Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. Habitual micronutrient intake during and after pregnancy in Caucasian Londoners. Allergic disease in infants up to 2 years of age in relation to plasma omega-3 fatty acids and maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy and lactation. Effects of maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake on visual function and neurodevelopment in breastfed term infants. Effects of maternal iodine supplementation during pregnancy. Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid ameliorates the impairment of spatial cognition learning ability in amyloid beta-infused rats. Essential n-3 fatty acids in pregnant women and early visual acuity maturation in term infants. Similar effects on infants of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids supplementation to pregnant and lactating women. Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: double-blind, randomized clinical trial of safety and effectiveness. Changes in folate status in overweight/obese women following two different weight control programmes based on an increased consumption of vegetables or fortified breakfast cereals. Maternal fish and other seafood intakes during pregnancy and child neurodevelopment at age 4 years. Cognitive assessment of children at age 2½ years after maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy: a randomised controlled trial The DIAMOND (DHA Intake And Measurement Of Neural Development) Study: a double-masked, randomized controlled clinical trial of the maturation of infant visual acuity as a function of the dietary level of docosahexaenoic acid. Vitamin D requirements during lactation: high-dose maternal supplementation as therapy to prevent hypovitaminosis D for both the mother and the nursing infant. An assessment of progress toward universal salt iodization in Rajasthan, India, using iodine nutrition indicators in school-aged children and pregnant women from the same households. Vitamin D supplements in pregnant Asian women: effects on calcium status and fetal growth. Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders in the offspring of mothers exposed to mild-moderate iodine deficiency: a possible novel iodine deficiency disorder in developed countries. Maternal Serum Levels of 25-Hydroxy-Vitamin D During Pregnancy and Risk of Type 1 Diabetes in the Offspring Essential fatty acid status in neonates after fish-oil supplementation during late pregnancy. Effect of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy on neonatal mineral homeostasis and anthropometry of the newborn and infant. Seasonal variation of maternal serum vitamin D in Newfoundland and Labrador. Prevalence of suboptimal vitamin D status during pregnancy. Cognitive function in 18-month-old term infants of the DIAMOND study: a randomized, controlled clinical trial with multiple dietary levels of docosahexaenoic acid. Effect of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation of lactating women on the fatty acid composition of breast milk lipids and maternal and infant plasma phospholipids. Toddler formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) improves DHA status and respiratory health in a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of US children less than 3 years of age. Effect of increasing breast milk docosahexaenoic acid on plasma and erythrocyte phospholipid fatty acids and neural indices of exclusively breast fed infants Prenatal DHA status and neurological outcome in children at age 5.5 years are positively associated. Effects of Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation During Pregnancy on Gestational Age and Size at Birth: Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial in Mexico Maternal DHA and the development of attention in infancy and toddlerhood. Effect of Supplementing Pregnant and Lactating Mothers With n-3 Very-Long-Chain Fatty Acids on Children's IQ and Body Mass Index at 7 Years of Age Neurophysiologic and neurobehavioral evidence of beneficial effects of prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake on memory function at school age.
OBJECTIVES Docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ; 22:6 n-3 ) and arachidonic acid ( AA ; 20:4 n-6 ) are important for development of the central nervous system in mammals . There is a growth spurt in the human brain during the last trimester of pregnancy and the first postnatal months , with a large increase in the cerebral content of AA and DHA .  The fetus and the newborn infant depend on maternal supply of DHA and AA . Our hypothesis was that maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy and lactation is marginal and that high intake of this fatty acid would benefit the child . We examined the effect of supplementing pregnant and lactating women with very-long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ; cod liver oil ) on mental development of the children , compared with maternal supplementation with long-chain n-6 PUFAs ( corn oil ) . METHODS The study was r and omized and double-blinded . Pregnant women were recruited in week 18 of pregnancy to take 10 mL of cod liver oil or corn oil until 3 months after delivery . The cod liver oil contained 1183 mg/10 mL DHA , 803 mg/10 mL eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5 n-3 ) , and a total of 2494 mg/10 mL summation operator n-3 PUFAs . The corn oil contained 4747 mg/10 mL linoleic acid ( 18:2 n-6 ) and 92 mg/10 mL alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3 n-3 ) . The amount of fat-soluble vitamins was identical in the 2 oils ( 117 micro g/mL vitamin A , 1 micro g/mL vitamin D , and 1.4 mg/mL dl-alpha-tocopherol ) . A total of 590 pregnant women were recruited to the study , and 341 mothers took part in the study until giving birth . All infants of these women were scheduled for assessment of cognitive function at 6 and 9 months of age , and 262 complied with the request . As part of the protocol , 135 subjects from this population were invited for intelligence testing  with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children ( K-ABC ) at 4 years of age . Of the 135 invited children , 90 came for assessment . Six children did not complete the examination . The K-ABC is a measure of intelligence and achievement design ed for children aged 2.5 years through 12.5 years . This multisubtest battery comprises 4 scales : Sequential Processing , Simultaneous Processing , Achievement ( not used in the present study ) , and Nonverbal Abilities . The Sequential Processing and Simultaneous Processing scales are hypothesized to reflect the child 's style of problem solving and information processing . Scores from these 2 scales are combined to form a Mental Processing Composite , which serves as the measure of intelligence in the K-ABC . RESULTS We received dietary information from 76 infants ( 41 in the cod liver oil group and 35 in the corn oil group ) , documenting that all of them were breastfed at 3 months of age . Children who were born to mothers who had taken cod liver oil ( n = 48 ) during pregnancy and lactation scored higher on the Mental Processing Composite of the K-ABC at 4 years of age as compared with children whose mothers had taken  corn oil  ( n = 36 ; 106.4 [ 7.4 ] vs 102.3 [ 11.3 ] ) . The Mental Processing Composite score correlated significantly with head circumference at birth ( r = 0.23 ) , but no relation was found with