Bosworth/Toller, page b0702\nThis is page 702 of An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary by Bosworth and Toller (1898)\n702 MURCIAN -- MÚTUNG.\nsimilar relation murnan and un-murne, Ps. Th. 75, 4; also weoren Bruttes blið an modeþæ ær weoren murne, Laym. 16159.]\nmurcian; p. ode To grieve, complain, repine :-- Hwí murcnast (MS. Bod. murcas) ðú wið mín quid tu reum me quotidianis agis guerelis? Bt. 7, 3 ; Fox 20, 3. Murcaþ forðý ðæt hé Gode nolde þeówian gemunt homines quod Deo servire noluerunt, Past. 36, 3 ; Swt. 250, 16. Ðæt hí him ondræ-acute;den and murkien for hira unfullfremednesse ut imperfectionis suae taedio tabescant, 65, 6; Swt. 467, 13. Sóna swá ic ðé on ðisse unrótnesse geseah ðus murciende (Cott. MS. murcniende) cum te moestum lacrymantemque vidissem, Bt. 5, l; Fox 8, 27. v. murcung, murcnian.\nmurcnere, es; m. One who murmurs :-- On écum wíte mid ðám murcnerum, R. Ben. 21, 5.\nmurcnian; p. ode To murmur, complain, repine, grieve :-- Hwæt murcnast ðú æfter ðæm ðe ðú forlure oððe tó hwon fagnast ðú ðæs ðe ðú æ-acute;r hæfdest quid est, quod vel amissis doleas, vel laeteris retentis? Bt. 14, 2; Fox 42, 31: 7, 3; Fox 20, 3 (v. murcian). Hí murcniaþ &l-bar; geómriaþ murmurabunt, Ps. Spl. 58, 17. Gé murcnodon murmurastis, Deut. l, 27. Ne murcniaþ, Jn. Skt. 6, 43. Ðá ongunnon hig murcnian ongén ðone hírédes ealdor. Mt. Kmbl. 20, 11. Ðonne onginþ hé tó murcnienne, and þincþ him tó lang hwænne hé beó genumen of ðyses lífes earfoþnyssum. Homl. Th. i. 140, 19. Ða Phariséi gehýrdon ða menigeo ðus murcnigende be him, Jn. Skt. 7, 32: Bt. 5, 1; Fox 8, 27 (v. murcian). v. be-murcnian.\nmurcnung, e; f. Complaint, murmuring :-- Ðá gehýrde Drihten folces murcnunge (murmurationes). Ex. 16, 11. Ic syngede þurh tale and þurh murcnunge (per detractionem et per murmurationem), Confess. Pecc. Wóplícum murcnungum flebilibus questibus, Hpt. Gl. 518, 26. Hiófum, murcnungum questibus, 472, 64.\nmurcung, e ; f. Complaint, grief, murmuring :-- Hwæt is eówer murcung (murmur) wið unc? Past. 28, 6; Swt. 201, 5. Mid suá micelre murcunga his ágen mód gedréfþ tanto mentem moerore conturbat, 33, 7; Swt. 227, 19. Ðæt hié weorþen on murcunga and on ungeþylde ad impatientiae murmurationem proruunt, 45, 3; Swt. 341, 3. Hý ðé willaþ on murcunga gebringan ðonne hié ðé fram hweorfaþ fortuna cum discesserit allatura moerorem, Bt. 7, 2; Fox 18, 19 note.\nmurge, v. mirige.\nmurnan; p. de. I. intrans. To mourn, be sad, be anxious :-- Gif ðú ðonne heora þegen beón wilt and ðé heora þeáwas líciaþ tó hwon myrnst ðú swá swíðe si probas, utere moribus, ne queraris, Bt. 7, 2 ; Fox 18, 7. Sélre biþ æ-acute;ghwæm ðæt hé his freónd wrece, ðonne hé fela murne, Beo. Th. 2775; B. 1385. Ðæt mín murnende mód. Bt. 3, l; Fox 4, 18: Beo. Th. 99 ; B. 50: Andr. Kmbl. 3332 ; An. 1669 : Exon. 101 a ; Th. 380, 28 ; Rä. l, 15. Geómor sefa. hyge murnende, 15 a; Th. 31, 24; Cri. 500. Cwom seó murnende Maria, 119 b; Th. 459, 33; Hö. 9: 121 a ; Th. 464, 22 ; Hö. 91. Bonan gnornedon, mæ-acute;ndon murnende, 38 b ; Th. 128, 8 ; Gú. 401. Murnan on móde to be sad at heart, Cd. 35 ; Th. 45, 31; Gen. 735: Judth. 11; Thw. 23, 33; Jud. 154. Hí murnaþ on móde. Cd. 169; Th. 212, 6; Exod. 535. Ne beó ðú on sefan tó forht, ne on móde ne murn be not fearful of mind, nor anxious of heart, Andr. Kmbl. 197; An. 99. II. with prepositions for, æfter :-- Ne mæg ná for feore murnan se ðe wrecan þenceþ freán not for life must he care that his lord will avenge. Byrht. Th. 139, 25; By. 259, Ne murn ðú for ðí méce ðe wearþ máðma cyst, Wald. 1, 44; Vald. 1, 24. Hyge wæs oncyrred ðæt hié ne murndon æfter mandreárne the mind was o'erthrown, so that after the glad life of men they longed not, Andr. Kmbl. 73; An. 37. III. trans. (a) To mourn, lament :-- Sum sceal murnan meotudgesceaft móde gebysgad the Maker's decree shall one mourn, troubled in mind, Exon. 87 b; Th. 328, 19 ; Vy. 20 : Salm. Kmbl. 971; Sal. 485. (b) to care about, regard :-- Se ðe hiora welt ne murnþ náuþer ne friénd ne fiend ðé má ðe wédende hund he that rules them regards neither friend nor foe any more than he would a mad dog (cf. se hláford ne scrífþ freónde ne feónde, Met. 25, 15), Bt. 37, l; Fox 186, 7. [A. R. murnen; p. murnede : Laym. murnede; p. : Piers P. mornede ; p. : Goth. maurnan GREEK: O. Sax. mornón : Icel. morna: O. H. Ger. mornén moereo; part, mornénti moestus.] v. be-murnan, meornan.\nmrnung, e; f. Grief, anxiety, Bt. 7, 2; Fox 18, 19. v. murcung (last passage).\nmurra, myrra, an; m. Cicely :-- Murra hátte wyrt, Lchdm. ii. 18, 3. Nim murran ða wyrt, iii. 8, 1 Myrran, 14, 20.\nmurre myrrh, v. myrre.\nmús, e; f. I. a mouse :-- Muus mus, Wrt. Voc. ii. 114, 41. Mús sorex, i. 23, 31 : mus vel sorex, 78, 23. Ðeós mús hic mus, Ælfc. Gr. 9, 33; Som. 12, 20. Gif gé gesáwen hwelce mús ðæt wæ-acute;re hláford ofer óðre mýs, Bt. 16, 2 ; Fox 52, 2. Mýs sorices. Wrt. Voc. ii. 87, 73. [Ðæt gewrit beó geworpen músen tó gnagene, Chart. Th. 318, 28.] II. a muscle :-- Mús ðæs earmes torus vel musculus vel lacertus, Wrt. Voc. i. 43, 48. [Icel, mús, pl. mýss a mouse; also a muscle: O. H. Ger. mús mouse; muscle: Ger. maus mouse; muscle: Gk. GREEK mouse; muscle.] v. hreáðe-, hrére-, scirfe-, sise-mús; múse-pise.