Full text of Employment Problems of Older Workers : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1721 | Title | FRASER | St. Louis Fed\nFull text of Employment Problems of Older Workers : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1721\nBU LLETIN 1721\nNovem ber 29,1971\nWashington, D .C . 20402 - Price 50 cents\nT h is b u lle tin w a s p r e p a r e d f o r d is tr ib u tio n a t th e\nW h ite H o u se C o n fe re n c e on A g in g , N o v e m b e r 29 to D e \nc e m b e r 3, 1971, in W a s h in g to n , D. C.\nT h e b u lle tin w a s\np r e p a r e d in th e O ffic e of E c o n o m ic T r e n d s a n d L a b o r\nC o n d itio n s ,; O ffic e of D a ta A n a ly s is , B u r e a u of L a b o r\nS t a t i s t i c s , U. S. D e p a r tm e n t of L a b o r 0\nR o b e r t L . S te in a n d J a n ic e N e ip e r t H e d g e s h a d m a jo r\nr e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r its p r e p a r a t i o n . D o n a ld M . L a n d a y an d\nA rn o ld S t r a s s e r , O ffic e o f W ag es an d I n d u s t r i a l R e la tio n s ,\nc o n tr ib u te d th e c h a p te r on P e n s io n P la n s a n d R e t ir e m e n t\nB e n e f its . T h e c h a p te r on D e p a r tm e n t of L a b o r M a n p o w e r\nP r o g r a m s a n d S e r v ic e s w a s p r e p a r e d in th e M a n p o w e r A d \nm in i s t r a t i o n , U. S. D e p a r tm e n t of L a b o r , b y A lb e r t M ap o u\na n d F r e d A. K a h n .\nM a r ia n L . H e s t e r , C a r o l M iln e r ,\nan d M a r y E lle n T a l b e r t a ls o a s s i s t e d in th e p r e p a r a t i o n\nof th e r e p o r t .\nC h a p te r s :\n1. I n t r o d u c t i o n ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. L a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n -----------------------------------------------------------------O ld e r m e n in th e la b o r f o r c e -------------------------------------------------------O ld e r w o m e n in th e la b o r f o r c e --------------------------------------------------F u tu r e g ro w th o f th e la b o r f o r c e -------------------------------------------------3. U n e m p lo y m e n t ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------4 . W o rk e x p e r i e n c e --------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. M o b ility --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6. In c o m e an d e a r n i n g s -------------------------------------------------------------------------7. P e n s io n p la n s a n d r e t i r e m e n t b e n e f i t s --------------------------------------------8. J o b p e r f o r m a n c e a n d tr a in in g p o t e n t i a l -------------------------------------------9. J o b d is c r i m i n a t i o n ---------------------------------------------------------------------------10. E d u c a t i o n -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11. D e p a r tm e n t of la b o r m a n p o w e r p r o g r a m s a n d s e r v i c e s -----------------T a b le s :\nA. E x p e c ta tio n s of y e a r s of lif e , w o r k lif e , an d r e t i r e m e n t f o r\nm e n in th e la b o r f o r c e a t s e le c te d a g e s an d y e a r s ----------------------B . S e le c te d m e a s u r e s of u n e m p lo y m e n t, b y a g e a n d s e x , 1 9 7 0 ----------C. P e r c e n t o f p e r s o n s w ith w o rk e x p e r ie n c e in I9 6 0 , 1965 a n d\n1970, w ho w o rk e d y e a r ro u n d fu ll tim e , b y a g e a n d s e x ------------D. P e r c e n t of p e r s o n s a t w o rk in n o n a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d u s t r i e s b y\np a r t - t i m e s t a t u s , a g e a n d s e x , a n n u a l a v e r a g e , 1970 ----------------E . O c c u p a tio n a l m o b ility r a t e s b e tw e e n J a n u a r y 1965 an d\nJ a n u a r y 1966 of e m p lo y e d p e r s o n s , b y a g e , s e x , a n d c o lo r ,\nJ a n u a r y 1 9 6 6 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------F . P e r c e n t o f e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s w ho m o v e d to a d if f e r e n t c o u n ty\nin th e U. S. b y a g e a n d s e x , M a r c h 1 9 6 9 - M a r c h 1 9 7 0 -----------------G . In d e x of m e d ia n e a r n in g s of s e le c te d o c c u p a tio n a l g r o u p s ,\n1969 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------H. L a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s of th e p o p u la tio n , b y a g e an d\ns e x , a n d y e a r s of s c h o o l c o m p le te d , M a r c h 1 9 7 0 -----------------------J . F i r s t - t i m e e n r o l l e e s in m a n p o w e r p r o g r a m s , b y a g e g ro u p ,\nf i s c a l y e a r 1 9 7 0 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------\nA p p e n d ix T a b le s :\nL a b o r fo rc e p a rtic ip a tio n\nT o ta l la b o r f o r c e (in c lu d in g A rm e d F o r c e s ) a n d la b o r f o r c e\np a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s , b y a g e a n d s e x : A n n u a l a v e r a g e s , 1950,\nI9 6 0 , 1970, 1971 ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 31\nC iv ilia n la b o r f o r c e a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s , b y a g e a n d s e x :\nA n n u al a v e r a g e s , 1950, I9 6 0 , 1970, a n d 1971 ------------------------ 31\nC o n te n ts------ C ontinued\nA p p e n d ix T a b le s — C o n tin u e d\nL a b o r f o r c e p a r tic ip a tio n - — C o n tin u e d\nC iv ilia n la b o r f o r c e a n d p a r t ic ip a tio n r a t e s , b y a g e , s e x , and\nc o lo r : A n n u al a v e r a g e s , 1954, I9 6 0 , 1970, an d 1 9 7 1 ------------- 32\nA -4 . T o ta l p o p u la tio n and to ta l la b o r f o r c e b y a g e a n d s e x :\nA c tu a l I9 6 0 an d 1970 an d p r o je c te d , 1 9 8 0 -------------------------------- 33\nA -5 . E m p lo y e d p e r s o n s , b y a g e a n d s e x : A n n u al a v e r a g e s , 1950,\nI9 6 0 , 1970, a n d 1 9 7 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------ 34\nA -6 . E m p lo y e d p e r s o n s , by a g e , s e x , an d c o lo r : A n n u al a v e r a g e s ,\n1954, I9 6 0 , 1970, an d 1971 ------------------------------------------------------- 34\nA -7 . P e r s o n s n o t in th e la b o r f o r c e , b y a g e a n d s e x : A n n u al\na v e r a g e s , 1950, I9 6 0 , 1970, an d 1 9 7 1 ------------------------------------- 35\nA -8 . P e r s o n s n o t in th e la b o r f o r c e , b y a g e , s e x , a n d c o lo r :\nA n n u al a v e r a g e s , 1954, I9 6 0 , 1970 an d 1971 -------------.------------- 35\nU n e m p lo y e d p e r s o n s a n d u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e s , b y a g e an d se x :\nA n n u al a v e r a g e s , 1950, I9 6 0 , 1970, a n d 1 9 7 1 ------------------------- 36\nU n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e s , by a g e , s e x , an d c o lo r : A n n u al\na v e r a g e , 1950, I9 6 0 , 1970, a n d 1971 --------------------------------------- 36\nL o n g - te r m u n e m p lo y m e n t c o m p a r e d w ith to ta l u n e m p lo y m e n t,\nb y a g e a n d s e x : A n n u al a v e r a g e s , I9 6 0 , 1965, 1970, an d\n1971 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37\nW o rk e x p e r ie n c e\nP e r s o n s w ith w o rk e x p e r ie n c e in 1965 an d 1970 w ho w e r e in\nth e la b o r f o r c e 50 to 52 w e e k s , b y a g e , s e x , c o lo r , a n d\nm a r i t a l s ta t u s ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37\nC -2 , M a jo r r e a s o n f o r p a r t - y e a r w o rk in 1965 an d 1970 b y c o lo r :\nP a r t - y e a r w o r k e r s , b y a g e an d s e x ----------------------------------------- 38\nC -3 . N o n a g r ic u ltu r a l w o r k e r s on p a r t tim e , b y a g e a n d s e x :\nA n n u al a v e r a g e s , I9 6 0 , 1970 an d 1 9 7 1 --------------------------------------- 38\nC -4 . R e a s o n s f o r n o t w o rk in g : P e r s o n s w ith no w o rk e x p e r ie n c e\nin I9 6 0 , b y a g e an d s e x a n d in 1965 an d 1970 b y a g e , s e x ,\nan d c o l o r --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39\nO c c u p a tio n a l m o b ility r a t e s b y o c c u p a tio n : A ge a n d s e x ,\nJ a n u a r y 1 9 6 6 -------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- 40\nD -2 . A ge: E m p lo y m e n t s ta tu s in J a n u a r y 1965 of a l l p e r s o n s 35\ny e a r s a n d o v e r e m p lo y e d in J a n u a r y 1966, b y s e x a n d c o l o r — 40\nD -3 . A ge: T e n u r e on c u r r e n t jo b , b y s e x , J a n u a r y 1 9 6 8 ------------------ 41\nD - 4 # O c c u p a tio n of w o r k e r s in s e le c te d a g e g r o u p s : T e n u re on\nc u r r e n t jo b , b y s e x , J a n u a r y 1968 -------------------------------------------- 42\nIn c o m e a n d e a r n in g s\nM e d ia n w e e k ly e a r n in g s o f w a g e a n d s a l a r y w o r k e r s on f u l l \ntim e s c h e d u le s , b y a g e , s e x a n d c o lo r , M ay 1 9 7 1 ------------------- 43\nM e d ia n y e a r s of s c h o o l c o m p le te d b y th e c iv ilia n la b o r f o r c e\n18 y e a r s a n d o v e r , b y s e x a n d a g e , s e le c te d d a te s , 1 9 5 2 7 0 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43\nF - 2 . L a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e of th e p o p u la tio n by, a g e , s e x ,\na n d y e a r s of s c h o o l c o m p le te d , M a r c h 1959, 1965 a n d 1 9 7 0 — 44\nF -3 . E d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t of th e c iv ilia n la b o r f o r c e 25 y e a r s\na n d o v e r , b y a g e a n d c o lo r , M a r c h 1970 --------------------------------- 45\nF -4 . O c c u p a tio n a l d i s tr ib u tio n o f e m p lo y e d p e r s o n s 35 y e a r s a n d\no v e r : A n n u al a v e r a g e s , 1970 ------------------------------------------------- 45\nF - 5 . U n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e s , b y a g e , s e x , a n d y e a r s o f s c h o o l\nc o m p le te d , M a r c h 1962, 1965 a n d 1 9 7 0 ----------------------------------- 46\nC h a pte r 1. Introduction\nT h e p o s itio n of th e o ld e r w o r k e r 1 in th e la b o r m a r k e t o f th e 1 9 7 0 ’s\nin c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s tr e n g th s a s w e ll a s w e a k n e s s e s .\nA long w ith o th e r\nw o r k e r s h e h a s s h a r e d in th e b e n e f its of r is in g p r o d u c tiv ity an d e c o n o m ic\ng ro w th a n d now e n jo y s a h ig h e r le v e l of in c o m e a n d lo n g e r p e r io d s o f l e i s u r e\nth a n e v e r b e f o r e . H o w e v e r, o n ce o ld e r w o r k e r s h a v e a b r e a k i n e m p lo y m e n t\nth e y h a v e m o r e s e r i o u s p r o b le m s in fin d in g a n o th e r jo b th a n y o u n g e r w o r k e r s .\nA c tu a lly , th e o ld e r w o r k e r g e n e r a lly is in a good p o s itio n to r e t a i n\nh is p la c e in th e la b o r m a r k e t .\nH e h a s th e a d v a n ta g e of e x p e r ie n c e w h ic h\nis r e g a r d e d a s a n a s s e t b y m a n y e m p lo y e r s .\nH e is u n lik e ly to in itia te a\nv o lu n ta r y jo b s h if t o r r e s i d e n t i a l c h a n g e .\nH e h a s th e p r o te c tio n of s e n i o r \nity a n d , in s o m e i n d u s t r i e s , c o n tr a c tu a l a r r a n g e m e n t s w h ic h g u a r a n te e th e\nc o n tin u ity o f h is s p e c if ic w o rk a c ti v ity u n til h e r e t i r e s .\nW hen h e d o e s\nr e a c h th e a g e of r e t i r e m e n t , h e p r o b a b ly w ill b e b e t t e r off th a n an y p r e \nv io u s g e n e r a tio n of r e t i r e d w o r k e r s .\nH is s o c ia l s e c u r i t y b e n e f its w ill b e\nh ig h e r , h is o p p o r tu n itie s f o r p a r t - t i m e o r i n t e r m i t t e n t w o rk w ill b e\ng r e a t e r , an d h e w ill b e r e t i r i n g a f t e r h a v in g e a r n e d m o r e d u rin g h is\nw o rk in g life th a n d id p r e v io u s g ro u p s of r e t i r e e s .\nA lth o u g h h is e a r n in g s\ng e n e r a lly a r e s o m e w h a t lo w e r th a n th o s e o f w o r k e r s a g e d 3 5 -4 4 , h is\nf a m ily r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in m o s t c a s e s a ls o a r e l e s s .\nF o r a s iz a b le m in o r ity of w o r k e r s , h o w e v e r, th is r o s y p i c t u r e d o e s\nn o t r e f l e c t th e f a c ts a c c u r a te ly .\nO ld e r w o r k e r s do lo s e t h e i r jo b s f r o m\ntim e to tim e .\nE x p e r ie n c e an d s e n i o r i t y a r e no a b s o lu te g u a r a n te e s of\nim m u n ity f r o m u n e m p lo y m e n t.\nE v e n in a p e r io d of u n u s u a lly tig h t jo b\nm a r k e t s , s u c h a s 1 9 6 8 -6 9 , 8 o u t o f e v e r y 100 w o r k e r s p a s t 45 y e a r s of\na g e h a d a t l e a s t one s p e ll of u n e m p lo y m e n t.\nO n ce a n o ld e r w o r k e r lo s e s h is jo b , p r o s p e c t s f o r r e - e m p lo y m e n t\na r e d im m e r th a n f o r y o u n g e r w o r k e r s .\nO ld e r w o r k e r s s t i l l f a c e d i s c r i m \nin a tio n in h ir i n g .\nIn a d d itio n , t h e i r lo w e r a v e r a g e le v e l of e d u c a tio n a l\na tta in m e n t, an d in s o m e c a s e s o b s o le s c e n c e of s k i l l s , m a k e i t m o r e d if \nf ic u lt f o r th e m to c o m p e te w ith y o u n g e r w o r k e r s .\nM an y of th o s e w ho do\nb e c o m e r e - e m p lo y e d fin d i t n e c e s s a r y to a c c e p t a lo w e r w a g e th a n th e y\nr e c e iv e d on t h e i r p r e v io u s jo b .\nT h e d iff ic u lty o f le a r n in g n ew s k ills o r\nof r e lo c a tin g in a n ew c o m m u n ity a d d to th e p r o b le m of r e - e m p lo y m e n t.\nF o r s o m e o ld e r w o r k e r s , e a r l y r e t i r e m e n t b e c k o n s a s a re fu g e f r o m th e\nb u r d e n s of fa ilin g h e a lth an d u n s u c c e s s f u l jo b s e e k in g , e v e n th o u g h th e y\nm u s t a c c e p t a p e r m a n e n t re d u c tio n in b e n e f it le v e l s .\nT h e r e p o r t th a t fo llo w s a tte m p ts to p r e s e n t a b a la n c e d p i c t u r e of th e\np o s itiv e a n d n e g a tiv e a s p e c ts of th e o ld e r w o r k e r 's p o s itio n in th e la b o r\nm a r k e t a s i t is r e f l e c t e d in th e l a t e s t a v a ila b le d a ta , u s u a lly 1970 o r 1971\n(9 -m o n th a v e r a g e ) . 2 M o s t of th e ta b le s p r o v id e c o m p a r a tiv e d a ta f o r\ne a r lie r p e rio d s .\nA m ong th e m o r e im p o r ta n t s t a t i s t i c a l fin d in g s m a n i\nf e s te d in th e d a ta , th e fo llo w in g m e r i t h ig h lig h tin g —\nT h e la b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s of o ld e r m e n a r e c o n tin u in g\nto d e c lin e , w h ile th o s e o f o ld e r w o m e n c o n tin u e u p w a rd .\nb a la n c e , th e n u m b e r of w o r k e r s o v e r 45 y e a r s of a g e w ill c o n \ntin u e to g ro w in th e 1 9 7 0 's , b u t a t a m u c h s lo w e r r a t e th a n\np r e v io u s ly .\nO p p o r tu n itie s f o r p a r t - t i m e a n d p a r t - y e a r e m p lo y m e n t h a v e g ro w n\ns u b s ta n tia lly .\nO nly a s m a l l p r o p o r tio n o f o ld e r w o r k e r s w o rk\np a r t - t i m e in v o lu n ta r ily , b e c a u s e of s la c k b u s in e s s c o n d itio n s ; a\nm u c h l a r g e r p r o p o r tio n w o rk p a r t tim e b e c a u s e o f p o o r h e a lth\no r p a r t i a l d is a b i lity , o r f o r p e r s o n a l r e a s o n s .\nU n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e s of o ld e r w o r k e r s c o n tin u e to b e lo w e r th a n\nf o r y o u n g e r w o r k e r s , a lth o u g h b o th h a v e r i s e n s in c e la te 1969.\nA m ong th o s e w ho do lo s e t h e i r jo b s , th e a v e r a g e d u r a tio n of\nu n e m p lo y m e n t is s ig n if ic a n tly lo n g e r f o r o ld e r w o r k e r s .\nO ld e r w o r k e r s a r e l e s s lik e ly th a n y o u n g e r w o r k e r s to c h a n g e\nf r o m o n e e m p lo y e r to a n o th e r , f r o m o n e o c c u p a tio n to a n o th e r ,\no r f r o m o n e lo c a tio n to a n o th e r .\nH o w e v e r, a s iz a b le m in o r ity\no f o ld e r w o r k e r s (12 p e r c e n t) do c h a n g e t h e i r la b o r m a r k e t s i t \nu a tio n in s o m e r e s p e c t o v e r th e c o u r s e o f a y e a r .\nO ld e r w o r k e r s h a v e l e s s a b s e n te e is m , h a v e g e n e r a lly h ig h r a t e s\nof p r o d u c tio n , a n d b y m o s t o th e r in d e x e s sh o w th e m s e lv e s to b e\nu s e f u l, r e l i a b l e , a n d p r o d u c tiv e w o r k e r s .\nT h e e a r n in g s of f a m ily h e a d s g e n e r a lly a r e l e s s f o r th o s e o v e r\n45 y e a r s of a g e th a n f o r th o s e a g e d 3 5 -4 4 y e a r s .\nf a m ily n e e d s of o ld e r w o r k e r s a ls o a r e l e s s .\nW o r k e r s in th e\n4 5 -5 4 y e a r a g e b r a c k e t a r e b e t t e r off in r e la tio n to b u d g e ta r y\nr e q u i r e m e n t s th a n a r e y o u n g e r w o r k e r s .\nOn th e a v e r a g e , o ld e r w o r k e r s a r e n o t a s w e ll e d u c a te d a s th e\ny o u n g e r g e n e r a tio n .\nL a r g e ly f o r th is r e a s o n , a s o m e w h a t\ns m a l l e r p r o p o r tio n o f w o r k e r s p a s t 45 a r e in p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d\no th e r h ig h ly s k ille d jo b s .