In the United Kingdom and the United States, as well as the liberal AIEs more generally, this defamilialization has been largely market-based. By contrast, Northern Europe has transitioned via an expansion in the public provision of care (see section 3.1.3 on social democratic AIEs). Both regimes are consistent with higher rates of female labour force participation and fertility, though with markedly different results for the distribution of social reproduction. Getting back to the question of social reproduction and growth, higher wages for women are good for growth, but highly familial, privatized structures of care mean that higher wages and market participation among women may pose a threat to human capacities production and ultimately compromise growth. Geographically, these regimes are concentrated among the countries in Northern Europe. Labour market policies promote full employment and wage equality across different groups of workers, ensuring ample tax revenue and lower reliance on the welfare state (Esping-Anderson 1996).