Fish oil improves arterial compliance in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Docosahexaenoic acid but not eicosapentaenoic acid lowers ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in humans. Algal docosahexaenoic acid affects plasma lipoprotein particle size distribution in overweight and obese adults. Stearidonic Acid-Enriched Soybean Oil Increased the Omega-3 Index, an Emerging Cardiovascular Risk Marker Combining fish-oil supplements with regular aerobic exercise improves body composition and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation improves fasting and postprandial lipid profiles in hypertriglyceridemic men. Plant- and marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have differential effects on fasting and postprandial blood lipid concentrations and on the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in moderately hyperlipidemic subjects. Flaxseed oil and fish-oil capsule consumption alters human red blood cell n-3 fatty acid composition: a multiple-dosing trial comparing 2 sources of n-3 fatty acid. Effect of a moderate fish intake on blood pressure, bleeding time, hematology, and clinical chemistry in healthy males. Effects of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on hemodynamics in humans. Differential eicosapentaenoic acid elevations and altered cardiovascular disease risk factor responses after supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy. Low-dose docosahexaenoic acid lowers diastolic blood pressure in middle-aged men and women. The n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid increase systemic arterial compliance in humans. Fish-oil concentrate: effects on variables related to cardiovascular disease. Safety of phosphatidylserine containing omega-3 fatty acids in non-demented elderly: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial followed by an open-label extension Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation Augments Sympathetic Nerve Activity Responses to Physiological Stressors in Humans Dose-dependent increases in heart rate variability and arterial compliance in overweight and obese adults with DHA-rich fish oil supplementation. Herring ( Clupea harengus) intake influences lipoproteins but not inflammatory and oxidation markers in overweight men. Different effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and olive oil on blood pressure, intracellular free platelet calcium, and plasma lipids in patients with essential hypertension Effect of fish oil on blood pressure and serum lipids in hypertension and hyperlipidaemia. The influence of low intake of n-3 fatty acids on platelets in elderly people. Effects of atorvastatin and omega-3 fatty acids on LDL subfractions and postprandial hyperlipemia in patients with combined hyperlipemia. Impact of foods enriched with n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte n-3 levels and cardiovascular risk factors. Fish oil produces an atherogenic lipid profile in hypertensive men. Marine oils dose-dependently inhibit vasoconstriction of forearm resistance vessels in humans. The effects of omega-3 on blood pressure and the relationship between serum visfatin level and blood pressure in patients with type II diabetes Effect of fish oil on blood pressure and blood lipids in men with mild to moderate hypertension. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on glucose homeostasis and blood pressure in essential hypertension. A randomized, controlled trial. Moderate consumption of fatty fish reduces diastolic blood pressure in overweight and obese European young adults during energy restriction. Effects of trans- and n-3 unsaturated fatty acids on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy males. An 8 weeks dietary intervention study The impact of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on inflammation, insulin sensitivity and CVD risk in a group of overweight women with an inflammatory phenotype. The Effects of Supplemental Fish Oil on Blood Pressure and Morning Cortisol in Normotensive Adults: a Pilot Study Effects of n-3 fatty acids in essential hypertension. Functions and tocopherol content of blood platelets from elderly people after low intake of purified eicosapentaenoic acid. Effect of medium-term supplementation with a moderate dose of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure in mild hypertensive patients. Effect of n-3 fatty acids on heart rate variability and baroreflex sensitivity in middle-aged subjects. Unresponsiveness of forearm hemodynamics to omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and aspirin. Fish oil supplementation improves large arterial elasticity in overweight hypertensive patients Influence of supplementation with N-3 fatty acids on different coronary risk factors in men--a placebo controlled study. Effects of a fish oil concentrate in patients with hypercholesterolemia. The effect of fish oil supplements on blood pressure. Alteration of baroreflex control of forearm vascular resistance by dietary fatty acids. Effects on blood pressure of omega 3 fats in subjects at increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Influence of an algal triacylglycerol containing docosahexaenoic acid (22 : 6n-3) and docosapentaenoic acid (22 : 5n-6) on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy men and women. Effects on fibrinolytic activity of corn oil and a fish oil preparation enriched with omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids in a long-term study. The effect of N-6 and N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on hemostasis, blood lipids and blood pressure. Effects of fish oil, nifedipine and their combination on blood pressure and lipids in primary hypertension. Dietary fatty acid supplementation alters stress reactivity and performance in man. The effects of low doses of n-3 fatty acid supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects. A randomized controlled trial. Effects of a new fish oil concentrate on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in patients with hypertriglyceridaemia. Effect of supplementation with dietary seal oil on selected cardiovascular risk factors and hemostatic variables in healthy male subjects. Preliminary evidence that acute long-chain omega-3 supplementation reduces cardiovascular reactivity to mental stress: A randomized and placebo controlled trial The antihypertensive effects of fish oil. A controlled study of polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements in essential hypertension. Effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on blood pressure in hypertension. A population-based intervention trial from the Tromsø study. DHA-rich fish oil lowers heart rate during submaximal exercise in elite Australian Rules footballers. The effects of nonpharmacologic interventions on blood pressure of persons with high normal levels. Results of the Trials of Hypertension Prevention, Phase I. Effects of fish oil capsules in two dosages on blood pressure, platelet functions, haemorheological and clinical chemistry parameters in apparently healthy subjects. The effect of farmed trout on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy men. Krill oil supplementation increases plasma concentrations of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in overweight and obese men and women.
In a double-blind , placebo-controlled study we investigated the effects of dietary fish oil supplementation on arterial wall characteristics in 20 patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Estimates reflecting compliance values in the large arteries and more peripheral vasculature , as measured by pulse-contour analysis , improved significantly after 6 weeks of fish oil therapy compared with values recorded at baseline and after 6 weeks ' administration of olive oil . The large-artery compliance estimate increased from 1.50 ( confidence interval [ CI ] , 1.31 to 1.69 ) mL/mm Hg at baseline to 1.68 ( CI , 1.52 to 1.84 ) mL/mm Hg after fish oil administration ( P < .01 ) . The oscillatory compliance value increased from 0.015 ( CI , 0.011 to 0.019 ) mL/mm Hg at baseline to 0.022 ( CI , 0.016 to 0.028 ) mL/mm Hg after fish oil ingestion ( P < .05 ) . No changes occurred in arterial blood pressure , cardiac output , stroke volume , or systemic vascular resistance with either intervention . The improved compliance estimates with fish oil ingestion occurred without altering fasting blood glucose and cholesterol concentrations . These results support the hypothesis that fish oils alter vascular reactivity and favorably influence arterial wall characteristics in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . These direct vascular effects , expressed at the level of the vessel wall , may contribute to the cardioprotective actions of fish oil in humans Animal studies suggest that the 2 major omega3 fatty acids found in fish , eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , may have differential effects on blood pressure ( BP ) and heart rate ( HR ) . The aim of this study was to determine whether there were significant differences in the effects of purified EPA or DHA on ambulatory BP and HR in humans . In a double-blind , placebo-controlled trial of parallel design , 59 overweight , mildly hyperlipidemic men were r and omized to 4 g/d of purified EPA , DHA , or olive oil ( placebo ) capsules and continued their usual diets for 6 weeks . Fifty-six subjects completed the study . Only DHA reduced 24-hour and daytime ( awake ) ambulatory BP ( P<0.05 ) . Relative to the placebo group , 24-hour BP fell 5.8/3.3 ( systolic/diastolic ) mm Hg and daytime BP fell 3.5/2.0 mm Hg with DHA . DHA also significantly reduced 24-hour , daytime , and nighttime ( asleep ) ambulatory HRs ( P=0 . 001 ) . Relative to the placebo group , DHA reduced 24-hour HR by 3 . 5+/-0.8 bpm , daytime HR by 3.7+/-1.2 bpm , and nighttime HR by 2 . 8+/-1.2 . EPA had no significant effect on ambulatory BP or HR . Supplementation with EPA increased plasma phospholipid EPA from 1 . 66+/-0.07 % to 9.83+/-0.06 % ( P<0.0001 ) but did not change DHA levels . Purified DHA capsules increased plasma phospholipid DHA levels from 4.00+/-0.27 % to 10.93+/-0.62 % ( P<0.0001 ) and led to a small , nonsignificant increase in EPA ( 1.52+/-0.12 % to 2.26+/-0.16 % ) . Purified DHA but not EPA reduced ambulatory BP and HR in mildly hyperlipidemic men . The results of this study suggest that DHA is the principal omega3 fatty acid in fish and fish oils that is responsible for their BP- and HR-lowering effects in humans . These results have important implication s for human nutrition and the food industry Fish oils containing both EPA and DHA have been shown to have beneficial cardiovascular effects , but less is known about the independent effects of DHA . This study was design ed to examine the effects of DHA on plasma lipid and lipoprotein concentrations and other biomarkers of cardiovascular risk in the absence of weight loss . In this r and omized , controlled , double-blind trial , 36 overweight or obese adults were treated with 2 g/d of algal DHA or placebo for 4.5 mo . Markers of cardiovascular risk were assessed before and after treatment . In the DHA-supplemented group , the decrease in mean VLDL particle size ( P ≤ 0.001 ) and increases in mean LDL ( P ≤ 0.001 ) and HDL ( P ≤ 0.001 ) particle sizes were significantly greater than changes in the placebo group . DHA supplementation also increased the concentrations of large LDL ( P ≤ 0.001 ) and large HDL particles ( P = 0.001 ) and decreased the concentrations of small LDL ( P = 0.009 ) and medium HDL particles ( P = 0.001 ) . As calculated using NMR-derived data , DHA supplementation reduced VLDL TG ( P = 0.009 ) and total TG concentrations ( P = 0.006 ) . Plasma IL-10 increased with DHA supplementation to a greater extent than placebo ( P = 0.021 ) , but no other significant changes were observed in glucose metabolism , insulin sensitivity , blood pressure , or markers of inflammation with DHA . In summary , DHA supplementation result ed in potentially beneficial changes in some markers of cardiometabolic risk , whereas other markers were unchanged A plant source of omega-3 fatty acid ( FA ) that can raise tissue eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and /or docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) is needed . A soybean oil ( SBO ) containing approximately 20 % stearidonic acid [ SDA ; the delta-6 desaturase product of alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) ] derived from genetically modified soybeans is under development . This study