Moreover, there is a need to more carefully distinguish between interventions designed to, on the one hand, assist small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in entering into GVCs and new relationships with lead firms and, on the other, assist countries in beginning GVC participation through inviting FDI and the relocation of production units from abroad. Even when countries are integrated with GVCs, they might not be participating in a gainful way, in part because of a failure to align value-chain governance with developmental objectives, nationally as well as globally. Much of the current GVC literature, and its resultant policy implications, is reminiscent of the 1990s liberalisation agenda. Although understanding of the complex relationship between trade, growth and the achievement of economic structural transformation has improved in recent years, these lessons do not seem to have been heeded.