birth weight or gestational length . The children 's mental processing scores at 4 years of age correlated significantly with maternal intake of DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid during pregnancy . In a multiple regression model , maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy was the only variable of statistical significance for the children 's mental processing scores at 4 years of age . CONCLUSION Maternal intake of very-long-chain n-3 PUFAs during pregnancy and lactation may be favorable for later mental development of children Micronutrient status is of fundamental importance both upon conception and throughout pregnancy . There is an abundance of literature investigating nutrient intakes during individual trimesters of pregnancy but few studies have investigated baseline intakes of nutrients throughout gestation as a continuum . The current investigation set out to measure habitual micronutrient intakes at weeks 13 , 25 , 35 of pregnancy and 6 weeks postpartum using a prospect i ve background information question naire , 4 - 7-day weighed food diary and postnatal question naire . Seventy-two primiparous , Caucasian Londoners were recruited at the study start with 42 completing the first , second , third trimester and postpartum study stages respectively . Study findings indicated that sodium intakes were significantly higher than UK guidelines throughout and after pregnancy ( P < 0.001 ) . Intakes of folate , iron , vitamin D , potassium , iodine and selenium were lower than UK recommendations during and after pregnancy , but to varying levels of statistical significance ( P < 0.05 ) . Only 23 - 38 % of women met UK recommendations for  folate  ( 300 microg day(-1 ) ) through dietary sources . Similarly , only a small percentage of women met dietary guidelines for iron ( 19 - 28 % ) . The findings from the current study indicate that public health interventions may be required to help expectant mothers achieve an optimal diet , particularly after birth when dietary recommendations increase for some micronutrients We have previously reported a protective effect of maternal omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( ω-3 LCPUFA ) supplementation in pregnancy and lactation on IgE-associated eczema and food allergy in the infant during the first year of life . Here we investigate whether the effects of the LCPUFA supplementation on IgE-associated diseases last up to 2 yr of age and assess the relationship between plasma proportions of ω-3 PUFAs and the frequency and severity of infant allergic disease . 145 pregnant women , at risk of having an allergic infant , were r and omized to daily supplementation with 1.6 g eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and 1.1 g docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) or placebo starting in the 25th gestational week and continuing through 3.5 months of breastfeeding . Clinical examinations , skin prick tests and analysis of maternal and infant plasma phospholipid fatty acids and infant specific IgE were performed . No difference in the prevalence of allergic symptoms was found between the intervention groups . The cumulative incidence of IgE-associated disease was lower in the ω-3-supplemented group ( 6/54 , 13 % ) compared with the placebo group ( 19/62 , 30 % , p=0.01 ) . Higher maternal and infant proportions of DHA and EPA were associated with lower prevalence of IgE associated disease ( p=0.01 - 0.05 ) in a dose-dependent manner . Higher maternal and infant proportions of DHA and EPA were found if the infants presented none , when compared with multiple allergic symptoms , ( p<0.05 ) regardless of sensitization . In summary , the ω-3 supplementation offered no obvious preventive effect on the prevalence of clinical symptoms of allergic disease , but the decrease in cumulative incidence of IgE-associated disease seen during the first year still remained until 2 yr of age . Furthermore , high proportions of DHA and EPA in maternal and infant plasma phospholipids were associated with less IgE-associated disease and a reduced severity of the allergic phenotype BACKGROUND Normal brain and visual development is thought to require exogenous docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ; 22:6n-3 ) intake , but the amount needed is debatable . Because the supplementation of breastfeeding mothers with DHA increases the DHA content of their infants ' plasma lipids , we hypothesized that it might also improve brain or visual function in the infants . OBJECTIVE The objective was to determine the effect of DHA supplementation of breastfeeding mothers on neurodevelopmental status and visual function in the recipient infant . DESIGN Breastfeeding women received capsules containing either a high-DHA algal oil ( approximately 200 mg DHA/d ) or a vegetable oil ( no DHA ) for 4 mo after delivery . Outcome variables included the fatty acid pattern of maternal plasma phospholipid and milk lipids 4 mo postpartum , the fatty acid pattern of plasma phospholipids and visual function in infants at 4 and 8 mo of age , and neurodevelopmental indexes of the infants at 12 and 30 mo of age . RESULTS Milk lipid and infant plasma phospholipid DHA contents of the supplemented and control groups were approximately 75 % and approximately 35 % higher , respectively , at 4 mo postpartum . However , neither the neurodevelopmental indexes of the infants at 12 mo of age nor the visual function at 4 or 8 mo of age differed significantly between groups . In contrast , the Bayley Psychomotor Development Index , but not the Mental Development Index , of the supplemented group was higher ( P < 0.01 ) at 30 mo of age . CONCLUSION DHA supplementation  of breastfeeding mothers results in higher infant plasma phospholipid DHA contents during supplementation and a higher Bayley Psychomotor Development Index at 30 mo of age but results in no other advantages either at or before this age Reduced maternal thyroid hormone concentrations during pregnancy can adversely affect fetal neurological development . In the context of national iodine supplementation programmes , concern has been expressed over the theoretical possibility that iodine supplementation during pregnancy might adversely affect fetal development as a result of maternal thyroid inhibition from the Wolff-Chaikoff effect . In a double blind controlled trial in five villages in Papua New Guinea , several measures of motor and cognitive function showed no significant differences at either age 11 or 15 years between those children whose mothers had received supplementary iodine during pregnancy and the control children whose mothers had received the placebo We investigated whether administration of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , a major ( n-3 ) fatty acid of the brain , ameliorates the impairment of learning ability in an animal model of Alzheimer 's disease ( AD ) , rats infused with amyloid-beta ( Abeta ) peptide ( 1 - 40 ) into the cerebral ventricle . Inbred 3rd generation male rats ( 20 wk old ) fed a fish oil-deficient diet were r and omly divided into 4 groups : a vehicle group , an Abeta peptide-infused group ( Abeta group ) , a DHA group , and an Abeta + DHA group . A mini-osmotic pump filled with Abeta peptide or vehicle was implanted in the rats , and they were tested for learning ability-related reference and working memory in an 8-arm radial maze . The rats were then orally fed DHA dissolved in 5 % gum Arabic solution at 300 mg/(kg . d ) ( DHA and Abeta + DHA groups ) or vehicle alone ( vehicle and Abeta groups ) and tested again for learning ability . DHA administered for 12 wk significantly reduced the increase in the number of reference and working memory errors in the Abeta-infused rats , and increased both the cortico-hippocampal level of DHA and the molar ratio of DHA/arachidonic acid , suggesting an amelioration of the impaired spatial cognition learning ability . Furthermore , DHA suppressed the increases in the levels of lipid peroxide and reactive oxygen species in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus of Abeta-infused rats , suggesting that DHA increases antioxidative defenses .  