compared the effects of EPA to SDA-SBO on erythrocyte EPA + DHA levels ( the omega-3 index ) . Overweight healthy volunteers ( n = 45 ) were r and omized to SDA-SBO ( 24 ml/day providing ~3.7 g SDA ) or to regular SBO ( control group ) without or with EPA ethyl esters ( ~1 g/day ) for 16 weeks . Serum lipids , blood pressure , heart rate , platelet function and safety laboratory tests were measured along with the omega-3 index . A per- protocol analysis was conducted on 33 subjects ( 11 per group ) . Compared to baseline , average omega-3 index levels increased 19.5 % in the SDA group and 25.4 % in the EPA group ( p < 0.05 for both , vs. control ) . DHA did not change in any group . Relative to EPA , SDA increased RBC EPA with about 17 % efficiency . No other clinical endpoints were affected by SDA or EPA treatment ( vs. control ) . In conclusion , SDA-enriched SBO significantly raised the omega-3 index . Since EPA supplementation has been shown to raise the omega-3 index and to lower risk for cardiac events , SDA-SBO may be a viable plant-based alternative for providing meaningful intakes of cardioprotective omega-3 FAs BACKGROUND Regular exercise and consuming long-chain n-3 fatty acids ( FAs ) from fish or fish oil can independently improve cardiovascular and metabolic health , but combining these lifestyle modifications may be more effective than either treatment alone . OBJECTIVE We examined the individual and combined effects of n-3 FA supplements and regular exercise on body composition and cardiovascular health . DESIGN Overweight volunteers [ body mass index ( BMI ; in kg/m(2 ) ) : > 25 ] with high blood pressure , cholesterol , or triacylglycerols were r and omly assigned to one of the following interventions : fish oil ( FO ) , FO and exercise ( FOX ) , sunflower oil ( SO ; control ) , or SO and exercise ( SOX ) . Subjects consumed 6 g tuna FO/d ( approximately 1.9 g n-3 FA ) or 6 g SO/d . The exercise groups walked 3 d/wk for 45 min at 75 % age-predicted maximal heart rate . Plasma lipids , blood pressure , and arterial function were assessed at 0 , 6 , and 12 wk . Body composition was assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry at 0 and 12 wk only . RESULTS FO supplementation  lowered triacylglycerols , increased HDL cholesterol , and improved endothelium-dependent arterial vasodilation ( P<0.05 ) . Exercise improved arterial compliance ( P<0.05 ) . Both fish oil and exercise independently reduced body fat ( P<0.05 ) . CONCLUSIONS FO supplements and regular exercise both reduce body fat and improve cardiovascular and metabolic health . Increasing intake of n-3 FAs could be a useful adjunct to exercise programs aim ed at improving body composition and decreasing cardiovascular disease risk BACKGROUND The effects of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on the mean size and concentrations of VLDL , LDL , and HDL subclasses have not been previously studied . OBJECTIVE We determined the effects of DHA supplementation on the concentrations of apoproteins ; large , medium , and small VLDL , LDL , and HDL particles ; and the mean diameters of these particles in fasting and postpr and ial plasma . DESIGN Hypertriglyceridemic men aged 39 - 66 y ( n = 34 ) participated in a double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled parallel study . They received no supplements for the first 8 d and received either 7.5 g DHA oil/d ( 3 g DHA/d ) or olive oil ( placebo ) for the last 90 d. Lipoprotein particle diameters and concentrations were measured by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy . RESULTS DHA supplementation for 45 d significantly ( P < 0.05 ) decreased concentrations of fasting triacylglycerol ( 24 % ) , large VLDL ( 92 % ) , and intermediate-density lipoproteins ( 53 % ) and the mean diameter of VLDL particles ( 11.1 nm ) . It elevated concentrations of LDL cholesterol ( 12.6 % ) , small VLDL particles ( 133 % ) , and large LDL particles ( 120 % ) and the mean diameter of LDL particles ( 0.6 nm ) in fasting plasma . Similar changes were observed for area under the curve for postpr and ial sample s ( 0 - 6 h ) ; however , the number of small dense LDL particles decreased significantly ( 21 % ) , and the change in LDL cholesterol was not significant . Continued supplementation with DHA beyond 45 d caused no further changes ; placebo treatment altered none of the responses tested . CONCLUSION DHA supplementation may improve cardiovascular health by lowering concentrations of triacylglycerols and small , dense LDL particles BACKGROUND Dietary alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) can be converted to long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) in humans and may reproduce some of the beneficial effects of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on cardiovascular disease risk factors . OBJECTIVE This study aim ed to compare the effects of increased dietary intakes of ALA and EPA+DHA on a range of atherogenic risk factors . DESIGN This was a placebo-controlled , parallel study involving 150 moderately hyperlipidemic subjects r and omly assigned to 1 of 5 interventions :  0.8 or 1.7 g EPA+DHA/d  , 4.5 or 9.5 g ALA/d , or an n-6 PUFA control for 6 mo . Fatty acids were incorporated into 25 g of fat spread and 3 capsules to be consumed daily . RESULTS The change in fasting or postpr and ial lipid , glucose , or insulin concentrations or in blood pressure was not significantly different after any of the n-3 PUFA interventions compared with the n-6 PUFA control . The mean ( + /- SEM ) change in fasting triacylglycerols after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention ( -7.7 + /- 4.99 % ) was significantly ( P < 0.05 ) different from the change after the 9.5-g/d ALA intervention ( 10.9 + /- 4.5 % ) . The ex vivo susceptibility of LDL to oxidation was higher after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention than after the control and ALA interventions ( P < 0.05 ) . There was no significant change in plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations or in whole plasma antioxidant status in any of the groups . CONCLUSION At estimated biologically equivalent intakes , dietary ALA and EPA+DHA have different physiologic effects BACKGROUND An increase in plasma n-3 fatty acid content , particularly eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5n-3 ; EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( 22:6n-3 ; DHA ) , is observed after consumption of fish oil-enriched supplements . Because alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3n-3 ; ALA ) is the direct precursor of EPA and DHA , ALA-enriched supplements such as flax may have a similar effect , although this hypothesis has been challenged because of reported low conversion of ALA into DHA . OBJECTIVE To address this question , we design ed a clinical trial in which flax oil , fish-oil , and sunflower oil ( placebo group ) capsules were given to firefighters ( n = 62 ) , a group traditionally exposed to cardiovascular disease risk factors . DESIGN Firefighters were r and omly divided into 6 experimental groups receiving 1.2 , 2.4 , or 3.6 g flax oil/d ; 0.6 or 1.2 g fish oil/d ; or 1 g sunflower oil/d for 12 wk . Blood was drawn every 2 wk , and the total phospholipid fatty acid composition of red blood cells was determined . RESULTS As expected , fish oil produced a rapid increase in erythrocyte DHA and total n-3 fatty acids . The consumption of either 2.4 or 3.6 g flax oil/d ( in capsules ) was sufficient to significantly increase erythrocyte total phospholipid ALA , EPA , and docosapentaenoic acid ( 22:5n-3 ) fatty acid content . There were no differences among groups in plasma inflammatory markers or lipid profile . CONCLUSIONS The consumption of ALA-enriched supplements for 12 wk was sufficient to elevate erythrocyte EPA and docosapentaenoic acid content , which shows the effectiveness of ALA conversion and accretion into erythrocytes . The amounts of ALA required to obtain these effects are amounts that are easily achieved in the general population by dietary modification This paper describes the outline and first results of an international study to investigate the effect of a reasonable amount of dietary fish on some aspects of cardiovascular risk . In Maastricht and Zeist , The Netherl and s , and Tromsø , Norway , healthy male volunteers were given a dietary supplement consisting of 100 g/d of mackerel or meat for a 6-wk period . Compliance was monitored on the basis of the urinary excretion of lithium , which was added to the supplements . Average compliance was approximately 80 % and this decreased slightly in time . Systolic blood pressure decreased in both groups to a comparable degree ; consequently no specific effect of the fish supplement was observed . The fish supplement significantly prolonged bleeding times . Hematology was hardly affected but platelet counts decreased significantly . No indications were obtained for adverse effects of the fish supplement The hemodynamic effects of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA , 20:5n-3 ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA , 22:6n-3 ) have not been evaluated in humans . We therefore conducted a r and omized , double-blind , parallel- design intervention study to assess possible separate effects of EPA and DHA on blood pressure , heart rate , and cardiac mechanics .  Healthy , nonsmoking men aged 36 - 56 y ( n = 224 ) were r and omly assigned to dietary supplementation with 4 g/d of ethyl ester concentrates of DHA or EPA or 4 g corn oil/d ( control ) .  Mean blood pressure at baseline was 122/77 mm Hg and was positively associated with concentrations of serum phospholipid saturated fatty acids . Blood pressure did not change during the intervention . Mean heart rate at baseline was 63.4 beats/min ; it decreased 2.2 beats/min in the DHA group ( P = 0.006 compared with control ) , increased 1.9 beats/min in the EPA group ( P = 0.04 compared with control ) , and remained practically unchanged in the control group . In a pooled analysis , changes in heart rate were independent of baseline heart rate and were associated with changes in concentrations of serum phospholipid DHA and docosapentaenoic acid ( 22:5n-3 ) . Echocardiography in a sub sample of 52 men showed improved left ventricular diastolic filling in the marine oil groups compared with the corn oil group ( P = 0.02 ) . In contrast , an increase in plasma concentrations of saturated fatty acids was associated with delayed diastolic filling . We conclude that dietary DHA and EPA influence heart rate and that the fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids may affect cardiac mechanics in humans BACKGROUND Dietary docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) has triacylglycerol-lowering potential and undergoes in vivo retroconversion to eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) in humans . Hormone replacement therapy ( HRT ) influences circulating lipid concentrations and fatty acid metabolism . DHA supplementation has not been studied in postmenopausal women . OBJECTIVE We studied the effects of supplementation with DHA ( free of EPA ) on the result ing elevation in EPA and on selected cardiovascular disease risk factors in postmenopausal women . DESIGN Women receiving ( n = 18 ) and not receiving ( n = 14 ) HRT completed a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled crossover trial with a DHA supplement ( 2.8 g DHA/d ) . A washout period of > or = 6 wk divided the two 28-d intervention periods . Fasting blood sample s were collected for analysis . RESULTS In all women , DHA supplementation was associated with significant changes ( P < 0.05 ) , including 20 % lower serum triacylglycerol concentrations , 8 % higher HDL-cholesterol concentrations , a 28 % lower overall ratio of serum triacylglycerol to HDL cholesterol , and a 7 % decrease in resting heart rate .  DHA supplementation result ed in a 45 % lower net increase ( P = 0.02 ) in EPA and a 42 % lower ( P = 0.0028 ) estimated percentage retroconversion of DHA to EPA [ DeltaEPA/(DeltaEPA + DeltaDHA ) x 100 ] in women receiving than in those not receiving HRT . CONCLUSION With DHA supplementation , the accumulation of EPA in serum phospholipids is significantly attenuated in postmenopausal women receiving HRT compared with that in women not receiving HRT . DHA supplementation can also favorably influence selected cardiovascular disease risk factors in postmenopausal women The intake of ( n-3 ) long-chain PUFA is associated with a decreased risk of fatal myocardial infa rct ion . Whether this effect is attributable to the effects of docosahexaenoic acid [ 22:6(n-3 ) ( DHA ) ] on vascular function , particularly at intakes < 1 g/d , is unknown . We report a r and omized , double-blind , crossover , placebo controlled trial of 0.7 g DHA/d as a purified algal derived triacylglycerol ( 1.5 g/d ) vs. placebo ( 1.5 g olive oil/d ) on vascular function and biochemical indices of endothelial dysfunction in 38 healthy men and women , aged 40 - 65 y. Each treatment phase lasted 3 mo , separated by a 4 mo washout period . Supplementation increased the proportion of DHA in erythrocytes lipids by 58 % , compared with placebo .  