title: SS West Cheswald

text: Information on West Cheswald's early career is lacking, but records of some of her movements and cargo are available. On 30 September 1920, West Cheswald took on a load of white sugar at Java and headed for the United States via the Suez Canal. While she was near Bermuda, West Cheswald was diverted from her original destination of New York to Philadelphia, to deliver her cargo in fulfillment of an order. Because the cargo had not been originally headed to Philadelphia, the purchasers refused to pay for it, believing that the voyage took too long. After litigation and various appeals, the case ended up before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1928 as Lamborn v. National Bank of Commerce, 276 U.S. 469 . The court found that under the contract signed, the purchasers were obligated for the sugar regardless of whether or not the ship had originally been destined for Philadelphia. West Cheswald was also reported in Hawaiian service during 1920. The report of the Governor of Hawaii in the annual report of the United States Department of the Interior for the 1920–21 fiscal year, listed West Cheswald among the four USSB-owned ships sailed to Hawaii by the Pacific Steamship Company.


title: SS West Cheswald

text: West Cheswald sailed from Boston for New York on 30 December, and spent nearly eight weeks at New York. Outfitted with armament and a Naval Armed Guard detachment, she sailed from Boston for Halifax with a load of tanks on 23 February 1942. After spending five days at Halifax, she sailed as part of Convoy SC 72 to Clyde on 28 February. After arriving at Clyde on 17 March, West Cheswald made her way to Oban on 22 March and sailed four days later for Murmansk as part of Convoy PQ 14. The convoy consisted of approximately 25 merchant ships, ten of which were American, and of the American ships, only two—West Cheswald and Yaka—possessed defensive weaponry manned by Naval Armed Guardsmen. Many ships turned back because of heavy fog and snow; West Cheswald, Yaka and several other ships from the convoy remained at Reykjavík from 31 March to 8 April. On 15 April, the convoy was tracked by a German aircraft, and convoy escort ships made contact with three German destroyers. The following day, the convoy commodore's ship was sunk by a submarine; at least two other torpedoes traveled through the convoy without hitting any ships. The convoy came under air attack on 17 April, but suffered no losses. As the convoy neared Murmansk, two Soviet destroyers with air cover joined the escort, and the convoy arrived without further incident on 19 April.


title: SS West Cheswald

text: West Cheswald sailed from Poole on 7 June in a convoy, consisting of what one author called the "dregs of the North Atlantic shipping pool", and reached the Normandy beachhead the next day, two days after the D-Day landings. Poropat reports that the corncob ships traveled under cover of darkness and, stripped of all unnecessary equipment, carried no radios, having only a signal lamp (with a spare bulb) for communication. Once at the designated location, the ships were put into position and scuttled over the next days, under heavy German artillery fire. Naval Armed Guardsmen manned the guns on all the gooseberry ships to protect against frequent German air attacks; West Cheswald's gunners were credited with downing one plane on 10 June. All the while, harbor pilots—about half of the New York Bar Pilots Association, according to one source—carefully positioned the ships. West Cheswald and West Nohno were the last two ships sunk off Utah Beach when they went down on 11 June. Even though she had been sunk, West Cheswald continued to serve as an antiaircraft platform manned by Navy gun crews until 19 June, and by Army crews after that date. West Cheswald's naval gunners were awarded a second battle star for participation in the Normandy Landings.


title: Soil

text: Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for soil organisms, a recycling system for nutrients and organic wastes, a regulator of water quality, a modifier of atmospheric composition, and a medium for plant growth, making it a critically important provider of ecosystem services. Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains a prominent part of the Earth's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial and largely still unexplored. Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 prokaryotic organisms per milliliter (gram) of seawater. Organic carbon held in soil is eventually returned to the atmosphere through the process of respiration carried out by heterotrophic organisms, but a substantial part is retained in the soil in the form of soil organic matter; tillage usually increases the rate of soil respiration, leading to the depletion of soil organic matter. Since plant roots need oxygen, aeration is an important characteristic of soil. This ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for uptake by plants. Since plants require a nearly continuous supply of water, but most regions receive sporadic rainfall, the water-holding capacity of soils is vital for plant survival.


title: Soil

text: Given sufficient time, an undifferentiated soil will evolve a soil profile that consists of two or more layers, referred to as soil horizons. These differ in one or more properties such as in their texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, color, and reactivity. The horizons differ greatly in thickness and generally lack sharp boundaries; their development is dependent on the type of parent material, the processes that modify those parent materials, and the soil-forming factors that influence those processes. The biological influences on soil properties are strongest near the surface, though the geochemical influences on soil properties increase with depth. Mature soil profiles typically include three basic master horizons: A, B, and C. The solum normally includes the A and B horizons. The living component of the soil is largely confined to the solum, and is generally more prominent in the A horizon. It has been suggested that the pedon, a column of soil extending vertically from the surface to the underlying parent material and large enough to show the characteristics of all its horizons, could be subdivided in the humipedon (the living part, where most soil organisms are dwelling, corresponding to the humus form), the copedon (in intermediary position, where most weathering of minerals takes place) and the lithopedon (in contact with the subsoil).


title: Soil

text: An example of the development of a soil would begin with the weathering of lava flow bedrock, which would produce the purely mineral-based parent material from which the soil texture forms. Soil development would proceed most rapidly from bare rock of recent flows in a warm climate, under heavy and frequent rainfall. Under such conditions, plants (in a first stage nitrogen-fixing lichens and cyanobacteria then epilithic higher plants) become established very quickly on basaltic lava, even though there is very little organic material. Basaltic minerals commonly weather relatively quickly, according to the Goldich dissolution series. The plants are supported by the porous rock as it is filled with nutrient-bearing water that carries minerals dissolved from the rocks. Crevasses and pockets, local topography of the rocks, would hold fine materials and harbour plant roots. The developing plant roots are associated with mineral-weathering mycorrhizal fungi that assist in breaking up the porous lava, and by these means organic matter and a finer mineral soil accumulate with time. Such initial stages of soil development have been described on volcanoes, inselbergs, and glacial moraines.


title: Soil

text: The physical properties of soils, in order of decreasing importance for ecosystem services such as crop production, are texture, structure, bulk density, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour and resistivity. Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil mineral particles, called soil separates: sand, silt, and clay. At the next larger scale, soil structures called peds or more commonly soil aggregates are created from the soil separates when iron oxides, carbonates, clay, silica and humus, coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger, relatively stable secondary structures. Soil bulk density, when determined at standardized moisture conditions, is an estimate of soil compaction. Soil porosity consists of the void part of the soil volume and is occupied by gases or water. Soil consistency is the ability of soil materials to stick together. Soil temperature and colour are self-defining. Resistivity refers to the resistance to conduction of electric currents and affects the rate of corrosion of metal and concrete structures which are buried in soil. These properties vary through the depth of a soil profile, i.e. through soil horizons. Most of these properties determine the aeration of the soil and the ability of water to infiltrate and to be held within the soil.


title: Soil

text: The atmosphere of soil, or soil gas, is very different from the atmosphere above. The consumption of oxygen by microbes and plant roots, and their release of carbon dioxide, decreases oxygen and increases carbon dioxide concentration. Atmospheric CO2 concentration is 0.04%, but in the soil pore space it may range from 10 to 100 times that level, thus potentially contributing to the inhibition of root respiration. Calcareous soils regulate CO2 concentration by carbonate buffering, contrary to acid soils in which all CO2 respired accumulates in the soil pore system. At extreme levels, CO2 is toxic. This suggests a possible negative feedback control of soil CO2 concentration through its inhibitory effects on root and microbial respiration (also called soil respiration). In addition, the soil voids are saturated with water vapour, at least until the point of maximal hygroscopicity, beyond which a vapour-pressure deficit occurs in the soil pore space. Adequate porosity is necessary, not just to allow the penetration of water, but also to allow gases to diffuse in and out. Movement of gases is by diffusion from high concentrations to lower, the diffusion coefficient decreasing with soil compaction. Oxygen from above atmosphere diffuses in the soil where it is consumed and levels of carbon dioxide in excess of above atmosphere diffuse out with other gases (including greenhouse gases) as well as water. Soil texture and structure strongly affect soil porosity and gas diffusion. It is the total pore space (porosity) of soil, not the pore size, and the degree of pore interconnection (or conversely pore sealing), together with water content, air turbulence and temperature, that determine the rate of diffusion of gases into and out of soil. Platy soil structure and soil compaction (low porosity) impede gas flow, and a deficiency of oxygen may encourage anaerobic bacteria to reduce (strip oxygen) from nitrate NO3 to the gases N2, N2O, and NO, which are then lost to the atmosphere, thereby depleting the soil of nitrogen, a detrimental process called denitrification. Aerated soil is also a net sink of methane (CH4) but a net producer of methane (a strong heat-absorbing greenhouse gas) when soils are depleted of oxygen and subject to elevated temperatures.


title: Soil

text: The chemistry of a soil determines its ability to supply available plant nutrients and affects its physical properties and the health of its living population. In addition, a soil's chemistry also determines its corrosivity, stability, and ability to absorb pollutants and to filter water. It is the surface chemistry of mineral and organic colloids that determines soil's chemical properties. A colloid is a small, insoluble particle ranging in size from 1 nanometer to 1 micrometer, thus small enough to remain suspended by Brownian motion in a fluid medium without settling. Most soils contain organic colloidal particles called humus as well as the inorganic colloidal particles of clays. The very high specific surface area of colloids and their net electrical charges give soil its ability to hold and release ions. Negatively charged sites on colloids attract and release cations in what is referred to as cation exchange. Cation-exchange capacity is the amount of exchangeable cations per unit weight of dry soil and is expressed in terms of milliequivalents of positively charged ions per 100 grams of soil (or centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil; cmolc/kg). Similarly, positively charged sites on colloids can attract and release anions in the soil, giving the soil anion exchange capacity.