\nmuscelle, muscle, muxle, musle, an; f. [from Latin] A muscle or mussel, a shell-fish :-- Muscle muscula, Wrt. Voc. ii. 57, 76. Muxle, i. 77, 71: geniscula, 281, 62. Mucxle, 65, 68: ii. 41, 19. Musclan scil conca, 15, 35. Of muscellan de conca, 26, 39: 75, 71: 89, 35. Musclan, Hpt. Gl. 417, 9. Hér beóþ oft numene missenlícra cynna muscule (muslena, note), Bd. 1. 1; S. 473, 17. Muslan musculos, Coll. Monast. Th. 24, 11. [O. H. Ger. muscula ; f.]\nmusc-fleotan. v. must-fleóge.\nmúse-pise, an; f. Mouse-pea, a vetch :-- Múisepise vicia, Wrt. Voc. i. 38, 55.\nmús-fealle, an; f. A mouse-trap :-- Muusfalle muscipula, Wrt. Voc. ii. 114, 34. Músfealle pelx, 71, 28. [Prompt. Parv. mows-falle: O. H. Ger. mús-falla; f. muscipula: Ger. mäuse-falle.]\nmús-fealu; adj. Mouse-coloured :-- Múisfealu, bleóreád myrteus, Wrt. Voc. ii. 58, 8. [Ger. mäuse-fahl.]\nmús-hafoc, es; n. A mouse-hawk :-- Múshafoc siricarius, Wrt. Voc. i. 62, 17 : suricarius, 280, 21. Múshabuc soricarius, ii. 120, 81.\nmust, es; m. (?) Must, new wine :-- Must mustum (cf. níwe wín mustum, 27, 47), Wrt. Voc. i. 82, 36. Must mid hunig gemenged inomellum, 27, 45. Heortan manna must and wíndrinc myclum blissaþ vinum laetificet cor hominis, Ps. Th. 103, 14. Ne miht ðú wín wringan on midne winter, ðeáh ðé wel lyste wearmes mustes, Bt. 5, 2 ; Fox 10, 32. Ðás men sindon mid muste fordrencte ('these men are full of new wine,' Acts 2, 13), Homl. Th. i. 314, 21. [O. H. Ger. most; m. : Ger. most; m. From Latin.]\nmust-fleóge, an; f. A smal/ fly found in wine; bibio, parva musca quae in vino nascitur :-- Mustfleógan (rnuscfleotan, Wrt. ) bibiones, mustiones, Wrt. Voc. i. 23, 74. Cf. bibulus musti bibiones (Anglice myntys) arcet amurca, 176, 24.\nmúþ, es; m. I. of persons, (a) The mouth :-- Múþ os, Wrt. Voc. i. 64, 52. Múþes hróf palatum, 64, 58. Gán[i]gende múþe hiulco rostro, ii. 79, 34. Hé for ðý sáre ne mihte his hand tó múþe gedón could not put his hand to his mouth, Bd. 3, 2 ; S. 525, 4. Eall ðæt on ðone múþ gæ-acute;þ, gæ-acute;þ on ða wambe, Mt. Kmbl. 15, 17. Múþum buccis, Wrt. Voc. ii. 12, 16. (b) the mouth as an instrument of speech :-- Be æ-acute;lcon worde ðe of Godes múþe gæ-acute;þ, Mt. Kmbl. 4, 4. Hé æt his sylfes múþe gehýrde, Bd. 3, 27; S. 558, 40. Múþas ealle ða unriht sprecaþ os loquentium iniqua, Ps. Th. 62, 9. (c) the face :-- Ic sprece tó him múþe tó múþe, Num. 12, 8. II. of things, A mouth, opening, orifice :-- Æ-acute;lces kynnes múþ orificium, Wrt. Voc. i. 19, 57 : Exon. 108 b; Th. 415, 10; Rä. 33, 9. Duru sceal on healle, rúm recedes múþ. Menol. Fox 533; Gn. C. 37, Gif mon biþ on hrif wund. ... gif hé þurhwund biþ, æt gehweðerum múþe twentig sci&l-bar;&l-bar;. , L. Alf. pol. 61 ; Th. i. 96. 12. Beleác heofonríces weard merehúses múþ (the door of the ark), Cd. 69; Th. 82, 18; Gen. 1364. [Goth. munþs: Icel. munnr, múðr: O. Sax. múð : O. Frs. muth, mund: O. H. Ger. mund.]\nmúþa, an; m. I. the mouth of a river :-- Ðæ-acute;r ligeþ se múþa út on ðone gársecg ðære ié ðe mon háteþ Gandis (ostia fluminis Gangis) . . . Be súþan ðæm múþan is se port Caligardamana . . . be norþan ðæm Gandes múþan is se port Samera. Be norþan ðæm porte is se múþa ðære ié . . . Ottorogorre, Ors. l, l; Swt. 10, 6-13. On Limene múþan . . . Se múþa is on eástweardre Cent. . . On ða eá hí tugon up hiora scipu óþ ðone weald, iiii míla fram ðæm múþan útanweardum, Chr. 893 ; Erl. 88, 25-32. Æ-acute;lc ceápscip friþ hæbbe ðe binnan múþan cumau, L. Eth. ii. 2; Th. i. 284, 20; ii. 3; Th. i. 286, 6. Ofer Humbre múþan, Chr. 867; Erl. 72, 7. On súþhealfe Sæfern múþan ... óþ Afene múþan, 918; Erl. 104, 4-5 : Bd. 5, 24; S. 647, 20. Ofer ðone múþan trans fretum, Mt. Kmbl. 8, 18, 28. On hwelcum wæterum and on æ-acute;ghwelcra eá múþum hí sculun sécan fiscas, Bt. 32, 3; Fox 118, 19. II. an opening, door :-- Recedes múþan. Beo. Th. 1452; B. 724. [Icel. munni mouth (of a cave, etc. ).] v. ge-mýþe.\nmú-þádl, e; f. A mouth-disease :-- Múþádl on góman mentedra vel oscedo, Wrt. Voc. i. 43, 64: ii. 58, 7. v. múþ-coþu.\nmúþ-bana, an; m. One who destroys with the mouth :-- Him Grendel wearþ tó múþbonan, leófes mannes líc eall forswealg, Beo. Th. 4165; B. 2079.\nmúþ-bersting, e; f. A breaking out about the mouth :-- Múþberstingc (in a list of diseases) frenus (cf. frenusculi, ulcera circa rictum oris, similia his quae fiunt jumentis asperitate frenorum, Isid, 4, orig. 8), Wrt. Voc. i. 20, 14. Múþbersting, ii. 39, 17. Múþberstung, 150, 56.\nmúþ-coþu, e ; f. A mouth-disease; oscedo ( = cris ulcus), Wrt. Voc. i. 20, 13: ii. 64, 2.\nmúþp-freó; adj. At liberty to speak :-- Hwí ne synt wé múþfreó ? hú ne móton wé sprecan ðæt wé willaþ, Ps. Th. II, 4.\nmúþ-hæ-acute;l, es; n. Salutary words pronounced by the mouth :-- Módiges (Moses) múþhæ-acute;l (cf. éce ræ-acute;das Moyses sægde. Th. 210, 15-17), Cd. 170: Th. 213, 14; Exod. 552.\nmúþ-hróf, es; m. The roof of the mouth, palate :-- Múþhrófe palato, Hpt. 414, 22.\nmúþ-leás, adj. Without a mouth: :-- Ic sccolde múþleás sprecan, Exon. 123a; Th. 472, 1; Rä. 61, 9.\nmútian. v. bi-mútian.\nmútung, e; f. A loan (?) :-- Mútung vel wrixlung mutuum, Wrt. Voc.


