The cooperation is regulated by contracts signed between the Almaty City and Astana governments and their respective regional governments. The city of Shymkent is left under the same regional oversight as South Kazakhstan oblast, dealing with the same administrative and fiscal constraints that second-tier cities face. Shymkent is the second most populous city in the country and the largest in territorial area, but has a much lower budget than Astana and Almaty (Table 2.1).