title: Polymer-based battery

text: A polymer-based battery uses organic materials instead of bulk metals to form a battery. Currently accepted metal-based batteries pose many challenges due to limited resources, negative environmental impact, and the approaching limit of progress. Redox active polymers are attractive options for electrodes in batteries due to their synthetic availability, high-capacity, flexibility, light weight, low cost, and low toxicity. Recent studies have explored how to increase efficiency and reduce challenges to push polymeric active materials further towards practicality in batteries. Many types of polymers are being explored, including conductive, non-conductive, and radical polymers. Batteries with a combination of electrodes (one metal electrode and one polymeric electrode) are easier to test and compare to current metal-based batteries, however batteries with both a polymer cathode and anode are also a current research focus. Polymer-based batteries, including metal/polymer electrode combinations, should be distinguished from metal-polymer batteries, such as a lithium polymer battery, which most often involve a polymeric electrolyte, as opposed to polymeric active materials.


title: Polymer-based battery

text: Polymeric electrodes in organic radical batteries are electrochemically active with stable organic radical pendant groups that have an unpaired electron in the uncharged state. Nitroxide radicals are the most commonly applied, though phenoxyl and hydrazyl groups are also often used. A nitroxide radical could be reversibly oxidized and the polymer p-doped, or reduced, causing n-doping. Upon charging, the radical is oxidized to an oxoammonium cation, and at the cathode, the radical is reduced to an aminoxyl anion. These processes are reversed upon discharge, and the radicals are regenerated. For stable charge and discharge, both the radical and doped form of the radical must be chemically stable. These batteries exhibit excellent cyclability and power density, attributed to the stability of the radical and the simple one-electron transfer reaction. Slight decrease in capacity after repeated cycling is likely due to a build up of swollen polymer particles which increase the resistance of the electrode. Because the radical polymers are considerably insulating, conductive additives are often added that which lower the theoretical specific capacity. Nearly all organic radical batteries feature a nearly constant voltage during discharge, which is an advantage over conductive polymer batteries. The polymer backbone and cross-linking techniques can be tuned to minimize the solubility of the polymer in the electrolyte, thereby minimizing self-discharge.


title: Polymer-based battery

text: Electrochemical performance of polymer electrodes is affected by polymer size, morphology, and degree of crystallinity. In a polypyrrole (PPy)/Sodium ion hybrid battery, a 2018 study demonstrated that the polymer anode with a fluffy structure consisting of chains of submicron particles performed with a much higher capacity (183 mAh g−1) as compared to bulk PPy (34.8 mAh g−1). The structure of the submicron polypyrrole anode allowed for increased electrical contact between the particles, and the electrolyte was able to further penetrate the polymeric active material. It has also been reported that amorphous polymeric active materials performs better than the crystalline counterpart. In 2014, it was demonstrated that crystalline oligopyrene exhibited a discharge capacity of 42.5 mAh g−1, while the amorphous oligopyrene has a higher capacity of 120 mAh g−1. Further, the crystalline version experienced a sloped charge and discharge voltage and considerable overpotential due to slow diffusion of ClO4−. The amorphous oligopyrene had a voltage plateau during charge and discharge, as well as significantly less overpotential.


title: Polymer-based battery

text: Polymer-based batteries have many advantages over metal-based batteries. The electrochemical reactions involved are more simple, and the structural diversity of polymers and method of polymer synthesis allows for increased tunability for desired applications. While new types of inorganic materials are difficult to find, new organic polymers can be much more easily synthesized. Another advantage is that polymer electrode materials may have lower redox potentials, but they have a higher energy density than inorganic materials. And, because the redox reaction kinetics for organics is higher than that for inorganics, they have a higher power density and rate performance. Because of the inherent flexibility and light weight of organic materials as compared to inorganic materials, polymeric electrodes can be printed, cast, and vapor deposited, enabling application in thinner and more flexible devices. Further, most polymers can be synthesized at low cost or extracted from biomass and even recycled, while inorganic metals are limited in availability and can be harmful to the environment.


title: Observation on the Spot

text: The other state, Luzania, constitutes a treatment of the topic of an "ideal state". Luzanian's most prominent accomplishment is the creation of "ethicsphere" (compare "atmosphere"). They have produced huge numbers of molecular sized nanobots called "bystry" ("quickies" in English) that serve to control matter in the 'quickated' areas. The primary function of the 'quickies' is the enforcement of the laws of ethics as physical laws (hence the word "ethicsphere"). Hence, it is a physical law in Luzania that it is not possible to hurt an individual physically. If you try to strike your neighbor, your hand will be stopped by the suddenly increased air viscosity, (although you will not be hurt either). If you try to drown, the water will push you out. Doing non-physical harm, such as by pestering, criticizing, and otherwise mentally tormenting people is still possible, although in such a case the 'quickies' would probably help the victim to walk away from the attackers. There is a large protest movement in Luzania of people who want to end the ethicsphere, and a major element of their activities is trying to inflict harm on anybody just to prove the possibility of doing so, but they have not succeeded yet.


title: The Spirit of Life

text: The statue stands in the heart of Congress Park on a shallow niche of white marble with a balustraded terrace above and an oblong lagoon, set in marble and surrounded with verdant shrubbery, green lawns and a wealth of flowers below. The statue is a figure of a winged woman, hands moving high above her head (the model has been said to be Audrey Munson but recent Daniel Chester French scholarship shows that Hettie Anderson posed). The figure represents Hygieia, the giver of health, who usually appeared in Greek and Roman art accompanying her father, Asklepios, the god of medicine. She is often shown offering nourishment to a serpent entwined on the staff which Asklepios carries. In French's conception, Hygieia holds aloft a shallow bowl and in the other hand clasps a pine bough, a reference to the towering pines on the grounds of the Trasks' estate. The goddess is poised lightly on a rock and a stream of water pours from its cleft. The pedestal is a sculptured reproduction of the tufaceous deposits seen about the orifice of many of Saratoga's famous springs. The inscription on the statue reads, "To do good and serve my fellow man."


title: Ricardo Álvarez-Rivón

text: On October 26, 1989, Turey el Taino, published by Editorial Manos, made its debut in the news and magazine stands in stores all over Puerto Rico. Turey el Taino is what is known as a "comic magazine". Instead of the regular comic format, this comic comes in the form of a magazine. It was first printed in black and white. Turey is a lovable chubby guy with two sons and a very dominating wife. Turey goes on all kinds of adventures, accompanied by his best friend "Batu", the tribe witchdoctor "Baracutey" and "Tureycito", one of his sons. They either face the "ferocious" Caribs or fight evil spirits. The comic book is education-oriented, as it teaches how the Tainos must have lived before the arrival of the Spaniards. The comic book also contains a section where the letters and drawings from the fans are published. The first newspaper to publish the adventures of Turey was "El Mundo" of Puerto Rico. Soon, the adventures of Turey were being published in color in the Sunday newspaper pages of El Nuevo Día.


title: Crowned seahorse

text: Hippocampus coronatus, commonly known as the high-crowned seahorse or crowned seahorse, is a species of fish of the family Syngnathidae. It is endemic to the Pacific coastal waters of Japan (found in shallow coastal waters from Tokyo bay and Sagami bay), where it lives among Zostera seagrasses. It can grow to lengths of 10.8 centimetres (4.3 in), but is more commonly 6 centimetres (2.4 in). Individuals feed mainly on small crustaceans such as gammarid amphipods and copepods, although this can vary by size, with smaller individuals consuming copepods while larger individuals feed on amphipods and mysids. This species is ovoviviparous, with males brooding eggs in a brood pouch before giving birth to live young. Breeding season occurs from June to November, with females and males reaching sexual maturity at 6.9 centimetres (2.7 in) and 7.3 centimetres (2.9 in) respectively. Male brood size ranges from 12–46. The International trade in this species has been monitored through Appendix II of the CITES licensing system since 2004 and a minimum size of 10 centimetres (3.9 in) applies to traded specimens.


title: Khamdang Gewog

text: After a three-hour walk from Naangkhar Gompa, incorporating a steep descent of 330m and more than 125 m of climbing, is a scared place commonly known as Omba Ney or the Taktshang of eastern Bhutan. The letter Om can be seen engraved on the rock face within the holy pilgrimage site. It is one of the three unique holy places founded by Guru Rinpoche, the other being Aja and Hungrel, where the letters AH and HUM can be seen in different dzongkhags. It is believed that a short crawl through a narrow cave passage on the cliff above the Lhakhang will rid one of impurities, while one can scramble even higher up the cliff through a crack in the rock. According to the history of Omba Ney, Guru Rinpoche meditated for 2 months, subduing the demon namely Phurba Trashi. It was Toerten Guru Choewang , sungtrul of Jampelyang Gyalpo Thrisong Deutsen who liberated the site to people. Toerten Guru Choewang travelled from Kurtoe Nyalamdung to Trashiyangtse where Omba Ney was hidden. On arriving at the site he pointed out that Aa is in Mon Kha Sheri Dzong And Om is there also. Later Terton Pema Lingpa travelled from Bumthang to Tawang via Om Ba Ney to give teachings and spent several days at Om Ba Ney and further introduced many treasures and empoweried people with blessings and teachings. Torten Pema Lingpa's granddaughter Ani Choeten Zangmo also spent some time at the ney.


title: KOAZ

text: The first station in Albuquerque to adopt the smooth jazz format was KRZN-FM 101.3 "The Horizon" in 1994, launched just weeks before the areas' long time easy listening station KKJY-FM "K-Joy" switched to a classic hits format. In 1997, KRZN would move to 105.1, making the format available in Santa Fe, but after two years, it would switch to a top 40 format, leaving the market without a smooth jazz outlet much to the dismay of its fans. However, on Christmas Day 2000, The Horizon would return to the airwaves on 101.3 and would once again get another shot on 105.1 in late 2001 and changing its callsign to KAJZ-FM. But by 2004, it would be moved to the weaker 101.7 frequency and would be cut back to just two personalities and running a mostly automated format before it was axed. Ever since Univision's former smooth jazz station KAJZ (101.7 FM, now known as KQTM) changed to a rhythmic oldies (now Sports talk) format in October 2005, the Albuquerque market was left without a smooth jazz radio station for about a year.


