Such cultural change takes time, and while the central level can establish policies, plans and programmes, central-level institutions have to provide a behavioural example and embody the practice. Meanwhile, the local level must also be an active player in encouraging a transformation to more open and inclusive government. A report undertaken for SUBDERE and the Ministry of Foreign Relations focusing on the status of citizen participation at the sub-national level17 was highly critical of Antofagasta’s approach, characterising it as narrow, paternalistic and traditional, with little recognition of social or community actors in the management of local development, citizens taking a passive role, and CSOs facing capacity challenges. The report also indicated no systematic identification was made of needs or programme design in areas of interest to citizens and civic organisations.