title: Soil

text: In high rainfall areas, soils tend to acidify as the basic cations are forced off the soil colloids by the mass action of hydronium ions from usual or unusual rain acidity against those attached to the colloids. High rainfall rates can then wash the nutrients out, leaving the soil inhabited only by those organisms which are particularly efficient to uptake nutrients in very acid conditions, like in tropical rainforests. Once the colloids are saturated with H3O+, the addition of any more hydronium ions or aluminum hydroxyl cations drives the pH even lower (more acidic) as the soil has been left with no buffering capacity. In areas of extreme rainfall and high temperatures, the clay and humus may be washed out, further reducing the buffering capacity of the soil. In low rainfall areas, unleached calcium pushes pH to 8.5 and with the addition of exchangeable sodium, soils may reach pH 10. Beyond a pH of 9, plant growth is reduced. High pH results in low micro-nutrient mobility, but water-soluble chelates of those nutrients can correct the deficit. Sodium can be reduced by the addition of gypsum (calcium sulphate) as calcium adheres to clay more tightly than does sodium causing sodium to be pushed into the soil water solution where it can be washed out by an abundance of water.


title: Soil

text: There are acid-forming cations (e.g. hydronium, aluminium, iron) and there are base-forming cations (e.g. calcium, magnesium, sodium). The fraction of the negatively-charged soil colloid exchange sites (CEC) that are occupied by base-forming cations is called base saturation. If a soil has a CEC of 20 meq and 5 meq are aluminium and hydronium cations (acid-forming), the remainder of positions on the colloids (20 − 5 = 15 meq) are assumed occupied by base-forming cations, so that the base saturation is 15 ÷ 20 × 100% = 75% (the compliment 25% is assumed acid-forming cations). Base saturation is almost in direct proportion to pH (it increases with increasing pH). It is of use in calculating the amount of lime needed to neutralise an acid soil (lime requirement). The amount of lime needed to neutralize a soil must take account of the amount of acid forming ions on the colloids (exchangeable acidity), not just those in the soil water solution (free acidity). The addition of enough lime to neutralize the soil water solution will be insufficient to change the pH, as the acid forming cations stored on the soil colloids will tend to restore the original pH condition as they are pushed off those colloids by the calcium of the added lime.


title: Soil

text: Seventeen elements or nutrients are essential for plant growth and reproduction. They are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), boron (B), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni) and chlorine (Cl). Nutrients required for plants to complete their life cycle are considered essential nutrients. Nutrients that enhance the growth of plants but are not necessary to complete the plant's life cycle are considered non-essential. With the exception of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are supplied by carbon dioxide and water, and nitrogen, provided through nitrogen fixation, the nutrients derive originally from the mineral component of the soil. The Law of the Minimum expresses that when the available form of a nutrient is not in enough proportion in the soil solution, then other nutrients cannot be taken up at an optimum rate by a plant. A particular nutrient ratio of the soil solution is thus mandatory for optimizing plant growth, a value which might differ from nutrient ratios calculated from plant composition.


title: Soil

text: Most living things in soils, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi, are dependent on organic matter for nutrients and/or energy. Soils have organic compounds in varying degrees of decomposition, the rate of which is dependent on the temperature, soil moisture, and aeration. Bacteria and fungi feed on the raw organic matter, which are fed upon by protozoa, which in turn are fed upon by nematodes, annelids and arthropods, themselves able to consume and transform raw or humified organic matter. This has been called the soil food web, through which all organic matter is processed as in a digestive system. Organic matter holds soils open, allowing the infiltration of air and water, and may hold as much as twice its weight in water. Many soils, including desert and rocky-gravel soils, have little or no organic matter. Soils that are all organic matter, such as peat (histosols), are infertile. In its earliest stage of decomposition, the original organic material is often called raw organic matter. The final stage of decomposition is called humus.


title: Soil

text: Humic acids and fulvic acids, which begin as raw organic matter, are important constituents of humus. After the death of plants, animals, and microbes, microbes begin to feed on the residues through their production of extra-cellular soil enzymes, resulting finally in the formation of humus. As the residues break down, only molecules made of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, assembled and stabilized by oxygen and hydrogen bonds, remain in the form of complex molecular assemblages collectively called humus. Humus is never pure in the soil, because it reacts with metals and clays to form complexes which further contribute to its stability and to soil structure. Although the structure of humus has in itself few nutrients (with the exception of constitutive metals such as calcium, iron and aluminum) it is able to attract and link, by weak bonds, cation and anion nutrients that can further be released into the soil solution in response to selective root uptake and changes in soil pH, a process of paramount importance for the maintenance of fertility in tropical soils.


title: Soil

text: Lignin is resistant to breakdown and accumulates within the soil. It also reacts with proteins, which further increases its resistance to decomposition, including enzymatic decomposition by microbes. Fats and waxes from plant matter have still more resistance to decomposition and persist in soils for thousand years, hence their use as tracers of past vegetation in buried soil layers. Clay soils often have higher organic contents that persist longer than soils without clay as the organic molecules adhere to and are stabilised by the clay. Proteins normally decompose readily, to the exception of scleroproteins, but when bound to clay particles they become more resistant to decomposition. As for other proteins clay particles absorb the enzymes exuded by microbes, decreasing enzyme activity while protecting extracellular enzymes from degradation. The addition of organic matter to clay soils can render that organic matter and any added nutrients inaccessible to plants and microbes for many years. A study showed increased soil fertility following the addition of mature compost to a clay soil. High soil tannin content can cause nitrogen to be sequestered as resistant tannin-protein complexes.


title: Soil

text: Humus formation is a process dependent on the amount of plant material added each year and the type of base soil. Both are affected by climate and the type of organisms present. Soils with humus can vary in nitrogen content but typically have 3 to 6 percent nitrogen. Raw organic matter, as a reserve of nitrogen and phosphorus, is a vital component affecting soil fertility. Humus also absorbs water, and expands and shrinks between dry and wet states to a higher extent than clay, increasing soil porosity. Humus is less stable than the soil's mineral constituents, as it is reduced by microbial decomposition, and over time its concentration diminishes without the addition of new organic matter. However, humus in its most stable forms may persist over centuries if not millennia. Charcoal is a source of highly stable humus, called black carbon, which had been used traditionally to improve the fertility of nutrient-poor tropical soils. This very ancient practice, as ascertained in the genesis of Amazonian dark earths, has been renewed and became popular under the name of biochar. It has been suggested that biochar could be used to sequester more carbon in the fight against the greenhouse effect.


title: Soil

text: The production, accumulation and degradation of organic matter are greatly dependent on climate. For example, when a thawing event occurs, the flux of soil gases with atmospheric gases is significantly influenced. Temperature, soil moisture and topography are the major factors affecting the accumulation of organic matter in soils. Organic matter tends to accumulate under wet or cold conditions where decomposer activity is impeded by low temperature or excess moisture which results in anaerobic conditions. Conversely, excessive rain and high temperatures of tropical climates enables rapid decomposition of organic matter and leaching of plant nutrients. Forest ecosystems on these soils rely on efficient recycling of nutrients and plant matter by the living plant and microbial biomass to maintain their productivity, a process which is disturbed by human activities. Excessive slope, in particular in the presence of cultivation for the sake of agriculture, may encourage the erosion of the top layer of soil which holds most of the raw organic material that would otherwise eventually become humus.


title: Soil

text: A horizontal layer of the soil, whose physical features, composition and age are distinct from those above and beneath, is referred to as a soil horizon. The naming of a horizon is based on the type of material of which it is composed. Those materials reflect the duration of specific processes of soil formation. They are labelled using a shorthand notation of letters and numbers which describe the horizon in terms of its colour, size, texture, structure, consistency, root quantity, pH, voids, boundary characteristics and presence of nodules or concretions. No soil profile has all the major horizons. Some, called entisols, may have only one horizon or are currently considered as having no horizon, in particular incipient soils from unreclaimed mining waste deposits, moraines, volcanic cones sand dunes or alluvial terraces. Upper soil horizons may be lacking in truncated soils following wind or water ablation, with concomitant downslope burying of soil horizons, a natural process aggravated by agricultural practices such as tillage. The growth of trees is another source of disturbance, creating a micro-scale heterogeneity which is still visible in soil horizons once trees have died. By passing from a horizon to another, from the top to the bottom of the soil profile, one goes back in time, with past events registered in soil horizons like in sediment layers. Sampling pollen, testate amoebae and plant remains in soil horizons may help to reveal environmental changes (e.g. climate change, land use change) which occurred in the course of soil formation. Soil horizons can be dated by several methods such as radiocarbon, using pieces of charcoal provided they are of enough size to escape pedoturbation by earthworm activity and other mechanical disturbances. Fossil soil horizons from paleosols can be found within sedimentary rock sequences, allowing the study of past environments.


title: Soil

text: The exposure of parent material to favourable conditions produces mineral soils that are marginally suitable for plant growth, as is the case in eroded soils. The growth of vegetation results in the production of organic residues which fall on the ground as litter for plant aerial parts (leaf litter) or are directly produced belowground for subterranean plant organs (root litter), and then release dissolved organic matter. The remaining surficial organic layer, called the O horizon, produces a more active soil due to the effect of the organisms that live within it. Organisms colonise and break down organic materials, making available nutrients upon which other plants and animals can live. After sufficient time, humus moves downward and is deposited in a distinctive organic-mineral surface layer called the A horizon, in which organic matter is mixed with mineral matter through the activity of burrowing animals, a process called pedoturbation. This natural process does not go to completion in the presence of conditions detrimental to soil life such as strong acidity, cold climate or pollution, stemming in the accumulation of undecomposed organic matter within a single organic horizon overlying the mineral soil and in the juxtaposition of humified organic matter and mineral particles, without intimate mixing, in the underlying mineral horizons.