\nH o w e v e r, th e e d u c a tio n a l g a p b e tw e e n\nth e a g e g ro u p s h a s b e e n n a r r o w in g a n d i s l e s s th a n i t w a s 10\ny e a rs ago.\nO v e r h a lf a m illio n w o r k e r s 45 y e a r s o r o ld e r in d ic a te d th a t\nth e y h a d e x p e r ie n c e d d is c r i m i n a t i o n on th e jo b in 1969.\nP u b lic a n d p r i v a t e p e n s io n p a y m e n ts e v e n in c o m b in a tio n do n o t u s \nu a lly e n a b le r e t i r e d w o r k e r s to m a in ta in th e s ta n d a r d of liv in g th e y\nd e s i r e . M o r e o v e r , a m a j o r i t y o f w o r k e r s in th e p r i v a t e e c o n o m y\ndo n o t q u a lify f o r a p r i v a t e p la n b e n e f it. B e c a u s e o f th e le v e l of r e \nt i r e m e n t b e n e f its a n d a ls o b e c a u s e w o rk o fte n f u lf ills a n e e d f o r a\np u r p o s e in lif e , m a n y o ld e r p e r s o n s w o rk p a r t - t i m e o r p a r t y e a r .\n1 A lth o u g h a g e 65 is c o n s id e r e d th e b e g in n in g of o ld a g e f o r m a n y\np u r p o s e s , th e o ld e r w o r k e r g e n e r a lly is d e fin e d a s th o s e w o r k e r s a g e d\n45 o r o ld e r .\nT h e r a tio n a le in th is c a s e f o r a d iv id in g lin e o f 45 y e a r s\nis th a t c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l d a ta sh o w a t th is a g e th e o n s e t of a n i n c r e a s e in\nw ith d r a w a ls o f m e n f r o m th e la b o r f o r c e , a n i n c r e a s e in th e p r e v a le n c e\no f p a r t - t i m e a n d p a r t - y e a r w o r k e r s , a d e c lin e in a n n u a l a n d w e e k ly e a r n \nin g s , a n d a le n g th e n in g o f th e d u r a tio n of u n e m p lo y m e n t— a l l f a c t o r s th a t\ni n c r e a s e in s u b s e q u e n tly o ld e r a g e g r o u p s .\n2 F o r in f o r m a tio n on te c h n o lo g ic a l d is p la c e m e n t a n d w o r k e r p r o \nd u c tiv ity , i t w a s n e c e s s a r y to d ra w on s tu d ie s c o n d u c te d in th e e a r l y\nI9 6 0 's .\nC h a p te r 2. L a b o r F o rce Participation\nT h e p o p u la tio n 45 y e a r s of a g e a n d o ld e r n u m b e r e d a b o u t 62. 1 m i l \nlio n in 1970.\nOf th is to ta l a b o u t 3 1 .5 m illio n , o r o v e r h a lf, w e r e in th e\nla b o r f o r c e .\nT h e s e o ld e r w o r k e r s m a d e up a b o u t 37 p e r c e n t o f th e la b o r\nfo rce .\nB y 1980, th e p o p u la tio n 45 y e a r s of a g e an d o ld e r w ill i n c r e a s e to\na b o u t 66. 2 m illio n .\nS o m e w h a t l e s s th a n h a lf, o r a b o u t 32. 6 m illio n a r e\ne x p e c te d to b e in th e l a b o r f o r c e in th a t y e a r .\nT h e y w ill a c c o u n t f o r\na b o u t 32 p e r c e n t of th e la b o r f o r c e .\nT h e e x p e c te d i n c r e a s e of 1 m illio n o ld e r w o r k e r s d u rin g th e 1 9 7 0 's\nc o m p a r e s w ith a n i n c r e a s e of 4 m illio n d u rin g th e 1 9 6 0 's .\nT h e d e c lin e\nin th e g ro w th o f th e o ld e r w o r k e r g ro u p is d u e to f a c t o r s th a t in c lu d e a\ns m a l l e r i n c r e a s e in th e o ld e r p o p u la tio n an d a c o n tin u e d d e c lin e in th e\nla b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s of p e r s o n s 65 y e a r s of a g e a n d o v e r .\nT he d is c u s s io n th a t fo llo w s s u m m a r iz e s p a t t e r n s an d tr e n d s in th e\nla b o r f o r c e p a r tic ip a tio n of o ld e r w o r k e r s .\nO ld e r m e n in th e la b o r f o r c e\nV ir tu a lly a ll m e n in t h e i r la te tw e n tie s , t h i r t i e s , a n d f o r t i e s w o rk\no r lo o k f o r w o rk .\nB y a g e 5 5 -5 9 , h o w e v e r, 11 o u t of 100 m e n a r e no\nlo n g e r in th e la b o r f o r c e a n d b y a g e 6 0 -6 4 , 28 o u t of 100 h a v e d ro p p e d\nB e tw e e n a g e s 64 an d 65, th e p r o p o r tio n o f m e n n o t in th e la b o r\nf o r c e r i s e s r a p id ly , f r o m 36 to 50.\nT h e r i s e r e f l e c t s th e w id e s p r e a d\ne lig ib ility of w o r k e r s a t a g e 65 f o r r e t i r e m e n t u n d e r p r i v a t e a n d p u b lic\np e n s io n p la n s .\nM an y m e n w ho le a v e th e la b o r f o r c e a t a g e 55, o r e v e n 6 5 , w o u ld\np r e f e r to c o n tin u e w o rk in g .\nA s u r v e y in e a r l y 1 9 6 7 1 of m e n n o t in th e\nla b o r f o r c e sh o w e d th a t t h r e e - f i f t h s o f th e 1 .3 m illio n w ho w e r e 5 5 -6 4\ny e a r s o ld w ith d re w f r o m th e la b o r f o r c e b e c a u s e th e y w e r e s ic k o r d i s \na b le d .\nT h is r e a s o n w a s g iv e n b y a l e s s e r p r o p o r tio n o f w h ite m e n th a n\nb y m e n of o th e r r a c e s ; th is d if f e r e n c e is a r e f le c tio n of th e h ig h e r i n \nc id e n c e of p o o r h e a lth an d d is a b i lity a m o n g m in o r ity r a c e s .\nV e ry few of\nth e s ic k o r d is a b le d m e n r e p o r t e d th a t th e y w o u ld b e a b le to o r p la n n e d\nto w o rk w ith in a y e a r .\nF o r m a n y of th e m in a b ility to w o rk w a s of long\nd u r a tio n .\nR e t ir e m e n t w a s th e s e c o n d m o s t im p o r ta n t r e a s o n m e n 55 to 64\ny e a r s old w e r e n o t in th e la b o r f o r c e ; a lm o s t o n e - f if th g a v e th is r e a \nso n . 2 T h e r e m a in in g fif th w e r e n o t in th e la b o r f o r c e f o r s u c h r e a \ns o n s a s t e m p o r a r y w ith d r a w a l, f a m ily r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , o r p e r s o n a l\nre a so n s.\nW hen a w o r k e r le a v e s th e w o r k f o r c e a t a g e 55, th e e c o n o m ic lo s s\nto th e n a tio n an d to th e in d iv id u a l is s u b s ta n tia l.\nM en of 55 h a v e on th e\na v e r a g e 11 y e a r s of w o rk a h e a d of th e m , o r n e a r l y o n e - f o u r th of th e\ne n tir e w o rk lif e e x p e c ta n c y f o r m e n a t a g e 16. 3 (See ta b le A. )\nExpectations of years of life, worklife, and retirement for men in the labor force\nat selected ages and years\nLife e x p ec ten cy\nExpectation lo f w ork life\nE xpectation o f retirem ent\nyears — — -----years ----------------y e a r s ----------------y e a r s ----------------y e a r s ----------------y e a r s ----------------y e a r s -----------------\nL a b o r f o r c e p a r tic ip a tio n r a t e s of m e n a g e d 55 a n d o v e r h a v e d e c lin e d\nin r e c e n t y e a r s .\nT h e r a t e f o r m e n a g e d 5 5 -6 4 d e c lin e d f r o m 87 to 83\np e r c e n t f r o m 1950 to 1970, w h ile th e r a t e f o r th o s e a g e d 65 an d o v e r d e \nc lin e d f r o m 46 to 27 p e r c e n t.\nO ld e r w o m e n in th e la b o r f o r c e\nA m a r k e d i n c r e a s e in o ld e r w o m e n w o r k e r s h a s b e e n o n e o f th e\nm o s t n o ta b le la b o r f o r c e d e v e lo p m e n ts o f th e p o s t- W o r ld W a r II p e r io d .\nT h e n u m b e r of w o m e n w o r k e r s 45 y e a r s o f a g e an d o v e r m o r e th a n d o u b le d\nb e tw e e n 1947 an d 1970.\nW om en a c c o u n te d f o r a b o u t 30 p e r c e n t of th e\nto ta l i n c r e a s e in th e c iv ilia n l a b o r f o r c e d u rin g th is p e r io d .\nThe p r o p o r \ntio n of w o m e n 55 to 64 y e a r s o ld in th e l a b o r f o r c e i n c r e a s e d f r o m o n e f o u r th in 1947 to o v e r tw o - f if th s in 1970.\nA m ong th o s e a g e d 45 to 54,\nth e p r o p o r tio n in th e la b o r f o r c e r o s e f r o m o n e - t h i r d to o v e r o n e - h a lf\nd u rin g th e s a m e p e r io d .\nT he a g e p a t t e r n of la b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s a m o n g w o m e n d if \nf e r s fu n d a m e n ta lly f r o m th a t f o r m e n .\nA lth o u g h a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h p r o p o r \ntio n of young w o m e n a g e d 18 to 24 y e a r s a r e in th e la b o r f o r c e (57 p e r c e n t\nin 1970), m a n y s to p w o rk in g w ith th e a r r i v a l of c h ild r e n .\nAs th e c h ild r e n\ng ro w o ld e r , i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r s of w o m e n a g a in s e e k jo b s .\nT h e la b o r\nf o r c e p a r tic ip a tio n r a t e f o r w o m e n a g e d 45 to 54 in 1970 (54 p e r c e n t) a p \np r o a c h e d th a t f o r w o m e n 20 to 24 y e a r s .\nO ld e r m a r r i e d w o m e n r e t u r n to w o rk f o r v a r i e d r e a s o n s .\nin c lu d e h e lp in g to f in a n c e t h e i r c h i l d r e n 's e d u c a tio n , p a y in g off th e m o r t \ng a g e , r a is in g t h e i r f a m i l y 's liv in g s ta n d a r d , o r im p r o v in g t h e i r f in a n c ia l\ns e c u r i t y a g a in s t o ld a g e .\nS o m e w o rk in o r d e r to u s e t h e i r e d u c a tio n an d\ntr a in in g o r to m e e t p e o p le .\nB u t m a n y , in c lu d in g w id o w s an d th e w iv e s of\nlow e a r n e r s , w o rk b e c a u s e of f in a n c ia l n e c e s s i t y .\nF u tu r e g ro w th of th e la b o r f o r c e\nA s h a r p slo w d o w n is e x p e c te d in th e g ro w th of th e la b o r f o r c e a g e d\n45 to 64 y e a r s . 4 T h e s e w o r k e r s a r e e x p e c te d to i n c r e a s e f r o m 28. 3 m i l \nlio n in 1970 to 29. 3 m illio n in 1980,\nT h is i n c r e a s e w ill b e o n ly o n e f o u r th a s g r e a t a s th a t b e tw e e n I9 6 0 a n d 1970.\nT h e ir p r o p o r tio n of th e\nto ta l la b o r f o r c e w ill d e c lin e s h a r p ly , f r o m a b o u t 33 p e r c e n t to a b o u t 29\nT h e slo w d o w n in th e g ro w th of th is g ro u p of w o r k e r s is e x \np e c te d l a r g e l y b e c a u s e of a s iz a b le d e c lin e in th e 4 5 -5 4 y e a r o ld p o p u \nla tio n , a s a r e s u l t of th e c o m p a r a tiv e ly s m a l l n u m b e r of b i r t h s in th e\ny e a r s of th e G r e a t D e p r e s s io n .\nL a b o r fo rc e p a rtic ip a tio n ra te s fo r m en\na g e d 4 5 -5 4 y e a r s a r e e x p e c te d to r e m a in a b o u t th e s a m e , b u t r a t e s f o r\nth o s e 5 5 -6 4 a r e e x p e c te d to d e c lin e slo w ly .\nR a te s f o r m e n o v e r 65 a r e\ne x p e c te d to c o n tin u e to d e c lin e s u b s ta n tia lly .\nR a te s f o r w o m e n 5 5 -6 4 a r e\ne x p e c te d to c o n tin u e to i n c r e a s e .\nNo s ig n if ic a n t c h a n g e is e x p e c te d in th e n u m b e r of w o r k e r s o v e r 65,\nw ho w ill r e m a in a t j u s t o v e r 3 m illio n th ro u g h th e 1 9 7 0 f s .\nA t th is le v e l,\nth e y w ill r e p r e s e n t a d e c lin in g p r o p o r tio n of th e w o r k f o r c e .\nThe d e \nc r e a s e d p r o p e n s ity to w o rk a f t e r 65 r e f l e c t s in p a r t th e im p r o v e m e n t in\nr e t i r e m e n t b e n e f its , im p r o v e d s e c u r i t y a s a r e s u l t of h e a lth in s u r a n c e\np r o g r a m s , in c lu d in g m e d i c a r e an d m e d ic a id , an d i n c r e a s e d a s s e t s th a t\nm a y h a v e r e s u l t e d f r o m fu ll e m p lo y m e n t d u rin g th e l a t e r y e a r s of th e\nw o r k lif e .\nA l a r g e r s u p p ly of young w o r k e r s m a y a u g m e n t p r e s s u r e s on\no ld e r w o r k e r s to r e t i r e s o o n e r th a n th e y m ig h t o th e r w is e .\nThe tre n d fo r\nm e n to r e t i r e e a r l i e r is e x p e c te d to c o n tin u e th ro u g h th e 1 9 7 0 f s .\n1 V e r a C. P e r r e l l a an d E d w a rd J . O* B o y le , " W o rk P la n s of M en\nN o t in th e L a b o r F o r c e , " M o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w , A u g u st a n d S e p te m b e r\n1968, p p . 8 - 1 4 , 3 5 -4 1 .\n2 Ib id .\nS e e a ls o H e r b e r t S. P a r n e s e t a l, T h e P r e - R e t i r e m e n t\nY e a r s , V ol. 1, O hio S ta te U n iv e r s ity , T h e C e n te r f o r H u m a n R e s o u r c e\nR ese arch .\nU n d e r c o n t r a c t to th e U. S. D e p a r tm e n t of L a b o r .\nP a rn e s\nr e p o r t e d th a t o v e r f o u r - f i f t h s of th e 4 5 -5 9 y e a r o ld m e n s u r v e y e d w ho\nr e t i r e d b e tw e e n 1966 a n d 1967 s a id th a t th e y w e r e n o t lo o k in g f o r w o rk\nb e c a u s e of i l l h e a lth .\nA n o t u n c o m m o n p a t t e r n w a s one in w h ic h th e\nc o m b in a tio n of u n e m p lo y m e n t a n d p o o r h e a lth (and s o m e tim e s lim it e d\ne d u c a tio n ) r e s u l t e d f in a lly in w ith d ra w a l f r o m th e l a b o r f o r c e .\n3 H o w a rd N. F u l l e r t o n , "A T a b le o f E x p e c te d W o rk in g L ife f o r\nM en , 1 9 6 8 ," M o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w . J u n e 1971, p p . 4 9 -5 5 .\n4 U. S. D e p a r tm e n t of L a b o r , B u r e a u of L a b o r S t a t i s t i c s , T h e U. S.\nE c o n o m y in 1980: A S u m m a r y of B L S P r o j e c t i o n s » B L S B u lle tin 1673,\nC h a p te r 3. U n e m p lo ym e n t\nT h e d if f ic u ltie s o ld e r w o r k e r s e n c o u n te r in th e la b o r m a r k e t a r e\ne x p r e s s e d in th e le n g th of t h e i r p e r io d s of u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t h e r th a n in\nth e in c id e n c e of u n e m p lo y m e n t U n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e s 1 te n d to b e r e l a t i v e l y\nlow f o r o ld e r w o r k e r s .\nIn 1970, f o r e x a m p le , th e u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e\n(a n n u a l a v e r a g e ) f o r m e n a g e d 45 an d o v e r w a s 2. 6 p e r c e n t , c o m p a r e d\nw ith a r a t e of 3. 0 p e r c e n t f o r m e n 2 5 -4 4 .\n(S ee ta b le B . ) T h o s e a g e d\n4 5 -5 4 h a d a lo w e r u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e th a n a n y o th e r a g e g ro u p .\nth e h ig h e s t r a t e a m o n g o ld e r w o r k e r s , f o r th o s e 65 y e a r s an d o v e r , w a s\no n ly tw o - f if th s th e r a t e f o r m a le w o r k e r s a g e d 2 0 -2 4 .\nA m ong w o m e n\nd if f e r e n c e s in u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e s b y a g e w e r e e v e n m o r e f a v o r a b le f o r\nth e o ld e r g ro u p .\nSelected measures of unemployment, by age and sex, 1970\n(Num ber in thousands)\nD uration o f un em p loym en t\nU n em p loyed\nM en, 16 years and o v e r - - — ------------------16\n15 or m ore w eeks\nto 19 y e a r s ----------------------------------to 24 y e a r s ------------------- --------------to 4 4 y e a r s ----------------------------------years and o v e r -----------------------------45 to 54 y e a r s ---------------------------55 to 64 y e a r s ---------------------------65 years and o v e r -----------------------\nto 19 years — -----------------------------to 24 y e a r s ----------------------------------to 44 y e a r s ----------------------------------years and o v e r -----------------------------45 to 54 y e a r s ---------------------------55 to 64 y e a r s ---------------------------65 years and o v e r -----------------------\nW om en, 16 years and over —\nU n em p loym en t\nL o w e r u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e s f o r o ld e r w o r k e r s a r e l a r g e l y a ttr ib u ta b le\nto th e f a c t th a t th e y a r e l e s s lik e ly th a n y o u n g e r w o r k e r s to b e s u b je c t\nto th e h a z a r d s of th e jo b s e a r c h .\nF i r s t , t h e i r lo n g e r jo b t e n u r e 2 g iv e s\nth e m g r e a t e r jo b s e c u r i t y .\nF o r e x a m p le , f r o m th e f o u r th q u a r t e r of 1969\nto th e s e c o n d q u a r t e r of 1971, a p e r io d w h e n th e u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e ( s e a \ns o n a lly a d ju s te d ) f o r m a le s a g e d 2 5 -4 4 d o u b le d , th e r a t e f o r m a le s 45 an d\no v e r rose by a b o u t 70 p e r c e n t .\nSecond, o ld e r w o r k e r s are l e s s lik e ly to\nle a v e t h e i r jo b s v o lu n ta r ily an d of c o u r s e a r e l e s s lik e ly to b e e n te r in g\nth e la b o r f o r c e f o r th e f i r s t tim e (o r r e - e n t e r i n g a f t e r a p e r io d of\ne d u c a tio n ).\nH o w e v e r, o ld e r w o r k e r s a r e f a r f r o m im m u n e f r o m th e lo s s of t h e i r\njo b s .\nE v e n v e r y long s e r v i c e is no g u a r a n te e a g a in s t in v o lu n ta r y s e p a r a \nO ne o u t of e v e r y 25 b l u e - c o l l a r w o r k e r s w ith 20 o r m o r e y e a r s\nof s e r v i c e l o s t h is jo b in th e y e a r fo llo w in g th e f i r s t in te r v ie w (1966) of\nth e P a r n e s s tu d y . 3\nO nce o ld e r w o r k e r s h a v e a b r e a k in e m p lo y m e n t, th e y h a v e a s e r i \no u s p r o b le m in fin d in g a n o th e r jo b .\nT h e a v e r a g e d u r a tio n of u n e m p lo y \nm e n t in 1970 f o r m e n 45 y e a r s of a g e o r o v e r w a s n e a r ly d o u b le th a t of\nyoung m e n u n d e r 25 y e a r s of a g e .\n(See ta b le B . ) A b o u t 28 of e v e r y 100\nu n e m p lo y e d o ld e r m e n h a d b e e n lo o k in g f o r w o rk 15 w e e k s o r lo n g e r ,\nc o m p a r e d w ith 19 of e v e r y 100 u n e m p lo y e d m e n 2 5 -4 4 y e a r s of a g e .