Data reflect children in pre-primary education (both public and private), but also in some countries children enrolled in compulsory primary education. Data for Australia refer to 2005 and for Bulgaria and Romania to 2007. Data for Japan refer to 2010 and for Australia, Chile, Mexico and the United States to 2011. In Chile, Colombia and Mexico, a mother is more likely to work the more education she has, perhaps because she earns higher wages and can afford formal ECEC (OECD estimates based on CASEN (2013), ENCV (2015) and ENIGH (2015)). The exclusion of low-income families and children in ECEC can have harmful effects and not only in the fonn of a mother’s lost wages: the pay-offs to investing early in children are large, especially for children from disadvantaged backgrounds (Heckman, 2006, Heckman et al., On average in the OECD, just over 10% of women are entrepreneurs (OECD Gender Portal 2016).