Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy on maternal and fetal erythrocyte fatty acid composition Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. A possible preventive effect of low-dose fish oil on early delivery and pre-eclampsia: indications from a 50-year-old controlled trial. Similar effects on infants of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids supplementation to pregnant and lactating women. A Randomized Trial of Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation During the Third Trimester of Pregnancy Scotopic electroretinogram in term infants born of mothers supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy. Effects of fish oil supplementation in the third trimester of pregnancy on prostacyclin and thromboxane production. Prevention of Preeclampsia by Linoleic Acid and Calcium Supplementation: A Randomized Controlled Trial Influence of Preeclampsia or Maternal Intake of Omega–3 Fatty Acids on the Vasoactive Effect of Prostaglandin F-Two-Alpha in Human Umbilical Arteries Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and fetal accretion. Essential fatty acid status in neonates after fish-oil supplementation during late pregnancy. Effects of a combination of evening primrose oil (gamma linolenic acid) and fish oil (eicosapentaenoic + docahexaenoic acid) versus magnesium, and versus placebo in preventing pre-eclampsia. The effects of 3g eicosapentaenoic acid daily on recurrence of intrauterine growth retardation and pregnancy induced hypertension A randomised double blind placebo controlled trial of fish oil in high risk pregnancy Nutritional factors and rest reduce pregnancy-induced hypertension and pre-eclampsia in positive roll-over test primigravidas. [Fish oil supplementation and duration of pregnancy. A randomized controlled trial]. Randomised controlled trial of effect of fish-oil supplementation on pregnancy duration Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during pregnancy and visual evoked potential development in term infants: a double blind, prospective, randomised trial Randomised clinical trials of fish oil supplementation in high risk pregnancies The effect of supplementation with docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid derived from single cell oils on plasma and erythrocyte fatty acids of pregnant women in the second trimester. Fish Oil Supplementation in Pregnancy Lowers F2-isoprostanes in Neonates at High Risk of Atopy Maternal DHA and the development of attention in infancy and toddlerhood. Effects of fish oil supplementation in late pregnancy on blood pressure: a randomised controlled trial [The effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the lipid spectrum indices in the 2nd-3rd pregnancy trimesters].
Objective : The aim of this study was to assess the effects of fish oil supplementation in pregnancy on  maternal erythrocyte fatty acid composition at different stages of pregnancy and in the post-partum period , and on neonatal  erythrocyte fatty acid composition . Design : A double-blind , r and omised , placebo-controlled study . Setting : Subiaco , Western Australia . Subjects : In all , 98 women booked for delivery at St John of God Hospital , Subiaco , were recruited from private rooms of obstetricians . In total , 83 women and their healthy full-term babies completed the study . Interventions : Women received either 4 g of fish oil ( n=52 ) ( 56 % docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and 28 % eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) or placebo ( olive oil ) ( n=46 ) per day from 20 weeks gestation until delivery . Main outcome measures : Erythrocyte phospholipid fatty acids were measured in maternal peripheral blood at 20 , 30 and 37 weeks of pregnancy and at 6 weeks post partum , and from cord blood collected at birth . Results : Compared to the control group , maternal EPA and DHA were significantly higher in the fish oil group at 30 and 37 weeks gestation , and remained elevated at 6 weeks post partum ( P<0.001 ) . The proportions of n-6 polyunsaturated ( arachidonic acid , 22:3n-6 and 22:4n-6 ) were significantly lower in the fish oil supplemented group at the same time periods ( P<0.001 ) . Similarly , the proportions of EPA and DHA were significantly higher ( P<0.001 ) , and those of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids arachidonic acid , 20:3n-6 , 22:3n-6 and 22:4n-6 were significantly lower ( P<0.001 ) , in erythrocytes from neonates in the fish oil group , compared to those in the control group . Conclusions : Fish oil supplementation from 20 weeks of pregnancy until birth is an effective means of enhancing n-3 fatty acid status of both mothers and neonates . Furthermore , the changes in maternal erythrocyte fatty acid composition are retained until at least 6 weeks post partum . It is essential to assess the effects of concomitant decreases in arachidonic acid status before any dietary recommendations can be made . Sponsorship : The study was supported by grants from the NH & MRC and Raine Medical Research Foundation , Australia OBJECTIVES Docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ; 22:6 n-3 ) and arachidonic acid ( AA ; 20:4 n-6 ) are important for development of the central nervous system in mammals . There is a growth spurt in the human brain during the last trimester of pregnancy and the first postnatal months , with a large increase in the cerebral content of AA and DHA .  