\nI n s ig h t on th e e x p e r ie n c e of o ld e r w o r k e r s w ho a r e a f f e c te d b y p la n t\ns h u td o w n s o r l a r g e s c a le la y o ffs i s p r o v i d e d b y r e s e a r c h c o n d u c te d in th e e a r ly\n1 9 6 0 fs .\nA s tu d y of fiv e p la n t sh u td o w n s o r l a r g e - s c a l e la y o ffs sh o w e d ,\nf o r e x a m p le , th a t u n e m p lo y m e n t w a s m a r k e d ly h ig h e r a m o n g w o r k e r s a g e\n45 a n d o v e r th a n a m o n g y o u n g e r w o r k e r s . 4 In tw o of th e c a s e s s tu d ie d\nin w h ic h d e ta ile d a g e b re a k d o w n s w e r e f e a s i b l e , th e h ig h e s t u n e m p lo y m e n t\nr a t e s b y f a r w e r e fo u n d in th e 5 5 -5 9 y e a r o ld g ro u p .\nA s u b s ta n tia l p r o \np o r tio n of th e w o r k e r s a g e d 60 an d o v e r w ho w e r e la id off w e r e n o t s e e k \ning w o rk .\nM an y h a d ta k e n e a r l y r e t i r e m e n t ; o th e r s m a y h a v e b e e n d is c o u ra g e d f r o m lo o k in g f o r w o rk .\nIn th e tw o p la n ts in w h ic h w o m e n w e r e a s ig n if ic a n t n u m b e r of th e\nd is p la c e d w o r k e r s , th e u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e f o r w o m e n w a s a lm o s t t h r e e\ntim e s th e r a t e f o r m e n .\nA t e a c h le v e l of e d u c a tio n an d a g e u n d e r 60,\nr a t e s f o r w o m e n w e r e m u c h h ig h e r th a n f o r m e n .\nA m ong w o r k e r s 6 0 -6 4\ny e a r s of a g e , a l a r g e r p r o p o r tio n of w o m e n th a n m e n w e r e n o t s e e k in g\nT h e ' h ig h e s t r a t e of u n e m p lo y m e n t f o r w o m e n w o r k e r s w a s\nf o r th o s e a g e d 45-5,4, c o m p a r e d w ith th e 5 5 -5 9 a g e g ro u p f o r m e n .\n1 T he u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e is th e p e r c e n t th a t th e u n e m p lo y e d c o n \ns titu te of th e n u m b e r th a t a r e w o rk in g p lu s th o s e lo o k in g f o r w o rk .\n2 T h e le n g th of tim e a p e r s o n h a s w o rk e d w ith o u t in t e r r u p t i o n f o r\nth e s a m e e m p lo y e r .\nS e e E d w a rd J . O fB o y le , 1 J o b T e n u r e : How i t R e \nl a t e s to R a c e a n d A g e 1', M o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w . S e p te m b e r 1969.\nR e p r in t\n3 P a r n e s e t a l. , op. c it.\n4 U. S. D e p a r tm e n t of L a b o r , B u r e a u o f L a b o r S t a t i s t i c s , C a s e\nS tu d ie s of D is p la c e d W o r k e r s , B L S B u lle tin 1408, 1964.\nS e e a ls o\nR ic h a rd C. W ilc o c k an d W a lte r H. F r a n k e , U n w an ted w o r k e r s : P e r m a n \ne n t L a y o ffs a n d L o n g - te r m U n e m p lo y m e n t, N ew Y o rk : F r e e P r e s s of\nG le n c o e , 1963\nC h a p te r 4. W o r k E xp e rie n ce\nT h e p r o p o r tio n o f m e n w ho w o rk f u l l - t i m e f u l l - y e a r d e c lin e s in e a c h\ns u b s e q u e n t a g e g ro u p a f t e r a g e s 3 5 -4 4 .\nD a ta on w o rk e x p e r ie n c e f o r 1970\nsh o w o n ly a s lig h t d e c lin e b e tw e e n a g e g r o u p s 3 5 -4 4 a n d 4 5 -5 4 in th e p r o \np o r tio n of m a le w o r k e r s w ho w o rk e d f u ll tim e fu ll y e a r , b u t th e g ro u p s\na g e d 5 5 -5 9 an d 6 0 -6 4 h a d d e c lin e s of a n o th e r 4 p e r c e n ta g e p o in ts .\nta b le C. ) T h e p r o p o r tio n of m e n a g e d 65 a n d o v e r w ho w o rk e d fu ll tim e\nf u ll y e a r in 1970 w a s 35 p e r c e n ta g e p o in ts lo w e r th a n th e p e r c e n ta g e of\nth o s e a g e d 60 to 64 y e a r s (73 a n d 38 p e r c e n t , r e s p e c tiv e ly ) .\nT h e a g e p a t t e r n of w o rk e x p e r ie n c e f o r w o m e n d if f e r s m a r k e d ly f r o m\nth a t f o r m e n in th a t th e p r o p o r tio n w o rk in g f u ll y e a r fu ll tim e is h ig h e r\na m o n g th o s e 4 5 - 6 4 y e a r s of a g e th a n a m o n g th o s e 3 5 -4 4 .\nH o w e v e r, th e\np r o p o r tio n w o rk in g fu ll tim e f u ll y e a r sh o w s a b o u t th e s a m e r e l a t i v e d e \nc lin e b e tw e e n th e a g e s of 60 to 64 a n d 65 a n d o v e r a s f o r m e n .\nPercent of persons with work experience in 1960, 1965 and 1970, who worked\nyear round full time, by age and sex\nto 4 4 y e a r s ----------------------to 54 y e a r s ----------------------to 59 y e a r s ----------------------to 64 y e a r s ----------------------60 -6 1 y e a r s --------------------6 2 -6 4 y e a r s ---------------------\n65 years and o v e r ----------------65 to 69 y e a r s ----------------70 years and o v e r ------------\nF em a le\n* Not a v a ila b le .\nT he p r o p o r tio n o f a l l m a le w o r k e r s on p a r t - t i m e s c h e d u le s (w h e th e r\nf u l l - o r p a r t - y e a r w o r k e r s ) in 1970 i n c r e a s e d b y a g e f r o m a b o u t 4 p e r c e n t\na m o n g th o s e 4 5 -6 4 y e a r s o ld to 38 p e r c e n t a m o n g th o s e a g e d 65 a n d o v e r .\nT h e h ig h e r p r o p o r tio n of p a r t - t i m e w o r k e r s 65 y e a r s of a g e o r o ld e r w a s\nd u e a lm o s t e n t i r e l y to an i n c r e a s e b y a g e in th e p r o p o r tio n of th o s e on\nv o lu n ta r y p a r t tim e , 2 p e r c e n t a m o n g th o s e 4 5 -6 4 a n d 35 p e r c e n t a m o n g\nth o s e 65 a n d o ld e r .\nIn e v e r y a g e g r o u p , p a r t tim e is m o r e f r e q u e n t f o r w o m e n w o r k e r s\nth a n f o r m e n . T h e p r o p o r tio n of a ll w o m e n w o r k e r s on p a r t tim e is a b o u t\no n e - f o u r th in th e a g e g ro u p s 2 5 -4 4 an d 4 5 -6 4 , b u t i n c r e a s e s to a lm o s t\no n e - h a lf a t a g e 65 a n d o v e r .\nT he g r e a t m a jo r ity of w o m e n w ho w o rk\np a r t tim e do so v o lu n ta r ily .\n(See ta b le D. )\nPercent of persons at work in nonagricultural industries by part-time status,\nage and sex, annual average, 1970\nA ge and sex\nP art-tim e schedules\n25 to 44 y e a r s ----------------------------------45 to 64 y e a r s ----------------------------------65 years and o v e r ------------------------------\nIncludes persons w ho do not perfer, or are u n a v a ila b le for, fu ll-t im e work.\nT he p r o p o r tio n of o ld e r w o r k e r s w ho v o lu n ta r ily w o rk p a r t tim e h a s\nin c r e a s e d in r e c e n t y e a r s .\nIn I9 6 0 , f o r e x a m p le , a b o u t 7 p e r c e n t of a ll\nw o r k e r s 4 5 -6 4 y e a r s of ag e and 30 p e r c e n t of th o s e 65 an d o v e r w e r e\ne m p lo y e d p a r t tim e .\nB y 1970, th e p r o p o r tio n s h a d r i s e n to 9 a n d 39 p e r \nc e n t r e s p e c tiv e ly .\nT h e p r o p o r tio n o f m a le w o r k e r s w ho w o rk p a r t y e a r ( i r r e s p e c t i v e of\nf u l l - o r p a r t - t i m e ) i n c r e a s e s w ith a g e .\nIn 1970, f o r e x a m p le , th e p r o \np o r tio n of p a r t - t i m e w o r k e r s w a s 16 p e r c e n t f o r th o s e 4 5 -5 4 y e a r s o ld ,\n22 p e r c e n t f o r th o s e a g e d 5 5 -6 4 , an d 43 p e r c e n t f o r th o s e 65 y e a r s of ag e\nan d o v e r .\nU n e m p lo y m e n t an d i l l n e s s o r d is a b i lity w e r e th e tw o m a jo r\nr e a s o n s f o r p a r t - y e a r w o rk a m o n g m e n 4 5 -6 4 y e a r s o f a g e , 43 a n d 30\np e rc e n t re s p e c tiv e ly .\nA m ong m e n 65 y e a r s of ag e a n d o ld e r , r e t i r e m e n t\nan d o th e r r e a s o n s w e r e c ite d b y 72 p e r c e n t of th e p a r t - y e a r w o r k e r s .\nT h e p r o p o r tio n of w o m e n w o r k e r s w ho w o rk e d p a r t y e a r d e c lin e d\nf r o m 48 p e r c e n t a m o n g th o s e 25 to 44 y e a r s of a g e to a b o u t 35 p e r c e n t\nf o r th o s e 45 to 54 y e a r s an d 55 to 64 , th e n r o s e to 51 p e r c e n t f o r th o s e\n65 y e a r s of a g e an d o v e r .\nW om en in e v e r y a g e g ro u p c ite d h o m e r e s p o n \ns i b i l i t i e s a s t h e i r m a j o r r e a s o n f o r p a r t - y e a r w o rk .\nC h a p te r 5. M obility\nT h e o ld e r w o r k e r u s u a lly is w e ll s e tt le d in h is c a r e e r an d in h is\nH e is l e s s lik e ly th a n y o u n g e r w o r k e r s to m o v e v o lu n ta r ily\nf r o m one jo b , o c c u p a tio n , o r r e s id e n c e to a n o th e r , a n d h e is l e s s a b le\nto m o v e .\nS ta b ility , r a t h e r th a n m o b ility , c h a r a c t e r i z e s th e o ld e r g ro u p .\nA r e c e n t s u r v e y o f m a le w o r k e r s in th e " p r e - r e t i r e m e n t y e a r s " (a g e s 4 5 59) f o r e x a m p le , in d ic a te d th a t t h r e e - f i f t h s o f th e m h a d w o rk e d f o r t h e i r\np r e s e n t e m p lo y e r (o r h a d b e e n s e lf - e m p lo y e d ) f o r 10 y e a r s o r m o r e a n d\ntw o - f if th s s a id th e y w e r e u n w illin g to c o n s id e r a n o th e r jo b e v e n f o r a\nh ig h e r w a g e .\nN in e o u t of te n lik e d t h e i r c u r r e n t jo b a n d tw o - th i r d s r e \ng a r d e d i t a s th e b e s t of t h e i r l i v e s .\nN e a r l y f o u r - f if t h s s a id th e y w o u ld\nw o rk e v e n if th e y h a d e n o u g h m o n e y to liv e c o m f o r ta b ly w ith o u t w o r k i n g .1\nA lth o u g h o ld e r w o r k e r s a r e s ig n if ic a n tly l e s s m o b ile th a n y o u n g e r\nw o r k e r s , n o n e th e l e s s , P a r n e s fo u n d th a t a b o u t 12 p e r c e n t o f th e 4 5 - 5 9 y e a r - o l d m e n s u r v e y e d in 1966 w e r e in d if f e r e n t la b o r m a r k e t s itu a tio n s\nin 1967, b e c a u s e of a m o v e f r o m one e m p lo y e r to a n o th e r , b e tw e e n e m \np lo y m e n t a n d u n e m p lo y m e n t, o r in to o r o u t o f th e la b o r f o r c e . 2\nJ o b m o b ilit y .\nO ld e r w o r k e r s , i r r e s p e c t i v e of r a c e o r s e x , g e n e r a lly\ns ta y lo n g e r on a jo b th a n y o u n g e r w o r k e r s . 3 S e n io r ity g iv e s th e o ld e r\ng ro u p a l a r g e r d e g r e e of e m p lo y m e n t s e c u r i t y , h ig h e r r a t e s of p a y , a n d\nm o r e g e n e r o u s f r in g e b e n e f its th a t in c lu d e lo n g e r p a id v a c a tio n s a n d p e n \ns io n r i g h t s .\nF u r t h e r m o r e th e y f e e l th a t m a n y e m p lo y e r s h e s i t a t e o r r e \nfu s e to h i r e o ld e r a p p lic a n ts , e s p e c ia ll y th o s e w h o s e e x p e r ie n c e o r t r a i n \nin g is n o t r e l a t e d s p e c if ic a lly to th e jo b o p e n in g .\nE v e n if la y o ffs a r e\nt h r e a te n e d — w h e th e r a s a r e s u l t of te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s , e c o n o m ic c o n \nd itio n s , o r o th e r r e a s o n s ----th e y a r e lik e ly to c o n c lu d e th a t i t is l e s s r is k y\nto s ta y w h e r e th e y a r e .\nM o s t jo b s h if ts m a d e b y m e n o v e r 45 a r e e x p la in e d b y th e lo s s o f\nt h e i r p r e v io u s jo b .\nIn c o n t r a s t , m o s t jo b c h a n g e s m a d e b y y o u n g e r m e n\na r e m a d e in th e e x p e c ta tio n of g e ttin g a b e t t e r jo b .\nO c c u p a tio n a l m o b ility .\nT h e o u ts ta n d in g d e m o g r a p h ic f a c t o r a s s o c i a t e d\nw ith o c c u p a tio n a l m o b ility is th e a g e of th e w o r k e r .\nO c c u p a tio n a l m o b ility\nd e c lin e s a s a g e i n c r e a s e s , i r r e s p e c t i v e of s e x o r r a c e . 4 (See ta b le E . )\nO ld e r w o r k e r s w ho c h a n g e t h e i r o c c u p a tio n o fte n m o v e in to s e r v i c e\nj o b s , m a n y of w h ic h h a v e no g r e a t d e m a n d f o r s k ills a n d a r e l e s s d e \nm a n d in g p h y s ic a lly th a n o th e r low s k ille d o r u n s k ille d w o rk .\nF o r som e\no ld e r w o r k e r s , a n o c c u p a tio n a l s h if t is th e b e g in n in g of s e m i - r e t i r e m e n t .\nC h an g e in r e s i d e n c e .\nT h e p e r c e n t o f e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s w ho m o v e\nto a d i f f e r e n t c o u n ty d e s c e n d s s h a r p ly w ith a g e .\nD a ta on th e r e s i d e n t i a l\nm o b ility of w o r k e r s f o r 1 9 6 9 -7 0 sh o w th a t l e s s th a n 3 p e r c e n t of a ll e m \np lo y e d p e r s o n s a g e 45 o r o ld e r c h a n g e d c o u n tie s d u rin g th e y e a r . 5 (See\nta b le F . ) A lth o u g h A m e r ic a n s u n d o u b te d ly d e s e r v e t h e i r r e p u ta tio n f o r\nb e in g a p e o p le on th e m o v e , i t is p r i m a r i l y th e y o u n g e r g e n e r a tio n th a t\nis d o in g th e m o v in g .\nW hen o ld e r w o r k e r s do m o v e , t h e i r r e a s o n is\nm o r e lik e ly to b e w o r k - r e l a t e d th a n in th e c a s e of y o u n g e r w o r k e r s .\nOccupational mobility rates1 between January 1965 and January 1966 of employed persons,\nby age, sex, and color, January 1966\nA ll persons\nT o ta l, 18 years and o v e r ------------\n1 8 -1 9 y e a r s ------------------------------------------2 0 -2 4 y e a r s -----------------------------------------2 5 -3 4 y e a r s -----------------------------------------3 5 -4 4 y e a r s ----------------------------------------4 5 -5 4 y e a r s ------------------------------------------5 5 -6 4 y e a r s -----------------------------------------65 years and o v e r ---------------------------------\n* Proportion o f persons em p lo y ed in both January 1965 and January 1966 who had a differen t o c c u p a \ntio n in January 1966.\n2 R ate not shown w here b ase is less than 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 .\nPercent of employed workers who moved to a different\ncounty in the U.S. by age and sex, March 1969-March 1970\n1 8 -2 4 y e a r s ---------------------------------------------2 5 -3 4 y e a r s ---------------------------------------------3 5 -4 4 y e a r s ------ -------------------------------------4 5 -6 4 y e a r s ---------------------------------- ---------65 years and o v e r -------------------------------------\n1 8 -2 4 years — -------- ----- ---------------------- -—\n2 5 -3 4 y e a r s ------ ------------------ ----- -------------3 5 -4 4 y e a r s ---------------------------------------------4 5 -6 4 y e a r s ---------------------------------------------65 years and o v e r -------------------------------------\nW illin g n e s s to m o v e is a p o s itiv e f a c t o r in o b ta in in g e m p lo y m e n t.\nT h e s tu d y of p la n t c lo s in g s in th e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 fs f o r e x a m p le sh o w e d th a t\nm o s t w o r k e r s h a d to lo o k o u ts id e t h e i r h o m e a r e a to o b ta in a jo b in th e\ns a m e in d u s tr y .\nG r e a t e r p r o p o r tio n s of e m p lo y e d th a n u n e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s\nh a d s o u g h t w o rk o u ts id e t h e i r h o m e c i t i e s .\nA s m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r , th e s t a b i lity of o ld e r w o r k e r s is a c o n s i d e r \na b le a s s e t to t h e i r e m p lo y e r s .\nB u t w h en o ld e r w o r k e r s lo s e t h e i r jo b s —\nf o r w h a te v e r r e a s o n — t h e i r a tta c h m e n t to a p a r t i c u l a r lin e of w o rk o r i n \nd u s tr y , t h e i r s p e c ia liz a tio n in p a r t i c u l a r s k ills an d a c t i v i t i e s , a n d t h e i r\nd e e p r o o ts in th e c o m m u n ity p u t th e m a t a d is a d v a n ta g e .\nIf t h e i r u n e m \np lo y m e n t r e s u l t s f r o m th e o b s o le s c e n c e of t h e i r s k ills (o r th a t of t h e i r\np la n ts ) , a s h if t in c o n s u m e r d e m a n d , o r th e d e c lin e o r r e lo c a ti o n o f t h e i r\nin d u s tr y , t h e i r p r o b le m i s e v e n m o r e a c u te .\nM a n p o w e r r e t r a i n i n g an d\nr e lo c a ti o n a s s i s t a n c e p r o g r a m s f o r o ld e r w o r k e r s r e c o g n iz e th a t th e s e\nw o r k e r s n e e d s p e c ia l a s s i s t a n c e b e c a u s e o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e im m o b ility .\n1 H e r b e r t S. P a r n e s e t a l , T h e P r e - R e t i r e m e n t Y e a r s , V o l. I, O hio\nS ta te U n iv e r s ity , T h e C e n te r f o r H u m a n R e s o u r c e s .\nU n d e r c o n t r a c t to\nth e U. S. D e p a r tm e n t of L a b o r , 1968.\n2 P a r n e s , op. c i t . , V o l. II, 1970, p p . 2 9 -3 0 .\n3 O 'B o y le , op. c it. , p p . 1 6 -2 3 .\n* S a m u e l S a b e n , " O c c u p a tio n a l M o b ility of E m p lo y e d W o r k e r s " ,\nM o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w , J u n e 1967, p p . 3 1 -3 8 .\n® U. S. D e p a r tm e n t of C o m m e r c e , B u r e a u of th e C e n s u s , M o b ility\no f th e P o p u la tio n of th e U n ite d S ta te s . M a r c h 1969 to 1 9 7 0 . S e r i e s P - 2 0 ,\nN o. 210.\nC h a p te r 6. Incom e and E a rn in g s\nI n c o m e 1 f o r w o r k e r s a g e d 45 y e a r s an d o v e r g e n e r a lly is l e s s th a n\nf o r w o r k e r s a g e d 3 5 -4 4 , th e p e a k e a r n in g g ro u p . T h e d if f e r e n c e a c c e l e r \na te s in s u c c e s s iv e ly o ld e r a g e g r o u p s .\nT he to ta l in c o m e of o ld e r p e r s o n s c o m p a r e d w ith th a t of p e r s o n s\na g e d 3 5 -4 4 is sh o w n in th e fo llo w in g ta b u la tio n , by s e x f o r th e y e a r s I9 6 0 ,\n1965, an d 1970.