title: Charles Corbin

text: Both Crolla and Monteiro came out in support of Ribbentrop's motion. Corbin in response stated: "it would be highly regrettable that in a situation...where we see development of war bring to the non-combatant population sufferings unacceptable to the civilised world, a scruple of this kind could stop us and prevent the Committee from showing its opinion". Corbin pointed out that the issue was the bombing of Spanish cities and towns, and that the "open towns" policy would apply to both sides. Marchienne sided with the demands of Ribbentrop, Crolla and Monteiro for a vague statement calling on both sides to avoid needless suffering, which led Palmstierna to shout that this was "too platonic!" with both Maisky and Cernŷ saying that this watered-down text was not worth even releasing. Palmstierna argued that the killing of women and children via bombing needed to be condemned, which left Ribbentrop to accuse the Spanish Communists of committing far worse atrocities. Maisky with much sarcasm congratulated Ribbentrop for his "striking propaganda speech". In the end, no statement was released.


title: Charles Corbin

text: In a speech about defence policy, Chamberlain stated: "We shall never again send to the Continent an army on the scale of that which we put into the field of the Great War" The War Minister, Leslie Hore-Belisha, agreed, telling the House of Commons: "Our Army should be organised to defend this country and the empire...to organise it with a military prepossession in favor of a continental commitment is wrong". On 21 March 1938, Foreign Minister Joseph Paul-Boncour instructed Corbin to seek to "interest" the British in Eastern Europe, especially in the states of the cordon sanitaire: Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia. On 23 March 1938, Paul-Boncour stated in his instructions for Corbin that the French had intelligence that German rearmament had not reached a point that the Reich could fight a long war, and if France mobilised with full British support, that would force the Wehrmacht to concentrate its strength along the West Wall and make any German aggression in Eastern Europe impossible. Paul-Boncour concluded that France did not want a war with Germany, but a strategy of deterrence, instead of appeasement, would be the best way to achieve peace.


title: Charles Corbin

text: On 7 April 1938, Corbin reported to Paris that he received intelligence from an unnamed friend in the British government that was evidently leaked that sources within the Italian government had informed the British embassy in Rome that Hitler was pressuring Mussolini to undertake an aggressively-anti-French foreign policy to distract France from its allies in the cordon sanitaire. Corbin reported that when Hitler visited Rome in May 1938, it was expected that he would make an arrangement with Mussolini that Germany would support Italian ambitions in the Mediterranean in exchange for Italian support for German ambitions in Eastern Europe. However, Paul-Boncour's strategy of deterrence diplomacy was abandoned with the fall of the government in Léon Blum in Paris on 10 April 1938 as the new premier, Edouard Daladier, appointed as his foreign minister, Georges Bonnet, who was opposed to the idea of France going to war for the sake of its allies in the cordon sanitarire. Corbin reported to Paris in April 1938 that the British public was "alarmed" by the possibility of peacetime conscription, which was the prerequisite of the "continental commitment". During Daladier's visit to London in April 1938, Lord Halifax told him that a France could expect only two British Army divisions to assist with the defense of France, a force that the French regarded as completely inadequate. The Wehrmacht numbered 17 million men, and an expeditionary force oftwo divisions would have been far too small to make a difference.


title: Charles Corbin

text: On 11 July 1938, Corbin met with Herbert von Dirksen, the German ambassador to the Court of St. James. Corbin reported to Paris that Dirksen had told him "The British people...increasingly tend to envisage the destruction of an air war as the inevitable result of German aggression against Great Britain", which Dirksen saw as a positive development. Dirksen told Corbin that there as long as the British people believed that the Luftwaffe would destroy their cities, there was less chance of British "aggression" against Germany. Dirksen further advised Corbin that for that same reason, France should not count on Britain if it decided to honour the 1924 French-Czechoslovak Alliance, which committed France to go to war with any nation that attacked Czechoslovakia. However, Corbin also reported that Dirksen had complained to him that "public opinion is currently against Germany". On 3 September 1938, Corbin complained to Maisky-with whom he was friendly with-that the Chamberlain's government's confusing messages about what it would do if Germany invaded Czechoslovakia was making it more likely that an invasion would occur. Corbin told Maisky that Daladier did not want a war, but that France would honor its alliance with Czechoslovakia if the Reich should invade. Corbin often complained that Bonnet was secretive and dishonest. In an unguarded moment after learning from Maisky of a meeting between the Soviet Foreign Commissar Maxim Litvinov and the diplomat Jean Payart that Bonnet had not informed him of, Corbin stated "I was astonished to learn".


title: Charles Corbin

text: When Chamberlain returned to London from Munich on 30 September 1938 after he had signed the Munich Agreement and the Anglo-German Declaration, Corbin was not there to greet him at Heston Airport despite being invited. The snub was noticed by both the British and the French press at the time. Other ambassadors in London such as the American ambassador Joseph P. Kennedy Sr., the South African high commissioner Charles Theodore Te Water and the Canadian high commissioner Vincent Massey were all present at Heston Airport to congratulate Chamberlain for the Munich Agreement. In October 1938, Bonnet demoted René Massigli, the anti-appeasement Political Director of the Quai d'Orsay, by making him ambassador to Turkey while Pierre Comert of the Press Department was sent to the French embassy in Washington. Bonnet would have also liked to demote Corbin, whom he knew to be opposed to his policies, but he lacked an obvious replacement. The British historian D.C Watt called Corbin "a determined opponent of any weakness towards Germany on either side of the Channel".


title: Charles Corbin

text: Corbin reported the British public opinion had supported the Munich Agreement, but he noted as October 1938 went on, public opinion was "in disarray". In the fall of 1938, Corbin reported to Paris that several right-wing newspapers, most notably the newspaper chain owned by the Canadian media magnate Lord Beaverbrook, whose flagship paper was The Daily Express, were calling for a peacetime conscription, which he took as a sign that the British public was turning against appeasement. Corbin was following his own agenda in his dispatches, as he wanted to convince Daladier and other decisio-nmakers in Paris that the British public and government were starting to favour "firmness" towards the Reich as a way to undercut Bonnet's foreign policy of giving Germany a "free hand in the East" in exchange for leaving France alone. Corbin reported that there was a growing demand in Britain for "if not conscription pure and simple, at least a form of 'national service'". In November 1938, Corbin reported that one public opinion poll showed that most British people favoured a "national registry" of young men. At the same time, Corbin told Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax that there was growing defeatism in France and that Bonnet had his own agenda of reaching an understanding with the Reich that might very well be at Britain's expense.


title: Charles Corbin

text: To counter Bonnet, Corbin urged Halifax that Britain should make an effort to stand by France such as making the "continental commitment" and said that as long the French believed the British "would fight to the last Frenchman", the appeal of Bonnet would continue to grow. On 1 November 1938, Lord Halifax in a dispatch to Sir Eric Phipps, the British ambassador in Paris, stated his fear that France would "turn so defeatist as to give up the struggle of maintaining adequate forces even for the safety of metropolitan France". Corbin also wrote to urge his government to confront Chamberlain on the conscription issue: "Must we wait six months as in 1914 for the 'first hundred thousand' to make their appearance on our soil?" Corbin was assisted in a ways that were not entirely proper by General Sir Henry Pownall, the Director of Military Operations and Intelligence in the British Army, who leaked information to him to assist him with pressuring Chamberlain to make the "continental commitment". Corbin's friendship with several anti-appeasement Conservative MPs such as Churchill, Eden, Duff Cooper and Amery encouraged his tendency to argue for a foreign policy that would be more in tune with the anti-appeasers than with the appeasers.


title: Charles Corbin

text: In January 1939, the Chamberlain cabinet was rocked by the "Dutch war scare" when false information planted by the French appear that alleged that Germany was about to invade the Netherlands with the aim of using Dutch airfields to bomb Britain. Chamberlain's "limited liability" doctrine of keeping the British Army so weak as to rule out the "continental commitment" came back to haunt him during the war scare. As the British Army could not defend the Netherlands on its own, the only nation with an army strong enough to save the Netherlands was France. During the war scare, Corbin pressed William Stang to have his government make the "continental commitment" by saying that it would be impossible for France to go to war to defend Britain if Britain was unwilling to do anything to defend France. On 1 February 1939, Corbin handed Stang a note saying that if Britain was not willing to do defend France, France would not be willing to defend Britain. On 6 February 1939, Chamberlain told the House of Commons that Britain was "guaranteeing" France and said that any attack on France by Germany or Italy would result in an automatic British declaration of war on the aggressor. Chamberlain's statement gratified Corbin, but he continued to press very strongly for peacetime conscription in Britain by saying that the "guarantee" was worthless without conscription.


title: Charles Corbin

text: At the same time, Corbin remained very critical of the Labour Party, which had philosophical reasons for opposing peacetime conscription as a major obstacle as Labour leaders vowed to campaign against conscription if introduced at the next general election. Corbin was forced to explain in a dispatch to Paris that in France conscription to defend the motherland was something almost all Frenchmen supported, but "the psychological atmosphere is not the same in Britain...to the French Trade Unionist, as to all compatriots the idea that conscription should be undemocratic is impossible to grasp". Corbin explained to Paris that to British trade unions, the Labour Party and the British left in general, peacetime conscription was a major violation of basic human rights, and even if the Chamberlain government was willing to bring in conscription, there would be significant domestic opposition. However, Corbin noted that several Labour leaders such as Hugh Gaitskell and Douglas Jay were speaking in favour of peacetime conscription by arguing the Labour Party was making a mockery of its opposition to fascism by also opposing conscription. Corbin reported the violent anti-British media campaign launched in Germany in November 1938 was starting to have some effect and that more and more British people were speaking in favour of conscription as the winter of 1938-1939 went on.