The fetus and the newborn infant depend on maternal supply of DHA and AA . Our hypothesis was that maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy and lactation is marginal and that high intake of this fatty acid would benefit the child . We examined the effect of supplementing pregnant and lactating women with very-long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ; cod liver oil ) on mental development of the children , compared with maternal supplementation with long-chain n-6 PUFAs ( corn oil ) . METHODS The study was r and omized and double-blinded . Pregnant women were recruited in week 18 of pregnancy to take 10 mL of cod liver oil or corn oil until 3 months after delivery . The cod liver oil contained 1183 mg/10 mL DHA , 803 mg/10 mL eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5 n-3 ) , and a total of 2494 mg/10 mL summation operator n-3 PUFAs . The corn oil contained 4747 mg/10 mL linoleic acid ( 18:2 n-6 ) and 92 mg/10 mL alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3 n-3 ) . The amount of fat-soluble vitamins was identical in the 2 oils ( 117 micro g/mL vitamin A , 1 micro g/mL vitamin D , and 1.4 mg/mL dl-alpha-tocopherol ) . A total of 590 pregnant women were recruited to the study , and 341 mothers took part in the study until giving birth . All infants of these women were scheduled for assessment of cognitive function at 6 and 9 months of age , and 262 complied with the request . As part of the protocol , 135 subjects from this population were invited for intelligence testing  with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children ( K-ABC ) at 4 years of age . Of the 135 invited children , 90 came for assessment . Six children did not complete the examination . The K-ABC is a measure of intelligence and achievement design ed for children aged 2.5 years through 12.5 years . This multisubtest battery comprises 4 scales : Sequential Processing , Simultaneous Processing , Achievement ( not used in the present study ) , and Nonverbal Abilities . The Sequential Processing and Simultaneous Processing scales are hypothesized to reflect the child 's style of problem solving and information processing . Scores from these 2 scales are combined to form a Mental Processing Composite , which serves as the measure of intelligence in the K-ABC . RESULTS We received dietary information from 76 infants ( 41 in the cod liver oil group and 35 in the corn oil group ) , documenting that all of them were breastfed at 3 months of age . Children who were born to mothers who had taken cod liver oil ( n = 48 ) during pregnancy and lactation scored higher on the Mental Processing Composite of the K-ABC at 4 years of age as compared with children whose mothers had taken  corn oil  ( n = 36 ; 106.4 [ 7.4 ] vs 102.3 [ 11.3 ] ) . The Mental Processing Composite score correlated significantly with head circumference at birth ( r = 0.23 ) , but no relation was found with birth weight or gestational length . The children 's mental processing scores at 4 years of age correlated significantly with maternal intake of DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid during pregnancy . In a multiple regression model , maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy was the only variable of statistical significance for the children 's mental processing scores at 4 years of age . CONCLUSION Maternal intake of very-long-chain n-3 PUFAs during pregnancy and lactation may be favorable for later mental development of children A preventive effect of dietary marine n-3 fatty acids on  early delivery  and toxaemia has recently been hypothesized . In only one published controlled trial fish oil has been given to pregnant women , namely in that conducted during 1938 - 9 in London by the People 's League of Health with a dietary supplement containing vitamins , minerals , and halibut liver oil . Although it was of high quality and its findings are hitherto unexplained , neglect and misinterpretation of the trial seem to occur commonly in review s. Of the 5644 women who were enrolled the 622 withdrawals