\nT he f ig u r e s a r e e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of r a t i o s (in c o m e\nof a g e g ro u p 3 5 -4 4 = 1 0 0 ).\nL i ttle if a n y c h a n g e is d is c e r n ib l e d u rin g th is\np e r io d in th e in c o m e - a g e in d e x e s f o r m e n .\nT h e s m a l l im p r o v e m e n t in\nth e in c o m e - a g e in d e x e s f o r w o m e n p r i m a r i l y r e f l e c t s th e in c r e a s in g e m \np lo y m e n t of o ld e r w o m e n :\n1970 .................. ..........\n1965 ...... ......................\n1960 --------------------- .............\n1 9 7 0 .............................. .............\n1 9 6 5 .............................. .............\n1 9 6 0 ............................- - ...........\n65 and o1\nO ld e r p e r s o n s liv in g on r e t i r e m e n t in c o m e s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y lik e ly\nto b e h a r d p r e s s e d f in a n c ia lly , b u t th o s e s t i l l in th e la b o r f o r c e a r e n o t\ne x e m p t.\nAs n o te d e a r l i e r , th e w o rk e x p e r ie n c e of o ld e r p e r s o n s is c h a r \na c t e r i z e d by lo n g e r p e r io d s of u n e m p lo y m e n t an d m o r e p a r t - t i m e w o rk .\nB u t e v e n th o s e e m p lo y e d y e a r ro u n d fu ll tim e h a v e lo w e r e a r n in g s th a n\nyounger w o rk e rs.\nE a r n in g s of m a le h e a d s of f a m ilie s e m p lo y e d fu ll tim e\ny e a r ro u n d in n o n f a r m o c c u p a tio n s in 1969, f o r e x a m p le , w e r e o n ly 86\np e r c e n t a s m u c h f o r th o s e a g e d 5 5 -6 4 a s f o r th o s e a g e d 3 5 -4 4 , w h ile\nth o s e 65 a n d o v e r e a r n e d 68 p e r c e n t a s m u c h a s th e y o u n g e r g ro u p . 2\nL o w e r a v e r a g e e a r n in g s of o ld e r w o r k e r s e m p lo y e d f u ll tim e y e a r\nro u n d a r e n o t e x p la in e d b y d if f e r e n c e s in w e e k ly h o u r s , a s th e fo llo w in g t a b \nu la tio n in d ic a te s .\nD if f e r e n c e s in m e d ia n y e a r s of e d u c a tio n b y a g e , h o w \ne v e r , p r o b a b ly a c c o u n t f o r s o m e d if f e r e n c e s in e a r n in g s :\n3 5 -4 4 y e a r s ------------------------..........\n4 5 -5 4 y e a r s -----------------------5 5 -6 4 y e a r s -----------------------65 years and o v e r -------------- ..........\nNOTE: Earnings data refer to m en who head husband-w ife\nfa m ilie s and who are em p loyed year round fu ll tim e in nonfarm\noccu p ation s. Data on hours worked refer to m arried m e n , w ife\npresent, on f u ll-t im e schedules in nonagricultural industries, but\nw ithout referen ce to year-round em p lo y m en t.\nT h e d if f e r e n c e in e a r n in g s by a g e is m o r e p ro n o u n c e d in s o m e o c c u p a \ntio n a l g ro u p s th a n m o t h e r s . 3 S a le s m e n a g e d 4 5 -5 4 e a r n e d o n ly n in e - te n th s\na s m u c h a s y o u n g e r s a le s m e n .\nE a r n in g s of m a n a g e r s an d o f f ic ia ls a g e d\n4 5 -5 4 a r e s u b s ta n tia lly l e s s th a n th o s e o f m a n a g e r s a g e d 3 5 -4 4 a ls o . B u t\nin o th e r o c c u p a tio n s , w o r k e r s a g e d 4 5 -5 4 e a r n e d a b o u t th e s a m e a s th o s e\na g e d 3 5 -4 4 y e a r s .\n(S ee ta b le G . )\nIndex of median earnings of selected occupational groups, 1969\n(A ge 3 5 -44= 100 )\nT o t a l----------------------------\nProfessional w ork ers--------------Managers and o c c i c i a l s ---------C leric a l w orkers--------------------S a le s m e n -------------------------------C raftsm en -----------------------------O peratives r ---------------------------Laborers---------------------------------\nT h e p e r io d of p e a k e a r n in g s c o v e r s a w id e r a g e g ro u p in s o m e o c \nc u p a tio n s th a n in o t h e r s .\nT h e 1 0 - y e a r a g e b r e a k s u s e d in th e ta b le , f o r\ne x a m p le , in d ic a te a lo n g e r p e r io d of p e a k e a r n in g s f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l ,\nc l e r i c a l , an d c r a f t w o r k e r s a n d o p e r a tiv e s th a n f o r w o r k e r s in o th e r\nW hen 1969 in c o m e s of f a m ilie s h e a d e d b y m a le s w ho w o rk e d y e a r\nro u n d fu ll tim e th e p r e v io u s y e a r a r e r e l a t e d to th e B u r e a u of L a b o r\nS t a t i s t i c s f a m ily b u d g e ts ,4 a b o u t o n e - f o u r th of th o s e h e a d e d b y m e n a g e\n4 5 -5 4 a n d a lm o s t o n e - f if th of th o s e h e a d e d b y m e n 5 5 -6 4 w e r e a t o r\nb e lo w th e lo w e r b u d g e t le v e l.\nT h e s e p r o p o r tio n s w e r e l e s s th a n f o r\nf a m ilie s h e a d e d b y m e n a g e d 3 5 -4 4 , tw o - f if th s , p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e in c o m e\nd e c lin e s l e s s r a p id ly th a n f a m ily s iz e .\nT h e in c o m e - b u d g e t s itu a tio n of\nth e s e o ld e r f a m ily h e a d s is a c a u s e f o r c o n c e r n , h o w e v e r, p a r t i c u l a r l y\ns in c e th e B L S f a m ily b u d g e ts c o n ta in no p r o v is io n f o r s a v in g s o th e r th a n\np a y m e n ts f o r s o c ia l s e c u r i t y a n d life in s u r a n c e v a lu e d a t one y e a r* s\nr e g u l a r f a m ily in c o m e .\n1 In c lu d e s e a r n in g s an d in c o m e f r o m o ld a g e , s u r v i v o r s , an d d i s a \nb ility in s u r a n c e (OASID), p r i v a t e p e n s io n p la n s , a n d o th e r s o u r c e s .\n2 B u r e a u of L a b o r S t a t i s t i c s a n a ly s is of in c o m e a n d w o rk e x p e r ie n c e\ns u p p le m e n ts to th e C u r r e n t P o p u la tio n S u r v e y , B u r e a u of th e C e n s u s .\nm o r e in f o r m a tio n on e a r n in g s a n d in c o m e by a g e s e e R o b e r t L . S te in an d\nJ a n ic e N. H e d g e s " E a r n in g s a n d F a m ily In c o m e , 1 M o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w .\nJ u n e 1971.\nR e p r in t 2738.\nF o o t n o t e s - — C o n t in u e d\nT h e B L S f a m ily b u d g e ts a r e b e n c h m a r k m e a s u r e s f o r r e s e a r c h\np u r p o s e s of how m u c h i t w o u ld c o s t to m a in ta in s p e c if e d le v e ls of liv in g\n(id e n tifie d a s i n t e r m e d i a t e , lo w e r , a n d h ig h e r ) in u r b a n a r e a s .\nb u d g e ts c a n b e s c a le d to f a m ilie s of v a r io u s s iz e s a n d ty p e s liv in g in\nd if f e r e n t a r e a s of th e U n ite d S ta te s .\nS ee U. S. D e p a r tm e n t of L a b o r ,\nB u r e a u of L a b o r S t a t i s t i c s , B L S B u lle tin s 15 7 0 -1 to 1 5 7 0 -6 (1 9 6 8 -1 9 7 0 ).\nC h a p te r 7. P e n sio n P lan s and R etirem ent B e n efits\nU n le s s c o m p e lle d to r e t i r e f r o m th e la b o r f o r c e b e c a u s e o f d i s \na b i l i t y o r i l l h e a lth , m a n y m e n r e t i r e p a r t i a l l y in t h e i r e a r l y s ix tie s\n( s o m e in t h e i r la te f if tie s ) , b y s w itc h in g f r o m f u l l - t i m e y e a r - r o u n d w o rk\nto p a r t - t i m e p a r t - y e a r w o r k .\nT h e n , d e p e n d in g o n th e s a t i s f a c t i o n s a n d\nd e m a n d s o f t h e i r w o rk , th e y fu lly r e t i r e f r o m a ll g a in fu l a c ti v ity in t h e i r\nl a t e s ix tie s a n d e a r l y s e v e n tie s a s t h e i r m e n ta l a n d p h y s ic a l c a p a b iliti e s\nd e c lin e o r t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a n d n e e d s s h if t to o th e r a c t i v i t i e s .\nA lth o u g h fu ll b e n e f its a r e n o t p a y a b le u n til a g e 65 u n d e r s o c ia l\ns e c u r i t y a n d m o s t p r i v a t e p e n s io n p la n s , t h r e e f a c t o r s e n c o u r a g e m e n to\nr e t i r e f r o m fu ll e m p lo y m e n t b e f o r e th e y a tta in th a t a g e .\nT w o o f th e m ---th e p r e v a le n c e o f p h y s ic a l a n d m e n ta l d i s a b i l i t i e s a n d i l l h e a lth a m o n g\no l d e r w o r k e r s a n d th e d is c r i m i n a t i o n s a n d o th e r d if f ic u ltie s th e y e n \nc o u n te r in g e ttin g r e g u l a r f u l l - t i m e jo b s — a r e d i s c u s s e d in o th e r c h a p t e r s .\nT h e t h i r d f a c to r — p u b lic a n d p r i v a t e p e n s io n p la n s — e n c o u r a g e s o ld e r\nw o r k e r s to r e t i r e b y m e e tin g s o m e o f t h e i r f in a n c ia l r e q u i r e m e n t s b u t,\na t th e s a m e tim e , d is c o u r a g e s th e m f r o m c e a s in g a l l g a in fu l a c ti v ity ,\nb e c a u s e a lo n e , o r e v e n in c o m b in a tio n , th e s e p la n s u s u a l l y do n o t e n a b le\nw o r k e r s to m a in ta in th e s ta n d a r d o f liv in g th e y d e s i r e .\nM an y o ld e r p e r \ns o n s r e s o lv e t h i s c o n f lic t a n d f u lf ill t h e i r n e e d f o r m e a n in g fu l a c ti v ity —\n" p s y c h ic in c o m e " — a n d f o r c o n ta c t w ith o th e r p e o p le b y w o rk in g p a r t tim e\no r p a rt y e ar.\nT h e m ix tu r e o f e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d d is c o u r a g e m e n t s te m s f r o m t h r e e\nc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e b e n e f its p r o v id e d b y t h e s e p la n s ; (1) t h e i r a v a i l \na b i l i t y to e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s , (2) t h e i r a v a il a b ili ty b e f o r e a g e 65, an d\n(3) t h e i r l i m i t e d a d e q u a c y .\nT h e r e f o r e , m a n y w o r k e r s c a n a n d do p a r \nt i a l l y r e t i r e a s e a r l y a s a g e 62 on s o c ia l s e c u r i t y , b e c a u s e r e d u c e d\nb e n e f its c o m m e n c in g a t th a t a g e a r e p a y a b le to q u a lif ie d w o r k e r s w ith o u t\nf u r t h e r r e d u c tio n i f t h e i r e a r n in g s a r e b e lo w $ 1 , 680 a y e a r . 1 M an y o th e r\np u b lic a n d p r i v a t e p e n s io n p la n s a ls o p a y p e n s io n s , u s u a ll y r e d u c e d b e \nc a u s e o f a g e , to\nm e m b e r s w ith th e r e q u i s i t e a m o u n t o f s e r v i c e 2, w ho\nr e t i r e f r o m a jo b c o v e r e d b y th e p la n b e f o r e a g e 65, 3 a n d p e r m i t th e m\nto e a r n a ll th e y c a n f r o m w o rk in g .\nA s a r e s u l t , m o r e th a n h a lf th e m e n a w a r d e d s o c ia l s e c u r i t y r e t i r e \nm e n t b e n e f its in\nr e c e n t y e a r s a r e u n d e r a g e 6 5 . T w o o u t o f fiv e o f\nth e m c o n tin u e to\nw o rk c h ie f ly b e c a u s e of th e lo w le v e l of s u c h b e n e f its\na n d t h e i r in e lig ib ili ty , in m o s t in s t a n c e s , f o r a n o th e r p e n s io n .\na d d itio n , m a n y c o n tin u e to w o rk n o t o n ly f o r t h e s e r e a s o n s b u t a ls o\nb e c a u s e o f th e n e e d f o r a m e a n in g fu l p u r p o s e in l if e .\nIn f a c t, th e s m a l l e r t h e i r s o c ia l s e c u r i t y b e n e f its th e l e s s lik e ly\nth e y a r e to g e t a p r i v a t e p e n s io n a n d th e m o r e l i k e l y th e y a r e to do\nso m e w o rk .\nF e w e r th a n o n e o u t o f t h i r t y m a r r i e d m e n a w a r d e d s o c ia l\ns e c u r i t y b e n e f its u n d e r $ 1 3 0 a m o n th in th e l a t t e r h a lf o f 1969, f o r\ne x a m p le , a ls o r e c e i v e d p r i v a t e p e n s io n s c o m p a r e d w ith o v e r h a lf o f th o s e\na w a r d e d l a r g e r b e n e f its .\nA s a r e s u l t , a l m o s t h a lf th e m a r r i e d c o u p le s\na n d t w o - t h i r d s o f th e s in g le p e r s o n s i n i t i a l l y e n title d to s o c ia l s e c u r i t y\nr e t i r e d w o r k e r b e n e f its in la te 1969 h a d r e t i r e m e n t in c o m e s (p e n s io n s\np lu s in c o m e f r o m a s s e t s ) b e lo w th e p o v e r ty t h r e s h o l d a s p u b lis h e d b y th e\nD e p a r tm e n t o f H e a lth , E d u c a tio n , a n d W e l f a r e . 4 O n ly a b o u t o n e in fo u r\nc o u p le s a n d th e s a m e p r o p o r tio n of s in g le p e r s o n s c o u ld a f f o r d th e B L S\nin te r m e d ia te le v e l o f liv in g on t h e i r r e t i r e m e n t in c o m e s .\nH o w e v e r, w h e n\nth e y s u p p le m e n te d th is b y t h e i r e a r n in g s a b o u t t h r e e o u t o f fiv e c o u p le s\na n d n e a r l y h a lf th e s in g le p e r s o n s c o u ld a f f o r d th a t le v e l.\n(In 1969, th is\nw a s $ 4 ,2 3 0 a y e a r f o r a c o u p le a n d $ 2 ,3 2 5 f o r s in g le p e r s o n s . ) N e v e r \nt h e l e s s , m a n y w h o s e r e t i r e m e n t in c o m e f r o m s o c ia l s e c u r i t y an d p r iv a te\np e n s io n s is s u f f ic ie n t to m a in ta in t h e i r d e s i r e d s ta n d a r d o f liv in g n e e d\nm o r e th a n c a n b e s u p p lie d b y m o n e y a lo n e .\nT h ey p e rc e iv e a n eed —\nw h ic h is v e r y r e a l to th e m — to h a v e a m e a n in g fu l p u r p o s e in lif e .\na p u r p o s e c a n b e , a n d f o r m a n y i s , s a t i s f i e d b y c o m m u n ity s e r v i c e .\nF o r o t h e r s , s u c h a n e e d c a n o n ly b e s a t i s f i e d b y g a in fu l e m p lo y m e n t.\nA p a r t f r o m s o c ia l s e c u r i t y , p e n s io n s a r e\nth e c h ie f s o u r c e s o f\nr e t i r e m e n t in c o m e .\nIn la te 1969, p r i v a t e p e n s io n s w e r e r e c e i v e d b y\na b o u t o n e o f f o u r m a r r i e d c o u p le s n e w ly e n title d to s o c ia l s e c u r i t y b e n e \nf it s (e x c lu d in g th o s e r e t i r e d f r o m g o v e r n m e n t a n d r a i l r o a d jo b s n o t\nc o v e r e d b y s o c i a l s e c u r ity ) , b y one o u t o f s ix s in g le m e n , a n d b y one o u t\no f e ig h t s in g le w o m e n .\nA s u b s ta n tia l m a j o r i t y o f w o r k e r s do n o t o b ta in a n y p e n s io n c o v e r \na g e o r do n o t a c q u ir e s u f f ic ie n t y e a r s of c o n tin u o u s c o v e r a g e d u r in g t h e i r\ne n t i r e w o rk in g lif e to q u a lify f o r a p r i v a t e p la n b e n e f it.\nT h e in c id e n c e\no f n o n c o v e r a g e i s h ig h e s t a m o n g th o s e w ho w o r k in t r a d e , s e r v i c e s , an d\nc o n s tr u c tio n ; th e d e g r e e of c o v e r a g e o r p o te n tia l c o v e r a g e i s g r e a t e s t f o r\nth o s e w ho w o rk f o r f i r m s in m in in g a n d m a n u f a c tu r in g .\nE v en am ong\nth e s e i n d u s t r i e s , h o w e v e r, w o r k e r s ' c h a n c e s o f o b ta in in g p e n s io n b e n e f its\na r e l e s s i f th e y a r e e m p lo y e d b y s m a l l n o n u n io n f i r m s th a n i f th e y w o rk\nf o r i n d u s t r i a l g ia n ts o r f o r f i r m s w ith c o lle c tiv e b a r g a in in g a g r e e m e n t s .\nIn th e a g g r e g a te , a b o u t 55 p e r c e n t o f a l l p r i v a t e n o n a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r s\na r e e m p lo y e d b y f i r m s th a t h a v e e i t h e r a p r i v a t e p e n s io n p la n , a d e f e r r e d\np r o f i t - s h a r i n g p la n , o r b o th .\nH o w e v e r, a b o u t 40 p e r c e n t of th e s e w o r k e r s\ndo n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e i r c o m p a n ie s ' p la n s b e c a u s e th e y a r e s h o r t - t e r m\ne m p lo y e e s o r b e c a u s e th e y a r e e x c lu d e d fo r o th e r r e a s o n s . 5 M o r e o v e r ,\nm a n y o f th e w o r k e r s n o t c o v e r e d b y a p r i v a t e p e n s io n p la n h a v e l i t t l e\np r o s p e c t o f e v e r o b ta in in g a n y c o v e r a g e u n le s s th e y c a n o b ta in s te a d y\ne m p lo y m e n t w ith a l a r g e f i r m o r w ith a u n io n iz e d f i r m .\nT h o s e w ho g a in\ne m p lo y m e n t w ith a s m a l l u n io n iz e d f i r m do n o t h a v e m u c h c h a n c e of\ng a in in g a n y p e n s io n b e n e f it u n le s s th e f i r m p a r t i c i p a t e s in a m u ltie m p lo y e r\nS u ch p la n s a r e fo u n d in m a n y i n d u s t r i e s , b u t a r e p r e v a le n t c h ie f ly\nin a p p a r e l m a n u f a c tu r in g , c o n s tr u c tio n , tr u c k in g , an d th e m in in g i n d u s t r i e s .\nT h e p r i v a t e p la n p r o v is io n s c o v e r in g th o s e w ho do p a r t i c i p a t e in\np r i v a t e p e n s io n p la n s h a v e b e e n , a n d a r e e x p e c te d to c o n tin u e to b e ,\nlib e ra liz e d .\nD u rin g th e l a t t e r p a r t of th e 1 9 6 0 's , f o r e x a m p le , s h a r p\nim p r o v e m e n ts o c c u r r e d in th e r e t i r e m e n t f o r m u la s o f p r i v a t e p la n s , an d\ne a r l y r e t i r e m e n t a n d v e s ti n g 6 p r o v is io n s w e r e in tr o d u c e d o r l i b e r a l i z e d .\nB y th e en d o f th e d e c a d e , m o r e th a n t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f th e w o r k e r s\nc o v e r e d b y p r i v a t e p e n s io n p la n s w e r e in p la n s th a t h a d a v e s tin g p r o \nv is io n , a n d m o r e th a n n in e - te n th s w e r e in p la n s w ith v e s tin g , e a r l y\nr e t i r e m e n t , o r b o th .\nA t th e b e g in n in g o f th e d e c a d e , o n ly a b o u t 59 p e r \nc e n t of th e c o v e r e d w o r k e r s w e r e in p la n s w ith v e s tin g a n d a b o u t 82\np e r c e n t w e r e in p la n s w ith e i t h e r v e s tin g , e a r l y r e t i r e m e n t , o r b o th .