That emotional, physical and sexual abuse occurred in boarding schools, as well as punishment for speaking their languages and practicing their cultures has been well documented, has been acknowledged and has tarnished the human rights record of Canada and the United States. The effects of boarding schools on generations of indigenous peoples, including generations still living and future generations, cuts deep in indigenous communities throughout the United States and Canada, where many believe are the root cause of pervasive social problems such as alcoholism and sexual abuse and the widespread loss of indigenous languages. Negative memories of this institutionalization are thought to have created a social climate of distrust of other government-funded institutions such as hospitals and clinics, resulting in avoidance until an illness is advanced.