title: Soil

text: Soil resources are critical to the environment, as well as to food and fibre production, producing 98.8% of food consumed by humans. Soil provides minerals and water to plants according to several processes involved in plant nutrition. Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus preventing floods and drought, flood regulation being one of the major ecosystem services provided by soil. Soil cleans water as it percolates through it. Soil is the habitat for many organisms: the major part of known and unknown biodiversity is in the soil, in the form of earthworms, woodlice, millipedes, centipedes, snails, slugs, mites, springtails, enchytraeids, nematodes, protists), bacteria, archaea, fungi and algae; and most organisms living above ground have part of them (plants) or spend part of their life cycle (insects) below-ground. Above-ground and below-ground biodiversities are tightly interconnected, making soil protection of paramount importance for any restoration or conservation plan.


title: Soil

text: Soil contamination at low levels is often within a soil's capacity to treat and assimilate waste material. Soil biota can treat waste by transforming it, mainly through microbial enzymatic activity. Soil organic matter and soil minerals can adsorb the waste material and decrease its toxicity, although when in colloidal form they may transport the adsorbed contaminants to subsurface environments. Many waste treatment processes rely on this natural bioremediation capacity. Exceeding treatment capacity can damage soil biota and limit soil function. Derelict soils occur where industrial contamination or other development activity damages the soil to such a degree that the land cannot be used safely or productively. Remediation of derelict soil uses principles of geology, physics, chemistry and biology to degrade, attenuate, isolate or remove soil contaminants to restore soil functions and values. Techniques include leaching, air sparging, soil conditioners, phytoremediation, bioremediation and Monitored Natural Attenuation. An example of diffuse pollution with contaminants is copper accumulation in vineyards and orchards to which fungicides are repeatedly applied, even in organic farming.


title: Soil

text: Desertification, an environmental process of ecosystem degradation in arid and semi-arid regions, is often caused by badly adapted human activities such as overgrazing or excess harvesting of firewood. It is a common misconception that drought causes desertification. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands. Well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Soil management tools include maintaining soil nutrient and organic matter levels, reduced tillage and increased cover. These practices help to control erosion and maintain productivity during periods when moisture is available. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands accelerates desertification. It is now questioned whether present-day climate warming will favour or disfavour desertification, with contradictory reports about predicted rainfall trends associated with increased temperature, and strong discrepancies among regions, even in the same country.


title: Soil

text: Erosion of soil is caused by water, wind, ice, and movement in response to gravity. More than one kind of erosion can occur simultaneously. Erosion is distinguished from weathering, since erosion also transports eroded soil away from its place of origin (soil in transit may be described as sediment). Erosion is an intrinsic natural process, but in many places it is greatly increased by human activity, especially unsuitable land use practices. These include agricultural activities which leave the soil bare during times of heavy rain or strong winds, overgrazing, deforestation, and improper construction activity. Improved management can limit erosion. Soil conservation techniques which are employed include changes of land use (such as replacing erosion-prone crops with grass or other soil-binding plants), changes to the timing or type of agricultural operations, terrace building, use of erosion-suppressing cover materials (including cover crops and other plants), limiting disturbance during construction, and avoiding construction during erosion-prone periods and in erosion-prone places such as steep slopes. Historically, one of the best examples of large-scale soil erosion due to unsuitable land-use practices is wind erosion (the so-called dust bowl) which ruined American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s, when immigrant farmers, encouraged by the federal government of both countries, settled and converted the original shortgrass prairie to agricultural crops and cattle ranching.


title: Soil

text: Soil salination is the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of the agricultural value of soils and vegetation. Consequences include corrosion damage, reduced plant growth, erosion due to loss of plant cover and soil structure, and water quality problems due to sedimentation. Salination occurs due to a combination of natural and human-caused processes. Arid conditions favour salt accumulation. This is especially apparent when soil parent material is saline. Irrigation of arid lands is especially problematic. All irrigation water has some level of salinity. Irrigation, especially when it involves leakage from canals and overirrigation in the field, often raises the underlying water table. Rapid salination occurs when the land surface is within the capillary fringe of saline groundwater. Soil salinity control involves watertable control and flushing with higher levels of applied water in combination with tile drainage or another form of subsurface drainage.


title: Soil

text: Many farmers in tropical areas, however, struggle to retain organic matter and clay in the soils they work. In recent years, for example, productivity has declined and soil erosion has increased in the low-clay soils of northern Thailand, following the abandonment of shifting cultivation for a more permanent land use. Farmers initially responded by adding organic matter and clay from termite mound material, but this was unsustainable in the long-term because of rarefaction of termite mounds. Scientists experimented with adding bentonite, one of the smectite family of clays, to the soil. In field trials, conducted by scientists from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in cooperation with Khon Kaen University and local farmers, this had the effect of helping retain water and nutrients. Supplementing the farmer's usual practice with a single application of 200 kilograms per rai (1,300 kg/ha; 1,100 lb/acre) of bentonite resulted in an average yield increase of 73%. Other studies showed that applying bentonite to degraded sandy soils reduced the risk of crop failure during drought years.


title: Soil

text: Columella's Of husbandry, circa 60 CE, advocated the use of lime and that clover and alfalfa (green manure) should be turned under, and was used by 15 generations (450 years) under the Roman Empire until its collapse. From the fall of Rome to the French Revolution, knowledge of soil and agriculture was passed on from parent to child and as a result, crop yields were low. During the European Middle Ages, Yahya Ibn al-'Awwam's handbook, with its emphasis on irrigation, guided the people of North Africa, Spain and the Middle East; a translation of this work was finally carried to the southwest of the United States when under Spanish influence. Olivier de Serres, considered the father of French agronomy, was the first to suggest the abandonment of fallowing and its replacement by hay meadows within crop rotations. He also highlighted the importance of soil (the French terroir) in the management of vineyards. His famous book Le Théâtre d'Agriculture et mesnage des champs contributed to the rise of modern, sustainable agriculture and to the collapse of old agricultural practices such as soil amendment for crops by the lifting of forest litter and assarting, which ruined the soils of western Europe during the Middle Ages and even later on according to regions.


title: Soil

text: Experiments into what made plants grow first led to the idea that the ash left behind when plant matter was burned was the essential element but overlooked the role of nitrogen, which is not left on the ground after combustion, a belief which prevailed until the 19th century. In about 1635, the Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont thought he had proved water to be the essential element from his famous five years' experiment with a willow tree grown with only the addition of rainwater. His conclusion came from the fact that the increase in the plant's weight had apparently been produced only by the addition of water, with no reduction in the soil's weight. John Woodward experimented with various types of water ranging from clean to muddy and found muddy water the best, and so he concluded that earthy matter was the essential element. Others concluded it was humus in the soil that passed some essence to the growing plant. Still others held that the vital growth principal was something passed from dead plants or animals to the new plants. At the start of the 18th century, Jethro Tull demonstrated that it was beneficial to cultivate (stir) the soil, but his opinion that the stirring made the fine parts of soil available for plant absorption was erroneous.


title: Soil

text: As chemistry developed, it was applied to the investigation of soil fertility. The French chemist Antoine Lavoisier showed in about 1778 that plants and animals must combust oxygen internally to live. He was able to deduce that most of the 165-pound (75 kg) weight of van Helmont's willow tree derived from air. It was the French agriculturalist Jean-Baptiste Boussingault who by means of experimentation obtained evidence showing that the main sources of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen for plants were air and water, while nitrogen was taken from soil. Justus von Liebig in his book Organic chemistry in its applications to agriculture and physiology , asserted that the chemicals in plants must have come from the soil and air and that to maintain soil fertility, the used minerals must be replaced. Liebig nevertheless believed the nitrogen was supplied from the air. The enrichment of soil with guano by the Incas was rediscovered in 1802, by Alexander von Humboldt. This led to its mining and that of Chilean nitrate and to its application to soil in the United States and Europe after 1840.


title: Soil

text: In 1860, while in Mississippi, Eugene W. Hilgard studied the relationship between rock material, climate, vegetation, and the type of soils that were developed. He realised that the soils were dynamic, and considered the classification of soil types. (See also at Project Gutenberg). His work was not continued. At about the same time, Friedrich Albert Fallou was describing soil profiles and relating soil characteristics to their formation as part of his professional work evaluating forest and farm land for the principality of Saxony. His 1857 book, Anfangsgründe der Bodenkunde (First principles of soil science), established modern soil science. Contemporary with Fallou's work, and driven by the same need to accurately assess land for equitable taxation, Vasily Dokuchaev led a team of soil scientists in Russia who conducted an extensive survey of soils, observing that similar basic rocks, climate and vegetation types lead to similar soil layering and types, and established the concepts for soil classifications. Due to language barriers, the work of this team was not communicated to western Europe until 1914 through a publication in German by Konstantin Glinka, a member of the Russian team.


title: Nicosia, Sicily

text: Engio, Erbita and Imachara are the three cities of antiquity with which historians have attempted to identify Nicosia with, but there is no evidence that the mentioned towns are in fact Nicosia. The present name of the town suggests Greek Origins: it is believed to get its name from Saint Nicholas (Νίκου Οίκος), who together with San Felix are the patrons of the town, Níkou Oíkos. Another theory suggests it is a derivative of the Greek saying "City of Victory" (Νίκης Οίκος, Níkēs Oíkos). The town is believed to stand on the site of the ancient Engynum. The modern town was founded by Byzantine colonists in the 6th century. It expanded under the Arab domination and later under that of the Normans, who settled numerous immigrants from Lombardy and Piedmont, called "Lombards", giving rise to the Gallo-Italic dialect still spoken in the town and surrounds. King William II made Nicosia a royal city. It played an important strategic role, favoured by its position halfway between Palermo and Messina. It often gave hospitality to important figures, including Emperor Charles V.


