Formulas that closely reflect earnings and contributory histories tend to generate lower benefits for women than men, while the inclusion of flat or redistributive components tend to favour women. The period of earnings taken into account is also relevant for gender equality as is the existence of minimum benefits and mechanisms for indexation, meaning that pensions are regularly adjusted to inflation or wage increases. When benefits are calculated based on average lifetime earnings rather than final salary, for example, the penalties for time spent out of the labour market will be greater. Since women live longer than men, they face higher risks of depreciation of the value of their pensions. They are widely used in developed countries and have recently been introduced in some developing countries too. Care credits acknowledge and compensate for contributions that were lost due to time spent out of the labour force—usually by women—caring for dependants.