were independent of treatment . Alternate allocation to treatment was used , producing two groups that were well balanced as to age and parity . The supplement was given from about week 20 . The control group did not receive any supplement . Reductions of 20.4 % ( 95 % confidence interval 9 - 30 % , P = 0.00083 ) and 31.5 % ( 95 % confidence interval 11 - 47 % , P = 0.0047 ) were seen in odds of delivering before 40 weeks of gestation and pre-eclampsia respectively . No significant effects were seen on perinatal mortality , average birth weight , deliveries after 40 weeks , hypertension in the absence of oedema and proteinuria , duration of labour , sepsis or breast-feeding occurrence . Later controlled trials with vitamins or minerals given in the same amounts as in this trial have largely failed to show convincing effects as seen here . A controlled trial assessing the isolated effects of fish oil in pregnancy is warranted OBJECTIVE There have been indications that high intake of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) during pregnancy may increase birth weight and gestational length . In addition , n-3 long-chain PUFAs may be important for the neurobiological development of the infants . High levels of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA , 22:6 n-3 ) are found in the gray matter of the cerebral cortex and in the retina , and it seems as if the availability of long-chain PUFAs may be limiting cerebral development . The fetus and the newborn are dependent on a high supply from their mothers , either via the placenta or via breast milk . We supplemented pregnant and lactating women with n-3 or n-6 long-chain PUFAs to evaluate the effect on birth weight , gestational length , and infant development . DESIGN We performed a double-blind , r and omized study recruiting 590 pregnant , healthy , nulli- or primiparous women ( 19 - 35 years old ) in weeks 17 to 19 of pregnancy . The women were provided 10 mL of either cod liver oil or corn oil daily until 3 months after delivery . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Primary outcomes were gestational length and birth weight . Electroencephalography ( EEG ) was done on the second day of life and at 3 months of age . Novelty preference ( Fagan test ) was used as an indicator of cognitive function at 6 and 9 months of age . The fatty acid pattern in umbilical plasma phospholipids and in breast milk was measured , and dietary assessment s were performed , both on the mothers during pregnancy and on the infants at 3 months of age . The growth of the infants was followed up to 1 year of age . RESULTS Three hundred forty-one mothers took part in the study until delivery . There were no significant differences in maternal body mass index before pregnancy and at birth , or parity between the 2 groups . Smoking habits and parental education were also similar in the 2 groups . The mean age of the mothers receiving cod liver oil was , by chance , 1 year higher than the age of the mothers receiving corn oil ( 28.6 [ 3.4 ] vs 27.6 [ 3.2 ] years ) . The maternal dietary intake in the 2 groups receiving cod liver oil or corn oil was similar , except for the supplementation . There were no differences in gestational length or birth weight between the cod liver oil group and the corn oil group ( 279.6 [ 9.2 ] vs 279.2 [ 9.3 ] days ; 3609 [ 493 ] vs 3618 [ 527 ] g , respectively ) . Birth length , head circumference , and placental weight were also similar in the 2 groups . The concentrations of the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5 n-3 ) , docosapentaenoic acid ( 22:5 n-3 ) , and DHA in umbilical plasma phospholipids were higher in the cod liver oil group compared with the corn oil group ( 10.8 [ 7.6 ] vs 2.5 [ 1.8 ] microg/mL , 5.0 [ 2.6 ] vs 2.9 [ 1.3 ] microg/mL , 55.8 [ 20.6 ] vs 45.3 [ 12.8 ] microg/mL , respectively ) . Neonates with high concentration of DHA in umbilical plasma phospholipids ( upper quartile ) had longer gestational length than neonates with low concentration ( lower quartile ; 282.5 [ 8.5 ] vs 275.4 [ 9.3 ] days ) . No differences in EEG scores or Fagan scores were found , but neonates with mature EEG ( N = 70 ) had a higher concentration of DHA in umbilical plasma phospholipids than neonates with immature EEG ( N = 51 ) on the second day of life . Dietary information from 251 infants at 3 months of age was collected and 85 % of these infants were exclusively breastfed , in addition to 12 % who were partly breastfed . The breast milk of mothers supplemented with cod liver oil contained more n-3 long-chain PUFAs and less n-6 long-chain PUFAs than breast milk of mothers supplemented with corn oil . There were no significant differences in infant growth during the first year of life between