title: Mucormycosis

text: The fungal spores are present in the environment, can be found on items such as moldy bread and fruit, and are breathed in frequently, but cause disease only in some people. In addition to being breathed in and deposited in the nose, sinuses, and lungs, the spores can also enter the skin via blood or directly through a cut or open wound, and can also grow in the intestine if eaten. Once deposited, the fungus grows branch-like filaments which invade blood vessels, causing clots to form and surrounding tissues to die. Other reported causes include contaminated wound dressings. Mucormycosis has been reported following the use of elastoplast and the use of tongue depressors for holding in place intravenous catheters. Outbreaks have also been linked to hospital bed sheets, negative-pressure rooms, water leaks, poor ventilation, contaminated medical equipment, and building works. One hypothesis suggests that the spread of fungal spores in India could be due to fumes generated from the burning of Mucorales-rich biomass, like cow dung and crop stubble.


title: Mucormycosis

text: Pre-COVID mucormycosis was a very rare infection, even in India. It is so rare that an ENT (ear, nose, throat) doctor would not witness often a case during their university time. So, the documentation available on the treatment of mucormycosis is limited. In fact, there used to be a couple of mucormycosis expert ENT surgeons for millions of people pre-pandemic. The sudden rise in mucormycosis cases has left a majority of the ENT doctors with no option but to accept mucormycosis cases, as the expert doctors were very much occupied and the patient would die if left untreated. The majority of the ENT doctors had to manage with minimal or no experience on mucormycosis, this has led to the recurrence of mucormycosis in the patients they treated. When a highly experienced doctor in mucormycosis treats a patient even he cannot guarantee that the individual is completely cured and will not have a relapse of mucormycosis; an inexperienced ENT surgeon will definitely have a high number of patients with recurrence due to which there were many recurrent cases of mucormycosis although it did not get the limelight of media or the Indian Government.


title: Mucormycosis

text: COVID-19 associated mucormycosis cases were reported during first and second(delta) wave, with maximum number of cases in delta wave. There were no cases reported during the Omicron wave. A number of cases of mucormycosis, aspergillosis, and candidiasis, linked to immunosuppressive treatment for COVID-19 were reported during the COVID-19 pandemic in India in 2020 and 2021. One review in early 2021 relating to the association of mucormycosis and COVID-19 reported eight cases of mucormycosis; three from the U.S., two from India, and one case each from Brazil, Italy, and the UK. The most common underlying medical condition was diabetes. Most had been in hospital with severe breathing problems due to COVID-19, had recovered, and developed mucormycosis 10–14 days following treatment for COVID-19. Five had abnormal kidney function tests, three involved the sinus, eye and brain, three the lungs, one the gastrointestinal tract, and in one the disease was widespread. In two of the seven deaths, the diagnosis of mucormycosis was made at postmortem. That three had no traditional risk factors led the authors to question the use of steroids and immunosuppressive drugs, although there were cases without diabetes or use of immunosuppressive drugs. There were cases reported even in children. In May 2021, the BBC reported increased cases in India. In a review of COVID-19-related eye problems, mucormycosis affecting the eyes was reported to occur up to several weeks following recovery from COVID-19. It was observed that people with COVID-19 were recovering from mucormycosis a bit easily when compared to non-COVID-19 patients. This is because unlike non-COVID-19 patients with severe diabetes, cancer or HIV, the recovery time required for the main cause of immune suppression is temporary.


title: Nicholas Throckmorton

text: In 1562, when religious violence began to intensify in France, Throckmorton wanted to support the mediation efforts of Catherine de' Medici. Later in 1562, when the Huguenot Prince of Condé had taken over Newhaven (modern-day Le Havre) in April, Throckmorton convinced the Queen to send military aid to the Huguenots in what was later called the Newhaven expedition. English troops garrisoned Le Havre in October 1562, but soon fell afoul of the Huguenots and, after the negotiations, the Huguenots turned against the English. After an outbreak of plague, they had to surrender the next year. Catherine de' Medici was suspicious of Throckmorton's schemes, however, and when Elizabeth sent him to negotiate with her in 1563, she placed him under house arrest. Elizabeth sent Sir Thomas Smith to negotiate his release. The two men soon began to dislike each other and in one stage almost came to blows, but Throckmorton was eventually released in 1564. Throckmorton was appointed Chief Butler of England and Chamberlain of the Exchequer in 1564 for life. He continued to send letters and messengers with advice to the Queen and she often took his advice.


title: Over a Cliff

text: Due to the recent reveal of B613's existence, Olivia meets with Lonnie Mencken, who says he will make sure they get a proper Senate hearing if Mellie makes gun control her first priority. After Olivia agrees, he shoots himself to ensure the hearing takes place, leaving David in charge. At the senate hearing Olivia admits to ordering Rashad's assassination, Mellie and Fitz admit they knew of B613, Tom confesses to killing Frankie Vargas under Cyrus' orders, and Hollis admits to being a part of election fraud. Everyone starts to deal with their impending imprisonment while helping get Quinn to Charlie so they can get married. After failing to kill David, Jake tells Cyrus he is not going to take his orders anymore. On his quest to have Mellie impeached, Cyrus poisons David and smothers him. The ruling is postponed due to a new witness coming forward: Rowan; he admits to being Command. Jake is imprisoned for his actions in B613. An alcoholic Cyrus resigns as vice president. Mellie approves of the bill on gun control to law. Olivia and Fitz reunite. Two young girls visit the National Portrait Gallery where there is a portrait of Olivia.


title: Over a Cliff

text: Joshua Alston of Vulture gave the episode a 4 out of 5 stars rating, stating that it is "pretty darn successful, moving briskly and offering a satisfying mix of resolutions, comeuppances, surprises, and pure fan service." USA Today's Anika Reed praised the series in its entirety, not just the final episode, commenting the show "put a black woman as the lead of a primetime drama for the first time since 1974, with Washington as D.C. fixer Olivia Pope. The show arguably changed the makeup of the television landscape and created a space for shows with complicated black lead actors." Brian Lowry, writing a positive review for CNN, stated that the episode "felt both ridiculous and wholly appropriate. Admittedly, this appraisal doesn't come from a 'gladiator,' an allusion to the show's die-hard loyalists, but rather somebody who thought it was bad in the early going, and tolerable once it adapted and embraced the crazy." He also commented on the series as a whole, affirming that Scandal "was less about politics (a lot of those flourishes were exaggerated to the point of not making much sense) than the corrupting influence of power, using Washington's corridors as the glamorous backdrop for a primetime soap, mixing its steamy relationships with wild deep-state conspiracies."


title: Avro Vulcan XH558

text: The Trust's ongoing commitment was to keep XH558 in good condition and use it for educational purposes, which they committed to do for 80 years as a condition of the 2005 Lottery funding. The first stage was to establish the Vulcan Aviation Academy & Heritage Centre, involving an academy building for 14–18 year olds, focussing on "six areas of aviation skills: piloting, air traffic controls, airport ground operations, aircraft operations, cabin crew and aviation engineering". XH558 would be housed in an adjacent heritage centre, where it will be maintained so as to be able to perform taxi runs, the frequency of which would be funding-dependent. With less engineering required to support the Vulcan as a taxi-able exhibit, the Trust's associated engineering company was examining the possibility of setting up as an independent, CAA-approved, heritage aviation servicing operation. As a result of the new focus post-flight operations, the Trust's additional base at Hinckley was also to close.


title: Hermann Keller

text: Born in Stuttgart the son of an architect, he followed his father's profession by also studying architecture in Stuttgart and Munich. During his studies he became a member of the Stuttgart "Musische Studentenverbindung Swabia" in 1903. Max Reger, with whom Keller took private lessons, advised him to make music his profession. Keller followed this advice and thereupon studied additionally in Munich, Stuttgart and Leipzig. From 1910 he worked as a teacher at the Grand Ducal Music School and organist at the Stadtkirche in Weimar. In 1916, however, he moved back to his home town of Stuttgart, where he worked as organist at the Markuskirche. , lecturer at the Technical College , teacher at the College of Music as well as head of its department for church and school music . After the Second World War, he was director of the State University of Music and Performing Arts Stuttgart and was significantly involved in its reconstruction. Keller died in 1967 at age 81 as the result of a traffic accident.


title: José Sanjurjo

text: Sanjurjo became one of the first generals appointed to the command of the Spanish Republican Army. His sympathies, however, remained with the monarchist cause. When he clashed with Prime Minister Manuel Azaña over the military reforms, he was replaced by General Miguel Cabanellas. He was demoted to chief of the customs officers in 1932 as a result of the events of Castilblanco and Arnedo involving the Civil Guard. His confrontation with the ministry, Azaña's military reforms, and the grants of regional autonomy to Catalonia and the Basque Country, led Sanjurjo to plot a rebellion with some Carlists under Manuel Fal Conde, Tomás Domínguez Arévalo, and other military officers. This rebellion, which was known as the Sanjurjada, was proclaimed in Seville on 10 August 1932. Sanjurjo asserted that the rebellion was only against the current ministry and not against the Republic. It achieved initial success in Seville but absolute failure in Madrid. Sanjurjo attempted to flee to Portugal, but in Huelva he decided to give himself up.