title: Charles Corbin

text: Given the traditional British opposition to any sort of security commitments in Eastern Europe, Corbin was astonished by the speech given by Prime Minister Chamberlain before the House of Commons on 31 March 1939 announcing the "guarantee" of Poland. Corbin reported to Bonnet on 4 April 1939: "Had I been told three weeks ago that during this time period the British government would have guaranteed the independence of Poland... that such a decision would have been cheered by a nearly unanimous Parliament and that no opposition to it would appear in the press or the public, I would have no doubt greeted such a forecast with an incredulous smile.... The new orientation given to British foreign representing such a complete break with the traditional position is so important that it may be said without exaggeration as being of historical magnitude.... The objective was to oppose the establishment of German hegemony over continental Europe.... The dissenting Conservatives that Messers Eden, Churchill and Duff Cooper usually represented immediately rallied in support of the government. On 26 April 1939, Chamberlain announced to the House of Commons that for the first time in British history, peacetime conscription would be introduced and that a British expeditionary force would be sent to defend France in the event of a war with Germany, thus achieving one of the central goals of French diplomacy, namely the "continental commitment". Corbin reported the introduction of peacetime conscription "will have immense reverberations across the world, particularly in France where it has been waited for with such anxiety". Corbin was too modest to note that the pressure he had applied in the winter of 1938-1939 via leaks to the British newspapers had played a major role in that decision.


title: Charles Corbin

text: In April 1939, Corbin spoke to Lord Halifax about his concerns about Japan. Corbin admitted his fears as he noted that the Japanese were extremely unhappy that the colony of French Indochina was one of the main routes for shipping arms to China and France was coming under heavy Japanese pressure to cease arms shipments to China. Daladier and the minister of colonies, Georges Mandel, believed supporting China was the best way of preventing the Japanese from moving into Southeast Asia and continued to allow the arms shipments to China despite the threatening tone from Tokyo. Corbin also admitted that the majority of the warships of the Marine nationale were concentrated in the Mediterranean to deal with any potential threat from Italy. Corbin asked that given it was also in Britain's interest that the Japanese Navy not dominate the South China Sea about a joint Anglo-French operation to "neutratlise" the Japanese from occupying Hainan island, an offer that the British rejected. Given the Danzig crisis, Corbin came to feel that activating the Singapore strategy of sending a strong Royal Navy force to Singapore (the main British naval base in Asia) was inadvisable, which led him to repeatedly urge that the United States be brought in to form a common Anglo-French-American front to block Japanese expansionism into Southeast Asia. Corbin noted that the American colony of the Philippines were on the eastern side of the South China Sea and that the Americans were learning in a pro-Chinese neutrality. However, Chamberlain had little faith in American promises.


title: Charles Corbin

text: Corbin reported to Paris that much of the British "reticence" towards an alliance with the Soviet Union was due to Chamberlain's anti-Soviet feelings. On 18 May 1939, Maisky told Corbin that the British offer to open staff talks with Moscow and to only conclude alliance if Germany invaded Poland was intolerable. Maisky stated that his government wanted a full military alliance with Britain and France immediately. When William Strang was sent to Moscow to negotiate with Vyacheslav Molotov for the alliance, Corbin met with Lord Halifax on 7 June 1939 to ask for the details of the Strang mission. After reading the orders given to Strang, Corbin told Cadogan that Strang's mission was unlikely to succeed as he "fully appreciated all the difficulties ...but the fact remained that if the Russians were confronted with a document such as we had prepared they would be filled with the darkest suspicion". On 17 June 1939, Corbin told Cadogan that the French were unhappy about the slow pace of the talks with Moscow as he argued that time was of the essence, and the sooner the projected Anglo-French-Soviet alliance was concluded the better. On 5 July 1939, Sir Orme Sargent told Corbin that felt that the "guarantees" of Poland and Romania had been a mistake as Britain would have to declare war on Germany if either of those states were invaded, which provided a degree of security for the Soviet Union, which he felt was the reason for Molotov's obdurate negotiating style.


title: Charles Corbin

text: In the summer of 1939, Corbin poured so much scorn on a proposal to have Pope Pius XII mediate an end to the Danzig crisis by pointing out the impracticalities posed by having the well-known Germanophile pontiff serving as a supposedly neutral mediator that Bonnet was forced to give up the idea. During the debates within the French cabinet between Daladier and Bonnet in August 1939 about going to war with Poland, Corbin strengthened Daladier's hand by reporting that Britain approved of his foreign policy, much to the intense fury of Bonnet, who wanted Corbin to report the opposite. On 2 August 1939, Bonnet told Sir Eric Phipps, the British ambassador in Paris who shared his support of appeasement, that his main enemies inside the Quai d'Orsay were St. Léger along with Corbin. On 27 August 1939, Corbin at present at a meeting between Sir Alexander Cadogan and the Swedish businessman Birger Dahlerus, who been playing amateur diplomat by negotiating an end to the Danzig Crisis. Corbin had been worried that Britain was using Daherus to negotiate behind France's back and so Cadogan invited him to hear him lecture Dahlerus that Germany's "gangster policy would have to cease". On the night of 30 August, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop gave Sir Nevile Henderson, the British ambassador in Berlin, the German "final offer" demanding for a Polish envoy to arrive in Berlin that night to discuss the resolution of the Danzig Crisis. Chamberlain called Corbin that night to say he thought Hitler was bluffing and the peace could still be saved.


title: Charles Corbin

text: On the morning of 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Corbin telephoned the Foreign Office to ask how best Britain and France should co-ordinate the declarations of war on Germany. Bonnet had sent a message to London asking that Britain and France instead attend the proposed conference with no time limit while St. Léger insisted on a time limit. Faced with a choice between obeying the foreign minister vs. the secretary-general, Corbin chose the latter. Corbin distorted Bonnet's message by arguing for a time limit for German acceptance on attending the conference, which caused much confusion when Bonnet continued to insist that there would be no time limit. As Bonnet did not wish to see France declare war, he decided to take up the mediation offer made by Mussolini and instructed Corbin in a phone call at 3:40 pm to tell Chamberlain that he wanted a British commitment to attend Mussolini's proposed conference. However, at 4:10 pm on 1 September 1939, Corbin telephoned Bonnet to say that Lord Halifax had told him that Britain would not take part in the Italian plan for a peace conference unless Germany pulled out all of its forces from Poland immediately.


title: Charles Corbin

text: At 5:30 pm, Corbin tele-texted the instructions that Lord Halifax had given to Henderson to Bonnet to indicate the direction that British policy was going. On the evening of 2 September 1939, a major crisis emerged in Britain, as no declaration of war had been issued, which led to a "sit-down strike" at 10 Downing Street as the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir John Simon, previously regarded as one of the men most loyal to Chamberlain, refused to leave 10 Downing Street until he received a promise that Britain would declare war on Germany. As a sign of Allied solidarity, it was felt necessary to time the Anglo-French declarations of war on Germany together, but a major battle in the French cabinet between Daladier who wanted to declare war vs. Bonnet who wanted to renounce the alliance with Poland instead made that impossible. A further issue was that France needed to mobilise six million men in the event of war. At 10: 45 am on 2 September, Corbin was received at 10 Dowding Street by Chamberlain. Chamberlain told Corbin: "Public opinion unanimously considers the Italian offer to be trap, intended to favor the advance of the German armies into Poland by immobilising the Allied forces. Britain is definitely united now, but the country is beginning to be seriously disturbed by the vacillating attitude of the French government. We cannot wait any longer. If necessary, we shall act alone".Corbin issued a press statement on 2 September 1939 in response to angry British callers to remind them that France had to mobilise six million men, which meant a massive degree of disruption to the French economy, and that if Britain had to call up a similar number of men to the colors all at once, that too would take some time.


title: Charles Corbin

text: With the backdrop of heavy thunderstorm, Corbin was summoned to 10 Downing Street on the evening of 2 September and discovered a scene of chaos with Chamberlain, Lord Halifax and Cadogan all telephoning Paris in attempts to get hold of Daladier, Bonnet or anybody else in the French government who might be able to tell them what was going on in France. Corbin was told by Chamberlain that his government was on the verge of collapse and predicted the House of Commons would pass a motion of no-confidence against his government at its next session if he did not make a decision to declare war on Germany at once. Corbin informed Chamberlain that the French cabinet was badly divided between Daladier and Bonnet and that he did not know when France would make a decision to declare war. Chamberlain also had Corbin speak to Simon to assure him that the reason for the delay in declaring war was the crisis in Paris, not because the prime minister was seeking a way to avoid honouring his commitments to Poland. Corbin was told at about 11:30 pm that the cabinet had approved of the decision to send an ultimatum to Germany at 9 am on the morning of September 3 that would expire at 11 am, and there was to be no co-ordination with France in presenting the declarations of war.


title: Charles Corbin

text: At 9 am on Sunday 3 September 1939, Henderson handed over the ultimatum to Ribbentrop demanding Germany cease its war against Poland at once and failing that Britain would declare war at 11 am that day. At 9: 45 am, Corbin received a phone call from Churchill who just been appointed the First Lord of the Admiralty who demanded to know why France was not at war. When Corbin stated that it was "technical difficulties" owing to the mobilisation that had started on 1 September, Churchill shouted "Technical difficulties be damned! I suppose you would call it a technical difficulty for a Pole if a German bomb fell on his head!". Shortly after 11 am, King George VI went on the BBC to announce Britain was at war following the German rejection of the British ultimatum. About 10 minutes after the king had announced that the United Kingdom was at war, Corbin received at the French Embassy two Labour MPs, Hugh Dalton and A. V. Alexander, both of whom accused France of avoiding its obligation to Poland. Corbin promised the two MPs that the France would be at war later that day, leading Dalton to point to his watch and say: "My country is at war now in fulfilment of our pledge to Poland". Corbin snapped back that: "And my country will be at war in a few hours time". Corbin pointed out that since 1 September France had mobilised three million men and would have a total of six million men mobilised within a few more days which represented a much greater contribution to the Allied cause than what Britain could make at present and that it was France would take the heaviest blow.


