Effect of a fatty meal on inflammatory markers in healthy volunteers with a family history of type 2 diabetes. The acute effects of olive oil v. cream on postprandial thermogenesis and substrate oxidation in postmenopausal women. Effects of soy or milk protein durign a high-fat feeding challenge on oxidative stress, inflammation, and lipids in healthy men Meal modulation of circulating interleukin 18 and adiponectin concentrations in healthy subjects and in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Postprandial effects of an oleic acid-rich oil compared with butter on clotting factor VII and fibrinolysis in healthy men. Butter differs from olive oil and sunflower oil in its effects on postprandial lipemia and triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins after single mixed meals in healthy young men. Dark chocolate consumption improves leukocyte adhesion factors and vascular function in overweight men. Assessment of inflammatory resilience in healthy subjects using dietary lipid and glucose challenges Effects of oral fat load on insulin output and glucose tolerance in healthy control subjects and obese patients without diabetes. Effects of oral and intravenous fat load on blood pressure, endothelial function, sympathetic activity, and oxidative stress in obese healthy subjects. Vascular and Inflammatory High Fat Meal Responses in Young Healthy Men; A Discriminative Role of IL-8 Observed in a Randomized Trial Ornithine carbamoyltransferase deficiency: Improved sensitivity of testing for protein tolerance in the diagnosis of heterozygotes High Fat Intake Leads to Acute Postprandial Exposure to Circulating Endotoxin in Type 2 Diabetic Subjects Effects of acute ingestion of different fats on oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight and obese adults Effects of a standardized oral fat load on vascular remodelling markers in healthy subjects. Postprandial endothelial activation in healthy subjects and in type 2 diabetic patients: role of fat and carbohydrate meals. Pitavastatin prevents postprandial endothelial dysfunction via reduction of the serum triglyceride level in obese male subjects Acute effects of three high-fat meals with different fat saturations on energy expenditure, substrate oxidation and satiety. Postprandial cytokine concentrations and meal composition in obese and lean women. Weight reduction, but not a moderate intake of fish oil, lowers concentrations of inflammatory markers and PAI-1 antigen in obese men during the fasting and postprandial state. Postprandial recruitment of neutrophils may contribute to endothelial dysfunction Published, JLR Papers in Press, December 16, 2002. DOI 10.1194/jlr.M200419-JLR200 Dysregulation of glucose, insulin, triglyceride, blood pressure, and oxidative stress after an oral glucose tolerance test in men with abdominal obesity. Postprandial changes in plasma acylcarnitine concentrations as markers of fatty acid flux in overweight and obesity. The influence of the type of dietary fat on postprandial fat oxidation rates: monounsaturated (olive oil) vs saturated fat (cream) Effect of postprandial hypertriglyceridemia and hyperglycemia on circulating adhesion molecules and oxidative stress generation and the possible role of simvastatin treatment. Postprandial variations of plasma inflammatory markers in abdominally obese men. Postprandial fatty acid specific changes in circulating oxylipins in lean and obese men after high-fat challenge tests. Differential effects of saturated and monounsaturated fats on postprandial lipemia and glucagon-like peptide 1 responses in patients with type 2 diabetes. Activity of the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal System and Oral Glucose Tolerance in Depressed Patients Acute effects of food on postprandial blood pressure and measures of arterial stiffness in healthy humans.
A family history of type 2 diabetes ( T2D ) confers a high risk of developing the disease , independent of that due to other common risk factors . Postpr and ial state is a pro-inflammatory condition associated with a transiently impaired endothelial function ; an increased oxidative stress is considered as a mediator of such effects in T2D . We evaluated the short-term effect of a lipid meal on markers of early vascular damage in subjects at risk of developing T2D . A total of thirty-two healthy volunteers , divided according to the presence ( FHD+ ) or absence ( FHD - ) of a family history of T2D , underwent a fatty meal test . We measured the monocyte mRNA expressions of IL-6 , IL-8 and IL-1β , and IL-6 , soluble CD40 lig and ( sCD40L ) , vascular cellular adhesion molecule-1 ( VCAM-1 ) , intracellular adhesion molecule-1 ( ICAM-1 ) and nitrotyrosine plasma concentrations at baseline and in the post-meal phase , relating them to the lipid profile and other biochemical parameters . The basal expression of the cytokines did not differ in FHD - and FHD+ subjects ; neither was it modified by the meal ingestion . IL-6 and sCD40L plasma levels , similar in the two groups in the fasting state , did not vary after the meal . VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 increased in FHD+ subjects but not in FHD - subjects . Nitrotyrosine , similar between the FHD - and FHD+ subjects at baseline , increased more in FHD+ subjects than in FHD - subjects after the meal . In conclusion , the presence of a familial history of T2D confers an abnormal endothelial activation after an oral lipid meal , coupled with an increased oxidative stress , supporting the hypothesis of an early endothelial dysfunction already present in healthy individuals prone to develop T2D The influence of the source of dietary fat on postpr and ial thermogenesis and substrate oxidation rates , was examined in twelve postmenopausal women aged 57 - 73 years , with BMI 21.9 - 38.3 kg/m(2 ) . A single blind , r and omised , paired comparison of two high-fat , isoenergetic , mixed test meals was conducted . The major source of fat was either cream ( CREAM ) or extra virgin olive oil ( EVOO ) .  RMR , diet-induced thermogenesis ( DIT ) and substrate oxidation rates over 5 h were measured by indirect calorimetry . There were no differences in body weight , RMR , fasting carbohydrate or fat oxidation rates between the two occasions . DIT ( EVOO 97 ( SD 46 ) v. CREAM 76 ( SD 69 ) kJ/5 h and EVOO 5.2 ( SD 2.5 ) v. CREAM 4.1 ( SD 3.7)% energy ) did not differ between the two test meals . The postpr and ial increase in carbohydrate oxidation rates , relative to their respective fasting values ( DeltaCOX ) , was significantly lower following the EVOO meal ( EVOO 10.6 ( SD 8.3 ) v. CREAM 17.5 ( SD 10 ) g/5 h ; paired t test , P=0.023 ) , while postpr and ial fat oxidation rates ( DeltaFOX ) were significantly higher ( EVOO 0.0 ( SD 4.4 ) v. CREAM -3.6 ( sd 4.0 ) g/5 h ; P=0.028 ) . In the eight obese subjects , however , DIT was significantly higher following the EVOO meal ( EVOO 5.1 ( SD 2.0 ) v. CREAM 2.5 ( sd 2.9 ) % ; P=0.01 ) . This was accompanied by a significantly lower DeltaCOX ( EVOO 10.9 ( SD 9.9 ) v. CREAM 17.3 ( SD 10.5 ) g/5 h ; P=0.03 ) and significantly higher DeltaFOX ( EVOO 0.11 ( SD 4.4 ) v. CREAM -4.1 ( SD 4.5 ) g/5 h , P=0.034 ) . The present study showed that olive oil significantly promoted postpr and ial fat oxidation and stimulated DIT in abdominally obese postmenopausal women Soy isoflavones may impede atherogenic processes associated with cardiovascular disease . Research suggests that the postpr and ial generation of TG-rich remnants contributes to the development of atherosclerosis . The purpose of the current study was to determine if 39 g soy ( 85 mg aglycone isoflavones , treatment ) compared with 40 g milk protein ( 0 mg aglycone isoflavones , control ) in combination with a high-fat meal can modify postpr and ial , atherogenic-associated events and biomarkers for oxidative stress , inflammation , and thrombosis .  