The atherosclerotic risk profile is affected differently by fish flesh with a similar EPA and DHA content but different n-6/n-3 ratio. Circulating triacylglycerol and apoE levels in response to EPA and docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in adult human subjects. Effects of a Mediterranean-inspired diet on blood lipids, vascular function and oxidative stress in healthy subjects. Dietary fish oil decreases C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and triacylglycerol to HDL-cholesterol ratio in postmenopausal women on HRT. An oily fish diet increases insulin sensitivity compared to a red meat diet in young iron-deficient women. n−3 long-chain FA decrease serum levels of TG and remnant-like particle-cholesterol in humans Effects of Seal Oil and Tuna-Fish Oil on Platelet Parameters and Plasma Lipid Levels in Healthy Subjects Moderate fish-oil supplementation reverses low-platelet, long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid status and reduces plasma triacylglycerol concentrations in British Indo-Asians. Effect of a fish-oil concentrate on serum lipids in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy in a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Differential eicosapentaenoic acid elevations and altered cardiovascular disease risk factor responses after supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy. Increased n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids do not attenuate the effects of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on insulin sensitivity or triacylglycerol reduction in Indian Asians. Effects of supplementation with fish oil-derived n-3 fatty acids and gamma-linolenic acid on circulating plasma lipids and fatty acid profiles in women. Steady-state bioavailability of prescription omega-3 on a low-fat diet is significantly improved with a free fatty acid formulation compared with an ethyl ester formulation: the ECLIPSE II study The effects of flaxseed dietary supplement on lipid profile, bone mineral density, and symptoms in menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, wheat germ placebo-controlled clinical trial. Variable Hypocoagulant Effect of Fish Oil Intake in Humans: Modulation of Fibrinogen Level and Thrombin Generation Fish oil in combination with high or low intakes of linoleic acid lowers plasma triacylglycerols but does not affect other cardiovascular risk markers in healthy men. Regular consumption of n-3 fatty acid-enriched pork modifies cardiovascular risk factors. Age- and dose-dependent effects of an eicosapentaenoic acid-rich oil on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy male subjects. Effects of trans- and n-3 unsaturated fatty acids on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy males. An 8 weeks dietary intervention study Flaxseed on cardiovascular disease markers in healthy menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Trans, and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vascular function-a yin yang situation? Influence of an algal triacylglycerol containing docosahexaenoic acid (22 : 6n-3) and docosapentaenoic acid (22 : 5n-6) on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy men and women. Plasma triglyceride as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. A Comparison of Fish Oil, Flaxseed Oil and Hempseed Oil Supplementation on Selected Parameters of Cardiovascular Health in Healthy Volunteers New and classical risk factors--the Münster heart study (PROCAM). Effect of low doses of long-chain n-3 PUFAs on endothelial function and arterial stiffness: a randomized controlled trial. Fish oil supplementation improves endothelial function in normoglycemic offspring of patients with type 2 diabetes. The effect of farmed trout on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy men. The effects of low dose n-3 fatty acids on serum lipid profiles and insulin resistance of the elderly: a randomized controlled clinical trial.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of consuming gilthead sea bream fillets , with different n-6/ n-3 ratios , on atherosclerotic biomarkers . Twenty healthy subjects were included in a r and omised single-blinded cross-over trial . Participants were r and omized into 2 groups , both of which received approximately 630 g per week of gilthead sea bream fed with either 100 % fishmeal ( FM ) or partial replacement with plant proteins ( PP ) over two consecutive 10 week periods , respectively . Group A consumed firstly the FM fillets followed by the PP fillets , whereas the reverse order was adopted for group B. Group A reported a significant decrease of 29.3 % ( Δ = -26 mg/dL ) in total cholesterol after the first phase of the intervention , before returning to baseline levels after the dietary intervention with fish fed with PP . Similarly , in group A , both LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides decreased significantly by 21.6 % ( Δ = -19 mg/dL ) and 11.7 % ( Δ = -10.7 mg/dL ) , respectively , before increasing again after the intervention . Improvements in the inflammatory cytokines , interleukin-6 and -8 were also noted . Moreover , whole blood viscosity appeared significantly improved in group A , as seen by a significant increase of 7.59 % ( Δ = + 4.59 mPA ) for erythrocyte filtration rate . In conclusion , similar EPA+DHA content with different n- 6/n-3 ratio fish flesh intake was shown to have varied affects on lipid , inflammatory and haemorheological parameters in a group of healthy subjects High doses of n-3 PUFA found in fish oils can reduce the circulating concentration of triacylglycerol ( TG ) , which may contribute to the positive impact of these fatty acids on the risk of CVD . The present study aim ed to establish the differential impact of EPA and docosahexaenoic ( DHA ) on plasma lipids and apo in adults . Forty-two normolipidaemic adult subjects completed a double-blind placebo controlled parallel study , receiving an EPA-rich oil ( 4.8 g EPA/d ) , DHA-rich oil ( 4.9 g DHA/d ) or olive oil as control , for a period of 4 weeks . No effects of treatment on total cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol or HDL-cholesterol were evident . There was a significant 22 % reduction in TG level relative to the control value following the DHA treatment ( P=0.032 ) , with the 15 % decrease in the EPA group failing to reach significance ( P=0.258 ) . There were no significant inter-group differences in response to treatment for plasma apoA1 , -C3 or -E levels , although a significant 15 % within-group increase in apoE was evident in the EPA ( P=0.006 ) and DHA ( P=0.003 ) groups . In addition , a within-group decrease in