title: Charles Corbin

text: At 12:30 pm, Robert Coulondre, the French ambassador in Berlin, handed over the ultimatum to Ribbentrop saying France would declare war at 5 pm the same day if Germany did not end its war against Poland. For the first time since 1820, the House of Commons met on a Sunday. Chamberlain had called for a special Sunday session of the House of Commons to announce that Britain was now at war. Corbin was present in the visitors gallery of the House, and the MP Beverley Baxter noted that Corbin seemed calm as he watched from the gallery as "his fine, pale face is utterly impassive, his delicate hands are always still". Sitting next to Corbin on one side was the Polish ambassador Count Edward Raczyński, whom Baxter described as looking like a man who had not slept for the last several days. On the other side of Corbin sat the American ambassador Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. who had strongly supported appeasement and seemed visibly upset that war had just begun. Joining Kennedy were two of his sons, Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. and John F. Kennedy, who chattered with the assembled ambassadors. Maisky was also present in the visitor's gallery, but Baxter noted that he had become very unpopular in London on the account of the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact, and that the other ambassadors did their best to ignore him.


title: Charles Corbin

text: In the fall of 1939 and the winter of 1940, Corbin was closely involved in the Anglo-French discussions about war aims. The French wanted to undo the Anschluss, insisting that Austria be restored, but the British were willing to accept Austria as part of Germany; finally a compromise where after the Allied victory, a plebiscite would be held to determine if the Austrians wanted their independence back or not. Both the French and the British agreed on restoring Czechoslovakia, but the British held to the frontiers imposed by the Munich Agreement, signaling a willingness to leave the Sudetenland as part of Germany while the French wanted Czechoslovakia restored to the pre-Munich frontiers. However, on other issues, agreement was more possible with both the French and British agreeing that Poland was to be restored and all of the land annexed by Germany was to be returned to Poland, through the question of whatever the parts of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union were to be restored was left ambiguous with British officials noting that most of the people in the areas annexed by the Soviets were not Polish. Finally, both the French and British agreed that it was not possible to make peace with Hitler, and a new government was needed in Germany, through the British were most insistent that the Allies offer lenient peace terms to post-Hitler government, arguing that a promise of a harsh peace would only drive more Germans to Hitler.


title: Charles Corbin

text: During the Phoney War, in February 1940, Count Edward Bernard Raczyński, the ambassador in London representing the Polish government-in-exile, appealed to Corbin for help in seeking a British statement that German war criminals would be punished after the Allied victory. In January 1940, the Polish government-in-exile published a press statement detailing widespread German crimes in Poland right from the start of the war on 1 September 1939 and asked that the perpetrators of these crimes be punished after the Allied victory. Both Corbin and Raczyński noted there was a precedent by citing the Anglo-French-Russian declaration of May 1915, which called the Armenian genocide a "crime against humanity", which was the first use of the term, and promised to bring the leaders of the Ottoman Empire to justice after the Allied victory though the failure to start war crimes trials for the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress in 1919-1922 for political reasons was a less auspicious precedent. At the time, it was the hope of the British government that the Wehrmacht would overthrow Hitler and so the British government was absolutely opposed to idea of punishing German officials and officers for war crimes in Poland in the belief that a statement promising to do so might frighten the Wehrmacht into staying loyal to Hitler. It was only in 1941-1942 after the British finally lost patience with the Wehrmacht, which stayed resolutely loyal to Hitler, that they finally became willing to issue statements promising to bring war criminals to justice.


title: Charles Corbin

text: Corbin joined Raczyński in February to April 1940 seeking to lobby Lord Halifax to issue a statement promising to bring war criminals to justice, despite Halifax's objections that such a statement would only make the Wehrmacht more loyal to Hitler. Halifax took the view that the Allies should be trying to divide the Nazis from the Wehrmacht, which meant no commitments to war crimes trials. After much lobbying, Raczyński and Corbin got Lord Halifax to issue a joint Anglo-French-Polish statement saying the countries held "the German government responsible for these crimes and they affirm their determination to right the wrongs inflicted on the Polish people". The statement of 18 April 1940 accused Germany of "brutal attacks upon the civilian population of Poland in defiance of the accepted principles of international law" and of "a policy deliberately aiming at the destruction of the Polish nation" and mentioned the "atrocious treatment" inflicted on the Jewish community of Poland. However, Lord Halifax told Corbin and Raczyński that the British regarded the statement of 18 April 1940 as only a "statement of principle", not a "contractual obligation" like the Anglo-French-Russian Declaration of 1915, and that his government was still opposed to the war crimes trials. He repeated his standard claim the Allies should try to divide the Wehrmacht from the Nazis.


title: Charles Corbin

text: Corbin was with Jean Monnet on 16 June 1940 when the proposal for the union of France and United Kingdom was put to Charles de Gaulle, who had been sent to London by the French Premier Paul Reynaud. The proposed Declaration of Union was a desperate last-minute attempt to bolster French resistance in the face of defeatism among the ranks of the French cabinet to keep the Franco-British alliance alive. De Gaulle was staying at the Hyde Park Hotel and was shaving when Corbin and Monnet burst into his room to bring their plan for an Anglo-French union to keep France in the war. De Gaulle was hostile to the plan for Anglo-French union on philosophical grounds, but he was prepared to accept anything that might keep France in the war since he knew full well that Reynaud was losing the cabinet debates with Marshal Pétain, who was openly defeatist and urging the French cabinet to sign an armistice with Germany. On the afternoon of 16 June, de Gaulle and Corbin met with the British Cabinet, which approved of the plan, and as such Churchill and de Gaulle signed the statement of Anglo-French union declaring that the United Kingdom and France were now united in "the unyielding resolution in their common defense of freedom and justice, against subjection to a system which reduces mankind to a life of robots and slaves".


title: Charles Corbin

text: Under the statement of Anglo-French union, the French National Assembly and the British Parliament were to become one; there was to be single War Cabinet in charge of all Anglo-French forces all over the world; and there were to be joint organs for the direction of financial, economic, foreign and military policies. Churchill congratulated de Gaulle on signing the statement of union by saying that he was going to become the Commander-in-chief of all the Anglo-French forces in the world, but King George VI was not informed of the plan and was openly hostile when he heard about it. The king was heard to wonder aloud if the union of the French republic and the British monarchy now meant he was out of a job. Reynaud embraced the plan for Anglo-French union, but Pétain rejected it as a British plan to take over the French colonial empire and convinced the French Cabinet to reject it. On 17 June 1940, Reynaud's government fell after the 9 ministers came out against his plans to continue the war and for the Anglo-French union and President Albert Lebrun appointed Pétain as the new premier.


title: Charles Corbin

text: On 26 June 1940, Corbin resigned as the French ambassador to the Court of St. James by saying he could not go on. Corbin told Lord Halifax that day it was a "sad decision" to resign but that Roger Cambon, who would take over the embassy, was a capable man. De Gaulle asked for Corbin not to resign but to represent his National Committee to the British government. Corbin refused under the grounds that the war was lost and that he was now leaving for Brazil while there was still time. Corbin in one of his last acts as ambassador advised the British not to be too closely associated with de Gaulle's National Committee by saying that would make de Gaulle appear to be a British puppet. Both Corbin and St. Léger who had just fled to Britain warned that French republican traditions associated leading a government-in-exile with the betrayal of France, and that de Gaulle was too unknown to be the leader of a credible government-in-exile. Corbin made his "tender farewells" to his friends in Britain and left for Brazil in July 1940. De Gaulle's biographer, Jean Lacouture, states that Corbin resigned from the Quai d'Orsay but retired to South America.


title: Charles Corbin

text: Corbin was greatly angered by the British attack on the French naval base at Mers-el-Kébir on 3 July 1940 and said that he could not in good conscience remain in a country that had just attacked his own nation. Corbin was also further angered by the decision of the new Churchill government to extend the British blockade of Germany to France after 21 June 1940 and frankly Francophobic tone of the British media in the summer of 1940, which openly mocked the French as cowards and defeatists for signing the armistice with Germany. For an Anglophile like Corbin, the sustained anti-French bashing of the British media, which sneered at and mocked the French for the misfortune of losing to Germany was a very bitter blow and hurt him deeply. In the summer of 1940, with Britain facing a German invasion, there was a tendency on the part of the many in the British media to blame the French for the United Kingdom's predicament as it far easier to blame their country's problems on foreigners, which explains the extended bout of French-bashing in 1940.


title: Charles Corbin

text: Corbin arrived in Rio de Janeiro in August 1940, where he was described as being a deeply depressed man, who was convinced that Germany was going to win the war and the "New Order in Europe" could not be challenged. In December 1940, Corbin made his peace with the "New Order in Europe" by saying in a public statement he awaiting for instructions from Marshal Petain in Vichy for what his role would be in the "New Order". He then denied making the statement to his friends, which caused him a major credibility crisis, with many uncertain about where he stood. In February 1941, Corbin arrived in Lisbon, where Daniel Roché, the second secretary of the French legation in Dublin, tried to persuade to go back to Brazil. Sir Ronald Campbell, the British ambassador to Portugal, wrote after meeting Corbin that "he struck me as rather bitter and distinctly flabby.... There is no fight in him and he gives the impression of a broken man". Campbell further wrote that Corbin was extremely embittered by Mers-el-Kébir, which he took as a personal betrayal, and that Corbin was obsessed with "the ghastly spectacle of starving children" in France, which he blamed on the British blockade.


title: Kooman (film)

text: Pillai scolds Giri for trying to file a drug smuggling case on a young man who told Giri to remember his place as a constable. Pillai then retires from duty and Harilal takes charge as the new CI. He is an egoistic cop who insults Giri for no reason. After being humiliated by CI at the Kaddabi match, Giri was left trampled. Vowing revenge, he sought the help of an old thief named Maniyan. Giri was disgusted as Robbor attempted to rob the money. However, after a few incidents, Harilal and two constables got suspended. Giri's kleptomaniac condition became worse as he attempted to rob and was caught by Ramakrishna. This caused him to escape to Tamil Nadu. The next day, when Giri came to know that Ramakrishna was found dead the same way as the victim, he was found hanging and had personal problems, he realized there was a serial killer. Harilal was suspicious of Giri and believed that he was avoiding or escaping from him because of his activities. Giri confessed to Pillai, who came to know about his situation. Pillai tried to help Giri overcome his disorder by counseling with a psychologist. Although Giri asked Pillai for permission to solve the case in Tamil Nadu, Giri learned from Senthil Kumar that people who died in mysterious circumstances have mysterious letters. Giri stops Harilal from beating Maniyan in jail as Maryan knows that Giri won't expose him.


