In short, rather than seen as 'carers' (in the narrow sense of the word), they are seen as champions of, and advocates for, adolescents. However, they experience paternal absence as a gap in care, nurture and protection at particular points in their development. For example, adolescent males whose fathers or responsible male relatives were absent were at greater risk of severe infection or even death because of family hardships relating to poverty, and the boys themselves lacked both nurture and the recognition that comes with initiation rites (Ramphele, 2002).