the 2 groups . CONCLUSIONS This study shows neither harmful nor beneficial effects of maternal supplementation of long-chain n-3 PUFAs regarding pregnancy outcome , cognitive development , or growth , as compared with supplementation with n-6 fatty acids . However , it confirms that DHA concentration may be related to gestational length and cerebral maturation of the newborn OBJECTIVE To hypothesize that higher intake of docosahexaenoic acid , an n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid , would increase duration of gestation and birth weight in US women . METHODS This was a r and omized , double-blind , controlled , clinical trial . Subjects were enrolled in an ambulatory clinic where they received prenatal care . This was a population -based sample . Most subjects received government assistance for  medical care and most were black ( 73 % ) . Subjects were enrolled between the 24th and 28th week of pregnancy and consumed docosahexaenoic acid ( 33 or 133 mg ) from eggs until parturition . Gestational age and birth weight were the main study outcomes . Infant length and head circumference , preterm birth , and low birth weight were secondary outcomes . RESULTS Eighty-three percent of subjects completed the study ( 291 of 350 enrolled ) . No subject was discontinued for an adverse event . After controlling for important predefined risk factors and confounding variables , gestation increased by 6.0 ± 2.3 days ( P = .009 ) in the higher docosahexaenoic acid group . Birth weight , length , and head circumference increased , but did not reach statistical significance ( P = .06–.18 ) , although the increases could be clinical ly important indications of enhanced intrauterine growth . No safety concerns were raised by the study . CONCLUSION Duration of gestation increased significantly when docosahexaenoic acid intake was increased during the last trimester of pregnancy . The increase in gestation was similar to that reported for interventions with much larger amounts of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty PURPOSE To test the hypothesis that the supplementation of the diets of pregnant women with a fish oil rich in docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) enhances retinal development in their healthy term infants , as measured during the early postnatal period by the electroretinogram ( ERG ) . METHODS One hundred pregnant women were r and omized to receive either a fish oil ( n = 50 ) or a placebo oleic acid dietary supplement ( n = 50 ) from 15 weeks of pregnancy until delivery . Total fatty acids in red blood cells ( RBCs ) and plasma were measured in mothers at 15 and 28 weeks of pregnancy and at delivery and in their infants in umbilical cord blood . Infant retinal development was assessed within the first week of life with full-field ERGs that included a scotopic blue intensity series ( n = 41 ) and a bright white flash ( 2.0 log cd-s/m(2 ) ; n = 44 ) . RESULTS Infants born of mothers who received supplements did not differ at birth in weight , gestational age , or any other st and ard variable . Infant DHA status at birth , as measured from umbilical cord blood , did not differ significantly between maternal supplementation groups . ERG implicit times , amplitudes , and parameters of the stimulus-response function did not differ significantly between infants in the maternal supplemented and placebo groups . There was , however , a relationship between infant DHA status and maturity of the retina at birth , regardless of maternal supplementation group . A measure of retinal sensitivity ( log sigma ) correlated significantly ( P < 0.005 ) with DHA status ( as a percentage of total fatty acid ; TFA ) in infant cord blood . Infants in the highest quartile for cord blood DHA had higher retinal sensitivity compared with infants in the lowest quartile . Infants in the highest quartile for plasma DHA , both as a percentage of TFA and concentration , were born at a significantly later gestational age than were infants in the lower quartiles . CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate an association between the DHA status of term infants and retinal sensitivity , suggesting an essential role of this long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ( LCPUFA ) in the development and function of the retina . However , maternal DHA status was not significantly associated with infant retinal sensitivity and no direct effect of maternal supplementation was observed OBJECTIVE Disturbance in thromboxane and prostacyclin bio synthesis has been observed in preeclampsia . We studied whether fish oil supplementation in late pregnancy interferes with maternal and fetal production of thromboxane A2 and prostacyclin I2 . STUDY DESIGN Forty-seven women in the thirtieth week of pregnancy were r and omly assigned in a ratio of 2:1:1 to receive fish oil ( 2.7 gm of n-3 fatty acid per day [ Pikasol ] , or either olive oil or no oil supplementation as controls .  