Arterial compliance and endothelium independent and dependent responses , plasma concentrations of C-reactive protein , soluble thrombomodulin , E-selectin , von Willebr and factor antigen , and urinary microalbumin and isoprostane excretion were unaffected by treatment . Diastolic blood pressure decreased by 3.3 mm Hg ( 95 % CI -6.1 to -0.6 ; P = 0.01 ) . Heart rate tended to be 2.1 beats/min lower after DHA treatment than after the placebo period ( P = 0.15 ) . The results indicate that a moderate increase in the daily intake of DHA to approximately 0.7 g DHA lowers diastolic BP but does not influence indices of endothelial function or arterial stiffness in the short term BACKGROUND n-3 Fatty acids influence vascular function , but the effect of individual fatty acids on systemic arterial compliance ( SAC ) has not been reported . SAC , which reflects arterial elasticity , is emerging as a new cardiovascular risk factor and appears to predict future cardiovascular events . OBJECTIVE We tested whether the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) improve SAC in dyslipidemic subjects . DESIGN Thirty-eight dyslipidemic subjects were r and omly assigned to receive 3 g EPA/d ( n = 12 ) , 3 g DHA/d ( n = 12 ) , or a placebo ( n = 14 ) in a 7-wk parallel , double-blind trial . Arterial functions were measured at the beginning and end of the interventions . Plasma lipids and plasma fatty acids were also measured . RESULTS Consumption of the n-3 fatty acids significantly increased SAC , whereas consumption of the placebo did not ( P = 0.043 ; repeated- measures analysis of variance across the 3 groups ) ; the increase was 36 % with EPA and 27 % with DHA . The major components contributing to the increase in SAC ( systolic and pulse pressures and total vascular resistance ) tended to decrease but not significantly . Plasma total and VLDL triacylglycerol were significantly lower in the n-3 fatty acid groups ( P = 0.026 and 0.006 , respectively ; repeated- measures analysis of variance ) than in the placebo group . CONCLUSION EPA and DHA increase SAC and tend to reduce pulse pressure and total vascular resistance , effects that may reduce the risk of adverse cardiovascular events Sixty-four male , healthy volunteers aged 35 - 45 y were r and omly assigned to receive ( as 1-g capsules ) either 14 g fish-oil concentrate/d ( 55 % n-3 fatty acids ) or 14 g olive oil/d for 6 wk . Plasma fibrinogen was reduced by 13 % and serum triglycerides by 22 % after fish-oil supplementation ended . Three weeks after supplementation ended both variables were back to baseline values . An appreciable increase in the ratio of eicosapentaenoic acid to arachidonic acid ( EPA : AA ) in plasma eicosapentaenoic acid to arachidonic acid ( EPA : AA ) in plasma and red blood cell phospholipids occurred during the fish-oil intake . High-density-lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol and HDL2 activity tended to be lowered by fish-oil supplementation . Systolic and diastolic blood pressures , serum cholesterol , gamma-glutamyltransferase , blood glucose , and monocyte low-density-lipoprotein receptor activity did not differ significantly between the two groups . The reduction in plasma fibrinogen concentration seems of special interest because this variable in several recent studies emerges as a separate cardiovascular risk factor with a high predictive value Background Phosphatidylserine ( PS ) is a naturally occurring phospholipid present in the inner leaflet of mammalian plasma membranes . Administration of PS extracted from bovine cortex ( BC-PS ) , which contains high levels of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ( LC-PUFA ) attached to its backbone , result ed in positive effects on brain functions such as learning and memory . Recently , a novel marine- source d PS with omega-3 LC-PUFA attached to its backbone was developed ( PS-DHA ) . In the present study , we evaluated the safety profile of the novel PS preparation in non-demented elderly with memory complaints . The efficacy study of this novel formulation indicated that PS-DHA may ameliorate cognitive deficits in non-demented elderly population . Methods 157 non-demented elderly participants with memory complaints were r and omized to receive either PS-DHA ( 300 mg PS/day ) or placebo for 15 weeks . St and ard biochemical and hematological safety parameters , blood pressure and heart rate were evaluated at baseline and endpoint . 122 participants continued into an open-label extension for additional 15 weeks , in which they all consumed PS-DHA ( 100 mg PS/day ) and were evaluated for their blood pressure , heart rate and weight at endpoint . Adverse events were monitored throughout the double-blind and open-label phases . Results 131 participants completed the double-blind phase . No significant differences were found in any of the tested safety parameters between the study groups , or within each group . 121 participants completed the open-label phase . At the end of this phase , there was a reduction in resting diastolic blood pressure and a slight weight gain among participants who consumed PS-DHA for 30 weeks . Conclusions The results of this study indicate that consumption of PS-DHA at a dosage of 300 mg PS/day for 15 weeks , or 100 mg PS/day for 30 weeks , is safe , well tolerated , and does not produce any negative effects in the tested parameters . Trial registration clinical trials . gov , identifier : An inverse relation exists between omega-3 fatty acid intake and risk of cardiovascular disease development/mortality and sudden cardiac death in humans . Mechanisms underlying this cardioprotective effect are unknown , but could involve the autonomic nervous system . We tested the hypothesis that omega-3 fatty acid supplementation ( “ fish oil ” ) would reduce muscle sympathetic nerve activity ( MSNA ) at rest and attenuate increases during physiological stressors . MSNA ( peroneal microneurography ) was measured during rest , ischemic h and grip to fatigue ( IHG ) , and a cold pressor test ( CPT ) . Measurements were obtained before ( PRE ) and after ( POST ) 1 month of daily ingestion of either fish oil ( experimental group , n=9 ) or olive oil capsules ( control group , n=9 ) . MSNA at rest was comparable PRE and POST in control ( 3±1 versus 3±1 bursts/30 seconds ) and experimental ( 4±1 versus 5±1 bursts/30 seconds ) subjects . IHG and CPT increased MSNA in both groups PRE and POST . MSNA , arterial blood pressure , and heart rate responses to the stressors were similar PRE and POST in the control group . In contrast , MSNA responses to IHG ( & Dgr;4±2 and & Dgr;9±2 bursts/30 seconds ; P<0.05 for PRE and POST , respectively ) and CPT ( & Dgr;4±1 versus & Dgr;10±2 bursts/30 seconds ; P<0.05 ) were augmented after omega-3 fatty acid supplementation  whereas arterial blood pressure and heart rate responses were unchanged . These data indicate that 1 month of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation does not change MSNA at rest but augments sympathetic outflow to physiological stressors . The mechanism underlying augmented MSNA responses to physiological stressors after omega-3 fatty acid supplementation is unknown , but may involve impaired peripheral vasoconstriction Heart rate ( HR ) variability and large arterial compliance can be improved using fish oils . DHA , a component of fish oil , has cardiovascular health benefits , but its effect on HR variability ( HRV ) and arterial compliance is yet to be quantified . Sixty-seven overweight or obese adults ( thirty-six males and thirty-one females ; 53 ( sem 2 ) year ; BMI 31.7 ( sem 1.1 ) kg/m(2 ) ) were r and omly allocated to consume either 6 g/d sunola oil ( control ; n 17 ) , fish oil ( 260 mg DHA+60 mg EPA per g ) at doses of 2 g/d ( n 16 ) , 4 g/d ( n 17 ) or 6 g/d ( n 17 ) . Blood pressure , HR and compliance of large and small arteries were measured while supine at baseline and after 12 weeks in all participants , and HRV was assessed in a subgroup of forty-six participants . There was no effect of fish oil on blood pressure , small artery compliance or HR . However , the low frequency : high frequency ratio of HRV decreased with increasing doses of fish oil ( r - 0.34 , P = 0.02 ) , while large artery compliance increased ( r 0.34 , P = 0.006 ) . Moreover , the changes in these biomarkers were significantly correlated ( r - 0.31 , P = 0.04 ) and may reflect fish oil-induced improvements in arterial function and cardiac autonomic regulation Fish consumption is associated with a lower incidence of CVD and decreases in risk factors for atherosclerosis . Although fish contains other interesting components than fish oil , few studies focus on total fish composition and the influence food preparation might have on health-beneficial components . In the present cross-over intervention study the effect of a 6-week herring diet compared with a reference diet on CVD risk factors was investigated . Thirty-five healthy , but overweight , men ( mean BMI 28.3 kg/m2 ) were r and omised to a 6-week herring diet ( 150 g baked herring fillets/d , 5 d/week ) or a reference diet ( 150 g baked lean pork and chicken fillets/d , 5 d/week ) . Diets were switched after a 12-week washout period . Plasma total cholesterol , TAG , HDL , HDL2 , HDL3 , LDL , C-reactive protein , IL-6 , IL-18 , intercellular adhesion molecule-1 , oxidised LDL , oxygen radical absorbance capacity using perchloric acid ( ORACPCA ) , whole-blood fatty acids , bleeding time and blood pressure were measured at the beginning and end of each dietary period . HDL was significantly higher after the herring diet period compared with after the reference diet period : 1.04 v. 0.99 mmol/l . TAG decreased after both diets , with no significant difference between the two diets . ORACPCA values did not indicate lower concentrations of non-protein plasma antioxidants , and oxidised LDL was not higher after the herring diet than after the reference diet . To conclude , a 6-week herring-rich diet significantly raised HDL compared with a diet of matched lean pork and chicken dishes . No adverse effects on in vivo oxidation or serum antioxidants were found after herring intake Summary In a r and omized , double-blind , crossover study our specific aim was to examine the effects of a dietary fish oil or olive oil supplementation on blood pressure , intracellular free platelet calcium , plasma lipoproteins , and circulating vasoactive substances such as norepinephrine , epinephrine , and renin in patients with essential hypertension . Ten hypertensive patients ( WHO classes I , II ) were r and omly assigned to receive 9 g fish oil or 9 g olive oil daily for 6 weeks after a 4-week baseline period . The 6-week treatment periods were separated by a 4-week wash-out . During treatment with fish oil diastolic blood pressure decreased from 103±1 to 98±2 mmHg ( P<0.05 ) but did not change significantly during olive oil intake . Systolic blood pressure was not affected by either treatment . Intracellular free platelet calcium decreased in patients receiving fish oil ( from 102±8 nM to 86±6 nM , P < 0.05 ) but was not significantly altered by olive oil treatment . In contrast , the dose-response curve for thrombin-induced intracellular free platelet calcium was not altered by the fish oil enriched diet . Plasma triglycerides decreased by approximately 40 % in the fish oil group while low-density lipoprotein cholesterol , high-density lipoprotein cholesterol , and total cholesterol were not altered . Renin activity , norepinphrine , and epinephrine in plasma were not influenced by fish oil supplementation . We conclude that a moderate increase in dietary fish oil reduces diastolic blood pressure , intracellular free platelet calcium , and plasma triglycerides in patients with essential hypertension . The decrease in basal intracellular free platelet calcium concentration does not seem to be due to a diminished responsiveness of the calcium messenger system to thrombin We studied the