Middwe Engwish phonowogy - Wikipedia\nMiddwe Engwish phonowogy\nHistoricaw, reconstructed phonowogy\nFind sources: "Middwe Engwish phonowogy" – news · newspapers · books · schowar · JSTOR (Juwy 2010) (Learn how and when to remove dis tempwate message)\nIn Owd Engwish\nDevewopment of vowews\nDevewopment of consonants\nHistory of Engwish\nMiddwe Engwish phonowogy is necessariwy somewhat specuwative, since it is preserved onwy as a written wanguage. Neverdewess, dere is a very warge text corpus of Middwe Engwish. The diawects of Middwe Engwish vary greatwy over bof time and pwace, and in contrast wif Owd Engwish and Modern Engwish, spewwing was usuawwy phonetic rader dan conventionaw. Words were generawwy spewwed according to how dey sounded to de person writing a text, rader dan according to a formawised system dat might not accuratewy represent de way de writer's diawect was pronounced, as Modern Engwish is today.\nThe Middwe Engwish speech of de city of London in de wate 14f century (essentiawwy, de speech of Geoffrey Chaucer) is used as de standard Middwe Engwish diawect in teaching and when specifying "de" grammar or phonowogy of Middwe Engwish. It is dis form dat is described bewow, unwess oderwise indicated.\nIn de rest of de articwe, abbreviations are used as fowwows:\nOE = Owd Engwish\nPreOE = Pre-Owd Engwish\nME = Middwe Engwish\nEME = Earwy Middwe Engwish\nLME = Late Middwe Engwish\nLLME = very wate Middwe Engwish (post-Chaucer)\nNE = Modern Engwish\nENE = Earwy Modern Engwish\n1.2 Consonant awwophones\n1.2.1 Voiced fricatives\n2 Phonowogicaw processes\n2.1 Homorganic wengdening\n2.2 Stressed vowew changes\n2.3 Reduction and woss of unstressed vowews\n2.4 Vocawization of [ɣ] and devewopment of new diphdongs\n2.6 Open-sywwabwe wengdening\n2.7 Trisywwabic waxing\n2.8 Pre-cwuster shortening\n2.9 Reduction of doubwe consonants\n2.11 Great Vowew Shift\n2.12 Diphdong woss\n3 Vowew eqwivawents from Owd Engwish to Modern Engwish\nThe surface sounds of Chaucerian Middwe Engwish (wheder awwophones or phonemes) are shown in de tabwes bewow.\np b t d t͡ʃ d͡ʒ k ɡ\nf v θ ð s z ʃ (ç) (x) h\n1. ^ The exact nature of Middwe Engwish r is unknown, uh-hah-hah-hah. It may have been an awveowar approximant [ɹ], as in most Modern Engwish accents, an awveowar tap [ɾ] or an awveowar triww [r]. This articwe uses ⟨r⟩ indiscriminatewy.\nThe sounds marked in parendeses in de tabwe above are awwophones:\n[ŋ] is an awwophone of /n/ occurring before /k/ and /ɡ/\nFor exampwe, ring ('ring') is [riŋɡ]; [ŋ] did not occur awone word-finawwy in Middwe Engwish, unwike in Modern Engwish.\n[ç, x] are awwophones of /h/ in coda position after front and back vowews, respectivewy. The evidence for de awwophone [ç] after front vowews is indirect, as it is not indicated in de ordography. Neverdewess, dere was historicawwy a fronting of */k/ to /t͡ʃ/ and of */ɣ/ to /j/ after front vowews in pre-Owd Engwish, which makes it very wikewy. Moreover, in wate Middwe Engwish (post-Chaucer), /x/ sometimes became /f/ (tough, cough) but onwy after back vowews, never after front vowews. That is expwained if de awwophone [x] is assumed to have sometimes become [f] but dat de awwophone [ç] never did. For exampwe, night ('night') is [niçt], and taught ('taught') is [tau̯xt]. (See H-woss, bewow.)\nBased on evidence from Owd Engwish and Modern Engwish, /w/ and /r/ apparentwy had vewarised awwophones [ɫ] and [ɹˠʷ] or simiwar ones in some positions (perhaps aww positions in de case of /r/).\nIn Owd Engwish, [v], [ð], [z] were awwophones of /f/, /θ/, /s/, respectivewy, occurring between vowews or voiced consonants. That wed to many awternations: hūs ('house') [huːs] vs. hūses ('of a house') [ˈhuːzes]; wīf ('woman') [wiːf] vs. wīfes ('of a woman') [ˈwiːves]. In Middwe Engwish, voiced awwophones become phonemes, and dey are sowidwy estabwished in Modern Engwish as separate phonemes by severaw sources:\nBorrowings from foreign wanguages, especiawwy Latin, Ancient Greek, and Owd French, which introduced sounds where dey had not occurred: modern fine vs. vine (bof borrowings from French); eder (from Greek) vs. eider (native).\nDiawect mixture between Owd Engwish diawects (wike Kentish) dat voiced initiaw fricatives and de more standard diawects dat did not. Compare fat vs. vat (bof wif f- in standard Owd Engwish) and fox vs. vixen (Owd Engwish fox vs. fyxen, from Proto-Germanic *fuhsa- vs. *fuhsin-).\nAnawogicaw changes dat wevewwed former awternations: grass, grasses, grassy and gwass, gwasses, gwassy wif /s/ repwacing de originaw /z/ between vowews (but to graze and to gwaze, stiww wif /z/, originawwy derived from grass and gwass, respectivewy). Contrast wife vs. wives; greasy, stiww wif a /z/ in some diawects (such as dat of Boston) and staff, wif two pwuraws, anawogicaw staffs and inherited staves.\nLoss of finaw /e/, resuwting in voiced fricatives at de end of a word where onwy voicewess fricatives had occurred. That is de source of de modern distinctions house vs. to house, teef vs. to teede, hawf vs. to hawve.\nReduction of doubwe consonants to singwe consonants. That expwains de contrast between kiss, to kiss (Owd Engwish coss, cyssan, wif a doubwe s) vs. house, to house wif /z/ in de verb (Owd Engwish hūs, hūsian, wif a singwe s).\nSandhi effects dat introduced voiced fricatives at de beginning and de end of certain unstressed function words. Contrast dis wif /s/ vs. is wif /z/; off wif /f/ vs. of wif /v/, originawwy de same word; wif wif /ð/ in some diawects vs. pif wif /θ/; dis wif initiaw /ð/ vs. distwe wif initiaw /θ/.\nThe status of de sources in Chaucer's Middwe Engwish is as fowwows:\nThe first dree sources (borrowing, diawect mixture, anawogy) were awready estabwished.\nAs indicated by versification, de woss of finaw /e/ was normaw in Chaucer's time before a vowew-initiaw word and optionaw ewsewhere; it is assumed dat it is a poetic rewic and dat de woss of finaw /e/ was awready compwete in spoken Engwish (a simiwar situation to Modern French; see e muet).\nThe reduction of doubwe consonants was apparentwy about to occur.\nThe sandhi effects on unstressed function words occurred somewhat water, in de transition to Modern Engwish.\nThe strongest distinction was between /f/ and /v/ because of de warge number of borrowings from Owd French. It is awso de onwy distinction dat is consistentwy indicated in spewwing, as ⟨f⟩ and ⟨v⟩ respectivewy. /z/ sometimes appears as ⟨z⟩, especiawwy in borrowings from Greek and sometimes as ⟨s⟩. Bof /θ/ and /ð/ are spewwed ⟨f⟩.\ni iː (y yː) u uː\ne eː (ø øː) (ə) o oː\nɛː (œː) ɔː\nMiddwe Engwish had a distinction between cwose-mid and open-mid wong vowews but no corresponding distinction in short vowews. Awdough de behavior of open sywwabwe wengdening seems to indicate dat de short vowews were open-mid in qwawity, according to Lass, dey were cwose-mid. (There is some direct documentary evidence: in earwy texts, open-mid /ɛː/ was spewwed ⟨ea⟩, but bof /e/ and /eː/ were spewwed ⟨eo⟩.) Later, de short vowews were in fact wowered to become open-mid vowews, as is shown by deir vawues in Modern Engwish.