Many of these are relevant to terrestrial and marine biodiversity (see https://www.environmental-auditing.org/). Causal impacts are unit specific, where / can refer to locations, firms, households, individuals, species, etc (Ferraro and Hanauer, 2014). This can be illustrated by a formula that the causal impact (d) of a programme (P) on an outcome (7) for unit / is the difference between the outcome (7) with the programme (in other words, when P = 1) and the same outcome (7) without the programme (that is, w'hen P = 0).