\nIn 1969, a b o u t 84 p e r c e n t o f a ll c o v e r e d w o r k e r s p a r t i c i p a t e d in\np la n s th a t g r a n te d a b e n e f it r ig h t b y a g e 55 u n d e r e i t h e r th e n o r m a l,\ne a r l y , o r v e s tin g p r o v is io n of th e p la n to m e m b e r s w ho h a d th e r e q u i s i t e\nA lm o s t t h r e e - f i f t h s c o u ld g a in s u c h a r i g h t b y a g e 40, an d\na b o u t t w o - t h i r d s b y a g e 4 5, i f th e y a ls o m e t th e s e r v i c e r e q u i r e m e n t s .\nIn g e n e r a l, m o s t w o r k e r s p a r t i c i p a t e d in p la n s th a t r e q u ir e d n o t m o r e\nth a n 15 y e a r s o f s e r v i c e , a n d a lm o s t tw o - f if th s o f th e m in p la n s th a t\nr e q u i r e d 10 y e a r s o r fe w e r to q u a lify f o r a n o n f o r f e ita b le b e n e f it r ig h t.\nT o g a in th e s e r i g h t s , h o w e v e r, w o r k e r s h a d to m e e t a n ag o , s e r v i c e ,\no r , m o r e o fte n , a c o m b in a tio n o f a g e a n d s e r v i c e r e q u i r e m e n t s .\nr e q u i r e m e n t s of th e p la n p r o v is io n s p r e v a ilin g in 1969 c a n b e i l l u s t r a t e d\ng e n e r a lly b y c o n s id e r in g 100 w o r k e r s w ho e n t e r e d c o v e r e d e m p lo y m e n t a t\na g e 25.\nU n d e r th e 1969 p r o v is io n s , i f th e s e w o r k e r s , who r e p r e s e n t a ll\nc o v e r e d w o r k e r s , r e m a i n w ith t h e i r p la n f o r 10 y e a r s , o n ly 31 of th e m\nw ill h a v e g a in e d a n o n f o r f e ita b le r ig h t to a p e n s io n b e n e f it; if th e y r e \nm a in f o r 15 y e a r s , 51 o f th e m w ill h a v e a c h ie v e d s u c h a r ig h t; a n d a f t e r\n20 y e a r s o n ly 57 o f th e m w o u ld a tta in a n o n f o r f e ita b le r ig h t to a p e n s io n\nb e n e f it.\nA t a n y o f th e s e s e r v i c e - a g e s , v i r t u a l l y a ll 57 w o u ld h a v e g a in e d\nt h e i r b e n e f it r ig h t u n d e r th e v e s tin g p r o v is io n s of t h e i r p la n , b e c a u s e th e\ne a r l y r e t i r e m e n t p r o v is io n s u s u a ll y do n o t b e c o m e o p e r a tiv e u n til th e\nw o r k e r r e a c h e s 55 a n d n o r m a l r e t i r e m e n t r a r e l y o c c u r s b e f o r e a g e 60.\nS h o u ld th e 100 w o r k e r s h a v e e n te r e d in to t h e i r c o v e r e d e m p lo y m e n t a t\na g e 30 in s te a d o f 25, h o w e v e r, m o r e th a n t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f th e m w o u ld\nh a v e g a in e d a n o n f o r f e ita b le r ig h t a f t e r 20 y e a r s o f s e r v i c e .\nSom e of\nt h e s e w o u ld b e c o m e e lig ib le f o r e a r l y r e t i r e m e n t a f t e r 20 y e a r s o f s e r v i c e ,\na n d b y a g e 55 a b o u t t h r e e - f o t i r t h s o f th e m w o u ld h a v e q u a lif ie d f o r e a r l y\nre tire m e n t.7\nA s in d ic a te d p r e v io u s ly , e m p lo y m e n t b y a f i r m w ith a p r i v a t e p la n\nis n o t ta n ta m o u n t to b e in g c o v e r e d b y th e p la n .\nS o m e p la n s r e q u i r e th e\na tta in m e n t of a s p e c if ie d a g e o r le n g th o f s e r v i c e , o r b o th , b e f o r e a n ew\ne m p lo y e e is e lig ib le to p a r t i c i p a t e . U s u a lly th e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e ju s t i f i e d\non th e b a s i s of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o s t an d th e u n c e r ta in te n u r e o f n ew e m p lo y e e s .\nH o w e v e r, th e a d o p tio n of a p a r t i c i p a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s ig n if ie s m o r e th a n a d \nm i n i s t r a t i v e c o n v e n ie n c e , s in c e t h r e e - f o u r t h s of th e p la n s w ith p a r tic ip a tio n\nr e q u ir e r n e n ts do n o t g iv e c r e d i t f o r e m p lo y m e n t s e r v e d b e f o r e jo in in g th e\np la n , e i t h e r in q u a lify in g f o r a p e n s io n o r in c o m p u tin g th e p e n s io n b e n e \nf it .\nT h e s e p la n s c o v e r e d a b o u t t h r e e - f o u r th s o f th e w o r k e r s in p la n s w ith\np a rtic ip a tio n re q u ire m e n ts .\n1 F o r e a c h $ 2 in a n n u a l e a r n in g s f r o m $ 1 ,6 8 0 to $ 2 ,8 8 0 , $1 in\nb e n e f its is w ith h e ld a n d f o r e a c h $1 o v e r $ 2 ,8 8 0 , $ 1 in b e n e f its is\nw ith h e ld .\nH o w e v e r, fu ll b e n e f its a r e p a y a b le , r e g a r d l e s s of a n n u a l\ne a r n in g s , f o r an y m o n th in w h ic h th e b e n e f ic ia r y e a r n e d l e s s th a n $ 140.\n2 U s u a lly 20 to 30 y e a r s .\n3 A ge 55 in tw o o u t of t h r e e p r i v a t e p la n s a n d in m o s t p la n s f o r\ng o v e r n m e n t e m p lo y e e s .\n4 S o c ia l S e c u r ity B u lle tin , J u ly 1971, p p . 1 1 -1 7 .\nIn 1969, th e p o v \ne r t y th r e s h o ld f o r m a r r i e d c o u p le s w a s $ 2 ,2 0 0 an d f o r s in g le p e r s o n s ,\n$ 1 ,7 5 0 .\nF o o t n o t e s — C o n t in u e d\n5 E m e r s o n B e i e r , " I n c id e n c e of p r i v a t e r e t i r e m e n t p la n s , " M o n th ly\nL a b o r R e v ie w , J u ly 1971, p p . 3 7 -4 0 .\n6 V e s tin g is d e fin e d a s a g u a r a n te e to th e w o r k e r o f a r ig h t in a\np e n s io n p la n b a s e d on a l l o r p a r t o f h is a c c r u e d r e t i r e m e n t b e n e f its\ns h o u ld h is e m p lo y m e n t t e r m i n a t e b e f o r e h e b e c o m e s e lig ib le f o r r e t i r e \nm e n t b e n e f its ; th a t i s , if h is r ig h t s a r e v e s te d , th e w o r k e r is e n title d to\na r e t i r e m e n t b e n e f it w h e n h e r e a c h e s r e t i r e m e n t a g e , r e g a r d l e s s o f\nw h e re h e m a y b e a t th e tim e .\n7 H a r r y E . D a v is a n d A rn o ld S t r a s s e r , " P r i v a t e P e n s io n P la n s ,\nI9 6 0 to 1969— A n O v e r v ie w ," M o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w , J u ly 1970,\np p . 4 5 -5 6 .\nC h a p te r 8. J o b P e rfo rm a n c e and Tra in in g Potential\nC o m p a r is o n o f jo b p e r f o r m a n c e s c o r e s b y a g e in d ic a te s th a t r e f u s a l\nto h i r e o ld e r w o r k e r s h a s l i t t l e m e r i t , e x c e p t f o r p o s itio n s w ith d e m a n d \nin g p h y s ic a l r e q u i r e m e n t s .\nS tu d ie s o f th e r e l a t i v e w o rk p e r f o r m a n c e o f o ld e r a n d y o u n g e r\nw o r k e r s c o n d u c te d b y th e B u r e a u o f L a b o r S ta t i s t i c s in th e la te 1 9 5 0 's\na n d e a r l y 1 9 6 0 's in d ic a te d no c o n s is te n t p a t t e r n o f s u p e r i o r p r o d u c tiv ity\nin a n y a g e g r o u p . 1 A c tu a l r e c o r d s of w o rk p e r f o r m e d s h o w e d g r e a t e r\nd if f e r e n c e s in p r o d u c tiv ity w ith in a g e g ro u p s th a n a m o n g d if f e r e n t a g e s .\nL a r g e p r o p o r tio n s of w o r k e r s in th e o ld e r g ro u p s e x c e e d e d th e a v e r a g e\np e r f o r m a n c e of y o u n g e r w o r k e r s .\nM o r e o v e r , o ld e r w o r k e r s h a d a\ns t e a d i e r r a t e of o u tp u t.\nR e s u lts w e r e s i m i l a r f o r e v e r y o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s u r v e y e d — o ffic e\nw o r k e r s , o p e r a t i v e s , a n d m a il s o r t e r s — a s w e ll a s f o r h ig h e r v e r s u s\nlo w e r s k ille d w o r k e r s , a n d tim e v e r s u s in c e n tiv e w o r k e r s .\na tte n d a n c e a n d s a f e ty r e c o r d s of o ld e r w o r k e r s w e r e fo u n d to e q u a l o r\ne x c e e d th o s e o f y o u n g e r w o r k e r s g e n e r a lly .\nA c o m p a r is o n o f th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f o l d e r a n d y o u n g e r w o r k e r s\n( m a in te n a n c e m e c h a n ic s , e n g in e e r s , c r a f t s m e n , a n d te le p h o n e o p e r a t o r s )\nin i n d u s t r i a l r e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s s u g g e s ts th a t a g e b y i t s e l f i s n o t a\nr e l i a b l e c r i t e r i o n f o r d e te r m in in g th e s u ita b ility o f w o r k e r s f o r tr a i n i n g .\nA lth o u g h y o u n g e r w o r k e r s p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r on th e a v e r a g e o v e r a l l th a n\no ld e r w o r k e r s , in d iv id u a l o ld e r w o r k e r s p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r th a n th e a v e r \nag e y o u n g er w o r k e r .2\nM o r e o v e r , a v e r a g e d if f e r e n c e s in th e s u c c e s s o f t r a i n i n g o ld e r a n d\ny o u n g e r w o r k e r s h a v e b e e n fo u n d to d im in is h w h e n e d u c a tio n is h e ld c o n \ns ta n t .\nD if f e r e n c e s a r e f u r t h e r m in im iz e d b y a d a p tin g te a c h in g m e th o d s\nto th e l e a r n in g a b i l i t i e s o f o ld e r w o r k e r s , f o r e x a m p le , s t r e s s i n g s im u \nla t e d e x e r c i s e s r a t h e r th a n l e c t u r e s . 3\n1 S e e , f o r e x a m p le , J a m e s F . W a lk e r , " T h e J o b P e r f o r m a n c e o f\nF e d e r a l M a il S o r t e r s by A ge, " M o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w , M a r c h 1964;\nU. S. D e p a r tm e n t o f L a b o r , B u r e a u o f L a b o r S t a t i s t i c s , C o m p a r a tiv e J o b\nP e r f o r m a n c e b y A ge: O ffic e W o r k e r s , B L S B u lle tin 1273, I9 6 0 ; J o b\nr m a n c e a n d A g e:\nS tu d -----------------------------_ e r f-o------------------------------- A -------- y in M e a s u r e m e n t, B L S B u lle tin 1203,\n2 U. S„ D e p a r tm e n t o f L a b o r, B u r e a u o f L a b o r S t a t i s t i c s , I n d u s t r i a l\nR e la tio n s P r o g r a m s f o r T e c h n o lo g ic a l C h an g e : A S tu d y o f th e P e r f o r m \na n c e o f O ld e r W o r k e r s , B L S B u lle tin 1368, 1963.\n3 IL KL B e lb in , T r a in i n g M e th o d s f o r O ld e r W o r k e r s . O r g a n iz a tio n\nf o r E c o n o m ic C o - o p e r a tio n a n d D e v e lo p m e n t, (O E C D ) P a r i s , 1965.\nC h a p te r 9. J o b D iscrim ination\nIn a s u r v e y o f e m p lo y e d p e r s o n s in 1969, o v e r h a lf a m illio n\nw o r k e r s 45 y e a r s o f a g e a n d o ld e r in d ic a te d th a t th e y h a d e x p e r ie n c e d\nd i s c r i m i n a t i o n on th e j o b . 1 T h e n u m b e r o f w o r k e r s w ho e n c o u n te r a g e\nd i s c r i m i n a t i o n in s e e k in g e m p lo y m e n t m a y b e f a r g r e a t e r , a c c o r d in g to\nd a ta on d i s c r i m i n a t o r y e m p lo y m e n t p r a c t i c e s .\nT h e A ge D is c r im in a tio n in E m p lo y m e n t A c t (A D EA ), e n a c te d by th e\nU . S. C o n g r e s s in 1967, 2 p r o h ib i ts d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a in s t w o r k e r s 4 0 -6 5\ny e a rs of ag e.\nT h e la w s t a t e s " . . . t h e p u r p o s e o f t h is A c t ( is ) to p r o \nm o te e m p lo y m e n t o f o l d e r p e r s o n s b a s e d on t h e i r a b ility r a t h e r th a n a g e ;\nto p r o h ib i t a r b i t r a r y a g e d i s c r im in a tio n in e m p lo y m e n t; to h e lp e m p lo y e r s\na n d w o r k e r s fin d w a y s o f m e e tin g p r o b le m s a r i s i n g f r o m th e im p a c t o f\na g e on e m p lo y m e n t."\nT h e a c t p r o t e c t s w o r k e r s f r o m a g e d is c r im in a tio n\nb y e m p lo y e r s t h a t h a v e 25 e m p lo y e e s o r m o r e ; b y e m p lo y m e n t a g e n c ie s\ns e r v in g c o v e r e d e m p lo y e r s ; a n d b y la b o r o r g a iiiz a tio n s th a t h a v e 25\nm e m b e r s o r m o r e , o r th a t m a k e r e f e r r a l s to c o v e r e d e m p lo y e r s o r th a t\nr e p r e s e n t e m p lo y e e s o f c o v e r e d e m p lo y e r s . 3\nT h e A D E A i s a d m i n i s t e r e d b y th e U .S . D e p a r tm e n t o f L a b o r .\nV o lu n ta r y c o m p lia n c e is so u g h t, b u t le g a l a c tio n m a y b e in it i a t e d e i t h e r\nb y th e D e p a r tm e n t o r th e in d iv id u a l if s u c h e f f o r t s f a il.\nD u rin g f i s c a l\n1970, 14, 000 e s ta b lis h m e n ts w h ic h w e r e c o n ta c te d in f o r m a l ly r e m o v e d\np o te n tia lly d i s c r i m i n a t o r y e m p lo y m e n t p r a c t i c e s a f f e c tin g o v e r 500, 000\nI n v e s tig a tio n s w e r e c o n d u c te d in a n a d d itio n a l 1 0 ,4 0 0 e s t a b l i s h \nm e n ts , of w h ic h 2, 200 w e r e fo u n d in v io la tio n o f th e a c t.\nI l l e g a l a d v e r t i s i n g w a s b y f a r th e le a d in g n o n c o m p lia n c e p r a c t i c e in\nf i s c a l 1970; i t a c c o u n te d f o r h a lf th e p r a c t i c e s of w h ic h e m p lo y e r s w e r e\nfo u n d in v io la tio n , a n d t w o - t h i r d s o f th o s e o f w h ic h e m p lo y m e n t a g e n c ie s\nw e r e fo u n d in v io la tio n .\nR e f u s a l to h i r e a c c o u n te d f o r a b o u t o n e - f o u r th\na n d p r o m o tio n a l b a r s f o r a b o u t o n e - te n th o f th e v io la tio n s o f e m p lo y e r s .\nD is c h a r g e s a c c o u n te d f o r a s m a l l f r a c tio n , a b o u t o n e - tw e n ty fifth .\ne m p lo y m e n t a g e n c ie s , f a i l u r e to r e f e r c o n s titu te d m o s t o f th e v io la tio n s\no th e r th a n i l l e g a l a d v e r tis i n g .\nO ne la b o r o r g a n iz a ti o n w a s fo u n d in n o n c o m p lia n c e , f o r e x c lu d in g a w o r k e r f r o m u n io n m e m b e r s h i p b e c a u s e o f\nM o n e ta ry d a m a g e s p a id to in d iv id u a ls b y e s ta b lis h m e n ts in n o n c o m \np lia n c e h a v e i n c r e a s e d , f r o m $ 4 0 , 000 in 1969, th e f i r s t y e a r th e a c t\nw a s in e f f e c t, to a lm o s t $ 7 4 0 , 000 in 1971 ( f is c a l y e a r s ) .\nO n e of th e f i r s t in ju n c tio n s i s s u e d u n d e r th e A g e D is c r im in a tio n in\nE m p lo y m e n t A c t c a m e w ith a r e c e n t r u lin g o f th e U. S. D i s t r i c t C o u rt in\nM in n e s o ta th a t c o m p u ls o r y r e t i r e m e n t p r o v is io n s in a n e m p lo y e r 's p e n \ns io n p la n m a y n o t b e u s e d to f o r c e e a r l y r e t i r e m e n t of n o n p a r t i c i p a n t s . 4\nIn a d d itio n to F e d e r a l p r o h ib itio n s o n a g e d i s c r im in a tio n , 27 s t a t e s\na n d P u e r t o R ic o h a d a g e d is c r i m i n a t i o n in e m p lo y m e n t la w s in 1970.\nNo a g e l i m i t s w e r e s p e c if ie d in th e la w s o f A la s k a , H a w a ii, a n d M a in e .\nL o w e r a g e l i m i t s in th e r e m a in in g s t a t e s r a n g e d f r o m 18 y e a r s in\nC o lo ra d o , M a r y la n d , a n d N ew M e x ic o to 45 y e a r s in D e la w a re , I llin o is ,\na n d R hode I s la n d .\nU n d e r S ta te le g is la ti o n , c o v e r a g e o f e s ta b lis h m e n ts\ng e n e r a lly i s e x te n d e d to f i r m s th a t h a v e a m in im u m of 3 to 6 e m p lo y e e s ,\nb u t in e le v e n s t a t e s l e g i s l a t i o n a p p lie d to a ll e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , i r r e s p e c t i v e\nof s iz e .\n1 S u rv e y o f W o rk in g C o n d itio n s , U n iv e r s ity of M ic h ig a n , S u rv e y\nR e s e a r c h C e n te r , 1971.\n2 P u b lic L aw 9 0 -2 0 2 ; e ffe c tiv e d a te , J u n e 1968.\n3 E m p lo y e e s o f F e d e r a l , S ta te a n d lo c a l g o v e r n m e n ts a r e n o t c o v e r e d\nu n d e r th e a c t.\nP r o t e c t i o n a g a in s t a g e d is c r i m i n a t i o n i s a f f o r d e d F e d e r a l\ne m p lo y e e s , h o w e v e r, voider 5 U . S. C . 3307 w h ic h p r o h ib i ts e s ta b lis h m e n t\no f a m a x im u m a g e l i m i t in f illin g p o s itio n s in th e c o m p e titiv e s e r v i c e .\nA P r e s i d e n t i a l m e m o r a n d u m o f M a r c h 14, 1963, e x te n d e d t h is r e s t r i c t i o n\nto th e e x c e p te d s e r v i c e .\nE x e c u tiv e O r d e r 11141, F e b r u a r y 12, 1964,\ne x te n d e d th e p r in c ip le o f e q u a l e m p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s f o r o ld e r w o r k e r s\nto p r i v a t e f i r m s h o ld in g c o n t r a c t s an d s u b c o n tr a c ts w ith th e F e d e r a l\nG o v e rn m e n t.\nE m p lo y e e s o f S ta te a n d lo c a l g o v e r n m e n ts o fte n a r e c o v e r e d\nu n d e r S ta g e a g e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in e m p lo y m e n t la w s .\n4 S h u ltz v s . A m e r ic a n H a r d w a r e M u tu a l I n s u r a n c e C o m p a n y ( J u ly 1,\n1 9 7 1).\nC h a pte r 10. E ducation\nO ld e r w o r k e r s a s a g ro u p h a v e l e s s e d u c a tio n th a n y o u n g e r w o r k e r s .\nIn M a r c h 1970, th o s e a g e d 4 5 -5 4 a v e r a g e d 1 2 .3 y e a r s of s c h o o lin g (m e d ia n ),\n0 .4 y e a r s l e s s th a n w o r k e r s 2 0 -2 4 y e a r s of a g e .\nE d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t\nd e c lin e d to 1 1 .8 y e a r s f o r w o r k e r s a g e d 5 5 -6 4 a n d to 9 .6 y e a r s f o r th o s e\n65 y e a r s of a g e a n d o v e r .