title: Frank M. Coffin

text: Born on July 11, 1919, in Lewiston, Maine, Coffin received an Artium Baccalaureus degree in 1940 from Bates College. He completed graduate instruction in Industrial Administration in 1943 from Harvard Business School and a Bachelor of Laws in 1947 from Harvard Law School. He was a lieutenant in the United States Navy from 1943 to 1946. He was a law clerk for Judge John David Clifford Jr. of the United States District Court for the District of Maine from 1947 to 1949. He was corporation counsel for Lewiston from 1949 to 1952. He was in private practice in Lewiston from 1946 to 1953. He was in private practice in Portland, Maine from 1953 to 1956. He was a United States representative from Maine from 1957 to 1961. He was the Managing Director of the Development Loan Fund in 1961. He was the Deputy Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development from 1961 to 1964. He was United States Representative to the development assistance committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development from 1964 to 1965.


title: India–Solomon Islands relations

text: Diplomatic relations between India and Solomon Islands were established in May 1987. Solomon Islands is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum, of which India is an official dialogue partner. Bilateral relations received a boost following the initiation of the Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC) by the Narendra Modi government in 2014. India announced that it would provide a grant-in-aid of US$100,000 annually to each of the 14 Pacific Island countries, including Solomon Islands, at the Post Forum Dialogue partner meeting in 2006. The amount was increased to US$125,000 annually from 2009. At the first FIPIC Summit on 19 November 2014, Prime Minister Modi announced numerous steps that India would take to improve relations with Pacific Island countries, including Solomon Islands, such as easing visa policies, increase in grant-in-aid to Pacific Island Countries to $200,000 each annually, and several measures to boost bilateral trade and aid in the development of the Pacific Island countries.


title: Sonya Monina

text: Olha Heorhiieva was born on December 29, 1988, in Brest. At the age of 5, she moved to Simferopol with her family. In 2006, she started studying "Design of leather goods" at Kyiv National University of Technologies and Design. In 2012, she created her own menswear clothing brand, SONYAMONINA. In 2013, Monina presented her debut collection within the Ukrainian Fashion Week. In 2015, she presented her collection of the spring/summer 2016 within Belarus Fashion Week. In 2016, She presented her collections at the "Festival of Young Fashion Designers" in Moscow. In 2018, she presented her collection of the summer 2019 at Mystetskyi Arsenal National Art and Culture Museum Complex within Ukrainian Fashion Week. She was nominated for "Best men's clothing designer award" at the Best Fashion Awards 2019 in Ukraine. Monina is also a custom designer. Celebrity clients she has worked with have included Oskar Kuchera, Vitalii Kozlovskyi, Kishe, Pierre Narcisse, Anton Zatsepin and Oleksandr Motornyi, among others.


title: Susan Avery

text: Supported by two fellowships from the National Science Foundation and CIRES she moved to the University of Colorado-Boulder in 1982. She built collaborations at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and NOAA. Avery developed new radar technology that allowed the first measurements of wind in the upper atmosphere in remote equatorial regions, leading to years of collaborations in the tropics and polar regions. She attained the academic rank of professor of electrical and computer engineering in 1992. After earning tenure, she accepted a position as associate dean of research and graduate education in the College of Engineering and Applied Science. From 1994–2004, she served as director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), the first woman and first engineer to hold that position. There, she facilitated new interdisciplinary research efforts spanning the geosciences while bringing them together with social and biological sciences. She helped form an integrated science and assessment program that examines the impacts of climate variability on water in the American West and established a K-12 outreach program and a Center for Science and Technology Policy Research - efforts to make CIRES research more applicable, understandable, and accessible to the public. As director of CIRES, Avery worked with NOAA and the Climate Change Science Program to help formulate a national strategic science plan for climate research. From 2004–2007, she served in interim positions as vice chancellor for research and dean of the graduate school, as well as provost and executive vice chancellor for academic affairs at the University of Colorado at Boulder.


title: Susan Avery

text: Avery became the president and director of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution on February 4, 2008. During her tenure at WHOI, she led the development of an intermediate strategy for the institution to attain fiscal stability based on an external and internal landscape analysis. Implementation included structural changes in operations (fiscal and administrative), selective investments in new areas, including the Center for Marine Robotics; a new building for ocean observatories; an ocean informatics program, and strategic hiring in climate and coastal research. She oversaw the completion of major technology projects (Ocean Observatories Initiative, design and construction of the submersible Alvin replacement, and acquisition of a new ship, R/V Neil Armstrong), and she brought focus to increased work on the application of ocean science to societal issues. Major examples include: Deepwater Horizon oil spill; the magnitude 7.0 earthquake in Haiti ; the successful search to locate the deep water wreckage of Air France flight 447 in the southern mid-Atlantic ; and the measurement of oceanic radionuclides from the disaster at Fukushima . She encouraged development of new funding resources through a restructured fund-raising office, partnerships with other national and international academic and research organizations, and outreach through events that opened the doors of the institution to the local and regional community.


title: Susan Avery

text: She has served on many national and international boards, committees, commissions, and program review committees, and is active in professional societies. Her current service includes the UN Science Advisory Board; the National Research Council Global Change Research Program Advisory Committee; the NOAA Science Advisory Board; the NASA Science Advisory Committee; the National Park Service Advisory Committee, and the Leadership Alliance External Advisory Board. She is a fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Meteorological Society, for which she also served as president. She is also a member of the American Geophysical Union and the Marine Technology Society. Currently she is a senior fellow with the Consortium for Ocean Leadership. Awards and recognition include an honorary degree from University of Massachusetts; charter membership of the National Associate Program in the National Academy of Sciences; the Stearns Award from the University of Colorado for exceptional achievement; and an Alumni Achievement Award and Distinguished Ogura Lectureship in the Department of Atmospheric Sciences from the University of Illinois.


title: Noliwe Rooks

text: In a review of Ladies Pages: African American Women's Magazines and the Culture that Made Them for African American Review, Cynthia A. Callahan of the Ohio State University at Mansfield writes, "Rooks's study performs an important service by identifying these publications and situating them in the mutually informative contexts of the postbellum Great Migration, the rise of consumer culture, and African American women's attempts to redefine the sexual stereotypes applied to them in the dominant culture." In a review for The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, Camille A. Clarke writes, "Rooks' research provides a wealth of information about the impact that early black women's magazine writers had in shaping the minds of Negro women around the turn of the century." In a review for American Periodicals, Frances Smith Foster of Emory University writes, "The most useful elements of this book for print culture scholars are that it brings attention to the existence of African American women's magazines, provides brief biographies of the lives and times of some women who edited and wrote for them, and lays a broad foundation of analysis upon which others can and should build. The most exciting thing about this book is that Rooks' persistent sleuthing has discovered extant copies of periodicals long thought forever lost."


title: Noliwe Rooks

text: In an essay review of White Money/Black Power: African American Studies and the Crises of Race in Higher Education for The Journal of African American History, Alan Colón of Dillard University concludes, "The Black Studies movement, and the tradition from which it emanated, requires documentation, analysis, and interpretation that surpasses what is found in White Money/Black Power." In an essay review for The Black Scholar, Perry A. Hall concludes, "There are, as indicated, ideas within her text that could bear fruitful discussion. However, in the form they have been presented - buried and entangled in flaws in logic and structure, and gaps in perspective - they are largely unusable." In The Journal of African American History, James B. Stewart of Pennsylvania State University writes, "Hall took Rooks to task appropriately for ignoring the comprehensive exploration of the origin and evolution of Black/Africana Studies contained in the volume by Dolores Aldridge and Carlene Young, Out of the Revolution: The Development of Africana Studies ." Publishers Weekly describes the book as "Perhaps too specialized for general readers, this volume is a must for anyone working in the field."


title: Noliwe Rooks

text: In a review of Cutting School: Privatization, Segregation, and the End of Public Education , Kirkus Reviews writes, "Weighing in on the charged topic of public education, Rooks mounts a blistering and persuasive argument against school reforms that she sees as detrimental to disadvantaged students." Publishers Weekly writes that Rooks "introduces the term segrenomics, which she defines as 'the business of profiting from high levels of racial and economic segregation.'" In a review for Education and Urban Society, Lauren Martin, Katie Loomis and Jemimah L. Young write, "Rooks tells the story of racism and segregation in America with a beautiful and heartbreakingly human element that captures the essence of where we stand in education today." Wendy Lecker writes in the Stamford Advocate, "Rooks illustrates how officials and 'reformers' have virtually ignored successful models for education, such as: adequate funding, integration, and community-initiated reforms." In a February 2018 article for The New York Times, Tayari Jones named Cutting School as the last book that had made her furious, writing, "My hair almost caught on fire when I read the chapter about single moms tossed into prison - prison - for trying to enroll their children into schools in better-resourced neighborhoods. This is an important work; hopefully it will make people mad enough to act."


title: Arthur Roy Clapham

text: After completing his B.A., Clapham did graduate work in plant physiology under the supervision of Frederick Blackman before taking up a position as crop physiologist at the Rothamsted Agricultural Experimental Station where he worked with Ronald Fisher. Influenced by Fisher's work on statistical analysis and random sampling, Clapham worked on using small samples to reliably estimate wheat yields and designed the Ministry of Agriculture's protocol of sampling wheat crops to forecast crop yields. It was during this time period that he met his future wife, Brenda Stoessiger who was a research student working with Karl Pearson, a pioneer of mathematical statistics. Years later, Donald Pigott, then Director, Cambridge University Botanic Garden, wrote (for Clapham's obituary in the Journal of Ecology) that it was probably through his connection to Fisher that Clapham met Stoessiger. Clapham received a PhD from Cambridge in 1929 based on his work with Blackman in physiology and his work on sampling methods at Rothamsted.