Metabolites of thromboxane A2 and A3 and of prostacyclin I2 and I3 were quantified by mass spectrometry methods in serum and urine , respectively . Maternal serum and urine were sample d at baseline , in the thirty-third and thirty-seventh weeks of pregnancy . Fetal serum was sample d at delivery . RESULTS At the thirty-seventh week the mean concentrations of the eicosapentaenoic-derived metabolites , thromboxane B3 and prostacyclin I3 , was twofold to threefold higher ( p < 0.001 ) in the group receiving fish oil compared with combined control groups . There were no significant effects of fish oil on the prostacyclin I2 metabolite , although there was a trend toward a reduction in thromboxane B2 in this group . In umbilical cord blood the mean concentration of thromboxane B2 was lowest in the group receiving fish oil ( p = 0.03 ) . CONCLUSIONS Fish oil was metabolized to the eicosapentaenoic acid-derived eicosanoids thromboxane A3 and prostacyclin I3 in pregnant women . Correspondingly , analog products of arachidonic acid tended to be depressed . It remains to be established whether these biochemical effects will prove beneficial in the prevention or treatment of preeclampsia and intrauterine growth retardation Objective To determine the effect of low doses of linoleic acid and calcium on prostagl and in ( PG ) levels and the efficacy of this treatment in the prevention of preeclampsia . Methods In a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled study we treated 86 primigravidas with risk factors for preeclampsia ( high biopsychosocial risk [ above 3 points ] , positive roll-over test , and high mean blood pressure [ above 85 mmHg ) ] with daily doses of either 450 mg linoleic acid and 600 mg calcium ( n = 43 ) or 450 mg starch and 600 mg lactose placebo ( n = 43 ) during the third trimester of pregnancy . Results Four women in the experimental group ( 9.3 % ) developed preeclampsia compared with 16 ( 37.2 % ) controls ( relative risk 0.25 , 95 % confidence interval 0.09 , 0.69 , P < .001 ) . The median serum levels of PGE2 after 4 weeks of treatment increased by 106 % in the experimental group ( P = .03 ) and decreased by 33 % in the control group ( P = .02 ) . The median ratio between thromboxane B2 and PGE2 decreased by 40 % in the experimental group ( P = .02 ) and increased by 18 % in the control group ( P = .14 ) . No significant differences were observed in the median ratio between thromboxane B2 and 6-keto PGF1α in either group . No serious maternal or neonatal side effects of treatment occurred in either group . Conclusion The administration of low daily doses of linoleic acid and calcium during the third trimester of pregnancy reduced the incidence of preeclampsia significantly in women at high risk , possibly by correcting the PGE2 levels The vasoactive effect of prostagl and in F2α ( PGF2α ) was studied in in vitro perfused human umbilical arteries following maternal dietary supplementation with ω–3 fatty acids or in pregnancies complicated by a moderate degree of preeclampsia . In most preparations PGF2α induced a biphasic pressure response with a transient dilatation followed by a constrictory response . The pressure increase was significant in both groups , but no significant differences in the constrictory response or in the proportions of preparations displaying dilatatory responses were observed when compared to appropriate control groups . In conclusion , neither preeclampsia nor dietary supplementation with cod-liver oil had any significant effect on the vasoactive response to PGF2α in umbilical cord arteries Docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ( 22 : 6n-3 ) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid that is an essential constituent of membranes , particularly of the nervous system . Infants acquire DHA from their mothers , either prenatally via the placenta or postnatally in milk . The present study aim ed to test the hypothesis that maternal supplementation during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy enriches maternal and /or fetal DHA status . In a r and omised , prospect i ve , double-blind study 100 mothers received either fish-oil capsules containing 400 mg DHA/g ( 200 mg/d ) ( n 50 ) , or placebo containing 810 mg oleic acid/g ( 400 mg/d ) ( n 50 ) from 15 weeks gestation until term . Venous blood sample s were obtained from mothers at 15 , 28 and 40 weeks , and from the umbilical cord at birth .  