DHA is thus a possible therapeutic agent for ameliorating learning deficiencies due to Alzheimer 's disease BACKGROUND Docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) is important to neural development . Whether DHA intakes are low enough in some pregnant women to impair infant development is uncertain . OBJECTIVE We sought to determine whether DHA deficiency occurs in pregnant women and contributes to poor infant development . DESIGN Biochemical cutoffs , dietary intakes , or developmental scores indicative of DHA deficiency are not defined . Infant development has a distribution in which an individual 's potential development is unknown . This was a r and omized intervention to establish a distribution of developmental scores for infants of women with DHA intakes considered to be above requirements against which to compare the development of infants of mothers consuming their usual diet .  DHA ( 400 mg/d ; n = 67 ) or a placebo ( n = 68 ) was consumed by the women from 16 wk gestation until delivery . We determined maternal red blood cell ethanolamine phosphoglyceride fatty acids , dietary intakes at 16 and 36 wk gestation , and infant visual acuity at 60 d of age . RESULTS We described an approach to identify DHA deficiency when biochemical and functional markers of deficiency are unknown . In multivariate analyses , infant visual acuity was related to sex ( beta = 0.660 , SE = 0.93 , and odds ratio = 1.93 ) and maternal DHA intervention ( beta = 1.215 , SE = 1.64 , and odds ratio = 3.37 ) . More infant girls in the placebo than in the DHA intervention group had a visual acuity below average ( P = 0.048 ) . Maternal red blood cell ethanolamine phosphoglyceride docosatetraenoic acid was inversely related to visual acuity in boys ( rho = -0.37 , P < 0.05 ) and girls ( rho = -0.48 , P < 0.01 ) . CONCLUSIONS These studies suggest that some pregnant women in our study population were DHA-deficient OBJECTIVE There have been indications that high intake of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) during pregnancy may increase birth weight and gestational length . In addition , n-3 long-chain PUFAs may be important for the neurobiological development of the infants . High levels of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA , 22:6 n-3 ) are found in the gray matter of the cerebral cortex and in the retina , and it seems as if the availability of long-chain PUFAs may be limiting cerebral development . The fetus and the newborn are dependent on a high supply from their mothers , either via the placenta or via breast milk . We supplemented pregnant and lactating women with n-3 or n-6 long-chain PUFAs to evaluate the effect on birth weight , gestational length , and infant development . DESIGN We performed a double-blind , r and omized study recruiting 590 pregnant , healthy , nulli- or primiparous women ( 19 - 35 years old ) in weeks 17 to 19 of pregnancy . The women were provided 10 mL of either cod liver oil or corn oil daily until 3 months after delivery . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Primary outcomes were gestational length and birth weight . Electroencephalography ( EEG ) was done on the second day of life and at 3 months of age . Novelty preference ( Fagan test ) was used as an indicator of cognitive function at 6 and 9 months of age . The fatty acid pattern in umbilical plasma phospholipids and in breast milk was measured , and dietary assessment s were performed , both on the mothers during pregnancy and on the infants at 3 months of age . The growth of the infants was followed up to 1 year of age . RESULTS Three hundred forty-one mothers took part in the study until delivery . There were no significant differences in maternal body mass index before pregnancy and at birth , or parity between the 2 groups . Smoking habits and parental education were also similar in the 2 groups . The mean age of the mothers receiving cod liver oil was , by chance , 1 year higher than the age of the mothers receiving corn oil ( 28.6 [ 3.4 ] vs 27.6 [ 3.2 ] years ) . The maternal dietary intake in the 2 groups receiving cod liver oil or corn oil was similar , except for the supplementation . There were no differences in gestational length or birth weight between the cod liver oil group and the corn oil group ( 279.6 [ 9.2 ] vs 279.2 [ 9.3 ] days ; 3609 [ 493 ] vs 3618 [ 527 ] g , respectively ) . Birth length , head circumference , and placental weight were also similar in the 2 groups . The concentrations of the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5 n-3 ) , docosapentaenoic acid ( 22:5 n-3 ) , and DHA in umbilical plasma phospholipids were higher in the cod liver oil group compared with the corn oil group ( 10.8 [ 7.6 ] vs 2.5 [ 1.8 ] microg/mL , 5.0 [ 2.6 ] vs 2.9 [ 1.3 ] microg/mL , 55.8 [ 20.6 ] vs 45.3 [ 12.8 ] microg/mL , respectively ) . Neonates with high concentration of DHA in umbilical plasma phospholipids ( upper quartile ) had longer gestational length than neonates with low concentration ( lower quartile ; 282.5 [ 8.5 ] vs 275.4 [ 9.3 ] days ) . No differences in EEG scores or Fagan scores were found , but neonates with mature EEG ( N = 70 ) had a higher concentration of DHA in umbilical plasma phospholipids than neonates with immature EEG ( N = 51 ) on the second day of life . Dietary information from 251 infants at 3 months of age was collected and 85 % of these infants were exclusively breastfed , in addition to 12 % who were partly breastfed . The breast milk of mothers supplemented with cod liver oil contained more n-3 long-chain PUFAs and less n-6 long-chain PUFAs than breast milk of mothers supplemented with corn oil . There were no significant differences in infant growth during the first year of life between the 2 groups . CONCLUSIONS This study shows neither harmful nor beneficial effects of maternal supplementation of long-chain n-3 PUFAs regarding pregnancy outcome , cognitive development , or growth , as compared with supplementation with n-6 fatty acids . However , it confirms that DHA concentration may be related to gestational length and cerebral maturation of the newborn The need , safety , and effectiveness of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy remain controversial . In this r and omized , controlled trial , women with a singleton pregnancy at 12 to 16 weeks ' gestation received 400 , 2000 , or 4000 IU of vitamin D(3 ) per day until delivery . The primary outcome was maternal/neonatal circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D [ 25(OH)D ] concentration at delivery , with secondary outcomes of a 25(OH)D concentration of 80 nmol/L or greater achieved and the 25(OH)D concentration required to achieve maximal 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3 ) [ 1,25(OH)(2)D(3 ) ] production . Of the 494 women enrolled , 350 women continued until delivery : Mean 25(OH)D concentrations by group at delivery and 1 month before delivery were significantly different ( p < 0.0001 ) , and the percent who achieved sufficiency was significantly different by group , greatest in 4000-IU group ( p < 0.0001 ) . The relative risk ( RR ) for achieving a concentration of 80 nmol/L or greater within 1 month of delivery was significantly different between the 2000- and the 400-IU groups ( RR = 1.52 , 95 % CI 1.24 - 1.86 ) , the 4000- and the 400-IU groups ( RR = 1.60 , 95 % CI 1.32 - 1.95 ) but not between the 4000- and . 