.1 vs. 3.3±0.4 % ) and docosapentaenoic acid ( DPA ; 2.2±0.3 vs. 2.9±0.3 % ) concentrations , but not DHA .  DHA treatment significantly increased DHA ( 1.4±0.2 vs. 4.1±0.5 % ) and DPA ( 2.0±0.4 vs. 3.0±0.4 % ) concentrations , but not EPA . In conclusion , EPA , but not DHA , reduces platelet activation , an early step in platelet aggregation BACKGROUND n-3 Fatty acid supplementation lowered serum triacylglycerol concentrations in studies in which most of the subjects were male . The effects of n-3 fatty acid supplementation in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy ( HRT ) have received little attention . OBJECTIVE We sought to determine the effects of a fish-oil-derived n-3 fatty acid concentrate on serum lipid and lipoprotein risk factors for cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving HRT , with an emphasis on serum triacylglycerol concentrations and the ratio of triacylglycerol to HDL cholesterol . DESIGN Postmenopausal women ( n = 36 ) were grouped according to exogenous hormone use and were r and omly allocated to receive 8 capsules/d of either placebo oil ( control ) or n-3 fatty acid-enriched oil ( supplement ) . The supplement provided 2.4 g eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) plus 1.6 g docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) daily . Serum lipids and the fatty acid composition of serum phospholipids were determined on days 0 and 28 . RESULTS Supplementation with n-3 fatty acids was associated with 26 % lower serum triacylglycerol concentrations ( P < 0.0001 ) , a 28 % lower overall ratio of serum triacylglycerol to HDL cholesterol ( P < 0.01 ) , and markedly greater EPA and DHA concentrations in serum phospholipids ( P < 0.05 ) . CONCLUSIONS These results show that supplementation with a fish-oil-derived concentrate can favorably influence selected cardiovascular disease risk factors , particularly by achieving marked reductions in serum triacylglycerol concentrations and triacylglycerol : HDL cholesterol in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving HRT . This approach could potentially reduce the risk of coronary heart disease by 27 % in postmenopausal women BACKGROUND An increase in plasma n-3 fatty acid content , particularly eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5n-3 ; EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( 22:6n-3 ; DHA ) , is observed after consumption of fish oil-enriched supplements . Because alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3n-3 ; ALA ) is the direct precursor of EPA and DHA , ALA-enriched supplements such as flax may have a similar effect , although this hypothesis has been challenged because of reported low conversion of ALA into DHA . OBJECTIVE To address this question , we design ed a clinical trial in which flax oil , fish-oil , and sunflower oil ( placebo group ) capsules were given to firefighters ( n = 62 ) , a group traditionally exposed to cardiovascular disease risk factors . DESIGN Firefighters were r and omly divided into 6 experimental groups receiving 1.2 , 2.4 , or 3.6 g flax oil/d ; 0.6 or 1.2 g fish oil/d ; or 1 g sunflower oil/d for 12 wk . Blood was drawn every 2 wk , and the total phospholipid fatty acid composition of red blood cells was determined . RESULTS As expected , fish oil produced a rapid increase in erythrocyte DHA and total n-3 fatty acids . The consumption of either 2.4 or 3.6 g flax oil/d ( in capsules ) was sufficient to significantly increase erythrocyte total phospholipid ALA , EPA , and docosapentaenoic acid ( 22:5n-3 ) fatty acid content . There were no differences among groups in plasma inflammatory markers or lipid profile . CONCLUSIONS The consumption of ALA-enriched supplements for 12 wk was sufficient to elevate erythrocyte EPA and docosapentaenoic acid content , which shows the effectiveness of ALA conversion and accretion into erythrocytes . The amounts of ALA required to obtain these effects are amounts that are easily achieved in the general population by dietary modification BACKGROUND n-3 Fatty acids ( FAs ) have been shown to be beneficial for cardiovascular health . Whether n-3 FAs from oily fish consumed weekly or from fish-oil capsules taken daily are equally bioavailable is not clear . OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to compare the rate and extent of enrichment of blood cell membranes [ ie , red blood cells ( RBCs ) ] and plasma phospholipids with n-3 FAs from these 2 sources . DESIGN Healthy premenopausal female volunteers were r and omly assigned to consume a daily average of 485 mg eicosapentaenoic ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic ( DHA ) acids either from 2 servings of oily fish ( ie , salmon and albacore tuna ) per week or from 1 - 2 capsules/d . RESULTS After 16 wk , EPA+DHA in RBCs in the fish group ( n = 11 ) increased from 4.0 + /- 0.6 % of total FAs to 6.2 + /- 1.4 % , whereas it rose from 4.3 + /- 1.0 % to 6.2 + /- 1.4 % in the capsule group ( P < 0.0001 for both ; NS for group effect ) . Similar results were observed in plasma phospholipids . EPA+DHA stabilized in the latter after 4 wk but continued to rise through week 16 in RBCs . EPA in RBCs increased significantly ( P = 0.01 ) more rapidly in the fish group than in the capsule group during the first 4 wk , but rates did not differ significantly between groups thereafter . Total FA variances were less in RBCs than in plasma phospholipids ( P = 0.04 ) . CONCLUSION These findings suggest that the consumption of equal amounts of EPA and DHA from oily fish on a weekly basis or from fish-oil capsules on a daily basis is equally effective at enriching blood lipids with n-3 FAs Thirty healthy male subjects were r and omly allocated into one of two treatment groups : group H subjects were maintained on a high-linoleic acid ( LA ) diet with the saturated fatty acids kept low and those in group L were kept on a low-LA , low saturate diet . After a 3-wk run-in period , subjects consumed a fish-oil supplement containing 1.6 g eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)/d and 0.32 g docosahexaenoic acid as triglycerides for a further 4 wk . The diets alone result ed in a significant change in neutrophil phospholipid LA ( H = 12.7 + /- 2.9 % , L = 9.0 + /- 0.9 % ; P less than 0.05 ) . Dietary supplementation with fish oil result ed in a significant increase in EPA in neutrophil phospholipids that was greater in group L ( mean 2.0 + /- 0.4 % ) than group H ( mean 1.5 + /- 0.3 % ; P less than 0.005 ) . Reductions in arachidonic acid concentrations in neutrophil membranes were not different , nor could differences in leukotriene B4 production be detected . Our study indicates that the ingestion of n-6 fatty acids within the diet is an important determinant of EPA incorporation into neutrophil membranes We investigated the effect of incorporating n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) into the diet on the lipid-class composition of LDLs , their size , and their susceptibility to oxidation . Forty-seven healthy volunteers incorporated 30 g sunflower-oil ( SO ) margarine/d into their habitual diet during a 3-wk run-in period and then used either SO or a fish-oil-enriched sunflower oil ( FO ) margarine for the following 4 wk . Plasma concentrations of total cholesterol , triacylglycerols , HDL cholesterol , LDL cholesterol , and apolipoproteins A-I and B did not differ significantly between the groups during intervention . The FO margarine increased the concentration of n-3 very-long-chain PUFAs in the LDL particles , showing 93 % ( P < or = 0.0001 ) , 8 % ( P = 0.05 ) , and 35 % ( P = < 0.0001 ) increases in eicosapentaenoic acid , docosapentaenoic acid , and docosahexaenoic acid , respectively , in the FO group compared with 3 % , 7 % , and 7 % , respectively , in the SO group during the intervention . The cholesterol content of the LDL particles increased in the FO group [ total cholesterol : 6 % ( P = 0.008 ) ; cholesterol ester : 12 % ( P = 0.014 ) ] , although it was not significantly different from that in the control group , whereas the other lipid classes and the size of the LDL particles remained unchanged in both groups . A reduction in the alpha-tocopherol content in LDL ( 6 % , P = 0.005 ) was observed in the FO group . Ex vivo oxidation of LDL induced with Cu2 + showed a significantly reduced lag time ( from 91 to 86 min , P = 0.003 ) and lower maximum rate of oxidation ( from 10.5 to 10.2 nmol x mg(-1 ) x min(-1 ) , P = 0.003 ) after intake of the FO margarine . The results indicate that consumption of the FO compared with the SO margarine had no effect on LDL size and lipid composition and led to minor changes in LDL a-tocopherol content and oxidation resistance ( n-3 ) PUFA influence immune function  in adults and may also affect immune maturation during development . This r and omized trial is , to our knowledge , the first to investigate whether fish oil supplementation in late infancy modifies immune responses . The study was a 2 x 2 intervention in 64 healthy Danish infants , who