title: 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom

text: Following Ceylon's independence in 1948, which saw D.S. Senanayake, the first Prime Minister of the island forming a government with a coalition with his United National Party (UNP), the Sinhala Maha Sabha of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike and the Tamil Congress of G. G. Ponnambalam. This coalition soon fell apart, and Bandaranaike who was elected wave of Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism, delivered on his election promise by enacting the Sinhala Only Act in 1956, Tamil parties began asking for more power for the North and east of Sri Lanka where Tamils are the majority. In 1957, the Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact was formed, but later scrapped by then prime minister S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike. Tensions related to the Sinhala Only policy resulted in riots in 1956 and 1958. During the early 1960s, prime minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike ruthlessly enforced the Sinhala Only policy, much to the detriment of the Tamils. In 1965, the new prime minister Dudley Senanayake created the Dudley-Chelvanayakam Pact, which sought to find a compromise on the issues of language, colonization, and devolution. Sinhala colonization of the Eastern Province abated and there were modest gains in making Tamil the language of administration in the north and east. However, the regional councils proposed by the pact were not implemented. In 1970, Sirimavo Bandaranaike returned to power and once again enforced a pro-Sinhala-Buddhist policy, marginalizing the Tamils. Despite the communal tensions between Sinhalese and Tamils, there had been no major outbreaks of ethnic violence between the two groups since 1958.


title: 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom

text: The TULF states in its manifesto for the 1977 general elections attacks the Republican Constitution of 1972, mentions grievances of the Tamils and liberation by the National Assembly of Tamil Eelam formed by Tamil speaking members of the National State Assembly drafting a constitution for the new state and bring it into force "either by peaceful means or by direct action or struggle". According to Sansoni, A. Amirthalingam had explained "that 'peaceful means' meant negotiation, 'direct action' meant Sathyagraha, 'struggle' meant civil disobedience". Amirthalingam intended to form the state of Tamil Eelam through political means by persuading and convincing members of parliament as Sansoni found "that any other method of achieving the separate State is unlawful and unconstitutional". He further states in his report that R. Sampanthan has stated that he took the oath of allegiance perform his duty as a members of parliament and use parliament as a "forum for the vindication and achievement of the objectives of his party, and in order to retain his seat" and does state that his party would not violate the constitution. Sansoni states in his report that during the general election campaign, members of the TULF and its youth front spoke in campaign speeches that "Eelam will be set up, if necessary by resort to violence".


title: 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom

text: The Kankesanturai-Colombo train was attacked in the early hours of 17 August at Anuradhapura station. A Sinhalese mob attacked the Tamil passengers, brutally assaulting and robbing them. The Tamil station master of the station had his car burned while police did nothing. The army was also uninterested in helping Tamils. Tamil refugees sought refuge in the retiring rooms of the railway station. However, the police constable present refused to defend the refugees and the Tamils were attacked. The superintendent of police (SP) G. W. Liyanage and Major Jayawardene appeared to be gloating about the attacks on Tamils. Eventually, an army squad agreed to defend the Tamils in the retiring room. As more trains came to the station, the Tamil passengers in them were assaulted. Tamils at the Department of Health in Anuradhapura were also attacked by Sinhalese hospital employees despite some police and army protection being afforded to them. Dr. K. N. K. Wijayawardana, the Medical Superintendent at Anuradhapura hospital recounted the violence that had occurred there:


title: 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom

text: Violence erupted on 19 August. Several Tamil houses and shops were looted and burned in Kandy town by Sinhalese mobs. Sinhalese-owned taverns employing Tamils were also attacked. Tamils property was also burned and looted in Ampitiya, Kundasale, and Katugastota. A Tamil estate owner who was driving was pulled out of his car and assaulted. At the Kundasale School of Agriculture, several Tamil employees had their properties looted and burned. A Tamil man had been cut by a mob. A Hindu temple in Katugastota was burned and its priest had his house attacked. Another Tamil man was severely assaulted at Polgolla. A Tamil man was clubbed and stripped, and a Tamil woman was hit with a stick covered with barbed wire. In one case, the police had looked on as the mobs pillaged a shop. At Hindagala, a Tamil man was severely assaulted and later died of his injuries. At Pilimathalawa, buses were stopped and Tamil passengers were assaulted and stripped. At the train station too, Tamils were attacked. A mob of 50 attacked the house of Tamil lecturer at Peradeniya University. The police and army arrested 12 rioters. The rioters were taken to the Theological College but later released. A Hindu temple at Peradeniya University was looted and destroyed. Estates in Kadugannawa, Ulapane, Dolosbage, Nawalapitiya were also attacked by Sinhalese colonists and villagers in the vicinity of the estate. Tamil houses, shops, and factories were attacked and burned.


title: 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom

text: 13 Tamil shops were burnt at Koslanda while armed police nearby did nothing. At Halmadulla, several Tamil families were attacked by a Sinhalese gang. Their assets were stolen and their houses set ablaze. In Haputale, a Tamil-owned estate was attacked by villagers. The store and sugar plantation were burned. A Tamil family was attacked in Kolatenna by a crowd of 20. One son was assaulted and cut with a knife, but he fought back against the mob, injuring a few mobsters, and the mob fled. The son was assaulted by army personnel after the latter found out that the son had fought the mobsters. The father of the family went to the police station and was chased away initially. Several Tamil shops were looted and burned in Diyatalawa following news of violence in Kandy and false rumors thereafter. One shopkeeper accused plainclothes soldiers of participating in the violence. A few Sinhalese shops had been damaged too. A Tamil man was cut in the head and killed. Three Tamil houses were burnt by Sinhalese rioters. Sinhalese villagers had burnt lined rooms at Bandarawela. In Badulla town, a Tamil man was assaulted and his father was cut with an axe by masked assailants when the latter attempted to intervene. Several Tamil houses were burnt by Sinhalese at Welimada.


title: 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom

text: By noon 16 August, W.T. Jayasinghe, Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of External Affairs and Defence; Major General Sepala Attygalle, Army Commander; Stanley Senanayake, Inspector General of Police (IGP) and Ana Seneviratne, Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG) had arrived in Jaffna by air as a result of telephone calls made by Amirthalingam to the Prime Minister and by Navaratnam to T. B. Werapitiya, Deputy Minister of External Affairs and Defence stating that there has been rioting, Police firing and going berserk. The officials visited the market and had after the fire had been extinguished, held a conference of the residency, which was attended by members of parliament. It was reported that government owned Laksala and Cooperative Wholesale Establishment had been looted, while three Sinhalese owned bakeries were burned along with several police vehicles by mobs. The authorities proposed a curfew, which was rejected by the members of parliament, who feared irresponsible police actition unobserved by the public under the cover of darkness. As such no curfew was imposed. The officials returned to Colombo by air around 3 PM. DIG Seneviratne returned to Jaffna the next day.


title: 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom

text: President William Gopallawa appointed former Chief Justice Miliani Sansoni, who had served as Chief Justice of Ceylon from 1964 to 1966, as the Commissioner of a Presidential Commission of Inquiry on 9 November 1977 to inquire and report on the events "to ascertain the circumstances and the causes that led to, and the nature and particulars of, the incidents which took place in the Island between the 13th day of August, 1977 and the 15th day of September, 1977". Following his inquiry, Justice Sansoni submitted his report, which was known as the "Sansoni Report" to President Jayewardene in July 1980. The riots were explained in the Sansoni Report in terms of "Sinhalese reaction to Tamil separatist demands, terrorist acts committed in the name of separatism, and anti-Sinhalese statements allegedly made by Tamil politicians in the course of the 1977 general election campaign". The Sansoni Report has been criticized for pro-government bias, being hampered by political interference and for "victim blaming" Tamils.


title: 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom

text: More than 75,000 plantation Tamils became victims of ethnic violence and were forced to relocate to northern and eastern Sri Lanka. The pogrom radicalized Tamil youths, convincing many that the TULF's strategy of using legal and constitutional means to achieve independence would never work, and armed struggle was the only way forward. The outbreak of the pogrom highlighted the TULF's inability to provide safety for the Tamils. It was only after the pogrom the TELO and LTTE, the two major Tamil militant groups, began an active campaign for a separate Tamil Eelam. Sathasivam Krishnakumar, who would later become a leading member of the LTTE under the nom de guerre "Kittu", stated that he joined the LTTE after feeling anguish and anger when he volunteered to help Tamil refugees in Jaffna who fled the south after the 1977 riots. Uma Maheswaran, a TULF activist, joined the LTTE in 1977 and was made the organization's chairman by Velupillai Prabhakaran. Many such Tamil activists began to join various Tamil militant groups to fight for separate statehood.


title: 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom

text: According to Manogaran, the LTTE increased their campaign of violence against police and army personnel, in turn the armed forces and the police escalated their violence against innocent citizens in order to suppress the youth movement and discourage support for it. Concerned that the 1977 anti-Tamil riots had alienated Tamils community, the government felt the need to appease them. A new constitution was enacted in September 1977, which recognized Tamil as a national language and improved Tamil language provisions for Tamils to have better public sector employment opportunities as a first step. The violence continued even though the government proscribed underground movements such as the Liberation Tiger Movement in Order No. 16 of 1978. On 7 September 1978, Air Ceylon flight 4R-ACJ was bombed by suspected militants, which along with attacks on its security forces and informants compelled the government to pass several harsh legislation, some of which became permanent. The relationship between Tamils and Sinhalese was severely strained, with the risk of another communal disturbance.