Fifteen healthy men ( 20–47 yr ) participated in a double-blind cross-over meal-challenge study occurring on two nonconsecutive days . The study meals consisted of two high-fat apple muffins consumed with either a soy or milk shake ( 229 mL , 41 % fat , 41 % carbohydrate , and 18 % protein ) . Blood sample s were obtained at base-line ( fasted ) and hours two , four , and six postpr and ial . Plasma TG significantly increased in both treatment and control meal challenges compared with baseline . There were no significant differences ( P>0.05 ) between treatment ( soy ) and control ( milk ) for ex vivo copper-induced LDL oxidation , serum C-reactive protein , serum interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) , serum fibrinogen , or plasma lipids ( total cholesterol , HDL , LDL , TG ) . IL-6-concentrations significantly decreased as a function of time during either meal challenge ( P=0.005 ) . These data suggest that consumption of soy or milk protein in conjunction with a high-fat meal does not acutely modify postpr and ial oxidative stress , inflammation , or plasma lipid concentrations in young , healthy men BACKGROUND A single high-fat meal induces endothelial activation , which is associated with increased serum concentrations of inflammatory cytokines . OBJECTIVE We compared the effect of 3 different meals on circulating concentrations of interleukin 8 ( IL-8 ) , interleukin 18 ( IL-18 ) , and adiponectin in healthy subjects and in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus . DESIGN Thirty patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes and 30 matched , nondiabetic subjects received the following 3 isoenergetic ( 780 kcal ) meals separated by 1-wk intervals : a high-fat meal ; a high-carbohydrate , low-fiber ( 4.5 g ) meal ; and a high-carbohydrate , high-fiber meal in which refined-wheat flour was replaced with whole-wheat flour ( 16.8 g ) . We analyzed serum glucose and lipid variables and serum IL-8 , IL-18 , and adiponectin concentrations at baseline and at 2 and 4 h after ingestion of the meals . RESULTS Compared with nondiabetic subjects , diabetic patients had higher fasting IL-8 ( P < 0.05 ) and IL-18 ( P < 0.01 ) concentrations and lower adiponectin concentrations ( P < 0.01 ) at baseline . In both nondiabetic and diabetic subjects , IL-18 concentrations increased and adiponectin concentrations decreased ( P < 0.05 ) from baseline concentrations after consumption of the high-fat meal . After consumption of the high-carbohydrate , high-fiber meal , serum IL-18 concentrations decreased from baseline concentrations ( P < 0.05 ) in both nondiabetic and diabetic subjects ; adiponectin concentrations decreased after the high-carbohydrate , low-fiber meal in diabetic patients . IL-8 concentrations did not change significantly after consumption of any of the 3 meals . CONCLUSIONS This study provides evidence that circulating IL-18 and adiponectin concentrations are modulated by familiar foodstuffs in humans . Meal modulation of cytokines involved in atherogenesis may represent a safe strategy for ameliorating atherogenetic inflammatory activity in diabetic patients BACKGROUND Factor VII coagulant activity ( FVII : c ) is associated with an increased risk of fatal ischemic heart disease , is correlated with plasma triacylglycerol concentration , and increases after a meal rich in long-chain fatty acids . OBJECTIVE We planned to compare effects of meals rich in oleate and butter fat with those of a low-fat meal on FVII : c and fibrinolytic activity . DESIGN A crossover design was used to compare the postpr and ial effects on coagulant and fibrinolytic activities in 12 men of 3 high-fat ( 95 g ) meals -- high oleate , butter , and oleate + medium-chain triacylglycerols (oleate+MCT)--with an isoenergetic low-fat meal ( 18 g MCT ) . The oleate+MCT blend was used to mimic the ratio of long-chain to shorter-chain fatty acids in butter . RESULTS Neither the amount nor type of fat consumed influenced plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 or t-plasminogen activator activities or D-dimer concentration . FVII : c increased by 12.5 % ( 95 % CI : 4.6 % , 20.5 % ) after the high-fat meals at 3 h and by 6.7 % ( 95 % CI : 1.6 % , 11.7 % ) at 7 h and changed 7 h after the low-fat meal by -14.3 % ( 95 % CI : -3.3 % , -25.4 % ) . The responses to the high-fat meals did not differ . Measurements of activated FVII ( FVIIa ) , FVII zymogen , and activated FXII ( FXIIa ) concentrations made after the low-fat and high-oleate meals showed a significant increase in FVIIa only after the high-oleate meal . CONCLUSIONS The results of this study confirm that FVII : c falls after a low-fat meal and suggests that postpr and ial activation of FVII occurs rapidly after a fat-rich meal without involving an increase in FXIIa Accumulation of postpr and ial triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins is generated by assimilation of ingested dietary fat and has been increasingly related to atherogenic risk . Nevertheless , the influence of different kinds of dietary fatty acids on postpr and ial lipid metabolism is not well established , except for ( n-3 ) polyunsaturated long-chain fatty acids . Our goal was to evaluate the effects of test meals containing a common edible fat source of saturated ( butter ) , monounsaturated ( olive oil ) or ( n-6 ) polyunsaturated ( sunflower oil ) fatty acids on postpr and ial lipid and triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein responses . After a 12-h fast , 10 healthy young men ingested mixed meals containing 0 g ( control ) or 40 g fat , provided as butter , olive oil or sunflower oil in a r and om order .  Fasting and postmeal blood sample s were collected for 7 h. The no-fat test meal did not elicit any change over baseline except for plasma phospholipids , insulin and nonesterified fatty acids . Conversely , the three fat-containing meals elicited bell-shaped postpr and ial changes ( P < 0.05 ) in serum triacylglycerols , free and esterified cholesterol , and nonesterified fatty acids . The butter meal induced a lower postpr and ial rise of triacylglycerols in serum and chylomicrons ( incremental AUC , mmol.h/L : 0.72 ) than the two unsaturated oils ( olive oil : 1.6 , sunflower oil : 1.8 ) , which did not differ . Circulating chylomicrons were smaller after the butter meal than after the two vegetable oil meals . The in vitro susceptibility of circulating chylomicrons to hydrolysis by postheparin plasma was higher after sunflower oil than after butter or olive oil . We conclude that butter results in lower postpr and ial lipemia and chylomicron accumulation in the circulation of young men than olive or sunflower oils after consumption of a single mixed meal Flavanol-enriched  chocolate consumption increases endothelium-dependent vasodilation .  