The highest scoring education systems at 4th grade maths (Singapore, Korea, Hong Kong and Japan) were all above average in terms of innovation at 4th grade. The following Figures indicate that there is a positive association between overall innovation and trends in 8th grade mathematics outcomes between 2003 and 2011 (Figure 18.7). However, positive change has also occurred without such high levels of innovation: Chile is an example of a country that has improved performance whilst levels of innovation remain below the OECD mean. This may indicate that the marginal return to innovation has been diminishing. Ontario is also characterised by above average levels of innovation and negative trends in maths performance.