2000-IU groups ( RR = 1.06 , 95 % CI 0.93 - 1.19 ) . Circulating 25(OH)D had a direct influence on circulating 1,25(OH)(2)D(3 ) concentrations throughout pregnancy ( p < 0.0001 ) , with maximal production of 1,25(OH)(2)D(3 ) in all strata in the 4000-IU group . There were no differences between groups on any safety measure . Not a single adverse event was attributed to vitamin D supplementation or circulating 25(OH)D levels . It is concluded that vitamin D supplementation of 4000 IU/d for pregnant women is safe and most effective in achieving sufficiency in all women and their neonates regardless of race , whereas the current estimated average requirement is comparatively ineffective at achieving adequate circulating 25(OH)D concentrations , especially in African Americans The modification of folate status was analysed in a group of sixty-seven overweight/obese women of childbearing age ( 20 - 35 years ) . Subjects were r and omly assigned to one of two slightly hypocaloric diets : diet V ( increased consumption of vegetables ) or diet C ( increased consumption of breakfast cereals ) . Dietetic , anthropometric and biochemical data were collected at the start of the study and again at 2 and 6 weeks . At 6 weeks a weight loss of 2.0 ( sd 1.3 ) kg was achieved in V subjects and of 2.8 ( sd 1.4 ) kg in C subjects ( P < 0.05 ) . At the start of the study , 64.2 % of all subjects had a folate intake of < 67 % of the recommended intake ; this fell to just 3 % ( 7.14 % of V subjects and 0 % of C subjects ) by week 6 . Significant increases were only seen in C subjects in serum folate concentrations ( both at 2 and 6 weeks ) , accompanied by a significant reduction in serum homocysteine ( at week 6 ) . Some 62.1 % of all subjects had serum folate concentrations of > or = 13.6 nmol/l ( associated with a very low risk of neural tube defects ) at the start of the study , while 87.0 % ( 85.2 % of V subjects and 88.9 % of C subjects ) had concentrations of > or = 13.6 nmol/l at 6 weeks ( P < 0.01 ) . Increasing the relative consumption of vegetables/cereals in the context of a slightly hypocaloric diet may therefore be a good way to lose body weight . Breakfast cereals may be of special help with respect to folate status and serum homocysteine levels in overweight/obese young women following energy restriction diets OBJECTIVE To analyse the relationship between maternal intakes of fish and other seafood during pregnancy and child neurodevelopment at age 4 years . Although pregnant women are advised to limit seafood intakes because of possible neurotoxin contamination , several studies suggest that overall maternal seafood intakes are associated with improved child neurodevelopment , perhaps because of higher DHA intakes . DESIGN The study uses data from a prospect i ve birth cohort study . Maternal seafood intakes were assessed using a semi-quantitative FFQ administered shortly after delivery . Multivariate linear regression was used to estimate associations between seafood consumption and scores on the McCarthy Scales of Children 's Abilities ( MCSA ) . Analyses were stratified by breast-feeding duration as breast milk is a source of DHA during the postnatal phase of the brain growth spurt . SETTING Menorca , Spain , 1997 - 2001 . SUBJECTS Full-term children ( n 392 ) with data on maternal diet in pregnancy , breast-feeding duration and neurodevelopment at age 4 years . RESULTS Among children breast-fed for < 6 months , maternal fish intakes of > 2 - 3 times/week were associated with significantly higher scores on several MCSA subscales compared with intakes < or = 1 time/week . There was no association among children breast-fed for longer periods . Maternal intakes of other seafood ( shellfish/squid ) were , however , inversely associated with scores on several subscales , regardless of breast-feeding duration . CONCLUSIONS The study suggests that moderately high intakes of fish , but not other seafood , during pregnancy may be beneficial for neurodevelopment among children breast-fed for < 6 months . Further research in other population s with high seafood intakes and data on additional potential confounders are needed to confirm this finding Objective : To assess the effects of antenatal omega 3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ( n-3 LC PUFA ) on cognitive development in a cohort of children whose mothers received high-dose fish oil in pregnancy . Design : A double-blind r and omised placebo-controlled trial . Setting : Perth , Western Australia , Australia . Patients : 98 pregnant women received the supplementation from 20 weeks ’ gestation until delivery . Their infants ( n = 72 ) were assessed at age 2½ years . Interventions : Fish oil ( 2.2 g docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and 1.1 g eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)/day ) or olive oil from 20 weeks ’ gestation until delivery . Outcome measures : Effects on infant growth and developmental quotients ( Griffiths Mental Development Scales ) , receptive language ( Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test ) and behaviour ( Child Behaviour Checklist ) . Results : Children in  the fish oil-supplemented group ( n = 33 ) attained a significantly higher score for eye and h and coordination ( mean ( ( SD ) score 114 ( 10.2 ) ) than those in the placebo group ( n = 39 , mean score 108 ( SD 11.3 ) ; p = 0.021 , adjusted p = 0.008 ) . Eye and h and coordination scores correlated with n-3 PUFA levels in cord blood erythrocytes ( EPA : r = 0.320 , p = 0.007 ; DHA : r = 0.308 , p = 0.009 ) and inversely correlated with n-6 PUFA ( arachidonic acid 20:4n-6 : r = −0.331 , p = 0.005 ) . Growth measurements in the two groups were similar at age 2½ years . Conclusion : Maternal fish oil supplementation during pregnancy is safe for the fetus and infant , and may have potentially beneficial effects on the child ’s eye and h and coordination . Further studies are needed to determine the significance of this finding BACKGROUND The range of human milk docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) concentrations worldwide is much broader than the range explored in r and omized clinical trials to date . OBJECTIVE The primary objective was to determine the effect of 4 amounts of DHA supplementation on the visual acuity of formula-fed infants at 12 mo of age . Secondary objectives were to evaluate visual acuity maturation , red blood cell fatty acids , tolerance , anthropometric measures , and adverse events . DESIGN This double-masked , r and omized trial was conducted at 2 sites ( Dallas and Kansas City ) . Three hundred forty-three healthy , term , formula-fed infants were enrolled at 1 - 9 d of age and were r and omly assigned to be fed 1 of the following 4 infant formulas containing equivalent nutrient amounts , except for long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids : control ( 0 % DHA ) , 0.32 % DHA , 0.64 % DHA , or 0.96 % DHA ; DHA-supplemented formulas also provided 0.64 % arachidonic acid .  