Most research so far has focused on flow-mediated dilation ( FMD ) only ; the effects on other factors relevant to endothelial health , such as inflammation and leukocyte adhesion , have hardly been addressed . We investigated whether consumption of regular dark chocolate also affects other markers of endothelial health , and whether chocolate enrichment with flavanols has additional benefits . In a r and omized double-blind crossover study , the effects of acute and of 4 wk daily consumption of high flavanol chocolate ( HFC ) and normal flavanol chocolate ( NFC ) on FMD , augmentation index ( AIX ) , leukocyte count , plasma cytokines , and leukocyte cell surface molecules in overweight men ( age 45 - 70 yr ) were investigated . Sensory profiles and motivation scores to eat chocolate were also collected . Findings showed that a 4 wk chocolate intake increased FMD by 1 % , which was paralleled by a decreased AIX of 1 % , decreased leukocyte cell count , decreased plasma sICAM1 and sICAM3 , and decreased leukocyte adhesion marker expression ( P<0.05 for time effect ) , with no difference between HFC and NFC consumption . Flavanol enrichment did affect taste and negatively affected motivation to consume chocolate . This study provides new insights on how chocolate affects endothelial health by demonstrating that chocolate consumption , besides improving vascular function , also lowers the adherence capacity of leukocytes in the circulation Background Resilience or the ability of our body to cope with daily-life challenges has been proposed as a new definition of health , with restoration of homeostasis as target result ant of various physiological stress responses . Challenge models may thus be a sensitive measure to study the body ’s health . The objective of this study was to select a dietary challenge model for the assessment of inflammatory resilience . Meals are a challenge to metabolic homeostasis and are suggested to affect inflammatory pathways , yet data in literature are limited and inconsistent . Method The kinetic responses of three different dietary challenges and a water control challenge were assessed on various metabolic and inflammatory markers in 14 healthy males and females using a full cross-over study design . The dietary challenges included glucose ( 75 g glucose in 300 ml water ) , lipids ( 200 ml whipping cream ) and a mix of glucose and lipids ( same amounts as above ) , respectively . Blood sample s were collected at baseline and at 0.5 , 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 and 10 h after consumption of the treatment products . Inflammation ( IFNγ , IL-1β , IL-6 , IL-8 , IL-10 , IL-12p70 , TNF-α CRP , ICAM-1 , VCAM-1 , SAA , E-selectin , P-selectin , thrombomodulin , leukocytes , neutrophils , lymphocytes ) and clinical ( e.g. glucose , insulin , triglycerides ) markers as well as gene expression in blood cells and plasma oxylipin profiles were measured . Results All three dietary challenges induced changes related to metabolic control such as increases in glucose and insulin after the glucose challenge and increases in triglycerides after the lipid challenge . In addition , differences between the challenges were observed for precursor oxylipins and some downstream metabolites including DiHETrE ’s and HODE ’s . However , none of the dietary challenges induced an acute inflammatory response , except for a modest increase in circulating leukocyte numbers after the glucose and mix challenges . Furthermore , subtle , yet statistically significant increases in vascular inflammatory markers ( sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 ) were found after the mix challenge , when compared to the water control challenge . Conclusions This study shows that dietary glucose and lipid challenges did not induce a strong acute inflammatory response in healthy subjects , as quantified by an accurate and broad panel of parameters OBJECTIVE Elevated plasma nonesterified fatty acid ( NEFA ) concentrations cause peripheral and hepatic insulin resistance and may play an important role in regulating glucose-induced insulin secretion . The aim of our study was to investigate the influence of physiologically elevated NEFA levels on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in order to find evidence that NEFAs are a potential factor predisposing for type 2 diabetes and related metabolic disorders , which are known risk factors for cardiovascular disease . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS We combined an orally administered fat emulsion with an intravenous glucose tolerance test and measured the time course of NEFA , insulin , and glucose .  In order to find pathological conditions we applied the experiment to healthy and obese subjects . RESULTS The main findings are a significant increase in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion after oral fat load in both groups compared with the condition without preceding fat ingestion and a prolonged insulin secretion after fat load in obese patients compared with control subjects . CONCLUSIONS The results provide evidence that fat ingestion modulates beta-cell function and that NEFA is a plausible mediator that acts as a link between fat and glucose metabolism by modulating glucose-stimulated insulin secretion . Under the condition of elevated plasma levels of NEFA , this mechanism may be responsible for hyperinsulinemia in obese patients and a potential target of type 2 diabetes prevention strategies We compared the effects of high and low oral and intravenous ( iv ) fat load on blood pressure ( BP ) , endothelial function , autonomic nervous system , and oxidative stress in obese healthy subjects . Thirteen obese subjects r and omly received five 8-h infusions of iv saline , 20 ( 32 g , low iv fat ) or 40 ml/h intralipid ( 64 g , high iv fat ) , and oral fat load at 32 ( low oral ) or 64 g ( high oral ) . Systolic BP increased by 14 ± 10 ( P = 0.007 ) and 12 ± 9 mmHg ( P = 0.007 ) after low and high iv lipid infusions and by 13 ± 17 ( P = 0.045 ) and 11 ± 11 mmHg ( P = 0.040 ) after low and high oral fat loads , respectively . The baseline flow-mediated dilation was 9.4 % , and it decreased by 3.8 ± 2.1 ( P = 0.002 ) and 4.1 ± 3.1 % ( P < 0.001 ) after low and high iv lipid infusion and by 3.8 ± 1.8 ( P = 0.002 ) and 5.0 ± 2.5 % ( P < 0.001 ) after low and high oral fat load , respectively . Oral and iv fat load stimulated oxidative stress , increased heart rate , and decreased R-R interval variability . Acute iv fat load decreased blood glucose by 6 - 10 mg/dl ( P < 0.05 ) without changes in insulin concentration , whereas oral fat increased plasma insulin by 3.7 - 4.0 μU/ml ( P < 0.01 ) without glycemic variations . Intravenous saline and both oral and iv fat load reduced leptin concentration from baseline ( P < 0.01 ) . In conclusion , acute fat load administered orally or