Total fatty acids in plasma and erythrocytes were analysed by GC-MS . There were no significant differences between maternal groups in baseline DHA , as a proportion of total fatty acids ( g/100 g total fatty acids ) or concentration ( nmol/ml ) , in plasma and erythrocytes . DHA concentrations in plasma at 28 weeks ( P=0.02 ) and erythrocytes at both 28 weeks ( P=0.03 ) and term ( P=0.02 ) were 20 % higher in supplemented mothers than the placebo group . DHA accounted for a higher proportion of total fatty acids in erythrocytes of supplemented mothers at 28 weeks ( P=0.003 ) and term ( P=0.01 ) . There were no significant differences between groups in DHA ( g/100 g total fatty acids or nmol/l ) in cord blood . Maternal DHA status was maximal in mid-trimester and declined to term , at a lower rate in supplemented compared with unsupplemented mothers . Maternal DHA supplementation significantly increases maternal DHA status and limits the last trimester decline in maternal status , aiding preferential transfer of DHA from mother to fetus Healthy pregnant women ( n 23 ) were supplemented with fish-oil capsules ( 2.7 g n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids/d ) from the 30th week of gestation until delivery . Subjects in a control group were either supplemented with olive-oil capsules ( 4 g/d , n 6 ) or received no supplementation ( n 10 ) . Fatty acid compositions of the phospholipids isolated from umbilical plasma and umbilical arterial and venous vessel walls were determined . Fatty acid compositions of maternal venous plasma phospholipids were determined as well . Maternal plasma phospholipids of the fish-oil-supplemented group contained more n-3 fatty acids and less n-6 fatty acids . Moreover , the amounts of the essential fatty acid deficiency markers Mead acid ( 20:3n-9 ) and Osbond acid ( 22:5n-6 ) were significantly lower . The extra amount of n-3 fatty acids consumed by the mothers result ed in higher contents of n-3 fatty acids , and of docosahexaenoic acid ( 22:6n-3 ) in particular , in the phospholipids of umbilical plasma and vessel walls . It is , indeed , possible to interfere with the docosahexaenoic acid status at birth : children born to mothers supplemented with fish oil in the last trimester of pregnancy start with a better docosahexaenoic acid status at birth , which may be beneficial to neonatal neurodevelopment In a placebo controlled , partially double-blinded , clinical trial , a combination of evening primrose oil and fish oil was compared to Magnesium Oxide , and to a Placebo in preventing  Pre-Eclampsia of Pregnancy .  All were given as nutritional supplements for six months to a group of primiparous and multiparous pregnant women . Some of these women had personal or family histories of hypertension ( 21 % ) . Only those patients who received prenatal care at the Central Maternity Hospital for Lu and a were included in the study . Compared to the Placebo group ( 29 % ) , the group receiving the mixture of evening primrose oil and fish oil containing Gamma-linolenic acid ( GLA ) , Eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) , and Docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) had a significantly lower incidence of edema ( 13 % , p = 0.004 ) . The group receiving Magnesium Oxide had statistically significant fewer subjects who developed  hypertension of pregnancy . There were 3 cases of eclampsia , all in the Placebo group Objective To study the effects of addition of 3 g eicosapentaenoic acid daily to the diet , on recurrence rate of intrauterine growth retardation and pregnancy induced hypertension in a high risk population Objective To determine whether n‐3 fatty acid ( EPA/DCHA ) prophylaxis is beneficial in high risk pregnancies OBJECTIVE The possibility of reducing pregnancy-induced hypertension and preeclampsia in primigravidas with low doses of nutritional factors and relative rest in the left lateral position was investigated in a r and omized controlled , double-blind trial . METHOD Seventy-four normotensive women at 28 - 29 weeks ' gestation , judged to be at risk of PIH or pre-eclampsia because they presented with a mean blood pressure of 80 mmHg or higher and a positive roll-over test , were studied . The treatment protocol was received by 37 women and the other 37 women received st and ard antenatal control until delivery . RESULT Twenty-nine ( 78.3 % ) women in the control group developed PIH and /or pre-eclampsia , as opposed to only 4 ( 10.8 % ) cases in the treatment group ( P < 0.001 ) . There were no adverse effects of treatment in mothers or in infants . CONCLUSION This protocol reduces PIH and pre-eclampsia in primigravidas judged to be at risk of hypertension . Further studies are required to evaluate prostacyclin and prostagl and in E2 changes It was hypothesised from previous observational studies in the Faroes and Denmark that dietary