title: Ludwig Weber

text: Possessing one of the largest dark-and-cavernous-type bass voices of the twentieth century, Weber was in equally high demand for villainous roles and noble characters. He was a prominent exponent of the vocal technique known as "Bayreuth bark". In the mid-1920s Weber was singing in mid-size to leading roles with smaller companies throughout Germany. After a successful appearance at the Munich Wagner Festival of 1931 he joined the Bavarian State Opera in Munich in 1933 and soon began to receive invitations to sing abroad. In 1936 he joined the Royal Opera at Covent Garden where he sang numerous roles for several years including: Pogner, Gurnemanz, Hunding, Hagen, Daland, King Marke, Osmin, Rocco, and Commendatore. In 1945 he became a member of the Vienna State Opera, where he sang a wide repertoire for the next two decades. He became particularly associated with the roles of Richard Wagner. The title role in Boris Godunov was one of Weber's favorites, and excerpts (sung in German) survive from a performance broadcast on radio. He sang the role in multiple houses including Covent Garden in 1950. He became a regular performer at the Bayreuth Festival from 1951 to 1962, and he also appeared a number of times at the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires. Weber retired from the stage in 1965, by which time he had already started to teach at the Mozarteum in Salzburg . His students included Magdalene Schauss-Flake.


title: MeeK

text: With the encouragement and support of French actors Jean-Pierre Bacri, Agnès Jaoui and Jamel Debbouze, MeeK released his first album titled "Psychotique" (Psychotic) in 2002 on the record label Bedroom to a warm critical reception in France. The CD created what was not yet called an Internet buzz , and was well noticed in the French Indie music scene of the time. French pop artist Calogero decided to sponsor MeeK after hearing him on the radio and mistaking him for a female performer because of his rather high-pitched vocal range. Calogero then invited MeeK to perform his single "Psychotique" on "The Live Café", one of the first music programs on the French web, produced in partnership by Universal Music and NRJ Radio station. MeeK's "Psychotique" album was also released in a deluxe digipack version in Japan by Tokyo Indie record label MINF Records with an introductory essay by leader of Japanese pop group Pizzicato Five Yasuharu Konishi, drawing a comparison between the Franco-English songwriter and Paul McCartney amongst others. Since then, all MeeK albums have been released in Japan by the same record label.


title: Demonstration of 20 June 1792

text: The first decree was directed against the priests who had refused the oath to the civil constitution. Religious disturbances necessitated some decisive action against them, as the state could not be preserved if it continued treating as members of society those who were evidently seeking to dissolve it. One proposal suggested assembling the non-juring priests in the capitals of the departments, but this would have meant creating eighty-three centers of discord, fanaticism, and counter-revolution. The majority of the Assembly concluded the country must be purged. After several days of discussion, fearing the overthrow of the constitution, the Assembly passed the following decree on 27 May 1792: "When twenty active citizens of a canton shall demand that a nonjuring priest leave the realm, the directory of the department must order his deportation if the directory agrees with the petition. If the directory does not agree with the demand of the twenty citizens, it shall determine through committees whether the presence of the priest is a threat to public peace, and if the opinion of the committee supports the demand of the twenty petitioners, the deportation shall be ordered." This decree made the clergy choose between the oath to the constitution and deportation.


title: Demonstration of 20 June 1792

text: This measure was followed by another directed against the king's bodyguards. The guard had revealed anti-revolutionary sentiments and had uttered threats against the Assembly. The guard was believed to be royalist in its sympathies; wholly devoted to the person of the king; hostile to the government; and wholly lacking in esprit de corps. Assembly member Claude Basire proposed the guard's dissolution, charging its officers with orgies and a plan for carrying away the king. He asked to be allowed to give proof of his accusations the next day. Meanwhile, fellow Assembly member François Chabot declared that he had 182 documents proving the existence of a plot to dissolve the Assembly, set for 27 May. In response, the Assembly decreed that its sessions should be continuous; that the Paris guard should be doubled; and that Paris's mayor, Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve, should be required to make a daily report on the state of the capital city. Regarding the king's bodyguards, Assembly member Marguerite-Élie Guadet articulated three arguments for the guard's dissolution: first, that it was illegally organized; second, that its chiefs sought to inspire revolt; and third, that the majority favored a counter-revolution. On 29 May 1792, the Assembly decreed that the guard should be dissolved and its commander, the Duc de Brissac, arrested. This decree was executed immediately.


title: Demonstration of 20 June 1792

text: The deputation's spokesman, Sulpice Huguenin, expressed himself in threatening language. He said that the people were agitated; that they were ready to make use of the means stated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen to resist oppression; that the dissenting members of the assembly, if there were any, wanted to destroy liberty and go to Koblenz. Then, returning to the true object of the petition, he added: "The executive power is not in union with you; we require no other proof of it than the dismissal of the patriot ministers. It is thus, then, that the happiness of a free nation shall depend on the caprice of a king! But should this king have any other will than that of the law? The people will have it so, and the life of the people is as valuable as that of crowned despots. That life is the genealogical tree of the nation, and the feeble reed must bend before this sturdy oak! We complain, gentlemen, of the inactivity of our armies; we require you to learn the cause of this; if it springs from the executive power, let that power be destroyed!"


title: Charlotte Fairbanks

text: Charlotte Fairbanks was born on December 11, 1871, to Reverend Harry Fairbanks and Lady Fairbanks in St. Johnsbury Vermont. Her grandfather, Thaddeus Fairbanks, was well known in the community for inventing a more accurate weighing scale, known as the Fairbanks scales. Fairbanks graduated with a bachelor's degree from Smith College in 1894 at the age of twenty-three. After earning her degree, she proceeded to attend Yale University's graduate program, where she conducted analytical chemistry research in the laboratory of Frank Gooch. She published three papers during her time at Yale, and she graduated in 1896 as the second woman to receive a Ph.D. from Yale in chemistry. Following her graduation, she held a fellowship with Bryn Mawr College until 1987, when she began teaching at Wellesley College for three years. In 1902 she graduated with a M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania, where she practiced until 1908. She moved to her hometown St. Johnsbury and opened a medical practice. After WWI Fairbanks returned to her home in St. Johnsbury and continued to work until her death in 1932.


title: Florin Towne Centre

text: Construction of Florin Towne Centre commenced shortly after Florin Mall was demolished. It included a collection of smaller shops constructed from the east side of Sears (approximately from where the store's old mall entrance was) to the northern edge of Florin Road. On March 6, 2008, Mervyn's became the first store to open in the new shopping center, however the store was short-lived as it was shuttered in February 2009 when the entire chain went out of business. It sat vacant the majority of the time (aside from temporary usage for seasonal retailers such as Halloween City) until 2019 when AutoZone opened in a portion of the former Mervyn's. The other major opening in 2008 was fitness chain 24 Hour Fitness. Walmart opened on June 17, 2009, replacing a former store 1.5 miles (2.4 km) to the west . PetSmart opened on November 12, 2011 in a building adjacent to the former Mervyn's that was originally intended for Old Navy, but never opened. Other retailers include America's Best Contacts & Eyeglasses, GameStop, GNC, Mattress Firm, Shoe Palace, Starbucks, and Verizon Wireless. Florin Towne Centre has a total area of 484,500 sq ft (45,010 m2), a much smaller footprint than its predecessor as the bulk of the old mall's footprint now serves as the parking lot for Walmart and other neighboring businesses.


title: Skelë Castle

text: The walls of the fortress of Vlora are 20 ells high and 10 ells thick on all sides. At the 8 corners of the fortress walls there are 8 large bastions, each like the walls of Gog and Magog, and each surmounted by 7 great long-range battering guns. Aside from these, inside the iron gates at sea level there are 47 other battering guns with rifled barrels looking out towards the bay and mounted on carriages with seven-headed dragons. They are covered with red canvas and are so big that a man can fit into their barrels. The cannons are ready to fire at all times, and the men guarding them lie right beside them day and night. From one corner to the next of the 8 corners is a distance of 120 paces, so if we add it up, we come up with the total circumference for the fortress of Vlora of 900 paces. Inside the fortress is the Mosque of Sultan Suleiman and at the very centre is the tower of Suleiman Shah. It is a very tall and finely-wrought tower, 7 storeys high, and is built of chiselled stonework with a lead-covered conical dome and is topped by a guilded pinnacle. This may be considered the citadel of the fortress of Vlora. It is a very solid and tall tower, like the Kalamaria Tower in Thessalonika, since both of them were built by the great Sinan, the architect of Sultan Suleiman. The tower is inhabited only by the warden and is filled with layer upon layer of munitions and other military equipment and supplies.


title: Skelë Castle

text: Inside the outer fortress there are some 300 squat and narrow old-fashioned earthen houses with tiled roofs and with no vineyard, garden or courtyard. Although the public thoroughfares are wide, there is nothing else but a bazaar: no khans, baths or other public buildings. The fortress has 2 gates, the space between them being completely full of munitions of various kinds. It is guarded by sentries and watchmen day and night. One gate faces east and the other west. The fortress is completely surrounded by a moat 50 paces wide on all sides and filled with sea water, which is, however, swampy. Each of the gates has a drawbridge in front of it which is raised at night and secured with chains to form a protective barrier. There are 500 cannons, small and large. The tower is inhabited by the warden, 12 officers and 400 garrison troops. Half of these soldiers were ordered to depart to defend the vilayet of Mania in accordance with the imperial decree. Also here are the steward of the sipahis, the commander of the janissaries, a qadi with a salary level of 300 akçe and responsible for 105 prosperous villages in the region, a market inspector, a collector of tolls, a customs inspector, a poll-tax official, a chief architect, an officer of the admiralty, and the mayor of the town."


title: Thomas Zimmerman

text: Zimmerman was born in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania in 1838. There he attended public school until he was thirteen years old, and was apprenticed as a printer with the Lebanon Courier. Upon completion of his apprenticeship, he went to Philadelphia to work at The Philadelphia Inquirer. In 1856, he became a journeyman printer with the Berks and Schuylkill Journal. He relocated to Columbia, South Carolina in 1859, and returned to the Reading area at the outset of the American Civil War, where in 1863 he enlisted in Company C of the 42nd Regiment of Pennsylvania Volunteers. Although he is sometimes referred to as "Colonel," he saw no active service during the war. On June 11, 1867 he married Tamsie T. Kauffman of Reading. By 1897, he was the president of the Reading Times Publishing Company and editor of the Reading Times newspaper. In 1903, a volume titled Olla Podrida was published of his translations. In 1904, he was awarded a Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Muhlenberg College in Allentown, Pennsylvania. Zimmerman retired from his newspaper career in October, 1908.


title: Alfred Frank de Prades

text: A F de Prades was a regular participant in shows at the British Institution, a group of artists rebelling against the formalism of the Royal Academy of Arts. However de Prades was accepted to show in at least three major exhibitions with the Royal Academy of Arts beginning with a monumental scale painting in 1857 "On the Heights near Boulogne, 8th September 1854: Present: HM the Emperor Louis-Napoléon; HRH Prince Albert, KG; the Duke of Newcastle, Marshal Vaillant, General Lord Seaton, General Weatherall, Colonel Fleury, Colonel Daniell, the Baron de Bourgoing, Marquis de Soulongeon, General Gray, Colonel Biddulph, etc, etc..." and quite a few other notables on horseback—an engraving of which had also been reproduced in the Illustrated London News the year before). He continued to exhibit at the Royal Academy in 1861 and 1879, as well as at the Royal Society of British Artists and the Walker Art Gallery (Liverpool) . His publicly accessible work is held by the National Army Museum,(10 associated works) Walker Art Gallery, Bristol Museum and Art Gallery, and the Royal Collection, among others. King Edward VII commissioned a de Prades' painting of his racehorse "Fairplay", winner of the 1882 Household Brigade Cup at Sandown, further cementing his patronage by the bon ton of the United Kingdom. "Fairplay" is recorded as hanging in Buckingham Palace in 1909 and is still part of the Royal Collection.


title: Alfred Frank de Prades

text: Pierre Prades-Prestreau worked to pave the way for Napoléon Bonaparte's invasion of Naples and Genoa, later working as a Foraging Inspector for the French Army in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Pierre's son, A. F. De Prades' rentier father, Emile Pierre Prestreau was also a progressive, supporting the Republican leftists in France against the Monarchy, and at this time he disappeared from his home in Paris with his two oldest sons, Anacharsis François (the subject of this article) and Emile Henri and moved to London in 1838 about the same time that the future Napoleon III found refuge in the English capital. Living in Southwark, near his musically talented Piccinni relatives, Emile dropped their legal name, Prestreau, and revived the older de Prades family soubriquet, while young Anacharsis François, later anglicised his first names from "Anacharsis François" to "Alfred Frank" to better fit into the Fitzrovia milieu of London and the British upper class in which he lived the rest of his life.


title: Hansel vs. Gretel

text: Gretel kidnaps Willy and the following day, Hansel gets hostage pictures of Gretel and Willy texted to him, which he shows to Jacob. Jacob conveniently took some photography classes and recognizes graffiti in the pictures as being from an abandoned warehouse. Once there, they find Gretel and the unconscious Willy tied up, when Kikimora fills the room with a blinding fog. Gretel allows Hansel to decapitate Kikimora and while he and Jason help Willy, she feeds on Kikimora's corpse, gaining her powers. Hansel is convinced there are more witches but they are able to escape, while Circe watches them. Hansel drops off the others and then goes to the bakery. Circe confronts Gretel at her house about Kikimora's death. Gretel offers to take her to Hansel so Circe can kill him herself. At the bakery, Circe hypnotizes Hansel to kill himself with his own knife. Before he can, Gretel summons Kikimora's blinding fog which breaks Hansel's hypnosis, allowing him to stab Circe in the face. As she dies, Gretel, obscured by the fog, drinks her blood and gains her powers. Hansel goes to check on Willy and Gretel goes to hypnotize Jacob into sleeping with her and then killing himself, but it doesn't work because Jacob is gay. Instead, Gretel kills him with brute force.


title: Hansel vs. Gretel

text: Hansel and Willy find a package at her door with Jacob's eyes inside then led on a macabre scavenger hunt with Jacob's body parts. Gretel brings the rest of Jacob's body to Morai telling her it's Hansel and then hides nearby. The notes eventually lead Hansel and Willy to Morai's location. Hansel kills Morai and leaves with Willy; Gretel drinks Morai's blood. Cthonia calls Gretel from her grandma's phone, luring her back home. She threatens to kill her grandma but Gretel tears off her grandma's head instead which Hansel and Willy witness. Cthonia concedes her high priestess ring to Gretel who assumes power over the coven. She and Cthonia take Willy and Hansel to the local pet cemetery where Gretel reveals she's buried Lilith. Now holding enough power, Gretel begins a resurrection incantation, bringing Lilith back to life. Gretel then rips Cthonia's throat out so Lilith can regenerate when suddenly Willy reveals herself to actually be a powerful witch-crone who disintegrates Lilith. Hansel cuts Willy's throat, killing her, and confronts Gretel. They fight each other with neither sibling initially willing to kill the other. Hansel eventually shoots Gretel in the shoulder as police cars pull up. She admits defeat and they walk off together.


title: R4M

text: The R4M was developed in order to deal with the increasing weight of anti-bomber weapons being deployed by Luftwaffe fighters. The primary anti-bomber weapon of the Luftwaffe for much of the war was the 20 mm MG 151/20 autocannon, which was compact enough to be mounted in an internal wing bay mounting in the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 (up to 4 cannon, or 6 with optional twin-gun underwing pods) and also fitted on the centerline of Bf 109G fighters, firing through the propeller spinner as a Motorkanone. This could be supplemented by an additional pair of cannon in drag-inducing underwing gun pods, but it was found that it took an average of twenty 20 mm hits to shoot down a typical four-engined Allied bomber. The MG 151/20 was subsequently supplemented with or replaced by the 30 mm MK 108 cannon, which replaced the centerline Motorkanone-mount MG 151/20 on many Bf 109's, and could be fitted into slightly larger underwing pods, which could be used on either the Bf 109 or Fw 190. This heavier-caliber cannon could bring down a bomber with an average of one to three hits. However, the MK 108 was much heavier and the larger calibre ammunition made it difficult to carry more than one or two "passes" worth. Worse, the low muzzle velocity of this gun meant it had a very short range and suffered a ballistic drop of over 41 metres at 1,000 metres range after firing. In approaching close enough to get hits, the fighters placed themselves within the range of the dozens of AN/M2 "light barrel" Browning defensive machine guns that a combat box formation of a typical USAAF heavy bomber raid possessed, from nearly any approach direction. The more powerful MK 103 cannon had higher muzzle velocity and increased range, at the cost of greatly increased weight, size (barrel length of 1.34 meters, or 52-3/4 inches) and much lower rate of fire: 380-420 RPM vs. 600-650 RPM for the MK 108.


title: R4M

text: The anti-aircraft version of the R4M used a large warhead of 55 mm with 520 g (18 oz) of the strongly brisant Hexogen explosive charge, nearly guaranteeing a fighter kill with one hit, from the "shattering" force of its explosive warhead — this was the same explosive used in the shells fired by both the MK 103 (30 x 184 mm cartridge) and MK 108 (30 x 90 mm cartridge) autocannons. Each R4M weighed 3.2 kg and was provided with enough fuel to be fired from 1000 m, just outside the range of the bomber's defensive guns. The main body of the rocket consisted of a simple steel tube with eight base-hinged flip-out fins on the tail for stabilisation , deployed immediately after launch. A battery typically consisted of two groups of 12 rockets and when all 24 were salvoed in an attack, they would fill an area about 15 by 30 m at 1000 m, a density that made it almost certain that the target would be hit. The R4Ms were usually fired in four salvos of six missiles at intervals of 70 milliseconds from a range of 600 m, and would supersonically streak towards their target at a sixty percent higher velocity than the Wfr. Gr. 21's rockets would , as the R4M typically had a flight speed of roughly 1,890 km/h (1,170 mph). Two warheads were available for the R4M, the common PB-3 with a 0.4 kg charge for anti-aircraft use and the larger shaped charge, similar in construction to the Panzerschreck, the Panzerblitz (PB-2/3), for anti-tank use. The Panzerblitz III, mounting a gigantic 210 mm hollow charge warhead (the same calibre as the BR 21), can be seen as the ultimate development of the basic Orkan rocket. It was intended to be carried (six or eight rockets per plane) by the tank-busting B model of the Henschel Hs 132 jet dive-bomber - however, neither the missile nor the warplane it was exclusively intended for got beyond the prototype stage before the end of the war.


title: Outer Space Treaty

text: OST provided many practical uses and was the most important link in the chain of international legal arrangements for space from the late 1950s to the mid-1980s. OST was at the heart of a 'network' of inter-state treaties and strategic power negotiations to achieve the best available conditions for nuclear weapons world security. The OST also declares that space is an area for free use and exploration by all and "shall be the province of all mankind". Drawing heavily from the Antarctic Treaty of 1961, the Outer Space Treaty likewise focuses on regulating certain activities and preventing unrestricted competition that could lead to conflict. Consequently, it is largely silent or ambiguous on newly developed space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining. Nevertheless, the Outer Space Treaty is the first and most foundational legal instrument of space law, and its broader principles of promoting the civil and peaceful use of space continue to underpin multilateral initiatives in space, such as the International Space Station and the Artemis Program.


title: Outer Space Treaty

text: Among its principles, it bars states party to the treaty from placing weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or otherwise stationing them in outer space. It specifically limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes, and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (Article IV). However, the treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit, and thus some highly destructive attack tactics, such as kinetic bombardment, are still potentially allowable. In addition, the treaty explicitly allows the use of military personnel and resources to support peaceful uses of space, mirroring a common practice permitted by the Antarctic Treaty regarding that continent. The treaty also states that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and that space shall be free for exploration and use by all the states.


title: List of ambassadors of Ireland to the United Kingdom

text: The High Commission of the Irish Free State was established shortly after Irish secession from the United Kingdom. The first High Commissioner of the Irish Free State to the United Kingdom was James McNeill, who later became the second Governor-General of the state in 1928. From 1936, the Irish government regarded the state as being no longer a member of the British Commonwealth, but rather a state associated with it. Nonetheless, the office holder retained his title. In 1937, the Irish Free State was renamed Ireland so the High Commissioner's title was changed to High Commissioner of Ireland to the United Kingdom. The officeholder retained that title until Ireland's last links with the Commonwealth were terminated in 1949. The High Commissioner at the time then became the Ambassador of Ireland to the United Kingdom. The Irish Foreign Ministry name their Embassy in London as the Embassy to Great Britain due to nationalist sensitivities concerning the full name "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".


title: Carmichaelia juncea

text: New Zealand has 23 Carmichaelia species and 14 are listed as threatened or at risk. C. juncea is generally found in rocky areas where there is little competition from other plants; along open river flats, on sandy or stony lake shores and also on exposed rocky outcrops along the coast. Surviving in these tough conditions makes it an excellent plant for rock gardens or for growing in containers. C. juncea was once widespread over both the North and South Island but was probably never very common because of its specific habitat requirements. It is now considered extinct in the North Island while in the South Island it is only found in two areas; Puponga in North-West Nelson and in a few locations in South Westland from Franz Josef to Haast. Like many New Zealand natives the survival of C. juncea is threatened by introduced mammals. At Franz Josef heavy browsing by hares has almost completely prevented seed production in mature plants. It is also under threat from habitat loss; in particular the modification of braided rivers and because of its prostrate habit, introduced weeds.


title: Stephen Jones (rugby union)

text: Having been part of the Wales team that won the 2005 Six Nations Championship Grand Slam with Wales, Jones was the in-form fly-half selected for the 2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealand. With four fly-halves in the squad, Jones was involved in just two of the tour matches, starting against the New Zealand Māori and replacing Jonny Wilkinson against Wellington. For the first Test, both Jones and Wilkinson were selected in the starting line-up ahead of Ronan O'Gara and Charlie Hodgson, with Jones at fly-half and Wilkinson at inside centre; however, Jones lost his place in the team for the second Test, with Wilkinson taking over at fly-half. Having lost both of the first two matches, Sir Clive Woodward restored Jones to the starting line-up for the dead rubber third Test, in which he scored 14 points as the Lions lost 38–19. Woodward's decision to select Wilkinson ahead of Jones was questioned by the media, many of whom doubted whether the English fly-half should even have been picked for the tour, having only recently recovered from a serious shoulder injury.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: During the recording and production of Carey's Butterfly in 1997, she and Mottola separated, giving Carey an extended amount of control over the unfinished album. Following their separation, Carey began working with younger hip hop and R&B producers and songwriters, aside from her usual work with balladeers Walter Afanasieff and Kenneth Edmonds. While the album incorporated several different genres and components that were not present in Carey's previous releases, Butterfly also included a balance of her classic ballads and newer R&B-infused jams. While Sony accepted Carey's new collaborations with writers and producers such as P. Diddy and Bone Thugs-n-Harmony, they continued to focus their promotion on the ballads. After "Honey," the debut single from Butterfly, was released in August 1997, Sony halted the release of the succeeding R&B-influenced jams, and released the ballad "My All" as the second worldwide single. Rainbow followed in its predecessors' footsteps, featuring even more hip hop and R&B.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: During the spring of 1999, Carey began working on the final album of her record contract with Sony, her ex-husband's label. Carey's lover at the time, Luis Miguel, was in the midst of a European tour. In order to spend more time with him, she opted to record the album on the secluded island of Capri, Italy, figuring the seclusion would also help her complete the album sooner. During this time, Carey's strained relationship with Sony affected her work with writing partner Afanasieff, who had worked extensively with Carey throughout the first half of her career. Aside from their growing creative differences, Mottola had given Afanasieff more opportunities to work with other artists. She felt Mottola was trying to separate her from Afanasieff, in hopes of keeping their relationship permanently strained. Due to the pressure and the awkward relationship Carey had now developed with Sony, she completed the album in a period of three months in the summer of 1999, quicker than any of her other albums. In an interview with Blitz TV, Carey spoke of her decision to record the album in Capri:


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Like her previous releases, Carey co-wrote and co-produced the album's material, working with several hip hop and R&B producers such as Jay-Z, Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Usher, Snoop Dogg, Missy Elliott, Jermaine Dupri, and Bryan-Michael Cox. For the album's debut single release, Carey collaborated with Jay-Z and DJ Clue. During the spring of 1999, Carey began working with Clue on several hooks and melodies for the lead single. After a few hours, they decided to include a hip hop star on the track, which eventually led to Jay-Z. Carey's longtime friend and back-up vocalist Trey Lorenz, who was featured on her remake of the Jackson 5 song "I'll Be There," added "some soft male vocals." Carey worked with Lewis and Jam on the ballad "Thank God I Found You." She had already been in the studio with the duo several times when she contacted them to meet her at the studio, where she told them that she had come up with the title, hook, and melody. Usually, when Carey was writing the songs for Rainbow, James "Big Jim" Wright would play the organ or piano and assist Carey to find the "right melody." However, since Wright was not present, Lewis played the organ while Carey directed him with her lower registers, providing the chord progression. They composed the song and recorded Carey's vocals. Knowing she wanted to introduce a male vocalist on the track, Lewis brought R&B singer Joe and pop group 98 Degrees into the studio. After a few hours, the group and Joe had recorded all their vocals and the song was complete. In an interview with Bronson, Lewis discussed the night Carey wrote "Thank God I Found You:"


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: While the album was immersed further into mainstream R&B territory, Carey included some of her classic ballads and tender love songs on the album, working with writers and producers such as David Foster and Diane Warren. The idea to work with Warren was suggested by Foster, who thought that the two would be able to "hammer out one hell of a ballad" together. The two wrote and produced the song titled "After Tonight." Carey felt the song was a perfect metaphor for her relationship with Miguel, describing their romance in Capri. While the song was deemed a success by both parties, they described their working relationship with mixed feelings. According to Foster, who was involved in the writing session, Carey and Warren would not always agree on the lyrics and melodious structure of the song. He described it as a "give and take relationship"; Warren would offer lyrics and Carey would not like them; she wanted something more intricate and detailed. Carey would produce a hook or lyrics that Warren did not feel were a perfect fit. In the end, Foster felt that they worked "well together." After recording the song, Carey invited Miguel to record the song with her as a duet. However, after recording his verses several times, Foster and Carey realized that the song would not turn out the way they planned. Foster said the song's key was "too high for him"; the voices did not harmonize well. Carey did not have time to re-record her vocals in a lower key to accommodate Miguel's verses. Miguel, furious over the failed collaboration, later sent a cut-up tape of the demo to Foster. Carey and Warren also wrote "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)," one of the other ballads featured on Rainbow.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: As with Butterfly, songs for Rainbow were chosen to solidify Carey's reputation as a multi-genre artist. Throughout the first phase of her career, Carey's albums predominantly consisted of pop and adult contemporary ballads. Rainbow mixed hip hop and R&B-flavored upbeat songs with softer and lyrically intense ballads resembling those that Carey had previously recorded. "Heartbreaker," Carey's first collaboration with Jay-Z, used a sample from "Attack of the Name Game," recorded by Stacy Lattisaw, as its hook. The loop originated from "The Name Game" by Shirley Ellis; Ellis and co-writer Lincoln Chase are credited as songwriters on the track. Carey incorporated the hook into the song's melody, and added instrumentation. Lyrically, the song chronicles the heartbreak the protagonist feels after learning of her lover's infidelity. "Thank God I Found You" features vocals from Joe and 98 Degrees, as well as songwriting and production from Carey and Lewis. According to Carey, the song reflects on events in her own life at the time, with the lyrics describing the completion the protagonist feels after "finding" their lover. Joe provides the main male vocal throughout each verse, and 98 Degrees sing the background vocals and the bridge.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Prior to the album's recording, Mariah and her sister, Alison Carey had a falling out in their relationship. Alison had tested positive for HIV sometime after she turned 27 in late-1988, and in late-1994, during the time when her second son, Michael who was only 7 years old at the time, was taken away from her by Alison and Mariah's mother, Patricia Carey. She continued to blame Mariah for many of her problems and heartbreaks throughout the years. In 1990, when Mariah debuted with her 1990 self-titled debut album as well as dedicating it to Alison, she began paying so much of her hard-earned money for Alison's continuous visits to drug rehabilitation. On February 6, 1995, in an interview with Nancy Glass from the news show American Journal, Alison stated that Mariah only dedicated the album to her to make herself look good, and that it was beneath contempt. Carey wrote a song titled "Petals," which she describes as the most honest lyrics she has ever written. The song tells of Carey's feelings for her sister, while illustrating the pain Alison's betrayal and suffering have caused. In an interview with Bronson, Carey described the meaning of the lyrics of "Petals":


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: "After Tonight" was a song Carey wrote with David Foster and Diane Warren. Carey had strong feelings about the song, as she wrote it about her relationship with Luis Miguel. The song was compared instrumentally to "My All" from Butterfly, which features traces of Latin and guitar instrumentation. In the lyrics, the protagonist asks her lover if he will still love her and come back to her "after tonight." Carey's cover of the Phil Collins song "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)" was originally intended to be a solo ballad. The song was re-done after the album was released, with music by the Irish band Westlife replacing the song's instrumental bridge. "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" was one of the album's most uplifting ballads, lyrically serving as an anthem for fans and listeners. The message, Carey said, was a personal theme of hers growing up, of not letting others "bring her down" and not allowing them to take away the light inside her. "How Much" is a duet with Usher and features a sample from Tupac Shakur's "Me and My Girlfriend."