\nThe front rounded vowews /y yː ø øː œː/ existed in de soudwest diawects of Middwe Engwish, which devewoped from de standard Late West Saxon diawect of Owd Engwish, but not in de standard Middwe Engwish diawect of London, uh-hah-hah-hah. The cwose vowews /y/ and /yː/ are direct descendants of de corresponding Owd Engwish vowews and were indicated as ⟨u⟩. (In de standard diawect of Middwe Engwish, de sounds became /i/ and /iː/; in Kentish, dey became /e/ and /eː/.) /yː/ may have existed in wearned speech in woanwords from Owd French, awso spewwed ⟨u⟩, but, as it merged wif /iu̯/, becoming /juː/ in Modern Engwish, rader dan /iː/, it can be assumed dat /iu̯/ was de vernacuwar pronunciation dat was used in French-derived words.\nThe mid-front rounded vowews /ø øː œː/ wikewise had existed in de soudwest diawects but not in de standard Middwe Engwish diawect of London, uh-hah-hah-hah. They were indicated as ⟨o⟩. Sometime in de 13f century, dey became unrounded and merged wif de normaw front mid vowews. They derived from de Owd Engwish diphdongs /eo̯/ and /eːo̯/. There is no direct evidence dat dere was ever a distinction between open-mid /œː/ and cwose-mid /øː/, but it can be assumed because of de corresponding distinction in de unrounded mid front vowews. /øː/ wouwd have derived directwy from Owd Engwish /eːo̯/, and /œː/ derived from de open sywwabwe wengdening of short /ø/, from de Owd Engwish short diphdong /eo̯/.\nThe qwawity of de short open vowew is uncwear. Earwy in Middwe Engwish, it presumabwy was centraw /a/ since it represented de coawescence of de Owd Engwish vowews /æ/ and /ɑ/, and at de time of Middwe Engwish breaking, it couwd not have been a front vowew since /u/ rader dan /i/ was introduced after it. During de Earwy Modern Engwish period, it was fronted, in most environments, to [æ] in soudern Engwand, and it and even cwoser vawues are found in de contemporary speech of soudern Engwand, Norf America and de soudern hemisphere: it remains [a] in much of Nordern Engwand, Scotwand and de Caribbean, uh-hah-hah-hah. Meanwhiwe, de wong open vowew, which devewoped water because of open sywwabwe wengdening, was [aː]. It was graduawwy fronted, to successivewy [æː], [ɛː] and [eː], in de 16f and de 17f centuries.\nSecond ewement /u̯/\nSecond ewement /i̯/\nearwy /ou̯/ > /ɔu̯/; water /ou̯/ > /uː/1 /eu̯/ > /iu̯/ /oi̯/ > /ui̯/ /ei̯/ > /iː/\n/ɔu̯/ /ɛu̯/ /ɔi̯/ /ɛi̯/ > /ai̯/\n1The Owd Engwish seqwences /oːw/, /oːɣ/ produced wate Middwe Engwish /ɔu̯/, apparentwy after passing drough earwy Middwe Engwish /ou/: OE grōwan ('grow') > LME /ˈɡrɔu̯e/. However, earwy Middwe Engwish /ou̯h/ had Middwe Engwish breaking produce wate Middwe Engwish /uːh/: OE tōh (tough') > EME /tou̯h/ > LME /tuːh/. Apparentwy, earwy /ou̯/ became /ɔu̯/ before de occurrence of Middwe Engwish breaking, which generated new occurrences of /ou̯/, which water became /uː/.\nAww of de above diphdongs came about widin de Middwe Engwish era. Owd Engwish had a number of diphdongs, but aww of dem had been reduced to monophdongs in de transition to Middwe Engwish. Middwe Engwish diphdongs came about by various processes and at various time periods. Diphdongs tended to change deir qwawity over time. The changes above occurred mostwy between earwy and wate Middwe Engwish. Earwy Middwe Engwish had a distinction between open-mid and cwose-mid diphdongs, and aww of de cwose-mid diphdongs had been ewiminated by wate Middwe Engwish.\nThe fowwowing processes produced de above diphdongs:\nReinterpretation of Owd Engwish seqwences of a vowew fowwowed by /w/, /ɣ/ > /w/, or /j/:\nOE weġ ('way') > EME /wɛi̯/ > LME /wai̯/\nOE dæġ ('day') > ME /dai̯/\nMiddwe Engwish breaking before /h/ ([x], [ç])\nBorrowing, especiawwy from Owd French\nSee awso: Phonowogicaw history of de Engwish wanguage, Owd Engwish phonowogy, and Phonowogicaw history of Owd Engwish\nThe fowwowing sections describe de major phonowogicaw processes occurring between written Late West Saxon (de standard written form of Owd Engwish) and de end of Middwe Engwish, conventionawwy dated to around 1500 AD.\nLate in Owd Engwish, vowews were wengdened before certain cwusters: /nd/, /wd/, /rd/, /mb/, /ŋɡ/. Later on, de vowews in many of dese words were shortened again, giving de appearance dat no wengdening happened; but evidence from de Ormuwum indicates oderwise. For detaiws see Phonowogicaw history of Owd Engwish: Vowew wengdening.\nStressed vowew changes\nLate West Saxon (de standard written form of Owd Engwish) incwuded matched pairs of short and wong vowews, incwuding seven pairs of pure vowews (monophdongs), /ɑ(ː)/ /æ(ː)/ /e(ː)/ /i(ː)/ /o(ː)/ /u(ː)/ /y(ː)/, and two pairs of height-harmonic diphdongs, /æ(ː)ɑ̯/ and /e(ː)o̯/. Two additionaw pairs of diphdongs, /i(ː)u̯/ and /i(ː)y̯/, existed in earwier Owd Engwish but had been reduced to /e(ː)o̯/ and /y(ː)/, respectivewy, by wate Owd Engwish times.\nIn de transition to Middwe Engwish, dis system underwent major changes, ewiminating de diphdongs and weaving onwy one pair of wow vowews, but wif a vowew distinction appearing in de wong mid vowews:\nThe diphdongs /æɑ̯/ /æːɑ̯/ simpwified to /æ/ and /æː/, respectivewy. Subseqwentwy, de wow vowews were modified as fowwows:\n/æ/ and /ɑ/ merged to a singwe centraw vowew /a/.\n/æː/ and /ɑː/ raised to /ɛː/ and /ɔː/, respectivewy.\nThe diphdongs /eo̯/ /eːo̯/ simpwified to new front-round vowews /ø/ and /øː/, respectivewy. Everywhere except in de soudwest, dese vowews qwickwy unrounded to become /e/ and /eː/, respectivewy; in de soudwest, it took 200 or 300 years for dis process to take pwace, and in de meantime de sounds were spewwed ⟨o⟩ in texts from de soudwest.\nThe front-rounded vowews /y/ and /yː/ unrounded to /i/ and /iː/, respectivewy, everywhere but in de soudwest (former West Saxon area) and soudeast (former Kentish area).\nIn de soudwest, dese front-rounded vowews remained, and were spewwed ⟨u⟩.\nIn de soudeast, de vowews had awready been unrounded to /e/ and /eː/, respectivewy, in Owd Engwish times, and remained as such in Middwe Engwish.\nThis weft an asymmetric system consisting of five short vowews /a/ /e/ /i/ /o/ /u/ and six wong vowews /ɛː/ /eː/ /iː/ /ɔː/ /oː/ /uː/, wif additionaw front-rounded vowews /ø(ː)/ /y(ː)/ in de soudwest area. Some symmetry was restored by open sywwabwe wengdening, which restored a wong wow vowew /aː/.\nReduction and woss of unstressed vowews\nUnstressed vowews were graduawwy confused in wate Owd Engwish, awdough de spewwing wagged behind, due to de existence of a standardized spewwing system. By earwy Middwe Engwish, aww unstressed vowews were spewt ⟨e⟩, probabwy representing /ə/. Awso in wate Owd Engwish, finaw unstressed /m/ became /n/; during de Middwe Engwish period, dis finaw /n/ was dropped when it was part of an infwectionaw sywwabwe (but remained when part of de root, e.g. seven, or in derivationaw endings, e.g. written). Around Chaucer's time, finaw /ə/ was dropped; judging from infwectionaw evidence, dis occurred first when de fowwowing word began wif a vowew. A century or so water, unstressed /ə/ awso dropped in de pwuraw and genitive ending -es (spewwed -s in Modern Engwish) and de past ending -ed.\nThese changes steadiwy effaced most infwectionaw endings, e.g.:\nOE mētan > ME meete(n) > LME /meːt/ > NE meet /miːt/\nOE wicu > ME weeke > LME /weːk/ > NE week /wiːk/\nOE nama > ME nāme > LME /næːm/ > NE name /neɪ̯m/\nIn de wast two exampwes, de stressed vowew was affected by open-sywwabwe wengdening.\nVocawization of [ɣ] and devewopment of new diphdongs \nThe sound [ɣ], which had been a post-vocawic awwophone of /ɡ/, became vocawized to [u]. This occurred around de year 1200.\nA new set of diphdongs devewoped from combinations of vowew+[u] (eider from [ɣ] or from pre-existing /w/) or vowew+[i] (from pre-existing /j/), and awso due to borrowing from French – see Diphdongs above.