Large car and airplane producers have been extensively using 3D printing to manufacture replacement materials rapidly, while experimenting with 3D printing the entire product. Decreased reliance on specific subcomponents and decreased relevance of labour costs make it easier for firms to decentralize production and thus get closer to consumers. For instance, sports shoes are 3D-printed in new automated factories in Germany and the United States. These so-called "speedfactories" are supposed to shorten the time between completion of the shoe design and its delivery to shops to less than one week (The Economist, 2017a).