received cow 's milk or infant formula alone or with fish oil ( FO ) ( 3.4 + /- 1.1 mL/d ) from 9 to 12 mo of age . Before and after the intervention , fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membranes , plasma IgE , C-reactive protein , and soluble IL-2 receptor concentrations were measured . TNF-alpha , INF-gamma , and IL-10 concentrations in whole-blood cultures , stimulated for 22 h with LPS+phytohemaglutinin ( PHA ) or Lactobacillus paracasei , were also determined . IgA was measured in feces when infants were 10 mo of age . FO supplementation effectively raised erythrocyte ( n-3 ) PUFA ( P < 0.001 ) , increased L. paracasei-induced INF-gamma ( P = 0.05 ) and tended to reduce LPS+PHA-induced IL-10 ( P = 0.08 ) . The FO intervention did not affect any of the other analyzed immune variables . The erythrocyte content of eicosapentanoic acid was negatively associated with LPS+PHA-induced IL-10 ( r = -0.38 , P = 0.02 ) . Feeding milk rather than formula did not affect cytokine production , but plasma soluble IL-2 receptor concentration was greater in the formula group than in the cow 's milk group ( P = 0.03 ) . Since the capacity to produce INF-gamma has been proposed as a maturation marker for the immune system in early life , this study suggests a faster immune maturation with FO supplementation with no apparent reduction in immune activation . The implication s for later health need further investigation BACKGROUND Dietary intake of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) may protect against sudden cardiac death , an event that may be predicted by measurement of heart rate variability ( HRV ) . OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study were to 1 ) examine the correlations between the content of fatty acids in blood cell membranes ( platelets and granulocytes ) and HRV in healthy subjects , and 2 ) assess the effect on HRV of dietary intervention with n-3 PUFA in different doses . DESIGN Sixty healthy volunteers ( 25 women and 35 men ) were r and omly assigned to 3 treatment groups in a double-blind design . Subjects received a daily supplement of either 6.6 g n-3 PUFA , 2.0 g n-3 PUFA , or placebo ( olive oil ) . A 24-h Holter recording was obtained for each subject before supplementation and after 12 wk of supplementation ; the 24-h HRV was then related to the content of fatty acids in granulocytes and platelets . RESULTS Before supplementation , positive correlations were observed in men between the content of docosahexaenoic acid in cell membranes and HRV indexes ( r = 0.50 , P < 0.01 ) , whereas such correlations were not found in women . Dietary intervention revealed a dose-dependent effect of n-3 PUFA on HRV in men , whereas no effect was found in women . CONCLUSION The study showed a beneficial effect of n-3 PUFA on  HRV in healthy men , suggesting an antiarrhythmic effect of n-3 PUFA . No such effect was observed in healthy women Animal and human studies have shown that greatly increasing the amounts of flax seed oil [ rich in the ( n-3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) alpha-linolenic acid ( ALNA ) ] or fish oil [ FO ; rich in the long chain ( n-3 ) PUFA eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ] in the diet can decrease mitogen-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation . The objective of this study was to determine the effect of dietary supplementation with moderate levels of ALNA , gamma-linolenic acid ( GLA ) , arachidonic acid ( ARA ) , DHA or FO on the proliferation of mitogen-stimulated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells ( P BMC ) and on the production of cytokines by those cells . The study was r and omized , placebo-controlled , double-blinded and parallel . Healthy subjects ages 55 - 75 y consumed nine capsules/d for 12 wk ; the capsules contained placebo oil ( an 80:20 mix of palm and sunflower seed oils ) or blends of placebo oil with oils rich in ALNA , GLA , ARA or DHA or FO . Subjects in these groups consumed 2 g of ALNA or 770 mg of GLA or 680 mg of ARA or 720 mg of DHA or 1 g of EPA plus DHA ( 720 mg of EPA + 280 mg of DHA ) daily from the capsules . Total fat intake from the capsules was 4 g/d . The fatty acid composition of P BMC phospholipids was significantly changed in the GLA , ARA , DHA and FO groups . Lymphocyte proliferation was not significantly affected by the placebo , ALNA , ARA or DHA treatments . GLA and FO caused a significant decrease ( up to 65 % ) in lymphocyte proliferation . This decrease was partly reversed by 4 wk after stopping the supplementation . None of the treatments affected the production of interleukin-2 or interferon-gamma by P BMC and none of the treatments affected the number or proportion of T or B lymphocytes , helper or cytotoxic T lymphocytes or memory helper T lymphocytes in the circulation . We conclude that a moderate level GLA or EPA but not of other ( n-6 ) or ( n-3 ) PUFA can decrease lymphocyte proliferation but not production of interleukin-2 or interferon-gamma The present work was performed to study an optimal dose and duration of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) supplementation that would not result in harmful modifications of oxidative cell metabolism . Forty healthy subjects were divided into four groups that received 2.5 g/d eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) + docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , 5.1 g EPA + DHA/d , 7.7 g EPA + DHA/d , or placebo .  Fatty acid composition , tocopherol status , and susceptibility to lipid peroxidation induced in vitro by 2,2'-azobis-(2-amidinopropane ) ( AAPH ) were evaluated in human red blood cell ( RBC ) membranes on days 30 and 180 . n-3 PUFA treatment increased EPA and DHA concentrations in RBC membranes in a time-dependent manner in all of the n-3 PUFA groups . These modifications occurred with concomitant dose- and time-dependent increases in the membrane unsaturation index . After 30 d of treatment with n-3 PUFAs , alpha-to-copherol significantly increased in RBC membranes of the intermediate- and high-dose groups . Because of the higher concentration of this antioxidant in these groups , the susceptibility of RBC membranes to peroxidation was decreased . However , after 180 d of treatment , alpha-tocopherol decreased to baseline values and AAPH-induced lipid peroxidation increased in a dose-dependent manner . These results show that high doses of dietary n-3 PUFAs , as well as long-time treatments , affect human RBC susceptibility to lipid peroxidation by changes in fatty acid composition and tocopherol content Between 6 and 12 mo of age , blood levels of the ( n-3 ) long-chain PUFA , docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , in breast-fed infants typically decrease due to diminished maternal DHA stores and the introduction of DHA-poor solid foods displacing human milk as the primary source of nutrition . Thus , we utilized a r and omized , clinical trial format to evaluate the effect of supplemental DHA in solid foods on visual development of breast-fed infants with the primary outcome , sweep visual-evoked potential ( VEP ) acuity , as an index for maturation of the retina and visual cortex . At 6 mo of age , breast-fed infants were r and omly assigned to receive 1 jar ( 113 g)/d of baby food containing egg yolk enriched with DHA ( 115 mg DHA/100 g food ; n = 25 ) or control baby food ( 0 mg DHA ; n = 26 ) . Gravimetric measures were used to estimate the supplemental DHA intake which was 83 mg DHA/d in the supplemented group and 0 mg/d in controls . Although many infants in both groups continued to breast-feed for a mean of 9 mo , RBC DHA levels decreased significantly between 6 and 12 mo ( from 3.8 to 3.0 g/100 g total fatty acids ) in control infants , whereas RBC DHA levels increased by 34 % from 4.1 to 5.5 g/100 g by 12 mo in supplemented infants . VEP acuity at 6 mo was 0.49 logMAR ( minimum angle of resolution ) and improved to 0.29 logMAR by 12 mo in controls . In DHA-supplemented infants , VEP acuity was 0.48 logMAR at 6 mo and matured to 0.14 logMAR at 12 mo ( 1.5 lines on the eye chart better than controls ) . At 12 mo , the difference corresponded to 1.5 lines on the eye chart . RBC DHA levels and VEP acuity at 12 mo were correlated ( r = -0.50 ; P = 0.0002 ) , supporting the need of an adequate dietary supply of DHA throughout 1 y of life for neural development To compare their relative absorption and effect on platelet function , concentrated fish oil and tuna were given to 10 subjects in a r and omized crossover study . Although plasma enrichment of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) from either preparation was similar , relative absorption of EPA from tuna was significantly greater than that from fish oil ( 46.6 + /- 3.0 mg . L-1.g EPA-1 from tuna compared with 16 + /- 1.0 mg . L-1.g EPA-1 from fish oil , P less than 0.001 ) . Relative absorption of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) was equivalent ( 54.0 + /- 9.0 mg . L-1.g DHA-1 from tuna , 56 + /- 9.0 