\nT h e e d u c a tio n g ap b e tw e e n w h ite an d m in o r ity w o r k e r s is g r e a t e s t\nf o r o ld e r w o r k e r s : 3 .6 y e a r s f o r th o s e 55 y e a r s a n d o v e r , n in e tim e s\nth e g a p f o r th o s e a g e d 2 5 -3 4 y e a r s .\nT he d if f e r e n c e s in th e m e d ia n e d u c a tio n of o ld e r a n d y o u n g e r w o r k e r s\nis l e s s , h o w e v e r, th a n th e d if f e r e n c e in th e m e d ia n e d u c a tio n of th e o ld e r\nan d y o u n g e r p o p u la tio n .\nW o r k e r s w ith th e lo w e s t e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t\na r e m o r e lik e ly to w ith d ra w f r o m th e la b o r f o r c e .\nIn th e a g e g ro u p 5 5 64, f o r e x a m p le , th e m e d ia n e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t of m e n w ho w e r e in\nth e la b o r f o r c e in M a r c h 1970 w a s a b o u t 2*/2 y e a r s h ig h e r th a n th a t of\nth o s e w ho h a d w ith d ra w n f r o m th e la b o r f o r c e .\nT a b le H sh o w s la b o r f o r c e p a r tic ip a tio n r a t e s b y y e a r s of s c h o o l\nc o m p le te d .\nT h e h o ld in g p o w e r of e d u c a tio n is i l l u s t r a t e d b y th e f a c t th a t\nth e la b o r f o r c e p a r tic ip a tio n r a t e of a ll m a le s 5 5 -6 4 y e a r s of a g e w as\n14 p e r c e n ta g e p o in ts lo w e r th a n f o r a ll m a le s 3 5 -4 4 y e a r s , w h ile th e d i f \nf e r e n c e in p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s a m o n g h ig h ly e d u c a te d w o r k e r s w a s o n ly 5\np e r c e n ta g e p o in ts .\nE d u c a tio n a ls o is th e k e y to m a n y b e t t e r p a y in g o c c u p a tio n s . N o ta b le\nd if f e r e n c e s in th e p r o p o r tio n s of o ld e r an d y o u n g e r m a le w o r k e r s in th e\np r o f e s s i o n s , f o r e x a m p le , a r e a ttr ib u ta b le in p a r t to d if f e r e n c e s in e d u c a \ntio n a l a tta in m e n t.\nA m ong w o r k e r s 5 5 -6 4 , f o r e x a m p le , 11 p e r c e n t of\nw h o m h a v e f o u r y e a r s o r m o r e of c o lle g e , 10 p e r c e n t a r e in th e p r o f e s \ns io n s , w h ile a m o n g th o s e 3 5 -4 4 , 16 p e r c e n t of w h o m h a v e fo u r y e a r s of\nc o lle g e , 18 p e r c e n t a r e in th e p r o f e s s i o n s .\nT h e le v e l of e d u c a tio n of w o r k e r s is a n im p o r ta n t f a c t o r in d e t e r m i n \ning t h e i r u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e s .\nT h is is tr u e of b o th o ld e r an d y o u n g e r\nIn M a r c h 1970, th e u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e s f o r m e n a g e 5 5 -6 4\nw e r e 1 .5 f o r th o s e w ith f o u r y e a r s of c o lle g e , 2 .5 f o r th o s e w ith fo u r\ny e a r s of h ig h s c h o o l e d u c a tio n , an d 3. 5 f o r th o s e w ith an e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l\nA m ong m e n w ith a h ig h s c h o o l e d u c a tio n , th e d if f e r e n c e b e \ntw e e n th e u n e m p lo y m e n t r a t e of th o s e a g e 3 5 -4 4 an d th o s e 5 5 -6 4 w as o n ly\n0 .5 p e r c e n ta g e p o in ts .\nLabor force participation rates o f the population, by age and sex, and years of school completed,\nYears of sch ool c o m p leted\nT o ta l 18\n4 5 to 54\nT otal ----------------------------------Elem entary:\nLess than 5 y e a r s 1 —\n5 to 7 y e a r s -------------8 y ears--------------------H igh school: 1 to 3 y e a r s -------------4 y e a r s --------------------C o lleg e:\n1 to 3 y e a r s-------------4 y e a r s ------ ------------5 years or m o re--------\n5 2 ,6\nT o t a l----------------------------------E lem entray:\nLess than 5 y e a r s1---5 to 7 years-------------8 years -------------------H igh school: 1 to 3 y e a r s -------------4 y e a r s --------------------C o lleg e:\n1 to 3 y e a r s -------------4 y e a r s --------------------5 years or m o r e -------\n1 Includes persons reporting no sch ool years c o m p leted .\nC h a p te r 11. D e p a rtm e n t o f L ab o r M a n p o w e r\nP ro g ram s and S e rv ic e s\nT h e M a n p o w e r A d m in is tr a tio n 's p r i n c i p a l e f f o r t s f o r o ld e r w o r k e r s\nin c lu d e e m p lo y m e n t a s s i s t a n c e s e r v i c e s a n d m a n p o w e r w o rk a n d tr a in in g\np ro g ra m s.\nE m p lo y m e n t a s s i s t a n c e h a s b e e n p r o v id e d to o ld e r w o r k e r s\nb y th e M a n p o w e r A d m in is tr a tio n a n d a f f ili a te d S ta te e m p lo y m e n t s e r v i c e s\nf o r m a n y y e a r s u n d e r th e a u th o r ity of th e W a g n e r - P e y s e r A c t.\nw o rk a n d tr a i n i n g p r o g r a m s , f i r s t i n i tia te d in 1962, a r e c o n d u c te d u n d e r\nf o u r l e g i s l a t i v e a c ts : T h e M a n p o w e r D e v e lo p m e n t a n d T r a in in g A c t\n(M D T A ), th e E c o n o m ic O p p o rtu n ity A c t (E O A ), th e S o c ia l S e c u r ity A c t,\na s a m e n d e d , a n d th e r e c e n t l y e n a c te d E m e r g e n c y E m p lo y m e n t A c t (E E A ).\nIn a d d itio n , th e F e d e r a l - S t a t e U n e m p lo y m e n t I n s u r a n c e P r o g r a m p r o v id e s\ne x p e r ie n c e d w o r k e r s w ith in c o m e d u r in g p e r io d s o f u n e m p lo y m e n t.\nE m p lo y m e n t A s s i s t a n c e A c t i v i t i e s .\nT h ro u g h F e d e r a l g r a n ts S ta te s\no p e r a te o v e r 2, 300 l o c a l o f f ic e s of S ta te e m p lo y m e n t s e r v i c e s , w h ic h\ns e r v e th o s e s e e k in g o r n e e d in g e m p lo y m e n t a n d th o s e p r o v id in g it.\nG e n e r a l s e r v i c e s in c lu d e in te r v ie w in g , te s tin g , c o u n s e lin g , a n d r e f e r r a l to\np la c e m e n t o r to a p p r o p r i a t e tr a i n i n g o r o th e r s e r v i c e s in v o lv e d in r e a d y in g\nin d iv id u a ls f o r e m p lo y m e n t.\nS p e c ia liz e d s e r v i c e s to w o rk e rs a g e 45 a n d\no v e r in c lu d e s p e c ia liz e d jo b c o u n s e lin g , jo b d e v e lo p m e n t, r e f e r r a l to\ntr a i n i n g o r n e c e s s a r y h e a lth a n d s o c ia l s e r v i c e s a n d jo b p la c e m e n t.\nl im it e d n u m b e r o f lo c a l o ff ic e s h a v e o ld e r w o r k e r s e r v i c e u n its to in te n s if y\na n d in d iv id u a liz e s e r v i c e s to th is g ro u p .\nIn c a le n d a r y e a r 1969, th e\nE m p lo y m e n t S e r v ic e p r o c e s s e d a b o u t 1 .4 6 m illio n n ew a p p lic a tio n s f o r\ns e r v i c e s f r o m w o r k e r s 45 y e a r s o ld a n d o v e r , o r 15 p e r c e n t of to ta l n ew\na p p lic a tio n s .\nA b o u t 1 1 2 ,0 0 0 in itia l c o u n s e lin g in te r v ie w s w e r e p r o v id e d\nto o ld e r w o r k e r s , o r a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t of in te r v ie w s g iv e n to a ll a g e g r o u p s .\nA b o u t 1 .0 3 m illio n n o n a g r ic u ltu r a l p la c e m e n ts w e r e o ld e r r e c ip ie n t s , o r\n20 p e r c e n t o f t o ta l n o n a g r i c u l t u r a l p la c e m e n ts .\nM D T A I n s titu tio n a l T r a in i n g . I n s titu tio n a l T r a in in g u n d e r th e M a n \np o w e r D e v e lo p m e n t a n d T r a in in g A c t o f 1962, a s a m e n d e d , p r o v id e s\nc l a s s r o o m o c c u p a tio n a l tr a in in g , s u p p o r tiv e s e r v i c e s , a n d r e m e d ia l\ne d u c a tio n to e q u ip u n d e r e d u c a te d a n d u n e m p lo y e d in d iv id u a ls w ith th e s k ills\nth e y n e e d to o b ta in g a in fu l, s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g e m p lo y m e n t.\nE m p h a s is i s\np la c e d o n a id in g d is a d v a n ta g e d in d iv id u a ls w ho do n o t r e q u i r e s p e c ia l\nin te n s iv e a s s i s t a n c e .\nIn 1970, 1 in d iv id u a ls 45 y e a r s o ld an d o v e r r e p r e \ns e n te d 9 p e r c e n t o f f i r s t - t i m e e n r o llm e n ts in th e p r o g r a m o r a b o u t 1 1 ,7 0 0\ne n r o llm e n ts , th e h ig h e s t e n r o llm e n t in a b s o lu te n u m b e r s o f a l l m a n p o w e r\nw o rk a n d tr a i n i n g p r o g r a m s .\nJ o b O p p o r tu n itie s in th e B u s in e s s S e c to r (JO B S ). 2 JO B S i s a n a tio n \nw id e u n d e r ta k in g b y i n d u s t r y a n d g o v e rn m e n t to s tim u la te p r i v a t e i n d u s tr y\nto h i r e , t r a i n , a n d r e t r a i n u n e m p lo y e d p e r s o n s , a n d to u p g r a d e th e s k ills\no f p e o p le a l r e a d y e m p lo y e d .\nT h e p r o g r a m s e r v e s o n ly d is a d v a n ta g e d\nw o r k e r s a n d in v o lv e s a c o m m itm e n t by e m p lo y e r s to h i r e th e w o r k e r s f i r s t\na n d t r a i n th e m a f t e r w a r d .\nE m p lo y e r s a r e e n c o u r a g e d to p r o v id e n o t o n ly\njo b s an d tr a i n i n g b u t a ls o a fu ll r a n g e of s u p p o r tiv e s e r v i c e s , s u c h a s\nr e m e d i a l e d u c a tio n , p r e v o c a tio n a l a n d o n - th e - jo b s k ill t r a in in g , c o u n s e lin g ,\nt e s t i n g , a n d c o a c h in g r e q u i r e d to h e lp s e v e r e l y d is a d v a n ta g e d w o rk e rs\nm a k e a s a t i s f a c t o r y jo b a d ju s t m e n t.\nIn 1970, 4 p e r c e n t o f f i r s t - t i m e\ne n r o llm e n ts o f JO B S o r a b o u t 3, 500 e n r o llm e n ts w e r e 45 y e a r s o ld a n d\nT h e JO B O p tio n a l P r o g r a m 3 i s s i m i l a r in n a tu r e to JO B S .\nin te n d e d p r i m a r i l y to s e r v e d is a d v a n ta g e d p a r t i c i p a n t s in th o s e c a s e s\nw h e r e th e tr a i n i n g o b je c tiv e s c a n b e s a t i s f i e d w ith a lo w le v e l o f s u p p o r t\niv e a s s i s t a n c e .\nA b o u t 10, 000 in d iv id u a ls 45 y e a r s o f a g e a n d o v e r , o r\n11 p e r c e n t o f a l l f i r s t tim e e n r o llm e n ts , p a r t i c i p a t e d in M D T A o n - th e - jo b\ntr a i n i n g in 1970. (S ee ta b le J . )\nC o n c e n tr a te d E m p lo y m e n t P r o g r a m .\nT h e C o n c e n tr a te d E m p lo y m e n t\nP r o g r a m (C E P )4 is a s y s t e m f o r p a c k a g in g a n d d e liv e r in g m a n p o w e r\nW o rk in g th r o u g h a s in g le c o n tr a c t w ith a s in g le s p o n s o r ( u s \nu a lly a C o m m u n ity A c tio n A g e n c y ), th e M a n p o w e r A d m in is tr a tio n p r o v id e s\na f le x ib le p a c k a g e o f m a n p o w e r s e r v i c e s , in c lu d in g o u tr e a c h a n d r e c r u i t \nm e n t; o r ie n ta tio n ; c o u n s e lin g a n d jo b c o a c h in g ; b a s ic e d u c a tio n ; v a r io u s\nm e d ic a l, d a y c a r e , an d o th e r s u p p o r tiv e s e r v i c e s ; w o rk e x p e r ie n c e o r\nv o c a tio n a l tr a i n i n g u n d e r a v a r i e t y o f in d iv id u a l m a n p o w e r p r o g r a m s ; jo b\nd e v e lo p m e n t a n d p la c e m e n t; a n d in d iv id u a liz e d fo llo w u p a f t e r p la c e m e n t.\nP r o j e c t s a r e e s ta b lis h e d b y p r i o r i t y in u r b a n n e ig h b o rh o o d s o r r u r a l\na r e a s h a v in g s e r i o u s p r o b le m s o f u n e m p lo y m e n t an d u n d e r e m p lo y m e n t,\nc o o r d in a tin g a n d c o n c e n tr a tin g F e d e r a l m a n p o w e r e f f o r t s to a tta c k th e\nt o t a l e m p lo y m e n t p r o b le m s of th e h a r d e s t h it o f th e d is a d v a n ta g e d in a\nw a y th a t w ill m a k e a s ig n if ic a n t im p a c t o n th e t o t a l w e ll- b e in g o f th e a r e a .\nP o o r a n d u n e m p lo y e d in d iv id u a ls 45 y e a r s o r o ld e r , r e s i d e n t s o f a\nd e s ig n a te d C E P t a r g e t a r e a , a r e e lig ib le to r e c e i v e s e r v i c e s .\n8 p e r c e n t o f f i r s t - t i m e e n r o l l e e s o r a b o u t 8, 800 C E P e n r o l l e e s w e r e 45\ny e a r s o ld a n d o v e r . (S ee t a b le J . )\nW o rk I n c e n tiv e P r o g r a m (W IN ).\nT h e p u r p o s e o f th e W o rk In c e n tiv e\nP r o g r a m 5 i s to p r o v id e a ll th e s e r v i c e s a n d o p p o r tu n itie s n e c e s s a r y to\nm o v e A id to F a m i l i e s w ith D e p e n d e n t C h ild r e n (A FD C ) r e c i p i e n t s f r o m\nd e p e n d e n c y to s ta b l e e m p lo y m e n t a t a liv in g w a g e .\nW IN p r o v id e s a\nc o m p r e h e n s iv e p r o g r a m o f th e s e r v i c e s r e q u ir e d , in c lu d in g c h ild c a r e\na n d o th e r s u p p o r tiv e s e r v i c e s , fu n d e d th r o u g h a s in g le s o u r c e .\nW IN e n \nr o l l e e s a r e p r o v id e d w ith tr a i n i n g , e d u c a tio n a n d w o rk e x p e r ie n c e to\np r e p a r e th e m to u s e t h e i r p o te n tia ls in a jo b .\nW h e re s u ita b le w o rk\no p p o r tu n itie s in o th e r m a n p o w e r p r o g r a m s o r in th e jo b m a r k e t do n o t\ne x i s t , s p e c ia l w o rk p r o j e c t s m a y b e d e v e lo p e d f o r c e r t a i n in d iv id u a ls .\nE l d e r l y w e lf a r e r e c i p i e n t s c o v e r e d b y th e A F D C p r o g r a m a r e r e f e r r e d\nb y w e lf a r e a g e n c ie s to th e lo c a l o ffic e of th e S ta te E m p lo y m e n t S e r v ic e .\nIn 1970, p e r s o n s 45 y e a r s o ld a n d o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d 6 p e r c e n t o f f i r s t \ntim e e n r o llm e n ts in th e p r o g r a m , o r a b o u t 5, 600 e n r o llm e n ts .\nO p e r a tio n M a in s tr e a m .\nO p e r a tio n M a i n s t r e a m 6 i s a jo b c r e a t i o n a n d\nw o rk t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m f o r c h r o n ic a ll y u n e m p lo y e d p o o r a d u lts , m a in ly in\nr u r a l a r e a s , w ho h a v e no r e a s o n a b le p r o s p e c t s f o r f u ll - tim e e m p lo y m e n t\no r t r a i n i n g a s s i s t a n c e u n d e r o th e r p r o g r a m s .\nE n r o l l e e s p a r t i c i p a t e in\np r o j e c t s d e s ig n e d to im p r o v e o r b e a u tify th e c o m m u n ity .\nP r o je c t a c tiv itie s\nc o n tr ib u te to th e m a n a g e m e n t, c o n s e r v a tio n , o r d e v e lo p m e n t of n a t u r a l\nr e s o u r c e s , r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s , p a r k s , h ig h w a y s , a n d o th e r la n d s in r u r a l\na r e a s a n d s m a l l to w n s .\nT h e r e g u l a r M a i n s t r e a m p r o g r a m 7 p r o v id e s 4 0 h o u r w o rk w e e k s . In a d d itio n , w o r k a n d t r a i n i n g o p p o r tu n itie s a r e p r o v id e d\nin p r o j e c t s f o r s e n io r c i tiz e n s ; t h e s e l i m i t th e w o rk w e e k to 20 h o u r s .\nIn 1970, p e r s o n s 45 y e a r s o ld a n d o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d a b o u t 51 p e r c e n t o f\nf i r s t - t i m e e n r o llm e n ts in th e r e g u l a r p r o g r a m o r a b o u t 6, 4 0 0 e n r o l l \nm e n ts . 8\nO p e r a tio n M a in s tr e a m h a s th e g r e a t e s t p e r c e n ta g e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of\no ld e r w o r k e r s o f a l l m a n p o w e r p r o g r a m s .\nL a r g e n a tio n a l c o n tr a c ts\nr e f e r r e d to a s S e n io r C itiz e n P r o g r a m s s e r v e o n ly w o r k e r s o v e r 55 y e a r s .\nP r o g r a m g u id e lin e s f o r c o n tr a c ts a d m i n i s t e r e d th ro u g h th e r e g io n a l o ff ic e s\no f th e M a n p o w e r A d m in is tr a tio n c l e a r l y s p e c if y th a t e m p h a s is i s to b e on\no ld e r w o r k e r s . 9\nN ew C a r e e r s .\nN ew C a r e e r s 10 i s a w o r k - tr a in in g e m p lo y m e n t p r o g r a m\nf o r b o th y o u th a n d a d u lts in v o lv in g a c ti v itie s d e s ig n e d to im p r o v e th e p h y s i\nc a l, s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic , o r c u l t u r a l c o n d itio n s o f th e c o m m u n ity .\nIt a s s i s t s\nth e d e v e lo p m e n t of e n t r y - l e v e l e m p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s ; p r o v id e s m a x i \nm u m p r o s p e c t s f o r a d v a n c e m e n t a n d c o n tin u e d e m p lo y m e n t w ith o u t F e d e r a l\na s s i s t a n c e ; a n d c o m b in e s w o r k - tr a in in g e m p lo y m e n t w ith n e c e s s a r y e d u c a \ntio n a l tr a i n i n g , c o u n s e lin g , a n d o th e r s u p p o r tiv e s e r v i c e s a s m a y b e\nA n o th e r p u r p o s e o f N ew C a r e e r s is to c o n tr ib u te to th e d e s ig n\na n d c r e a t i o n of n e w c a r e e r jo b s in p u b lic s e r v i c e a s s u p p o r t o r p a r a p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n n e l.\nIn d iv id u a ls 45 y e a r s a n d o ld e r who a r e p o o r o r\nu n e m p lo y e d a r e e lig ib le to e n r o ll in p r o j e c t s .\nIn 1970, th e y r e p r e s e n t e d\n7 p e r c e n t of f i r s t - t i m e e n r o llm e n ts in th e p r o g r a m , o r a b o u t 300 e n \nr o l l m e n t s . (S ee ta b le J . )\nN ew P r o g r a m — E m e r g e n c y E m p lo y m e n t A c t of 1971 (E E A ). A n ew\np r o g r a m is b e in g in i t i a t e d u n d e r th e r e c e n t l y e n a c te d E m e r g e n c y E m p lo y \nm e n t A c t of 1971 (P . L 9 1 -5 4 ) w h ic h p r o v id e s te m p o r a r y 2 - y e a r\na u th o r ity f o r a p p r o x im a te ly 150, 000 a d d itio n a l n e w jo b s e a c h f i s c a l y e a r\nin th e f ie ld o f p u b lic s e r v i c e f o r th e u n e m p lo y e d a n d u n d e r e m p lo y e d ,\nin c lu d in g a s ig n if ic a n t n u m b e r o f m id d le - a g e d a n d o ld e r p e r s o n s .