National responses to this shortage, to entice students into science and technology studies after compulsory education, will have particular benefits for climate change policies. Lifelong learning can also play an important role in providing older workers with the key foundation skills they may lack and contributing to improve environmental awareness, and thereby the resource efficiency and consumer habits, of the wider population. Apprenticeship training and other types of hands-on experience are seen as particularly valuable in increasing workers’ adaptability in changing labour markets, with countries operating dual systems of vocational education and training, such as Austria and Germany, particularly well-positioned.