mg . L-1.g DHA-1 from fish oil , NS ) . Platelet aggregation in response to the endoperoxide analog U46619 was significantly diminished after either preparation but aggregation in response to other agonists , bleeding time , and membrane n-3 ( omega-3 ) fatty acid content were not changed . Thus , n-3 fatty acids are well absorbed after one dose of either tuna or fish oil but EPA absorption appears to be more efficient from tuna . Additionally , a single dose of n-3 fatty acids decreases platelet aggregation by a mechanism not requiring incorporation into platelet membranes Thirty healthy male volunteers were r and omly allocated into two dietary treatment groups . The  flaxseed group ( n = 15 ) maintained a diet high in alpha-linolenic acid ( alpha-LA ; 18:3n-3 ) and low in linoleic acid ( LA ; 18:2n-6 ) by using a flaxseed oil and spread that are high in alpha-LA . The  control group ( n = 15 ) maintained a diet high in LA and low in alpha-LA , typifying a Western diet . Both groups maintained their diets for 4 wk , followed by another 4-wk period in which they supplemented the diets with fish oil [ 1.62 g eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA , 20:5n-3 ) daily and 1.08 g docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA , 22:6n-3 ) daily ] in a triglyceride form . The flaxseed oil-containing diet result ed in significant increases in alpha-LA concentrations in the plasma phospholipid , cholesteryl ester , and triglyceride fractions ( eightfold increase ) and neutrophil phospholipids ( 50 % increase ) . EPA concentrations increased by 2.5-fold in the plasma lipid fractions and neutrophil phospholipids . After fish-oil supplementation  EPA concentrations increased in parallel in both dietary groups , remaining higher in the flaxseed group for both the plasma lipid fractions and neutrophil phospholipids . The results indicate that alpha-LA-rich vegetable oils can be used in a domestic setting ( in conjunction with a background diet low in LA ) to elevate EPA in tissues to concentrations comparable with those associated with fish-oil supplementation This study addressed two questions : 1 ) whether a relatively low dose of n-3 fatty acid ethyl esters ( n-3 FAs ) administered to healthy volunteers for a prolonged period of time would exert beneficial effects on plasma lipids , platelet function , and thromboxane bio synthesis ; and 2 ) whether a short-term loading treatment ( 6 wk ) with 6 g n-3 FAs/d followed by 12 wk with 3 g/d results in more pronounced effects . After 6 wk treatment a reduction of plasma triglyceride concentration and an accumulation of EPA and DHA in plasma were observed . A longer period of treatment with n-3 FAs was necessary to affect platelet aggregation and thromboxane A2 bio synthesis . At 12 and 18 wk , platelet aggregation , thromboxane A2 formation , and the excretion of thromboxane metabolites in urine were reduced , particularly in subjects who received 6 g n-3 FAs/d during the initial 6 wk . After treatment ended , triglyceride and thromboxane A2 bio synthesis returned to baseline values within 4 wk , whereas platelet aggregation remained impaired for > or = 14 wk . The longlasting impairment in platelet aggregation was accompanied by the retention of n-3 FAs in platelet phospholipids Effects of fish-oil ( FO ) feeding on serum lipids were investigated in a 42-d controlled diet study . Fifteen healthy male college students were assigned to one of three groups : control ( 0 g FO ) ; 5 g FO , supplying 2 g n - 3 ( omega-3 ) fatty acids ( FAs ) ; or 20 g FO , supplying 8 g n - 3 FAs . In an initial 7-d period subjects consumed a basal diet with no FO . Then FO replaced an equivalent amount of margarine for 5 wk . FO feeding significantly ( p less than 0.05 ) decreased the serum n - 6 FAs , linoleic acid , eicosatrienoic acid , and arachidonic acid . A significant increase in the n - 3 FAs , eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid , was noted in serum , platelet , and neutrophil phospholipids . The 20-g-FO group showed a 30 % decrease ( p less than 0.01 ) in triglycerides after 2 wk FO with no further decrease observed . Thus , 20 g FO produced changes in both FA patterns and triglyceride concentrations whereas 5 g FO produced changes in FA patterns only . Neither FO amount result ed in significant changes in total or HDL cholesterol , apolipoprotein A-I , or apolipoprotein B-100 BACKGROUND Supplementation of the diet with fish oil , which is rich in the long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , is reported to decrease several markers of immune function . However , whether EPA , DHA , or a combination of the 2 exerts these immunomodulatory effects is unclear . OBJECTIVE The objective of the study was to determine the effects of supplementation with an EPA-rich or DHA-rich oil on a range of immune outcomes representing key functions of human neutrophils , monocytes , and lymphocytes in healthy humans . DESIGN In a placebo-controlled , double-blind , parallel study , 42 healthy subjects were r and omly allocated to receive supplementation with either placebo ( olive oil ) , EPA ( 4.7 g/d ) , or DHA ( 4.9 g/d ) for 4 wk . Blood sample s were taken before and after supplementation . RESULTS The fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids and neutrophils was dramatically altered by supplementation with EPA or DHA , and the effects of EPA differed notably from those of DHA . DHA supplementation decreased T lymphocyte activation , as assessed by expression of CD69 , whereas EPA supplementation had no significant effect . Neither the EPA-rich oil nor the DHA-rich oil had any significant effect on monocyte or neutrophil phagocytosis or on cytokine production or adhesion molecule expression by peripheral blood mononuclear cells . CONCLUSIONS Supplementation with DHA , but not with EPA , suppresses T lymphocyte activation , as assessed by expression of CD69 . EPA alone does not , therefore , influence CD69 expression . No other marker of immune function assessed in this study was significantly affected by either EPA or DHA BACKGROUND Eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) , docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , and gamma-linolenic acid ( GLA ) have lipid-modifying and antiinflammatory properties . The effects of supplement mixtures of these fatty acids on plasma lipids and the fatty acid compositions of serum phospholipids have received little attention . OBJECTIVE The objective was to determine the effects of different levels of GLA supplementation together with a constant intake of EPA plus DHA on the triacylglycerol-lowering effect of EPA plus DHA alone and on the fatty acid patterns ( eicosanoid precursors ) of serum phospholipids . DESIGN Thirty-one women were assigned to 1 of 4 groups , equalized on the basis of their fasting triacylglycerol concentrations . They received supplements providing 4 g EPA+DHA ( 4:0 , EPA+DHA : GLA ; control group ) , 4 g EPA+DHA plus 1 g GLA ( 4:1 ) , 2 g GLA ( 4:2 ) , or 4 g GLA ( 4:4 ) daily for 28 d. Plasma lipids and fatty acids of serum phospholipids were measured on days 0 and 28 . RESULTS Plasma triacylglycerol concentrations were significantly lower on day 28 than on day 0 in the 4:0 , 4:1 , and 4:2 groups . LDL cholesterol decreased significantly ( by 11.3 % ) in the 4:2 group . Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid increased significantly in serum phospholipids only in the 4:2 and 4:4 groups ; however , total n-3 fatty acids increased in all 4 groups . CONCLUSIONS A mixture of 4 g EPA+DHA and 2 g GLA favorably altered blood lipid and fatty acid profiles in healthy women . On the basis of calculated PROCAM values , the 4:2 group was estimated to have a 43 % reduction in the 10-y risk of myocardial infa rct ion Consumption of long-chain n-3 PUFA , particularly DHA , has been shown to improve cardiovascular risk factors but the intake required to achieve benefits is unclear . We sought to determine the relationship between DHA intake , increases in erythrocyte DHA content and changes in blood lipids . A total of sixty-seven subjects ( thirty-six male , thirty-one female , mean age 53 years ) with fasting serum TAG > or = 1.1 mmol/l and BMI > 25 kg/m(2 ) completed a 12-week , r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled parallel intervention . Subjects consumed 2 , 4 or 6 g/d of DHA-rich fish oil ( 26 % DHA , 6 % EPA ) or a placebo ( Sunola oil ) .  