antihypertensive and hypolipidaemic effects of fish oil containing eico-sapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in a capsule preparation in patients with mild to moderate essential hypertension and in patients with hypercholesterolaemia . In addition , we used two independent procedures to analyse changes in blood pressure , casual and self-recorded blood pressure measurements . A very moderate blood pressure lowering effect of fish oil was confirmed in this study , and a slight antihyperlipidaemic effect in plasma triglycerides was demonstrated . During the fish oil treatment , casual blood pressure values were consistently lower than self-recorded values . It is assumed that this was an observer error due to knowledge of the treatment A total of ten healthy elderly subjects ingested one capsule of 600 mg ( corresponding to 150 mg docosahexaenoic acid and 30 mg eicosapentaenoic acid ) RO-PUFA triglycerides per day and ten others ingested one capsule of 600 mg sunflower oil as a placebo for 42 days . In the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) group , a significant decrease of systolic blood pressure was observed , as well as a trend towards a decrease in both platelet activation and basal formation of thromboxane B(2 ) . Also , a slight but significant increase of docosahexaenoic acid was observed in the phosphatidylethanolamine fraction as well as a significant increase of vitamin E level after the n-3 PUFA intake . Moreover , the basal production of malondialdehyde significantly decreased . No modification was observed for all these parameters in the placebo group . We conclude that a small intake of n-3 PUFA decreased the oxidative stress in platelets of elderly people and could be beneficial in subjects with atherothrombotic tendencies by lowering the cell peroxide tone BACKGROUND AND AIM The aim of the present study was to see whether a moderate dose of omega-3 fatty acids ( FA ) potentiates the beneficial effects of statins on the high risk for coronary heart disease ( CHD ) in patients with combined hyperlipemia . METHODS AND RESULTS In the present double-blind parallel study , 42 patients with combined hyperlipemia with serum triglycerides 2 - 15 mmol/L-1 and serum total cholesterol > 5.3 mmol/L-1 at the end of a three-month dietary run-in period were treated with 10 mg/d atorvastatin for 10 or more weeks . During the last 5 weeks they were r and omized into two groups that received either 1.68 g/d omega-3 FA as ethylesters of eicosapentaenoic ( 45 % ) and docosahexaenoic acids ( 39 % ) , or placebo ( corn oil ) . As expected , atorvastatin significantly reduced serum total LDL-cholesterol ( LDL-C ) , triglycerides and apolipoproteins B , E , CII and CIII , whereas HDL-cholesterol ( HDL-C ) was increased . Addition of omega-3 FA further increased HDL-C ( p < 0.03 ) , and reduced systolic blood pressure ( < 0.03 ) , while the small dense LDL-particles ( LDL III ) ( p < 0.05 ) and postpr and ial hypertriglyceridemia ( p < 0.01 ) were reduced compared with the baseline , though there were no significant differences to the placebo group . This may be related to the large individual variation in these parameters and the small number of patients . No significant effects on basic or postheparin activities of lipoprotein lipase or hepatic lipase were observed after atorvastatin with or without addition of omega-3 FA . CONCLUSIONS This study indicates that addition of a low dose of omega-3 FA may further improve the risk profile for  CHD in patients with combined hyperlipemia treated with atorvastatin . The effect is related to reduction of postpr and ial hyperlipemia and redistribution of LDL subfractions Consumption of fish or fish oils rich in the n-3 long chain PUFA EPA and DHA may improve multiple risk factors for CVD . The objective of this study was to determine whether regular consumption of foods enriched with n-3 long-chain PUFA can improve n-3 long-chain PUFA status ( erythrocytes ) and cardiovascular health .  Overweight volunteers with high levels of triacylglycerols ( TG ; > 1.6 mmol/l ) were enrolled in a 6-month dietary intervention trial conducted in Adelaide ( n 47 ) and Perth ( n 39 ) , and r and omised to consume control foods or n-3-enriched foods  to achieve an EPA + DHA intake of 1 g/d . Test foods were substituted for equivalent foods in their regular diet .  Erythrocyte fatty acids , plasma TG and other CVD risk factors were monitored at 0 , 3 and 6 months . There were no significant differences between groups for blood pressure , arterial compliance , glucose , insulin , lipids , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) or urinary 11-dehydro-thromboxane B2 ( TXB2 ) over 6 months , even though regular consumption of n-3-enriched foods increased  EPA + DHA intake from 0.2 to 1.0 g/d . However , the n-3 long-chain PUFA content of erythrocytes increased by 35 and 53 % at 3 and 6 months , respectively , in subjects consuming the n-3-enriched foods . These increases were positively associated with measures of arterial compliance and negatively associated with serum CRP and urinary 11-dehydro-TXB2 excretion . Sustainable increases in dietary intakes and erythrocyte levels of n-3 long-chain PUFA can be achieved through regular consumption of suitably enriched processed foods . Such increases may be associated with reduced CV risk The effects of fish oil supplements on plasma and platelet membrane lipids , lipoproteins , sex steroid hormones , glucose , insulin , platelet aggregation , and blood pressure in normal subjects ( n = 13 ) and patients with essential hypertension ( n = 13 ) were studied in this r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , two-way crossover study . Treatments consisted of 30 days of 5 g of n-3 fatty acids ( ten 1-g capsules of fish oil daily ) or placebo capsules ( ten wheat germ oil capsules daily ) with a one-month washout in between each crossover . Serum lipids and lipoproteins were measured before dosing and every two weeks during the study . Sex steroid hormones , glucose , insulin , and fatty acid composition in platelet membrane phospholipids were measured before dosing and at the end of each crossover . During treatment with fish oil , only the hypertensive had increases in total cholesterol ( 8 % , p less than 0.026 ) , LDL cholesterol ( 19 % , p less than 0.006 ) and apolipoprotein B ( 18 % , p less than 0.026 ) . Serum and rogens ( total and free testosterone ) were 30 % lower in hypertensives than normotensives before any dosing , but were unchanged with placebo or fish oil capsules in either group . Plasma glucose , insulin , platelet aggregation , and the incorporation of n-3 fatty acids into platelet membrane phospholipid subfractions were similar in both normotensive and hypertensive men .  Blood pressure was not affected by fish oil treatment in either group of men . These results provide evidence that fish oil may adversely affect serum lipids to yield an atherogenic lipid profile in hypertensive men The effects of dietary supplementation with marine oils on vascular  reactivity  in human forearm resistance arteries were studied . Healthy male adults ( six to nine subjects per group ) were given either maxEPA capsules ( content : eicosapentaenoic acid , 0.178 g/g ; docosahexaenoic acid , 0.116 g/g ) at doses of 20 , 10 , or 5 g/day or placebo capsules at 20 g/day for 28 days . Capsule compliance was confirmed by measurement of platelet membrane incorporation of n-3 fatty acids . Blood pressure was not affected by either maxEPA or placebo . The influence of treatment interventions on forearm vasoconstrictive responses to local infusions of angiotensin II and norepinephrine was examined using venous occlusion plethysmography before and after treatment . Responses to both agonists were significantly suppressed by 20 g/day maxEPA ( slopes before and after maxEPA , respectively : angiotensin II , 3.34 and 0.89 ; norepinephrine , 0.91 and 0.41 ) . When analyzed as difference in area under the dose-response curves , the suppressive effects of maxEPA were clearly dose dependent ( angiotensin II : 20 g area reduced by 72 % , 10 g by 67 % , 5 g by 33 % ) . Similarly , responses to norepinephrine were dose-dependently suppressed by maxEPA ( 20 g area reduced by 61 % , 10 g by 63 % , and 5 g by 33 % ) . Placebo had no effect on the responses to either constrictor . The responses to both agonists returned to preoil levels after 2 months ' discontinuation of 20 g/day maxEPA . We conclude that the suppressive effects of marine oils on vascular reactivity may , in part , contribute to their cardioprotective influence in humans BACKGROUND Hypertension is a condition normally detected in people with type II diabetes . It eventually leads to cardiovascular diseases in the patient . Visfatin is an adipocytokine which issecreted from adipose tissue and can affect the inflammatory reaction and also serum lipidlevels . Additionally , omega-3 inhibits the accumulation of fat and formation of insulinresistance . The current study tried to investigate the effects of omega-3 on blood pressurecompared to placebo and the relationship between serum visfatin levels and blood pressure . METHODS A total number of 71 women with type II diabetes were r and omly assigned to2 groups to receive either omega-3 capsules or placebo capsules . In the first step , a question naire consisting age , height , weight , waist and hip circumferences , and systolic and diastolic blood pressure was filled out for each subject . Blood sample s were then collected forlaboratory tests . The next step was to conduct 8 weeks of intervention . All variables , except age , were measured again after the intervention . Hip circumference was considered as the maximumcircumference of the buttocks . Waist circumference was measured by placing a tape horizontallyacross the abdomen at the end of a normal exhalation . Laboratory tests included the assessment of visfatin , glucose , and glycated hemoglobin ( HbA1c ) concentrations . Lipid profile , i.e. lowdensity lipoprotein ( LDL ) , high density lipoprotein ( HDL ) , triglyceride ( TG ) , and cholesterol , was also assessed . Using SPSS18 , data obtained from the study was analyzed by a variety ofappropriate statistical tests . RESULTS There was a significant change in mean differences of systolic and diastolic bloodpressure . Blood pressure showed a significant reduction in the omega-3 group compared to theplacebo group . However , no significant changes were observed in systolic and diastolic bloodpressure before and after the intervention ( P > 0.05 ) . CONCLUSION Based on the results of this study , a daily consumption of omega-3 is suggestedfor patients with type II diabetes Forty men with mild to moderate hypertension were given one of two dietary supplements for 6 weeks : 20 capsules of fish oil ( MaxEPA ) or placebo ( olive and corn oil ) . The MaxEPA supplement provided about 7 g omega-3-fatty acids pr day , whereas the placebo contained about 7 g omega-6-fatty acids and only 0.2 g omega-3-fatty acids . A clinical insignificant reduction in blood pressure was noted in both groups . In the fish oil group , the serum triglyceride levels fell by 30 % . A decrease in the ratio total cholesterol/high density lipoprotein ( HDL- ) cholesterol was noted in both groups , most pronounced in the placebo group . No significant effect on total serum cholesterol level was observed during this study OBJECTIVE To determine whether dietary supplementation with fish oil adversely affects glycemic control in patients with hypertension . DESIGN R and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled study . PATIENTS 78 persons with untreated hypertension recruited from a population survey . INTERVENTION Participants were r and omly assigned to receive eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids , 4 g/d , or corn oil placebo , 4 g/d , for 16 weeks . MEASUREMENTS An oral glucose tolerance test ; assessment s of insulin release , glucose disposal , and insulin sensitivity done using the hyperglycemic clamp technique to keep plasma glucose levels at 10 mmol/L for 180 minutes ; assessment of insulin sensitivity done using a euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp technique ( infusing insulin and glucose to keep plasma glucose levels at 5 mmol/L ) ; assessment s of lipid levels and blood pressure . Measurements were done before and after intervention . RESULTS Changes in integrated glucose and insulin response after the oral glucose challenge did not differ between the fish oil and corn oil groups after intervention ( -0.6 + /- 0.7 compared with -1.0 + /- 0.6 mmol/L [ P > 0.3 ] for integrated glucose and 143 + /- 76 compared with 169 + /- 84 pmol/L [ P > 0.3 ] for insulin response ) . Changes in first-phase insulin release ( 34 + /- 72 pmol/L in the fish oil group compared with 191 + /- 112 pmol/L in the corn oil group [ P > 0.3 ] ) , second-phase insulin release ( 179 + /- 66 pmol/L compared with 257 + /- 122 pmol/L [ P > 0.3 ] ) , and insulin sensitivity index ( -0.03 + /- 0.01 compared with -0.01 + /- 0.01 [ mumol/kg.min divided by pmol/L ] ; P > 0.3 ) were also similar in both groups after treatment . Fish oil lowered systolic blood pressure by 3.8 mm Hg more than control ( P = 0.04 ) and lowered diastolic blood pressure by 2.0 mm Hg more than control ( P = 0.10 ) . After fish oil treatment , triglyceride levels decreased by 0.28 + /- 0.08 mmol/L more than control ( P = 0.01 ) , and very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels decreased by 0.13 + /- 0.04 mmol/L more than control ( P = 0.01 ) . CONCLUSION Fish oil , in doses that reduce blood pressure and lipid levels in hypertensive persons , does not adversely affect glucose metabolism OBJECTIVE Dietary intervention studies suggest that a daily fish meal can improve blood pressure ( BP ) ; however , such a dietary regimen might be difficult to sustain . The objective of the present study was to investigate whether salmon consumption three times per week improves BP during energy restriction in young adults . METHODS In this 8-wk intervention , 324 subjects ( 20 - 40 y of age , body mass index 27.5 - 32.5kg/m(2 ) , from Icel and , Spain , and Irel and ) were r and omized to one of four energy-restricted diets ( -30 % relative to estimated requirements ) : salmon ( 150 g three times per week , result ing in a daily consumption of 2.1 g of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids [ omega-3 LC-PUFAs ] ) , cod ( 150 g three times per week , 0.3 g of omega-3 LC-PUFAs per day ) , fish oil capsules ( 1.3 g of omega-3 LC-PUFAs per day ) , or control ( sunflower oil capsules , no seafood ) . Body weight , diastolic BP ( DBP ) , systolic BP ( SBP ) , and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) in erythrocyte membrane were measured at baseline and endpoint . RESULTS Participants showed weight loss ( -5.2+/-3.2 kg , P<0.001 ) and decreases in SBP ( -4.4+/-8.6 mmHg , P<0.001 ) and DBP ( -4.1+/-7.4 mmHg , P<0.001 ) after the intervention . The salmon ( B=-2.71 , P=0.032 ) and fish oil ( B=-2.48 , P=0.044 ) groups had significantly lower endpoint DPB than the cod group , but not significantly different from control . Lower baseline DHA ( percentage ) in erythrocytes was associated with greater DBP reductions ( B=0.576 , P=0.017 ) . CONCLUSION Salmon consumption three times per week can decrease DBP similar to fish oil and significantly more than lean fish during an 8-wk energy restriction in young overweight individuals . A lower DHA content in erythrocyte membrane at baseline , which might indentify infrequent fish eaters , is associated with a greater DBP reduction in the course of an 8-wk dietary intervention providing fatty seafood Background : Studies of long-term intake of industrially produced trans fatty acids ( TFA ) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) suggest opposite effects on cardiovascular disease risk . Common mechanisms of action are probable . Objective : To examine the effects on cardiovascular risk markers of dietary enrichment with TFA or n-3 PUFA . Design : R and omized , double-blind , parallel intervention trial . Setting : Department of Human Nutrition , The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University . Subjects : In all , 87 healthy males included , 79 completed . Intervention : Subjects were r and omly assigned to 8 weeks of a daily intake of 33 g of experimental fats from either partially hydrogenated soy oil containing 20 g of TFA , 12 g of fish oil with approximately 4 g of n-3 PUFA and 21 g of control fat , or 33 g of control fat . The experimental fats were incorporated into bakery products .  Plasma lipids , blood pressure , heart rate variability ( HRV ) , arterial dilatory capacity , compliance , and distensibility were recorded before and after intervention and at follow-up 12 weeks after the intervention . Results : High-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( HDL-C ) decreased in the TFA group and triglycerides and mean arterial blood pressure decreased in the n-3 PUFA group compared to the control group . HRV , arterial dilatory capacity , compliance , and distensibility were unchanged . Conclusion : The results indicate that the association between coronary heart disease risk and intake of TFA and n-3 PUFA relates only modestly to changes in traditional risk markers . Sponsorship : Danish Medical Research Council ( Grant no. 22 - 01 - 0390 ) , Center of Advanced Food Research ( Copenhagen , Denmark ) ( Grant no. KVL-R-2001 - 107 ) , the Danish Heart Association ( Grant no. 99 - 2 - 3 - 45 - 22748 ) , Novozymes ( Bagsvaerd , Denmark ) , Aarhus Olie ( Aarhus , Denmark ) , and from private sources . The experimental fats were provided by Pronova Biocare ( Aalesund , Norway ) and Aarhus Olie ( Aarhus , Denmark ) BACKGROUND Inflammation is strongly related to obesity and the risk of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . The metabolic benefits of long chain ( LC ) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) may be attributable to its anti-inflammatory properties . OBJECTIVE To investigate whether an individual 's habitual inflammatory status influences the impact of a LC n-3 PUFA intervention on CVD risk . DESIGN The study was a r and omized crossover design . Subjects received LC n-3 PUFA capsules or a placebo for 12 weeks , with 4-week washout between phases . Thirty women , in the top and bottom tertiles of baseline sialic acid concentration , formed raised inflammatory status ( top , n = 12 ) and reference ( bottom , n = 18 ) groups . Baseline data were analysed using one-way anova , differences between treatment phases were calculated at each timepoint and analysed using a r and om effects model . RESULTS At baseline , the raised inflammatory status group had significantly higher body mass index and area under the curve ( AUC ) insulin than the reference group . With LC n-3 PUFA supplementation , both groups showed significantly higher plasma eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid at 4 and 12 weeks ( p < 0.001 ) , and lower triacylglycerols ( 4 weeks p < 0.01 and 12 weeks p < 0.05 ) . The difference in AUC insulin between the two treatment phases at 12 weeks was significantly greater in the raised inflammatory status group compared to the reference group ( p < 0.05 ) . Inflammatory markers were significantly lower after 12 weeks LC n-3 PUFA supplementation compared to baseline ( C-reactive protein p < 0.05 and interleukin-6 p < 0.01 ) , but there was no significant group effect . CONCLUSIONS Habitual inflammatory status influences the impact of LC n-3 PUFA supplementation , but it is not clear whether the effect of LC n-3 PUFA on AUC insulin is mediated through inflammatory mechanisms Abstract PURPOSE : To determine the effects of 6wk of supplementation with fish oil ( FO ) on blood pressure and the morning salivary cortisol concentration in normotensive adults . METHODS : Testing was performed following an overnight fast . Subjects ( n=40 ; 35+/-13y , mean+/-SD ) rested supine for 40min , at which time blood pressure and heart rate were measured . Saliva was collected and analyzed for cortisol . Subjects were then r and omly assigned to either : 4g/d of Safflower Oil ( SO ) ; or 4g/d of FO supplying 1,600mg/d eicosapentaenoic acid and 800mg/d docosahexaenoic acid . Testing was repeated following 6wk of treatment . RESULTS : Compared to SO , there was a significant decrease in systolic blood pressure with FO ( SO=1.3+/-5.8 mmHg ; FO=-6.8+/-10.2 mmHg ; p=0.004 ) , a significant reduction in pulse pressure ( SO=0.2+/-7.8 mmHg ; FO=-6.4+/-8.8 mmHg ; p=0.02 ) , and a tendency for a decrease in mean arterial pressure ( SO=1.2+/-5.3 mmHg ; FO=-2.5+/-7.3 mmHg ; p=0.08 ) . There was a tendency for salivary cortisol to decrease with FO ( SO=0.005+/-0.129 µg/dL ; FO=-0.068+/-0.148 µg/dL ; p=0.072 ) , however , this change was not significantly correlated with the change in systolic blood pressure ( r=0.021 , p=0.929 ) . CONCLUSION : 6wk of supplementation with FO significantly decreases systolic blood pressure  in normotensive adults and this change was not significantly correlated with a reduction in salivary cortisol We examined the effects on blood pressure , plasma lipoproteins , and platelet function when marine oil supplements ( rich in n-3 fatty acids ) or vegetable oil supplements ( rich in n-6 fatty acids ) were added to the usual diets of patients with mild essential hypertension . In a r and omized , double-blind , parallel-group study , patients received 50 g of either marine oil ( n = 8) or vegetable oil ( n = 8) daily for 6 weeks following a baseline observation period . Diastolic blood pressure declined during treatment with fish oil ( mean + /- SEM , 96 + /- 2 v 89 + /- 2 mm Hg , P = .02 ) , but did not change with vegetable oil ( 92 + /- 1 v 94 + /- 1 mm Hg ) . Systolic blood pressure did not change significantly during either treatment . Serum triglycerides declined ( by approximately 30 % ) in patients receiving only marine oil , but total cholesterol , LDL- , HDL- , HDL2- , and HDL3-cholesterol-subfractions and apolipoproteins A-I and B were unchanged in both treatment groups . Bleeding time increased by 33 % during treatment with marine oil but did not change with vegetable oil supplements . Marine oil did not alter in vitro platelet aggregation thresholds . The lack of a significant correlation between blood pressure changes and platelet membrane fluidity , plasma renin activity , aldosterone , norepinephrine , or epinephrine suggests that these variables did not mediate the antihypertensive effect of the marine oil . We conclude that large doses of marine oil reduce diastolic blood pressure , lower triglycerides , and increase bleeding time in patients with mild hypertension Elderly people present an increased incidence of atherosclerosis and vascular cerebral damages , associated with blood platelet hyperactivity and a stimulation of arachidonic acid metabolism in vivo . The effects of a low intake of purified eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) on platelet hyperactivity in old human subjects has been investigated . In a r and omized , double blind study , 8 people took during 2 months a daily intake of 100 mg of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) given as a triglyceride ( 1,3-dioctanoyl,2-eicosapentaenoyl-glycerol ) , and  8 other subjects ingested a placebo . A slight , but significant reduction of platelet-rich plasma aggregation in response to epinephrine and arachidonic acid occurred after EPA intake , as well as a decreased aggregation of washed platelets induced by thrombin , although collagen- and U-46619-induced aggregations were not significantly modified . EPA intake failed to affect arachidonic acid metabolism in thrombin-stimulated platelets or in clotted venous blood . The urinary excretion of thromboxane , 6-keto-PGF1 alpha and their 2,3-dinor-metabolites was also not modified . Similarly , no change in the plasma and platelet lipid fatty acid compositions could be observed . Platelet , but not plasma , alpha- and gamma-tocopherol were enhanced by EPA intake . An increase of platelet vitamin E has been associated with a decrease of aggregation , especially in vitamin E-deficient subjects , like elderly people . Therefore , low intake of EPA might have contributed to inhibit platelet aggregation by increasing cellular vitamin Several studies have shown that n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFA ) are able to lower blood pressure ( BP ) in humans , but large doses of fish oils have been often used . Moreover , most of the studies available in the literature were not able to evaluate the specific effects of n-3 PUFA because they employed fish oils which contain , together with n-3 PUFA , many other different components . The aim of this preliminary study was to evaluate if medium-term supplementation with a moderate dose of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ethyl esters is able to reduce BP in mild hypertensive patients . Sixteen mild essential hypertensive ( diastolic BP : 95 - 104 mm Hg ) , non-diabetic , normolipidemic male out patients and 16 normotensive male controls were recruited to