\ne m p lo y m e n t a n d tr a in in g o p p o r tu n itie s p r o v id e d b y th e E E A a r e in\na d d itio n to e x is tin g m a n p o w e r w o rk an d tr a i n i n g p r o g r a m s .\nT h e jo b s a r e\n" t r a n s i t i o n a l " in t h a t th e y w ill le a d p e o p le in to p e r m a n e n t jo b s , a n d n o t\nb e a s u b s titu te f o r th e m .\nT h e E m e r g e n c y E m p lo y m e n t A c t a u th o r iz a t io n\nf o r fu n d s w ill b e t r i g g e r e d w hen th e n a tio n a l r a t e of u n e m p lo y m e n t i s\n4 - 1 / 2 p e r c e n t o r m o r e f o r t h r e e c o n s e c u tiv e m o n th s .\nIn a d d itio n , lo c a l\na r e a s s u f f e r in g f r o m c o n tin u in g h ig h u n e m p lo y m e n t ( o v e r 6 p e r c e n t) w ill\nq u a lify f o r a s e p a r a t e p r o g r a m a u th o r iz e d b y th e b ill.\nT h is n ew p r o g r a m\nw ill p r o v id e a m e a s u r e o f a d d itio n a l a s s i s t a n c e to th e m id d le - a g e a n d\ne l d e r l y u n e m p lo y e d a n d u n d e r e m p lo y e d .\nU n e m p lo y m e n t I n s u r a n c e P r o g r a m (U I).\nT he F e d e ra l-S ta te P r o g ra m\no f U n e m p lo y m e n t I n s u r a n c e now c o v e r s a b o u t 52 m illio n w o rk e rs a n d\na n o th e r 5 m illio n w ill b e c o v e r e d s t a r t i n g J a n u a r y 1, 1972, a s a r e s u l t\no f th e E m p lo y m e n t S e c u r ity A m e n d m e n ts of 1970, P . L . 9 1 -3 7 3 .\ns y s t e m p r o v id e s e x p e r ie n c e d w o r k e r s w ith in c o m e r e p la c e m e n ts d u rin g\nin v o lu n ta r y u n e m p lo y m e n t.\nIn f i s c a l y e a r 1971, t o t a l b e n e f its a m o u n tin g\nto $ 4 . 8 b illio n w e r e p a id to a b o u t 7 m illio n d if f e r e n t in d iv id u a ls .\nth e a v e r a g e a b o u t 40 p e r c e n t o f th o s e r e c e iv in g b e n e f its w e r e a g e 45 o r\no ld e r . W o r k e r s 45 y e a r s o f a g e a n d o ld e r r e p r e s e n t e d s o m e th in g l e s s\nth a n o n e - f o u r th of th e 1970 u n e m p lo y e d .\nB e n e fits a r e p a y a b le in m o s t S ta te s f o r a m a x im u m o f 26 w e e k s in\na y ear.\nA s a r e s u l t o f th e 1970 F e d e r a l A m e n d m e n ts , d u r a tio n o f U I\nb e n e f its m a y b e e x te n d e d f o r a n o th e r 13 w e e k s d u r in g p e r io d s o f h ig h\nu n e m p lo y m e n t ( e i t h e r 4 .5 p e r c e n t i n s u r e d u n e m p lo y m e n t n a tio n a lly o r\n4 . 0 p e r c e n t i n s u r e d u n e m p lo y m e n t in a S ta te , p lu s 20 p e r c e n t o v e r th e\nle v e l in th e p r e c e d in g y e a r b a s e p e r io d ) — e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s d u r in g\nw h ic h u n e m p lo y m e n t e f f e c ts e v e n o ld e r , m o r e e x p e r ie n c e d w o r k e r s . S in c e\no ld e r w o r k e r s w ho b e c o m e u n e m p lo y e d te n d to h a v e s p e c ia l d if f ic u lty in\nfin d in g n e w jo b s , e x te n d e d b e n e f its a r e e s p e c i a l l y h e lp fu l f o r th e m .\n1971, 21 S ta te s p a id e x te n d e d b e n e f its , to ta llin g a b o u t $ 3 5 0 m illio n .\nFirst-time enrollees in manpower programs, by age group, fiscal year 1970\nUnder a g e 22\nA g e 45 and over\ni o ta Il\nT o t a l------------------------------------------ -------------\n1 ,0 5 1 .4\n7 1 6 .8\nM anpower D ev elo p m en t and T raining A ct:\nIn s titu tio n a l------------------------------------------- -----O n -th e -jo b -tr a in in g ---------------------- ----------- - -\nJO B S -------------------------------------------------------------------C oncentrated E m ploym ent P rogram --------------------Work In cen tive P r o g r a m --------------- -------------------O peration M a in str e a m --------------------------------- -----N ew C a r e e r s ------------------- -----------------------------------\nN eighborhood Youth Corps:\nIn -sch o o l — - — ------------- -— - — — ----------- O u t -o f- s c h o o l-------------------------------------------S u m m e r ---------------------------------------------------Job C o r p s -------------------------------------------------------------\n3 6 1 .5\n1 A ll d a ta in t h is s e c tio n r e f e r to th e f i s c a l y e a r ( J u ly 1 th r o u g h\nJ u n e 30) u n le s s o th e r w is e s p e c if ie d .\n2 42 U .S . C. 2 5 7 1 -2 6 2 0 , P u b lic L aw 9 0 -6 3 6 .\n3 M a n p o w e r D e v e lo p m e n t a n d T r a in in g A c t o f 1962.\n4 E c o n o m ic O p p o rtu n ity A c t o f 1964, a s a m e n d e d , S e c tio n 123 (a)\n(5), a n d T i tle II o f M D T A o f 1962, a s a m e n d e d .\n5 P a r t C o f T itle IV of S o c ia l S e c u r ity A c t o f 1935, a s a m e n d e d in\n6 T itle I - B , S e c tio n 123 (a) (3) o f th e E c o n o m ic O p p o rtu n ity A c t o f\n1964, a s a m e n d e d in 1967; T itle I - E , S e c tio n 162 (a) (1) o f th e E c o n o m ic\nO p p o rtu n ity A c t o f 1964, a s a m e n d e d in 1969.\n7 T itle I - B .\n8 T h e s e d a ta do n o t in c lu d e T i t l e I - E p r o g r a m s w h ic h o p e r a te in\na r e a s o f s p e c ia l n e e d s . T itle I - E p r o g r a m s d id n o t b e g in a c tu a l o p e r a tio n s\nu n til w e ll in to 1971.\n9 A r e c e n t M a n p o w e r A d m in is tr a tio n O r d e r , MAO 1 9 -7 1 , r e q u i r e s\nt h a t 40 p e r c e n t o f a ll O p e r a tio n M a in s tr e a m p o s itio n s b e r e s e r v e d f o r\na p p lic a n ts 55 a n d o v e r .\nO n ly p r o j e c t s o n In d ia n r e s e r v a t i o n s a r e e x e m p te d .\nF o o tn o te s — C o n tin u e d\nT i tle I - B o f th e E c o n o m ic O p p o rtu n ity A c t o f 1964, m e n d e d\nin 1966; n o w p a r t o f th e P u b lic S e r v ic e C a r e e r s P r o g r a m , w h ic h w a s\nin i t i a t e d d u r in g th e f o u r th q u a r t e r o f F Y 1970.\nTotal labor force (including Armed Forces) and labor force participation rates, b y age and sex;\nAn n u a l averages, 1950, 1960, 1970, and 1971 J./\nPa rticioat;Lon rate.\nAg6 dtld S6 X\nTotal, 16 years and over -----------------------------16-19 years -------------------------------------------------------20-24 years -------------------------------------------------------25-34 y e a r s -------- --------- -----------------35-44 y e a r s -------------------------------- ---------------------45 years and o v e r -------------------- -------------------45-54 years --------------- ---------------------------------55-64 y e a r s -------- -----------------------------------------65 years and over ------------------------------------------\nTotal, 16 years and over -------------16-19 y e a r s -------- ------ ----- ----20-24 years -------------------------------------------------------25-34 years --------------------------35-44 y e a r s ----------- -------------------------------------------45 years and over -----------------------------------------45-54 years --------------------------------------------------55-64 years ------ -------------------------------------------65 years and o v e r ---------------------------- ----------\nData for 1971 are 9 -month averages.\nCivilian labor force and participation rates, b y age and sex:\nand 1971 1/\n1950, 1960, 1970,\nCivilian 1 abor force\nTotal, 16 years and o v e r ......\n16-19 y e a r s ..................\n20-24 y e a r s ..................\n25-34 y e a r s ...................\n35-44 y e a r s ..................\n45 years and o v e r ...........\n25-34 y e a r s ..................\n45 years and o v e r ............\n45-54 y e a r s ................\n55-64 y e a r s ................\n55-59 y e a r s ..............\n60-61 y e a r s ..............\n62-64 y e a r s ..............\n65 years and o v e r .........\nData for 1971 are 9-month averages.\nCivilian labor force and participation rates,by age,\n1960, 1970, and 1971 1 /\nsex, and color:\nsex, and color\nTotal, 16 years and over--------------16-19 years---------------------------20-24 years--------------- ----- -----25-34 y e ars---------------------------35-44 years------------ ---- ------ --45 years and over------------------- —\n45-54 years— ------ -—\n55-64 years----------------— ---55-59 y e ars----------------------60-61 y e ars----------------------62-64 y ears-------- - — ---------65 years and over------------------Female\nTotal, 16 years and over-----— ----- 16-19 years---------------------------20-24 ye a r s ---------------- ---------- 25-34 y e ars---------------------------35-44 years---------------------------45 years and over------- -— -------45-54 years-------------------------55-64 y e a r s -------------------------55-59 years .......................\n60-61 y ears----------------------62-64 ye a r s ----------------------65 years and ove r ------------------N E GRO A N D O T HER RACES\nTotal, 16 years and over - - ------ ----- 16-19 y e a r s ---- ---- ------------- 20-24 y e a r s ---------------------------25-34 y e a r s ---------------------------35-44 y e a r s ---------------------------45 years and o v e r------------------- 45-54 y e a r s -------------------------55-64 y e a r s - ----- ---------- ------- 55-59 y e a r s — -------------------60-61 ye a r s ----------------------62-64 y e a r s ----------------------65 years and o v er------- ----------Female\nTotal, 16 years and ove r --------------16-19 y e a r s ---------------------- ----20-24 ye a r s ---------------------------25-34 y e a r s - ----- --- ------ ----------35-44 ye a r s - - ----- ----- ------- -----45 years and ove r --------------------45-54 ye a r s -------------------------55-64 ye a r s -------------------------55-59 ye a r s ----------------------60-61 ye a r s ---------------- -----62-64 ye a r s -------------- ---- ---65 years and ov e r ---- ------------- -\nT a b l e A-4.\nT o t a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d total l a b o r f o rce b y a g e a n d sex:\nA c t u a l I 9 6 0 a n d 1 9 7 0 a n d projected,\nTotal l a b o r for ce,\n(annual a v e r a l e )\nTotal population, J u l y 1\nA g e and sex\nL a b o r force\np a r ticipation raites\n(in total la b o r force)\n(in total 1 a b o r force)\n9, 7 7 0\n23, 0 6 4\n8, 2 2 3\n3, 3 7 9\n2, 0 4 8\n2, 3 0 2\n1, 0 4 1\n8, 4 4 1\n80, 3 3 2\n5, 2 7 8\n3, 7 2 7\n1, 0 7 7\n2, 0 9 0\n5, 3 0 3\n9, 0 6 8\n12, 5 4 0\n8, 3 8 9\n1, 1 89\n- 4. 2\nB o t h sexes\nTotal, 16 y e a r s a n d o v e r -----------------------16 to 4 4 y e a r s --------------------------------4 5 y e a r s a n d o v e r ----------------------------4 5 to 5 4 y e a r s ----------------------------55 to 6 4 y e a r s ----------------------------55 to 5 9 y e a r s -------------------------6 0 to 6 4 y e a r s -------------------------6 5 y e a r s a n d o v e r ------------------------6 5 to 6 9 y e a r s -------------------------7 0 y e a r s a n d o v e r --------------------Male\nTotal, 16 y e a r s a n d o v e r -----------------------16 to 4 4 y e a r s --------------------------------4 5 y e a r s a n d o v e r ---------------------------4 5 to 5 4 y e a r s ----------------------------55 to 6 4 y e a r s ----------------------------55 to 59 y e a r s -------------------------6 0 to 6 4 y e a r s -------------------------65 y e a r s a n d o v e r ------------------------65 to 6 9 y e a r s -------------------------7 0 y e a r s a n d o v e r ---------------------\nTotal, 16 y e a r s a n d o v e r -----------------------16 to 4 4 y e a r s --------------------------------4 5 y e a r s a n d o v e r ---------------------------4 5 to 5 4 y e a r s ----------------------------55 to 6 4 y e a r s --------------------------- —\n55 to 5 9 y e a r s -------------------------6 0 to 6 4 y e a r s -------------------------6 5 y e a r s a n d o v e r ------------------------6 5 to 6 9 y e a r s -------------------------7 0 y e a r s a n d o v e r ---------------------\n3, 0 88\n2, 0 1 5\n1 B a s e d o n r e v i s e d pop u l a t i o n da t a reflecting the I 9 6 0 D e c e n n i a l C e n s u s results.\nF o r this r e a s o n they differ s o m e w h a t f r o m figures s h o w n in the p r e c e e d i n g table, w h i c h w e r e b a s e d o n e s t i m a t e s\n2 P a r t i c i p a t i o n rates differ f r o m th ose in the p r e c e e d i n g table b e c a u s e they a r e b a s e d o n total p opulation as of Jul y 1.\nEmployed persons, by age and sex: A n n u a l averages,\nTotal, 16 years and o v e r —\n16-19 years -------------20-24 y e a r s ---- --- — ---25-34 years --------------\n35-44 y e a r s ------------ —\n45 years and o v e r - — ---45-54 years — ---------55-64 y e a r s -----------55-59 y e a r s --------60-61 y e a r s ---------62-64 years — ---- --65 years and o v e r ---—\nTotal, 16 years and over —\n16-19 y e a r s ----- --- ----20-24 y e a r s — ------- ---25-34 y e a r s ---- ---- ----35-44 y e a r s -------------45 years and o v e r - -----45-54 y e a r s ---- -------55-64 y e a r s ------- ---55-59 y e a r s ---------60-61 y e a r s ---------62-64 y e a r s ---- ----65 years and o v e r - ----\n1 / Data for 1971 are 9-month averages.\n2/ Data not available.\nTa b l e A-6.\nEmployed persons,by age, sex, and color:\nAnnual a verages, 1954, 1960, 1970, and 1971 J^/\nNeero an d other races\nTotal, 16 years and over ----16-19 years — — ------------20-24 y e a r s ------- ---------25-34 y e a r s --------- ------35-44 y e a r s ----------------45 years and o v e r ------- -—\n45-54 years ---------- ----55-64 y e a r s ------ --------55-59 years — ----------60-61 y e a r s ----- -— - — 62-64 years — ---- -----65 years and over --------\nTotal, 16 years and over ----16-19 y e a r s ------- ------- 20-24 years -----------------25-34 years -----------------35-44 years -----------------45 years and over ----------45-54 y e a r s ------ --------55-64 years — ------------55-59 y e a r s ---- --------60-61 y e a r s ----------- —\n62-64 y e a r s ---— ------65 years and o v e r ---- ----\nD ata for 1971 a re 9-month averages.\nD ata not available.\nPersons not in the labor force,by age and sex:\n1950, 1960, 1970, and 1971 U\nTotal, 16 years and over-16-19 years-------------20-24 years-------------25-34 years-------------35-44 years-------------45 years and over------45-54 years-----------55-64 years-----------55-59 years--------60-61 years--------62-64 years--------65 years and over ----FEMALE\nTotal, 16 years and over-16-19 years-------------20-24 y e ars-------------25-34 years-------------35-44 y e ars-------------45 years and ov e r ------45-54 years-----------55-64 years-----------55-59 years---------60-61 y ears--------62-64 years--------65 years and over-----\nand 1971 1 /\nPersons not in the labor force, by age,\nNegro and other races\nTotal, 16 years and o v e r -----------16-19 y e a r s ------------------------20-24 y e a r s ------------------------25-34 y e a r s ------------------------35-44 y e a r s ----------— ------ ----45 years and o v e r - - --------------45-54 y e a r s ---------------------55-64 y e a r s --------------- -----55-59 y e a r s -------------------60-61 y e a r s ------------------62-64 y e a r s -------------------65 years and o v e r ---------------\nTotal, 16 years and o v e r -----------16-19 y e a r s ------ ----------- -----20-24 y e a r s -----------------------25-34 y e a r s ------------------------35-44 y e a r s -------- — ------------45 years and o v e r ----- --- --------45-54 y e a r s ---------------------55-64 y e a r s ---— ---- -----------55-59 y e a r s -------------------60-61 y e a r s ---- --------------62-64 y e a r s ---- ---------------65 years and o v e r -------- ------\nUnemployed persons and unemployment rates, by age and sex:\nTotal, 16 years and over-------- ------16-19 years----- ------- ------- ------ 20-24 years----------------------------25-34 years-------- --- ---- ------ ----35-44 years----— — — ------ --------45 years and over— ------- -----------45-54 years------------- ------ -----55-64 years-------------- ---- - — -- —\n55-59 years------------------------60-61 years----------- ----------- 62-64 years------------------------65 years and over-— ------------ —\nTotal, 16 years and over---- ------ - —\n16-19 years----------------------------20-24 years----------------------------25-34 years----------------------------35-44 years---- ---------- ---------- ---45 y ears and over---------------------45-54 years------------ -------------55-64 years- —\n— ---- ---------- 55-59 years---- -------------------60-61 years-------------------- ---62-64 years------------------------65 years and over------- ------- -\nUnemployment rates,by age.