Fasting blood lipid concentrations and fatty acid profiles in erythrocyte membranes were assessed at baseline and after 6 and 12 weeks . For every 1 g/d increase in DHA intake , there was a 23 % reduction in TAG ( mean baseline concentration 1.9 ( sem 0.1 ) mmol/l ) , 4.4 % increase in HDL-cholesterol and 7.1 % increase in LDL-cholesterol . Erythrocyte DHA content increased in proportion to the dose of DHA consumed ( r 0.72 , P < 0.001 ) and the increase after 12 weeks was linearly related to reductions in TAG ( r - 0.38 , P < 0.01 ) and increases in total cholesterol ( r 0.39 , P < 0.01 ) , LDL-cholesterol ( r 0.33 , P < 0.01 ) and HDL-cholesterol ( r 0.30 , P = 0.02 ) . The close association between incorporation of DHA in erythrocytes and its effects on serum lipids highlights the importance of erythrocyte DHA as an indicator of cardiovascular health status Objective : To study the possibility of increasing the very long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids , eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , in humans by means of consumption of a common food product , Sc and inavian caviar paste , suitable for strategic enrichment with a high concentration of these fatty acids , and to measure the potential inducement of lipid peroxidation . Design : A r and omized double blind repeated measures experiment . Subjects and interventions : In total , 16 healthy , nonsmoking subjects ( eight men and eight women , age 42±12 y ) were included in the study . Eight consumed 25 g ordinary caviar paste daily for 3 weeks , and eight the same amount of caviar paste enriched with a very stable fish oil ( 7 % , wt/wt ) . Blood lipids , plasma phospholipid fatty acids and lipid peroxidation were measured . Results : α-Linoleic acid was significantly decreased after intake of both ordinary ( −8 % , P<0.05 ) and fish oil caviar ( −10 % , P<0.05 ) , as was the sum of all n-6 fatty acids ( −6 % , P<0.05 and −8 % , P<0.001 , respectively ) . The fatty acids EPA and DHA , as well as the sum of all n-3 fatty acids , increased significantly in both caviar groups but more in the group given fish oil caviar paste ( EPA : + 51 % , P<0.05 and + 100 % , P<0.001 , respectively ; DHA : + 24 % , P<0.01 and + 29 % , P<0.001 , respectively ; sum of n-3:+27 % , P<0.05 and + 40 % , P<0.001 , respectively ) . Lipid peroxidation , measured as the thiobarbituric acid — malondialdehyde adduct , was increased by 26 % ( P<0.05 ) after intake of ordinary caviar paste , but was unchanged after intake of fish oil-enriched caviar paste . Conclusions : Sc and inavian caviar paste is a spread naturally enriched with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids that can be included in the diet to achieve an increase in these fatty acids . However , changing to caviar paste enriched with stable fish oil will lead to a considerably greater increase in EPA and DHA.Sponsorship : Swedish Medical Research Council ; Cardinova AB , Uppsala , Sweden Objective : To assess the utility of serum phospholipid fatty acid ( FA ) levels as a biochemical indicator of habitual dietary fatty acid intake in Japanese , whose diet is characterized by low fat intake and high intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) of marine origin . Subjects and methods : Eighty-seven male volunteers from four public health center districts that were part of the Japan Public Health Center based Prospect i ve Study ( JPHC Study ) cohort I , were included in this study . Habitual intake of fatty acid was obtained by 7 day weighed dietary records four times ( in one area only twice ) in 1994–1995 . Blood was collected twice , in February and August of the same year , and the composition of FA in serum phospholipid was analyzed by gas chromatography . The correlation coefficient between serum phospholipid FA levels and fatty acid intake was calculated . Results : High correlations were observed for eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) , docosapentaenoic acid ( DPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , which are marine origin n-3 PUFA ( r=0.75 , 0.49 , 0.50 , respectively ) . No significant correlation was observed for saturated fatty acid ( SFA ) , although the monounsaturated fatty acid ( MUFA ) , palmitoleic acid and oleic acid intake were moderately correlated ( r=0.22 , 0.35 , respectively ) . The correlations for EPA , DPA and DHA were similar in both sample s collected in February and August . Conclusions : These data suggest that in population s with a high and stable over time intake of n-3 PUFA of marine origin , a single measurement of serum phospholipids reflects the ranking of habitual intake of marine origin n-3 PUFA.European Journal of Clinical Nutrition ( 2001 ) 55 , Objective : To evaluate the ability of design er eggs enriched in vitamin E , lutein , selenium ( Se ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) to deliver micronutrients to the human in a palatable and visually acceptable form . Design : Double-blind , placebo-controlled trial , two treatment groups balanced for sex and age . Setting : Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition , SAC , Scotl and .Subjects : Forty healthy adult volunteers completed the study . Volunteers were recruited among staff of the Scottish Agricultural College Interventions : Volunteers consumed , for 8 weeks , either a design er egg or a normal table egg per day . Fasting blood sample s were taken before and at the end of the study . Results : Consumption of design er eggs enriched in vitamin E , lutein , Se and DHA significantly increased the levels of α-tocopherol , lutein and DHA in plasma as compared to the changes found after consumption of normal table eggs , with the largest increases found in plasma lutein ( 1.88-fold increase ) . The proportion of DHA was increased in all the main lipid classes of the plasma including triacylglycerol ( 2.3-fold ) , free fatty acids ( 1.6-fold ) , cholesteryl ester ( 1.4-fold ) and phospholipid ( 1.3-fold ) . Egg consumption did not change Se concentration in plasma , blood pressure , total plasma lipid concentrations or the concentrations of total cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol in plasma . Conclusion : Consumption of design er eggs enriched in vitamin E , lutein , DHA and Se as part of normal diet for 8 weeks effectively increased the blood levels of α-tocopherol , lutein and DHA.Sponsorship : Scottish Office Agriculture , Environment , and Fisheries Department . European Journal of Clinical Nutrition ( 2000 ) 54 , The aim of the present study was to quantify the incorporation of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) into plasma lipids after oral administration of n-3 fatty acid ethyl esters , since little is known about the rate and pattern of incorporation into plasma lipid fractions . In addition , we aim ed to obtain preliminary information regarding EPA half-life , which is needed to establish an optimal dosing schedule . Five healthy volunteers ingested two 8.5 g doses of n-3 fatty acid ethyl esters daily for 7 d , supplying 6.0 g EPA/d and 5.3 g DHA/d . The fatty acid compositions of plasma phospholipids ( PL ) , cholesteryl esters ( CE ) and triacylglycerols ( TAG ) were determined during supplementation and during a washout period of 7 d. Half-lives of EPA and DHA were calculated . The proportion of EPA in PL showed a 15-fold increase after 7 d ( P < 0.001 ) , while DHA showed a smaller increase ( P < 0.01 ) . In CE , EPA also increased ( P < 0.05 ) , while DHA did not increase at all . Remarkably , incorporation of DHA into TAG was even higher than that of EPA . Half-life of EPA in PL ranged from 1.63 to 2.31 d ( mean 1.97 ( SE 0.15 ) d ) , whereas mean half-life of EPA in CE was 3.27 ( SE 0.56 ) d. In three subjects , washout of EPA and DHA from TAG seemed to follow a bi-exponential pattern , with a short half-life ( < 1 d ) in the initial phase and a half-life of several days in the second phase . In conclusion , EPA ethyl esters are rapidly incorporated into plasma lipids , especially into PL . The relatively long half-life of EPA in plasma would permit a dosing schedule with intervals of > or = 12 h in supplementation studies The effect of fish oil rich in eicosapentaenoic ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic ( DHA ) acids on serum lipoprotein concentrations is not clear , and it is not known whether EPA and DHA are similarly related to serum lipid or lipoprotein levels . We conducted a r and omized , 10-week , dietary supplementation trial in which the effects of 6 g per day of 85 % EPA and DHA were compared with 6 g per day of corn oil in 156 men and women . Multivariate analyses were used to assess independent relations between plasma phospholipid EPA and DHA and serum lipoprotein levels . In the fish oil group triglycerides fell 21 % ( p less than 0.001 ) and high density lipoprotein cholesterol ( HDL-C ) rose 3.8 % ( p less than 0.05 ) . In the corn oil group triglycerides did not change , but HDL-C rose 6.1 % ( p less than 0.01 ) . Compared with fish oil , apolipoprotein A-I ( apo A-I ) rose 5.1 % after corn oil intake ( p less than 0.05 ) . Plasma EPA and DHA levels rose after fish oil intake and fell after corn oil intake ( all p less than 0.001 ) . The change ( delta ) in EPA was inversely correlated with delta triglycerides ( p = 0.035 ) and positively correlated with delta HDL-C and delta apo A-I ( both p less than 0.001 ) in the multivariate analyses . In contrast , delta DHA was not correlated with delta triglycerides but was inversely correlated with delta HDL-C and delta apo A-I ( both p less than 0.001 ) . St and ardizing for DHA removed the difference in apo A-I levels between groups . This study suggests that EPA and DHA are divergently associated with HDL , possibly through different mechanisms Sixteen healthy females were r and omly assigned to receive fish oil or corn oil double blind in a 28 days intervention period . Osmotic fragility of erythrocytes was decreased in the fish-oil supplemented group and not affected in the corn-oil group . The decrease in osmotic fragility was maximal after 14 days and approached the pre-intervention level after 24 and 28 days of n-3 supplementation . No change was observed in erythrocyte membrane fluidity in either of the groups . The level of n-3 fatty acids increased significantly in erythrocytes from the fish oil supplemented subjects , mainly at the expense of linoleic acid ( 18:2 , n-6 ) and oleic acid ( 18:1 ) . No significant change was seen in the relative amount of arachidonic acid ( 20:4,n-6 ) or in the phospholipid/cholesterol ratio in erythrocytes , while the ratio between the sum of phoshatidylcholine and sphingomyeline/phosphatidylethanolamine ( PC+SM/PE ) increased during the intervention period . This study does not verify the hypothesis of a relationship between osmotic fragility and membrane fluidity . It is concluded that increased level of n-3 fatty acids in erythrocyte membranes decreases osmotic fragility , and that this effect is counteracted by increased PC+SM/PE ratio Consumption of fish or fish oils rich in the n-3 long chain PUFA EPA and DHA may improve multiple risk factors for CVD . The objective of this study was to determine whether regular consumption of foods enriched with n-3 long-chain PUFA can improve n-3 long-chain PUFA status ( erythrocytes ) and cardiovascular health .  Overweight volunteers with high levels of triacylglycerols ( TG ; > 1.6 mmol/l ) were enrolled in a 6-month dietary intervention trial conducted in Adelaide ( n 47 ) and Perth ( n 39 ) , and r and omised to consume control foods or n-3-enriched foods  to achieve an EPA + DHA intake of 1 g/d . Test foods were substituted for equivalent foods in their regular diet .  Erythrocyte fatty acids , plasma TG and other CVD risk factors were monitored at 0 , 3 and 6 months . There were no significant differences between groups for blood pressure , arterial compliance , glucose , insulin , lipids , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) or urinary 11-dehydro-thromboxane B2 ( TXB2 ) over 6 months , even though regular consumption of n-3-enriched foods increased  EPA + DHA intake from 0.2 to 1.0 g/d . However , the n-3 long-chain PUFA content of erythrocytes increased by 35 and 53 % at 3 and 6 months , respectively , in subjects consuming the n-3-enriched foods . These increases were positively associated with measures of arterial compliance and negatively associated with serum CRP and urinary 11-dehydro-TXB2 excretion . Sustainable increases in dietary intakes and erythrocyte levels of n-3 long-chain PUFA can be achieved through regular consumption of suitably enriched processed foods . Such increases may be associated with reduced CV risk Docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ( 22 : 6n-3 ) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid that is an essential constituent of membranes , particularly of the nervous system . Infants acquire DHA from their mothers , either prenatally via the placenta or postnatally in milk . The present study aim ed to test the hypothesis that maternal supplementation during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy enriches maternal and /or fetal DHA status . In a r and omised , prospect i ve , double-blind study 100 mothers received either fish-oil capsules containing 400 mg DHA/g ( 200 mg/d ) ( n 50 ) , or placebo containing 810 mg oleic acid/g ( 400 mg/d ) ( n 50 ) from 15 weeks gestation until term . Venous blood sample s were obtained from mothers at 15 , 28 and 40 weeks , and from the umbilical cord at birth .  Total fatty acids in plasma and erythrocytes were analysed by GC-MS . There were no significant differences between maternal groups in baseline DHA , as a proportion of total fatty acids ( g/100 g total fatty acids ) or concentration ( nmol/ml ) , in plasma and erythrocytes . DHA concentrations in plasma at 28 weeks ( P=0.02 ) and erythrocytes at both 28 weeks ( P=0.03 ) and term ( P=0.02 ) were 20 % higher in supplemented mothers than the placebo group . DHA accounted for a higher proportion of total fatty acids in erythrocytes of supplemented mothers at 28 weeks ( P=0.003 ) and term ( P=0.01 ) . There were no significant differences between groups in DHA ( g/100 g total fatty acids or nmol/l ) in cord blood . Maternal DHA status was maximal in mid-trimester and declined to term , at a lower rate in supplemented compared with unsupplemented mothers . Maternal DHA supplementation significantly increases maternal DHA status and limits the last trimester decline in maternal status , aiding preferential transfer of DHA from mother to fetus Background —Omega-3 fatty acids ( FAs ) appear to reduce the risk of sudden death from myocardial infa rct ion . This reduction is believed to occur via the incorporation of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) into the myocardium itself , altering the dynamics of sodium and calcium channel function . The extent of incorporation has not been determined in humans . Methods and Results —We first determined the correlation between red blood cell ( RBC ) and cardiac omega-3 FA levels in 20 heart transplant recipients . We then examined the effects of 6 months of omega-3 FA supplementation ( 1 g/d ) on the FA composition of human cardiac and buccal tissue , RBCs , and plasma lipids in 25 other patients .  Cardiac and RBC EPA+DHA levels were highly correlated ( r=0.82 , P<0.001 ) . Supplementation increased EPA+DHA levels in cardiac tissue by 110 % , in RBCs by 101 % , in plasma by 139 % , and in cheek cells by 73 % ( P<0.005 versus baseline for all ; responses among tissues were not significantly different ) . Conclusions —Although any of the tissues examined could serve as a surrogate for cardiac omega-3 FA content , RBC EPA+DHA was highly correlated with cardiac EPA+DHA ; the RBC omega-3 response to supplementation was similar to that of the heart ; RBCs are easily collected and analyzed ; and they have a less variable FA composition than plasma . Therefore , RBC EPA+DHA ( also called the Omega-3 Index ) may be the preferred surrogate for cardiac omega-3 FA status Summary Experimental studies suggest that the risk of prostate cancer is reduced with the intake of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from marine foods , such as eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) . However , few human studies have been conducted due to difficulties in assessing the dietary intake of these fatty acids . The authors examined the relationship between prostate cancer risk and EPA and DHA in erythrocyte biomarkers in a population -based case – control study in Auckl and , New Zeal and during 1996–1997 involving 317 prostate cancer cases and 480 age-matched community controls . Reduced prostate cancer risk was associated with high erythrocyte phosphatidylcholine levels of EPA ( multivariate relative risk = 0.59 ; 95 % confidence interval 0.37–0.95 , upper vs lowest quartile ) and DHA ( multivariate relative risk = 0.62 ; 95 % confidence interval 0.39–0.98 , upper vs lowest quartile ) . These analyses support evidence from in vitro experiments for a reduced risk of prostate cancer associated with dietary fish oils , possibly acting via inhibition of arachidonic acid-derived eicosanoid bio synthesis There is evidence to indicate that the high rates of coronary heart disease and myocardial infa rct ion amongst Indians of Asian descent may be partly related to circulating nonesterified fatty acids ( NEFA ) . As docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA,22:6n-3 ) in NEFA form has been found to exhibit anti-platelet aggregatory and anti-arrhythmic potential in vitro , the effect of supplementary DHA was examined in healthy subjects of Asian Indian background . Furthermore , time- and dose-dependent changes in absolute levels of DHA as NEFA or phospholipid ( PL ) were compared . The subjects consumed 8 capsules daily of placebo ( DHA-free ) or low DHA ( 0.75 g/day)or high DHA ( 1.50 g/day ) over 6 wks . Fasting blood sample s were drawn at days 0 , 21 , and 42 for analysis of serum lipid/lipoprotein composition . No significant effect of DHA supplementation on the levels of serum lipid/lipoproteins ( including Lp[a ] ) or blood pressure was found . However , the DHA level in serum phospholipid rose by 167 % overall with low-dose supplementation ( from 2.4 - 6.4 mol% ) but only by an additional 23 % upon doubling the dose from 0.75 g to 1.50 g/day . Furthermore , after 6 weeks of supplementation with 0.75 g or 1.5 g DHA/day , absolute concentrations of DHA as PL were not significantly different from the corresponding 3-week values . Interestingly , the absolute concentrations of serum DHA as NEFA showed a marked rise with low-dose supplementation ( by 212 % overall , from 2.4 to 7.5 microM ) and a further 70 % rise ( to 12.7 microM ) upon doubling the supplementation from 0.75 to 1.50 g/day . As well , the 6-week concentrations ( DHA-NEFA ) were significantly different than the corresponding 3-week values at both dose levels . Elevation of circulating DHA-NEFA levels via DHA supplementation , as shown herein , to concentrations that exhibit anti-thrombotic and anti-arrhythmic potential in vitro needs to be extended to trials where clinical end-points are determined The nutritional significance of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPS ) during the perinatal period is becoming increasingly important . There are currently very few studies on dietary intervention during gestation . The aim of the study was to analyze the effect of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) supplementation during pregnancy on levels in both the newborn and the mother . A r and omized placebo controlled study was carried out on 20 pregnant women in study group receiving 200 mg/day of docosahexaenoic acid-(DHA ) during the last trimester of pregnancy . Results in both groups ( A supplemented , B non-supplemented ) highlighted a decrease in plasma arachidonic acid ( 5.99 + /- 0.91 vs. 4.51 + /- 0.71 p<0.001 for group A and 5.84 + /- 0.71 vs. 4.80 + /- 0.51 p<0.01 for group B ) in the baseline-final intra-group comparison . The intergroup comparison revealed a significant difference in plasma DHA at delivery : it was found to be higher in the population of supplemented pregnant women ( 3.17 + /- 0.26 vs. 2.77 + /- 0.31 ) . The neonate population displayed no significant differences between the two groups . The results show that LCPS are consumed during the final stages of pregnancy and that oral supplementation with 200 mg/day of DHA is reflected in an increase in the plasma level of this fatty acid in the mother . One could speculate that there would be a corresponding increase in DHA bioavailability for the fetus Background : Studies of long-term intake of industrially produced trans fatty acids ( TFA ) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) suggest opposite effects on cardiovascular disease risk . Common mechanisms of action are probable . Objective : To examine the effects on cardiovascular risk markers of dietary enrichment with TFA or n-3 PUFA . Design : R and omized , double-blind , parallel intervention trial . Setting : Department of Human Nutrition , The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University . Subjects : In all , 87 healthy males included , 79 completed . Intervention : Subjects were r and omly assigned to 8 weeks of a daily intake of 33 g of experimental fats from either partially hydrogenated soy oil containing 20 g of TFA , 12 g of fish oil with approximately 4 g of n-3 PUFA and 21 g of control fat , or 33 g of control fat . The experimental fats were incorporated into bakery products .  Plasma lipids , blood pressure , heart rate variability ( HRV ) , arterial dilatory capacity , compliance , and distensibility were recorded before and after intervention and at follow-up 12 weeks after the intervention . Results : High-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( HDL-C ) decreased in the TFA group and triglycerides and mean arterial blood pressure decreased in the n-3 PUFA group compared to the control group . HRV , arterial dilatory capacity , compliance , and distensibility were unchanged . Conclusion : The results indicate that the association between coronary heart disease risk and intake of TFA and n-3 PUFA relates only modestly to changes in traditional risk markers . Sponsorship : Danish Medical Research Council ( Grant no. 22 - 01 - 0390 ) , Center of Advanced Food Research ( Copenhagen , Denmark ) ( Grant no. KVL-R-2001 - 107 ) , the Danish Heart Association ( Grant no. 99 - 2 - 3 - 45 - 22748 ) , Novozymes ( Bagsvaerd , Denmark ) , Aarhus Olie ( Aarhus , Denmark ) , and from private sources . The experimental fats were provided by Pronova Biocare ( Aalesund , Norway ) and Aarhus Olie ( Aarhus , Denmark ) OBJECTIVE --To provide an independent evaluation of seven day weighed dietary records , which are currently accepted as the most accurate technique for assessing habitual dietary intake in studies investigating the links between diet and health . DESIGN --Subjects who had previously participated in the Northern Irel and diet and health study were reselected by stratified r and om sampling to represent the range of energy intakes in the study as assessed by the seven day weighed dietary record . SETTING --Northern Irel and . SUBJECTS--31 Free living adults ( 16 men and 15 women ) . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES --Energy intake as measured by the  seven day weighed dietary record  and total energy expenditure estimated concurrently by the doubly labelled water technique . RESULTS --Average recorded energy intakes were significantly lower than measured expenditure in the group overall ( 9.66 MJ/day v 12.15 MJ/day , 95 % confidence interval 1.45 to 3.53 MJ/day ) . Among those in the upper third of energy intakes the mean ( SE ) ratio of intake to expenditure was close to 1.0 , indicating accurate records ( men 1.01 ( 0.11 ) , women 0.96 ( 0.08 ] . In the middle and lower thirds the ratios for men were only 0.74 ( 0.05 ) and 0.70 ( 0.07 ) respectively and for women 0.89 ( 0.07 ) and 0.61 ( 0.07 ) . CONCLUSIONS --These results show a serious bias in reporting habitual energy intake . If substantiated they may have wide implication s for the interpretation of many nutritional studies BACKGROUND Several studies have reported that dietary fish oil ( FO ) supplementation alters cytokine production and other functional activities of peripheral blood mononuclear cells ( P BMC ) . However , few of these studies have been placebo controlled and few have related the functional changes to alterations in P BMC fatty acid composition PATIENTS AND METHODS Healthy subjects supplemented their diets with 9 g day-1 of encapsulated placebo oil ( 3 : 1 mix of coconut and soybean oils ) , olive oil ( OO ) , safflower oil ( SO ) , evening primrose oil ( EPO ) or FO [ providing 2.1 g eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) plus 1.1 g docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) per day ] for 12 weeks ; the capsules also provided 205 mg alpha-tocopherol per day . Blood was sample d at 4-weekly intervals and plasma and P BMC prepared . Plasma phospholipid and P BMC fatty acid composition , plasma alpha-tocopherol and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance concentrations , plasma total antioxidant capacity , the proportions of different P BMC subsets , the proportions of P BMC expressing the adhesion molecules CD2 , CD11b and CD54 , and P BMC functions ( lymphocyte proliferation , natural killer cell activity , cytokine production ) were measured . All measurements were repeated after a ' washout ' period of 8 weeks . RESULTS The placebo , OO and SO capsules had no effect on plasma phospholipid or P BMC fatty acid composition . The proportion of dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid in plasma phospholipids was elevated in subjects taking EPO and was decreased in subjects taking FO . There was no appearance of gamma-linolenic acid in the plasma phospholipids or P BMC in subjects taking EPO . There was a marked increase in the proportion of EPA in the plasma phospholipids ( 10-fold ) and P BMC ( four-fold ) of subjects taking FO supplements ; this increase was maximal after 4 weeks of supplementation . There was an increase in the proportion of DHA in plasma phospholipids and P BMC , and an approximately 20 % decrease in the proportion of arachidonic acid in plasma phospholipids and P BMC , during FO supplementation . Plasma concentrations of alpha-tocopherol were significantly elevated during supplementation in all subjects and returned to baseline values after the washout period . There were no effects of supplementation with any of the capsules on total plasma antioxidant activity or plasma thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances or on the proportion of different P BMC subsets , on the proportion of P BMC expressing adhesion molecules , on natural killer cell activity , on the proliferation of mitogen-stimulated whole blood cultures or P BMC , or on the ex vivo production of a range of cytokines by whole blood cultures or P BMC cultures stimulated by either concanavalin A or lipopolysaccharide . CONCLUSION Supplementation of the diet with 3.2 g EPA plus DHA per day markedly alters plasma phospholipid and P BMC fatty acid compositions . The lack of effect of FO upon P BMC functions may relate to the level of alpha-tocopherol included in the supplements Studies of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) intake and status in US toddlers are lacking . One national survey found low DHA intakes . The objectives of this double-blind , r and omized study were to ( a ) determine usual DHA intakes , ( b ) measure the effect of consuming formulas with DHA on red blood cell ( RBC ) and plasma DHA and ( c ) record adverse events in US children between 18 and 36 months of age . Children aged 18 - 36 months were provided 237-ml formula with 0 , 43 , or 130 mg DHA per day for 60 days . Blood was obtained at 0 and 60 days and 24-hour dietary recalls at 0 , 30 and 60 days . Usual median daily DHA intake was 13.3 mg . RBC DHA increased in a dose-dependent manner with increasing DHA intake ( p<0.05 ) . Toddlers consuming the formula with 130 mg DHA per day have fewer adverse events ( p=0.007 ) and a lower incidence of respiratory illness ( p=0.024 ) , compared to the formula without DHA . US toddlers have low DHA intake and status . Modest increases in DHA intake in toddlers might improve development , including respiratory health This study was performed to investigate whether supplementation of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and arachidonic acid ( AA ) to pregnant women would enhance their DHA levels , both in plasma and in erythrocyte phospholipids , without reducing the content of n-6 long-chain ployenes ( LCP ) usually seen when DHA is supplemented alone . Healthy pregnant women , in the second trimester , were r and omly assigned to either the control group ( n=12 ) or the intervention group ( n=12 ) . The control group received no supplements and the intervention group received daily during 4 weeks encapsulated algae-derived DHA oil ( 0.57 g DHA/day ) and fungal-derived AA oil ( 0.26 g AA/day ) . The fatty acid compositions of plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids were determined in weekly-collected blood sample s. DHA and n-6 LCP levels of the control group were unchanged after 4 weeks . Compared to the control group , DHA levels in plasma an erythrocytes of the intervention group increased significantly . No significant reductions were found in the levels of AA and total n-6 LCP . The supplement proved to be effective in increasing the DHA levels in both plasma and erythrocyte without a concomitant decline of the n-6 LCP The intake of long-chain n-3 PUFA , including DHA ( 22 : 6n-3 ) , is associated with a reduced risk of CVD . Schizochytrium sp. are an important primary source of DHA in the marine food chain but they also provide substantial quantities of the n-6 PUFA docosapentaenoic acid ( 22 : 5n-6 ; DPA ) . The effect of this oil on cardiovascular risk factors was evaluated using a double-blind r and omised placebo-controlled parallel- design trial in thirty-nine men and forty women . Subjects received 4 g oil/d for 4 weeks ; the active treatment provided 1.5 g DHA and 0.6 g DPA . Active treatment increased plasma concentrations of arachidonic acid , adrenic acid , DPA and DHA by 21 , 11 , 11 and 88 mg/l respectively and the proportions of DPA and DHA in erythrocyte phospholipids by 78 and 27 % respectively . Serum total , LDL- and HDL-cholesterol increased by 0.33 mmol/l ( 7.3 % ) , 0.26 mmol/l ( 10.4 % ) and 0.14 mmol/l ( 9.0 % ) compared with placebo ( all P < or = 0.001 ) . Factor VII ( FVII ) coagulant activity increased by 12 % following active treatment ( P = 0.006 ) . There were no significant differences between treatments in LDL size , blood pressure , plasma glucose , serum C-reactive protein , plasma FVII antigen , FVII activated , fibrinogen , von Willebr and factor , tocopherol or carotenoid concentrations , plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 , creatine kinase or troponin-I activities , haematology or liver function tests or self-reported adverse effects . Overall , the oil was well tolerated and did not adversely affect cardiovascular risk Epidemiological studies show that n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) ratios have risen dramatically in Western diets and are associated with numerous chronic inflammation-related diseases . More balanced ratios are linked to less inflammation . This study examines the effects of adding oral supplements containing n-3 eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) to diets of healthy young adults on plasma n-6/n-3 ratios . Thirty volunteers are r and omly assigned to one of two groups : experimental group , EPA ( 1.6 g/day ) and DHA ( 1.2 g/day ) ; and the control group , mineral oil ( 2.4 ml/day ) . Plasma fatty acids , nutrients from foods , and anthropometric measures are evaluated at baseline and at the Week 4 endpoint . The mean ( ±SD ) n-6/n-3 ratio for the experimental group is significantly lower ( 6.3 ± 1.6 ) than the placebo group ( 16.8 ± 3.5 ) by study completion . The results suggest that more balanced n-6/n-3 ratios may be achieved efficiently in healthy , young adults with supplements containing EPA and DHA Due to the growing knowledge about the role of specific fatty acids in health and disease , dietary intake measurements of individual fatty acids or classes of fatty acids are becoming increasingly important . The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of the Nambour FFQ to estimate intakes of specific fatty acids , particularly PUFA .  The study population was a sub- sample of adult participants in a r and omised controlled trial of beta-carotene and sunscreen in the prevention of skin cancer ( n 43 ) .  Dietary intake was assessed by a self-administered FFQ and a weighed food record ( WFR ) . Non-fasting blood sample s were collected and analysed for plasma phospholipid fatty acids . Median intakes on the FFQ were generally higher than the WFR except for the n-3 PUFA groups , where the FFQ estimated higher intakes . Correlations between the FFQ and WFR were moderate ( r 0 x 32 - 0 x 59 ) except for trans fatty acids ( r 0 x 03 ) . Correlations between each of the dietary assessment methods and the plasma phospholipids were poor for all fatty acids other than the PUFA . Using the methods of triads approach , the FFQ validity coefficients for total n-3 fatty acids , total long chain n-3 fatty acids , EPA , arachidonic acid , docosapentaenoic acid and DHA were 0 x 50 , 0 x 63 , 0 x 45 and 0 x 62 and 0 x 62 , respectively . For most fatty acids , the FFQ adequately estimates group mean fatty acid intakes and can adequately rank individuals ; however , the ability of this FFQ to estimate trans fatty acids was poor The objective of the present study was to evaluate the oxidative susceptibility of LDL in human volunteers following supplementation with various low doses ( < 1 g/d ) of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) .  Sixty-two healthy volunteers ( thirty-seven males and twenty-five females , aged 19 - 63 years ) were recruited to take part in a r and omised placebo-controlled trial . Volunteers were required to take 0.9 , 0.6 or 0.3 g n-3 PUFA as fish oil or placebo capsules daily for 16 weeks . Susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification was assessed by measuring the production of conjugated dienes and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances in LDL oxidised by Cu2 + ( 15 microM ) or 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane ) dihydrochloride ( 1 mM ) for 5 h. Plasma fatty acid and LDL-fatty acid composition , cholesterol levels and antioxidant concentrations were also measured . While post-treatment n-3 PUFA compositions of plasma and LDL reflected the capsule contents , no meaningful differences in antioxidant concentrations or cholesterol levels were observed between the groups . Supplementation with low doses of n-3 PUFA as fish oil did not influence the oxidative susceptibility of LDL . The results of the present study suggest that moderate dietary intakes of n-3 PUFA do not significantly influence the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in vitro Objective : Incorporation of fish oil into food products provides a means of increasing n–3 fatty acid intake , particularly in population s where fish consumption remains low . The aim of the present study was to evaluate the bioavailability of n–3 PUFA in microencapsulated fish-oil-enriched foods compared with an equal amount of n–3 PUFAs contained in fish oil capsules . Methods : Twenty-five healthy female volunteers were r and omly assigned to one of two groups for the 4-week intervention : one group received 0.9 g of n–3 PUFA/day as fish oil capsule ( capsule group ) , while the second group ( food group ) received an equal amount of n–3 PUFA/day from enriched foods . Baseline and post-intervention sample s were analysed for platelet fatty acid composition . Results : There was no significant difference in the change in platelet arachidonic acid ( AA ) , eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) , or docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) between the two groups following the intervention . Conclusions : The results indicate that n–3 PUFA from microencapsulated fish-oil-enriched foods are as bioavailable as n–3 PUFA in a capsule . Fortification of foods with microencapsulated