Rapid early growth is associated with increased risk of childhood type 1 diabetes in various European populations. Feeding in Infancy and the Risk of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus in Finnish Children Maternal Antibodies in Breast Milk Protect the Child From Enterovirus Infections Early infant feeding and type 1 diabetes Short duration of breast-feeding as a risk-factor for beta-cell autoantibodies in 5-year-old children from the general population. Enhanced levels of cow's milk antibodies in infancy in children who develop type 1 diabetes later in childhood. Reduced Risk of IDDM Among Breast-Fed Children: The Colorado IDDM Registry Environmental Factors in Childhood IDDM: A population-based, case-control study
OBJECTIVE To confirm that early growth is associated with type 1 diabetes risk in European children and eluci date any role of infant feeding . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Five centers participated , each with a population -based register of type 1 diabetes diagnosed at < 15 years of age . Control subjects were r and omly chosen from population registers , schools , or polyclinics . Growth data were obtained from routine records and infant feeding information from parental question naire or interview . Patient/control subject differences in mean st and ard deviation score ( SDS ) were obtained for each center and pooled . Odds ratios ( ORs ) were pooled by the Mantel-Haenszel method , and logistic regression was used to adjust for confounders . RESULTS Growth data were available for 499 patients and 1,337 control subjects .  Height and weight SDS were significantly increased among patients from 1 month after birth , the maximum differences of 0.32 ( 95 % CI 0.14 - 0.50 ) and 0.41 ( 0.26 - 0.55 ) , respectively , occurring between 1 and 2 years of age . Significant excesses in BMI SDS were observed from 6 months of age , with the largest difference of 0.27 ( 0.10 , 0.44 ) evident between 1 and 2 years . Breast-feeding was associated with reduced disease risk , OR 0.75 ( 0.58 - 0.96 ) . Introduction of cow 's milk , formula , or solid foods before 3 months was not associated with significant risk elevation . CONCLUSION Increased early growth is associated with disease risk in various European population s. Any role of infant feeding in this association remains unclear In a case — control design the feeding in infancy of newly diagnosed 7‐ to 14‐year‐old diabetic children ( n = 426 ) was compared with that of age‐ and sex‐matched non‐diabetic children ( n = 426 ) r and omly selected from the Finnish population registry . All 7‐ to 14‐year‐old diabetic children diagnosed from September 1986 to the end of April 1989 from all hospitals which treat diabetic children in Finl and were invited to participate in the study .  Breast‐feeding was initiated in almost all children , but during the birth years of this study population ( 1972–1982 ) , an increase was observed in the duration of  breast‐feeding  ( whether alone or in combination with supplementary feeding ) and in the age of introduction of supplementary milk feeding .  The risk of Type 1 diabetes was decreased in the children who were totally breast‐fed for at least 2 months ( odds ratio ( OR ) 0.64 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) 0.42–0.98 ) or 3 months ( OR 0.67 , 95 % CI 0.48–0.95 ) or exclusively breast‐fed for at least 2 months ( OR 0.60 , 95 % CI 0.41–0.89 ) or 3 months ( OR 0.63 , 95 % CI 0.43–0.93 ) . Those children who were younger than 2 months ( OR 1.54 , 95 % CI 1.08–2.18 ) or 3 months ( OR 1.52 , 95 % CI 1.11–2.08 ) at the time when supplementary milk feeding was begun had an increased risk of Type 1 diabetes . These associations remained significant after adjusting for the mother 's education . The results suggest that early infant feeding patterns are associated with the risk of Type 1 diabetes developing at the age of 7 to 14 years OBJECTIVE . Enterovirus infections are frequent in infants and may cause severe complications . We set out to assess whether breastfeeding can protect against these infections and whether such an effect is related to maternal antibodies in breast milk or in the peripheral circulation of the infant . METHODS . One hundred fifty infants who were prospect ively followed up from birth were monitored for enterovirus infections . The duration of breastfeeding was recorded , and maternal breast milk and blood sample s were regularly taken at 3-month intervals for the detection of enterovirus antibodies and RNA . Maternal serum was available from early pregnancy , delivery , and 3 months postpartum . RESULTS . Enterovirus infections were frequent and were diagnosed in 43 % of infants before the age of 1 year and in 15 % of the mothers during pregnancy . Infants exclusively breastfed for > 2 weeks had fewer enterovirus infections by the age of 1 year compared with those exclusively breastfed for ≤2 weeks ( 0.38 vs 0.59 infections per