title: Jana (singer)

text: In 1997, she met singer Marina Živković in Kosovska Mitrovica, a meeting which kick-started her career. As Živković was preparing for her concert, she overheard Todorović singing and was left 'breathless'. She asked for Jana to come to her table and talk and after the conversation, she recommended Jana to friend, Ivan Todorović (Jana's future husband) who owned a discothèque and was in need of a live band. Not long after, Ivan traveled to Priština to meet with Jana. That day, Jana and her cousin met up with him near the Grand Hotel and struck up a record deal. In October 1997, with great sadness, she left her home country and moved to Germany, four months prior to the outbreak of war in Kosovo. She became extremely homesick in Germany, but was unable to travel home because of the insecurity. She was signed to the now-defunct record label Zabava miliona (ZAM). As there already was a famous singer called Dragana Mirković, Saša Popović, the label's director, recommended her to adopt Jana as her stage name. During the recording of her second album, Sokolica , she fell in love with Ivan Todorović and they later married. Her first album was a huge success and she went on tour with famous singer Lepa Brena.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: The original exploration of the PV effect can be accredited to research published by Henri Becquerel in 1839. Becquerel noticed the generation of a photocurrent after illumination when he submerged platinum electrodes within an aqueous solution of either silver chloride or silver bromide. In the early 20th century, Pochettino and Volmer studied the first organic compound, anthracene, in which photoconductivity was observed. Anthracene was heavily studied due to its known crystal structure and its commercial availability in high-purity single anthracene crystals. The studies of photoconductive properties of organic dyes such as methylene blue were initiated only in the early 1960s owing to the discovery of the PV effect in these dyes. In further studies, it was determined that important biological molecules such as chlorophylls, carotenes, other porphyrins as well as structurally similar phthalocyanines also exhibited the PV effect. Although many different blends have been researched, the market is dominated by inorganic solar cells which are slightly more expensive than organic based solar cells. The commonly used inorganic based solar cells include crystalline, polycrystalline, and amorphous substrates such as silicon, gallium selenide, gallium arsenide, copper indium gallium selenide and cadmium telluride.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: With the high demand of cheap, clean energy sources persistently increasing, organic photovoltaic (OPV) devices (organic solar cells), have been studied extensively to help in reducing the dependence on fossil fuel and containing the emission of green house gases (especially CO2, NOx, and SOx). This global demand for solar energy increased 54% in 2010, while the United States alone has installed more than 2.3 GW of solar energy sources in 2010. Some of the attributes which make OPVs such a promising candidate to solve this problem include their low-cost of production, throughput, ruggedness, and their chemically tunable electric properties along with significant reduction in the production of greenhouse gases. For decades, the researchers have believed that the maximum power conversion efficiency (PCE) would most likely remain below 0.1%. Only in 1979 Tang reported a two-layer, thin-film PV device, which ultimately yielded a power conversion efficiency of 1%. Tang's research was published in 1986, which allowed others to decipher many of the problems which limited the basic understanding of the process involved in the OPVs. In later years, the majority of the research focused on the composite blend of poly(3-hexylthiopehene) (P3HT) and phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM). This, along with the research performed on fullerenes, dictated the majority of studies pertaining to OPV for many years. In more recent research, polymer-based bulk heterojunction solar cells, along with low band-gap donor-acceptor copolymers have been created for PCBM-based OPV devices. These low band-gap donor-acceptor copolymers are able to absorb a higher percentage of the solar spectrum as compared to other high efficiency polymers. These copolymers have been widely researched due to their ability to be tuned for specific optical and electrical properties. To date, the best OPV devices have a maximum power conversion efficiency of approximately 8.13%. This low power conversion efficiency is directly related to discrepancies in the film morphology on the nano-scale level. Explanations of film morphology include recombination and/or trapping of charges, low open circuit voltages, heterogeneous interfaces, grain boundaries, and phase-separated domains. Many of these problems arise from the deficient knowledge of electro-optical properties on the nano-scale level. In numerous studies, it has been observed that heterogeneities in the electrical and optical properties influence device performance. These heterogeneities which occur in OPVs are a result the manufacturing process, such as annealing time, which is explained below. Research has mainly consisted of discovering exactly how this film morphology affects the device performance.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: Until recently, microscopy methods used in the characterization of these OPVs consisted of atomic force microscopy (AFM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM). These methods are very useful in the identification of the local morphology on the film surface, but lack the ability to provide fundamental information regarding local photocurrent generation and ultimately on the device performance. To obtain information which links the electrical and optical properties, the use of electrical scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is an active area of research. Electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) and scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM) have been utilized in the studies of electron injection and charge trapping effects, while scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and conductive atomic force microscopy (c-AFM) have been used to investigate electron transport properties within these organic semiconductors. Conductive AFM has been widely used in characterizing the local electric properties in both photovoltaic fullerene blends and organic films, but no reports have shown the use of c-AFM to display the distribution of photocurrents in organic thin films. The most recent variation of SPM devices include (tr-EFM) and photoconductive AFM (pc-AFM) . Both these techniques are capable of obtaining information regarding photo-induced charging rates with nano-scale resolution. The advantage of pc-AFM over tr-ERM is present in the maximum obtainable resolution by each method. pc-AFM can map photocurrent distributions with approximately 20 nm resolution, whereas tr-EFM was only able to obtain between 50 and 100 nm resolution at this time. Another important factor to note is although the tr-EFM is capable of characterizing thin films within organic solar cells, it is unable to provide the needed information regarding the capacitance gradient nor the surface potential of the thin film.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: Several forces affect the behavior of the cantilever: attractive and repulsive Van der Waals forces, and electrostatic repulsion. Changes in these forces are monitored by a guide laser that is reflected off the back of the cantilever and detected by a photodetector. Attractive forces between the atoms on the sample surface and the atom at the AFM tip draw the cantilever tip closer to the surface. When the cantilever tip and the sample surface come within a range of a few angstroms repulsive forces come into play as a result of electrostatic interactions. There is also a force exerted from the cantilever pressing down on the tip. The magnitude of the force exerted by the cantilever is dependent upon the direction of its motion, whether it is attracted or repelled from the sample surface When the tip of the cantilever and the surface come into contact, the single atom at the point of the tip and the atoms on the surface exhibit a Lennard-Jones potential. The atoms exhibit attractive forces until a certain point and then experience repulsion from one another. The term ro is the separation at which the sum of the potentials between the two atoms is zero


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: Modifications of this early work have been implemented to perform AFM analysis on both conducting and non-conducting materials. Conductive atomic force microscopy (c-AFM) is one such modification technique. The c-AFM technique operates by measuring fluctuations in current from the biased tip and sample while simultaneously measuring changes in the topographical features. In all techniques of AFM, two modes of operation can be used: contact mode and non-contact mode. In c-AFM resonant contact mode is used to obtain topographical from current that is measured between the biased AFM tip and the sample surface. In this type of operation, the current is measured in the small space between the tip and the sample surface. This quantification is based on the relationship between the current traveling through the sample and layer thickness. In the previous equation, Aeff is the effective emission area at the injecting electrode, q is the electron charge, h is the Planck constant, meff / m0 = 0.5, which is the effective mass of an electron in the conduction band of a sample, d is the sample thickness and Φ is the barrier height. The symbol, β, the field enhancement factor, accounts for the non-planar, geometry of the tip used.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: The principles of the piezo-tube is dependent upon how the piezo-electric material reacts with an applied voltage to either the interior or exterior of the tube. When voltage is applied to the two electrodes connected to the scanner, the tube will expand or contract causing motion to the AFM tip in the direction of this movement. This phenomenon is illustrated as the piezo-tube becomes displaced by an angle, θ. As the tube is displaced, the sample that, in traditional AFM is fixed to the tube generates lateral translation and rotation relative to the AFM tip, thus movement of the tip is generated in the x and y directions When voltage is applied of the inside of the tube, movement in the z-direction is implemented. The relationship between the movement of the piezo-tube and the direction of the displacement of the AFM tip assumes that the tube is perfectly symmetric. When no voltage is applied to the tube the z-axis bisects the tube, sample and sample stage symmetrically. When a voltage is applied to the exterior of the tube (x and y motion), the expansion of the tube can be understood as a circular arc. In this equation, the r term indicates the outside radius of the piezo-tube, R is the curvature radius of the tube with applied voltage, θ is the bend angle of the tube, L is the initial length of the tube and ΔL is the extension of the tube after the voltage is applied. The change in length of the piezo-tube, ΔL, is expressed as the intensity of the electric field applied to the exterior of the tube, the voltage along the x-axis, Ux, and the thickness of the wall of the tube.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: Another fundamental concept of all AFM is the feedback loop. The feedback loop is particularly important in non-contact AFM techniques, particularly in pc-AFM. As previously mentioned, in non-contact mode the cantilever is stationary and the tip does not come into physical contact with the sample surface. The cantilever behaves as a spring and oscillates at its resonance frequency. Topological variance causes the spring-like oscillations of the cantilever to change amplitude and phase in order to prevent the tip from colliding with sample topographies. The non-contact feedback loop is used to control that changes in the oscillations of the cantilever. The application of AFM on non-conducting samples (c-AFM) has in recent years evolved into the modification used for analysis of morphologies on the local scale, particularly morphologies at heterojunctions of multilayered samples. Photoconductive atomic force microscopy (pc-AFM) is particularly prevalent in the development of organic photovoltaic devices (OPV). The fundamental modification of c-AFM to pc-AFM is the addition of an illumination source and an inverted microscope that focuses the laser to a nanometer-scale point directly underneath the conductive AFM tip. The main concept of the illumination laser point is that it must be small enough to fit within the confines of ultra-thin films. These characteristics are achieved by using a monochromatic light source and a laser filter. In the OPV application, applying the illumination laser to the confines of ultra-thin films is further assisted by the recent development of the bulk heterojunction (BHJ) mixture of electron donating and accepting material in the film. The combination of the conductive tip and illumination laser provides photocurrent images with vertical resolutions in the range of 0 to 10 pA when overlaid with the topographical data obtained. Also unique to this modification are the spectra data gathered by comparing the current between the tip and sample to a variety of parameters including: laser wavelength, applied voltage and light intensity. The pc-AFM technique was also reported to detect local surface oxidation at a vertical resolution of 80 nm.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: The instrumentation involved for pc-AFM is very similar to that necessary for traditional AFM or the modified conductive AFM. The main difference between pc-AFM and other types of AFM instruments is the illumination source that is focused through the inverted microscope objective and the neutral density filter that is positioned adjacent to the illumination source. The technical parameters of pc-AFM are identical to those of traditional AFM techniques. This section will focus on the instrumentation necessary for AFM and then detail the requirements for pc-AFM modification. The main instrumental components to all AFM techniques are the conductive AFM cantilever and tip, the modified piezo components and the sample substrate. The components for photoconductive modification include: the illumination source (532 nm laser), filter and inverted microscope. When modifying traditional AFM for pc application, all components must be combined such that they do not interfere with one another and so that various sources of noise and mechanical interference do not disrupt the optical components.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: In traditional instrumentation, the stage is a cylindrical piezo-tube scanner that minimizes the effect of mechanical noise. Most cylindrical piezos are between 12 and 24 mm in length and 6 and 12 mm in diameter. The exterior of the piezo-tube is coated with a thin layer of conducting metal so that this region can sustain an electric field. The interior of the cylinder is divided into four regions (x and y regions) by non-conducting metallic strips. Electrical leads are fixed to one end and the exterior wall of the cylinder so that a current can be applied. When a voltage is applied to the exterior, the cylinder expands in x and y direction. Voltage along the interior of the tube causes cylinder expansion in the z-direction and thus movement of the tip in the z-direction. The placement of the piezo tube is dependent upon the type of AFM performed and the mode of analysis. However the z-piezo must always be fixed above the tip and cantilever to control the z-motion. This configuration is most often seen in the c-AFM and pc-AFM modifications to make room for additional instrumental components which are placed below the scanning stage. This is particularly true for pc-AFM, which must have the piezo-components arranged above the cantilever and tip so that the illumination laser can transmit through the sample.with applied voltage