fish oil , therefore , offers an effective way of increasing n–3 PUFA intakes and status in line with current dietary recommendations Background : There is a debate currently about whether different chemical forms of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) are absorbed in an identical way . The objective of this study was to investigate the response of the omega-3 index , the percentage of EPA+DHA in red blood cell membranes , to supplementation with two different omega-3 fatty acid ( n-3 FA ) formulations in humans . Design : The study was conducted as a double-blinded placebo-controlled trial . A total of 150 volunteers was r and omly assigned to one of the three groups : ( 1 ) fish oil concentrate with EPA+DHA ( 1.01 g+0.67 g ) given as reesterified triacylglycerides ( rTAG group ) ; ( 2 ) corn oil ( placebo group ) or ( 3 ) fish oil concentrate with EPA+DHA ( 1.01 g+0.67 g ) given as ethyl ester ( EE group ) . Volunteers consumed four gelatine-coated soft capsules daily over a period of six months . The omega-3 index was determined at baseline ( t0 ) after three months ( t3 ) and at the end of the intervention period ( t6 ) . Results : The omega-3 index increased significantly in both groups treated with n-3 FAs from baseline to t3 and t6 ( P<0.001 ) . The omega-3 index increased to a greater extent in the rTAG group than in the EE group ( t3 : 186 versus 161 % ( P<0.001 ) ; t6 : 197 versus 171 % ( P<0.01 ) ) . Conclusion : A six-month supplementation of identical doses of EPA+DHA led to a faster and higher increase in the omega-3 index when consumed as triacylglycerides than when consumed as ethyl esters The average daily consumption of seal oil by the Inuit people is approximately 8 - 9 g , yet there is very little information on the effect of seal oil consumption on cardiovascular disease risk factors . In this study , 19 healthy , normocholesterolemic subjects consumed 20 g of encapsulated seal oil containing eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ; 20:5n-3 ) , docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ; 22:6n-3 ) , and docosapentaenoic acid ( DPA ; 22:5n-3 ) or 20 g of vegetable oil ( control ) per day for 42 days . Levels of selected cardiovascular and thrombotic risk factors as well as fatty acid profiles of serum phospholipid and nonesterified fatty acid ( NEFA ) were determined . EPA levels in serum phospholipid and NEFA increased by 4.3- and 2.7-fold , respectively , in the seal oil supplemented group . DHA levels rose 1.5- and 2.1-fold , respectively , and DPA levels rose 0.5- and 0.7-fold , respectively . Arachidonic acid ( AA ) levels dropped by 26 % in both serum phospholipid and serum NEFA . There was a significant decrease in the ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids in serum phospholipid from 7.2 to 2.1 and a significant increase in the ratio of EPA/AA in NEFA . Ingestion of seal oil raised the coagulant inhibitor , protein C , values by 7 % and decreased plasma fibrinogen by 18 % . No alterations in other hemostatic variables , including plasma activity of Factors VII , VIII , IX , and X and antithrombin , or in the concentrations of von Willebr and Factor , total cholesterol , high-density lipoprotein cholesterol , low-density lipoprotein cholesterol , triglyceride , glucose , Apo A-1 , or lipoprotein(a ) were observed in either group . Other risk factors for cardiovascular disease , including hematocrit , white blood cell count , plasma viscosity , systolic and diastolic blood pressures , heart rate , and platelet aggregation after stimulation with ADP or collagen did not change . Our results indicate that seal oil supplementation in healthy , normocholesterolemic subjects decreased the n-6/n-3 ratio and increased EPA , DHA , and DPA and the ratio of EPA/AA and DHA/AA in the serum phospholipid and NEFA , while exhibiting a modest beneficial effect on fibrinogen and protein C levels OBJECTIVES The aim of the study was to investigate whether fish oil supplementation affected Japanese schoolchildren 's behavior , with changes in aggression over time as the primary endpoint . DESIGN AND SUBJECTS A placebo-controlled double-blind study with 166 schoolchildren 9 - 12 years of age was performed . The subjects of the fish oil group ( n=83 ) took fish oil-fortified foods ( bread , sausage and spaghetti ) . These foods were provided in amounts such that each subject in the fish oil group had an intake of 3600 mg of docosahexaenoic acid+840 mg of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)/week for 3 months . The rest ( the controls , n=83 ) took control supplements . At the start and end of the study , psychological tests were performed to assess their aggression . RESULTS Physical aggression assessed by Hostility-Aggression Question naire for Children in girls increased significantly ( median : 13 to 15 , n=42 ) in the control group and did not change ( 13 to 13 , n=43 ) in the fish oil group with a significant intergroup difference ( P=.008 ) with baseline as covariate . The changes in physical aggression scores over time and those of the ratio of EPA/arachidonic acid in RBC ( DeltaEPA/AA ) were significantly correlated in girls who agreed to blood collection ( r=-.53 , P=.01 , n=23 ) . On the contrary , there were no significant changes in physical aggression in boys . Aggression against others ( extraggression ) assessed by Picture Frustration Study did not change in the control group ( median : 5 to 5 ) but increased significantly in the fish oil group ( 4 to 5 ) with a significant intergroup difference ( P=.02 ) with baseline as covariate . These changes in extraggression might be explained partly by significantly lower baseline values of extraggression in the fish oil group ( P=.02 ) than in the control group . There were no significant correlations between Deltaextraggression and DeltaEPA/AA in blood- sample d children ( n=49 ) . Impulsivity of girls assessed by parents/guardians using the diagnostic criteria for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder of DSM-IV was reduced in the fish oil group ( 1 to 0 ) with a significant ( P=.008 ) intergroup difference from the control group ( 1 to 1 ) . There were no significant correlations between Delt aim pulsivity and DeltaEPA/AA in blood- sample d girls . In males , impulsivity reduced in both groups without any intergroup differences . CONCLUSION There is a possibility that changes in fatty acid nutrition might affect physical aggression especially in girls This study set out to identify whether stearidonic acid ( 18:4n-3 ; STA ) can be used to increase the eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5n-3 ; EPA ) content of plasma lipids and cells in humans and to underst and more about the effects of increased consumption of gamma-linolenic acid ( 18:3n-3 ; GLA ) , STA and EPA in humans . Healthy young males were r and omised to consume one of seven oil blends for a period of 12 weeks ( 9 g oil/day ) ( n = 8 - 12 subjects/group ) . Palm oil , sunflower oil , an EPA-rich oil , borage oil ( rich in GLA ) , and Echium oil ( rich in STA ) were blended in various combinations to generate a placebo oil and oils providing approximately 2 g GLA + STA + EPA per day , but in different combinations . Blood was collected at 0 , 4 , 8 and 12 weeks and the fatty acid compositions of plasma triacylglycerols , cholesteryl esters and phospholipids and of peripheral blood mononuclear cells ( P BMC s ) determined . Significant effects were observed with each lipid fraction . Neither STA nor its derivative 20:4n-3 appeared in any of the lipid fractions studied when STA ( up to 1g/day ) was consumed . However , STA ( 1g/day ) , in combination with GLA ( 0.9 g/day ) , increased the proportion of EPA in some lipid fractions , suggesting that STA-rich plant oils may offer a novel means of increasing EPA status . Furthermore , this combination tended to increase the dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid ( 20:3n-6 ; DGLA ) content of P BMC s , without an increase in arachidonic acid ( AA ) ( 20:4n-6 ) content . EPA consumption increased the EPA content of all lipid fractions studied . Consumption of GLA ( 2g/day ) , in the absence of STA or EPA , increased DGLA content with a tendency to increase AA content in some fractions . This effect was prevented by inclusion of EPA in combination with GLA . Thus , this study indicates that STA may be used as a precursor to increase the EPA content of human lipids and that combinations of GLA , STA and EPA can be used to manipulate the fatty acid compositions of lipid pools in subtle ways . Such effects may offer new strategies for manipulation of cell composition in order to influence cellular responses and functions in desirable ways
The aims of the present study were to review the validity of dietary methods used to measure the usual long chain ( LC ) omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( n-3 PUFA ) intake of a population and to assess the usefulness of different biomarkers of n-3 PUFA in healthy humans .