the apoA1:HDL-cholesterol ratio was observed in the DHA group , suggesting a positive impact of DHA on HDL particle size . The DHA intervention result ed in a significant increase in the proportion of EPA P=0.000 and DHA P=0.000 in plasma phospholipids , whilst significant increases in EPA P=0.000 and docosapentaenoic acid P=0.002 , but not DHA P=0.193 , were evident following EPA supplementation ( P<0.05 ) . Our present results indicate that DHA may be more efficacious than EPA in improving the plasma lipid profile Mediterranean-inspired diets have been shown to decrease cholesterol levels in patients with hypercholesterolaemia , who frequently exhibit endothelial dysfunction . The aims of the present study are to improve endothelial function by dietary intervention in healthy subjects with lipid levels representative of a Western population . Twenty-two healthy subjects ( mean total cholesterol , 5.6 mmol/l ) were given a Mediterranean-inspired diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids and sterol esters , but low in saturated fat , or an ordinary Swedish diet , for 4 weeks in a r and omized cross-over study . The composition of the diets were : in the Swedish diet , 2090 kcal ( where 1 kcal=4.184 kJ ; 48 % of energy from carbohydrate , 15 % from protein and 36 % from fat ) and 19 g of fibre ; in the Mediterranean-inspired diet , 1869 kcal ( 48 % of energy from carbohydrate , 16 % from protein , 34 % from fat ) and 40 g of fibre . After each dietary period , fasting blood lipids , insulin and glucose levels , as well as apo B ( apolipoprotein B ) and LDL ( low-density lipoprotein ) particle size , were analysed . Endothelial-dependent and -independent vasodilation was measured invasively by venous occlusion plethysmography , and arterial distensibility was assessed by echocardiography tracking . Fibrinolytic capacity across the forearm , as well as oxidative stress measured through urinary F(2)-isoprostane , were evaluated . Total , LDL- and apo B-cholesterol and triacylglycerol ( triglyceride ) concentrations were decreased by 17 % , 22 % , 16 % and 17 % respectively , after the Mediterranean-inspired diet compared with the Swedish diet ( P < 0.05 for all ) . However , no differences in plasma concentrations of insulin and glucose and LDL particle size , endothelial function , arterial distensibility , fibrinolytic capacity or oxidative stress were detected . Treatment for 4 weeks with a Mediterranean-inspired diet decreased blood lipids in healthy individuals with a low-risk profile for cardiovascular disease . This beneficial effect was not mirrored in vascular function or oxidative stress evaluation BACKGROUND Atherogenesis is a complex process involving both a low- grade inflammation and a disturbed lipid profile . Although dietary fish and fish oil improve the latter of these two risk factors , their impact on the former is less clear . OBJECTIVE This study addressed the effect of supplementation with fish oil in doses achievable with diet on serum C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) , and the lipid profile . METHODS AND RESULTS Thirty healthy subjects taking HRT were r and omly divided into three groups and supplemented for five weeks with 14 g/day safflower oil ( SO ) , 7 g/day of both safflower oil and fish oil ( LFO ) , or 14 g/day fish oil ( HFO ) . Measurements included serum high-sensitivity CRP , IL-6 in plasma and in cell culture supernatant collected from 24-hr lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated whole blood , and lipid profile markers . CRP and IL-6 were adjusted for body mass index ( BMI ) . Fish oil supplementation significantly decreased CRP and IL-6 compared to SO , with a greater effect in the LFO than HFO groups . Plasma triacylglycerol ( TG ) and the TG/HDL-C ratio were significantly lower in the HFO compared to the SO group . CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that dietary fish oil may decrease the risk for cardiovascular disease through the modulation of both plasma lipids and inflammatory markers in healthy postmenopausal women Beneficial effects of n-3 fatty acids on a variety of physiological functions have been reported , but information related to the effects of oily fish consumed within a varied diet on glucose metabolism and diabetes risk is scarce . The objective of the study was to compare the effects of a diet rich in oily fish to those of a diet rich in red meat on lipid profile , oxidative status , glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity in young , iron-deficient women . The study was design ed attending the CONSORT statement guidelines . It was a r and omised crossover dietary intervention study with two 8-week periods . Two diets were design ed differing only in their oily fish or red meat content ( four portions per week ) . Twenty-five young iron-deficient women with normal lipid , glucose and insulin levels participated in the assay . Lipid profile ( total , LDL- and HDL-cholesterol , TAG ) , fasting glucose , fasting insulin , and oxidation ( lipoperoxides ) and inflammation ( soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ) biomarkers were analysed . Insulin sensitivity was assessed by the Homeostasis Model Assessment ( HOMA ) and Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check Index ( QUICKI ) . Insulin levels significantly decreased and insulin sensitivity significantly increased with the oily fish diet .  HDL-cholesterol significantly increased with the oily fish diet . Other parameters did not significantly differ between diets . An increase in oily fish consumption increases insulin sensitivity in young iron-deficient women . This outcome should be considered when giving dietary advice to this population A large number of papers have reported that administration of n−3 FA reduced serum TG concentrations in hypertriglyceridemic patients . However , few studies have examined the effect of n−3 FA on serum concentrations of remnant-like particle ( RLP ) cholesterol . Volunteers ( n=41 ) whose serum TG concentrations were 100–300 mg/dL were recruited and r and omly assigned to either an n−3 FA group or a control group with stratification by sex , age , and serum TG level in a double-blind manner . The subjects in the n−3 FA group were administered 125 ml of fermented soybean milk with fish oil containing 600 mg of EPA and 260 mg of DHA/d for 12 wk . The controls consumed control soybean milk with olive oil .  