title: Trust Fund Babies

text: Trust Fund Babies received mixed reviews from music critics. Anthony Malone of HipHopDX criticized the lack of chemistry between the two rappers, writing: "Instead of trading bars and witty wordplay to keep the momentum going, verses are thrown together in a sequence that feels boring and uninspired." He concluded, "Trust Fund Babies doesn't succeed much at all, but it does create anticipation for Wayne's next solo work and further shows that even in his late 30s, Wayne can still rap circles around Great Value rappers." Alphonse Pierre of Pitchfork criticized Rich the Kid's performance, although he felt that the project contained some Lil Wayne's best rapping in years, writing: "The only reason to care about this mixtape is Wayne, even if it often sounds like he's being held captive in a studio by Rich and has to rap his way out After years of health scares, label issues, and the depressingly awful raps between I Am Not a Human Being II and Free Weezy Album, it's just nice to hear Wayne rap adequately again."


title: Anne Schaefer (scientist)

text: Schaefer remained in Greengard's lab as a research associate from 2007 to 2009 and was promoted to Senior Research Associate in 2009. She held this title until she started her own lab at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in 2011. Schaefer is currently a tenured professor in the Department of Neuroscience and Psychiatry at the Friedman Brain Institute at Mount Sinai School and remains an adjunct faculty member at Rockefeller University. In 2012 named the Chrissy Rossi Investigator at Mount Sinai. In 2017, Schaefer co-founded the Center for Glial Biology at Mount Sinai and is now the co-director of the center alongside Dr. Patrizia Casaccia. As of 2018, Schaefer was promoted to vice-chair of Neuroscience at Sinai. The Schaefer Lab studies the epigenetic mechanisms of cellular plasticity, maintenance of neuronal identity, as well as the role of epigenetics in regulating neuron-microglia interactions. One of the goals of her lab is to develop tools and therapies with which to target the epigenome to treat neurological disorders.


title: Anne Schaefer (scientist)

text: In 2007, Schaefer published a first author paper discussing the importance of microRNAs (miRNAs) in the regulation of neuronal gene expression. She showed that a conditional knockout of the miRNA generating enzyme, Dicer, lead to death of neurons in the cerebellum. Since loss of miRNA led to cerebellar degeneration, her findings highlight the potential role for dysregulation of miRNAs in neurodegenerative diseases. Further highlighting the role of genetic regulation in brain homeostasis, Schaefer showed in 2009 that a deficiency in the histone methyltransferase complex GLP/G9a leads to defects in learning, motivation, and environmental adaptation in rodents. Histone methyltransferases are a key regulator in gene expression. They manipulate the state of DNA, which can be either open, referred to as euchromatin or closed, referred to as heterochromatin. Later in her postdoc, Schafer helped elucidate the role of transcriptional regulation in the context of drug addiction in mice. She found that a deficiency in argonaute 2 (a gene known to regulate the generation of miRNA) in the dopamine receptor 2 (Drd2) positive cells in the striatum caused a decrease in the motivation to seek cocaine. Schaefer further explored which miRNAs are modulated by argonaute 2 to elucidate specifically which miRNAs might be important in mediating addition to cocaine.


title: Anne Schaefer (scientist)

text: Another facet of Schaefer's work is understanding the impact of epigenetic regulation on neuroimmunity, with a particular focus on the innate immune cells of the brain, microglia. In a paper published in Nature Neuroscience in 2018, Schaefer and her colleagues showed that epigenetic regulation underlies differences in microglial behavior across different brain regions. They found that baseline phagocytic activity of microglia was high in the cerebellum but low in the striatum. Using the TRAP technique developed by Schaefer in 2011, they discovered that the polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), which mediates repressive chromatin modifications, is actively repressing phagocytic phenotypes and morphological changes in striatal microglia. When they inhibited PRC2, microglia exhibited robust phagocytic activity even in the absence of dying neurons. These findings highlighted a critical role for epigenetic regulation of microglia in diseases where aberrantly activated microglia lead to over-pruning and neurodegeneration. To understand more deeply what drives the unique epigenetic programming of cerebellar versus striatal microglia, Schaefer collaborated with Dr. Miriam Merad's group at Sinai to look at ontology of cerebellar versus striatal microglia. They found that cerebellar microglial identity was driven by interactions between CSF-1 and the CSF-1 receptor, and was not reliant on the alternate CSF-1R ligand, IL-34. When they depleted CSF-1, it led to disruptions in cerebellar microglia development as well as cerebellar neuron function but had no effect on the development of forebrain microglia.


title: 2012–13 BYU Cougars men's basketball team

text: Through the course of the fall and spring letter of intent days, the Cougars would bolster their lineup. On November 11, Coach Rose announced that Cory Calvert and Jordan Chatman had signed letters of intent to play for BYU. He revealed then that both Calvert and Chatman planned to serve church missions before joining the team, meaning they wouldn't become part of the BYU team until the 2014–15 season. Freshman Cooper Ainge, son of former BYU great Danny Ainge, announced he would walk-on at BYU. He plans to play for 1 year before departing on a mission. The spring national Letter of Intent Signing Days began on April 10, 2012 and ran through May 16. On the first day of eligibility, Raúl Delgado and Agustín Ambrosino signed letters of intent. Both will come in as juniors and have two years of eligibility. On April 20, it was announced that Cory Calvert would play one season before going on his mission, just as Ainge is doing, because he wouldn't have time to get into playing shape for the 2014–15 season after his mission.


title: Mahadeb Nagar

text: Jangipur subdivision is crowded with 52 census towns and as such it had to be presented in two location maps. One of the maps can be seen alongside. The subdivision is located in the Rarh region that is spread over from adjoining Santhal Pargana division of Jharkhand. The land is slightly higher in altitude than the surrounding plains and is gently undulating. The river Ganges, along with its distributaries, is prominent in both the maps. At the head of the subdivision is the 2,245 m long Farakka Barrage, one of the largest projects of its kind in the country. Murshidabad district shares with Bangladesh a porous international border which is notoriously crime prone (partly shown in this map). The subdivision has two large power plants - the 2,100 MW Farakka Super Thermal Power Station and the 1,600 MW Sagardighi Thermal Power Station. According to a 2016 report, there are around 1,000,000 (1 million/ ten lakh) workers engaged in the beedi industry in Jangipur subdivision. 90% are home-based and 70% of the home-based workers are women. As of 2013, an estimated 2.4 million people reside along the banks of the Ganges alone in Murshidabad district. Severe erosion occurs along the banks.


title: Tong Yabghu Qaghan

text: Tong Yabghu's empire fought with the Sassanids of Iran. In the early 620's the khagan's nephew Böri Shad led a series of raids across the Caucasus Mountains into Persian territory. Many scholars have identified Tong Yabghu as the Ziebel mentioned in Byzantine sources as having (as khagan of the Khazars) campaigned with the Emperor Heraclius in the Caucasus against the Sassanid Persian Empire in 627–628. It has long been maintained by some scholars, including Chavannes, Uchida, Gao and Xue Zhongzeng that Tong Yabghu cannot be positively identified with Ziebel (or any Khazar ruler) and may actually have died as early as 626. These scholars point to discrepancies in the dates between Byzantine and Chinese sources and argue that definitively conflating Ziebel with Tong Yabghu is an exaggeration of the extant evidence. The latest research on this topic proves that they were right: if Tong indeed died in 628, Ziebel is to be identified with Sipi khagan, Tong Yabghu's uncle, who murdered him and rose briefly to the throne. Sipi was by then pronounced Zibil and he was a small khagan in charge of the western part of Tong Yabghu's empire, exactly as Ziebel was according to the Byzantine sources. Ziebel is described as the brother of Tong in the Byzantine sources, and as his uncle in the Chinese sources, a discrepancy which long precluded the identification. However uncle and elder brother is the same word in ancient Turkish, äçi, and the Chinese sources could not render this double meaning with their very precise system of kinship names.


title: Legend (1985 film)

text: Lili takes refuge in a peasant cottage. While there, she sees the goblins test the alicorn's magic powers and overhears how she was the bait in their slaying of the stallion. She follows the goblins to a rendezvous with Darkness, who tells them the world cannot be cast into eternal night as long as the surviving mare still lives. Blunder unsuccessfully tries using the alicorn to overthrow Darkness and is sent into the castle's dungeon. Meanwhile Jack, accompanied by forest elf Honeythorn Gump, will-o'-the-wisp Oona, and dwarves Brown Tom and Screwball, finds the mare mourning the lifeless stallion. Jack begs forgiveness from the mare, who communicates to him that the alicorn must be recovered and returned to the stallion by a great hero. Deciding Jack is that hero, the group leaves Brown Tom to guard the unicorns while they retrieve a hidden cache of ancient weapons and armor. In their absence, Lili warns Brown Tom of the goblins coming back to kill the mare. He is then incapacitated by the goblins, who capture both Lili and the mare.


title: Legend (1985 film)

text: The look Scott envisioned for Legend was influenced by the style of Disney animation. He had even offered the project to Disney, but they were intimidated by the film's dark tone at a time when Disney still focused on family-friendly material. Visually, Scott referenced films like Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Fantasia and Pinocchio. The look of Legend was also influenced by the art of Arthur Rackham and Heath Robinson. Scott had initially sought the services of conceptual designer Brian Froud, but was turned down. He then hired Alan Lee as a visual consultant, who drew some characters and sketched environments. However, Scott eventually replaced Lee with Assheton Gorton, a production designer whom he had wanted for both Alien and Blade Runner. Scott hired Gorton because he knew "all the pitfalls of shooting exteriors on a soundstage. We both knew that whatever we did would never look absolutely real, but would very quickly gain its own reality and dispense with any feeling of theatricality".


title: Muscle weakness

text: For extremely powerful contractions that are close to the upper limit of a muscle's ability to generate force, neuromuscular fatigue can become a limiting factor in untrained individuals. In novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve's ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After an extended period of maximum contraction, the nerve's signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply 'stop listening' and gradually cease to move, often lengthening. As there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons, there will often be no delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout. Part of the process of strength training is increasing the nerve's ability to generate sustained, high frequency signals which allow a muscle to contract with their greatest force. It is this "neural training" that causes several weeks worth of rapid gains in strength, which level off once the nerve is generating maximum contractions and the muscle reaches its physiological limit. Past this point, training effects increase muscular strength through myofibrillar or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and metabolic fatigue becomes the factor limiting contractile force.