intravenously significantly increased blood pressure , altered endothelial function , and activated sympathetic nervous system by mechanisms not likely depending on changes in leptin , glucose , and insulin levels in obese healthy subjects . Thus , fat load , independent of its source , has deleterious hemodynamic effects in obese subjects BACKGROUND High fat meal challenges are known to induce postpr and ial low- grade inflammation and endothelial dysfunction . This assumption is largely based on studies performed in older population s or in population s with a progressed disease state and an appropriate control meal is often lacking . Young healthy individuals might be more resilient to such challenges . We therefore aim ed to characterize the vascular and inflammatory response after a high fat meal in young healthy individuals . METHODS In a double-blind r and omized cross-over intervention study , we used a comprehensive phenotyping approach to determine the vascular and inflammatory response after consumption of a high fat shake and after an average breakfast shake in 20 young healthy subjects . Both interventions were performed three times . RESULTS Many features of the vascular postpr and ial response , such as FMD , arterial stiffness and micro-vascular skin blood flow were not different between shakes . High fat/high energy shake consumption was associated with a more pronounced increase in blood pressure , heart rate , plasma concentrations of IL-8 and P BMC s gene expression of IL-8 and CD54 ( ICAM-1 ) , whereas plasma concentrations of sVCAM1 were decreased compared to an average breakfast . CONCLUSION Whereas no difference in postpr and ial response were observed on classical markers of endothelial function , we did observe differences between consumption of a HF/HE and an average breakfast meal on blood pressure and IL-8 in young healthy volunteers .  IL-8 might play an important role in dealing with high fat challenges and might be an early marker for endothelial stress , a stage preceding endothelial dysfunction The most direct test of functional capacity of the liver in nitrogen disposal is to stress the urea cycle with a high protein load . This has been used in the diagnosis of heterozygosity for ornithine carbamoyltransferase deficiency for many years by measuring the subsequent excretion of orotic acid in urine . Reports have shown some ambiguity in both this and the more recent allopurinol test . We investigated the effects of different foods as the protein load and of different analytical methods . A st and ardized protocol was developed , giving 35 g protein per m2 surface area as steamed fat-free chicken breast to be eaten within 30 min . Urine was collected at zero time and over 0–2 , 2–4 and 4–6 h. Compliance was checked by assessing excretion of amino acids . Diagnostic sensitivity was improved by reference to the change in excretion , i.e. the ratio of excretions 2–4 h/0–2 h. Extension of the test to 6 h gave no diagnostic advantage over a 4 h test . Comparison of the analysis of total orotic acids by the photometric method of Harris and Oberholtzer , the reference method for this study , with that by the method of Goldstein and colleagues showed that the latter gave erratic results with some false positives . However , comparison of the method of Harris and Oberholtzer with specific orotic acid analysis by a modification of the stable-isotope internal st and ard method of Rimoldi and colleagues yielded the same diagnoses . The improved protein load test gave a clearly positive result in all 16 obligate heterozygotes and 2 possible heterozygotes tested from 14 kindred , and a clearly negative result in all 18 control subjects and all 6 of the possible heterozygotes who were later shown by DNA studies not to carry the family mutation . The test appears at least as sensitive and specific as the allopurinol test , and is more convenient because of the short period of sample collection OBJECTIVE To evaluate the changes in circulating endotoxin after a high – saturated fat meal to determine whether these effects depend on metabolic disease state . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Subjects ( n = 54 ) were given a high-fat meal ( 75 g fat , 5 g carbohydrate , 6 g protein ) after an overnight fast ( nonobese control [ NOC ] : age 39.9 ± 11.8 years [ mean ± SD ] , BMI 24.9 ± 3.2 kg/m2 , n = 9 ; obese : age 43.8 ± 9.5 years , BMI 33.3 ± 2.5 kg/m2 , n = 15 ; impaired glucose tolerance [ IGT ] : age 41.7 ± 11.3 years , BMI 32.0 ± 4.5 kg/m2 , n = 12 ; type 2 diabetic : age 45.4 ± 10.1 years , BMI 30.3 ± 4.5 kg/m2 , n = 18 ) . Blood was collected before ( 0 h ) and after the meal ( 1–4 h ) for analysis . RESULTS Baseline endotoxin was significantly higher in the type 2 diabetic and IGT subjects than in NOC subjects , with baseline circulating endotoxin levels 60.6 % higher in type 2 diabetic subjects than in NOC subjects ( P < 0.05 ) . Ingestion of a high-fat meal led to a significant rise in endotoxin levels in type 2 diabetic , IGT , and obese subjects over the 4-h time period ( P < 0.05 ) . These findings also showed that , at 4 h after a meal , type 2 diabetic subjects had higher circulating endotoxin levels ( 125.4%↑ ) than NOC subjects ( P < 0.05 ) . CONCLUSIONS These studies have highlighted that exposure to a high-fat meal elevates circulating endotoxin irrespective of metabolic state , as early as 1 h after a meal . However , this increase is substantial in IGT and type 2 diabetic subjects , suggesting that metabolic endotoxinemia is exacerbated after high fat intake . In conclusion , our data suggest that , in a compromised metabolic state such as type 2 diabetes , a continual snacking routine will cumulatively promote their condition more rapidly than in other individuals because of the greater exposure to endotoxin Background Studies show that obese individuals have prolonged elevations in postpr and ial lipemia and an exacerbated inflammatory response to high fat meals , which can increase risk for cardiovascular diseases . As epidemiological studies indicate an association between type of fat and circulating inflammatory markers , the purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effect of different fat sources on inflammation and oxidative stress in overweight and obese individuals . Methods Eleven overweight and obese subjects consumed three high fat milkshakes rich in monounsaturated fat ( MFA ) , saturated fat ( SFA ) , or long-chain omega 3 polyunsaturated fat ( O3FA ) in r and om order . Blood sample s collected at baseline , 1 , 2 , 4 , and 6 hours postpr and ial were analyzed for markers of inflammation ( soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( ICAM-1 ) , vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ( VCAM-1 ) , tumor necrosis factor- α ( TNF-α ) , and C-reactive protein ( CRP ) ) , oxidative stress ( 8-epi-prostagl and in-F2α ( 8-epi ) and nuclear factor-κB ( NF-κB ) ) , and metabolic factors ( glucose , insulin , non-esterified free fatty acids , and triglycerides ( TG ) ) . Results O3FA enhanced NF-kB activation compared to SFA , but did not increase any inflammatory factors measured . Conversely , SFA led to higher ICAM-1 