Fasting blood sample s were obtained before the start of administration and at 4 , 8 and 12 wk . EPA concentrations in red blood cells increased significantly in all but one subject in the n−3 FA group , with no significant changes in the control group . TG levels decreased more in the n−3 FA group than in the control group at weeks 4 ( P<0.05 ) , 8 ( P<0.01 ) , and 12 ( P<0.05 ) with their baseline as covariate . RLP cholesterol levels decreased more in the n−3 FA group than in the control at weeks 8 ( P<0.01 ) and 12 ( P<0.05 ) with their baseline as covariate . The groups did not differ in the other lipid levels . It is likely that n−3 long-chain FA may exert anti-atherosclerotic effects by lowering serum TG and RLP-cholesterol levels even at the dose of 860 mg/d Fish are a rich source of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , two long-chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids ( LC n-3 PUFA ) with cardiovascular benefits . A related but less-investigated LC n-3 PUFA , docosapentaenoic acid ( DPA ) , is more common in seal oil and pasture-fed red meats . This study compared indicators of platelet function and plasma lipids in healthy volunteers given supplements containing these different fatty acids ( FA ) for 14 days . Subjects , r and omised into three groups of ten , consumed capsules of tuna oil ( 210 mg EPA , 30 mg DPA , 810 mg DHA ) , seal oil ( 340 mg EPA , 230 mg DPA , 450 mg DHA ) or placebo ( sunola ) oil . Supplementary LC n-3 PUFA levels were approximately 1 g/day in both fish and seal oil groups . Baseline dietary FA and other nutrient intakes were similar in all groups . Both fish and seal oil elevated platelet DHA levels ( P < 0.01 ) . Seal oil also raised platelet DPA and EPA levels ( P < 0.01 ) , and decreased p-selectin ( P = 0.01 ) , a platelet activation marker negatively associated with DPA ( P = 0.03 ) and EPA ( P < 0.01 ) but not DHA . Plasma triacylglycerol decreased ( P = 0.03 ) and HDL-cholesterol levels increased ( P = 0.01 ) with seal oil only . Hence , seal oil may be more efficient than fish oil at promoting healthy plasma lipid profiles and lowering thrombotic risk , possibly due to its high DPA as well as EPA content BACKGROUND The mechanisms involved in the increased mortality from coronary artery disease in British Indo-Asians are not well understood . OBJECTIVES This study aim ed to investigate whether British Indo-Asian Sikhs have higher plasma triacylglycerol concentrations , lower platelet phospholipid levels , and lower dietary intakes of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) than do age- and weight-matched Europeans and whether moderate dietary fish-oil intake can reverse these differences . DESIGN A r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , parallel , fish-oil intervention study was performed . After a 2-wk run-in period , 44 Europeans and 40 Indo-Asian Sikhs were r and omly assigned to receive either 4.0 g fish oil [ 1.5 g eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and 1.0 g docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ] or 4.0 g olive oil ( control ) daily for 12 wk . RESULTS At baseline , the Indo-Asians had significantly higher plasma triacylglycerol , small dense LDL , apolipoprotein B , and dietary and platelet phospholipid n-6 PUFA values and significantly lower long-chain n-3 PUFAs ( EPA and DHA ) than did the Europeans . A significant decrease in plasma triacylglycerol , plasma apolipoprotein B-48 , and platelet phospholipid arachidonic acid concentrations and a significant increase in plasma HDL concentrations and platelet phospholipid EPA and DHA levels were observed after fish-oil supplementation . No significant effect of ethnicity on the responses to fish-oil supplementation was observed . CONCLUSIONS Moderate fish-oil supplementation contributes to a reversal of lipid abnormalities and low n-3 PUFA levels in Indo-Asians and should be considered as an important , yet simple , dietary manipulation to reduce CAD risk in Indo-Asians with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype BACKGROUND n-3 Fatty acid supplementation lowered serum triacylglycerol concentrations in studies in which most of the subjects were male . The effects of n-3 fatty acid supplementation in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy ( HRT ) have received little attention . OBJECTIVE We sought to determine the effects of a fish-oil-derived n-3 fatty acid concentrate on serum lipid and lipoprotein risk factors for cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving HRT , with an emphasis on serum triacylglycerol concentrations and the ratio of triacylglycerol to HDL cholesterol . DESIGN Postmenopausal women ( n = 36 ) were grouped according to exogenous hormone use and were r and omly allocated to receive 8 capsules/d of either placebo oil ( control ) or n-3 fatty acid-enriched oil ( supplement ) . The supplement provided 2.4 g eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) plus 1.6 g docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) daily . Serum lipids and the fatty acid composition of serum phospholipids were determined on days 0 and 28 . RESULTS Supplementation with n-3 fatty acids was associated with 26 % lower serum triacylglycerol concentrations ( P < 0.0001 ) , a 28 % lower overall ratio of serum triacylglycerol to HDL cholesterol ( P < 0.01 ) , and markedly greater EPA and DHA concentrations in serum phospholipids ( P < 0.05 ) . CONCLUSIONS These results show that supplementation with a fish-oil-derived concentrate can favorably influence selected cardiovascular disease risk factors , particularly by achieving marked reductions in serum triacylglycerol concentrations and triacylglycerol : HDL cholesterol in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving HRT . This approach could potentially reduce the risk of coronary heart disease by 27 % in postmenopausal women BACKGROUND Dietary docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) has triacylglycerol-lowering potential and undergoes in vivo retroconversion to eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) in humans . Hormone replacement therapy ( HRT ) influences circulating lipid concentrations and fatty acid metabolism . DHA supplementation has not been studied in postmenopausal women . OBJECTIVE We studied the effects of supplementation with DHA ( free of EPA ) on the result ing elevation in EPA and on selected cardiovascular disease risk factors in postmenopausal women . DESIGN Women receiving ( n = 18 ) and not receiving ( n = 14 ) HRT completed a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled crossover trial with a DHA supplement ( 2.8 g DHA/d ) . A washout period of > or = 6 wk divided the two 28-d intervention periods . Fasting blood sample s were collected for analysis . RESULTS In all women , DHA supplementation was associated with significant changes ( P < 0.05 ) , including 20 % lower serum triacylglycerol concentrations , 8 % higher HDL-cholesterol concentrations , a 28 % lower overall ratio of serum triacylglycerol to HDL cholesterol , and a 7 % decrease in resting heart rate .  