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Prior to the album's release, Carey made an appearance on Pavarotti & Friends for Guatemala and Kosovo, performing "My All" and "Hero" alongside Luciano Pavarotti in a live duet. The concert benefit was filmed live in Modena, Italy, during the summer of 1999 and was released for sale on September 21, with funds being donated to relief efforts for natural disasters in Guatemala and Kosovo. Carey made several live television and award show appearances at this time, and recorded her own Fox Broadcasting Company special, titled The Mariah Carey Homecoming Special. A mini-concert filmed at Carey's old high school in Huntington, New York, the special aired on Fox on December 21, 1999. Carey performed "Heartbreaker" and its accompanying remix at the MTV European Music Awards, held on November 11, 1999, in Dublin, Ireland. Additionally, the song was performed on The Oprah Winfrey Show, the British music chart program Top of the Pops, and The Today Show, which included a performance of "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" and "Hero." "Thank God I Found You was performed live at the 2000 American Music Awards as well as on several European programs, including Top of the Pops and Friday Night's All Wright in the United Kingdom, NRJ and Soulier d'Or in France, Wetten, dass..? in Germany, and Quelli che... il Calcio in Italy. The album's final two releases, "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" and "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)," were performed on The View and at the 2000 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards. Carey further promoted Rainbow performing on VH1 Divas 2000: A Tribute to Diana Ross, where she opened the show with a mashup of "Heartbreaker" with Ross's "Love Hangover" and later performed "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)."


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: In order to promote Rainbow, Carey embarked of her fourth headlining and third worldwide tour. Titled the Rainbow World Tour, it included nineteen shows: six in Europe, four in Asia, eight in the United States, and one in Canada. For Carey's previous two tours, she had only visited Europe and Asia, due to the mixed reception of her debut stateside tour in 1993. However, after achieving record-breaking ticket sales throughout Asia and instant sellouts in Europe, Carey felt secure enough to once again tour her native country. The set list featured songs from most of Carey's previous studio albums, as well as some tracks from Rainbow. Missy Elliott and Da Brat served as opening acts for the US leg of the tour. Ticket sales were very strong; the entire US leg sold out in a matter of days. The Asian and European leg mirrored the commercial success of her previous two tours. Reviews for the tour varied from positive to mixed. Some critics and fans reproached her of having a "tired and hoarse voice," while others commented on Carey's choice of wardrobe. Several critics and many concert-goers praised the tour, calling it an intense celebration of Carey's career.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Five singles were released from Rainbow; two were worldwide international releases and three were more limited releases. "Heartbreaker," the album's first worldwide release, became Carey's fourteenth chart topper in the United States. Aside from staying atop the US chart for two weeks, the song reached the chart's summit in Canada and New Zealand. Elsewhere, "Heartbreaker" achieved high charting, peaking within the top five in France and the United Kingdom and within the top ten in Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland. The song received mixed reviews from critics. Arion Berger from Rolling Stone called the song Carey's "most insinuating: nasal, silken, declarative, riding the percolating beat." However, while dismissing some of the song's vocals and the incorporation of the hook, he complimented its marriage of pop and hip hop through Jay-Z's verses. The song's music video became one of the most expensive music videos of all time, costing an estimated $2.5 million. The video features Carey visiting a movie theater with her friends, where she finds her lover with another woman. "Thank God I Found You" was released as the second worldwide single from the album. While becoming Carey's fifteenth chart topper in the US, the song achieved moderate chart success in Europe and other territories. Berger called it a "gospel soar" and complimented Carey's vocals, as well as the harmonies by 98 Degrees. The music video features footage from a live concert with Carey and the band performing the song.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: "Crybaby" and "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" were released simultaneously as a double A-side, with very limited promotion from Sony. These two songs, especially the latter, became the center of a very public controversy between Carey and her label, due to their alleged low promotion of the album. Carey and Snoop Dogg were featured in the music video for "Crybaby," with Carey playing an anxious woman who can't sleep at night due to her lover's infidelity. A music video for "Can't Take That Away" was released around the same time, which features Carey on a rooftop garden. Carey sings during a rain storm, and towards the video's conclusion, the sun arises, bring forth a "new day." The final single from Rainbow, "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)," was given a limited release as well. After performing moderately around the world, a new version of the song, featuring Westlife, was released in Ireland and the United Kingdom. It became successful there, peaking at number one in both territories, and became Carey's second UK chart topper. The song's video features Carey and Westlife on a boat in Capri. Scenes of the group exploring the island are cut with scenes of them in the studio, though Carey never re-recorded her vocals from the original version.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Rainbow received mixed to positive reviews from critics, many of whom noted the new direction in Carey's music. In Entertainment Weekly, Danyel Smith wrote that "what began on Butterfly as a departure ends up on Rainbow a progression – perhaps the first compelling proof of Carey's true colors as an artist." Arion Berger from Rolling Stone viewed it as a genuine R&B and hip hop album, a "sterling chronicle of the state of accessible hip-hop balladeering at the close of 1999." Aside from calling some of the ballads "banal," Berger concluded his review that "Rainbow is at its best—and Carey at her most comfortable—when urbane hip-hop stylings and faux R&B coexist in smooth middle-of-the-road harmony." Elysa Gardner from the Los Angeles Times wrote in her review: "Exhibiting an emotional authority to match her technical prowess, Carey gives us a vision of love that's dynamic without being ostentatious." Steve Jones from USA Today deemed the record "colorful" and "some of her most compelling work." Village Voice critic Robert Christgau gave the album a two-star honorable mention, indicating a "likable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy." He cited "Heartbreaker" and "Crybaby" as highlights while writing that Carey was "not a 'real' r&b thrush, but good enough to fake it."


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Rainbow debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart with 323,000 units sold, the highest first-week sales of Carey's career at that time. In its first week, it was barred from the top by Rage Against the Machine's The Battle of Los Angeles. In its second week, the album stayed at number two, selling an additional 228,000 copies, barred from the top by Faith Hill's Breathe. In its eighth week, Rainbow experienced its highest weekly sales—during the Christmas week of 1999—selling 369,000 copies, while placing at number nine. It became Carey's first studio album since Merry Christmas to not reach the top position in the United States. In total, Rainbow stayed in the top twenty for ten weeks and on the chart for thirty-five, making one re-entry. It was certified triple-Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of three million copies throughout the United States. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the album's sales in the US are estimated at 3 million copies. In Canada, Rainbow debuted at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart, and was certified triple-Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA). Sales in Canada are estimated at 300,000 units.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Rainbow debuted at number three on the Australian Albums Chart, staying within the chart for seven weeks. The album was Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of 70,000 copies. In France, the album experienced strong success, debuting at number four on the albums chart, rising to number one the following week, and remaining inside the top forty for thirty-four weeks. The album was certified Platinum by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP), for sales of over 300,000 copies. In Germany, Rainbow peaked at number three, and received a Platinum certification from the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI), denoting shipments of 300,000 units. In the United Kingdom, Rainbow debuted at number eight with sales of 26,000 copies. It stayed within the top 100 for 20 weeks. Rainbow was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), denoting shipments of 300,000 units. Additionally, Rainbow received Platinum certification in Brazil, with 250,000 copies, Platinum in New Zealand, triple-Platinum in Spain, Platinum in Argentina, Gold in Belgium, Platinum in the Netherlands, and Gold in Switzerland. The album has sold an estimated eight million copies worldwide.


title: Mineral dust

text: There is a large variability in the dust transport across the Atlantic into the Caribbean and Florida from year to year. In some years African dust is observed along much of the East Coast of the United States and is visible in the sky. Due to the trade winds, very large concentrations of mineral dust can be found in the tropical Atlantic, reaching the Caribbean; moreover episodic transport to the Mediterranean region. Saharan plumes can form iberulites (a particular tropospheric aggregation of aerosols) when these plumes travel through North Africa and the eastern North Atlantic Ocean, and often reach the circum-Mediterranean areas of Western Europe. In the Mediterranean region, Saharan dust is important as it represents the major source of nutrients for phytoplankton and other aquatic organisms. Saharan dust carries the fungus Aspergillus sydowii and others. Aspergillus borne by Saharan dust falls into the Caribbean Sea and possibly infects coral reefs with Sea Fan disease (aspergillosis). It also has been linked to increased incidence of pediatric asthma attacks in the Caribbean. Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.


title: Mineral dust

text: Arid and semi-arid regions are naturally prone to dust emissions. Soil moisture is an important variable controlling dust emissions, along with vegetation cover, wind speed and soil type. Several studies based on modern observations show positive relationships (i.e. increasing drought increases dust) between dust and drought conditions in each dust cycle phase, from emissions, to atmospheric burden, to deposition. However, studies based on paleo records of dust deposition (e.g. using lake sediment) that specifically looked at megadroughts show both increases and no change in dust deposition. The study by Routson showed an increase in deposition during megadroughts but used a measure of dust concentration rather than accumulation that is affected by the rate of sedimentation. The Routson study instead used dust accumulation rates and found no difference between dust deposition during drought years and megadroughts and deposition during normal hydroclimate conditions. Instead, they found that dust deposition is more likely controlled by transport mechanisms and sediment supply than by hydroclimate. Similarly, Arcusa found no evidence for higher dust deposition during drought on multi-decadal and centennial scales. They also found that sediment supply played a key role as evidenced from a 60% increase in deposition in the 1800s due to accelerating land disturbance.


