However, LDCs have relatively weak local innovation systems, reflecting their structural vulnerabilities (UNCTAD, 2014b). Despite overall improvements in secondary and tertiary enrolment ratios, skilled workers with science, technology, engineering and mathematics backgrounds remain scarce, women being particularly underrepresented (UNCTAD, 2011b). Relative to 2014, LDCs’ combined electricity generation needs to be scaled up by a factor of between 3.4 and 6.8 to be adequate for productive use, and by a factor of 13.5 to meet modern energy needs.