child ) . High maternal antibody levels in serum and in breast milk were associated with a reduced frequency of infections . This effect was seen only in those infants breastfed > 2 weeks , indicating that breast milk antibodies mediate this effect . Enterovirus RNA was not found in any of the breast milk sample s. CONCLUSIONS . These results suggest that breastfeeding has a protective effect against enterovirus infections in infancy . This effect seems to be mediated primarily by maternal antibodies in breast milk Background Infant feeding practice s , particularly the type of milk feeding , have been associated with the development of type 1 diabetes . Aim of the study We studied the relationship between early infant feeding ( during the first year of life ) and diabetes in a large population -based cohort . Methods In 1994–1995 , 6,209 healthy full-term newborns participated in a study examining the effect of supplementary feeding , on development of allergy to cow ’s milk , in maternity hospitals . All supplements in the maternity hospitals were known . Mothers recorded the feeding of infants prospect ively at home . In August 2006 , from a nationwide diabetes registry , 45 children from our cohort were listed as having type 1 diabetes . Results The distribution of cases was similar in the r and omized feeding groups : 9/1,789 in the group that received adapted cow ’s milk-based formula ; 12/1,737 in those who received extensively hydrolyzed formula ; 16/1,859 in those who received banked human milk ; and 8 among those 824 exclusively breast-fed in the hospital . When children who had received cow ’s milk-based formula in the maternity hospital were compared with those without such exposure , less number of children in the former group had diabetes by age 8 ( P = 0.026 ) , but by the end of the follow-up ( 11.5 years ) the difference disappeared ( P = 0.16 ) . Length of breast-feeding and introduction of cereals and other solid foods were similar among those developing type 1 diabetes and those remaining healthy , while early regular daily feeding with cow ’s milk-based formula tended to associate with lower risk for type 1 diabetes ( OR 0.66 ; 95 % confidence interval 0.38–1.13 ; P = 0.08 ) . Conclusions In an extended , secondary analysis of a population -based cohort , very early exposure to cow ’s milk is not a risk factor for type 1 diabetes ; it may in fact diminish its appearance before age 8 Breast-feeding has been suggested to have a protective effect against the development of  type 1 diabetes .  In the present study , we investigated the relation between duration of breast-feeding and beta-cell autoantibodies in 5-year-old non-diabetic children who participated in a prospect i ve population -based follow-up study ( the All Babies in Southeast Sweden study ) .  Autoantibodies to insulin ( IAA ) , glutamic acid decarboxylase ( GADA ) and the protein tryosine phosphatase-like IA-2 ( IA-2A ) were measured by radiobinding assays . A short duration of total breast-feeding was associated with an increased risk of GADA and /or IAA above the ninety-fifth percentile at 5 years of age ( OR 2.09 , 95 % CI 1.45 , 3.02 ; P<0.000 ) as well as with an increased risk of IAA above the ninety-fifth percentile at this age ( OR 2.89 , 95 % CI 1.81 , 4.62 , P<0.000 ) . A short duration of exclusive breast-feeding was associated with an increased risk of GADA , IAA and /or IA-2A above the ninety-ninth percentile ( OR 2.01 , 95 % CI 1.08 , 3.73 ; P=0.028 ) as well as with an increased risk of IA-2A above the ninety-ninth percentile ( OR 3.50 , 95 % CI 1.38 , 8.92 , P=0.009 ) at 5 years of age . An early introduction of formula was associated with an increased risk of GADA , IAA and /or IA-2A above the ninety-ninth percentile ( OR 1.84 , 95 % CI 1.01 , 3.37 ; P=0.047 ) at 5 years of age . The positive association between a short duration of both total and exclusive breast-feeding , as well as an early introduction of formula , and positivity for beta-cell autoantibodies in children from the general population suggest that breast-feeding modifies the risk of beta-cell autoimmunity , even years after finishing breast-feeding BACKGROUND Early exposure to cow 's milk ( CM ) proteins have been implicated in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes ( T1D ) . OBJECTIVE We analyzed the development of the humoral immune response to dietary CM proteins in early childhood and its relation to later T1D . SUBJECTS AND METHODS We studied a subgroup of 94 children r and omized to be weaned to a CM-based infant formula in the trial to reduce insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in the genetically at risk ( TRIGR ) pilot study . All subjects carried human leukocyte antigen-conferred T1D susceptibility and had an affected first-degree relative . After 7 years of follow-up , 8 subjects had progressed to T1D , 15 had at least one disease-associated autoantibody , and 71 remained autoantibody