The one case where an increase was found in emotional IPV was in the Give Directly pilot in Western Kenya when comparing to non-treatment households in the same villages (Haushofer & Shapiro, 2016). However, in the Kenya evaluation, reductions were also found for both physical and sexual violence when comparing alternate study aims (e.g. what the authors term the across village, rather than within village estimates). The two studies finding no impact are from Mexico. One of the studies looks at long-term impacts of Oportunidades approximately nine to 13 years after program initiation via creation of comparable beneficiary and nonbeneficiary groups using national surveys (Bobonis et al.