title: Streams Method in Israeli education

text: After the establishment of the State of Israel, the responsibility for education shifted from the National Council to the provisional government. In 1949, a Compulsory Education Law was enacted, requiring every child from age 5 to 13 to study in an official educational institution from one of the four streams. At this stage, the parties had not yet agreed on establishing a unified school for all children of Israel. The supporters of this were Mapai alongside the right-wing parties and the General Zionists, while the opponents were the religious and ultra-Orthodox parties, fearing the secular nature of the unified school, and on the other side, the left-wing parties, fearing damage to labor values. Since the Compulsory Education Law did not apply to children of immigrant camps, the Jewish Agency established a network for uniform education, leading to criticism of anti-religious coercion from Yemenite immigrants and the appointment of the Fromkin Committee. The crisis created by the debates over the religious parties' authority over education led to Ben-Gurion's resignation as Prime Minister and the fall of the second government of Israel.


title: Lauren Rogers Museum of Art

text: Throughout the years the museum has served various purposes. The original building not only served as an art gallery, but it also housed the town library. The first collection featured in the museum gallery was a large basket collection that was donated in 1923 by Lauren Rogers' great-aunt, Catherine Marshall Gardiner. A new wing was completed in 1925 giving the museum five art galleries on the first floor and space for the Laurel Library Association on the lower level, where they stayed until 1979. These new galleries were eventually filled with nineteenth- and twentieth-century paintings that were donated by the Rogers and Eastman families. This collection which includes works by famous artists such as Winslow Homer, Albert Bierstadt, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, and Jean-François Millet became a part of the museum's permanent collection and can still be seen today. In 1953 Lelia Rogers added a Reading Room and filled it with furniture from her in-laws' home and a portrait of her deceased husband, Lauren.


title: Lauren Rogers Museum of Art

text: Landscape paintings in the museum collection date primarily from the late 19th century onward. The museum owns late examples of Hudson River School painting, the first group of painters to exclusively focus on and celebrate the American landscape. Artists such as John Frederick Kensett and Albert Bierstadt, whose works are on display in the American gallery, are typical of this movement. These artists were inspired by the Romantic movement in art and literature and strove to glorify the wonders of nature through their art. The American Impressionists of the early 20th century used the image of the landscape as a means of personal expression as well as a vehicle for exploring the medium of painting itself. Artists like John Henry Twachtman chose to portray intimate settings and quiet places in his pictures, some of which border on the abstract in their painterly quality and emphasis on color and light over form and drawing. Since the 1930s, the museum has added more modern landscape paintings, particularly by Mississippi artists like Marie Hull and William Dunlap. We continue to build on this fine collection of American landscapes.


title: Lauren Rogers Museum of Art

text: Around 1900, Catherine Marshall Gardiner of Laurel, Mississippi, read an article about Native American baskets and found herself tempted by the possibility of collecting them. Her husband, George Schuyler Gardiner, encouraged her to "go as far as she liked". The Gardiners, the great-aunt and great-uncle of Lauren Rogers, moved to Laurel in the 1890s to establish a lumber company after the lumber business in their home state of Iowa had begun to slow. At first she planned to collect only contemporary baskets, but, she said, "the lure of old and fine work specimens soon gained the ascendancy". When she embarked on this project, she little realized she would become one of the premier collectors of the period, often called "the golden age of basket collecting". Catherine Gardiner's quest for fine specimens led her to contact and visit basket dealers, other collectors, officials and teachers on reservations, and weavers, eventually becoming part of a national network of other basket aficionados.


title: Ninth-of-May Constitution

text: Unlike most Communist constitutions, the Ninth-of-May Constitution did not replace the presidency with a collective body. It also afforded protections against arbitrary arrest; no one could be taken into custody without a warrant. On the other hand, the provisions enshrining civil rights were effectively neutered by a provision that forbade their use in order to make "statements and acts that constitute a threat to the independence, entirety, and unity of the State, the Constitution, the Republican form of government, or the People's Democratic Order" and allowed their restriction "when events occur that threaten in increased measure the independence, entirety, and unity of the State, the Constitution, the Republican form of government, and the People's Democratic Order, or public law and order." The constitutional guarantee of press freedom was rendered meaningless by provisions making movies and broadcasting state monopolies and giving the government sole power to decide who could publish periodicals. Judges were required to abide by both laws and government ordinances, thus taking away judges' right to strike down executive actions that did not accord with statutes.


title: Secular state

text: In France, Italy, and Spain, for example, official holidays for the public administration tend to be Christian feast days. Any private school in France that contracts with Éducation nationale means its teachers are salaried by the state—most of the Catholic schools are in this situation and, because of history, they are the majority; however, any other religious or non-religious schools also contract this way. In some European states where secularism confronts monoculturalist philanthropy, some of the main Christian denominations and sects of other religions depend on the state for some of the financial resources for their religious charities. It is common in corporate law and charity law to prohibit organized religion from using those funds to organize religious worship in a separate place of worship or for conversion; the religious body itself must provide the religious content, educated clergy and laypersons to exercise its own functions and may choose to devote part of their time to the separate charities. To that effect, some of those charities establish secular organizations that manage part of or all of the donations from the main religious bodies.


title: Secular state

text: Many states that are nowadays secular in practice may have legal vestiges of an earlier established religion. Secularism also has various guises that may coincide with some degree of official religiosity. In the United Kingdom, the head of state is still required to take the Coronation Oath enacted in 1688, swearing to maintain the Protestant Reformed religion and to preserve the established Church of England. The UK also maintains seats in the House of Lords for 26 senior clergymen of the Church of England, known as the Lords Spiritual. In Canada the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms affords secular freedoms of conscience and religion, thought, belief, opinion and expression, including communication, assembly and association yet the Charter's preamble maintains the concept of "the supremacy of God" which would appear to disadvantage those who hold nontheistic or polytheistic beliefs, including atheism and Buddhism. Italy has been a secular state since the enactment of the Constitution in 1948 , but still recognizes a special status for the Catholic Church. The reverse progression can also occur, however; a state can go from being secular to being a religious state, as in the case of Iran where the secularized Imperial State of Iran was replaced by an Islamic Republic. Nonetheless, the last 250 years has seen a trend towards secularism.


title: German World War II destroyers

text: The Royal Yugoslav Navy destroyer leader, KB Dubrovnik, was captured by Italy in the Bay of Kotor on 17 April 1941. She was recommissioned in the Regia Marina as Premuda, and served in the Mediterranean Sea until 1943. She was undergoing repairs in Genoa when Italy surrendered and joined the Allies. With this, she was seized by the Germans and commissioned into the Kriegsmarine as TA32. In 1944, her repairs were completed with German modifications and soon saw action shelling Allied positions along the Italian coast. While on minelaying duty off Genoa, she engaged the American destroyer, USS Gleaves (DD-423), but escaped undamaged. On 18 March 1945, while on minelaying duty off Corsica, she was engaged by 2 British destroyers in what became the Battle of the Ligurian Sea. While both her escorts were sunk, she escaped with a damaged rudder. With the Allies advancing further into Northern Italy, she was scuttled in Genoa on 24 April 1945, and her crew retreated. She was raised and broken up in 1950.


title: Robert Lowe

text: Robert Lowe, 1st Viscount Sherbrooke, GCB, PC , British statesman, was a pivotal conservative spokesman who helped shape British politics in the latter half of the 19th century. He held office under William Ewart Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer between 1868 and 1873 and as Home Secretary between 1873 and 1874. Lowe is remembered for his work in education policy, his opposition to electoral reform and his contribution to modern UK company law. Gladstone appointed Lowe as Chancellor expecting him to hold down public spending. Public spending rose, and Gladstone pronounced Lowe "wretchedly deficient"; most historians agree. Lowe repeatedly underestimated the revenue, enabling him to resist demands for tax cuts and to reduce the national debt instead. He insisted that the tax system be fair to all classes. By his own main criterion of fairness — that the balance between direct and indirect taxation remain unchanged — he succeeded. Even in his time, however, this concept of fiscal incidence was obsolescent.


title: Robert Lowe

text: You must take education up the very first question, and you must press it on without delay for the peace of the country. Sir, I was looking to-day at the head of the lion which was sculptured in Greece during her last agony after the battle of Chaeronea, to commemorate that event, and I admired the power and the spirit which portrayed in the face of that noble beast the rage, the disappointment, and the scorn of a perishing nation and of a down-trodden civilization, and I said to myself, "O for an orator, O for an historian, O for a poet, who would do the same thing for us!" We also have had our battle of Chaeronea; we too have had our dishonest victory. That England, that was wont to conquer other nations, has now gained a shameful victory over herself; and oh! that a man would rise in order that he might set forth in words that could not die, the shame, the rage, the scorn, the indignation, and the despair with which this measure is viewed by every cultivated Englishman who is not a slave to the trammels of party, or who is not dazzled by the glare of a temporary and ignoble success!


title: Kiss Him, Not Me

text: A live-action film adaptation was announced in January 2020 and had a nationwide theatrical release in Japan on July 10, 2020. The film was directed by Norihisa Hiranuma, who also wrote the script along with Nami Kikkawa, Shōhei Fukuda, Kei Watanabe, and Daisuke Kamijō. It stars The Rampage from Exile Tribe member Hokuto Yoshino as Mutsumi, Asahi Ito as Nanashima, Fuju Kamio as Igarashi, and So Okuno as Shinomiya. E-girls member Nonoka Yamaguchi and Miu Tomita both star as Kae, with Yamaguchi playing her slim form and Tomita playing her pre-weight loss form. The theme song is "Watashi ga Motete Dōsunda" by Girls² (Misaki Tsuruya, Youka Ogawa, Kurea Masuda, Kira Yamaguchi, and Ran Ishii), who also make cameo appearances in the film. The extras in the film were played by students from EXPG. Additional cast members were announced on March 6, 2020 with the release of the film's official trailer, consisting of Miku Uehara, Ryōtarō Sakaguchi, Marina Mizushima, Zawachin, Satsuki Nakayama, Naho Toda, Shuto Miyazaki, and Mio Yūki. In addition, Asahi Ito, who plays Nanashima, also provides the voice to Shion. The dance sequence at the end of the film was choreographed by Akane from Tomioka High School's dance club, who is known for choreographing the "bubbly dance."