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: The instrumentation of conductive AFM (c-AFM) has evolved with the desire to measure local electrical properties of materials with high resolutions. The essential components are: the piezo-tube, the guide laser, the conducting tip, and cantilever. Although these components are identical to traditional AFM their configuration is tailored to measuring surface currents on the local scale. As mentioned previously, the piezo-tube can be placed either above or below the sample, depending on the application of the instrumentation. In the case of c-AFM, repulsive contact mode is the predominantly used to obtain electric current images from the surface as the sample moves in the x and y direction. Placing the z-piezo above the cantilever allows for better control of the cantilever and tip during analysis. The material that comprises the conductive tip and cantilever can be customized for a particular application. Metal-coated cantilevers, gold wires, all-metal cantilevers and diamond cantilevers are used. In many cases diamond is the preferred material for cantilever and/or tip because it is an extremely hard material that does not oxidize in ambient conditions. The main difference between the instrumentation of c-AFM and STM is that in c-AFM the bias voltage can be directly applied to the nanostructure (tip and substrate). In STM, on the other hand, the applied voltage must be supported within the vacuum tunneling gap between the STM probe and surface. When the tip is in close contact with the sample surface the application of bias voltage to the tip creates a vacuum gap between the tip and the sample that enables the investigation of electron transport through nanostructures.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: The main components and instrumentation of c-AFM instrumentation are identical to that required for a pc-AFM module. The only modifications are the illumination source, filter and inverted microscope objective that are located beneath the sample substrate. In fact, most pc-AFM instruments are simply modified from existing cp-AFM instrumentation. The first report of this instrumental modification came in 2008. In that paper, Lee and coworkers implemented the aforementioned modifications to examine the resolution of photocurrent imaging. Their design consisted of three main units: a conductive mirror plate, steering mirror and laser source. The main difficulty with the previously existing c-AFM instrumentation is the inability of the technique for characterizing photonic devices. Specifically, it is difficult to measure changes in local and nano-scale electrical properties that result from the photonic effect. The optical illumination component (laser) was added to the c-AFM module in order to make such properties visible. Early in development, the main concerns regarding pc-AFM include: physical configuration, laser disturbance and laser alignment. Although many of these concerns have been resolved pc-AFM modules are still widely modified from c-AFM and traditional AFM instruments.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: The conductive AFM tip was easily aligned over the reflected illumination beam. The laser spot in the sample was reported to be 1mm in size and can be found using the AFM recording device. A convenience of this technique is that laser alignment is only necessary for imaging in the z-direction because the photocurrents are mapped in this direction. Therefore, normal AFM/c-AFM can be implemented for analysis in the x and y directions. The instrumental module proposed by Lee et al. produced spot sizes from the illumination laser of 1 mm in thicknesses. Recent applications have altered Lee's design in order to decrease spot size while simultaneously increasing the intensity of this laser. Recent instrumentation has replaced the angled mirror with an inverted microscope and a neutral density filter. In this device the x and y piezos, illumination laser and inverted microscopy are confined underneath the sample substrate, while the z-piezo remains above the conductive cantilever. In the applications of Ginger et al. a neutral-density filter is added to increase laser attenuation and the precision of laser alignment is enhanced by the addition of the inverted microscope.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: Although there is significant insight as to how OPVs work, it is still difficult to relate the device's functionality to local film structures. This difficulty may be attributed to the minimal current generation at a given point within OPVs. Through pc-AFM, OPV devices can be probed at nano-scale level and can help to increase our fundamental knowledge of mechanisms involved in OPVs at nano-scale level. pc-AFM is capable of gathering information such as the mapping of photocurrents, differences in film morphology, determination of donor-acceptor domains, current density-voltage plots, quantum efficiencies, and approximate charge carrier mobilities. One of the other notable characteristics of pc-AFM is its ability to provide concurrent information regarding the topological and photocurrent properties of the device at nano-scale. Using this concurrent sampling method, the sample handling is minimized and can provide more accurate results. In a study by Pingree et al., pc-AFM was used to measure how spatial deviations in the photocurrent generation developed with different processing techniques. The authors were able to compare these photocurrent variations to the duration of the annealing process. They have concluded that lengthening the annealing time allows for improved nano-scale phase separation as well as created a more ordered device. Actual times for the annealing process vary depending on the properties of the polymers used. The authors have shown that external quantum efficiency (EQE) and power conversion efficiency (PCE) levels reach a maximum at certain annealing times whereas while the electron and hole mobility's do not show the corresponding trends. Therefore, while lengthening the annealing time can increase the photocurrents within the OPV, there is a practical limit to after which the benefits may not be substantial. Besides functional properties, pc-AFM can also be used to interrogate the composition heterogeneity of OPVs when combined with either Raman or infrared (IR) spectroscopy, and it is especially valuable for studying their degradation.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: Sample preparation of the OPV is of the utmost importance when performing pc-AFM studies. The sampling substrate is recommended to be conductive, as well as transparent, to the light source which is irradiated upon it. Numerous studies have used ITO-coated glass as their conductive substrate. Because of high cost of ITO, however, there have been attempts to utilize other semiconducting layers, such as zinc oxide (ZnO) and carbon nanotubes as an alternative to ITO. Although these semiconductors are relatively inexpensive, high quality ITO layers are still being used extensively for PV applications. Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulfonate), more commonly known as PEDOT:PSS, is a transparent, polymeric conductive layer which is usually placed between the ITO and the active OPV layer. The PEDOT:PSS is a conductive polymer is stable over various applied charges. In most studies, PEDOT:PSS is spin-coated onto the ITO-coated glass substrates directly after plasma cleaning of the ITO. Plasma cleaning, as well as halo-acid etching, have been shown to improve the surface uniformity and conductivity of the substrate. This PEDOT:PSS layer is then annealed to the ITO prior to spin-coating the OPV layer onto the substrate. Studies by Pingree et al. have shown the direct correlation between annealing time and both peak and average photocurrent generation. Once this OPV film is spin-coated onto the substrate, it is then annealed at temperatures between 70 and 170 °C, for periods up to an hour depending on the procedure as well as OPV being used.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: A recently developed OPV system based on tetrabenzoporphryin (BP) and either -phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) is explained in detail as follows. In this study, the precursor to BP (1,4:8,11:15,18:22,25-tetraethano-29H,31H-tetrabenzoporphyrin (CP) solution is applied as the starting film, and was thermally annealed which caused the CP to convert into BP. The BP:fullerene layer serves as the undoped layer within the device. For surface measurements, the undoped layer is rinsed with a few drops of chloroform and spin-dried until the BP network is exposed at the donor/acceptor interface. For bulk heterojunction characterization, an additional fullerene solution is spin-coated onto the undoped layer, a thin layer of lithium fluoride is then deposited followed by either an aluminum or gold cathode which is thermally annealed to the device. The thin layer of lithium fluoride is deposited to help prevent the oxidation of the device. Controlling the thickness of these layers plays a significant role in the generation of the efficiency of the PV cells. Typically, the thickness of the active layers is usually smaller than 100 nm to produce photocurrents. This dependence on layer thickness is due to the probability that an electron is able to travel distances on the order of exciton diffusion length within the applied electric field. Many of the organic semiconductors used in the PV devices are sensitive to water and oxygen. This is due to the likelihood of photo-oxidation which can occur when exposed to these conditions. While the top metal contact can prevent some of this, many studies are either performed in an inert atmosphere such as nitrogen, or under ultra-high vacuum (UHV).