negative ( controls ) . Immunoglobulin ( Ig ) G and IgA class antibodies to whole CM formula , beta-lactoglobulin ( BLG ) , bovine serum albumin , and alpha-casein and IgG antibodies to bovine insulin ( BI ) were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays from sequential sample s. RESULTS The children with later T1D showed increased IgG levels to BLG from 3 to 18 months of age ( p = 0.028 ) and enhanced IgA levels to CM formula at the age of 9 months ( p = 0.022 ) compared with controls . In the children with an affected father or sibling , IgG antibodies to BI were higher in autoantibody-positive subjects than in autoantibody-negative subjects at 18 months of age ( p = 0.022 ) . CONCLUSION An enhanced humoral immune response to various CM proteins in infancy is seen in a subgroup of those children who later progress to T1D . Accordingly , a dysregulated immune response to oral antigens is an early event in the pathogenesis of T1D The hypothesis that breast-feeding can provide protection against the development of  insulindependent diabetes mellitus ( IDDM )  and would , therefore , be less common among subjects with IDDM was tested with a retrospective design . Cases ( n = 268 ) were selected from the Colorado IDDM Registry and the Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes ( Denver , CO ) . Two control groups were recruited , one from physicians ' practice s throughout Colorado ( n = 291 ) and the second through r and om-digit dialing from the Denver area ( n = 188 ) . Cases were less likely to have been breast-fed than controls after adjustment for birth year , maternal age , maternal education , family income , race , and sex [ adjusted odds ratio ( OR ) = 0.70 ; 95 % confidence interval ( Cl ) = 0.50–0.97 ] . This finding was consistent for both control groups and by birth-year intervals . A greater decrease in risk of IDDM was seen among subjects who had been breast-fed to an older age ( for breast-feeding duration of ≥12 mo , adjusted OR = 0.54 , 95 % Cl = 0.27–1.08 ) . The amount of IDDM that might be explained by breast-feeding habits ( population percentage attributable risk ) ranged from 2 to 26 % , varying according to the breast-feeding prevalence reported in other studies . Replication of this work in different population s , controlled for the strong secular trends in breast-feeding habits , is critical before the hypothesis of protection is accepted OBJECTIVE To identify environmental factors involved in the etiology of  insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus ( IDDM ) . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS An estimated 90 % of all incident cases of IDDM in patients 0–14 years of age in New South Wales , Australia , were ascertained over 18 months . For each IDDM patient , two age- and sex-matched control subjects were r and omly selected from the population . Past environmental exposures were determined with a question naire completed by the parents . Response rates were 92 % for the IDDM patients ( 217 of 235 ) and 55 % for the control subjects ( 258 of 470 ) . The relative risk associated with each exposure was estimated with the odds ratio ( OR ) adjusted for confounding factors using multiple logistic regression . RESULTS The introduction of cow 's milk-based infant formula into the diet before 3 months of age was associated with an increased risk ( OR 1.52 , 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] 1.04–2.24 ) . Exclusive breast-feeding for ≥3 months was associated with a protective effect ( OR 0.66 , 95 % CI 0.45–0.97 ) . High dietary intake of cow 's milk protein in the 12 months before the onset of diabetic symptoms was also associated with an increased risk ( OR 1.84 , 95 % CI 1.12–3.00 ) . A recent infection ( during the 3 months before onset of diabetic symptoms ) was more common in the patients than the control subjects ( OR 2.92 , 95 % CI 1.96–4.35 ) , as was day care attendance before the age of 3 ( OR 1.73 , 95 % CI 1.00–3.00 ) . When two age-groups , defined by the median age at onset of diabetes , were compared , the associations with early infant-feeding were stronger among the younger group ( < 9.2 years ) , and associations with recent diet and recent infection were stronger among the older group ( ≥9.2 years ) . CONCLUSIONS These results indicate an increased risk of IDDM associated with early dietary exposure to cow 's milk-containing formula , short duration of exclusive breast-feeding , high intake of cow 's milk protein in the recent diet , recent infection , and early attendance at day care
Current evidence provides contradictory results in regards to the associations of breastfeeding or early introduction of cow 's milk and formula with the development of  type 1 diabetes ( T1D ) .
The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the type of feeding , duration of breastfeeding , time of introduction of formula or cow 's milk  , and the potential impact on developing T1D .