Visual acuity was measured by visual evoked potentials in 244 infants who completed the 12-mo primary outcome examination . RESULTS Infants fed control formula had significantly poorer visual evoked potential visual acuity at 12 mo of age than did infants who received any of the DHA-supplemented formulas ( P < 0.001 ) . There were no significant differences in visual evoked potential visual acuity between the 3 amounts of DHA supplementation for either site at any age tested . CONCLUSIONS DHA supplementation of infant formula at 0.32 % of total fatty acids improves visual acuity . Higher amounts of DHA supplementation were not associated with additional improvement of visual acuity . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT00753818 Scientific data pertaining to vitamin D supplementation during lactation are scarce . The daily recommended intake for vitamin D during lactation has been arbitrarily set at 400 IU/d ( 10 microg/d ) . This recommendation is irrelevant with respect to maintaining the nutritional vitamin D status of mothers and nursing infants , especially among darkly pigmented individuals . Our objective was to examine the effect of high-dose maternal vitamin D2 supplementation on the nutritional vitamin D status  of mothers and nursing infants . Fully lactating women ( n = 18 ) were enrolled at 1 mo after birth to 1 of 2 treatment arms , ie , 1600 IU vitamin D2 and 400 IU vitamin D3 ( prenatal vitamin ) or 3600 IU vitamin D2 and 400 IU vitamin D3 , for a 3-mo study period . High-dose ( 1600 or 3600 IU/d ) vitamin D2 supplementation for a period of 3 mo safely increased circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D [ 25(OH)D ] concentrations for both groups . The antirachitic activity of milk from mothers receiving 2000 IU/d vitamin D increased by 34.2 IU/L , on average , whereas the activity in the 4000 IU/d group increased by 94.2 IU/L. Nursing infant circulating 25(OH)D2 concentrations reflected maternal intake and the amount contained in the milk . With limited sun exposure , an intake of 400 IU/d vitamin D would not sustain circulating 25(OH)D concentrations and thus would supply only limited amounts of vitamin D to nursing infants in breast milk . A maternal intake of 2000 IU/d vitamin D would elevate circulating 25(OH)D concentrations for both mothers and nursing infants , albeit with limited capacity , especially with respect to nursing infants . A maternal intake of 4000 IU/d could achieve substantial progress toward improving both maternal and neonatal nutritional vitamin D status BACKGROUND In Rajasthan , an Indian State with significant salt production , the sale of non-iodized salt for human consumption was banned in 1992 . This study explored the relationships between the use of iodized salt in Rajasthan and the iodine status of children and pregnant women living in the area . METHODS In a State-wide survey , 30 clusters were selected proportionate-to- population -size and 40 school children , 6 - 12 years old , were enrolled by r and om house-to-house visits in each cluster . Twelve pregnant women from the same households were also sample d. Salt used for cooking and a casual urine sample from each child and pregnant woman were collected . The salt iodine content was measured by titration and the urinary iodine concentration ( UIC ) by a quality -assured colorimetric method . RESULTS Salt iodine content was > or=15 mg/kg in 41.9 % of the households , and 23.0 % used non-iodized salt .  Median UIC was 139 microg/L in children and 127 microg/L in pregnant women . In households using non-iodized salt , the median UIC 's were 96 microg/L and 100 microg/L in children and women , respectively . Dis-aggregating the UIC distributions by salt iodine levels revealed a consistent , step-wise pattern of UIC in children with increasing salt iodine content . A similar but less steep pattern was observed in pregnant women . The iodine status of both children and pregnant women attained the optimal range only when the salt iodine content was close to 30 mg/kg . CONCLUSION For optimum iodine status in the population of Rajasthan , the iodization of household salt should be m and ated at a higher level than what is practice d at present In a double-blind trial of vitamin D supplements in pregnant Asian women calciferol ( ergocalciferol , 1000 IU/day ) was administered to 59 women and placebo to 67 controls during the last trimester . The two groups had similar distributions of maternal age , height , parity , number of vegetarians , countries of origin , and sex and gestation of the infants . At entry to the trial maternal serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D ( 25-OHD ) concentrations were low in both treatment and control groups and significantly lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians . Mothers in the treatment group gained weight faster in the last trimester than those in the control group , and at term they and their infants all had adequate plasma 25-OHD concentrations , Mothers and infants in the control group , however , had low plasma concentrations of 25-OHD and calcium and raised plasma alkaline phosphatase ( bone isoenzyme ) activity . Five of these infants developed symptomatic hypocalcaemia . Almost twice as many infants in the control group were small for gestational age ( 29 % v 15 % ) , but there were no significant differences between the two groups of infants in antropometric measurements . Infants in the control group , however , had larger fontanelles , suggesting impaired ossification of the skull . Because of the benefits to mothers and infants in the treatment group and the absence of side effects , vitamin D supplements should be given to all pregnant Asian women in the United Kingdom Over a period of almost 10 yr , we carried out a prospect i ve study of the neuropsychological development of the offspring of 16 women from a moderately iodine-deficient area ( area A ) and of 11 control women from a marginally iodine-sufficient area ( area B ) whose thyroid function had been monitored during early gestation .  Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) was diagnosed in 11 of 16 area A children ( 68.7 % ) but in none from area B. Total intelligence quotient score was lower in area A than in area B children ( 92.1 + /- 7.8 vs. 110 + /- 10 ) and in ADHD children when compared with both non-ADHD children from the same area and control children ( 88.0 + /- 6.9 vs. 99.0 + /- 2.0 and 110 + /- 10 , respectively ) . Seven of 11 ADHD children ( 63.6 % ) were born to the seven of eight area A mothers who became hypothyroxinemic at early gestation , whereas only one of five non-ADHD children was born to a woman who was hypothyroxinemic at 20 wk of gestation . So far , a similar prevalence of ADHD has been reported only in children with generalized resistance to thyroid hormones . This might suggest a common ADHD pathogenetic mechanism consisting either of reduced sensitivity of the nuclear receptors to thyroid hormone ( generalized resistance to thyroid hormones ) or reduced availability of intracellular T3 for nuclear receptor binding . The latter would be the ultimate consequence of maternal hypothyroxinemia ( due to iodine deficiency ) , result ing in a critical reduction of the source of the intracellular T3 available to the developing fetal brain Previous studies indicate reduced risk of type 1 diabetes after intake of vitamin D supplements during pregnancy or early childhood . We aim ed to test whether lower maternal serum concentrations of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D ( 25-OH D ) during pregnancy were associated with an increased risk of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes .  In this case-control study nested within a cohort of 29,072 women in Norway ,  25-OH D levels were measured using a radioimmunoassay on sample s from late pregnancy in 109 women delivering a child who developed type 1 diabetes before 15 years of age ( case subjects ) and from 219 control women . Dividing the levels of maternal 25-OH D into quartiles , there was a trend toward a higher risk of type 1 diabetes with lower levels of vitamin D during pregnancy . The odds of type 1 diabetes was more than twofold higher for the offspring of women with the lowest levels of 25-OH D compared with the offspring of those with levels above the upper quartile . Given future replication in independent cohorts , our findings provide support for the initiation of a r and omized intervention trial to prevent type 1 diabetes in children by enhancing maternal 25-OH D status during pregnancy Healthy pregnant women ( n 23 ) were supplemented with fish-oil capsules ( 2.7 g n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids/d ) from the 30th week of gestation until delivery . Subjects in a control group were either supplemented with olive-oil capsules ( 4 g/d , n 6 ) or received no supplementation ( n 10 ) . Fatty acid compositions of the phospholipids isolated from umbilical plasma and umbilical arterial and venous vessel walls were determined . Fatty acid compositions of maternal venous plasma phospholipids were determined as well . Maternal plasma phospholipids of the fish-oil-supplemented group contained more n-3 fatty acids and less n-6 fatty acids . Moreover , the amounts of the essential fatty acid deficiency markers Mead acid ( 20:3n-9 ) and Osbond acid ( 22:5n-6 ) were significantly lower . The extra amount of n-3 fatty acids consumed by the mothers result ed in higher contents of n-3 fatty acids , and of docosahexaenoic acid ( 22:6n-3 ) in particular , in the phospholipids of umbilical plasma and vessel walls . It is , indeed , possible to interfere with the docosahexaenoic acid status at birth : children born to mothers supplemented with fish oil in the last trimester of pregnancy start with a better docosahexaenoic acid status at birth , which may be beneficial to neonatal neurodevelopment Hypovitaminosis D is common in India . In the present prospect i ve partially r and omised study of vitamin D ( D₃ ) supplementation during pregnancy , subjects were r and omised in the second trimester to receive either one oral dose of 1500 μg vitamin D₃  ( group 1 , n 48 ) or two doses of 3000 μg vitamin D₃ each in the second and third trimesters ( group 2 , n 49 ) . Maternal 25-hydroxyvitamin D ( 25(OH)D ) at term , cord blood ( CB ) alkaline phosphatase ( ALP ) , neonatal serum Ca and anthropometry were measured in these subjects and in forty-three non-supplemented mother-infant pairs ( usual care ) . Median maternal 25(OH)D at term was higher in group 2 ( 58·7 , interquartile range ( IQR ) 38·4 - 89·4 nmol/l ) v. group 1 ( 26·2 , IQR 17·7 - 57·7 nmol/l ) and usual-care group ( 39·2 , IQR 21·2 - 73·4 nmol/l ) ( P = 0·000 ) . CB ALP was increased ( > 8.02 μkat/l or > 480 IU/l ) in 66·7 % of the usual-care group v. 41·9 % of group 1 and 38·9 % of group 2 ( P = 0·03 ) . Neonatal Ca and CB 25(OH)D did not differ significantly in the three groups . Birth weight , length and head circumference were greater and the anterior fontanelle was smaller in groups 1 and 2 ( 3·08 and 3·03 kg , 50·3 and 50·1 cm , 34·5 and 34·4 cm , 2·6 and 2·5 cm , respectively ) v. usual care ( 2·77 kg , 49·4 , 33·6 , 3·3 cm ; P = 0·000 for length , head circumference and fontanelle and P = 0·003 for weight ) . These differences were still evident at 9 months . We conclude that both 1500 μg and two doses of  3000  μg vitamin  D₃ had a beneficial effect on infant anthropometry , the larger dose also improving CB ALP and maternal BACKGROUND Research has suggested that vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency is common at northern latitudes , and that vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency may be common during pregnancy . We measured the serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D ( 25-[OH]D ) status of pregnant women across the province of Newfoundl and and Labrador in both summer and winter to investigate seasonal differences , age associations , and differences in geospatial distribution across the province . METHODS We uniformly and r and omly sample d blood from pregnant women in each of 79 census consoli date d subdivisions across Newfoundl and and Labrador from January to March 2007 and from July to September 2007 . RESULTS We obtained 304 sample s from the end of winter ( March ) and 289 sample s from the end of summer ( September ) . Mean serum 25-(OH)D concentration was 52.1 nmol/L in winter and 68.6 nmol/L in summer ( P < 0.001 ) ; 89 % were vitamin D insufficient in the winter and 64 % in the summer ( P < 0.001 ) ; 6.6 % were vitamin D deficient in winter and 1.7 % in summer ( P = 0.003 ) , and younger women tended to be more vitamin D insufficient in the winter than older women . The geospatial distribution of vitamin D insufficiency tends to follow a north-south distribution in the winter . CONCLUSIONS A significant proportion of pregnant women in Newfoundl and and Labrador are vitamin D insufficient . Vitamin D insufficiency may have important adverse health consequences for both the mother and the fetus . Further study is necessary to address health outcomes and effects of vitamin D supplementation and lifestyle changes in this population Low maternal vitamin D status has been associated with reduced intrauterine long bone growth and shorter gestation , decreased birth weight , as well as reduced childhood bone-mineral accrual . Despite data from other countries indicating low maternal vitamin D status is common during pregnancy , there is a dearth of information about vitamin D status during pregnancy in the Irish female population . Therefore , we prospect ively assessed vitamin D nutritive status and the prevalence of suboptimal vitamin D status in a cohort of Irish pregnant women . The mean ( SD ) daily intake of vitamin D  by the group of pregnant women was 3.6 ( 1.9 ) microg/day . None of the women achieved the recommended daily vitamin D intake value for Irish pregnant women ( 10 microg/day ) . Taking all three trimesters collectively , 14.3 - 23.7 % and 34.3 - 52.6 % of Irish women had vitamin D deficiency ( serum 25 ( OH ) D < 25 nmol/l ) and insufficiency ( serum 25 ( OH ) D 25 - 50 nmol/l ) , respectively during pregnancy . Both the levels of serum 25 ( OH ) D and the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency/adequacy were dramatically influenced by season , with status being lowest during the extended winter period and best during the extended summer period . These findings show that inadequate vitamin D status is common in Irish pregnant women BACKGROUND Studies investigating cognitive outcomes following docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) supplementation of infant formula yield conflicting results , perhaps due to inadequate dietary concentrations . AIM To determine the optimal DHA concentration in term formula to support cognitive maturation . DESIGN This was a double-masked , r and omized , controlled , prospect i ve trial . A total of 181 infants were enrolled at 1 - 9 days of age and assigned r and omly to receive one of four term infant formulas with one of four levels of docosahexaenoic acid : Control ( 0 % DHA ) , 0.32 % DHA , 0.64 % DHA , or 0.96 % DHA . All DHA-supplemented formulas contained 0.64 % arachidonic acid ( ARA ) .  