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: Many commercial AFM cantilever tips have pre-measured resonant frequencies and force constants which are provided to the customer. As sampling proceeds, the cantilever tip's position changes, which causes the scanning laser wavelength (650 nm) to deviate from its original position on the detector. The z-piezo scanner then recognizes this deviation and moves vertically to return the laser spot to its set position. This vertical movement by the z-piezo scanner is correlated to a change in voltage. Sampling in contact mode relies upon intermolecular forces between the tip and surface as depicted by Van der Waals force. As the sampling begins, the tip is moved close to the sample which creates a weakly attractive force between them. Another force which is often present in contact mode is capillary force due to hydration on the sample surface. This force is due to the ability of the water to contact the tip, thus creating an undesirable attractive force. Capillary force, along with several other sources of tip contamination, are key factors in the decreased resolution observed while sampling


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: There are considerations which need to be taken into account when determining which mode is optimal for sampling for a given application. It has been shown that sampling in contact mode with very soft samples can damage the sample and render it useless for further studies. Sampling in non-contact mode is less destructive to the sample, but the tip is more likely to drift out of contact with the surface and thus it may not record data. Drifting of the tip is also seen due to piezo hysteresis, which causes displacement due to molecular friction and polarization effects due to the applied electric field. It is important to note the correlation between resolution and curvature of tip radius. Early STM tips used by Binning and Rohrer were fairly large, anywhere between some hundred nm to 1 μm in radius. In more recent work, the tip radius of curvature was mentioned as 10–40 nm. By reducing the radius of curvature of the tip, it allows for the enhanced detection of deviations within the OPVs surface morphology. Tips often need to be replaced due to tip rounding, which leads to a decrease in the resolution. Tip rounding occurs due to the loss of outermost atoms present at the apex of the tip which can be a result of excessive force applied or character of the sample.


title: Photoconductive atomic force microscopy

text: Several methods have been employed to help reduce both mechanical and acoustic vibrations within the system. Mechanical vibrations are mainly attributed to traffic in and out of a building Other sources of mechanical vibrations have often been seen in the higher stories of a building due to reduced damping from building supports. This source of vibrational noise is easily controlled through the use of a vibration isolation table. Acoustical vibrations are far more common than mechanical vibrations. This type of vibration is a result of air movement near the instrument such as fans or human voices. Several methods have been developed to help reduce this source of vibration. An easy solution for this is separating the electronic components from the stage. The reason for this separation of components is due to the cooling fans within the electrical devices. While operating, the fans lead to a constant source of vibrational noise within the system. In most cases, other methods still need to be employed to help reduce this source of noise. For instance, the instrument can be placed within a sealed box constructed of acoustic dampening material. Smaller stages also result in less surface area for acoustic vibrations to collide with, thus reducing the noise recorded. A more in depth solution consists of removing all sharp edges on the instrument. These sharp edges can excite resonances within the piezo-electric materials which increase the acoustic noise within the system.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique is a 1984 book by the philosopher Adolf Grünbaum, in which the author offers a philosophical critique of the work of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. The book was first published in the United States by the University of California Press. Grünbaum evaluates the status of psychoanalysis as a natural science, criticizes the method of free association and Freud's theory of dreams, and discusses the psychoanalytic theory of paranoia. He argues that Freud, in his efforts to defend psychoanalysis as a method of clinical investigation, employed an argument that Grünbaum refers to as the "Tally Argument"; according to Grünbaum, it rests on the premises that only psychoanalysis can provide patients with correct insight into the unconscious pathogens of their psychoneuroses and that such insight is necessary for successful treatment of neurotic patients. Grünbaum argues that the argument suffers from major problems. Grünbaum also criticizes the views of psychoanalysis put forward by other philosophers, including the hermeneutic interpretations propounded by Jürgen Habermas and Paul Ricœur, as well as Karl Popper's position that psychoanalytic propositions cannot be disconfirmed and that psychoanalysis is therefore a pseudoscience.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: The book received positive reviews and became influential. It was seen as a turning point in the debate over psychoanalysis and was regarded by some critics of Freud as a masterpiece. Grünbaum was credited with providing the most important philosophical critique of Freud, refuting the views of Habermas, Ricœur, and Popper, convincingly criticizing free association and Freud's theory of dreams, and demonstrating that the validation of Freud's hypotheses must come mainly from extra-clinical studies. Some reviewers suggested that his arguments helped to show that the psychoanalytic approach to homosexuality is flawed. However, critics described the book as poorly written, and faulted Grünbaum's discussion of the "Tally Argument", questioning whether it was ever actually employed by Freud; they also rejected or disputed Grünbaum's conclusions about the method of free association and the psychoanalytic theory of paranoia. Some commentators believed that Grünbaum devoted too much space to criticizing hermeneutic interpretations of Freud and others saw a hermeneutic understanding of psychoanalysis as having more merit than he was willing to allow. Psychoanalysts have given Grünbaum greater attention than other critics of psychoanalysis, but have criticized him for his treatment of psychoanalytic theory.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Grünbaum offers a "philosophical critique of the foundations of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis" and reevaluates Freud's view that psychoanalysis is a natural science. He criticizes the hermeneutic interpretation of psychoanalysis propounded by the philosophers Jürgen Habermas, in Knowledge and Human Interests , and Paul Ricœur, in Freud and Philosophy and Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences . He maintains that they base their arguments on a mistaken interpretation of Freud's writings, as well as on misunderstandings of the methods of natural sciences. According to Grünbaum, Freud made his claim that psychoanalysis is a natural science primarily on behalf of his clinical theory, which was concerned with personality, psychopathology, and therapy, and which Freud considered its most essential part, rather than for its metapsychology, which was admittedly speculative, and which in Freud's view could be abandoned if necessary. He maintains that Freud has been misunderstood by Habermas and Ricœur as having based his claim that the clinical theory is a natural science on reduction of its hypotheses to those of the metapsychology.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: He argues that Ricœur incorrectly limits the relevance of psychoanalytic theory to verbal statements made during analytic therapy. He accuses Ricœur of being motivated by the desire to protect his hermeneutic understanding of psychoanalysis from scientific examination and criticism, and maintains that his arguments rest on an untenable dichotomy between theory and observation and that he takes a reductive form of behaviorism as his model of scientific psychology. He also argues that Ricœur's view that psychoanalysis provides a "semantics of desire" mistakenly equates symptoms with linguistic representations of their causes, and accuses Ricœur of endorsing the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan's view that a symptom resembles "a language whose speech must be realized". He maintains that such a view is mistaken, arguing that if it were appropriate for neurotic symptoms, it would also be applicable to both psychosomatic and somatic symptoms. However, he gives Ricœur some credit for later reassessing his views. He criticizes the philosopher Karl Popper's view that psychoanalytic claims in general cannot be falsified. Grünbaum argues that the psychoanalytic theory of paranoia is in principle falsifiable, since Freud's view that repressed homosexuality is a necessary cause of paranoia entails the testable claim that a decline in social sanctions against homosexuality should result in a decline in paranoia. Grünbaum also discusses the work of the philosopher Clark Glymour.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Grünbaum argues that Freud, in a 1917 lecture on "Analytic Therapy", advanced a defense of psychoanalysis as a method of clinical investigation that went unnoticed in scholarly literature until Grünbaum drew attention to it in papers published in 1979 and 1980. Grünbaum refers to this defense as the "Tally Argument", and maintains that Freud used it to justify the claim that durable therapeutic success guarantees that the interpretations made in the course of therapy are accurate. He summarizes its two premises as being that "only the psychoanalytic method of interpretation and treatment can yield or mediate to the patient correct insight into the unconscious pathogens of his psychoneurosis" and that the correct insight of a patient into "the etiology of his affliction and into the unconscious dynamics of his character" is "causally necessary for the therapeutic conquest of his neurosis." According to Grünbaum, these premises together entail that there is no spontaneous remission of psychoneuroses, and that, if their cure is ever accomplished, psychoanalysis is "uniquely therapeutic for such disorders" as compared to rival therapies. Grünbaum criticizes the "Tally Argument", arguing that it suffers from major problems. Referring to the work of the psychiatrists Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley, he criticizes the theory of dreams Freud propounded in The Interpretation of Dreams . He also criticizes the method of free association, the theory of Freudian slips Freud propounded in The Psychopathology of Everyday Life , and Freud's metapsychology, and discusses the transference.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Authors supportive of psychoanalysis have criticized The Foundations of Psychoanalysis. The psychologist Margaret Chernack Beaudoin, the philosopher Gregory A. Trotter, and the scholar of rhetoric Alan G. Gross, have criticized its treatment of Ricœur. Beaudoin maintained that Grünbaum was mistaken to attribute to Ricœur the view that language is primary for psychoanalysis and that symptoms should be assimilated to linguistic expressions. She also argued that Grünbaum mistakenly claimed that Ricoeur endorsed Lacan's views and quoted Freud out of context to support "a purely causal interpretation of Freudian theory". Trotter maintained that Grünbaum mistakenly denied that "psychical reality is sufficiently different from material reality as to warrant different epistemic standards", and accused him of misunderstanding Ricœur. The psychiatrist Edwin R. Wallace IV criticized the work for its discussion of suggestion and understanding of analytic practice, as well as its reliance on a "positivistic vision of science." The philosopher Jonathan Lear argued that Grünbaum's arguments about the scientific status of psychoanalysis, like most criticisms and defenses of psychoanalysis, are irrelevant. He considered Grünbaum's account of Freud tendentious. The psychoanalyst W. W. Meissner argued that Grünbaum "forces psychoanalytic propositions into artificial positions that do not reflect the actuality of analytic practice." He suggested that Grünbaum's standard of verification was impossible not only for psychoanalysis but for "all forms of psychological knowledge". He credited Grünbaum with providing "informed criticism of the philosophical bases of psychoanalysis", but concluded that the "value of his argument falls short of providing a useful basis for advancing psychoanalytic knowledge and particularly for promoting the quest for pertinent standards of validation within psychoanalysis."