levels than MFA ( p = 0.051 ) , while MFA increased TG more than SFA ( p < 0.05 ) . CRP increased while TNF-α and 8-epi decreased with no difference between treatments . Conclusions While most of the inflammatory factors measured had modest or no change following the meal , ICAM-1 and NF-κB responded differently by meal type . These results are provocative and suggest that type of fat in meals may differentially influence postpr and ial inflammation and endothelial activation The most adequate way to experimentally reproduce the post-pr and ial lipemia condition appears to be the administration of a st and ardized oral fat load ( OFL ) to fasting patients . We studied the effects of a st and ardized OFL on markers of vascular remodelling in healthy subjects . We enrolled 286 Caucasians aged > or= 18 of either sex . The OFL was given after a 12-h fast . Blood sample s were drawn before and 3 , 6 , 9 and 12h after the fat load . The following parameters were evaluated : body mass index ( BMI ) , blood glucose ( BG ) , systolic blood pressure ( SBP ) , diastolic blood pressure ( DBP ) , lipid profile , nitrites and nitrates , adiponectin ( ADP ) , metalloproteinase-2 ( MMP-2 ) and metalloproteinase-9 ( MMP-9 ) . High density lipoprotein-cholesterol ( HDL-C ) decrease was present in subjects after 6h . Triglycerides ( Tg ) change was observed after 6h . Nitrites/nitrates variation was observed after 6 and 9h during OFL . Adiponectin level was decreased after 6 and 9h during OFL . Both MMP-2 and MMP-9 levels were higher after 6h during OFL . We observed that nitrites/nitrates and ADP significantly decreased and MMP-2 and MMP-9 significantly increased after a st and ardized OFL . Other studies need to confirm the direct acute effects of post-pr and ial lipemia on vascular damage OBJECTIVES To compare the effect of a high-fat meal and a high-carbohydrate meal ( pizza ) , with and without antioxidant vitamins , on endothelial activation in healthy subjects and in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus . BACKGROUND The postpr and ial state is becoming increasingly acknowledged to affect some early events of atherogenesis . METHODS In a r and omized , observer-blinded , crossover study , 20 newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic patients and 20 age- and gender-matched healthy subjects received two meals at one-week intervals : a high-fat meal ( 760 calories ) and an isoenergetic high-carbohydrate meal ( non-cheese pizza ) . In all subjects , the same meals were repeated immediately following ingestion of vitamin E , 800 IU , and ascorbic acid , 1,000 mg . RESULTS In normal subjects , the high-fat meal increased the plasma levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha ( TNF-alpha ) , interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) , intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( ICAM-1 ) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ( VCAM-1 ) , which were prevented by vitamins . No change in these parameters occurred after pizza ingestion or pizza ingestion with vitamins . In diabetic patients , basal concentrations of glucose , cytokines and adhesion molecules were significantly higher than in nondiabetic controls . Both meals significantly increased cytokine and adhesion molecule levels , but the increase was more sustained following the high-fat meal . There was no significant change from baseline when vitamin supplementation accompanied each meal . There was a relationship between changes in serum triglycerides and changes in TNF-alpha ( r = 0.39 , p < 0.01 ) , IL-6 ( r = 0.28 , p < 0.05 ) and VCAM-1 ( r = 0.25 , p < 0.05 ) , and between changes in plasma glucose and changes in IL-6 ( r = 0.36 , p < 0.01 ) and ICAM-1 ( r = 0.31 , p < 0.02 ) . CONCLUSIONS An oxidative mechanism mediates endothelial activation induced by post-meal hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia Obesity is a well-established risk factor for the development and progression of coronary heart disease . Moreover , endothelial dysfunction is an early event in atherosclerosis and is known to be associated with postpr and ial hypertriglyceridemia . The purpose of this study was to determine whether a statin might have an effect on postpr and ial hypertriglyceridemia , and thereby on endothelial function in obese subjects . Twenty-four obese male subjects were recruited for this study . They were r and omly assigned to receive pitavastatin ( 2 mg/day ) or placebo for 2 weeks . The oral fat loading test using OFTT cream was performed pre- and post-treatment , in which the lipid profile and flow-mediated dilation ( FMD ) were assessed before and 4 h after an oral fat load . In the oral fat loading test conducted pretreatment , the oral fat load induced a marked increase of the serum triglyceride ( TG ) level and decrease in FMD in the pitavastatin and placebo group . In the test conducted post-treatment , the increase in postpr and ial TG was attenuated ( + 183 vs. + 81 mg/dL , P < 0.001 ) and decrease in postpr and ial FMD was completely abolished ( −1.1 vs. + 0.1 % , P < 0.01 ) by pitavastatin treatment . Moreover , there was a good correlation between the change in postpr and ial TG and the change in postpr and ial FMD after the 2 weeks of treatment ( r = −0.737 , P < 0.001 ) . Pitavastatin might prevent endothelial dysfunction caused by postpr and ial hypertriglyceridemia within 2 weeks of therapy in obese subjects BACKGROUND & AIMS To compare the acute effects of three fatty meals with different fat quality on postpr and ial thermogenesis , substrate oxidation and satiety . METHODS Twenty-nine healthy men aged between 18 and 30 years participated in a r and omised crossover trial comparing the thermogenic effects of three isocaloric meals : high in polyunsaturated fatty acids from walnuts , high in monounsaturated fatty acids from olive oil , and high in saturated fatty acids from fat-rich dairy products . Indirect calorimetry was used to determine resting metabolic rate , respiratory quotient , 5-h postpr and ial energy expenditure and substrate oxidation . Satiety was estimated by using visual analogue scales and measuring caloric intake in a subsequent ad libitum meal . RESULTS Five-h postpr and ial thermogenesis was higher by 28 % after the high-polyunsaturated meal ( p=0.039 ) and by 23 % higher after the high-monounsaturated meal ( p=0.035 ) compared with the high-saturated meal . Fat oxidation rates increased nonsignificantly after the two meals rich in unsaturated fatty acids and decreased nonsignificantly after the high-saturated fatty acid meal . Postpr and ial respiratory quotient , protein and carbohydrate oxidation , and satiety measures were similar among meals . CONCLUSIONS Fat quality determined the thermogenic response to a fatty meal but had no clear effects on substrate oxidation or satiety The aim of this study was to compare the acute effect of ( i ) meals rich in saturated fat , oleic acid , and alpha-linolenic acid and ( ii ) meals rich in starch and fiber on markers of inflammation and oxidative stress in obese and lean women . In a crossover study , 15 abdominally obese women ( age , 54 + /- 9 years ; BMI , 37.3 + /- 5.5 kg/m2 ) and 14 