\n1970, and 1971 1 /\nN e gro and other races\nTotal, 16 years and over--------------16-19 y e a r s ---------------------------20-24 y e a r s ---------------------------25-34 ye a r s ---------------------------35-44 y e a r s ---------------------------45 years and ov e r --------------------45-54 y e a r s -------------------------55-64 ye a r s -------------------------55-59 ye a r s ----------------------60-61 ye a r s ----------------------62-64 ye a r s ----------------------65 years and over-------------------\nTotal, 16 years and over--------------16-19 years---------------------------20-24 years---------------------------25-34 years---------------------------35-44 years---------------------------45 years and over--------------------45-54 years-------------------------55-64 years------------------- ----55-59 years-..... - ------ --------60-61 years------------ ----------62-64 years----------------------65 years and over-------------------\nLong-term j-.iemployner.t compared w i t h total unemployment, by age and sex:\ni960, ld6b, 1970, and 7 971 J./\n(.Percent di sc r: but ion ‘\nNumber ( h u . —\nP e r cent--------\nM a l e .....................\nUn d e r 20 y e a r s - -----Under 18-----------1C and 19 ...........\n20 to 24 y e a r s ------25 to 44 y e a r s ------45 to 64 / ears ------- i\n65 years and o v e r ----\nF e m a l e -------- ------ --U n der 20 ye a r s ------Under 18 ----- -----18 and 1 9 ..........\n20 to 24 ye a r s ------25 to 44 ye a r s ----45 to 64 y e a r s ------65 years and o v e r ----\n1971 i I960\n7 weeks and over\n1/ Data for 1971 are 9-month averages,\n2/ Data refer to persons 16 years and over in accordance w i t h the changes in age limit and concepts\nintroduced in 1967; prior to this the items "under 20 years" and "under t8 years" referred to persons 14 to\n19 years and 14 to 17 years respectively.\nPersons w i t h w o r k experience in 1965 and 1970 w h o w e r e\nforce 50 to 5l weeks, b y age, sex, color, and marital status\nWhite jjother races\nA L L PERSONS\ny e a r s .......... .......\ny e a r s ............ .\ny e a r s ........ ..........\nand o v e r .............\n60.5 | 61.0\n25 to 44 y e a r s ..................\n45 years and o v e r ...............\nSINGLE AND OTHER M A R ITAL STATUS\n45 and o v e r ......\n45 to 54 y e a r s ............... | 91.6\n55 to 64 years ...............\n65 years and o v e r ............\n45 to 54 y e a r s ..................\n55-64 y e a r s ................... .\n65 years and o v e r ..........\nSINGLE AND OT H E R MARITAL STATUS\n25 to 44 y e a r s .............. .\n45 years and o v e r ....... .......\nMa j o r reason for part-year w o r k in 1965 and 1970 by color:\nPart-year workers, b y age and sex\nPersons w h o did not w o r k a full-year because o f —\nUnem p l o y \nto 44 y e a r s ----to 64 y e a r s ----years and over--\n25 to 44 y e a r s ----45 to 64 y e a r s ----65 years and over--\n25 to 44 y e a r s ---- 45 to 64 years----65 years and over--\nto 44 y e a r s — —\nto 64 y e a r s ----years and over--\n25 to 44 y e a r s ----45 to 64 y e a r s----65 years and over--\nPersons w h o did not w o r k a full-year because of\nUnemp l o y \nExcludes paid sick leave from job (which counted as time worked) and period of illness or disability during w h ich the person would not\nhave wor k e d or w o u l d not have been in the labor force even if well.\n2/ R e s t ricted to persons under 30 years of age.\n3/ Includes A r m e d Forces, retirement, unpaid vacations, strikes, and summer vacations for students.\nT a ble C-3.\nNonagricultural workers on part time, by a ge and sex: A n n u a l averages,\n1960, 1970 and 1971\nN u mber (thousands)--------Percent --------------------\nUnder 18 years-------------------18 to 24 years ------------------25 to 44 years ------------------45 to 64 years ------------------45 to 54 years ----------------55 to 59 years ----------------60 to 64 years ----------------65 years and over ----------------\nUnder 18 y e a r s --------------18 to 24 years ------------------25 to 44 years ------------------45 to 64 years ------------------45 to 54 years ----------------55 to 59 years ----------------60 to 64 years _________________\n65 years and over ----------------\nEcor omic reasons\nVolunt.ary part time 2/\nIncludes persons who do not prefer, or are unavailable for, full-time work.\nPersons wi t h no wor k experience in 1960,by age\nand sex and in 1965 and 1970 by age, sex, and color\nwit h no\nPersons w h o did not w o r k because of-'\n25 to 64 ye a r s ---------65 years and o v e r ------\n25 to 64 y e a r s ---------65 years and o v e r ------\n25 to 64 years — - — - —\n65 years and o v e r ------\n25 to 64 y e a r s --------65 years and over------\n25 to 64 y ears ---------65 years and ove r ------\n25 to 64 y e a r s ----— --65 years and o v e r ------\n25 to 64 years — — ---65 years and over----—\n25 to 64 y e a r s --------65 years and over- -----\nNEGRO AND O T HER RACES\n25 to 64 y e a r s --------65 years and o v e r ----—\n25 to 64 y e a r s --------65 years and o v e r ------\nNEGRO A N D OTHER RACES\nRea s o n restricted to women*\nReason restricted to persons under 30 years of age*\nIncludes retirement and service in the A rmed Forces.\nO c c u pational m o b i l i t y rates 1 / by occupations\nAge a n d sex, January 1966\nOccupation in January 1966\nA g e a n d sex\n25 to 44 y e a r s ------------45 to 54 y e a r s ------------55 years and o v e r - - -------\n25 to 44 y e a r s ---- --------45 to 54 y e a r s ------------55 years a nd o v e r ------ ---\nP r o p ortion of persons employed in both January 1965 and January 1966 w h o had a different occupation in January 1965*\nR a t e n o w shown w h e r e bas e is less than 100,000.\nEmployment status in January 1965 of all persons 35 years and over employed in January 1966, b y sex and color\nin Janu a r v 1966\nin Janu a rv 1966\nmob i l i t y\ny e a r s ------y e a r s ----- y e a r s ---- - —\nand o v e r ----\nNEGRO A N D OT H E R RACES\ny e a r s ------y e a r s ------y e a r s — ----and o v e r ----\nIf Proportion of persons employed in both January 1965 and January 1966 w h o had a different occupation in J a n uary 1965,\n2/ Percent (or rate) not shown where base is less than 100,000.\nTable D -3. Age:\nTenure on current job, by sex, January 1968\n(in thou Pe rce nt\n1967- Jan.— J a n . Dee.\nto 10 to 15 to 2 0\ny ea rs v e a r s v ea r s v ea r s\nPeriod when job started\n195 8- 1953- 19 48Dec. 1963Dec.\nmonths to 1 2\nor l e s s months v e a r s vear s\nv ea r s\nv ea r s Median\nTotal, 16 ye ar s old and o v e r __\n16 and 17 y ea r s _ _________ _\n18 and 19 y e a r s _____________________\n20 to 24 y e a r s ______________________\n25 to 34 y e a r s __ _ _ _\n' 25 to 29 y e a r s ___________________\n30 to 34 y e a r 8 ___________________\n35 to 44 y e a r s ______________________\n35 to 39 y e a r s ___________________\n40 to 44 y e a r s ___________________\n45 to 54 y e a r s ______________________\n45 to 49 y e a r s ____________________\n50 to 54 y e a r s\n55 to 64 y e a r s ______________________\n55 to 59 y e a r s ___________________\n60 to 64 y e a r s ___________________\n65 y ea r s and o v e r __________________\n65 to 69 y e a r s ___________________\n70 y e a r s and o v e r _______________\n7 3, 2 75\n2 , 9 77\n7 ,7 9 6\n6 , 9 93\n7 ,6 0 7\n8, 35 1\n7, 47 7\n4 ,2 3 5\n2 ,8 7 4\n4 ,6 2 9\n5 ,06 2\n5 , 4 68\n9 ,9 5 9\n5 , 2 66\n2 ,7 6 2\nTotal, 16 ye ar s old and o ve r__\nand 17 y e a r s _____________________\nand 19 y e a r s _____________________\nto 24 y e a r s ______________________\nto 34 y e a r s ____________________ _\n25 to 29 y e a r s ___________________\n30 to 34 y e a r s ___________________\nto 44 y e a r s ______ I_____________\n35 to 39 y ea r s\n40 to 44 y e a r s _\nto 54 y e a r s ______________________\n45 to 49 y e a r s\nto 64 y e a r s _\n55 to 59 y e a r s\n60 to 64 y e a r 8\nye a r s and o v e r _______ ___________\n65 to 69 y e a r s .\n70 y e a r 8 and over ________________\nTotal, 16 y ea r s old and o v e r __\n2 6 ,8 0 3\nand 17 ye ar s _________________ _\nto 24 y ea r s ______________________\nto 34 y ea r s ______________________\n30 to 34 y e a r s ____________________\nto 44 y e a r s ______________________\n35 to 39 y e a r s _______________\nto 54 y e a r s ____\n50 to 54 y e a r s _________________\nto 64 ye ar s _ _\n60 to 64 y e a r s __________________\ny ea r s and o v e r ________________ _\n70 y e a r s and o v e r ___ _ _\n3 ,75 4\n4 ,6 3 9\n5 ,6 0 5\n5 , 8 69\nL e s s t h a n 0. 0 5 percent.\nTa b le D > 4 . Occupation\nTe n u re\non cu rren t\nTotal emplo y e d\nM ajor o c c u p a tio n g r o u p ,\na g e , and s e x\n(in th o u  P e r c e n t\nPeriod w h e n current job started\nJ a n .— J a n .— J a n .—\nJ a n . P r io r\nT o ta l, 25 to 44 y e a r s old\nP r o f e s s i o n a l, t e c h n ic a l, and k in d r e d\nw ork ersW age and s a la r y w o r k e r s\nS e lf- e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s\nF a r m e r s and fa rm m a n a g e r s M a n a g e r s, o f f i c ia l s , and p r o p r ie t o r s ,\ne x c e p t f a r m ____ ___ ______________— —\nW age and s a la r y w o r k e r s\nS e lf- e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s _____ — ———\nC l e r ic a l and k in d r e d w o r k e r s -------- -----S a le s w o r k e r s\nC r a fts m e n , fo r e m e n , and k in d red\nw ork ers- —\nO p e r a tiv e s and k in d r e d w o r k e r s — —__\nS e r v ic e w o r k e r s , in c lu d in g p r iv a te\nh o u se h o ld\n- F a r m la b o r e r s and f o r e m e n ________ ___\nL a b o r e r s , e x c e p t fa r m and m in e - _____\nT o ta l, 45 y e a r s o ld and o v e r ------P r o f e s s i o n a l, t e c h n ic a l, and k in d r e d\nw o r k e r s ___________________ ______ ___ _\nW age and s a la r y w o r k e r s ----------— —\nS e lf- e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s ———________ F a r m e r s and fa rm m a n a g e r s --------------M a n a g e r s, o f f i c ia l s , and p r o p r ie t o r s ,\ne x c e p t fa r m —\nW age and s a la r y w o r k e r s .________ __\nS e lf- e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s C le r ic a l and k in d r e d w o r k e r s ----------- —\nS a le s w o r k e r s ____\nC r a fts m e n , fo r e m e n , and k in d r e d\nw o r k e r s ________________\nO p e r a tiv e s and k in d red w o r k e r s S e r v ic e w o r k e r s , in c lu d in g p r iv a te\nh o u s e h o ld _____________________________\nF a r m la b o r e r s and f o r e m e n -____——\nL a b o r e r s , e x c e p t fa rm and m in e —__ —\n2 0 .6 5 6\n3 ,5 6 7\n4 ,4 4 6\n4 ,2 7 5\n1 8 ,6 4 6\n3 ,3 5 1\n2 , 184\n3 ,2 8 8\n1 0 .2 3 4\n1 ,6 5 8\n2 , 021\n1 0 .5 2 8\n2 ,8 2 6\n2 ,6 0 1\nT o ta l, 25 to 44 y e a r s o l d ------ --- -P r o f e s s i o n a l, t e c h n ic a l, and k in d r e d\n, ...... _\n- -----W age and s a la r y w o r k e r s\nF a r m e r s and fa rm m a n a g e r s ---------------M a n a g e r s, o f f i c ia l s , and p r o p r ie t o r s ,\ne x c e p t fa r m --------------W age and s a la r y w o r k e r s ———— — —\nS e lf- e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s --------------------C le r ic a l and k in d red w o r k e r s --------------S a le s w o r k e r s - — ------ - —\no r k e r s --m-n-v—r—. __,_______\nO p e r a tiv e s and k in d r e d w o r k e r s ----------S e r v ic e w o r k e r s ----------------------------------- —\nP r iv a te h o u s e h o ld w o r k e r s — S e r v ic e w o r k e r s , e x c e p t p r iv a te\nh o u s e h o ld ----------------------------------------F a r m la b o r e r s and f o r e m e n ----------------L a b o r e r s , e x c e p t fa r m and m in e .-------T o ta l, 45 y e a r s o ld and o v e r ----- P r o f e s s i o n a l, t e c h n ic a l, and k in d r e d\nw o r k e r s . . . . . . _,.____ ... .. .. ..\nW age and s a la r y w o r k e r s ----------------S e lf- e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s --------------------F a r m e r s and fa rm m a n a g e r s — -------M a n a g e r s , o f f i c ia l s , and p r o p r ie t o r s ,\ne x c e p t f a r m ------------— — --------W age and s a la r y w o r k e r s -------------- S e lf- e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s --------------------C l e r ic a l and k in d red w o r k e r s - ------------S a le s w o r k e r s ........ ........ .___\nw o r k e r s -----------------------------------------------—\nO p e r a tiv e s and k in d red w o r k e r s ----------S e r v ic e w o r k e r s ---------------— — _\nP r iv a te h o u se h o ld w o r k e r s — _____ S e r v ic e w o r k e r s , e x c e p t p r iv a te\nhous e ho id — — — — — — — — — — —\nF a r m la b o r e r s and f o r e m e n ----------L a b o r e r s , e x c e p t fa rm and m i n e _____\n1 Less than 0. 05 percent.\n2 Percent and m e d i a n not s h o w n w h e r e base is less than 75, 000.\nMedian w eeklv ea rn in g s o f wage and s a la r y w orkers on fu l 1-tiir.e s c h e d u le s , bv a g e , sex and c o l o r , May 1971\n35-44 y e a r s .....................\n45-49 y e a r s .....................\n50-54 y e a r s .....................\n55 years and o v e r . . . .\n60-64 y e a r s ..............\n60-61 y e a r s . . . .\n62-64 y e a r s . . . .\n65 ye a r s and o v e r . . . .\no th e r ra c es\nI index i ea rn in g s i\n! Negro and\nWhite oth er r a ces\no th e r r a c es\nIndex o f ea rn in g s\nWhite o th e r r a ces\nMedian e a rn in g s not shown where b a se i s l e s s than 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 .\nTable F - l . Median yea rs o f sc h o o l com pleted by th e c i v i l i a n la b o r fo r c e 18 y ears\nand over, by se x and a g e , s e le c t e d d a t e s , 1952-70\nSex and d a te\nO ctober 1952-------March 1957...............\nMarch 1964----------March 1965 — ..........\nMarch 1966—-------March 1967...............\nMarch 1969.............March 1970...............\nMarch 1968— ..........\nMarch 1969----------March 1970...............\nO ctober 1952-------March 1957----------March 1959----------March 1962...............\nMarch 1964----------March 1965— -----March 1966----------March 1967...............\nMarch 1970— ..........\nT a b le F -2 .\nL abor f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e o f the p o p u la tio n by, a g e , s e x , and y e a r s o f sch ool co m p leted , March 1959, 1965 and 1970\nYears o f sc h o o l\nc om pleted and se x\n55 t o 64\n35 t o 44\n45 t o 54\n65 ye a r s\nE lem en ta ry :\n1 t o 4 y e a r s 1 / --------5 t o 7 y e a r s --------------8 y e a r s -----------------------\n7 L. 6\nHigh sc h o o l :\n1 t o 3 y e a r s --------------4 y e a r s -------------------- -\nC o lle g e :\n1 t o 3 y e a r s --------- 4 y e a r s ---- -------------5 y e a r s or more---------\n1 t o 4 y e a r s 1J --------5 t o 7 y e a r s -------------8 y e a r s -----------------------\n1 t o 3 y e a r s - - ----------4 y e a r s -----------------------\n1 t o 3 y e a r s ---- ------- 4 y e a r s ----------------------5 y e a r s or more— - —-\nT o ta l -\n1 t o 4 y e a r s 1 / --------5 t o 7 y e a r s -------------8 y e a r s -----------------------\n1 t o 3 y e a r s -------------4 y e a r s - - - -----------------\n1 t o 3 y e a r s - - ----------4 y e a r s or m o r e ------4 y e a r s ------------- -----5 y e a r s or m ore-----\nI n c lu d e s p erso n r e p o r tin g no sch ool y ea rs com pleted.\nNot a v a i la b l e .\nTable F-3. Educational attainment of the civilian labor force 25 years and over,\nby age and color, March 1970\n1 to 3 4 years\nand over.... .\nIndividual items may not total 100 due to rounding.\nOccupational distribution of employed persons 35 years and over;\nAnnual averages, 1970\n45 y ears and over\nMajor o c c u p a tio n group and se x\n65 y ea rs\nP r o f e s s io n a l, t e c h n ic a l and kindred w o rk ers..........\nFarmers and farm m anagers...................................................\nManagers, o f f i c i a l s , and p r o p r ie t o r s ..........................\nC le r ic a l and kindred w o rk ers............................................\nS a le s w ork ers...............................................................................\nCraftsm en, forem en and k in d r e d ........................................\nO p eratives and kindred w o rk ers........................................\nP r iv a te household w o rk ers...................................................\nS e r v ic e w orkers, e x c lu d in g p r iv a te h o u s e h o ld s ...\nFarm la b o r e r s and forem en...................................................\nNonfarm la b o r e r s ........................................................................\nFem ale, t o t a l\nM anagers, o f f i c i a l s , and p r o p r ie t o r s ..........................\nCraftsm en, forem en and kindred w o rk ers.....................\nM ale, t o t a l\nT able F-5.\nrates, by age, sex, and years of school completed, March 1962,\ncompleted and sex\n1 to 4 y e ars 1/-----5 to 7 y e a r s ---- ----8 y e a r s --------------1 to 3 y e a r s ---------4 y e a r s - - ---- -—\n1 to 3 y e a r s --------4 years or m o r e — ----\n☆ U. S. G O V E R N M E N T\nP R I N T I N G O F F I C E : 1971 O - 484-786 (36)\nHig h s c h o o l :\n1 to 4 years 1/-----5 to 7 y e a r s --------8 y e a r s ---------------\n1 to 3 y e a r s --------4 ye a r s - - - - - - - - - ----\n1 to 3 y e a r s ---------4 years or more------\nIncludes p ersons reporting no school completed.\nPercent not shown where base is less than 100,000.\nB U R E A U O F L A B O R S TA TISTIC S\nW A S H I N G T O N , D .C . 20212\nP O S T A G E A N D F E E S PA ID\nO F F I C I A L B U S IN E S S\nP E N A L T Y F O R P R I V A T E U S E , $300