DHA supplementation result ed in a 45 % lower net increase ( P = 0.02 ) in EPA and a 42 % lower ( P = 0.0028 ) estimated percentage retroconversion of DHA to EPA [ DeltaEPA/(DeltaEPA + DeltaDHA ) x 100 ] in women receiving than in those not receiving HRT . CONCLUSION With DHA supplementation , the accumulation of EPA in serum phospholipids is significantly attenuated in postmenopausal women receiving HRT compared with that in women not receiving HRT . DHA supplementation can also favorably influence selected cardiovascular disease risk factors in postmenopausal women BACKGROUND Indian Asians in Western countries have a higher rate of coronary artery disease than do the indigenous white population s , and this higher rate may be influenced by a dietary imbalance of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) . OBJECTIVE The objective of the study was to test the hypothesis that a high background dietary intake of n-6 PUFA attenuates the effects of fish-oil supplementation on insulin sensitivity and associated blood lipids of the metabolic syndrome . DESIGN Twenty-nine Indian Asian men were recruited to participate in a 12-wk dietary intervention trial . Volunteers were r and omly assigned to receive either a moderate or a high n-6 PUFA diet featuring modified oils and spreads over a 6-wk period . After this 6-wk period , both groups were supplemented with 4.0 g fish oil/d ( 2.5 g eicosapentaenoic acid + docosahexaenoic acid ) for an additional 6 wk in combination with the dietary treatment . Volunteers participated in a postpr and ial study and an insulin sensitivity test after the 6-wk dietary intervention and again after the fish-oil supplementation period . RESULTS There was no significant time x treatment interaction for blood lipids or insulin action after dietary intervention with the moderate or high n-6 PUFA diets in combination with fish oil . After the 6-wk period of fish oil supplementation , fasting and postpr and ial plasma triacylglycerol concentrations decreased significantly . CONCLUSION The background dietary n-6 PUFA concentration did not modulate the effect of fish-oil supplementation on blood lipids or measures of insulin sensitivity in this ethnic group BACKGROUND Eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) , docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , and gamma-linolenic acid ( GLA ) have lipid-modifying and antiinflammatory properties . The effects of supplement mixtures of these fatty acids on plasma lipids and the fatty acid compositions of serum phospholipids have received little attention . OBJECTIVE The objective was to determine the effects of different levels of GLA supplementation together with a constant intake of EPA plus DHA on the triacylglycerol-lowering effect of EPA plus DHA alone and on the fatty acid patterns ( eicosanoid precursors ) of serum phospholipids . DESIGN Thirty-one women were assigned to 1 of 4 groups , equalized on the basis of their fasting triacylglycerol concentrations . They received supplements providing 4 g EPA+DHA ( 4:0 , EPA+DHA : GLA ; control group ) , 4 g EPA+DHA plus 1 g GLA ( 4:1 ) , 2 g GLA ( 4:2 ) , or 4 g GLA ( 4:4 ) daily for 28 d. Plasma lipids and fatty acids of serum phospholipids were measured on days 0 and 28 . RESULTS Plasma triacylglycerol concentrations were significantly lower on day 28 than on day 0 in the 4:0 , 4:1 , and 4:2 groups . LDL cholesterol decreased significantly ( by 11.3 % ) in the 4:2 group . Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid increased significantly in serum phospholipids only in the 4:2 and 4:4 groups ; however , total n-3 fatty acids increased in all 4 groups . CONCLUSIONS A mixture of 4 g EPA+DHA and 2 g GLA favorably altered blood lipid and fatty acid profiles in healthy women . On the basis of calculated PROCAM values , the 4:2 group was estimated to have a 43 % reduction in the 10-y risk of myocardial infa rct ion The systemic bioavailability of free fatty acid ( FFA ) forms of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) compared with ethyl ester ( EE ) forms is dependent on the presence of intestinal lipases and is highest during consumption of high-fat meals . Given that patients with cardiovascular disease are advised to reduce dietary fat intake , potentially lowering the bioavailability and therapeutic benefit , the hypothesis that FFA forms provide for higher bioavailability compared with EE forms under low-fat diet conditions was tested where the pharmacokinetics of the FFA form ( Epanova ™ ) were compared with those of an ethyl ester form ( Lovaza ® ) following repeat dosing . Fifty-two healthy male and female subjects were equally allocated to one of two open-label , parallel-group cohorts . Following a Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes diet for a minimum of 7 days , blood sample s were drawn for endogenous values for EPA and DHA over a 24-hour period . Subjects were then administered 4 × 1 g capsules of either Epanova ( OM3 FFA ) or Lovaza ( OM3 EE ) once daily for 14 days , following which serial blood sample s were drawn over a 24-hour period to characterize the bioavailability of EPA and DHA from the respective formulations . In addition , changes from baseline in lipid profile were explored . Systemic bioavailability , as measured by area under the curve from time zero to 24 hours ( AUC0-τ ) and the maximum measured plasma concentrations during the 0–24 hour dosing interval ( Cmax , ss ) of unadjusted total plasma EPA + DHA were approximately 3-fold and 3.9-fold higher , respectively , for Epanova relative to Lovaza . Following baseline adjustment , the magnitude of difference in bioavailability was approximately 5.8-fold and 6.5-fold higher in AUC0-τ and Cmax , respectively , for Epanova relative to Lovaza . Serum triglycerides were reduced by a significantly greater extent ( P = 0.013 ) for Epanova relative to Lovaza ( 21 % versus 8 % ) . The bioavailability of the FFA forms of EPA and DHA in Epanova are significantly greater than the bioavailability from the EE forms present in Lovaza under low-fat dietary conditions normally recommended for patients with cardiovascular disease .  