title: Dassault Mirage F1

text: In response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, France performed two deployments of Mirage F1s to the Persian Gulf. In October 1990, 12 Mirage F1Cs were dispatched to Doha, Qatar in order to boost air defences, while a further four Mirage F1CRs of ER 33 were deployed to Saudi Arabia as part of Operation Daguet in September 1990. To avoid the risk of being mistaken for hostile Iraqi Mirage F1s, all of the French F1CRs were grounded during the first few days of the Allied air attacks, flying their first combat mission on 26 January 1991; an additional reason for their initial grounding was the lack of compatible night vision equipment. They were used in the fighter bomber role, using their more capable navigation systems to lead formations of French Jaguar fighter bombers, as well as to fly reconnaissance missions; in this capacity, 114 sorties had been flown by the end of hostilities. Following the end of the Gulf War, France deployed a number of Mirage F1CRs to bases in neighbouring Turkey as part of Operation Provide Comfort to protect Kurds from Iraqi aggression.


title: Dassault Mirage F1

text: Greece operated 40 Dassault Mirage F1CG single-seat fighters. The F1CG was first ordered in 1974 and entered service with the Hellenic Air Force in 1975. The aircraft were used by the 334th All-Weather Squadron and the 342nd All-Weather Squadron. Mirage F1CGs were armed with the AIM-9P missile, rather than the more commonly used R.550 Magic, and could carry four AIM-9Ps, rather than just two. Mirage F1s were used in mock dogfights with the Turkish Air Force over disputed waters and airspace in the Aegean Sea during 1987, and on 18 June 1992, a Greek Mirage F1 crashed while attempting to intercept two Turkish F-16s, another is claimed to have crashed in similar circumstances on 4 September 1995, and on 8 February 1995, a Turkish F-16 crashed after dogfighting Greek F1s. The loss of a Turkish RF-4E on the 20 October 1995 is conformed and often attributed to a dogfight with the Mirage F1. A further claim—that is denied—is the loss of a Mirage on the 7th of November 1994 to a Turkish F-16. The loss of a further RF-4E on 5 November 1997 is recorded and may have been the victim of either an F-16 or a Mirage F1.


title: Dassault Mirage F1

text: To solve these issues, several measures were taken. The Moroccans started using bombs equipped with daisy cutter fuses, and later South African-made Jupiter airburst fuses. Moroccan Mirages also starting operating in hunter-killer teams, with one aircraft fitted with long-range cameras and/or ESM equipment guiding one or two low-flying Mirage F1s to attack the targets it detected. These tactics proved highly successful, and they became the principal way in which Moroccan Mirages operated for the remainder of the war. Moreover, the aircraft were modified with chaff/flare dispensers. Lastly, ECM pods were bought to increase the aircraft's survivability against SA-6s, and the first were delivered in 1983. All this, combined with better training of the Moroccan pilots (including during joint exercises with the French and the Americans), resulted in much improved effectiveness of operations against Polisario forces. In total, over the course of the war in Western Sahara, twelve Mirage F1s were shot down by the POLISARIO. Four pilots were killed, and five were taken prisoner.


title: Dassault Mirage F1

text: Even though they weren't involved continuously, Libyan Mirage F1s participated in the war in Chad intensively and proved their worth during the Libyan campaigns through the 1980s. From 1981, a detachment was deployed at Marten es-Serra in southern Libya. Both the F1AD and F1ED versions were used in this war. Even though the Mirage F1ED was designed foremost as an interceptor, it was mainly used for ground attack purposes like the F1AD, although some combat air patrols were flown as well. When operating in Chad, the Mirage F1AD's typical combat configuration consisted of a pair of 1.300 litre drop tanks and a pair of Belouga CBUs. Operations were performed almost exclusively during daylight hours and from high altitudes, which resulted in limited effectiveness. Together with Mirage 5s, MiG-23s, and Sukhoi Su-22s, Mirage F1s were instrumental in the success enjoyed during different campaigns against the Chadian troops in the early 1980s: operating over the open and barren desert terrain, they caused heavy damage, for no Mirage F1 losses in exchange.


title: Dassault Mirage F1

text: The F1AZ has a laser-based rangefinder, permitting the highly accurate fusing and aiming of unguided munitions, such as bombs and rockets. Optical design was by the Optics (later ELOPTRO) division of Armscor in South Africa. The F1AZ features an integrated ground-attack system, comprising two on-board computers that can identify targets at a distance of 5 km. A laser range finder, situated below its conical nose, is connected to the computers to provide them with target info without emitting radar signals. After target identification and information gathering, bombs are automatically released at the right moment, known as CCRP, or 'Computer Controlled Release Point'. While the range-finding ability of the EMD AIDA 2 radar permits the use of combat and visual interception missiles, the helmet-mounted sight element enables the pilot to make off-boresight engagements, without waiting until achieving an optimum firing position. The F1AZ is equipped with two internal DEFA 30mm cannons with 125 rounds each, and carries a wide variety of external ordnance, including various types of bombs, cluster munitions, missiles, and rocket launchers.


title: Our Lady of Mount Carmel High School (Wyandotte, Michigan)

text: The rapid growth of the school in number and advancement in educational standards was due to the unselfish and hard work of the succeeding pastors, especially Rev. Father Ladislaus Krych. Also, to the principals who had carried most of the burden of educating and directing: Sister Mary Simplicia, the pioneer in 1928; Sister Mary Bernadette, excellent teacher and acting principal for the initial years 1928 – 1931; Sister Mary Emmanuel, ardent character builder, crusader for athletics and higher education 1931 – 1935, 1939; Sister Mary Bonifilia, activity-conscious 1935 – 1937, Sister Mary Cantia 1937 – 1940 who promoted the growth of the school; Sister Mary Emmanuel, 1940 – 1946, under whose efficient principalship the school reached its highest standards: improvements in the curriculum to meet the needs of the students and in the school's facilities, installments and additions to aid the teachers in their schoolwork, which was possible through the cooperation and understanding of the pastor-professor, Fr. Krych.


text: The school facilities, in its day, placed Our Lady of Mt. Carmel High School in Class A category: the library had thousands of volumes of fiction and non-fiction, twelve sets of encyclopedias, many subscriptions to magazines, the laboratory was completely equipped for physics and chemistry, the music studio had an excellent supply of school instruments for band and orchestra, and an excellent drama department. In addition to the school's intellectual pursuits Our Lady of Mt. Carmel offered extracurricular activities in the form of clubs. Teachers, artists and many other vocational fields had the opportunity to express themselves in club activities. Those with acting talents performed in dramas throughout Mount Carmel's history. In 1945, Mount Carmel produced its first operetta "Hats Off." Other operetta's included: "Don Alonso's Treasure" , An Old Kentucky Garden" , and "Student Prince" was presented in 1948 in honor of Fr. Krych on the occasion of his 25th – year Silver Jubilee of ordination to the priesthood. Also, the Drama department portrayed the drama "Conquered" in honor of the Parish's Golden Jubilee in 1949. In the late-1940s, visual aids included a movie projector, film strip, recording machine, and a phonograph.


text: In the spring of 1945, Fr. Krych was toying with the idea of introducing football in the fall of the same year. He approached Thomas Watkowski with the idea of getting some men together to raise funds for football equipment. Six young men, Robert Bednarek, Alex Uszynski, John Jacobs, Henry Stec, Frank Wszelaki, and Thomas Watkowski formed a committee and sponsored a dance on September 22, 1945, netting a profit of $930 which was presented to the Athletic Fund of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel High School. Encouraged by their first success, the committee increased its membership by nine young men – Anthony Siemion, Peter Jablonski, Betram Lange, Leonard Kowaleski, Albert Hebda, Roman Watkowski, Walter Przytula, Steve Tar, and Len Stoh. They all laid plans to sponsor another success and $500 was donated toward the purchase of a rowing shell and $600 towards the purchase of instruments for the Mt. Carmel Band. Enthusiasm, close cooperation, and friendly relationships inspired the first fifteen men to form a club. Thus, the present Oak Club was founded on December 9, 1945, with the sole aim of furthering athletics through funds procured by means of various social activities. In 1949, the Oak Club was as generous as ever. The monthly dances, the dance of the year with Skitch Henderson at Wyandotte Chemicals, the annual picnic with the car raffle afforded funds enough to support the school's advertising program to pay for the transportation of the teams, the organization of the Mt. Carmel Legion team, all totaling to $1,250.


text: Football was introduced into Our Lady of Mt. Carmel High School in 1945. The initial game was played on Sunday, September 30. That year the Comets were under the supervision of Roman Watkowski and Captain Henry Lojewski. Although they won only one of seven grid battles, they showed great promise. During this season, the Knights of Columbus donated a victory trophy which went to the victor of the annual Mt. Carmel – St. Patrick game. In 1946, Fr. Krych named Joe Piatek as coach and Roman Watkowski as his assistant. The Comets finished their season tied for third place by winning 5 and losing 2. A majority of returning letter winners were on hand when the Comets began practice for their third season of league play under the direction of Coach Piatek. A month later, the first league game was played which ended in a scoreless tie with Sacred Heart (Dearborn). Following this contest, there were two victories before the Comets were dropped by St. Patrick for the third straight year in the battle for the Knights of Columbus trophy. A layoff of one week followed, allowing time for the hurt Comets to lick their wounds. The remaining opposition seemed to be no match for Mt. Carmel as they rolled over all opponents finishing the season with possession of second place.


