There are also issues of gender inequality, with violence against women a major concern for all states (PIFS, 2015a). At the regional level, issues of sovereignty and accountability, as well as the lack of clarity over the roles and responsibilities of the different regional agencies, hinder effective regional governance mechanisms (see Chapter 3). In this framework, vulnerability refers to the inherent characteristics that make countries prone to external shocks, such as high trade openness, high export concentration and dependence on strategic imports, while resilience refers to an economy’s ability to withstand external shocks, driven by macroeconomic stability, market efficiency, social development and good political governance.