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: The philosopher James Hopkins argued that Grünbaum's criticism of Freud's theory of dreams is based on a misunderstanding of Freud, and that the modes of inquiry he endorses are inapplicable to motive and therefore inappropriate to assessing psychoanalysis. The philosopher Richard Wollheim criticized Grünbaum's style of writing, rejected his view that Freud employed the "Tally Argument", criticized his understanding of psychoanalytic practice, and accused him of ignoring the fact that clinical testing presupposes "a considerable body of extraclinical propositions." Robinson considered The Foundations of Psychoanalysis rigorous, but also poorly organized and difficult to understand for those without a background in philosophy, something that in his view had limited its influence. Though he believed that Grünbaum had great knowledge of Freud's writings, he argued that Freud may never have used the "Tally Argument". He also criticized Grünbaum's discussions of The Interpretations of Dreams and The Psychopathology of Everyday Life.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: The philosopher Thomas Nagel argued that Grünbaum neglects "the distinctively inner character of psychological insight". The philosopher John Forrester described Grünbaum's understanding of science as ahistorical and unrealistic, and argued that Grünbaum misunderstood Freud's view of psychoanalysis. He accused Grünbaum of quoting Freud selectively to support his case, and of ignoring passages in Freud's writings that suggested a hermeneutic understanding of psychoanalysis. The psychologist Michael Billig noted that, in contrast to Grünbaum, psychologists such as Seymour Fisher, Roger P. Greenberg, and Paul Kline, "argue that the main elements of Freudian theory have been confirmed." The psychotherapist D. Patrick Zimmerman wrote that Grünbaum's conclusions about psychoanalysis have been applied by others to psychodynamic and other forms of verbal psychotherapy. He wrote that critical responses to Grünbaum have not had the same effect on the public as criticism of Freud. He argued that while Grünbaum's arguments were "bolstered by a reliance upon techniques and findings extrapolated from the field of physics ... his positions were sometimes flawed by basic misunderstandings about either the methods or the conclusions of physics", and that Grünbaum's criticisms of psychoanalysis applied only to "classical Freudian" views and not to more recent "psychodynamic conceptions". The philosopher Paul Fusella credited Grünbaum with exposing some of the weaknesses of Habermas's and Ricœur's interpretations of psychoanalysis. Though maintaining that psychoanalysis "remains relevant", he argued that the book left it unclear whether psychoanalysis would be considered pseudoscientific or an empirical science.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Grünbaum has also received criticism from some authors critical of psychoanalysis. Popper, responding to a description of Grünbaum's arguments provided to him by the journalist Daniel Goleman, denied that psychoanalysis can provide testable predictions. His comments were published in Behavioral and Brain Sciences. The journal's editor questioned whether it is worthwhile to attempt to test Freud's claims, comparing it to attempting to test astrology or creationism. The psychologist Malcolm Macmillan argued that Grünbaum's critique of free association is insufficiently convincing. Crews criticized Grünbaum for focusing on Freud's clinical theory while neglecting Freud's metapsychology, and for accepting Freud's claims to "methodological sophistication." The author Richard Webster argued that The Foundations of Psychoanalysis has been overvalued because of its abstract style of argument and has distracted attention away from issues such as Freud's character. The author Allen Esterson argued both that the "Tally Argument" is defective and also that it was not invoked by Freud. The philosopher Frank Cioffi criticized Grünbaum's treatment of Popper. The literature scholar Robert Wilcocks considered Grünbaum in some ways too favorable to Freud. He criticized Grünbaum for giving insufficient attention to Freud's use of cocaine and his treatment of Emma Eckstein. The philosopher Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen and the psychologist Sonu Shamdasani argued that Grünbaum's position that Freud was a "sophisticated scientific methodologist" who attempted to deal with the possible effects of suggestion on his patients through the "Tally Argument" is unjustified, since the argument presupposes, but does not prove, non-suggestibility. They rejected his view that Freud abandoned the seduction theory because of adverse evidence, maintaining that Freud could not have had any such evidence.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Lieberson described the book as "strangely organized" and "difficult" and compared it to "a string of scholarly articles to which vast accretions of evidence and afterthoughts have been added." He suggested that The Foundations of Psychoanalysis was so much a reaction to other interpreters of Freud that it was only incidentally a book about Freud himself, noting that a third of it was devoted to criticizing the hermeneutic approach to psychoanalysis. Though convinced by Grünbaum's criticism of the hermeneutic approach to psychoanalysis, he criticized his poor writing and rejected his view that it is important to establish a criterion to distinguish between scientific and unscientific statements. He considered his criticism of Popper less important than his attempt to identify the main obstacles to finding empirical support for psychoanalysis, crediting him with carefully exposing the flaws of Freud's argument that the therapeutic success of psychoanalysis confirms the interpretations made by analysts.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis received positive reviews from the psychiatrist Allan Hobson in The Sciences, the psychoanalyst Carlo Strenger in The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, Eagle in Philosophy of Science, the psychologist George Butterworth in Government and Opposition, the psychiatrist Nathaniel Laor in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Wallace in the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, and the philosopher Alessandro Pagnini in The Philosophical Quarterly. In Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The Foundations of Psychoanalysis received positive reviews from the bioethicist Arthur Caplan, Eagle, the philosopher Edward Erwin, the psychologist Hans Eysenck, the philosopher Owen Flanagan, Greenberg, Hobson, the psychologist Robert R. Holt, the psychologist Horst Kächele, the psychiatrist Gerald Klerman, the philosopher Valerii Leibin, the psychologist Lester Luborsky, the psychoanalyst Judd Marmor, the psychologist Joseph Masling, Pagnini, the psychoanalyst Morton F. Reiser, the philosopher Michael Ruse, the psychoanalyst Irwin Savodnik, the psychoanalyst Howard Shevrin, the psychiatrist Anthony Storr, the philosopher Frederick Suppe, the philosopher Barbara Von Eckardt, the sociologist Murray L. Wax, and the psychologist Robert L. Woolfolk.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Hobson, writing in The Sciences, described The Foundations of Psychoanalysis as the most important book about "Freud's status as a scientist" and compared it to the psychologist Frank Sulloway's Freud, Biologist of the Mind . He credited Grünbaum with damaging psychoanalysis by showing the failure of psychoanalysts to refute the charge that free association is contaminated by suggestion, and using detailed textual analysis to criticize The Interpretation of Dreams, and with carefully re-evaluating Popper's position on psychoanalysis. However, he predicted that The Foundations of Psychoanalysis would "find difficult acceptance because his arguments will be unwelcome to Freud's loyalists", and that many uncommitted students of psychoanalysis would "find Grünbaum's dense prose and leaden language too high a price for the beauty of his inexorable logic." Nevertheless, he concluded that psychoanalysts should "welcome Grünbaum's award of tentative scientific status to psychoanalysis as a ray of hope for their embattled enterprise."


