World Bank Education Statistics database (Edstats). The pupil-to-teacher ratio in CLMV countries is almost twice as high as that in ASEAN-6 countries for primary schools, while the pupil-to-book ratio in key subject areas also tends to be higher in the CLMV countries. Even in the 1960s when most countries were at similar stages of economic development, countries such as Malaysia, the Republic of Korea and Thailand achieved higher literacy rates and spent a higher portion of their incomes on education, compared with South Asian countries and the least developed countries in the region. In particular, CLMV countries would be able to participate more actively in the regional production networks with a skilled labour force. Employer surveys often cite the shortage of skilled labour as a major constraint. Studies also show that education is an important factor in determining labour productivity.