This increased bioavailability may lead to improved triglyceride-lowering in patients with hypertriglyceridemia Phytoestrogens are increasingly incorporated into the diet of menopausal women . However , there are limited data on the efficacy of flaxseed on the consequences of estrogen deficiency in menopausal women . The purpose of the study was to assess the effects of flaxseed incorporation into the diet of healthy menopausal women . One hundred and ninety-nine menopausal women were r and omly assigned to consume 40 g flaxseed/d ( n = 101 ) or wheat germ placebo ( n = 98 ) for 12 months . At baseline and at month 12 , serum levels of lipids , bone mineral density ( BMD ) , and menopausal symptoms were evaluated . Statistical analysis was performed under the intention to treat principle . Flaxseed reduced serum total ( -0.20 + /- 0.51 mmol/liter ; P = 0.012 ) and high-density lipoprotein ( -0.08 + /- 0.24 mmol/liter ; P = 0.031 ) cholesterol concentrations compared with wheat germ placebo .  BMD did not differ significantly between the two arms . Both flaxseed and wheat germ reduced ( P < 0.0001 ) the severity scores of menopausal symptoms , but no statistical difference was found between the two arms . Our findings suggest that 1-yr incorporation of flaxseed into the diet produced a favorable , but not clinical ly significant , effect on blood cholesterol and caused no significant change in BMD or symptoms in healthy menopausal women Objective —The beneficial effect of dietary fish oil , rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) , on cardiovascular disease is multifactorial and may partly rely on their anticoagulant action . We studied how fish oil intake influenced thrombin generation in plasma and which factors were involved herein . Methods and Results —Twenty-five healthy males with borderline overweight received 3.0 g omega-3 PUFAs daily for 4 weeks . Fish oil intake reduced plasma triglycerides and lowered platelet integrin activation , as well as plasma levels of fibrinogen and factor V , but had no effect on vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors . Before fish oil intake , thrombin generation ( reflecting the coagulant potential ) considerably varied between plasmas from individual subjects , which were partly explained by variation in prothrombin , antithrombin , fibrinogen , and factor V levels . Fish oil intake reduced thrombin generation in the presence and absence of platelets . This reduction correlated with the fish oil effect on fibrinogen and factor V levels . Interestingly , the lowering effect of fish oil on thrombin generation and fibrinogen clustered around subjects with high fibrinogen carrying a structural fibrinogen α-chain polymorphism . Conclusions —Dietary omega-3 PUFAs provoke a hypocoagulant , vitamin K-independent effect in humans , the degree of which may depend on fibrinogen level Both ( n-3 ) long-chain PUFA ( LCPUFA ) and linoleic acid [ LA , 18:2(n-6 ) ] improve cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) risk factors , but a high-LA intake may weaken the effect of ( n-3 ) LCPUFA . In a controlled , double-blind , 2 x 2-factorial 8-wk intervention , we investigated whether fish oil combined with a high- or low-LA intake affects overall CVD risk profile .  Healthy men ( n = 64 ) were r and omized to 5 mL/d fish oil capsules ( FO ) [ mean intake 3.1 g/d ( n-3 ) LCPUFA ] or olive oil capsules ( control ) and to oils and spreads with either a high ( S/B ) or a low ( R/K ) LA content , result ing in a 7.3 g/d higher LA intake in the S/B groups than in the R/K groups . Diet , ( n-3 ) LCPUFA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells , blood pressure ( BP ) , heart rate ( HR ) , and plasma CVD risk markers were measured before and after the intervention . FO lowered fasting plasma triacylglycerol ( TAG ) ( P < 0.001 ) by 51 % and 19 % in the FO+R/K-group and FO+S/B-group , respectively , which was also reflected in postpr and ial TAG measured after the intervention ( P < 0.01 ) . Although a fat x FO interaction was found for monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 , neither the FO nor fat intervention affected fasting plasma cholesterol , glucose , insulin , fibrinogen , C-reactive protein , interleukin-6 , vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 , P-selectin , oxidized LDL , cluster of differentiation antigen 40 lig and ( CD40L ) , adiponectin , or fasting or postpr and ial BP or HR after adjustment for body weight changes . In conclusion , neither fish oil supplementation nor the LA intake had immediate pronounced effects on the overall CVD risk profile  in healthy men , but fish oil lowered plasma TAG in healthy subjects with initially low concentrations The long-chain ( LC ) n-3 PUFA content of pork , particularly DHA , can be increased by including 15 % PorcOmega ( a fortified tuna fishmeal product ) in pig finisher diets . The aim of the present study was to see whether this enriched pork could deliver cardiovascular health benefits to consumers . In a double-blind intervention trial , thirty-three healthy adult volunteers ( sixteen female and seventeen male ) were r and omised to consume either n-3-enriched or regular ( control ) pork ( a selection of five fresh cuts totalling 1000 g/week ) for 12 weeks . Fasting blood sample s were collected every 4 weeks and analysed for serum lipids , maximally stimulated thromboxane production and erythrocyte fatty acid composition . The n-3-enriched pork provided subjects with 1.3 g LC n-3 PUFA per week . Erythrocyte DHA levels rose 15 % in the n-3 group and fell 5 % in the control group over 12 weeks ( P=0.001 ) . Compared with the control group , serum TAG decreased to a greater extent in the n-3 group ( P=0.02 ) and serum thromboxane production increased to a lesser extent ( P=0.004 ) . Changes in the latter were inversely associated with changes in incorporation of DHA into erythrocytes ( r -0.54 ; P<0.05 ) . Thus the modest increases in LC n-3 PUFA intake result ing from regular consumption of enriched pork can improve cardiovascular risk factors Supplementation with fish oils , rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids , modifies cardiovascular risk factors . However , dose-response relationships are poorly defined and whether similar effects are seen in young and older subjects is not known . This study determined the effect of supplementing the diet of young and older male subjects with different amounts of an eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)-rich oil .  Healthy young ( 18 - 42 years ) and older ( 53 - 70 years ) males were r and omized to placebo or 1.35 , 2.7 or 4.05 g EPA/day for 12 weeks . There was no effect of EPA on blood pressure or on plasma total , LDL or HDL cholesterol .  