marine n-3 fatty acids would prolong the duration of pregnancy and thereby increase the birth weight , by influencing the production of prostagl and ins involved in the process of parturition . Five hundred and thirty-three healthy Danish women were r and omly assigned in the 30th week of pregnancy to fish oil ( 2.7 g n-3 fatty acids ( 4 1-g capsules Pikasol oil ) per day ) , olive oil ( 4 1-g capsules per day ) or no oil supplementation . The three groups differed in mean gestational age at birth ( ANOVA , p = 0.006 ) , with the fish oil group ranking highest and the olive oil group lowest . Babies born to women allocated fish oil had on average 4.0 ( 95 % confidence interval 1.5;6.4 ) days higher gestational age and 107 ( 95 % confidence interval 1;214 ) g higher weight at birth than babies born to women allocated olive oil ; the difference in gestational age depended on the level of fish intake at enrollment , with a low fish intake enhancing the difference . Fish oil supplementation in the third trimester seems to prolong gestation while allowing continued growth of the foetus ; this effect seems to explain the difference between the Faroes and Denmark in pregnancy duration The high birthweights and long duration of pregnancy  in the Faroe Isl and s led us to suggest that a high intake of marine-fat-derived n-3 fatty acids might prolong pregnancy by shifting the balance of production of prostagl and ins involved in parturition . We have compared the effects on pregnancy duration , birthweight , and birth length of a fish-oil supplement , a control olive-oil supplement , and no supplementation .  533 healthy Danish women in week 30 of pregnancy were r and omly assigned in a ratio of 2/1/1 to fish oil ( four 1 g Pikasol capsules [ containing 2.7 g n-3 fatty acids ] per day ) , olive oil ( four 1 g capsules per day ) , or no supplement . The three groups differed in mean length of gestation ( p = 0.006 ) , which was highest in the fish-oil group and lowest in the olive-oil group ; the result was similar when the analysis was restricted to women with an estimate of gestation length based on early ultrasound findings ( 443 women ) .  Pregnancies in the fish-oil group were on average 4.0 ( 95 % confidence interval 1.5 - 6.4 ) days longer than those in the olive-oil group ; the difference in birthweight was 107 ( 1 - 214 ) g. The effect of  supplementation  on length of gestation was influenced by intake of fish and of fish oil : the difference between fish-oil and other groups was increased by a low fish intake at baseline . Fish-oil supplementation in the third trimester seems to prolong pregnancy without detrimental effects on the growth of the fetus or on the course of labour Aim : To test the hypothesis that maternal docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) supplementation during pregnancy enhances maturation of the visual evoked potential ( VEP ) in healthy term infants . Methods : One hundred women were supplemented with either fish oil capsules rich in DHA ( n = 50 ) or placebo capsules ( n = 50 ) from week 15 of pregnancy until delivery . Total fatty acids in red blood cells and plasma were measured at weeks 15 , 28 , and 40 of pregnancy and at delivery in umbilical cord blood . Infant visual pathway development was assessed using VEPs recorded to flash stimuli shortly after birth and to both flash and pattern-reversal stimuli at 50 and 66 weeks post-conceptional age ( PCA ) . Results : Maternal supplementation did not significantly elevate the level of DHA in umbilical cord blood . Moreover , there were no significant differences in any of the VEP measures observed between supplementation groups . However , maturity of the pattern-reversal VEP at 50 and 66 weeks PCA was associated with DHA status of the infants at birth . Infants with higher DHA status , both as a concentration and as a percentage of total fatty acids , showed shorter P100 peak latencies of the pattern-reversal VEP than those with lower DHA status . Conclusions : Maternal DHA supplementation during pregnancy did not enhance VEP maturation in healthy term infants . However , these results show an association between the DHA status of infants at term and early postnatal development of the pattern-reversal VEP , suggesting that DHA status itself may influence maturation of the central visual pathways Objective To test the postulated preventive effects of dietary n‐3 fatty acids on pre‐term delivery , intrauterine growth retardation , and pregnancy induced hypertension This study was performed to investigate whether supplementation of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and arachidonic acid ( AA ) to pregnant women would enhance their DHA levels , both in plasma and in erythrocyte phospholipids , without