participate in the study . Both hypertensive and control subjects were r and omly assigned to receive either EPA and DHA ethyl esters ( 2.04 g EPA and 1.4 g DHA ) as active treatment or olive oil ( 4 g/day ) as a placebo for a period of 4 months . These subjects were followed up with 24-hour ambulatory BP monitoring and blood chemistry analyses at 2 and 4 months of treatment and 2 months after its discontinuation . The intake of n-3 PUFA was checked by red blood cell ( RBC ) phosphatidylcholine ( PC ) fatty acid composition . The effect of n-3 PUFA on BP in the active group was maximum after 2 months . Both systolic ( -6 mm Hg , p<0.05 ) and diastolic ( -5 mm Hg , p<0.05 ) BP significantly decreased during the n-3 PUFA ethyl ester supplementation . No further effect was observed at 4 months with a return to baseline values during the recovery period . These data indicate that 4 g/day of highly purified EPA + DHA ethyl esters are able to favorably affect BP in mild hypertensives BACKGROUND N-3 fatty acids may reduce the risk of sudden death by preventing life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias . Heart rate variability ( HRV ) and baroreflex sensitivity ( BRS ) reflect cardiac autonomic regulation ; reduced values predict arrhythmic events and mortality . Effects of n-3 fatty acids on these risk indicators of arrhythmia have not been widely studied . We investigated the effect of supplemental intake of n-3 fatty acids on HRV and BRS in apparently healthy subjects aged 50 to 70 years . METHODS After a run-in period of 4 weeks , 84 subjects were r and omized to receive capsules with either 3.5 g of fish oil or placebo oil daily for 12 weeks . Before and after intervention , electrocardiograms and blood pressure were recorded for 10 minutes with st and ardized respiration of 15 breaths/min . The SD of the duration of all normal RR intervals ( SDNN10 ) and the root mean square successive differences ( RMSSD10 ) were calculated from the 10-minute recordings . We also computed low frequency power ( LF ) and high frequency power ( HF ) . BRS was computed by integrating the spectral systolic blood pressure to interbeat-interval transfer function in the 0.05- to 0.15-Hz b and . RESULTS The different measures of HRV and BRS did not significantly improve with the intake of n-3 fatty acids .  SDNN10 decreased by 3.05 ms or 7.7 % ( 95 % CI , -8.91 - 2.82 ms ) , and BRS decreased by 0.92 ms/mm Hg or 0.1 % ( 95 % CI , -2.66 - 0.81 ms/mm Hg ) in the fish oil group compared with the placebo group . CONCLUSIONS N-3 fatty acids have no effect on HRV from short-term recordings and BRS in apparently healthy subjects Prostagl and in synthesis has been reported to change with aspirin ingestion via cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibition and with marine oil supplementation via an increase in the metabolism of 3-series eicosanoids . This study investigated the effects of pharmacological manipulations of prostagl and in metabolism on forearm hemodynamics and blood pressure . The agents studied were omega-3 fatty acids and aspirin . In the omega-3 fatty acid study , two groups of normal volunteers ( N = 10/group ) supplemented their diets with either marine oil capsules or placebo .  Hemodynamic variables ( Mercury-in-Silastic forearm plethysmography ) were measured initially and weekly for 4 weeks . There were no significant differences between the two groups in blood pressure , forearm blood flow , venous capacitance , or forearm vascular resistance . Parallel changes occurred for forearm blood flow and venous capacitance .  Six normal volunteers took daily dosages of aspirin , increasing from 162 to 2600 mg . Hemodynamic measurements , ADP-induced platelet aggregation , and serum salicylate levels were obtained daily . Maximum inhibition of platelet aggregation occurred after 162 mg . ( serum salicylate = 17.7 + /- 6.4 mg/l ) . Though serum salicylate levels rose to 165.0 + /- 20.0 mg/l , no significant changes occurred in blood pressure or forearm blood flow . Even at aspirin levels 16-fold greater than those required to impair platelet aggregation , the changes in forearm vascular resistance were not found to be significant . These results suggest that under resting conditions in normotensive males , neither pharmacological inhibition nor stimulation of vascular prostagl and in metabolism alters forearm vascular resistance or arterial blood pressure Objectives : To observe the effect of fish oil supplementation on arterial elasticity and blood pressure ( BP ) in overweight hypertensive patients .Subjects and methods : This was a double-blind , r and omized and placebo-controlled clinical study , in which 52 overweight hypertensive patients from a community were selected and r and omly allocated to two groups ( 26 in the fish oil group ( 3 g day−1 , fish oil capsules ) and 26 in the placebo group ( only capsules ) . All the subjects were follow-up for 8 weeks . The arterial elasticity was determined by CVProfilor DO-2020 and expressed as elasticity indexes ( C1-large artery and C2-small artery ) . During the follow-up , totally nine cases were dropped out ( three cases from the fish oil group and six cases from the placebo group ) . Results : After 8 weeks follow-up , the large artery elasticity in the fish oil group , compared with its baseline , was significantly improved ( C1 : 15.5±1.5 vs 12.8±3.7 ml mm Hg−1 × 10 ) , whereas no effects were found in the placebo group ( C1 : 13.0±3.4 vs 13.4±3.8 ml mm Hg−1 × 10 ) , P=0.027 , RM-ANOVA across the two groups . The small artery elasticity ( C2 ) , BP and pulse pressure were not found any changes , either in the fish oil group or in the placebo group . At same time , the serum soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1(sVCAM-1 ) and leptin levels , the lipid profile and insulin sensitivity index ( ISI ) as well , did not show significant differences between two groups . Conclusions : Fish oil supplementation certainly would improve large arterial elasticity but no effect on BP in overweight hypertensive patients . Further study is needed to confirm the benefits of fish oil supplementation on age-related increases in arterial stiffness Recent epidemiological studies have shown some beneficial health effects of the long chain ( n-3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids found in fatty fish . Although the results of these studies are often ambiguous and inconclusive , they have prompted many intervention trials to study the effects of n-3 fatty acids ( FA ) on the cardiovascular risk profile . However screening of the literature revealed that many of the beneficial effects of fish ( oil ) were obtained in intervention studies which had several serious shortcomings in their design . Therefore we started a placebo controlled r and omised trial with increasing doses of n-3FA ( respectively 0 ; 1.12 ; 2.24 and 3.37 g n-3 FA/day ) and in order to have a maximum compliance this study was done in healthy monks . Fifty eight subjects took the fish oil capsules during 12 months and were thereafter followed for another 6 months . We could n't detect any effect of n-3 FA supplementation on total cholesterol , HDL cholesterol , LDL cholesterol , apo A1 , Lp(a ) , HbA1C , glucose , fibrinogen , factor VIII , antithrombin III , plasminogen activator inhibitor , tissue plasminogen activator and von Willebr and factor concentration , on bleeding time or on systolic or diastolic blood pressure . A pronounced significant dose dependent decrease of triglyceride levels was seen , while a slight but statistical significant decrease of apo B levels was observed in the highest fish oil dose . As the importance of triglycerides in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis is still under discussion , the clinical relevance of these finding is not clear at the moment . It seems therefore improbable that the anti-atherosclerotic action of n-3 FA is due to an effect on the lipid , apoprotein , coagulation or fibrinolysis parameters as measured in our study . Hence further research must be focused on other parameters ( prostagl and ins ) which can be influenced by n-3 FA and which probably play an equally important role in the atherosclerotic process The effects of a fish oil supplement on lipid and lipoprotein levels , platelet function , and vital signs were investigated in 31 hypercholesterolemic patients . Thirteen patients took 5 g of encapsulated fish oil per day and 18 patients took 5 g of encapsulated safflower oil " placebo " per day for 28 days . Diet and exercise patterns were kept as constant as possible during the study . The fish oil group had significant increases in several lipid/lipoprotein values at the end of the treatment , including an increase of total cholesterol of 14 % ( P = 0.0001 ) , LDL of 16 % ( P = 0.003 ) , HDL of 13 % ( P = 0.015 ) and HDL2 of 36 % ( P = 0.009 ) . The triglyceride level fell 24 % , a nonsignificant change ( P = 0.217 ) . The ratios of total cholesterol/HDL and LDL/HDL were increased at the end of fish oil treatment , and returned to baseline 30 days after fish oil was stopped . The placebo group had no significant changes in any of the lipid/lipoprotein values . Neither the fish oil nor the placebo group had significant changes in vital signs or platelet function tests ( bleeding time , thromboxane B2 , platelet factor 4 and beta-thromboglobulin ) during the study . These results suggest that fish oil supplements may have an adverse effect on lipid/lipoprotein values in hypercholesterolemic patients We conducted a double-blind , placebo-controlled crossover study to determine the effects of fish oil supplementation on blood pressure in middle-aged men . Subjects were r and omly assigned to consume either 20 g of fish oil or safflower oil for 12 weeks and then consume the other oil for an additional 12 weeks after a 4-week washout period . We found no significant changes from the pretreatment value in systolic or diastolic blood pressure with the use of fish oil supplements . In addition , there were no significant differences in the posttreatment blood pressures comparing the fish and safflower oil phases of the study The effects of dietary safflower ( control , n = 10 ) , borage ( n = 9 ) , and fish oil ( n = 10 ) , as sources of linoleic , gamma-linolenic , and eicosapentaenoic acid , respectively , at a dose of 4.5 ml/day for 4 wk , on cardiovascular responses to lower body negative pressure ( LBNP ) were studied in normotensive humans in a r and omized , double-blind design . Pre- and postsupplementation , subjects were exposed to 5 min of -10 and -40 mmHg LBNP .  Blood pressure ( BP ) , heart rate ( HR ) , forearm blood flow ( FBF ) , forearm vascular resistance ( FVR ) , and plasma norepinephrine ( PNE ) were measured at each level . Subjects were then exposed to a cold-pressor test , isometric h and grip , and forearm ischemia . At pretest , LBNP reduced BP and FBF and increased HR and FVR in all groups . After diets , the PNE and vasoconstrictor responses to -40 mmHg LBNP , as well as the reflex vasodilation on its cessation , were significantly augmented by borage oil . No diet differences were observed in the HR responses to LBNP or in the responses to the other tasks , with the exception that fish oil increased FBF after forearm ischemia . These data indicate that borage oil augments the arterial baroreflex control of vascular resistance . The vasodilatory effects of fish oil may be mediated via local mechanisms This study was conducted to compare the effects of omega 3 fatty acids , taken as fish or fish-oil supplements in the setting of a high- or low-fat dietary background , on blood pressure and heart rate in men with moderate cardiovascular risks . One hundred twenty men were r and omly allocated to five high-fat ( 40 % of daily energy ) and two low-fat ( 30 % of energy ) groups to undertaken a 12-week dietary intervention period involving fish , fish oil , or a combination of these . Sodium intake was restricted to less than 90 mmol/d . The five high-fat groups were assigned to take either 6 or 12 fish-oil capsules daily , fish or a combination of fish oil and fish , or placebo capsules . The two low-fat groups took either fish or placebo capsules . Fish meals were devised to provide 1.3 g of eicosapentaenoic acid daily , equivalent to that contained in 6 fish-oil capsules . Subjects were instructed to eat a selection of fish that provided an average of 3.65 g/d ( range , 3.2 to 4.1 g/d ) of total omega 3 fatty acids . Subjects were seen at regular intervals during the baseline and dietary intervention periods for measurement