Infants were fed the assigned formulas until 12 months of age . One hundred forty-one children completed the 12-month feeding trial and were eligible for this study .  Cognitive function was assessed in 131 children at 18 months of age using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II ( BSID II ) . RESULTS There were no diet group differences on the Mental Development Index ( MDI ) , the Psychomotor Development Index ( PDI ) , or the Behavior Rating Scale ( BRS ) of the BSID II . However , when the scores of children who received any of the three DHA-supplemented formulas were combined and compared to control children , a significant difference emerged : the MDI scores of DHA-supplemented children were higher ( 104.1 v. 98.4 ; p=0.02 ) . CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that dietary supplementation of DHA during the first year of life leads to enhanced cognitive development at 18 months of age . DHA concentration of 0.32 % is adequate to improve cognitive function ; higher concentrations did not confer additional benefit To determine whether docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) supplementation of breast-feeding mothers increases the DHA contents of breast milk and infant plasma phospholipids ( PPs ) , breast-feeding women were r and omly assigned to 3 DHA-supplementation groups ( 170 - 260 mg/d ) or a control group . Group 1 ( n = 6 ) consumed an algae-produced high-DHA triacylglycerol ; group 2 ( n = 6 ) consumed high-DHA eggs ; group 3 ( n = 6 ) consumed a high-DHA , low-eicosapentaenoic acid marine oil ; and group 4 ( n = 6 ) received no supplementation . From before to after supplementation ( 2 and 8 wk postpartum ) , mean ( + /-SD ) maternal PP DHA increased in groups 1 , 2 , and 3 by 1.20 + /- 0.53 , 0.63 + /- 0.82 , and 0.76 + /- 0.35 mol% of fatty acids , respectively ( 23 - 41 % ) , but decreased in group 4 by 0.44 + /- 0.34 mol% ( 15 % ) . Breast-milk DHA of groups 1 , 2 , and 3 increased by 0.21 + /- 0.16 , 0.07 + /- 0.11 , and 0 . 12 + /- 0.07 mol% , respectively ( 32 - 91 % ) but decreased in group 4 by 0.03 + /- 0.04 mol% ( 17 % ) . Mean infant PP DHA in groups 1 , 2 , and 3 increased by 1.63 + /- 0.79 , 0.40 + /- 1.0 , and 0.98 + /- 0.61 mol% , respectively ( 11 - 42 % ) , but only by 0.18 + /- 0.74 mol% ( 5 % ) in group 4 . Correlations between the DHA contents of maternal plasma and breast milk and of milk and infant PPs were significant . Breast-milk and maternal and infant PP 22:5n-6 concentrations were lowest in group 2 . DHA supplementation increases the plasma and breast-milk DHA concentrations of lactating women , result ing in higher PP DHA concentrations in infants Studies of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) intake and status in US toddlers are lacking . One national survey found low DHA intakes . The objectives of this double-blind , r and omized study were to ( a ) determine usual DHA intakes , ( b ) measure the effect of consuming formulas with DHA on red blood cell ( RBC ) and plasma DHA and ( c ) record adverse events in US children between 18 and 36 months of age . Children aged 18 - 36 months were provided 237-ml formula with 0 , 43 , or 130 mg DHA per day for 60 days . Blood was obtained at 0 and 60 days and 24-hour dietary recalls at 0 , 30 and 60 days . Usual median daily DHA intake was 13.3 mg . RBC DHA increased in a dose-dependent manner with increasing DHA intake ( p<0.05 ) . Toddlers consuming the formula with 130 mg DHA per day have fewer adverse events ( p=0.007 ) and a lower incidence of respiratory illness ( p=0.024 ) , compared to the formula without DHA . US toddlers have low DHA intake and status . Modest increases in DHA intake in toddlers might improve development , including respiratory health Objectives : To determine the effect of increasing docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA , 22 : 6 n-3 ) in breast milk on infant fatty acid profiles . A secondary aim was to examine aspects of neural development . Design and Setting Double blind , placebo controlled study of infants recruited from postnatal wards at Flinders Medical Centre . Subjects : Fifty-two healthy term infants who were breast fed for at least 12 weeks and were from middle class families . Intervention : Breast milk with DHA concentrations that ranged from 0.1–1.7 % of total fatty acids . This was achieved by supplementation of the maternal diet for the first 12 weeks post partum . Results : Breast milk DHA was related to infant plasma ( r=0.89 , P<0.001 ) and erythrocyte ( r=0.88 , P<0.001 ) phospholipids in a saturable curvilinear manner so that breast milk DHA above 0.8 % of total fatty acids result ed in little further increase in infant plasma or erythrocyte DHA levels . The rise in plasma and erythrocyte DHA was approximated by a fall in total n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids . We could detect no relationship between visual evoked potential acuity ( measured at 12 and 16 weeks ) of infants by either the dietary grouping or the DHA status of individuals . A stepwise multiple regression showed that infant erythrocyte DHA at 12 weeks and home stimulation were the only independent factors associated with Bayley 's MDI at 1 y ( adjusted model r2=0.18 , P<0.005 ) ; while at 2 y gender and social score of the spouse were the only significant predictors of Bayley 's MDI ( adjusted model r2=0.22 , P<0.005 ) . Conclusions : Increasing breast milk DHA levels caused a dose dependent saturable increase in infant plasma and erythrocyte phospholipid DHA . There were no long-term effects of infant DHA status on indices of neurodevelopment . Sponsorship : Financial support was provided by Martek Biosciences , MD , USA and the National Health and Medical Research Council , Australia Beneficial effects of perinatal DHA supply on later neurological development have been reported . We assessed the effects of maternal DHA supplementation on the neurological development of their children . Healthy pregnant women from Spain , Germany , and Hungary were r and omly assigned to a dietary supplement consisting of either fish oil ( FO ) ( 500 mg/d DHA + 150 mg/d EPA ) , 400 μg/d 5-methyltetrahydrofolate , both , or placebo from wk 20 of gestation until delivery . Fatty acids in plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids ( PL ) were determined in maternal blood at gestational wk 20 and 30 and in cord and maternal blood at delivery . Neurological development was assessed with the Hempel examination at the age of 4 y and the Touwen examination at 5.5 y. Minor neurological dysfunction , neurological optimality score ( NOS ) , and fluency score did not differ between groups at