EPA lowered plasma triacylglycerols , with the maximal effect at the lowest dose . Plasma lipoperoxides decreased in all groups . EPA decreased the lag time of copper-induced lipoprotein peroxidation and the ratio of reduced to total glutathione in the older subjects . The highest dose of EPA increased soluble E-selectin in young subjects , while increasing EPA tended to decrease soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 in young and older subjects . Young and older males will gain cardiovascular benefit from increased intake of EPA .  Young males are unlikely to suffer adverse consequences from high EPA intake , whereas older males may have an increased risk of lipoprotein peroxidation Background : Studies of long-term intake of industrially produced trans fatty acids ( TFA ) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) suggest opposite effects on cardiovascular disease risk . Common mechanisms of action are probable . Objective : To examine the effects on cardiovascular risk markers of dietary enrichment with TFA or n-3 PUFA . Design : R and omized , double-blind , parallel intervention trial . Setting : Department of Human Nutrition , The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University . Subjects : In all , 87 healthy males included , 79 completed . Intervention : Subjects were r and omly assigned to 8 weeks of a daily intake of 33 g of experimental fats from either partially hydrogenated soy oil containing 20 g of TFA , 12 g of fish oil with approximately 4 g of n-3 PUFA and 21 g of control fat , or 33 g of control fat . The experimental fats were incorporated into bakery products .  Plasma lipids , blood pressure , heart rate variability ( HRV ) , arterial dilatory capacity , compliance , and distensibility were recorded before and after intervention and at follow-up 12 weeks after the intervention . Results : High-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( HDL-C ) decreased in the TFA group and triglycerides and mean arterial blood pressure decreased in the n-3 PUFA group compared to the control group . HRV , arterial dilatory capacity , compliance , and distensibility were unchanged . Conclusion : The results indicate that the association between coronary heart disease risk and intake of TFA and n-3 PUFA relates only modestly to changes in traditional risk markers . Sponsorship : Danish Medical Research Council ( Grant no. 22 - 01 - 0390 ) , Center of Advanced Food Research ( Copenhagen , Denmark ) ( Grant no. KVL-R-2001 - 107 ) , the Danish Heart Association ( Grant no. 99 - 2 - 3 - 45 - 22748 ) , Novozymes ( Bagsvaerd , Denmark ) , Aarhus Olie ( Aarhus , Denmark ) , and from private sources . The experimental fats were provided by Pronova Biocare ( Aalesund , Norway ) and Aarhus Olie ( Aarhus , Denmark ) OBJECTIVE Due to its high content of lignans , alpha-linolenic acid and fiber , flaxseed may reduce cardiovascular disease risk in humans . The present study evaluated the effect of flaxseed on markers of cardiovascular disease risk in healthy menopausal women . METHODS One hundred ninety-nine women were r and omly assigned to consume 40 g daily of flaxseed or wheat germ placebo for 12 mo . Fatty acids , apolipoproteins A-1 and B , lipoprotein(a ) , low-density lipoprotein particle size , fibrinogen , C-reactive protein , insulin , and glucose were measured at baseline and at 12 mo . RESULTS In total 179 women were available for the intention-to-treat analysis .  Flaxseed increased plasma alpha-linolenic ( P < 0.0001 ) , docosapentaenoic ( P = 0.001 ) , and total omega-3 fatty ( P = 0.0004 ) acids . Differences between flaxseed and wheat germ were observed for apolipoprotein A-1 ( -0.10 + /- 0.26 g/L , P = 0.011 ) and apolipoprotein B ( -0.05 + /- 0.16 g/L , P = 0.047 ) . From baseline , flaxseed raised apolipoproteins A-1 and B by 4.4 % ( P = 0.006 ) and 3 % ( P = 0.054 ) , whereas wheat germ increased these apolipoproteins by 11.6 % ( P < 0.0001 ) and 7 % ( P = 0.0001 ) , respectively . Both treatments increased lipoprotein(a ) ( P < 0.0001 ) and decreased low-density lipoprotein peak particle size ( P < 0.0001 ) . CONCLUSION In this large , long-term , placebo-controlled trial in healthy menopausal women , flaxseed increased some omega-3 fatty acids in plasma and had a limited effect on apolipoprotein metabolism Trans fatty acids ( TFA ) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFA ) have opposite effects on several biological functions . We report a study on the effects on risk markers for cardiovascular disease .  Eighty-seven healthy males were r and omly assigned to 8 weeks of daily intake of either 20 g of industrially produced TFA ( IP-TFA ) , 4 g n-3 PUFA , or control fat , incorporated in bakery products as part of the daily food . High-density lipoprotein cholesterol decreased in the TFA-group , triglycerides and mean arterial blood pressure decreased in the n-3 group . Heart rate variability ( HRV ) , arterial dilatory capacity , flow mediated vasodilation , compliance , and distensibility were unchanged . Post hoc , we did a subgroup analysis of the results from the subjects with normal initial HRV . In these , 24-h heart rate ( HR ) was significantly increased by approximately three beats/min in the TFA group , with a decrease of the same magnitude in the n-3 group . A high HR is associated to an increased mortality and vice versa . Our results thus support the notion that IP-TFA and n-3 PUFA affect risk for cardiovascular mortality via mechanisms not only related to changes in plasma concentrations of lipids and lipoproteins The intake of long-chain n-3 PUFA , including DHA ( 22 : 6n-3 ) , is associated with a reduced risk of CVD . Schizochytrium sp. are an important primary source of DHA in the marine food chain but they also provide substantial quantities of the n-6 PUFA docosapentaenoic acid ( 22 : 5n-6 ; DPA ) . The effect of this oil on cardiovascular risk factors was evaluated using a double-blind r and omised placebo-controlled parallel- design trial in thirty-nine men and forty women . Subjects received 4 g oil/d for 4 weeks ; the active treatment provided 1.5 g DHA and 0.6 g DPA . Active treatment increased plasma concentrations of arachidonic acid , adrenic acid , DPA and DHA by 21 , 11 , 11 and 88 mg/l respectively and the proportions of DPA and DHA in erythrocyte phospholipids by 78 and 27 % respectively . Serum total , LDL- and HDL-cholesterol increased by 0.33 mmol/l ( 7.3 % ) , 0.26 mmol/l ( 10.4 % ) and 0.14 mmol/l ( 9.0 % ) compared with placebo ( all P < or = 0.001 ) . Factor VII ( FVII ) coagulant activity increased by 12 % following active treatment ( P = 0.006 ) . There were no significant differences between treatments in LDL size , blood pressure , plasma glucose , serum C-reactive protein , plasma FVII antigen , FVII activated , fibrinogen , von Willebr and factor , tocopherol or carotenoid concentrations , plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 , creatine kinase or troponin-I activities , haematology or liver function tests or self-reported adverse effects . Overall , the oil was well tolerated and did not adversely affect cardiovascular risk OBJECTIVES To determine whether cardiovascular disease can be predicted from plasma triglyceride levels independent of high density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol levels . DATA SOURCES AND STUDY SELECTION Seventeen prospect i ve population -based studies , ranging in publication date from 1965 to 1994 , were selected based on uniform criteria . Among the studies , 16 were conducted in men , comprising data for more than 46,000 men , with an average follow-up period of more than eight years . The data from women came from five studies , including nearly 11,000 women with an 11-year average follow-up . DATA EXTRACTION The meta- analysis protocol comprised the following steps : estimating the relative risk of triglyceride for each individual study ; st and ardizing the relative risks to a 1 mmol/l increase ; estimating the variance and weighting relative risks by the inverse of the variance , and estimating the summary relative risk by averaging the weighted relative risks . DATA SYNTHESIS Among studies of men , relative risks ranged from 1.1 to 2.0 , and the summary relative risk was 1.32 ( P < 0.05 ) . All five studies of women were statistically significant , with relative risks ranging from 1.7 to 2.0 . The summary relative risk was 1.76 , higher than that for men , indicating a 76 % increase in risk for women . For the studies among men in which HDL cholesterol data were available , multivariate adjusted relative risk was attenuated to 1.14 but was still statistically significant . Although only two studies of women included HDL cholesterol adjustments , the summary relative risk for triglyceride remained statistically significant , with a value of 1.37 . CONCLUSIONS When all available data are taken into account , increased triglyceride level is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease , independent of HDL cholesterol level . Clinical trials are urgently needed to determine whether lowering plasma triglyceride levels reduces subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease Objective : The impact of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) of the n-6 and n-3 series on the cardiovascular system is well documented . To directly compare the effects of three dietary oils ( fish , flaxseed and hempseed ) given in concentrations expected to be self-administered in the general population on specific cardiovascular parameters in healthy volunteers . Design : 86 healthy male and female volunteers completed a 12 week double blinded , placebo controlled , clinical trial . They were r and omly assigned to one of the four groups . Subjects were orally supplemented with two 1 gm capsules of placebo , fish oil , flaxseed oil or hempseed oil per day for 12 weeks . Results : Plasma levels of the n-3 fatty acids docosahexanoic acid and eicosapentanoic acid increased after 3 months supplementation with fish oil .  Alpha linolenic acid concentrations increased transiently after flaxseed supplementation . However , supplementation with hempseed oil did not significantly alter the concentration of any plasma fatty acid . The lipid parameters ( TC , HDL-C , LDL-C and TG ) did not show any significant differences among the four groups . Oxidative modification of LDL showed no increase in lag time over the 12 wk period . None of the dietary interventions induced any significant change in collagen or thrombin stimulated platelet aggregation and no increase in the level of inflammatory markers was observed . Conclusion : From a consumer 's perspective , ingesting 2 capsules of any of these oils in an attempt to achieve cardiovascular health benefits may not provide the desired or expected result over a 3 month period A total of 4,849 male participants of the prospect i ve cardiovascular Münster Study ( PROCAM ) , aged 40 - 65 years underwent extensive screening for cardiovascular risk factors before 1986 and were subsequently followed up for at least 8 years . During this time 189 non-fatal and 49 fatal myocardial infa rct ions occurred , 28 men suffered a sudden cardiac death and 169 persons died of other causes . Using multivariate statistical methods we confirmed that age , increased LDL cholesterol levels , decreased HDL cholesterol levels , high blood pressure , cigarette smoking , diabetes mellitus , angina pectoris and a positive family history are important risk factors for a myocardial infa rct ion or cardiac death . The results of the PROCAM Study demonstrate that elevated triglycerides are an independent risk factor for an early myocardial infa rct ion or cardiac death . Using a multiple logistic function analysis an algorithm for the assessment of the global risk was derived from the data . The observed incidence of coronary heart disease rises sharply as the global risk increases , thus permitting the use of this algorithm in clinical practice for the assessment of the individual risk of myocardial infa rct ion . Risk factors such as lipoprotein(a ) and coagulation factors may improve the predictive value of this algorithm . Furthermore it is expected that the exploration of genetic defects will strongly increase the predictive value and precise determination of individual risk BACKGROUND The dietary intake of n-3 ( omega-3 ) long-chain PUFAs ( LC-PUFAs ) from fish may improve  endothelial function and arterial stiffness .  OBJECTIVE The objective was to test the hypothesis that increasing intakes of n-3 LC-PUFAs-equivalent to the consumption of 1 , 2 , or 4 portions of oily fish per week-favorably affects endothelial function and arterial stiffness . DESIGN A parallel- design , r and omized , double-blind study compared daily doses of 0.45 , 0.9 , and 1.8 g n-3 LC-PUFAs ( EPA : DHA ratio of 1.51:1 ) with placebo ( refined olive oil ) . The primary and secondary outcomes were changes in flow-mediated dilatation ( FMD ) of the brachial artery , arterial stiffness , and blood pressure .  