of weight , blood pressure , heart rate , dietary compliance , urinary electrolyte excretion , platelet phospholipid fatty acids , blood glucose , and insulin concentration . There was a greater fall in both systolic and diastolic blood pressures in subjects allocated fish or fish oil , particularly in the low-fat groups , compared with control subjects . However , there was no significant group effect . ( ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS The intake of long-chain n-3 PUFA , including DHA ( 22 : 6n-3 ) , is associated with a reduced risk of CVD . Schizochytrium sp. are an important primary source of DHA in the marine food chain but they also provide substantial quantities of the n-6 PUFA docosapentaenoic acid ( 22 : 5n-6 ; DPA ) . The effect of this oil on cardiovascular risk factors was evaluated using a double-blind r and omised placebo-controlled parallel- design trial in thirty-nine men and forty women . Subjects received 4 g oil/d for 4 weeks ; the active treatment provided 1.5 g DHA and 0.6 g DPA . Active treatment increased plasma concentrations of arachidonic acid , adrenic acid , DPA and DHA by 21 , 11 , 11 and 88 mg/l respectively and the proportions of DPA and DHA in erythrocyte phospholipids by 78 and 27 % respectively . Serum total , LDL- and HDL-cholesterol increased by 0.33 mmol/l ( 7.3 % ) , 0.26 mmol/l ( 10.4 % ) and 0.14 mmol/l ( 9.0 % ) compared with placebo ( all P < or = 0.001 ) . Factor VII ( FVII ) coagulant activity increased by 12 % following active treatment ( P = 0.006 ) . There were no significant differences between treatments in LDL size , blood pressure , plasma glucose , serum C-reactive protein , plasma FVII antigen , FVII activated , fibrinogen , von Willebr and factor , tocopherol or carotenoid concentrations , plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 , creatine kinase or troponin-I activities , haematology or liver function tests or self-reported adverse effects . Overall , the oil was well tolerated and did not adversely affect cardiovascular risk In addition to their beneficial effects in reducing platelet responsiveness , it has been a matter of controversy whether polyunsaturated fatty acids impair the fibrinolytic system or not . In a double-blind , parallel clinical trial , 40 subjects were r and omized to treatment with 6 g/day of corn oil , or to 6 g/day of a fish oil preparation , enriched with omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids ( 2.0 g/day of omega-3-PUFA ) .  Clinical and fibrinolytic variables were measured before and after 5 months of treatment . In the corn oil group , plasminogen activator inhibitor ( PAI-1 ) decreased significantly but in the cod liver oil group , PAI-1 remained unchanged . Activities and mass concentrations of tissue plasminogen activator ( t-PA ) were unchanged in both groups . It is concluded that , in the doses given here , both these preparations have small or no effects on the fibrinolytic system Diverging results from studies of marine oil supplementation to western diets initiated the undertaking of a double-blind crossover study , with administration to healthy volunteers for 4 weeks of either 10 g of fish oil or 10 g of vegetable oil . Each oil containing approx . 40 % of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) respectively . During the n-3 PUFA period , systolic blood pressure , plasma total lipids , triglycerides and VLDL concentrations fell significantly whereas plasma antithrombin-III ( AT-III ) rose . Cutaneous bleeding time increased significantly . In contrast only AT-III rose during the n-6 PUFA feeding , however , more marked than during the n-3 oil period . It is concluded that a n-3 PUFA oil supplement to the western diet exerts an effect that generally is considered as beneficial in terms of the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases . It is in this respect superior to that of n-6 PUFA , stressing the necessity of a more differentiated approach to advice on dietary PUFA enrichment than presently is exerted In a double-blind , crossover , placebo-controlled study the effects of four weeks ' treatment with 4.55 g/day of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on BP and serum lipids were assessed in 18 males with hypertension ( WHO stage I-II ) . At the end of the double-blind phase , eight patients on placebo ( olive oil ) and ten patients on fish oil treatment were given nifedipine 20 mg twice daily added to their regimens for four weeks . Four weeks ' fish oil treatment slightly reduced BP values ; however , compared with placebo no changes were found . VLDL-cholesterol and triglycerides were significantly reduced by 24 % , whereas total and LDL-cholesterol remained unchanged . Placebo did not change BP and lipid values . When nifedipine was added to fish oil/placebo , BP in the two groups was reduced to almost the same extent . When nifedipine was added to fish oil , total cholesterol was significantly reduced by 12 % in comparison with baseline value and LDL-cholesterol was reduced by 15 % , albeit insignificantly . Placebo plus nifedipine was lipid neutral . A significant correlation was found between the nifedipine-induced changes in supine mean arterial pressure and total , LDL- and VLDL-cholesterol , respectively , in those patients with and without fish oil treatment . In conclusion , the combined administration of fish oil and nifedipine possesses favourable antihypertensive and metabolic properties in hypertensive males with elevated lipid levels Certain dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids , gamma linolenic ( 18:3n-6 ) and eicosapentaenoic ( 20:5n-3 ) acid , attenuate  cardiovascular reactivity  to stress in rats . To study their effects on cardiovascular reactivity to acute stress in man , 30 men were r and omly assigned to one of three groups and given 28 day supplements of borage oil ( containing 18:3n-6 ) , fish oil ( containing 20:5n-3 ) , or olive oil ( placebo ) .  Reactivity to the Stroop colour-word conflict test was assessed prior to and following treatment . Borage oil alone attenuated blood pressure and heart rate responses to stress , increased skin temperature , and improved task performance . These data suggest that diet may be used to alter  stress reactivity  in man The potential antihypertensive effects after prolonged use of small doses of fish oils remain undefined . Therefore , we conducted a r and omized , double-blind , controlled crossover study comparing low doses of n-3 fatty acid supplementation with n-6 fatty acids on blood pressure in 33 subjects with mild hypertension . After a 6-week stabilization period , subjects ingested either 2.04 g/d of n-3 fatty acids or safflower oil ( 4.8 g/d of linoleic acid ) for 12 weeks , then crossed over to the alternative encapsulated oil for another 12 weeks , after a 4-week washout period . All antihypertensive drug therapy had been discontinued . For the combined data , there were significant reductions from pretreatment values for supine diastolic ( -2.4 mm Hg ) and sitting systolic ( -4.1 mm Hg ) blood pressure after fish oil ; no significant changes occurred after safflower oil control . Compared with safflower oil , fish oil supplementation was associated with a statistically significant reduction in mean supine diastolic blood pressure of 3.7 mm Hg ( 95 % confidence interval , -7.3 and 0.1 ) . Sitting diastolic and mean arterial pressures showed a sequence effect ; therefore , only the initial period was used in an analysis of their responses . There were significant decreases from pretreatment values for sitting diastolic ( -4.4 mm Hg ) , mean arterial ( -5.1 mm Hg ) , and systolic ( -6.5 mm Hg ) blood pressure after fish oil . The differences between groups after the 12-week period remained statistically significant for sitting diastolic and sitting mean arterial blood pressures . No adverse changes were noted in plasma levels of lipid-related measures OBJECTIVES The effect of a fish oil preparation , K-85 , in which the omega-3 fatty acid content was concentrated to 92 % of total fat , on serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations was investigated in patients with primary hypertriglyceridaemia . DESIGN The study was a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled study . SETTING Seven centres participated in the study , five secondary referral centres and two general practice s. SUBJECTS Men and women aged 18 - 70 years with fasting serum triglyceride concentrations between 2 and 10 mmol/l and fasting serum cholesterol concentrations > 5.2 mmol/l were studied . Patients with diabetes mellitus , hypothyroidism , serious illness in the previous 3 months or severe concurrent illness were excluded from the study , as were drug or alcohol abusers and pregnant and lactating women . Ninety-five subjects entered the study , 79 completed the study . INTERVENTIONS Patients were r and omized to receive K-85 2 g twice daily or corn oil 2 g twice daily for 14 weeks . MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS The serum concentrations of triglycerides and cholesterol , very low-density lipoprotein ( VLDL ) , low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) , high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) and lipoprotein ( a ) . Fasting blood glucose and blood pressure . RESULTS Serum triglycerides and VLDL-cholesterol were significantly lower in the group treated with K-85 than in the placebo group after 6 , 10 and 14 weeks ( all P < 0.01 ) and there was a decrease in the serum triglyceride concentration from 3.99 ( 2.94 - 9.47 ) to 2.87 ( 1.2 - 9.93 ) mmol/l ( P < 0.001 ) and in VLDL-cholesterol from 1.47 ( 0.77 - 3.63 ) to 1.12 ( 0.21 - 3.67 ) mmol/l ( P < 0.01 ) in patients receiving K-85 .  Serum HDL-cholesterol increased from 0.98 ( 0.95 - 1.01 ) to 1.11 ( 1.07 - 1.15 ) mmol/l ( P < 0.01 ) in the patients with type IV hyperlipoproteinaemia but did not change in those with type IIb . Serum LDL-cholesterol , lipoprotein ( a ) and fasting blood glucose were unaffected by K-85 .  Diastolic blood pressure decreased from 86 + /- 11 to 80 + /- 12 mmHg ( P < 0.02 ) and was also lower than in the placebo group ( P < 0.05 ) . The corn oil placebo did not affect any of the parameters . CONCLUSION K-85 is effective in lowering serum triglycerides and VLDL in patients with primary hypertriglyceridaemia and may have utility as a triglyceride-lowering agent The average daily consumption of seal oil by the Inuit people is approximately 8 - 9 g , yet there is very little information on the effect of seal oil consumption on cardiovascular disease risk factors . In this study , 19 healthy , normocholesterolemic subjects consumed 20 g of encapsulated seal oil containing eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ; 20:5n-3 ) , docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ; 22:6n-3 ) , and docosapentaenoic acid ( DPA ; 22:5n-3 ) or 20 g of vegetable oil ( control ) per day for 42 days . Levels of selected cardiovascular and thrombotic risk factors as well as fatty acid profiles of serum phospholipid and nonesterified fatty acid ( NEFA ) were determined . EPA levels in serum phospholipid and NEFA increased by 4.3- and 2.7-fold , respectively , in the seal oil supplemented group . DHA levels rose 1.5- and 2.1-fold , respectively , and DPA levels rose 0.5- and 0.7-fold , respectively . Arachidonic acid ( AA ) levels dropped by 26 % in both serum phospholipid and serum NEFA . There was a significant decrease in the ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids in serum phospholipid from 7.2 to 2.1 and a significant increase in the ratio of EPA/AA in NEFA . Ingestion of seal oil raised the coagulant inhibitor , protein C , values by 7 % and decreased plasma fibrinogen by 18 % . No alterations in other hemostatic variables , including plasma activity of Factors VII , VIII , IX , and X and antithrombin , or in the concentrations of von Willebr and Factor , total cholesterol , high-density lipoprotein cholesterol , low-density lipoprotein cholesterol , triglyceride , glucose , Apo A-1 , or lipoprotein(a ) were observed in either group . Other risk factors for cardiovascular disease , including hematocrit , white blood cell count , plasma viscosity , systolic and diastolic blood pressures , heart rate , and platelet aggregation after stimulation with ADP or collagen did not change . Our results indicate that seal oil supplementation in healthy , normocholesterolemic subjects decreased the n-6/n-3 ratio and increased EPA , DHA , and DPA and the ratio of EPA/AA and DHA/AA in the serum phospholipid and NEFA , while exhibiting a modest beneficial effect on fibrinogen and protein C levels OBJECTIVE Exaggerated cardiovascular reactivity predicts cardiovascular morbidity and mortality . Some evidence suggests that omega-3 fatty acids improve cardiovascular function . The objective of this study was to examine the influence of an acute low dose of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids on young , healthy individuals . METHODS Participants ( n=34 ) were r and omly assigned to either 21-days of omega-3 fatty acids ( 1.4 g EPA and DHA ) or matched placebo .  