lean women ( age , 53 + /- 10 years ; BMI , 22.9 + /- 1.9 kg/m2 ) consumed meals rich in cream ( CR ) , olive oil ( OL ) , canola oil ( CAN ) , potato ( POT ) , and All-Bran ( BRAN ) in r and om order . Blood sample s were collected before and up to 6 h after the meals and plasma interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) , IL-8 , tumor necrosis factor-alpha ( TNF-alpha ) , lipid peroxides ( LPOs ) , free-fatty acids ( FFAs ) , insulin , glucose , and cortisol were measured . Plasma IL-6 decreased significantly 1 h after the meals then increased significantly above baseline at 4h and 6h in obese women and at 6h in lean women . The incremental area under the curve ( iAUC ) for IL-6 was significantly ( P = 0.02 ) higher in obese compared with lean women and was significantly lower following the high fiber BRAN meal compared with a POT meal ( P = 0.003 ) . Waist circumference ( R = 0.491 , P = 0.007 ) and cortisol AUC ( R = -0.415 , P = 0.03 ) were significant determinants of the magnitude of 6h changes in plasma IL-6 after the meals . These findings suggest that the postpr and ial response of plasma IL-6 concentrations may be influenced by the type of carbohydrate in the meal , central adiposity , and circulating cortisol concentrations in women BACKGROUND In obese subjects , chronic low- grade inflammation contributes to an increased risk of metabolic abnormalities , which are reversed by weight loss . Sustained weight loss , however , is difficult to achieve and more insight into dietary approaches on anti-inflammatory responses in obese subjects is needed . In this respect , fish oil deserves attention . MATERIAL AND METHODS Eleven obese men ( BMI : 30 - 35 kg m(-2 ) ) received daily fish oil ( 1.35 g n-3 fatty acids ) or placebo capsules in r and om order for 6 weeks . Eight subjects continued with a weight reduction study that lasted 8 weeks . Mean weight loss was 9.4 kg . At the end of each experimental period a postpr and ial study was performed . RESULTS Relative to fasting concentrations , interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) levels increased by 75 % 2 h and by 118 % 4 h after the meal ( P < 0.001 ) , when subjects consumed the control capsules . In contrast , C-reactive protein ( C-RP ) concentrations decreased slightly by 0.7 % and 6.6 % ( P = 0.046 ) , and those of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 ( PAI-1 ) antigen by , respectively , 26 % and 53 % ( P < 0.001 ) . Tumour necrosis factor-alpha ( TNF-alpha ; P = 0.330 ) and soluble TNF-receptor concentrations ( sTNF-R55 and sTNF-R75 ; P = 0.451 and P = 0.108 , respectively ) did not change . Changes relative to fasting concentrations were not significantly affected by either fish oil or weight reduction . Absolute IL-6 , C-RP , sTNF-R55 , sTNF-R75 , and PAI-1 antigen concentrations , however , were consistently lower after weight reduction , but not after fish oil consumption . CONCLUSION For slightly obese subjects a moderate intake of fish oil does not have the same favourable effects on markers for a low- grade inflammatory state as weight reduction Atherosclerosis is a low- grade inflammatory disease involving leukocytes , lipids , and glucose leading to endothelial dysfunction . Since activation of neutrophils by triglycerides and glucose has been described in vitro , we hypothesized that the postpr and ial phase is an inflammatory state affecting leukocytes , possibly contributing to endothelial dysfunction . We measured postpr and ial blood leukocyte counts , cytokines , hydroperoxides ( HPOs ) , and flow-mediated vasodilation ( FMD ) in eight healthy males ( age 23 ± 2 years ) after a FAT ( 50 g/m2 ) and GLUCOSE challenge ( 37.5 g/m2 ) , a combination of both ( MIXED test )  , and after WATER .  All tests , except WATER , result ed in significantly impaired FMD ( 10 % reduction ) between t = 1 h and t = 3 h , accompanied by a significant increase of neutrophils ( 59 % after FAT and 28 % after GLUCOSE and MIXED ) , total plasma HPOs ( 15 to 31 % increase ) , and plasma interleukin-8 ( IL-8 ) ( 50–130 % increase ) . WATER did not affect FMD , neutrophils , HPOs , or IL-8 . Lymphocytes increased gradually in all tests ( 40–70 % increase at t = 10 h compared with t = 0 ; P < 0.005 ) , paralleling a gradual 3- to 5-fold interleukin-6 increase . Monocyte and erythrocyte counts did not change in any test . In conclusion , the neutrophil increment during postpr and ial lipemia and glycemia with concomitant IL-8 and HPO increases may contribute to endothelial dysfunction . Lymphocyte increment is a nonspecific diurnal process . Postpr and ial intravascular inflammatory changes may be relevant for the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis Postpr and ial metabolic dysregulation plays a role in the development of atherosclerosis . Visceral fat accumulation is an important component of various metabolic disorders including glucose intolerance , dyslipidemia , and hypertension , which correlate with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease . The aim of the present study was to compare the postpr and ial response of various metabolic parameters , blood pressure , adiponectin , and oxidative stress to 75-g oral glucose tolerance test ( OGTT ) in men with ( n = 23 ) and without ( n = 7 ) abdominal obesity based on waist circumference ( WC ) cutoff value of 85 cm ( based on the Japanese criteria for the metabolic syndrome ) . The cross-sectional prospect i ve study included 30 male subjects who were on no medications and newly diagnosed with mild hypertension and /or dyslipidemia . The percentage change in each parameter ( [ each parameter at 120 minutes after an OGTT - that before an OGTT]/that before an OGTT x 100 ) was calculated . The percentage systolic blood pressure , percentage diastolic blood pressure , and percentage triglyceride were -6.3 % + /- 3.5 % , -9.4 % + /- 3.0 % , and -10.2 % + /- 2.1 % , respectively , in the WC less than 85 group ( vs baseline : P = .10 , P < .01 , and P < .001 ) and 2.0 % + /- 1.7 % , 0.9 % + /- 2.4 % , and 2.8 % + /- 3.3 % , respectively , in the WC at least 85 group ( vs WC < 85 group : P < .05 , each ) . However , there were no significant differences in percentage total cholesterol and percentage high-density lipoprotein cholesterol between the 2 groups . The percentage thiobarbituric acid-reacting substances tended to be lower in the WC less than 85 group ( vs baseline : P = .07 ) , but not in the WC at least 85 group , albeit statistically insignificant ( WC < 85 vs > /=85 group : P = .057 ) . The maximum carotid intima-media thickness was larger in the WC at least 85 group than the WC less than 85 group ( P < .05 ) . Evaluation of postpr and ial  changes in obesity-related parameters may be important in preventing atherosclerotic diseases This study determined whether reductions in postpr and ial plasma nonesterified fatty acid ( FFA ) flux would lead to reductions in plasma acylcarnitine ( AC ) concentrations . Plasma AC was measured by liquid chromatography with t and em mass spectrometry in the fasting state and over 6 hours after a high-fat ( 50 % energy ) meal was fed to 16 overweight and obese subjects with a wide range of