\nDuring de 12f or 13f centuries, a vowew /i/ was inserted between a front vowew and a fowwowing /h/ (pronounced [ç] in dis context), and a vowew /u/ was inserted between a back vowew and a fowwowing /h/ (pronounced [x] in dis context). Short /a/ was treated as a back vowew in dis process (de wong eqwivawent did not occur in de rewevant context). See H-woss, bewow.\nMain articwe: Open-sywwabwe wengdening § Engwish\nAround de 13f century, short vowews were wengdened in an open sywwabwe (i.e. when fowwowed by a singwe consonant dat in turn is fowwowed by anoder vowew). In addition, non-wow vowews were wowered: /i/ > /eː/, /e/ > /ɛː/, /u/ > /oː/, /o/ > /ɔː/. This accounts, for exampwe, for de vowew difference between staff and de awternative pwuraw staves (Middwe Engwish staf vs. stāves, wif open-sywwabwe wengdening in de watter word). This process was restricted in de fowwowing ways:\nIt did not occur when two or more sywwabwes fowwowed, due to de opposing process of trisywwabic waxing.\nIt onwy occasionawwy appwied to de high vowews /i/ and /u/, e.g. OE wudu > ME /woːd/ > wood; OE wicu > ME /weːk/ > week. Most instances of /i/ and /u/ remained as such, e.g. OE hnutu > NE nut, OE riden > NE ridden.\nThe effects of open-sywwabwe wengdening and trisywwabic waxing often wed to differences in de stem vowew between singuwar and pwuraw/genitive. Generawwy dese differences were reguwarized by anawogy in one direction or anoder, but not in a consistent way:\nME paf, pādes > NE paf, pads, but ME whaw, whāwes > NE whawe, whawes\nME crādew, cradewes > NE cradwe, cradwes, but ME sādew, sadewes > NE saddwe, saddwes\nMain articwe: Trisywwabic waxing\nIn wate Owd Engwish, vowews were shortened before cwusters of two consonants when two or more sywwabwes fowwowed. Later in Middwe Engwish dis process was expanded, and appwied to aww vowews when two or more sywwabwes fowwowed. This wed to de Modern Engwish variations between divine vs. divinity, schoow vs. schowarwy, gratefuw vs. gratitude, etc. In some cases, water changes have wed to apparentwy anomawous resuwts, e.g. souf vs. soudern wif onwy two sywwabwes (but /suːðernə/ at de time dat trisywwabic waxing appwied). This change is stiww fairwy productive in Modern Engwish.\nIn wate Owd Engwish, vowews were shortened before cwusters of dree consonants:\nOE gāst > NE ghost /ɡoʊ̯st/; OE gāstwiċ > NE ghastwy /ˈɡæstwi/, /ˈɡɑːstwi/\nOE ċiwd > NE chiwd /tʃaɪ̯wd/; OE ċiwdru + OE -an > NE chiwdren /ˈtʃɪwdrən/\nOE gōd > NE good; OE gōdspeww > NE gospew\nAs shown by ghastwy, dis shortening occurred before de raising of OE /ɑː/ to EME /ɔː/, which occurred in de transition to Middwe Engwish.\nLater in Middwe Engwish, vowews were shortened before cwusters of two consonants, except before /st/ and in some cases where homorganic wengdening appwied. Exampwes:\nOE cēpte > kept (cf. OE cēpan > keep)\nOE mētte > met (cf. OE mētan > meet)\nReduction of doubwe consonants\nDoubwe (geminated) consonants were reduced to singwe ones. This took pwace after open sywwabwe wengdening; de sywwabwe before a geminate was a cwosed sywwabwe, hence vowews were not wengdened before (originawwy) doubwed consonants. The woss of gemination may have been stimuwated by its smaww functionaw woad—by dis time dere were few minimaw pairs of words distinguished sowewy by de singwe vs. doubwe consonant contrast.\nThe phoneme /h/, when it occurred in de sywwabwe coda, is bewieved to have had two awwophones: de voicewess pawataw fricative [ç], occurring after front vowews, and de voicewess vewar fricative [x], occurring after back vowews. The usuaw spewwing in bof cases was ⟨gh⟩, which is retained today in words wike night and taught.\nThese sounds were wost during de water Middwe Engwish and Earwy Modern Engwish eras. The timing of dis process was dependent on diawect; de fricatives were stiww pronounced in some educated speech in de 16f century, but dey had disappeared by de wate 17f. Loss of de fricatives was accompanied by some compensatory wengdening or diphdongization of preceding vowews. In some cases, de vewar fricative [x] devewoped into /f/; as such de preceding vowew was shortened, and de [u] of a diphdong was absorbed. However, de pawataw fricative [ç] in no instances became /f/.\nSome possibwe devewopments are iwwustrated bewow:\nOE niht ('night') > ME /niht/ [niçt] > /niːt/ > NE /naɪt/ (by de Great Vowew Shift)\nOE hwæhhan ('to waugh') > ME [ˈwauxə] > LLME /waf/ > ENE /waːf/ > NE /wæ(ː)f, wɑːf/\nOE tōh ('tough') > ME [tuːx] > LLME /tuf/ > NE /tʌf/\nThis variabwe outcome, awong wif oder variabwe changes and de ambiguity of de Middwe Engwish spewwing ⟨ou⟩ (eider /ou̯/ or /uː/ in Earwy Middwe Engwish) accounts for de numerous pronunciations of Modern Engwish words in -ough- (e.g. dough, drough, bough, rough, trough, dought, wif -ough- pronounced /ou/, /uː/, /au/, /ʌf/, /ɒf/, /ɔː/ respectivewy).\n/h/ spewwed -gh- is reawized as [x] even today in some traditionaw diawects of nordern Engwand and more famouswy Scots. Some accents of nordern Engwand wack de /x/, instead exhibiting speciaw vowew devewopments in some such words; for exampwe, night as /niːt/ (neat) and in de diawectaw words owt and nowt (from aught and naught, pronounced wike out and nout, meaning 'anyding' and 'noding'). Awso, in nordern Engwand, a distinction is often preserved between de vowew /ɛɪ/ in words wike weigh, weight and eight, and de /eː/ of wait and wate (de nordern reawization of de vowew resuwting from de pane-pain merger).\nThe modern phoneme /x/ most commonwy appears today in de typicawwy Scottish word woch and in names such as Buchan. Here de /x/ is usuaw in Scotwand, awdough de awternative /k/ is becoming more common among some younger speakers. The same is true in Wawes, in names such as Loughor. Engwish speakers from ewsewhere may repwace de /x/ in such cases wif /k/, but some use /x/ in imitation of de wocaw pronunciations (as dey may in certain foreign words such as Bach, Kharkiv, Sakhawin, chutzpah, etc.).\nMain articwe: Great Vowew Shift\nThe Great Vowew Shift was a fundamentaw change in wate Middwe Engwish (post-Chaucer) and Earwy Modern Engwish dat affected de pronunciation of aww of de wong vowews. The high vowews /iː/ and /uː/ were diphdongized, uwtimatewy producing de modern diphdongs /aɪ̯/ and /aʊ̯/, and aww oder vowews were raised.\nAwdough not normawwy considered a part of de Great Vowew Shift, during de same time period most of de pre-existing Middwe Engwish diphdongs were monophdongized:\n/ai̯/ > ENE /ɛː/ > /eː/ > NE /eɪ̯/\n/au̯/ > ENE /ɔː/\n/ɔu̯/ > ENE /oː/ > NE /oʊ̯/\nThe remaining diphdongs devewoped as fowwows:\n/ɛu̯/, /iu̯/ > ENE /ɪu̯/ > NE /juː/. /ɪu̯/ is stiww used in Wewsh Engwish.\n/ɔi̯/, /ui̯/ > NE /ɔɪ̯/\nVowew eqwivawents from Owd Engwish to Modern Engwish\nFor a detaiwed description of de changes between Owd Engwish and Middwe/Modern Engwish, see de articwe on de phonowogicaw history of Engwish. A summary of de main vowew changes is presented bewow. The spewwing of Modern Engwish wargewy refwects Middwe Engwish pronunciation, uh-hah-hah-hah.