Nonsmoking men ( n = 142 ) and women ( n = 225 ) aged 45 - 70 y were r and omly assigned to treatment for 12 mo ; 312 subjects completed the intervention . RESULTS Compliance with the intervention was corroborated by significant dose-dependent increases in the proportions of EPA and DHA in erythrocyte lipids and a 16.5 % reduction in serum triacylglycerol concentrations with 1.8 g n-3 LC-PUFAs/d . FMD was lower in men than in women ( P < 0.0001 ) and decreased with age ( ρ = 0.270 , P < 0.001 ) but was not significantly ( P = 0.781 ) related to n-3 LC-PUFA intake . The mean changes in FMD ( 95 % CIs ) compared with placebo were 0.1 % ( -0.9 % , 1.1 % ) , -0.3 % ( -1.3 % , 0.6 % ) , and -0.3 % ( -1.3 % , 0.7 % ) with daily intakes of 0.45 , 0.9 , and 1.8 g n-3 LC-PUFAs , respectively . No significant treatment effects were noted for arterial stiffness and central mean or 24-h ambulatory blood pressure . CONCLUSION Intakes of n-3 LC-PUFAs ≤1.8 g/d do not improve endothelial function in healthy adults . The trial is registered at controlled-trials.com as IS RCT N66664610 OBJECTIVE Offspring of patients with type 2 diabetes ( OPDs ) exhibits endothelial dysfunction ( ED ) associated with a chronic inflammatory state . N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFA ) may have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that are beneficial for cardiovascular and metabolic health . Therefore , in the present study , we tested the hypothesis that dietary supplementation with fish oil rich in n-3 PUFA may improve ED in otherwise healthy OPDs . METHODS AND DESIGN A double-blind , placebo-controlled trial was conducted with 50 OPDs . Participants were r and omized to treatment with either placebo or n-3 PUFA ( 2g/day ) for 12 weeks . Before and after treatment we evaluated endothelial function ( using flow-mediated dilation ( FMD ) of the brachial artery ) , circulating inflammatory markers ( adiponectin , TNF-alpha , and high sensitivity-CRP ) , and insulin resistance ( QUICKI ) . RESULTS No significant changes were observed in study outcomes in subjects treated with placebo . By contrast , when compared with baseline values , subjects treated with n-3 PUFA had significant improvement in FMD ( 9.1+/-5.8 % vs. 11.7+/-4.4 % , p=0.02 ) that was accompanied by decreased plasma triglycerides ( 117+/-73mg/dl vs. 86+/-44mg/dl , p=0.001 ) and TNF-alpha levels ( 8.9+/-2.3pg/ml vs. 6.8+/-2.7pg/ml , p=0.001 ) , and a trend towards increased plasma adiponectin levels ( 7.8+/-4.5microg/ml vs. 9.5+/-5.1microg/ml , p=0.09 ) . When data were analyzed by multiple regression analysis , decreased TNF-alpha after treatment with n-3 PUFA predicted increased FMD . CONCLUSION Dietary supplementation with n-3 PUFA significantly improved endothelial function and reduced pro-inflammatory markers in OPDs . Thus , fish oil consumption may have beneficial cardiovascular and metabolic health effects in otherwise healthy subjects predisposed to diabetes and its vascular complications Increased intake of marine long-chain n-3 PUFA ( n-3 LCPUFA ) may decrease the risk of CVD and reduce mortality by lowering serum TAG and blood pressure ( BP ) . Furthermore , n-3 LCPUFA may affect novel CVD risk markers related to inflammation and vascular function . The objective of the present study was to examine the effect of farmed trout on novel and traditional CVD risk markers in healthy men , and to evaluate whether this was affected by the aquacultural feed regime . We performed a parallel , 8-week intervention study in which sixty-eight healthy male volunteers were r and omised to consume either a daily meal with 150 g farmed trout raised on either marine or vegetable-based feed , or a reference meal containing 150 g chicken . Twenty-four hour BP , pulse wave velocity , augmentation index , fatty acid composition of erythrocyte ( RBC ) , and concentrations of TAG , HDL-cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol , glucose , insulin , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) and other markers of inflammation were measured at weeks 0 and 8 . RBC content of total n-3 LCPUFA , both EPA and DHA , was significantly higher among men consuming trout raised on marine feed compared with men consuming the  vegetable-fed trout or chicken . The three intervention groups did not differ significantly with respect to any of the other outcome variables , although there were trends towards associations between the changes in RBC n-3 LCPUFA and those in BP and CRP . In the present study , we conclude that we could not confirm the fish oil-induced reduction in CVD risk markers after daily consumption of trout with high or low n-3 LCPUFA content . However , trout raised on vegetable-based feed had less pronounced impact on RBC n-3 LCPUFA status INTRODUCTION N-3 fatty acids have several beneficial effects on dyslipidemia and diabetes , conditions which are prevalent in the elderly . This study assessed the effects of low-dose n-3 fatty acids on serum lipid profile , lipoprotein(a ) , apolipoprotein B , fasting glucose , insulin , and insulin resistance in a group of elderly Iranians . MATERIAL S AND METHODS A 6-month r and omized , double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial was carried out in 124 elderly residents of Kahrizak Charity Foundation aged > or= 65 . The intervention group was supplemented with 1 g/day fish oil capsule ( with 180 mg eicosapentaenoic acid , EPA ; and 120 mg docosahexaenoic acid , DHA ; a total of 300 mg n-3 fatty acids as effective constituents ) . Fasting blood sample s were collected at baseline and after 6 months of the trial . RESULTS There were no significant effects of fish oil on the studied variables in the intervention group . In the placebo group , serum triglyceride significantly increased and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol significantly decreased ( p = 0.01 and p = 0.009 , respectively ) . By repeated measurement analysis after adjustments , the overall decrease in serum triglycerides compared with placebo was significant ( p = 0.04 ) . CONCLUSION Supplementation with low dose n-3 fatty acids for 6 months could significantly protect elderly Iranians from a rise in serum triglycerides
Circulating levels of triacylglycerol ( TG ) is a recognized risk factor for developing cardiovascular disease , a leading cause of death worldwide .
The Institute of Medicine and the American Heart Association both recommend the consumption of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) , specifically eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , to reduce serum TG in hyperlipidemic individuals .
Additionally , a number of systematic review s have shown that individuals with any degree of dyslipidemia , elevated serum TG and /or cholesterol , may benefit from a 20 - 30 % reduction in serum TG after consuming n-3 PUFA derived from marine sources .
Given that individuals with serum lipid levels ranging from healthy to borderline dyslipidemic constitute a large portion of the population , the focus of this review was to assess the potential for n-3 PUFA consumption to reduce serum TG in such individuals .