The very large income gains in the two main cities, Almaty and Astana, and in the oil cities of Atyrau and Aktau, led to significant rural-urban migration, especially from the northern and eastern regions.5 Out-migration from the relatively densely populated southern oblasts was more limited - indeed they received substantial temporary immigration from Uzbekistan, especially during the cotton-harvesting season - and living standards remained lower in the south. In the most comprehensive review of the data on inequality and poverty in eighteen economies in transition, Kazakhstan stands out for its increase in poverty. Rapid growth in output resulted in increased average incomes and reduced poverty.