insulin sensitivities . Body composition was measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry ; insulin sensitivity by insulin-modified , frequently sample d intravenous glucose tolerance test ; substrate oxidation by indirect calorimetry ; blood metabolite and hormone concentrations biochemically ; and fatty acid flux by using stable isotope tracers . Lean body mass and fasting fat oxidation correlated positively ( r > 0.522 , P < .05 ) , whereas glucose oxidation correlated negatively ( r < -0.551 , P < .04 ) , with fasting AC . Postpr and ially , plasma glucose , insulin , and triglyceride concentrations increased ; and FFA concentrations decreased significantly . The responses of plasma AC species depended on chain length and saturation , with C14:0 , C16:0 , and C18:0 remaining unchanged , and unsaturated species ( eg , C14:1 , C14:2 ) falling significantly ( 21%-46 % , P < .03 ) . Postmeal nadir AC concentrations were positively associated with lean body mass , postpr and ial fatty acid flux , and FFA concentrations ( r > 0.515 , P < .05 ) . By contrast , nadir AC correlated negatively with insulin sensitivity and spillover of meal-derived fatty acids ( r < -0.528 , P < .04 ) . Conditions that impact fatty acid flux contribute to the control of postpr and ial plasma AC concentrations . These data underscore the need for a better underst and ing of postpr and ial fatty acid oxidation and dietary fat delivery in the setting of adipose insulin resistance to determine how postpr and ial lipemia contributes to chronic disease risk Objective : To compare postpr and ial whole-body fat oxidation rates in humans , following  high-fat ( 43 % of total energy ) mixed breakfast meals , of fixed energy and macronutrient composition , rich in either monounsaturated fat ( MUFA ) from extra virgin olive oil or saturated fat ( SFA ) from cream . Design : Paired comparison of resting metabolic rate ( RMR ) , thermic effect of a meal and substrate oxidation rates following consumption of isocaloric breakfast meals , differing only in the type of fat , administered in r and om order 1–2 weeks apart . Subjects : Fourteen male volunteers , body mass index ( BMI ) in the range 20–32 kg/m2 , aged 24–49 y and resident in Melbourne , Australia , were recruited by advertisement in the local media or by personal contact . Measurements : Body size and composition was determined by anthropometry and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry ( DEXA ) . Indirect calorimetry was used to measure RMR , thermic effect of a meal , post-meal total energy expenditure and substrate oxidation rate . Blood pressure and pulse rates were measured with an automated oscillometric system . Fasting and 2 h postpr and ial glucose and insulin concentrations and the fasting lipid profile were also determined . Results : In the 5 h following the MUFA breakfast , there was a significantly greater postpr and ial fat oxidation rate ( 3.08±4.58 g/5 h , P=0.017 ) , and lower postpr and ial carbohydrate oxidation rate ( P=0.025 ) , than after the SFA breakfast . Thermic effect of a meal was significantly higher ( 55 kJ/5 h , P=0.034 ) after the MUFA breakfast , in subjects with a high waist circumference ( HWC≥99 cm ) than those with a low waist circumference ( LWC<99 cm ) . This difference was not detected following the SFA breakfast ( P=0.910 ) . Conclusion : If postpr and ial fat oxidation rates are higher after high MUFA , rather than SFA meals , then a simple change to the type of dietary fat consumed might have beneficial effects in curbing weight gain in men consuming a relatively high-fat diet . This may be particularly evident in men with a large waist circumference Adhesion molecules , particularly intracellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 , vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 , and E-selectin , have been associated with cardiovascular disease . Elevated levels of these molecules have been reported in diabetic patients . Postpr and ial hypertriglyceridemia and hyperglycemia are considered risk factors for cardiovascular disease , and evidence suggests that postpr and ial hypertriglyceridemia and hyperglycemia may induce an increase in circulating adhesion molecules . However , the distinct role of these two factors is a matter of debate . Thirty type 2 diabetic patients and 20 normal subjects ate three different meals : a high-fat meal , 75 g of glucose alone , and a high-fat meal plus glucose .  Glycemia , triglyceridemia , plasma nitrotyrosine , ICAM-1 , VCAM-1 , and E-selectin were assayed during the tests . Subsequently , diabetic subjects took simvastatin 40 mg/day or placebo for 12 weeks . The three tests were performed again at baseline , between 3 and 6 days after starting the study , and at the end of each study . High-fat load and glucose alone produced an increase of nitrotyrosine , ICAM-1 , VCAM-1 , and E-selectin plasma levels in normal and diabetic subjects . These effects were more pronounced when high fat and glucose were combined . Short-term simvastatin treatment had no effect on lipid parameters , but reduced the effect on adhesion molecules and nitrotyrosine , which was observed during every different test . Long-term simvastatin treatment was accompanied by a lower increase in postpr and ial triglycerides , which was followed by smaller variations in ICAM-1 , VCAM-1 , E-selectin , and nitrotyrosine during the tests . This study shows an independent and cumulative effect of postpr and ial hypertriglyceridemia and hyperglycemia on ICAM-1 , VCAM-1 , and E-selectin plasma levels , suggesting oxidative stress as a common mediator of such effects . Simvastatin shows a beneficial effect on oxidative stress and the plasma levels of adhesion molecules , which may be ascribed to a direct effect in addition to the lipid-lowering action of the drug OBJECTIVE Abdominal obesity is associated with a fasting proinflammatory condition . However , not much is known of the potential variations in circulating inflammatory markers after food intake . The purpose of the present study was to examine postpr and ial changes in plasma tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha , interleukin (IL)-6 , and C-reactive protein ( CRP ) concentrations in men and their potential associations with fat distribution and metabolic profile variables . RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES Thirty-eight men were given a high-fat meal in the morning after an overnight fast , and TNF-alpha , IL-6 , and CRP levels were measured in plasma at 0 , 4 , and 8 hours after the meal . Physical and metabolic profiles were also assessed for each participant . RESULTS We observed a substantial increase in circulating IL-6 levels ( p < 0.0001 ) after the meal . Although postpr and ial variations in circulating TNF-alpha levels across time failed to reach statistical significance ( p = 0.02 ) , we noted a significant decrease in plasma TNF-alpha concentrations 4 hours ( -10 % , p < 0.001 vs. 0 hours ) after food intake . Plasma CRP levels were not affected by the fat load . We also noted that insulin-sensitive individuals displayed a less pronounced inflammatory response after food intake than