title: Johnny Briggs (cricketer)

text: In the First Test at Sydney in 1894/95 he played a part in the first time a team won after following on. Australia scored a massive 586 on a relatively poor pitch – partly because of England's wicket keeper dropping some important chances. When England batted they struggled to 325 only because Briggs at No.8 scored 57. They were asked to follow on. This time they batted well on a wearing pitch, Lancashire's Albert Ward scored a hundred and Johnny Briggs made 42. Australia only needed 177 to win and made it to 117 for 2 by close of play. Some of the England players had given the match up. Peel, the other spinner in the side got very drunk. Overnight however it rained and in the morning the sun was shining. A wet wicket drying under a hot sun would soon become a sticky wicket. Peel was put under a shower to sober up. He and Briggs were unplayable and the match was won by 10 runs. In the Second Test at Melbourne Briggs equalled Fred Spofforth's record of 94 Test wickets on 29 December 1894, as did Charles Turner two days later. The three men briefly held the record together, but Turner missed the Third Test at Adelaide and Briggs overtook them both. Briggs became the first man to claim 100 Test wickets in the Fourth Test at Sydney on 1 February 1895, Turner being the second on 4 February in his last Test match.


title: Think Later World Tour

text: On November 6, 2023, McRae announced a 53-date European, North American, and Oceanian tour, titled the Think Later World Tour. The Think Later World Tour is McRae's fourth concert tour, and follows her third tour, Are We Flying Tour, which she embarked on in 2023, in support of her debut studio album I Used to Think I Could Fly. Alongside the announcement of the tour, it has been revealed that there would have been an artist presale going on sale on November 9, 2023 with the general sale going on sale on November 10, 2023. On November 7, 2023, McRae announced an additional Boston date due to demand. On November 9, 2023, McRae announced an additional London date due to demand. On November 13, 2023, McRae announced additional Moore Park and Melbourne dates due to demand, as well as a venue upgrade for the Adelaide show. On December 14, 2023, it was announced that McRae would headline her hometown Cowboys Music Festival in Calgary. On April 19, 2024, McRae added 4 Asia dates to her world tour.


title: Edwards Air Force Base

text: The promise of the turbojet revolution and the supersonic breakthrough were realized in the 1950s, as the Center tested and developed the first generation of true supersonic fighters—the famed "Century Series" F-100 Super Sabre, F-101 Voodoo, F-102 Delta Dagger, F-104 Starfighter, F-105 Thunderchief and F-106 Delta Dart, and, in the process, defined the basic speed and altitude envelopes for fighter aircraft that still prevail to this day. The Center also played a pivotal role in the development of systems that would provide the United States with true intercontinental power projection capabilities as it tested aircraft such as the B-52 Stratofortress, C-133 Cargomaster and KC-135 Stratotanker, as well as the YC-130 Hercules which served as the basis for a classic series of tactical transports that would continue in frontline service until well into the 21st century. It also supported the development of the extremely high-altitude and long-range Lockheed U-2 and the dazzling ultra-performance capabilities of the B-58 Hustler, the world's first Mach 2 bomber.


title: Edwards Air Force Base

text: Throughout the 1950s, American airplanes regularly broke absolute speed and altitude records at Edwards, but nothing compared to the arrival of the North American X-15 in 1961. The program got under way in earnest in 1961 when Maj. Robert M. "Bob" White became the first man to exceed Mach 4, as he accelerated to Mach 4.43 (5,427 km/h; 3,372 mph) on 7 March. He claimed Mach 5 just three months later when he pegged a speed of Mach 5.27 (6,456 km/h; 4,012 mph) on 23 June and then, during the X-15's first full-powered flight on 9 November, he exceeded Mach 6, as he flew to a speed of Mach 6.04 (7,399 km/h; 4,598 mph). Major White also became the first man to fly an airplane in space when he climbed to 314,750 feet (59.612 mi; 95.94 km) on 17 July 1962. NASA's Joe Walker flew the airplane to its peak altitude of 354,200 feet (67.08 mi; 108.0 km) on 22 August 1963 and Maj William J. "Pete" Knight reached Mach 6.72 (8,232 km/h; 5,115 mph) in the modified X-15A-2 on 3 October 1967, a speed that remains the highest ever attained in an airplane.


title: Edwards Air Force Base

text: After Space Shuttle Columbia became the first shuttle launched into orbit on 12 April 1981, it returned to Edwards for landing. The airbase's immense lakebeds and its proximity to Plant 42, where the shuttle was serviced before relaunch, were important factors in its selection and it continued to serve as the primary landing area for the space shuttle until 1991. After that time, Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida was favored. This saved the considerable cost of transporting the shuttle from California back to Florida, but Edwards AFB and White Sands Space Harbor continued to serve as backups for the duration of the shuttle program. Shuttles landed at Edwards as recently as 9 August 2005 (STS-114), 22 June 2007 (STS-117), 30 November 2008 (STS-126), 24 May 2009 (STS-125), and 11 September 2009 (STS-128) due to rain and ceiling events at the KSC Shuttle Landing Facility. STS-126 was the only mission to land on temporary runway 04 at Edwards, as the refurbished main runway was operational from STS-119 through to the retirement of the shuttles.


title: Edwards Air Force Base

text: The largest features of the 470 square miles (1,200 km2) that make up Edwards AFB are the Rogers Lake and Rosamond Lake dry lakes. These have served as emergency and scheduled landing sites for many aerospace projects including the Bell X-1, Lockheed U-2, Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, and the Space Shuttle. The lakebeds have black lines painted on them to mark seven official "runways". Also painted on the dry lake beds near Dryden is the world's largest compass rose: 2,000-foot (610 m) radius, 4,000 feet (0.76 mi; 1.22 km) in diameter. The Edwards AFB compass rose's magnetic declination to true north is measured by Google Earth's distance/direction measurement tool as inclined to magnetic north with a 15.3 degrees east variance of true north, as opposed to the current variance of 12.4 degrees east . This is consistent with a calculated magnetic variance at this location in the early 1960s. The larger lake bed, Rogers, encompasses 44 square miles (110 km2) of desert. Because of Rogers' history in the space program, it was declared a National Historic Landmark.


title: Lake Stanley Draper

text: In March 2010 City of Oklahoma City began work for the Atoka Pump Station Rehabilitation Project (APSRP). During the project 24 new pumps were installed while six others were refurbished along the 100 mi (160 km) Atoka Pipeline. During that time, the pumps were periodically shut down to allow for installation and refurbishment, which caused lake water levels to drop well below its normal pool depth of 1,187 ft (362 m). Because of the low water levels all boating is prohibited, with only authorized personnel allowed on the water. On February 25, 2011, the pipeline was brought back to full service allowing water to be pumped from Lake Atoka to Draper. From February 2011 the lake's water level remained low due to the lack of heavy rainfall because of the then ongoing drought and water usage by residents of Oklahoma City. The City expected that the lake would return to levels high enough to allow recreational use by late fall 2013. In April 2015 following substantial rainfall, the lake reached and passed its pool depth, bringing the lake back to full capacity.


title: Russell Senate Office Building

text: In April 1904, the prominent New York City architectural firm of Carrère and Hastings was retained. John Carrère took charge of the Senate Office Building project, while Thomas Hastings oversaw the construction of an almost identical office building (now named the Cannon House Office Building) for the United States House of Representatives. Their Beaux Arts designs were restrained complements to the Capitol. Architecturally, their elevations are divided into a rusticated base and a colonnade with an entablature and balustrade. The Constitution Ave. side is a quasi replica of the easternmost façade of the Palais du Louvre in Paris. The colonnades, with 34 Doric columns that face the Capitol, are echoed by pilasters on the sides of the buildings. Both buildings are faced with marble and limestone; the Russell Building's base and terrace are gray granite. Modern for their time, they included such facilities as forced-air ventilation systems, steam heat, individual lavatories with hot and cold running water and ice water, telephones, and electricity. Both are connected to the Capitol by underground passages. Originally there were 98 suites and eight committee rooms in the Russell Building; the First Street Wing, completed in 1933, added two committee rooms and 28 suites.


title: USS Chivo

text: Growing tensions in Asia, provoked in part by French conflict with the Vietminh in Indochina and disagreements over the future of Korea, encouraged the Navy to conduct more realistic training for submariners. As part of this general approach, Chivo began a three-month simulated war patrol in August 1947 which took her to Suva, Fiji Islands; Guam; and Japan; before she arrived back at San Diego in November. West coast duty continued for her until mid-1949 when she was transferred to the Atlantic Fleet, arriving at her new home port of Naval Station Key West and Submarine Squadron Four (SubRon 4) on 4 July 1949. During her transit there the boat's movement reports describe one of the hazards of sailing in the warm waters in the West Indies when Chivo "struck unidentified submerged object, possibly turtle." The submarine provided training and services for Atlantic Fleet ships in intertype exercises until 30 October 1950 when she arrived at New London to begin an extensive Greater Underwater Propulsion Program (GUPPY 1-A) overhaul and modernization. The modifications included streamlining the hull and superstructure, adding a snorkel to allow diesel engine operation while at periscope depth and increasing overall battery power.


title: USS Chivo

text: Assigned to Submarine Squadron Twelve (SubRon 12) upon her return to Key West, the submarine resumed her familiar training routine with the Fleet Sonar School interspersed with port visits to Havana, Cuba; Montego Bay, Jamaica; and Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Aside from a three-month overhaul at Philadelphia between January and May 1953, Chivo remained in the West Indies until October when the submarine transited the Panama Canal for a month of operations off the Pacific coast of Colombia. This training period continued until May 1954 when the boat began a four-month regular overhaul at Charleston Naval Shipyard. She again returned to Fleet Sonar School duty in September, with such employment put on hold in March 1955 for a ten-week battery renewal restricted availability. In a change to her normal schedule, the submarine visited Gulfport, Mississippi, in March 1956 and New York City in August of that same year. After another visit to Gulfport in January 1957 to train reservists, and Santiago de Cuba in February, Chivo commenced an overhaul at Charleston Naval Shipyard in March. Returning to normal duty out of Key West in September, the boat remained there save for the occasional port visit to Gulf Ports until transferred to Charleston and Submarine Squadron Four in July 1959, a shift completed after a short cruise north to Boston, and Quebec City, Canada the previous month. Chivo resumed her familiar ASW services out of Charleston shortly thereafter, a duty she continued in January 1960 with ASW services to patrol aircraft off Bermuda. She followed that with another overhaul at Charleston Naval Shipyard between March and September, with repairs and modifications that included a new sonar system.