reducing the content of n-6 long-chain ployenes ( LCP ) usually seen when DHA is supplemented alone . Healthy pregnant women , in the second trimester , were r and omly assigned to either the control group ( n=12 ) or the intervention group ( n=12 ) . The control group received no supplements and the intervention group received daily during 4 weeks encapsulated algae-derived DHA oil ( 0.57 g DHA/day ) and fungal-derived AA oil ( 0.26 g AA/day ) . The fatty acid compositions of plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids were determined in weekly-collected blood sample s. DHA and n-6 LCP levels of the control group were unchanged after 4 weeks . Compared to the control group , DHA levels in plasma an erythrocytes of the intervention group increased significantly . No significant reductions were found in the levels of AA and total n-6 LCP . The supplement proved to be effective in increasing the DHA levels in both plasma and erythrocyte without a concomitant decline of the n-6 LCP The anti-inflammatory properties of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFA ) have suggested a potential role of these nutrients in dietary modification for prevention of allergic disease in early life . As oxidative stress is known to modify antigen presenting cell ( APC ) signalling and result ing immune responses , we examined the effects of maternal n-3 PUFA supplementation in pregnancy on markers of oxidative stress and APC function in neonates at high risk of allergy . Eighty-three pregnant atopic women were r and omised to receive 4 g daily of either fish oil ( n=40 ) or olive oil ( n=43 ) capsules in a controlled trial from 20 weeks gestation until delivery . Plasma ( cord blood ) and urinary F2-isoprostanes were measured as markers of lipid peroxidation . Cord erythrocyte fatty acids and markers of APC function ( HLA-DR expression and cytokine responses ) were measured and related to levels of plasma F2-isoprostanes . Maternal fish oil supplementation lowered plasma ( p<0.0001 ) and urinary ( p=0.06 ) F2-isoprostanes . HLA-DR expression on APC was not different between the groups . In multiple regression analysis , 28.8 % of the variance in plasma F2-isoprostanes was explained by positive relationships with erythrocyte arachidonic acid ( AA ) and monocyte HLA-DR expression and a negative relationship with erythrocyte eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) . This study shows that maternal supplementation with fish oil can attenuate neonatal lipid peroxidation . Clinical follow-up of these infants will help to determine if there are sustained effects on postnatal oxidative stress and expression of allergic disease Infants were followed longitudinally to document the relationship between docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) levels and the development of attention . Erythrocyte ( red-blood cell ; RBC ) phospholipid DHA ( percentage of total fatty acids ) was measured from infants and mothers at delivery . Infants were assessed in infant-control habituation at 4 , 6 , and 8 months augmented with psychophysiological measures , and on free-play attention and distractibility paradigms at 12 and 18 months . Infants whose mothers had high DHA at birth showed an accelerated decline in looking over the 1st year and increases in examining during single-object exploration and less distractibility in the 2nd year . These findings are consistent with evidence suggesting a link between DHA and cognitive development in infancy Objective To study the effect of fish oil supplementation on  blood pressure  during the third trimester of pregnancy The effect of picasol ( a preparation of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ) on the serum lipid spectrum was studied upon administration of the drug to 60 pregnant women with a high-risk of developing placental insufficiency during II-III trimesters of pregnancy in accordance with a program of r and omized  placebo controlled double blind trial . In the absence of differences in the level of lipid spectrum parameters prior to picasol administration we found in the III trimester a reliably low content of triglycerides and cholesterol of extremely low density lipoproteids in patients who received picasol
BACKGROUND Population studies have shown that higher intakes of marine foods during pregnancy are associated with longer gestations , higher infant birthweights and a low incidence of pre-eclampsia .
It is suggested that the fatty acids of marine foods may be the underlying cause of these associations .
OBJECTIVES To estimate the effects of marine oil , and other prostagl and in precursor , supplementation during pregnancy on the risk of pre-eclampsia , preterm birth , low birthweight and small-for-gestational age .