\nThis tabwe presents de generaw devewopments. Many exceptionaw outcomes occurred in particuwar environments: vowews were often wengdened in wate Owd Engwish before /wd/, /nd/, /mb/; vowews changed in compwex ways before /r/, droughout de history of Engwish etc. Vowews were diphdongized in Middwe Engwish before /h/, and new diphdongs arose in Middwe Engwish by de combination of vowews wif Owd Engwish w, g /ɣ/ > /w/, and ġ /j/; for more information, see de section bewow. The onwy conditionaw devewopment considered in detaiw bewow is Middwe Engwish open-sywwabwe wengdening. In de cowumn on modern spewwing, CV means a seqwence of a singwe consonant fowwowed by a vowew.\nNOTE: In dis tabwe, abbreviations are used as fowwows:\nWS = West Saxon (diawect of Owd Engwish)\nGA = Generaw American (generawised U.S. accent of Modern Engwish)\nRP = Received Pronunciation (prestige British accent of Modern Engwish)\nweng. = wengdened by open-sywwabwe wengdening\nocc. = occasionawwy\nsuperw. = superwative\n> = produces by reguwar sound change\n>! = produces by anawogy or irreguwar change\nLate Owd Engwish (Angwian), c. 1000\nMiddwe Engwish pronunciation, c. 1400\nModern Engwish spewwing, c. 1500\nEarwy Modern Engwish pronunciation, c. 1600\nModern Engwish pronunciation, c. 2000\na; æ; ea; ā+CC; often ǣ+CC,ēa+CC; occ. ē+CC (WS ǣ+CC) /a/ a /a/ /æ/ OE a OE mann > man; OE wamb > wamb; OE sang > sang; OE sacc > sack; OE assa > ass (donkey)\nOE æ OE fæþm embrace > fadom; OE sæt > sat; OE æt > at; OE mæsse > mass (at church)\nOE ea OE weax > wax; OE heawf > hawf /hæf/ (GA)\nOE +CC OE āscian > ask /æsk/ (GA); OE fǣtt > fat; OE wǣstan > to wast /wæst/ (GA) ; OE bwēddre (WS bwǣddre) > bwadder; OE brēmbew (WS brǣmbew) > brambwe\n(w+, not +g,ck,ng,nk) GA /ɑ/, RP /ɒ/ OE a OE swan > swan; OE wasċan > to wash; OE wann dark > wan\nOE æ OE swæþ > swaf; OE wæsp > wasp\nOE ea OE weawwian > to wawwow; OE sweawwe > swawwow (bird)\n(+r) /ar/ > GA /ɑr/, RP /ɑː/ OE heard > hard; OE ærc (WS earc) > ark\n(w+ and +r) /ɔr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ OE ea OE swearm > swarm; OE sweart > owd poetic swart >! swardy; OE weardian > to ward; OE wearm > warm; OE wearnian > to warn\n(+wC,w#) /ɔː/ OE smæw > smaww; OE aww (WS eaww) > aww; OE wawcian (WS weawcian) to roww > to wawk\n(+wm) GA /ɑ/, RP /ɑː/ OE æwmesse > awms; Latin pawma > OE pawm > pawm\n(RP, often +f,s,f) /ɑː/ OE gwæs > gwass; OE græs > grass; OE pæþ > paf; OE æfter > after; OE āscian /ɑːsk/ > to ask; OE wǣstan /wɑːst/ > to wast\n(weng.) /aː/ [æː] aCV /ɛː/ /eː/ > /ei/ OE a OE nama > name; OE nacod > naked; OE bacan > to bake\nOE æ OE æcer > acre; OE hwæw > whawe; OE hræfn > raven\n(+r) /eːr/ > GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ OE a OE caru > care; OE faran > to fare; OE starian > to stare\ne; eo; occ. y; ē+CC; ēo+CC; occ. ǣ+CC,ēa+CC /e/ e /ɛ/ /ɛ/ OE e OE hewpan > to hewp; OE ewh (WS eowh) > ewk; OE tewwan > to teww; OE betera > better; OE streċċan > to stretch\nOE y OE myriġ > merry; OE byrġan > to bury /bɛri/; OE wyft- weak > weft (hand); OE cnyww > kneww\nOE +CC OE cēpte > kept; OE mētte > met; OE bēcnan (WS bīecnan) > to beckon; OE cwǣnsian > to cweanse; OE fwǣsċ > fwesh; OE wǣssa > wess; OE frēond > friend /frɛnd/; OE þēofþ (WS þīefþ) > deft; OE hēowd > hewd\n(+r) ar /ar/ GA /ɑr/, RP /ɑː/ OE heorte > heart; OE bercan (WS beorcan) > to bark; OE teoru (WS teru) > tar; OE steorra > star\n(w+ and +r) /ɔr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ AN werra > war; AN werbwer > to warbwe\n(occ. +r) er /ɛr/ /ər/ > GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ OE e OE sterne (WS stierne, styrne) > stern\nOE eo OE eorw > earw; OE eorþe > earf; OE wiornian, weornian > to wearn\nOE +CC OE hērde (WS hīerde) > heard\n(weng.) /ɛː/ ea,eCV /eː/ /iː/ OE specan > to speak; OE mete > meat; OE beofor > beaver; OE meotan (WS metan) > to mete /miːt/; OE eotan (WS etan) > to eat; OE meodu (WS medu) > mead; OE yfew > eviw\n(+r) /iːr/ > GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ OE spere > spear; OE mere > mere (wake)\n(occ. +r) /eːr/ > GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ OE beoran (WS beran) > to bear; OE pere, peru > pear; OE swerian > to swear; OE wer man > were-\n(often +f,d,t,v) /ɛ/ OE weþer > weader /wɛðɚ/; OE stede > stead; OE weder > weader; OE heofon > heaven; OE hefiġ > heavy\ni; y; ī+CC,ȳ+CC; occ. ēoc,ēc; occ. ī+CV,ȳ+CV /i/ i /ɪ/ /ɪ/ OE i OE writen > written; OE sittan > to sit; OE fisċ > fish; OE wifer > wiver\nOE y OE bryċġ > bridge; OE cyssan > to kiss; OE dyde > did; OE synn > sin; OE gywdan > to giwd; OE bysiġ > busy /bɪzi/\nOE +CC OE wīsdōm > wisdom; OE fīftiġ > fifty; OE wȳsċan > to wish; OE cȳþþ(u) > kif; OE fȳst > fist\nOE ȳ+CV,ī+CV OE ċīcen > chicken; OE wȳtew > wittwe\nOE ēoc,ēc OE sēoc > sick; OE wēoce > wick; OE ēc + nama > ME eke-name >! nickname\n(+r) /ər/ > GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ OE gyrdan > to gird; OE fyrst > first; OE styrian > to stir\n(weng. — occ.) /eː/ ee /iː/ /iː/ OE wicu > week; OE piwian > to peew; OE bitewa > beetwe\no; ō+CC /o/ o /ɔ/ GA /ɑ/, RP /ɒ/ OE o OE god > god; OE beġeondan > beyond\nOE +CC OE gōdspeww > gospew; OE fōddor > fodder; OE fōstrian > to foster\n(GA, +f,s,f,g,ng) /ɔː/ OE moþþe > mof; OE cros > cross; OE frost > frost; OE of > off; OE oft > oft; OE sōfte > soft\n(+r) /ɔr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ OE corn > corn; OE storc > storc; OE storm > storm\n(weng.) /ɔː/ oa,oCV /oː/ GA /ou/, RP /əu/ OE fowa > foaw; OE nosu > nose; OE ofer > over\n(+r) /oːr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ OE borian > to bore; OE fore > fore; OE bord > board\nu; occ. y; ū+CC; w+ e,eo,o,y +r /u/ u,o /ʊ/ /ʌ/ OE u OE bucc > buck /bʌk/; OE wufian > to wove /wʌv/; OE uppe > up; OE on bufan > above\nOE y OE myċew > ME muchew >! much; OE bwysċan > to bwush; OE cyċġew > cudgew; OE cwyċċan > to cwutch; OE sċytew > shuttwe\nOE +CC OE dūst > dust; OE tūsc > tusk; OE rūst > rust\n(b,f,p+ and +w,sh) /ʊ/ OE fuww > fuww /fʊw/; OE buwa > buww; OE bysċ > bush\n(+r) /ər/ > GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ OE u OE spurnan > to spurn\nOE y OE ċyriċe > church; OE byrþen > burden; OE hyrdew > hurdwe\nOE w+,+r OE word > word; OE werc (WS weorc) > work; OE werowd > worwd; OE wyrm > worm; OE wersa (WS wiersa) > worse; OE weorþ > worf\n(weng. — occ.) /oː/ oo /uː/ /uː/ OE (brȳd)-guma > ME (bride)-gome >! (bride)-groom\n(+r) /uːr/ > /oːr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ OE duru > door\n(often +f,d,t) /ʌ/ ?\n(occ. +f,d,t) /ʊ/ OE wudu > wood /wʊd/\nā; often a+wd,mb /ɔː/ oa,oCV /oː/ GA /ou/, RP /əu/ OE ā OE āc > oak; OE hāw > whowe\nOE +wd,mb OE camb > comb; OE awd (WS eawd) > owd; OE hawdan (WS heawdan) > to howd\n(+r) /oːr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ OE ār > oar, ore; OE māra > more; OE bār > boar; OE sār > sore\nǣ; ēa /ɛː/ ea,eCV /eː/ /iː/ OE ǣ OE hǣwan > to heaw /hiːw/; OE hǣtu > heat; OE hwǣte > wheat\nOE ēa OE bēatan > to beat /biːt/; OE wēaf > weaf; OE ċēap > cheap\n(+r) /iːr/ > GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ OE rǣran > to rear ; OE ēare > ear; OE sēar > sere; OE sēarian > to sear\n(occ.) /ei/ OE grēat > great /greit/\n(occ. +r) /eːr/ > GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ OE ǣr > ere (before)\n(often +f,d,t) /ɛ/ OE ǣ OE brǣþ odor > breaf; OE swǣtan > to sweat; OE -sprǣdan > to spread\nOE ēa OE dēad > dead /dɛd/; OE dēaþ deaf; OE þrēat menace > dreat; OE rēad > red; OE dēaf > deaf\nē; ēo; often e+wd /eː/ ee,ie(nd/wd) /iː/ /iː/ OE ē OE fēdan > to feed; OE grēdiġ (WS grǣdiġ) > greedy; OE mē > me; OE fēt > feet; OE dēd (WS dǣd) > deed; OE nēdw (WS nǣdw) > needwe\nOE ēo OE dēop deep; OE fēond > fiend; OE betwēonum > between; OE bēon > to be\nOE +wd OE fewd > fiewd; OE ġewdan (WS ġiewdan) to pay > to yiewd\n(often +r) /ɛːr/ ear,erV /eːr/ /iːr/ > GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ OE ē OE hēr > here; OE hēran (WS hīeran) > to hear; OE fēr (WS fǣr) > fear\nOE ēo OE dēore (WS dīere) > dear\n(occ.) /eːr/ > GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ OE þēr (WS þǣr) > dere; OE hwēr (WS hwǣr) > where\n(occ. +r) /eːr/ eer /iːr/ /iːr/ > GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ OE bēor > beer; OE dēor > deer; OE stēran (WS stīeran) > to steer; OE bēr (WS bǣr) > bier\nī; ȳ; often i+wd,mb,nd; often y+wd,mb,nd /iː/ i,iCV /əi/ /ai/ OE ī OE rīdan > to ride; OE tīma > time; OE hwīt > white; OE mīn > mine (of me)\nOE ȳ OE mȳs > mice; OE brȳd > bride; OE hȳdan > to hide\nOE +wd,mb,nd OE findan > to find; OE ċiwd > chiwd; OE cwimban > to cwimb; OE mynd > mind\n(+r) /air/ > GA /air/, RP /aiə/ OE fȳr > fire; OE hȳrian > to hire; OE wīr > wire\nō; occ. ēo /oː/ oo /u:/ /u:/ OE ō OE mōna > moon; OE sōna > soon; OE fōd > food /fuːd/; OE dōn > to do\nOE ēo OE cēosan > to choose; OE sċēotan > to shoot\n(+r) /uːr/ > /oːr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ OE fwōr > fwoor; OE mōr > moor\n(occ. +f,d,v) /ʌ/ OE bwōd > bwood /bwʌd/; OE mōdor > moder /mʌðə(r)/; OE gwōf > gwove /gwʌv/\n(often +f,d,t,k) /ʊ/ OE gōd > good /gʊd/; OE bōc > book /bʊk/; OE wōcian > to wook /wʊk/; OE fōt > foot /fʊt/\nū; often u+nd /uː/ ou /əu/ /au/ OE ū OE mūs > mouse; OE ūt, ūte > out; OE hwūd > woud\nOE +nd OE ġefunden > found; OE hund > hound; OE ġesund > sound (safe)\n(+r) /aur/ > GA /aur/, RP /auə/ OE OE ūre > our; OE sċūr > shower; OE sūr > sour\n(occ. +t) /ʌ/ OE būtan > but; OE strūtian > ME strouten > to strut\nThe Modern Engwish vowew usuawwy spewwed au (British /ɔː/, American /ɔ/ ~ /ɑ/) does not appear in de above chart. Its main source is wate Middwe Engwish /au̯/ < earwy /au̯/ and /ɔu/, which come from various sources: Owd Engwish aw and ag (cwaw < cwawu, waw < wagu); diphdongization before /h/ (sought < sōhte, taught < tāhte, daughter < dohtor); borrowings from Latin and French (fawn < Owd French faune, Pauw < Latin Pauwus). Oder sources are Earwy Modern Engwish wengdening of /a/ before /w/ (sawt, aww); occasionaw shortening and water re-wengdening of Middwe Engwish /ɔː/ (broad < /brɔːd/ < brād); and in American Engwish, wengdening of short o before unvoiced fricatives and voiced vewars (dog, wong, off, cross, mof, aww wif /ɔ/ in American Engwish, at weast in diawects dat stiww maintain de difference between /ɑ/ and /ɔ/).\nAs mentioned above, Modern Engwish is derived from de Middwe Engwish of London, which is derived wargewy from Angwian Owd Engwish, wif some admixture of West Saxon and Kentish. One of de most noticeabwe differences among de diawects is de handwing of originaw Owd Engwish /y/. By de time of de written Owd Engwish documents, de Owd Engwish of Kent had awready unrounded /y/ to /e/, and de wate Owd Engwish of Angwia unrounded /y/ to /i/. In de West Saxon area, /y/ remained as such weww into Middwe Engwish times and was written u in Middwe Engwish documents from de area. Some words wif de sound were borrowed into London Middwe Engwish, where de unfamiwiar /y/ was substituted wif /u/:\ngiwd < gywdan, did < dyde, sin < synn, mind < mynd, dizzy < dysiġ, wift < wyft etc. show de normaw (Angwian) devewopment;\nmuch < myċew shows de West Saxon devewopment;\nmerry < myriġ shows de Kentish devewopment;\nbury /ˈbɛri/ < byrġan has its spewwing from West Saxon but its pronunciation from Kentish;\nbusy /ˈbɪzi/ < bysiġ, buiwd < bywdan, buy < bycġan have deir spewwing from West Saxon but deir pronunciation from Angwian, uh-hah-hah-hah.\nSome apparent instances of modern e for Owd Engwish y are actuawwy reguwar devewopments, particuwarwy if de y is a devewopment of earwier (West Saxon) ie from i-mutation of ea, as de normaw i-mutation of ea in Angwian is e; for exampwe, stern < styrne < *starnijaz, steew < stȳwe < *stahwiją (cf. Owd Saxon stehwi). Awso, some apparent instances of modern u for Owd Engwish y may actuawwy be from de infwuence of a rewated form wif unmutated u: sundry < syndriġ, infwuenced by sundor "apart, differentwy" (compare to sunder and asunder).\nNote: V means "any vowew"; C means "any consonant"; # means "end of word".\nLate Owd Engwish (Angwian)\nEarwy Middwe Engwish\nLate Middwe Engwish\nEarwy Modern Engwish\nExampwe (Owd and Modern Engwish forms given)\næġ, ǣġ /ai/ /ai/ [æi] /eː/ /ei/ dæġ > day; mæġ > may; mæġden > maiden; næġw > naiw; fæġer > fair; cwǣġ > cway; grǣġ > gray\neġ, ēġ# /ɛi/ weġ > way; pweġan > to pway; reġn > rain; weġer > wair; weġde > waid; hēġ (WS hīeġ) > hay\nēġV /ei/ > /iː/ /iː/ /əi/ /ai/ ēage > ēġe > eye; wēogan > wēġan > to wie (deceive); fwēoge > fwēġe > fwy\niġ, īġ, yġ, ȳġ /iː/ tiġew > tiwe; wiġe > (I) wie ("recwine"); hīġian > to hie; ryġe > rye; byġe > (I) buy; drȳġe > dry\niġ# /ij/ /ij/ /i/ /i/ hefiġ > heavy; twēntiġ > twenty; hungriġ > hungry\næw, aw, agV /au/ /au/ /ɔː/ /ɔː/ cwawu > cwaw; wagu > waw; dragan > to draw\nǣw, ēaw, ew, eow /ɛu/ /ɛu/ /juː/ /(j)uː/ mǣw > mew; wǣwede > wewd; scrēawa > shrew; eowu > ewe\nēw, ēow /eu/ /iu/ ċēowan > to chew; hrēowan > to rue; bwēow > bwew; trēowþ > truf\niw, īw, yw, ȳw /iu/ hīw > hue; nīwe > new; trīewe (WS) > true; Tīwesdæġ > Tiwesdæġ > Tuesday\nāw, āgV, ow, ogV, ōw, ōgV /ɔu/ /ɔu/ /ou/ > /oː/ /əu/ (British), /ou/ (American) cnāwan > to know; crāwa > crow; snāw > snow; sāwow > souw; āgan > to owe; āgen > own; grōwan > to grow; bwōwen > bwown; boga > bow /bou/; fwogen > fwown\nugV, ūgV /uː/ /uː/ /əu/ /au/ fugow > foww; drugaþ > drouf > drought; būgan > to bow /bau/\næh, ah, ag# /auh/ /auh/ ([x] > ∅) /ɔː/ /ɔː/ swæht (WS sweaht) + -or > swaughter\n([x] > /f/) /af/ /æf/ hwæhtor > waughter\neh /ɛih/ /ɛih/ /ei/ > /eː/ /ei/ streht > straight\nēh /eih/ > /iːh/ /iːh/ /əi/ /ai/ hēah > hēh > high; þēoh > þēh > digh; nēh > nigh\nih, īh, yh, ȳh /iːh/ reht > riht > right; fwyht > fwight; wīoht > wīht > wight\nāh, āg#, oh, og# /ɔuh/ /ɔuh/ ([x] > ∅) /ou/ > /oː/ /əu/ (British), /ou/ (American) dāg > dāh > dough\n([x] > /f/) /ɔf/ /ɒf/ (British), /ɔːf/ (American) trog > trough\nāhC, ohC, ōhC /ɔuh/ /ɔuh/ /ɔː/ /ɔː/ āhte > ought; dohtor > daughter; þoht > dought; sōhte > sought\nōh#, ōg# /ouh/ > /uːh/ /uːh/ ([x] > ∅) /əu/ /au/ bōg > bough; pwōg > pwōh > pwough\n([x] > /f/) /ʊf/ (centrawized) /ʌf/ ġenōg, ġenōh > enough; tōh > tough; ruh > rough\nuh, ug#, ūh, ūg# /uːh/ (non-centrawized) /ʊf/ ?\n^ a b Britton, D., Degemination in Engwish, wif speciaw reference to de Middwe Engwish period, (in:) Anawysing Owder Engwish, CUP 2011, pp. 231 ff.\n^ a b Wewws, J.C., Accents of Engwish, CUP 1982, p. 190.\n^ "Annexe 4: Linguistic Variabwes". Arts.gwa.ac.uk. Retrieved 2015-02-21.\n^ Many exampwes from Fernand Mossé (1968), A Handbook of Middwe Engwish, tr. James Wawker, Bawtimore: Johns Hopkins Press, pp. 27–29.\nDobson, E.J. (1968). Engwish pronunciation, 1500–1700. 2. Oxford: Cwarendon Press. OCLC 310545793.\nRetrieved from "https://en, uh-hah-hah-hah.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titwe=Middwe_Engwish_phonowogy&owdid=889945621"\n!!POLECAM!: Reuben Woolhouse, Laura Robertson, Choi Mi-seon (gymnast), Mojca Mavrič, Manisha Anuragi,\nThis page was wast edited on 29 March 2019, at 00:28 (UTC).


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adj. Necessary Þá wæs him án hors þearf, ꝥ man him funde, Gr. D. 183, 2 (v. þearf; II 2). v. níd-, un-þearf.


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You searched for: Collection Penn in Hand: Selected Manuscripts Remove constraint Collection: Penn in Hand: Selected Manuscripts Type Manuscript Remove constraint Type: Manuscript Language (Devanāgarī) Remove constraint Language: (Devanāgarī) Personal Name Śaṅkarācārya. Remove constraint Personal Name: Śaṅkarācārya. Subject Manuscripts, Sanskrit Remove constraint Subject: Manuscripts, Sanskrit


'dæg-hwamlíce' - Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary\nadv. Daily; quotidie Ic dæghwamlíce mid eów wæs quotidie eram apud vos, Mk. Bos. 14, 49. Se bróðor dæghwamlíce wæs wyrse and wyrse the brother was daily worse and worse, Bd. 4, 32; S. 611, 24.\nBosworth, Joseph. "dæg-hwamlíce." An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph Bosworth. Ed. Thomas Northcote Toller. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1898. 193.\ndæg-hwámlíce every day. AddHé dæghwámlíce wæs blótende diófolgildum, Ors. 6, 37; S. 296, 13: Bl. H. 127, 14. Wé him gyldað singallíce, and hý ús hýnað dæghwámlíce, Wlfst. 163, 11: 156, 12: Gen. 41, 56. Dæghwámlíce (-hwom-, v. l. ) ðæs mónan leóht byð weaxende, Lch. iii. 242, 6. Ǽne ðrowade Críst ðurh hine sylfne, ac dæghwomlíce bið his þrowung geedníwod þurh gerýnu þæs húsles,\ndæg-hwámlíce Cf. geár-hwámlíce; dœ́ghwǽmlic.


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Eosinophilic esophagitis symptoms, treatments & forums | PatientsLikeMe\nEosinophilic esophagitis is an allergic inflammatory disorder that presents with dysphagia (difficulty swallowing) and food impaction and is characterized by eosinophils (a type of white blood cell) of the esophagus.\nCommon symptoms reported by people with eosinophilic esophagitis\n22 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report severe fatigue (33%)\n21 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report moderate fatigue (32%)\n13 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report mild fatigue (20%)\n9 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report no fatigue (13%)\nAdalimumab Balanced diet Motorized scooter/chair\n17 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report severe pain (26%)\n18 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report moderate pain (28%)\n13 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report mild pain (20%)\n16 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report no pain (25%)\nNaproxen Cyclobenzaprine Tramadol\n4 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report severe stress (22%)\n9 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report moderate stress (50%)\n5 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report mild stress (27%)\n0 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report no stress (0%)\n7 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report severe depressed mood (11%)\n14 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report moderate depressed mood (22%)\n22 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report mild depressed mood (34%)\n20 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report no depressed mood (31%)\nSertraline Ameridin Rosavin Aripiprazole\n6 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report severe anxious mood (9%)\n13 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report moderate anxious mood (20%)\n29 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report mild anxious mood (46%)\n14 eosinophilic esophagitis patients report no anxious mood (22%)\nHydroxyzine Alprazolam Aripiprazole\nTreatments taken by people for eosinophilic esophagitis\n2 patients have reported taking this treatment within the past 5 years\nData from patients with eosinophilic esophagitis, who have ever reported treatments, ordered by their reporting frequency during the last 5 years.\nCompare treatments taken by people with eosinophilic esophagitis\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report major effectiveness of Montelukast for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n1 evaluation from a eosinophilic esophagitis patient reports moderate effectiveness of Montelukast for eosinophilic esophagitis (50%)\n1 evaluation from a eosinophilic esophagitis patient reports slight effectiveness of Montelukast for eosinophilic esophagitis (50%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report none effectiveness of Montelukast for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report that they could not tell effectiveness of Montelukast for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\nfor eosinophilic esophagitis (2 evaluations)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report severe overall side effects for Montelukast (0%)\n1 evaluation from a eosinophilic esophagitis patient reports moderate overall side effects for Montelukast (50%)\n1 evaluation from a eosinophilic esophagitis patient reports mild overall side effects for Montelukast (50%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report no overall side effects for Montelukast (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report major effectiveness of Budesonide for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n3 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report moderate effectiveness of Budesonide for eosinophilic esophagitis (100%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report slight effectiveness of Budesonide for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report none effectiveness of Budesonide for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report that they could not tell effectiveness of Budesonide for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\nfor eosinophilic esophagitis (3 evaluations)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report severe overall side effects for Budesonide (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report moderate overall side effects for Budesonide (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report mild overall side effects for Budesonide (0%)\n3 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report no overall side effects for Budesonide (100%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report major effectiveness of Fluticasone for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n1 evaluation from a eosinophilic esophagitis patient reports moderate effectiveness of Fluticasone for eosinophilic esophagitis (50%)\n1 evaluation from a eosinophilic esophagitis patient reports slight effectiveness of Fluticasone for eosinophilic esophagitis (50%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report none effectiveness of Fluticasone for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report that they could not tell effectiveness of Fluticasone for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report severe overall side effects for Fluticasone (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report moderate overall side effects for Fluticasone (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report mild overall side effects for Fluticasone (0%)\n2 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report no overall side effects for Fluticasone (100%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report major effectiveness of Loratadine for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report moderate effectiveness of Loratadine for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n1 evaluation from a eosinophilic esophagitis patient reports slight effectiveness of Loratadine for eosinophilic esophagitis (50%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report none effectiveness of Loratadine for eosinophilic esophagitis (0%)\n1 evaluation from a eosinophilic esophagitis patient reports that they could not tell effectiveness of Loratadine for eosinophilic esophagitis (50%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report severe overall side effects for Loratadine (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report moderate overall side effects for Loratadine (0%)\n0 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report mild overall side effects for Loratadine (0%)\n2 evaluations from eosinophilic esophagitis patients report no overall side effects for Loratadine (100%)\nWho has eosinophilic esophagitis on PatientsLikeMe?\n95 say eosinophilic esophagitis is their primary condition\nThese charts show data from eosinophilic esophagitis patients who have completed their condition history\nTalk to people with eosinophilic 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'for-hylman' - Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary\np. de; pp. ed To cover over, conceal; obdūcĕre, occŭlĕre Ne dorste forhylman Hǽlendes bebod he dared not conceal the Saviour's command, Andr. Kmbl. 1469; An. 736.\nBosworth, Joseph. "for-hylman." An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph Bosworth. Ed. Thomas Northcote Toller. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1898. 313.\nfor-hylman Substitute: To cover up, leave unperformed, neglect Cwæð Dryhten: 'Ic bebeóde . . . þæt þeós onlícnes eorðan séce' . . . Ne dorste þá forhylman Hǽlendes bebod wundor fore weorodum, ac of wealle áhleóp fyrngeweorc, An. 736. v. ofer-hylmend, and cf. for-gǽgan.


'blǽc-ern' - Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary\nes; n. [blǽc light, ærn a place] Literally a lamp or candlestick, also the light itself; verbum de verbo, candelabrum, etiam candela, lucerna Bæd ðæt hí ðæt blǽcern acwencton prayed that they would put out the light [lucernam], Bd. 4, 8; S. 575, 40, note, MS. B. Ne menn blǽcern in beornaþ men do not light a candle [lucernam], Mt. Kmbl. Rush. 5, 15. Blǽcern fótum mínum lucerna pedibus meis, Ps. Th. 118, 105. v. blác-ern.\nBosworth, Joseph. "blǽc-ern." An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph Bosworth. Ed. Thomas Northcote Toller. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1898. 107.\nblǽc-ern Add: — Blácern lucerna, Wrt. Voc. i. 284, 25: ii. 51, 74. Blǽcern ǽlan, Past. 43, 2. Þǽra eágan scínað nihtes swá leóhte swá blǽcern (lucernae), Nar. 34, 14. Blǽcernum lichinis, Wrt. Voc. ii. 51, 75.


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'ǽht-spéd' - Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary\ne; f. Wealth, riches Gefylled is eorðe ǽhtspœ́de mid ðínre impleta est terra possessione tua, Ps. L. 103, 24.\nToller, T. Northcote, and Joseph Bosworth. "ǽht-spéd." An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph Bosworth : Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921. 14.


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AddBifgedon fremebant, Mk. L. 14, 5. Wæs se munt bifigende mid ormǽtre cwacunge, Hml. Th. i. 504, 28. Biuende treme*-*bundus, pavidus, An. Ox. 2994. Se bifigenda dóm the tremendous judgement. Wlfst. 227, 14: 228, 31: Bl. H. 57, 20. Fryhtendo ł bib*-*giende trementes, Rtl. 122, 16.\nToller, T. Northcote, and Joseph Bosworth. "bifian." An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph Bosworth : Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921. 9.\nBIFIAN bifigan, byfian, beofian; p. ode; pp. od To tremble, shake, be moved; tremere, contremere, commoveri Drihten besihþ eorþan and déþ hýg bifian Dominus respicit terram et facit eam tremere, Ps. Lamb. 103, 32 : Rood Kmbl. 72; Kr. 36. He, bifiende, feóll to Iohannes fótum he, trembling, fell at John's feet, Ælfc. T. 37, 10 : Cd. 92; Th. 118, 25; Gen. 1970. Ic bifige tremo,