either age , but the odds of children with the maximal NOS score increased with every unit increment in cord blood DHA level at delivery in plasma PL ( 95 % CI : 1.094 - 2.262 ) , erythrocyte phosphatidylethanolamine ( 95 % CI : 1.091 - 2.417 ) , and erythrocyte phosphatidylcholine ( 95 % CI : 1.003 - 2.643 ) . We conclude that  higher DHA levels in cord blood may be related to a better neurological outcome at 5.5 y of age Background The need for omega-3 fatty acids , especially docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , during pregnancy has received much attention , but evidence of effects on birth outcomes is limited . Objective To evaluate whether prenatal DHA supplementation  increases gestational age and birth size . Methods We conducted a double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled trial in Cuernavaca , Mexico . We r and omly assigned 1,094 pregnant women ( 18 to 35 years of age ; median DHA dietary intake , 55 mg/day ) to 400 mg/day of algal DHA or placebo from 18 to 22 weeks of gestation through delivery . Birth outcomes ( 968 live births and 5 stillbirths ) were ascertained from hospital records within 24 hours of delivery . Results Intention-to-treat analysis showed no differences between the control and DHA group ( all p > .05 ) in mean gestational age ( 39.1 + 1.7 and 39.0 ± 1.9 weeks , respectively ) , weight ( 3.20 + 0.47 and 3.21 ± 0.45 kg , respectively ) , length ( 50.3 ± 2.7 and 50.3 ± 2.3 cm , respectively ) and head circumference ( 34.3 ± 1.8 and 34.3 ± 1.5 cm , respectively ) at birth . Offspring of supplemented primigravidae ( n = 370 ) were heavier ( difference , 99.4 g ; 95 % CI , 5.5 to 193.4 ) and had larger head circumferences ( difference , 0.5 cm ; 95 % CI , 0.1 to 0.9 ) than controls ; the differences in multigravidae ( n = 603 ) were −53.3 g ( 95 % CI , −126.8 to 20.2 ) and −0.2 cm ( 95 % CI , −0.4 to 0.1 ) , respectively ( p < .05 for heterogeneity ) . Conclusions Prenatal DHA supplementation of primigravid women may result in increased birth size in a population where dietary DHA intakes are very low . Benefits of the intervention on infant health and neurodevelopment are under study Infants were followed longitudinally to document the relationship between docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) levels and the development of attention . Erythrocyte ( red-blood cell ; RBC ) phospholipid DHA ( percentage of total fatty acids ) was measured from infants and mothers at delivery . Infants were assessed in infant-control habituation at 4 , 6 , and 8 months augmented with psychophysiological measures , and on free-play attention and distractibility paradigms at 12 and 18 months . Infants whose mothers had high DHA at birth showed an accelerated decline in looking over the 1st year and increases in examining during single-object exploration and less distractibility in the 2nd year . These findings are consistent with evidence suggesting a link between DHA and cognitive development in infancy OBJECTIVES . Arachidonic acid ( 20:4n-6 ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( 22:6n-3 ) are essential for brain growth and cognitive development . We have reported that supplementing pregnant and lactating women with n-3 very-long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids promotes higher IQ scores at 4 years of age as compared with maternal supplementation with n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids . In our present study , the children were examined at 7 years of age with the same cognitive tests as at 4 years of age . We also examined the relation between plasma fatty acid pattern and BMI in children , because an association between arachidonic acid and adipose tissue size has been suggested . METHODS . The study was r and omized and double-blinded . The mothers took 10 mL of cod liver oil or corn oil from week 18 of pregnancy until 3 months after delivery . Their children were tested with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children at 7 years of age , and their height and weight were measured . RESULTS . We did not find any significant differences in scores on the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children test at 7 years of age between children whose mothers had taken cod liver oil ( n = 82 ) or corn oil ( n = 61 ) . We observed , however , that maternal plasma phospholipid concentrations of α-linolenic acid ( 18:3n-3 ) and docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy were correlated to sequential processing at 7 years of age . We observed no correlation between fatty acid status at birth or during the first 3 months of life and BMI at 7 years of age . CONCLUSION . This study suggests that maternal concentration of n-3 very-long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids during pregnancy might be of importance for later cognitive function , such as sequential processing , although we observed no significant effect of n-3 fatty acid intervention on global IQs . Neonatal fatty acid status had no influence on BMI at 7 years of age BACKGROUND The beneficial effects of prenatal and early postnatal intakes of omega-3 ( n-3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) on cognitive development during infancy are well recognized . However , few studies have examined the extent to which these benefits continue to be evident in childhood . OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to examine the relation of n-3 PUFAs and seafood-contaminant intake with memory function in school-age children from a fish-eating community . DESIGN In a prospect i ve , longitudinal study in A rct ic Quebec , we assessed Inuit children ( n = 154 ; mean age : 11.3 y ) by using a continuous visual recognition task to measure 2 event-related potential components related to recognition memory processing : the FN400 and the late positive component ( LPC ) . Children were also examined by using 2 well-established neurobehavioral assessment s of memory : the Digit span forward from Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children , 4th edition , and the California Verbal Learning Test-Children 's Version . RESULTS Repeated- measures analyses of variance revealed that children with higher cord plasma concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , which is an important n-3 PUFA , had a shorter FN400 latency and a larger LPC amplitude ; and higher plasma DHA concentrations at the time of testing were associated with increased FN400 amplitude . Cord DHA-related effects were observed regardless of seafood-contaminant amounts . Multiple regression analyses also showed positive associations between cord DHA concentrations and performance on neurobehavioral assessment s of memory . CONCLUSION To our knowledge , this study provides the first neurophysiologic and neurobehavioral evidence of long-term beneficial effects of n-3 PUFA intake in utero on memory function in school-age children
UNLABELLED Scientific literature is increasingly reporting on dietary deficiencies in many population s of some nutrients critical for foetal and infant brain development and function .
PURPOSE To highlight the potential benefits of maternal supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and other important complimentary nutrients , including vitamin D , folic acid and iodine during pregnancy and /or breast feeding for foetal and /or infant brain development and /or function .