The programme also led to a reallocation of labour from agriculture to higher-return non-agricultural employment (Maluccio, 2010). The disincentive effect was greater for informal and unpaid workers, with irregular or no sources of income as well as for women, and was more pronounced when beneficiaries received more. Some women substituted housework for wage employment, perhaps because of low wages and the relatively high time requirements of meeting programme conditionalities (Ribas and Soares, 2011, de Brauw etal., In Mexico, however, PROGRESA/Oportunidades/Prospera did not affect the adult labour supply, nor does the Programa Apoyo Alimentario food aid programme (targeting areas not covered by Oportunidades), which provides either cash or in-kind transfers. However, transfers by both programmes have led to a significant switch by males (but not females) out of agriculture and into higher-return non-agricultural activities (Skoufias, Unar and Gonzalez-Cossio, 2008, Alzua, Cruces and Ripani, 2012). Old-age pension schemes had varied impacts in South Africa, although they appear to have led to an overall reduction in participation by the elderly.