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Strenger described the book as an impressive attempt to examine psychoanalytic theory in detail, and wrote that Grünbaum "displays a remarkable knowledge of psychoanalytic literature and his arguments are lucid and well documented, which allows for fruitful discussion and critique." Eagle, writing in Philosophy of Science, described The Foundations of Psychoanalysis as the most careful examination of the logical and philosophical foundations of Freudian theory to date. He considered Grünbaum's assessment of psychoanalysis superior to that of Popper. He praised Grünbaum's familiarity with Freud's writings and his criticism of Freud's theory of dreams, and credited him with demonstrating that there is no good evidence for the causal role of repression in the etiology of neurosis and with providing a convincing critique of hermeneutic interpretations of psychoanalysis. He believed that Grünbaum showed that clinical data by itself is insufficient to support the main propositions of psychoanalysis, but that he did not comprehensively discredit psychoanalysis.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Butterworth described Grünbaum's case that psychoanalysis can be tested as convincing. Laor described the book as "an admirably erudite and scholarly authoritative study". He credited Grünbaum with showing that Freud was aware of many of the problems with his theories. However, he criticized Grünbaum for failing to distinguish between psychoanalysts' reports and attempts at theorizing. Wallace described the book as important. He credited Grünbaum with convincingly criticizing hermeneutic interpretations of psychoanalysis. Pagnini, writing in The Philosophical Quarterly, credited Grünbaum with providing a careful analysis of the views of Habermas and Ricœur, convincingly criticizing Popper's accounts of both psychoanalysis and empirical testability, and "convincing evidence of the falsifiability of many Freudian theories". He also credited Grünbaum with showing that "the various formulations given by Freud of his theory of repression ... are based on spurious evidence and are weakened by serious logical defects". He wrote that Grünbaum could be criticized for ignoring some of the most important contemporary advocates of Freudian theories, but suggested that Grünbaum's "arguments against psychoanalysis can be extended with very few exceptions to the theories of these authors." He endorsed Grünbaum's view that Freud's main hypotheses could be validated only by extra-clinical studies, and believed that his work demonstrated the power and continued importance of analytic philosophy. However, he noted that The Foundations of Psychoanalysis was difficult to read.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Caplan considered the book important but difficult. He endorsed Grünbaum's criticisms of Habermas, Ricœur, and Popper. He praised Grünbaum's discussion of the "Tally Argument", arguing that it helped to show that the use of "extraclinical methods for verifying psychoanalysis" involves abandoning "the Freudian research strategy or program." He concluded that any hypotheses that could be verified through such methods would have "little relation" to the theory of Freud and his early followers. Eagle, writing in Behavioral and Brain Sciences, described The Foundations of Psychoanalysis as a "major contribution" to understanding both psychoanalysis and human behavior generally, and praised Grünbaum's critique of hermeneutic versions of psychoanalysis. Erwin credited Grünbaum with providing "a serious challenge to those who believe that they have rational grounds for accepting Freudian doctrines." He agreed with Grünbaum that changes in psychoanalytic theory made since Freud's work do not provide an answer to Grünbaum's critique. Eysenck praised Grünbaum's discussion of the "Tally Argument". He also complimented Grünbaum's critique of hermeneutic interpretations of psychoanalysis.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Holt credited Grünbaum with providing the most powerful and subtle philosophical evaluation of psychoanalysis and "the most substantial indictment of Freud as a scientist that we have yet seen." However, he believed that Grünbaum exaggerated "the dearth of supportive evidence for Freud's theories" as well as the problems facing contemporary psychoanalysis and the extent to which free association was undermined by suggestion. Kächele agreed with Grünbaum that clinical evidence could not be used to make definitive claims about the causes of neuroses. However, he believed that Grünbaum's criticism of "clinical wisdom" ignored the effectiveness of psychoanalytic theory. Klerman considered the book important. He credited Grünbaum with refuting hermeneutic interpretations of psychoanalysis, as well as with refuting Popper's views, and showing that psychoanalysts could not rely on clinical evidence to support psychoanalytic propositions. He concluded that the work showed that the scientific status of psychoanalysis had not been established. Leibin credited Grünbaum with providing a useful discussion of a range of views on psychoanalysis. He agreed with him that the views of Habermas, Ricœur, and Popper are flawed. However, he argued that Freud provided multiple definitions of psychoanalysis, some of which could be understood as viewing it as a form of hermeneutics. Luborsky praised Grünbaum's openness to "cogent evidence" and agreed with him that inferences by therapists about their patients' past were questionable.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Marmor credited Grünbaum with extensive knowledge of psychoanalytic literature in general and Freud's work in particular, with showing that free association, as well as other aspects of psychoanalytic theory, were scientifically unsupported, and with summarizing much evidence against the view that the success of psychoanalysis or other forms of therapy establishes the correctness of their underlying theories. However, he criticized his style of writing. He also believed that the idea that conflict played a role in the causation of psychopathology retained some validity and noted that Grünbaum failed to discuss this issue, or to explore "the issue of causality as a multifactorial rather than a unifactorial phenomenon". Masling agreed with Grünbaum that cases histories cannot serve as the sole support for psychoanalytic theory. However, he criticized Grünbaum for failing to fully discuss relevant experimental evidence. Pagnini, writing in Behavioral and Brain Sciences, agreed with Grünbaum that Freud understood psychoanalysis as a natural science and that hermeneutic interpretations of psychoanalysis are incorrect. Reiser praised Grünbaum's discussion of the "Tally Argument" and agreed with him that validation of psychoanalytic claims had to be based ultimately on extraclinical findings. Ruse called the work insightful. He endorsed Grünbaum's criticisms of Popper, and argued that he helped to show that the testing of psychoanalytic hypotheses about homosexuality was suspect. Savodnik described the book as the most important critique of psychoanalysis.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Shevrin complimented Grünbaum for his "critique of the psychoanalytic clinical method", but believed the work was likely to be misunderstood as an attack on psychoanalysis rather than an attempt at suggesting how it could be given a better empirical basis. He also believed that Grünbaum went too far in his rejection of clinical method. Storr credited Grünbaum with convincingly criticizing free association, Freud's theory of dreams, and Popper, and with showing that attempts to validate psychoanalytic claims must be based on extraclinical testing. However, he believed that The Foundations of Psychoanalysis was poorly written. Suppe praised Grünbaum's discussion of the "Tally Argument", and argued that Grünbaum's critique of psychoanalysis had implications for psychoanalytic approaches to homosexuality. Von Eckardt praised Grünbaum's discussion of the "Tally Argument", but considered The Foundations of Psychoanalysis poorly written. Wax considered Grünbaum's approach objective, but believed he presented only one possible interpretation of Freud. Woolfolk credited Grünbaum with convincingly criticizing hermeneutic interpretations of psychoanalysis, but argued that he left some issues unexplored.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Ruttenberg considered the book carefully argued, and wrote that Grünbaum made a brilliant case that psychoanalytic hypotheses should be tested by normal scientific procedures. However, he believed Grünbaum overstated the case against psychoanalysis. Kline, writing in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, credited Grünbaum with making a powerful case against the idea that repression is pathogenic for neurosis and with demonstrating that clinical data cannot support psychoanalytic theory. He also considered Grünbaum's case against hermeneutic interpretations of psychoanalysis convincing, and believed he exposed shortcomings of Popper's views. However, he maintained that Grünbaum, without justification, rejected experimental evidence held to support Freudian theory. He suggested that Grünbaum, as a philosopher, lacked the competence to evaluate such evidence. Notturno and McHugh, writing in Metaphilosophy, agreed with Grünbaum that the clinical evidence held to provide the empirical basis for psychoanalysis is weak and that the validation of Freud's main hypotheses must come mainly from extra-clinical studies, but found these points consistent with the critiques of psychoanalysis made by Popper, Habermas, and Ricœur and as such unsurprising. They argued that, notwithstanding Grünbaum's critique of Popper, parts of his analysis of psychoanalysis support Popper's critique of psychoanalysis; they also argued that Grünbaum misunderstood Popper's epistemology and faulted him for neglecting Popper's The Logic of Scientific Discovery and Realism and the Aims of Science . Though believing that it raised important issues, they questioned his argument that the psychoanalytic theory of paranoia is falsifiable. They also questioned his view that Popper was largely ignorant of Freud's writings and disputed his position that Freud was open to the possibility of his theories being falsified.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Caws believed Grünbaum exposed the inadequacies of psychoanalysis. He praised his discussion of the "Tally Argument", and endorsed Grünbaum's criticisms of Habermas. Cioffi described the book as "ambitious and illuminating", but criticized Grunbaum's view that Freud relied on the "Tally Argument". He accused Grunbaum of making selective use of Freud's writings to defend his position. Edelson considered the book sophisticated. He believed that Grünbaum's discussion of the "Tally Argument" helped to show that psychoanalysts are mistaken to rely on clinical data to make causal claims. Nevertheless, he believed that Grünbaum went too far by rejecting any use of clinical evidence by psychoanalysts to support its causal claims. While he agreed with Grünbaum's call for studies to test psychoanalytic hypotheses, he argued that Grünbaum ignored inherent problems with studies of the kind he advocated. He also faulted Grünbaum's discussions of free association and the possibility of testing the psychoanalytic theory of paranoia.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Farrell agreed with Grünbaum's argument against Freud's method of clinical observation, but nevertheless found it "vague and obscure" and believed that it had "serious limitations" that would lead to its rejection by psychoanalysts. Kline, writing in Behavioral and Brain Sciences, credited Grünbaum with convincingly criticizing both Freud's clinical method and hermeneutic interpretations of psychoanalysis. However, he rejected Grünbaum's view that if the theory of repression can be invalidated, this would discredit psychoanalytic theory in general. Kline also accused Grünbaum of misunderstanding his arguments for the existence of repression, ignoring relevant evidence, and citing weak evidence. Notturno and McHugh, writing in Behavioral and Brain Sciences, endorsed Grünbaum's view that the clinical evidence used as a basis for psychoanalysis is weak and that validation of Freud's claims must be based on extraclinical studies. However, they rejected his view that psychoanalysis is falsifiable, criticized his discussion of the psychoanalytic theory of paranoia, and disputed his position that Freud was open to the possibility of his theories being falsified. Pollock believed that it was constructive for Grünbaum to criticize psychoanalysis, but that there were convincing responses to his arguments. He also argued that Grünbaum failed to sufficiently distinguish between Freud's work and psychoanalysis generally.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Spence argued that Grünbaum's charge that free association is undermined by suggestion might be correct, but that the evidence necessary to draw that conclusion was unavailable. Strupp saw Grünbaum's discussion of Freud as having merit, but criticized his discussion of psychotherapy. Wachtel considered the book to be of lasting value, but criticized Grünbaum's discussions of the development of Freud's work, the psychoanalytic theory of paranoia, and the "Tally Argument". Carveth described the book as more balanced than several other critiques of Freud. However, although he considered Grünbaum correct in some of his criticisms of Habermas and Ricœur, he maintained that Grünbaum failed to deal adequately with the argument that Freud may have been mistaken to view psychoanalysis as a natural science. He argued that Grünbaum's challenge to the hermeneutic approach to psychoanalysis more broadly was flawed. He also criticized his discussion of the issues involved in testing the psychoanalytic theory of paranoia.


title: The Foundations of Psychoanalysis

text: Forrester described the book as poorly written and organized. He argued that the view that Freud considered psychoanalysis only a natural science is an oversimplification and that Grünbaum misinterpreted Habermas and misrepresented Ricœur. He criticized Grünbaum's discussion of the "Tally Argument", arguing that Grünbaum incorrectly maintained that Freud viewed therapeutic success as the only source of evidence for the accuracy of his theories. He also criticized his discussions of repression and free association. Woodward considered Grünbaum correct to point to "the need for empirical testing of psychoanalytic concepts". However, he accused him of presenting a "caricature" of psychoanalysis and ignored important aspects of psychoanalytic theory. He criticized Grünbaum's discussion of the "Tally Argument". Erdelyi questioned whether Freud actually employed the "Tally Argument" and maintained that neither the failure of the argument nor the existence of spontaneous remission of symptoms damaged psychoanalysis. He argued that Grünbaum failed to take fully into account developments in psychoanalysis, overemphasized its clinical aspects, and had a questionable understanding of psychoanalytic theory. Fine and Forbes maintained that Grünbaum mistakenly claimed that Freud's causal hypotheses are unsupported by clinical data and incorrectly judged "individual causal hypotheses separately". They also faulted his discussions of suggestion and free association. Gauld and Shotter accused Grünbaum of misrepresenting them.


title: Sodium hydroxide

text: Glass reacts slowly with aqueous sodium hydroxide solutions at ambient temperatures to form soluble silicates. Because of this, glass joints and stopcocks exposed to sodium hydroxide have a tendency to "freeze". Flasks and glass-lined chemical reactors are damaged by long exposure to hot sodium hydroxide, which also frosts the glass. Sodium hydroxide does not attack iron at room temperature, since iron does not have amphoteric properties (i.e., it only dissolves in acid, not base). Nevertheless, at high temperatures (e.g. above 500 °C), iron can react endothermically with sodium hydroxide to form iron(III) oxide, sodium metal, and hydrogen gas. This is due to the lower enthalpy of formation of iron(III) oxide (−824.2 kJ/mol) compared to sodium hydroxide (−500 kJ/mol) and positive entropy change of the reaction, which implies spontaneity at high temperatures (ΔST > ΔH, ΔG < 0) and non-spontaneity at low temperatures (ΔST < ΔH, ΔG > 0). Consider the following reaction between molten sodium hydroxide and finely divided iron filings: