A randomized controlled trial of gravity-supported, computer-enhanced arm exercise for individuals with severe hemiparesis. Stepping over obstacles to improve walking in individuals with poststroke hemiplegia. Effect of simulator training on driving after stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Effectiveness of virtual reality using Wii gaming technology in stroke rehabilitation: a pilot randomized clinical trial and proof of principle. Virtual reality training for stroke rehabilitation. Exercises for paretic upper limb after stroke: a combined virtual-reality and telemedicine approach. ''Playstation eyetoy games'' improve upper extremity-related motor functioning in subacute stroke: a randomized controlled clinical trial. A computerized visual perception rehabilitation programme with interactive computer interface using motion tracking technology -- a randomized controlled, single-blinded, pilot clinical trial study. Effects of training with a robot-virtual reality system compared with a robot alone on the gait of individuals after stroke. Virtual reality in the rehabilitation of the arm after hemiplegic stroke: a randomized controlled pilot study. Use of virtual reality to enhance balance and ambulation in chronic stroke: a double-blind, randomized controlled study. Virtual reality-based training improves community ambulation in individuals with stroke: a randomized controlled trial. An electric scooter simulation program for training the driving skills of stroke patients with mobility problems: a pilot study. Cortical reorganization and associated functional motor recovery after virtual reality in patients with chronic stroke: an experimenter-blind preliminary study. Motor learning principles for rehabilitation: a pilot randomized controlled study in poststroke patients. Virtual reality-induced cortical reorganization and associated locomotor recovery in chronic stroke: an experimenter-blind randomized study.
The authors previously developed a passive instrumented arm orthosis (Therapy Wilmington Robotic Exoskeleton [T-WREX]) that enables individuals with hemiparesis to exercise the arm by playing computer games in a gravity-supported environment. The purpose of this study was to compare semiautonomous training with T-WREX and conventional semiautonomous exercises that used a tabletop for gravity support.
                Twenty-eight chronic stroke survivors with moderate/severe hemiparesis were randomly assigned to experimental (T-WREX) or control (tabletop exercise) treatment. A blinded rater assessed arm movement before and after twenty-four 1-hour treatment sessions and at 6-month follow-up. Subjects also rated subjective treatment preferences after a single-session crossover treatment.
                All subjects significantly improved ( P < or = .05) upper extremity motor control (Fugl-Meyer), active reaching range of motion (ROM), and self-reported quality and amount of arm use (Motor Activity Log). Improvements were sustained at 6 months. The T-WREX group maintained gains on the Fugl-Meyer significantly better than controls at 6 months (improvement of 3.6 +/- 3.9 vs 1.5 +/- 2.7 points, mean +/- SD; P = .04). Subjects also reported a preference for T-WREX training.
                Gravity-supported arm exercise, using the T-WREX or tabletop support, can improve arm movement ability after chronic severe hemiparesis with brief one-on-one assistance from a therapist (approximately 4 minutes per session). The 3-dimensional weight support, instant visual movement feedback, and simple virtual reality software provided by T-WREX were associated with modest sustained gains at 6-month follow-up when compared with the conventional approach. For this study, we evaluated two training interventions for improving gait parameters in individuals with poststroke hemiplegia using a training methodology that required them to step over objects. Gait velocity, step length, ability to step over obstacles, and walking endurance were compared before and after 2 weeks of training and 2 weeks after cessation of training. Twenty subjects with poststroke hemiplegia completed six intervention sessions in which they were asked to step over either virtual objects while walking on a motorized treadmill or real foam objects on a 10 m walkway. With the virtual object training, if either foot collided with the virtual object, a tone sounded and a vibrotactile stimulus was applied to the colliding foot. All subjects tolerated the training sessions well, and no incidences of falling or undue cardiovascular responses occurred. The virtual obstacle training generated greater improvements in gait velocity compared with real training (20.5% vs. 12.2% improvement) during the fast walk test (p < 0.01). Improvements in gait velocity for both training methods were similar in the self-selected walk test (33.3% vs. 34.7% improvement). Overall, subjects showed clinically meaningful changes in gait velocity, stride length, walking endurance, and obstacle clearance capacity as a result of either training method. These changes persisted for 2 weeks posttraining. The inclusion of enhanced safety and visual augmentation may be responsible for the effectiveness of the virtual object intervention. These results demonstrate preliminary evidence for clinical effectiveness of obstacle training for improving gait velocity poststroke. In addition, these results provide evidence for enhanced clinical performance with virtual obstacle training. Neurologically impaired persons seem to benefit from driving-training programs, but there is no convincing evidence to support this notion. The authors therefore investigated the effect of simulator-based training on driving after stroke.
                Eighty-three first-ever subacute stroke patients entered a 5-week 15-hour training program in which they were randomly allocated to either an experimental (simulator-based training) or control (driving-related cognitive tasks) group. Performance in off-road evaluations and an on-road test were used to assess the driving ability of subjects pre- and post-training. Outcome of an official predriving assessment administered 6 to 9 months poststroke was also considered.
                Both groups significantly improved in a visual and many neuropsychological evaluations and in the on-road test after training. There were no significant differences between both groups in improvements from pre- to post-training except in the "road sign recognition test" in which the experimental subjects improved more. Significant improvements in the three-class decision ("fit to drive," "temporarily unfit to drive," and "unfit to drive") were found in favor of the experimental group post-training. Academic qualification and overall disability together determined subjects that benefited most from the simulator-based driving training. Significantly more experimental subjects (73%) than control subjects (42%) passed the follow-up official predriving assessment and were legally allowed to resume driving.
                Simulator-based driving training improved driving ability, especially for well educated and less disabled stroke patients. However, the findings of the study may have been modified as a result of the large number of dropouts and the possibility of some neurologic recovery unrelated to training. Hemiparesis resulting in functional limitation of an upper extremity is common among stroke survivors. Although existing evidence suggests that increasing intensity of stroke rehabilitation therapy results in better motor recovery, limited evidence is available on the efficacy of virtual reality for stroke rehabilitation.
                In this pilot, randomized, single-blinded clinical trial with 2 parallel groups involving stroke patients within 2 months, we compared the feasibility, safety, and efficacy of virtual reality using the Nintendo Wii gaming system (VRWii) versus recreational therapy (playing cards, bingo, or "Jenga") among those receiving standard rehabilitation to evaluate arm motor improvement. The primary feasibility outcome was the total time receiving the intervention. The primary safety outcome was the proportion of patients experiencing intervention-related adverse events during the study period. Efficacy, a secondary outcome measure, was evaluated with the Wolf Motor Function Test, Box and Block Test, and Stroke Impact Scale at 4 weeks after intervention.
                Overall, 22 of 110 (20%) of screened patients were randomized. The mean age (range) was 61.3 (41 to 83) years. Two participants dropped out after a training session. The interventions were successfully delivered in 9 of 10 participants in the VRWii and 8 of 10 in the recreational therapy arm. The mean total session time was 388 minutes in the recreational therapy group compared with 364 minutes in the VRWii group (P=0.75). There were no serious adverse events in any group. Relative to the recreational therapy group, participants in the VRWii arm had a significant improvement in mean motor function of 7 seconds (Wolf Motor Function Test, 7.4 seconds; 95% CI, -14.5, -0.2) after adjustment for age, baseline functional status (Wolf Motor Function Test), and stroke severity.
                VRWii gaming technology represents a safe, feasible, and potentially effective alternative to facilitate rehabilitation therapy and promote motor recovery after stroke. To evaluate the effectiveness of a 2-D virtual reality (2DVR) programme in the training of people with stroke on how to access and use the station facilities of the Mass Transit Railway (MTR).
                A flat-screen 2DVR based training programme and a corresponding, typical psycho-educational programme with video modelling were developed for comparison through a research design that involved a randomised control group pre-test and post-test.
                Twenty and sixteen subjects respectively received 10 training sessions using the 2DVR strategy and a video-based psycho-educational programme. An additional 22 subjects formed the control group. They were assessed by using a behavioural checklist of MTR skills and a newly validated MTR self-efficacy scale. The subjects of both training groups showed a significant improvement in their knowledge, skills and self-efficacy in using the MTR (p<0.01), whereas, the MTR skills and self-efficacy of the control group remained stable over a four-week interval.
                Though both training programmes were effective in training the patients with stroke, they demonstrated differential improvements in MTR skills and related self-efficacy. Additional studies are recommended to identify the most effective training procedures for maintaining these skills and the best transfer ratio in the training of VR-based community living skills of people with stroke. Telerehabilitation enables a remotely controlled programme to be used to treat motor deficits in post-stroke patients. The effects of this telerehabilitation approach were compared with traditional motor rehabilitation methods.
                Randomized single-blind controlled trial.
                A total of 36 patients with mild arm motor impairments due to ischaemic stroke in the region of the middle cerebral artery.
                The experimental treatment was a virtual reality-based system delivered via the Internet, which provided motor tasks to the patients from a remote rehabilitation facility. The control group underwent traditional physical therapy for the upper limb. Both treatments were of 4 weeks duration. All patients were assessed one month prior to therapy, at the commencement and termination of therapies and one month post-therapy, with the Fugl-Meyer Upper Extremity, the ABILHAND and the Ashworth scales.
                Both rehabilitative therapies significantly improved all outcome scores after treatment, but only the Fugl-Meyer Upper Extremity scale showed differences in the comparison between groups.
                Both strategies were effective, but the experimental approach induced better outcomes in motor performance. These results may favour early discharge from hospital sustained by a telerehabilitation programme, with potential beneficial effects on the use of available resources. To evaluate the effects of ''Playstation EyeToy Games'' on upper extremity motor recovery and upper extremity-related motor functioning of patients with subacute stroke.
                The authors designed a randomized, controlled, assessor-blinded, 4-week trial, with follow-up at 3 months. A total of 20 hemiparetic inpatients (mean age 61.1 years), all within 12 months post-stroke, received 30 minutes of treatment with ''Playstation EyeToy Games'' per day, consisting of flexion and extension of the paretic shoulder, elbow and wrist as well as abduction of the paretic shoulder or placebo therapy (watching the games for the same duration without physical involvement into the games) in addition to conventional program, 5 days a week, 2-5 hours/day for 4 weeks. Brunnstrom's staging and self-care sub-items of the functional independence measure (FIM) were performed at 0 month (baseline), 4 weeks (post-treatment), and 3 months (follow-up) after the treatment.
                The mean change score (95% confidence interval) of the FIM self-care score (5.5 [2.9-8.0] vs 1.8 [0.1-3.7], P=0.018) showed significantly more improvement in the EyeToy group compared to the control group. No significant differences were found between the groups for the Brunnstrom stages for hand and upper extremity.
                ''Playstation EyeToy Games'' combined with a conventional stroke rehabilitation program have a potential to enhance upper extremity-related motor functioning in subacute stroke patients. To assess the effectiveness of a computerized visual perception rehabilitation programme using motion tracking technology for visual perception impairment.
                Randomized controlled, single-blinded, pilot clinical trial study.
                Inpatient rehabilitation hospital.
                Sixteen left hemiplegic patients with visual perceptional impairment.
                Subjects were randomly assigned to receive either (1) participation in a computerized visual perception rehabilitation programme with an interactive patient-computer interface applying motion tracking technology based on the CAMSHIFT algorithm or (2) use of the PSS CogRehab program for three sessions per week, 30 minutes per session for four weeks. There were eight patients in each group.
                Mini-Mental Status Examination, Motor-free Visual Perception Test and Modified Barthel Index were assessed at the beginning and end of the training. A survey was conducted to evaluate the degree of patients' interest using an interest scale.
                After training, the mean (SD) Motor-free Visual Perception Test score increased significantly in both experimental group (from 65.8 (19.5) to 77.8 (28.7)) and control group (from 68.3 (11.4) to 74.1 (14.8)) (P<0.01). Modified Barthel Index score increased significantly in both groups, with the experimental group recording a higher increase. Mean (SD) interest scale score was greater in the experimental group (2.2 (0.8)) than in the control group (1.3 (0.7)) (P<0.01).
                A computerized visual perception rehabilitation programme with interactive computer interface using motion tracking technology could be considered as a treatment option for stroke patients with visual perception impairment. Training of the lower extremity (LE) using a robot coupled with virtual environments has shown to transfer to improved overground locomotion. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the transfer of training of LE movements to locomotion was greater using a virtual environment coupled with a robot or with the robot alone.
                A single, blind, randomized clinical trial was conducted. Eighteen individuals poststroke participated in a 4-week training protocol. One group trained with the robot virtual reality (VR) system and the other group trained with the robot alone. Outcome measures were temporal features of gait measured in a laboratory setting and the community.
                Greater changes in velocity and distance walked were demonstrated for the group trained with the robotic device coupled with the VR than training with the robot alone. Similarly, significantly greater improvements in the distance walked and number of steps taken in the community were measured for the group that trained with robot coupled with the VR. These differences were maintained at 3 months' follow-up.
                The study is the first to demonstrate that LE training of individuals with chronic hemiparesis using a robotic device coupled with VR improved walking ability in the laboratory and the community better than robot training alone. To assess the feasibility of a trial to investigate the effectiveness of virtual reality-mediated therapy compared to conventional physiotherapy in the motor rehabilitation of the arm following stroke, and to provide data for a power analysis to determine numbers for a future main trial.
                Pilot randomized controlled trial.
                Clinical research facility.
                Eighteen people with a first stroke, 10 males and 8 females, 7 right and 2 left side most affected. Mean time since stroke 10.8 months.
                Participants were randomized to a virtual reality group or a conventional arm therapy group for nine sessions over three weeks.
                The upper limb Motricity Index and the Action Research Arm Test were completed at baseline, post intervention and six weeks follow-up.
                Outcome data were obtained from 95% of participants at the end of treatment and at follow-up: one participant withdrew. Compliance was high; only two people reported side-effects from virtual reality exposure. Both groups demonstrated small (7-8 points on upper limb Motricity Index and 4 points on the Action Research Arm Test), but non-significant, changes to their arm impairment and activity levels.
                A randomized controlled trial of virtual reality-mediated therapy comparable to conventional therapy would be feasible, with some suggested improvements in recruitment and outcome measures. Seventy-eight participants (39 per group) would be required for a main trial. To examine an additive effect of virtual reality on balance and gait function in patients with chronic hemiparetic stroke.
                Twenty-four adults with hemiparetic stroke were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (n = 12) or a control group. Both groups underwent conventional physical therapy, 40 mins a day, 4 days a week for 4 wks. The experimental group received an additional 30 mins of virtual reality therapy each session. Balance performance was determined by the Balance Performance Monitor and Berg Balance Scale tests. Gait performance was determined by the 10-m walking test and Modified Motor Assessment Scale, and spatiotemporal parameters were obtained using GAITRite. Analysis of variance and correlation statistics were performed at P < 0.05.
                In the balance test, the experimental group had improved Berg Balance Scale scores, balance and dynamic balance angles (ability to control weight shifting) compared with the controls (P < 0.05). In the gait performance test, the experimental group showed significant improvements in velocity, Modified Motor Assessment Scale scores, cadence, step time, step length, and stride length (P < 0.05). Improvement in dynamic balance angles was correlated with velocity and cadence (P < 0.01).
                This study demonstrates that virtual reality has an augmented effect on balance and associated locomotor recovery in adults with hemiparetic stroke when added to conventional therapy. This is a single blind randomized controlled trial to examine the effect of virtual reality-based training on the community ambulation in individuals with stroke. Twenty subjects with stroke were assigned randomly to either the control group (n=9) or the experimental group (n=11). Subjects in the control group received the treadmill training. Subjects in the experimental group underwent the virtual reality-based treadmill training. Walking speed, community walking time, walking ability questionnaire (WAQ), and activities-specific balance confidence (ABC) scale were evaluated. Subjects in the experimental group improved significantly in walking speed, community walking time, and WAQ score at posttraining and 1-month follow-up periods. Their ABC score also significantly increased at posttraining but did not maintain at follow-up period. Regarding the between-group comparisons, the experimental group improved significantly more than control group in walking speed (P=0.03) and community walking time (P=0.04) at posttraining period and in WAQ score (P=0.03) at follow-up period. Our results support the perceived benefits of gait training programs that incorporate virtual reality to augment the community ambulation of individuals with stroke. This paper describes an electric scooter simulation program and a first evaluation study in which we explored if it is possible to train the driving skills of future users of electric mobility scooters by means of an electric scooter simulation program in addition to conventional electric scooter training. Within this explorative study,10 stroke survivors were randomly assigned to either the control (n=5) or the electric scooter simulation intervention group (n=5). Participants were assessed twice on the functional evaluating rating scale. During the followup measurement, subjective experiences regarding both forms of electric scooter training were elicited by a questionnaire. After a training period of 5 weeks, both groups improved on the Functional Evaluation Rating Scale. It can be concluded that the patients with stroke were satisfied with the electric scooter simulation training. To investigate the effects of virtual reality (VR) on cortical reorganization and motor recovery.
                Nonparametric pre- and posttest design with experimenter blinded.
                University medical center.
                Five patients with hemiparesis (age, 59.8+/-3.4y) were recruited.
                Five patients received VR for 60 minutes a day, 5 times a week for 4 weeks. VR was designed to provide a virtual rehabilitation scene where the intensity of practice and sensory feedback could be systematically manipulated to provide the most appropriate, individualized motor retraining program.
                Cortical activation and associated motor recovery were measured before and after VR using functional magnetic resonance imaging and standardized motor tests, respectively. Nonparametric tests were used at P less than .05.
                Prior to VR, the bilateral primary sensorimotor cortices (SM1s), contralesional premotor cortex, and contralesional or ipsilesional supplementary motor area were activated. After VR, the altered activations disappeared and predominantly the ipsilesional SM1 was activated (P<.05). Motor function was improved (P<.05).
                This is a novel demonstration of VR-induced neuroplastic changes and associated motor recovery in chronic stroke. Six months after a stroke, the hemiplegic arm often remains compromised. More innovative approaches to motor rehabilitation are needed.
                The authors compared a motor learning-based approach in a virtual environment with more conventional upper extremity therapy in a pilot trial.
                This prospective, single-blinded, randomized controlled trial compared reinforced feedback in a virtual environment (RFVE; n = 27) with a control intervention (n = 20) of progressive therapy for the affected upper extremity. Both treatments were provided for 4 weeks, 5 days per week, with 1-hour treatment sessions daily. The primary outcomes were the Fugl-Meyer Upper Extremity (F-M UE) and Functional Independence Measure (FIM) scores. Kinematic outcomes included mean duration (MD), mean linear velocity (MLV), and number of submovements to measure the motor performance. Analyses of the primary outcomes were performed per protocol and by intention to treat.
                F-M UE scores improved significantly in the RFVE group compared with the conventional therapy group ("intention to treat" = 5.10 points, P = .004; ANCOVA = 4.26 points, P < .01). Several of the kinematic parameters improved in the RFVE group (MD, P < .01; MLV, P < .01). FIM improvements did not differ.
                Both rehabilitation therapies improved arm motor performance and functional activity, but the RFVE therapy induced more robust results in patients exposed to late rehabilitation treatment. Virtual reality (VR) is a new promising computer-assisted technology to promote motor recovery in stroke patients. VR-induced neuroplasticity supporting locomotor recovery is not known. We investigated the effects of VR intervention on cortical reorganization and associated locomotor recovery in stroke patients.
                Ten chronic stroke patients were assigned randomly to either the control group or the VR group. VR was designed to provide interactive real-life practice environments in which practice parameters can be individualized to optimize motor relearning. Laterality index (LI) in the regions of interests (ROIs) and locomotor recovery were measured before and after VR using functional MRI (fMRI) and standardized locomotor tests, respectively. The t test and nonparametric test were performed to compare the mean differences at P<0.05.
                There was a significant difference in the interval change in the LI score for the primary sensorimotor cortex (SMC) between the groups (P<0.05), indicating that VR practice produced a greater increase in LI for the control group. However, the interval changes in the other ROIs were not significantly different (P>0.05). Motor function was significantly improved after VR (P<0.05).
                Our novel findings suggest that VR could induce cortical reorganization from aberrant ipsilateral to contralateral SMC activation. This enhanced cortical reorganization might play an important role in recovery of locomotor function in patients with chronic stroke. This is the first fMRI study in the literature that provides evidence for neuroplasticity and associated locomotor recovery after VR.
We found limited evidence that the use of virtual reality and interactive video gaming may be beneficial in improving arm function and ADL function when compared with the same dose of conventional therapy. There was insufficient evidence to reach conclusions about the effect of virtual reality and interactive video gaming on grip strength or gait speed. It is unclear at present which characteristics of virtual reality are most important and it is unknown whether effects are sustained in the longer term. Furthermore, there are currently very few studies evaluating the use of commercial gaming consoles (such as the Nintendo Wii).