insulin-resistant subjects . DISCUSSION Results of the present study show that consumption of a high-fat meal leads to an increase in plasma IL-6 concentrations and transient decrease in circulating TNF-alpha levels in overweight men . Our results suggest a possible role of insulin resistance in the modulation of the postpr and ial inflammatory response , which could , in turn , contribute to worsen the state of insulin resistance SCOPE Circulating oxylipins may affect peripheral tissues and are assumed to play an important role in endothelial function . They are esterified in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins that are increased after a high-fat ( HF ) meal , depending on BMI and fatty acid ( FA ) type . Yet , it is unclear which oxylipins appear in circulation after HF meals differing in FA composition . METHODS AND RESULTS In a double-blind r and omized crossover challenge study , we characterized the postpr and ial oxylipin response after different HF challenges in lean and obese men receiving HF milkshakes , either high in saturated FAs ( SFA ) , monounsaturated FAs ( MUFA ) , or omega 3 ( n-3 ) polyunsaturated FAs ( PUFA ) .  Plasma oxylipin profiles were significantly altered at 2 and 4 h after shake consumption when compared to baseline . Eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) derived oxylipins increased after n-3 PUFA shake consumption . MUFA shake consumption increased levels of cytochrome P450 mediated oxylipins . SFA shake consumption led to strong increases in linoleic acid ( LA ) derived HODEs . No differences were observed between lean and obese individuals at baseline and after any shake consumption . CONCLUSION We are the first demonstrating acute effects on circulating oxylipins after HF meal challenges . These changes were strongly influenced by different dietary FAs and may affect endothelial function BACKGROUND Postpr and ial lipemia is important in the development of coronary artery disease because of elevated postpr and ial triacylglycerol-rich plasma lipoproteins and suppressed HDL-cholesterol concentrations . We showed in healthy subjects a possible association between postpr and ial lipid metabolism and the responses of the duodenal incretin hormones glucagon-like peptide 1 ( GLP-1 ) and gastric inhibitory polypeptide after meals rich in saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids ( oleic acid ) , respectively . OBJECTIVE The objective was to compare the postpr and ial responses ( 8 h ) of glucose , insulin , fatty acids , triacylglycerol , gastric inhibitory polypeptide , and GLP-1 to saturated- and monounsaturated-rich test meals . DESIGN Twelve overweight patients with type 2 diabetes ingested 3 meals r and omly : an energy-free soup with 50 g carbohydrate ( control meal ) , the control meal plus 100 g butter , and the control meal plus 80 g olive oil .  Triacylglycerol responses were measured in total plasma and in a chylomicron-rich and a chylomicron-poor fraction . RESULTS No significant differences in the glucose , insulin , or fatty acid responses to the 2 fat-rich meals were seen . The plasma triacylglycerol and chylomicron triacylglycerol responses were highest after the butter meal .  HDL-cholesterol concentrations decreased significantly after the butter meal but did not change significantly after the olive oil meal .  GLP-1 responses were highest after the olive oil meal . CONCLUSIONS Olive oil induced lower triacylglycerol concentrations and higher HDL-cholesterol concentrations than did butter , without eliciting significant changes in glucose , insulin , or fatty acids . Furthermore , olive oil induced higher concentrations of GLP-1 , which may indicate a relation between fatty acid composition , incretin responses , and triacylglycerol metabolism postpr and ially in patients with type 2 diabetes We hypothesized that the activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system in depressed patients is related to oral glucose tolerance . In 70 moderately depressed in patients , we measured  morning saliva cortisol for 6 days and assessed oral glucose tolerance .  We found glucose concentrations to be positively associated with mean morning cortisol concentrations ( F3,236 = 2.86 , p < 0.05 ) . Also , the ISI , a measure of insulin receptor sensitivity , was negatively associated with mean morning cortisol concentrations ( r = –0.25 , p < 0.04 ) . These findings support the hypothesis that hypercortisolemia may lead to disturbed glucose utilization in depressed patients BACKGROUND Recent research suggests that central pulse pressure may be a better indicator of cardiovascular disease outcomes than brachial pressure . Little information is available regarding the effect of food intake on postpr and ial  central pressure and other measures of arterial stiffness when measured with a noninvasive pulse wave analysis ( PWA ) technique . OBJECTIVE The objective was to investigate the effects of water and food plus water intake on brachial and central blood pressure ( BP ) and measures of arterial stiffness , including augmentation pressure and augmentation index , by using the PWA technique . DESIGN Measurements of  BP and PWA  were made at fasting and for 2 h after the intake of water or breakfast ( 1300 kJ ) in r and om order in 35 subjects . RESULTS Baseline fasting measures of BP and arterial stiffness were not significantly different before the 2 interventions . Consumption of food plus water , compared with water alone , led to a significantly lower ( all P < 0.01 ) brachial diastolic pressure ( difference : -3.8 mm Hg ) , central BP ( difference : systolic , -6.1 mm Hg ; diastolic , -3.8 mm Hg ) , central pulse pressure ( difference : -2.4 mm Hg ) , mean arterial pressure ( difference : -4.6 mm Hg ) , augmentation pressure ( difference : -2.9 mm Hg ) , and augmentation index ( difference : -5.3 mm Hg ) . CONCLUSIONS Markers of central hemodynamics are sensitive to feeding state and therefore should be measured at fasting to avoid variability due to recent ( within 2 - 3 h ) food intake . This is especially important when measurements are repeated over time to assess the effect of medication or lifestyle changes on cardiovascular disease risk factors
Nutrition research is struggling to demonstrate beneficial health effects , since nutritional effects are often subtle and long term .
Health has been redefined as the ability of our body to cope with daily-life challenges .
Physiology acts as a well-orchestrated machinery to adapt to the continuously changing environment .
We term this adaptive capacity “ phenotypic flexibility . ”
The phenotypic flexibility concept implies that health can be measured by the ability to adapt to conditions of temporary stress , such as physical exercise , infections or mental stress , in a healthy manner .
This may offer a more sensitive way to assess changes in health status of healthy subjects .
Here , we performed a systematic review of 61 studies applying different nutritional stress tests  to quantify health  and nutritional health effects , with the objective to define an optimal nutritional stress test that has the potential to be adopted as the golden st and ard in nutrition research .