Cardiovascular measurements were obtained in the laboratory during baseline and during a st and ard mental arithmetic task , where participants were instructed to engage in serial subtractions by 17s from a four-digit number and cardiovascular reactivity to the task was calculated . RESULTS Mean arterial pressure reactivity was significantly reduced by supplementation ( F(1,32)=5 . 12 , p=.03 , η(2)=.144 ) but not by placebo . CONCLUSION Supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids may reduce cardiovascular reactivity to stress Both n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fats have been suggested to lower blood pressure , an effect ascribed to altered bio synthesis of eicosanoids . To test these hypotheses , we studied blood pressure and eicosanoid production during supplementation of dietary fat for four weeks in 32 men with mild essential hypertension . Supplementation was preceded and followed by four-week run-in and recovery periods . Groups of eight subjects received either 10 ml or 50 ml of fish oil ( 3 or 15 g of n-3 fatty acids ) daily , 50 ml of safflower oil ( 39 g of n-6 fatty acids ) , or 50 ml of a mixture of oils that approximated the types of fat present in the American diet . The bio synthesis of eicosanoids was assessed by the measurement of urinary metabolites . Blood pressure decreased in the men who received the high dose of fish oil ( systolic pressure by a mean of 6.5 mm Hg [ P less than 0.03 ] and diastolic pressure by 4.4 mm Hg [ P less than 0.015 ] ) , but not in the other groups . Although the formation of vasodilatory prostacyclins ( prostagl and ins I2 and I3 ) increased initially , this increase was not maintained as blood pressure fell . The level of thromboxane A2 metabolites fell ; metabolites of thromboxane A3 were detected in the groups receiving fish oil . The formation of prostagl and in E2 increased during supplementation with safflower oil and tended to decrease with fish oil ; no prostagl and in E3 metabolite was detected . Our data indicate that high doses of fish oil can reduce blood pressure in men with essential hypertension . However , the clinical usefulness and safety of fish oil in the treatment of hypertension will require further study Studies of whether polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish oil -- in particular , eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids -- lower blood pressure have varied in design and results . We conducted a population -based , r and omized , 10-week dietary-supplementation trial in which the effects of 6 g per day of 85 percent eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids were compared with those of 6 g per day of corn oil in 156 men and women with previously untreated stable , mild essential hypertension . The mean systolic blood pressure fell by 4.6 mm Hg ( P = 0.002 ) , and diastolic pressure by 3.0 mm Hg ( P = 0.0002 ) in the group receiving fish oil ; there was no significant change in the group receiving corn oil . The differences between the groups remained significant for both systolic ( 6.4 mm Hg ; P = 0.0025 ) and diastolic ( 2.8 mm Hg ; P = 0.029 ) pressure after control for anthropometric , lifestyle , and dietary variables . The decreases in blood pressure were larger as concentrations of plasma phospholipid n-3 fatty acids increased ( P = 0.027 ) . Dietary supplementation with fish oil did not change mean blood pressure in the subjects who ate fish three or more times a week as part of their usual diet , or in those who had a base-line concentration of plasma phospholipid n-3 fatty acids above 175.1 mg per liter . We conclude that eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids reduce blood pressure in essential hypertension , depending on increases in plasma phospholipid n-3 fatty acids Omega-3 fatty acids ( n-3 ) can improve cardiovascular ( CV ) function . This study examined the effects of n-3 on endurance performance , recovery and CV risk factors in elite Australian Rules football players . 25 players were r and omised , double-blind , to 6 g/day of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-rich fish oil ( FO ; n=12 ) or sunflower oil ( SO ; n=13 ) during 5 weeks of training . At baseline erythrocyte n-3 content , resting blood pressure ( BP ) , fasting serum triglycerides ( TG ) and heart rate ( HR ) during treadmill running at 10 km/h were assessed . Two treadmill runs ( T1 and T2 ) to exhaustion , separated by 5 min , were then performed at the average speed for a recent 2200 m time-trial . After 5 weeks , erythrocyte n-3 increased ( FO 3.8+/-0.6 % , SO 0.6+/-0.3 % ; P<0.001 ) while TG ( FO -0.32+/-0.09 mmol l(-1 ) , SO 0.08+/-0.05 mmol l(-1 ) ; P<0.001 ) , diastolic BP ( FO 1.3+/-1.3 mmHg , SO 6.8+/-1.7 mmHg ; P=0.04 ) and HR during submaximal exercise ( FO -7.8+/-2.3 beats min(-1 ) , SO -1.9+/-1.9 beats min(-1 ) ; P=0.03 ) decreased in FO compared with SO . Time to exhaustion ( TTE ) during T1 increased by Week 5 ( FO 10.2+/-2.2 % , SO 17.3+/-4.3 % ; P<0.001 for time ) . Recovery ( TTE for T2 as % T1 ) decreased in both groups ( FO , -3.4+/-4.5 % , SO -8.8+/-3.9 % ; P=0.05 for time ) . We conclude that 5 weeks of supplementation with FO improved CV function and reduced CV risk factors , but did not improve endurance performance or recovery in elite Australian Rules footballers OBJECTIVE To test the short-term feasibility and efficacy of seven nonpharmacologic interventions in persons with high normal diastolic blood pressure . DESIGN R and omized control multicenter trials . SETTING Volunteers recruited from the community , treated and followed up at special clinics . PARTICIPANTS Of 16,821 screenees , 2182 men and women , aged 30 through 54 years , with diastolic blood pressure from 80 through 89 mm Hg were selected . Of these , 50 did not return for follow-up blood pressure measurements . INTERVENTIONS Three life-style change groups ( weight reduction , sodium reduction , and stress management ) were each compared with unmasked nonintervention controls over 18 months . Four nutritional supplement groups ( calcium , magnesium , potassium , and fish oil ) were each compared singly , in double-blind fashion , with placebo controls over 6 months . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Primary : change in diastolic blood pressure from baseline to final follow-up , measured by blinded observers . Secondary : changes in systolic blood pressure and intervention compliance measures . RESULTS Weight reduction intervention produced weight loss of 3.9 kg ( P less than .01 ) , diastolic blood pressure change of -2.3 mm Hg ( P less than .01 ) , and systolic blood pressure change of -2.9 mm Hg ( P less than .01 ) . Sodium reduction interventions lowered urinary sodium excretion by 44 mmol/24 h ( P less than .01 ) , diastolic blood pressure by 0.9 mm Hg ( P less than .05 ) , and systolic blood pressure by 1.7 mm Hg ( P less than .01 ) . Despite good compliance , neither stress management nor nutritional supplements reduced diastolic blood pressure or systolic blood pressure significantly ( P greater than .05 ) . CONCLUSIONS Weight reduction is the most effective of the strategies tested for reducing blood pressure in normotensive persons . Sodium reduction is also effective . The long-term effects of weight reduction and sodium reduction , alone and in combination , require further evaluation The effects of a fish oil concentrate with an omega-3 fatty acid content of 42 % was determined in two dosages in a double-blind , placebo-controlled study with a parallel group comparison over a period of 5 weeks with 30 healthy subjects . The daily intake chosen was four and eight capsules corresponding to 1.26 or 2.52 g omega-3 fatty acids .  Plasma viscosity , erythrocyte rigidity and systolic blood pressure were significantly decreased ( p less than 0.01 ) after a 5-week administration of 2.52 g omega-3 fatty acid daily . The reduction in vitamin E concentration was significant ( p less than 0.01 ) only in the low-dose fish oil group . Lipids and lipoproteins remained unchanged throughout this experiment Increased intake of marine long-chain n-3 PUFA ( n-3 LCPUFA ) may decrease the risk of CVD and reduce mortality by lowering serum TAG and blood pressure ( BP ) . Furthermore , n-3 LCPUFA may affect novel CVD risk markers related to inflammation and vascular function . The objective of the present study was to examine the effect of farmed trout on novel and traditional CVD risk markers in healthy men , and to evaluate whether this was affected by the aquacultural feed regime . We performed a parallel , 8-week intervention study in which sixty-eight healthy male volunteers were r and omised to consume either a daily meal with 150 g farmed trout raised on either marine or vegetable-based feed , or a reference meal containing 150 g chicken . Twenty-four hour BP , pulse wave velocity , augmentation index , fatty acid composition of erythrocyte ( RBC ) , and concentrations of TAG , HDL-cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol , glucose , insulin , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) and other markers of inflammation were measured at weeks 0 and 8 . RBC content of total n-3 LCPUFA , both EPA and DHA , was significantly higher among men consuming trout raised on marine feed compared with men consuming the  vegetable-fed trout or chicken . The three intervention groups did not differ significantly with respect to any of the other outcome variables , although there were trends towards associations between the changes in RBC n-3 LCPUFA and those in BP and CRP . In the present study , we conclude that we could not confirm the fish oil-induced reduction in CVD risk markers after daily consumption of trout with high or low n-3 LCPUFA content . However , trout raised on vegetable-based feed had less pronounced impact on RBC n-3 LCPUFA status Anta rct ic krill , also known as Euphausia superba , is a marine crustacean rich in both eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) . We tested the hypothesis that krill oil would increase plasma concentrations of EPA and DHA without adversely affecting indicators of safety , tolerability , or selected metabolic parameters . In this r and omized , double-blind parallel arm trial , overweight and obese men and women ( N = 76 ) were r and omly assigned to receive double-blind capsules containing 2 g/d of krill oil , menhaden oil , or control ( olive ) oil for 4 weeks . Results showed that plasma EPA and DHA concentrations increased significantly more ( P < .001 ) in the krill oil ( 178.4 + /- 38.7 and 90.2 + /- 40.3 micromol/L , respectively ) and menhaden oil ( 131.8 + /- 28.0 and 149.9 + /- 30.4 micromol/L , respectively ) groups than in the control group ( 2.9 + /- 13.8 and -1.1 + /- 32.4 micromol/L , respectively ) . Systolic blood pressure declined significantly more ( P < .05 ) in the menhaden oil ( -2.2 + /- 2.0 mm Hg ) group than in the control group ( 3.3 + /- 1.5 mm Hg ) , and the response in the krill oil group ( -0.8 + /- 1.4 mm Hg ) did not differ from the other 2 treatments . Blood urea nitrogen declined in the krill oil group as compared with the menhaden oil group ( P < .006 ) . No significant differences for other safety variables were noted , including adverse events . In conclusion , 4 weeks of krill oil supplementation increased plasma EPA and DHA and was well tolerated , with no indication of adverse effects on safety parameters
BACKGROUND Although a large body of literature has been devoted to examining the relationship between eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids ( EPA+DHA ) and blood pressure , past systematic review s have been hampered by narrow inclusion criteria and a limited scope of analytical subgroups .
In addition , no meta- analysis to date has captured the substantial volume of r and omized controlled trials ( RCTs ) published in the past 2 years .
The objective of this meta- analysis was to examine the effect of EPA+DHA , without upper dose limits and including food sources , on blood pressure in RCTs .