title: Gregorio Carrizo

text: Carrizo started off with street football in Villa Fiorito, a southern suburb of Buenos Aires, leading his own team called Tres Banderas with Diego Maradona's team his main rival. In March 1969, he joined a trial for 9-year-old boys hosted by Cebollitas and under youth coach Francis Gregorio Cornejo who was managing them since 1953. He was the only one picked out of 40 boys and soon recommended Maradona to his coach. He was integral part of the Cebollitas squad which was owned by Argentinos Juniors and went undefeated for 141 matches in a row, between 1973 and 1974, winning the Evita tournament twice and he played alongside Adrian Domenech, Claudio Rodríguez and Diego Maradona. In 1978 Carrizo was promoted to the reserve team of Argentinos Juniors and he was called to the Argentinos squad for one match, but remained on the bench missing the chance to feature in the Primera División. After suffering a torn ligament during a match for the Argentinos Juniors reserves in 1980 he underwent an operation, but he never fully recovered. He was released by Argentinos Juniors and subsequently joined third-division club San Telmo Sud Dock. Just after one season, he had a short spell All Boys, in the Buernos Aires second division alongside midfielder Rubén Galván and he later signed for Independiente Rivadavia, his last club. His severe knee pain forced him to retire in his early 20s. After his retirement Carrizo has worked as a youth coach for local Buenos Aires clubs. A documentary called el otro Maradona was released in 2013.


title: Human trafficking in the Maldives

text: In 2010, the Maldives was primarily a destination country for migrant workers from Bangladesh, and, to a lesser extent, India, some of whom were subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor. Some women were also subjected to forced prostitution. An unknown number of the 110,000 foreign workers working in the Maldives - primarily in the construction and service sectors - faced fraudulent recruitment practices, confiscation of identity and travel documents, withholding or non-payment of wages, or debt bondage. Thirty thousand of these workers did not have legal status in the country, though both legal and illegal workers were vulnerable to conditions of forced labor. Diplomatic sources estimated that half of the 35,000 Bangladeshis in the Maldives went there illegally and that most of these workers were probably victims of trafficking. Migrant workers pay $1,000 to $4,000 in recruitment fees in order to migrate to the Maldives; such high recruitment costs increase workers' vulnerability to forced labor, as concluded in a recent ILO report.


title: Human trafficking in the Maldives

text: The Maldivian government made limited efforts to ensure that victims of trafficking received access to necessary assistance during the reporting period. The government did not develop or implement formal procedures for proactively identifying victims, and the government did not identify any specific cases of trafficking or provide an estimate of the number of victims. Officers with the Maldivian Police and the Department of Immigration and Emigration have received training in the recognition of trafficking victims. The Maldives did not provide services such as shelter, counseling, medical care, or legal aid to foreign or Maldivian victims of trafficking. On an ad hoc basis, it provided extremely short-term housing for migrants immediately before deportation. The government's general policy for dealing with trafficking victims was deportation, and it did not provide foreign victims with legal alternatives to their removal to countries where they might face hardship or retribution. Authorities did not encourage victims to participate in the investigation or prosecution of trafficking offenders, since no investigations or prosecutions took place. Due to a lack of comprehensive victim identification procedures, the Maldives may not have ensured that expatriates subjected to forced labor and prostitution were not inappropriately incarcerated, fined, or otherwise penalized for unlawful acts committed as a direct result of being trafficking. =


title: Human trafficking in the Maldives

text: The Maldives made limited progress to prevent human trafficking over the last year. The government did not conduct any anti-trafficking or educational campaigns and it did not take steps to create an inter-agency structure - such as a committee or plan of action - for coordination on anti-trafficking matters. The government did not take any measures to reduce demand for forced labor on the islands. In 2010, the Maldives enacted a provision in the 2008 Employment Act requiring all employers to use employment agents. The Human Rights Commission of the Maldives, a constitutionally-established independent body, published a report in August 2009 that contained strong trafficking-related recommendations including prosecutions for forced labor offenders and regulations of recruitment agencies. In February 2010, the Ministry of Home Affairs' Department of Immigration and Emigration prominently posted on its website a readout of bilateral discussions on trafficking. Senior government officials recently attended the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation's convention on trafficking, which focused on sex trafficking.


title: Corruption in Latvia

text: According to several sources, the Latvian political system faces serious corruption. The influence of private interests involved in illegal political party funding undermines the efforts to combat political corruption. According to Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2013, 68% of surveyed households consider political parties to be corrupt or extremely corrupt—ranking as the most corrupt institution in Latvia. Furthermore, 55% of the surveyed households believe that the level of corruption has stayed the same and 67% of surveyed households find government efforts in the fight against corruption to be ineffective Transparency International's 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index scored Latvia at 60 on a scale from 0 ("highly corrupt") to 100 ("very clean"). When ranked by score, Latvia ranked 36th among the 180 countries in the Index, where the country ranked first is perceived to have the most honest public sector. For comparison with worldwide scores, the best score was 90 (ranked 1), the average score was 43, and the worst score was 11 (ranked 180). For comparison with regional scores, the highest score among Western European and European Union countries was 90, the average score was 65 and the lowest score was 42.


title: Software industry in Telangana

text: The first IT tower in Hyderabad was established by the name Intergraph in Begumpet in 1986. The initiation of this Software Industry in Hyderabad was done by N. Chandrababu Naidu in 1995. HITEC City, nicknamed Cyberabad, was set up with the collaboration of Larsen & Toubro. N. Chandrababu Naidu developed a slogan of "Bye Bye Bangalore" and "Hello Hyderabad" during his tenure and worked hard to bring International companies like Microsoft, CA Technologies, Deloitte and went to create Vision 2020. Naidu persuaded Bill Gates to set up a Microsoft development center in Hyderabad, the center at that time, becoming Microsoft's only development center outside the USA. Naidu also worked hard to bring biotechnology companies to Hyderabad, he developed Genome Valley a high-end technology park commissioned in 1999 as S. P. Biotech Park in a public-private partnership with Bharat Biotech International, and its founder Krishna Ella, alongside private infrastructure companies such as Shapoorji Pallonji Group and ICICI Bank. N. Chandrababu Naidu during his tenure to create master plan for International airport, Outer ring road. D. E. Shaw & Co. was the first multinational company to open its office in Hyderabad in 1996.


title: Olimpia Cagliari

text: Cagliari would beat Libertas Brindisi 62–56 in Naples during the 1968–69 promotion playoffs to move up to the first division Serie A. Renamed Brill Cagliari with the arrival of major sponsor Brill (a shoe shine brand) and now based in the newly opened PalaRockefeller arena, the Sardinians struggled in their first Serie A season. They won only three games in 1969–70 to go straight back down, obtaining their third win in the last game, against Virtus Bologna, on 12 April 1970 whilst the U.S. Cagliari football team won their league. They would return in 1972 by beating Sapori Siena after two overtimes for the promotion spot. Cagliari downed incumbent European and Intercontinental champions Ignis Varese 76–75 on 4 March 1973 thanks to Mario Vascellari's last minute block on Paolo Polzot, as they managed to avoid relegation that season. Led by American John Sutter, Brill would upset major teams such as Simmenthal Milano, Forst Cantù and the beformentioned Varese at home over the course of the next seasons. The club would play six successive seasons in the league, their best result a fifth place in 1976-77.


title: Geography of Kolkata

text: Indo-Gangetic Plain, the soil and water are predominantly alluvial in origin. Kolkata is located over the "Bengal basin", a pericratonic tertiary basin. Bengal basin comprises three structural units: shelf or platform in the west; central hinge or shelf/slope break; and deep basinal part in the east and southeast. Kolkata is located atop the western part of the hinge zone which is about 25 km (16 mi) wide at a depth of about 45,000 m (148,000 ft) below the surface. The shelf and hinge zones have many faults, among them some are active. The total thickness of sediment below the Kolkata is nearly 7,500 m (24,600 ft) above the crystalline basement; of these the top 350–450 m (1,150–1,480 ft) is quaternary, followed by 4,500–5,500 m (14,760–18,040 ft) of tertiary sediments, 500–700 m (1,640–2,300 ft) trap wash of cretaceous trap and 600–800 m (1,970–2,620 ft) permian-carboniferous Gondwana rocks. The quaternary sediments consist of clay, silt, and several grades of sand and gravel. These sediments are sandwiched between two clay beds: the lower one at a depth of 250–650 m (820–2,130 ft); the upper one 10–40 m (30–130 ft) in thickness. According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, on a scale ranging from I to V in order of increasing susceptibility to earthquakes, the city lies inside seismic zone III.


title: Geography of Kolkata

text: Central Kolkata hosts the central business district. It contains B. B. D. Bagh, formerly known as Dalhousie Square, and the Esplanade on its east; Strand Road is on its west. The West Bengal Secretariat, General Post Office, Reserve Bank of India, High Court, Lalbazar Police Headquarters, and several other government and private offices are located there. Another business hub is the area south of Park Street, which comprises thoroughfares such as Chowringhee, Camac Street, Wood Street, Loudon Street, Shakespeare Sarani and A. J. C. Bose Road. The Maidan is a large open field in the heart of the city that has been called the "lungs of Kolkata" and accommodates sporting events and public meetings. The Victoria Memorial and Kolkata Race Course are located at the southern end of the Maidan. Other important areas of Central Kolkata are Park Circus, Sealdah, Beliaghata, College Street, Burrabazar, Bowbazar, Taltala, Janbazar, Entally, Chandni Chowk, Lalbazar, Chowringhee, Dharmatala, Rabindra Sadan, Tiretti Bazaar, Bow Barracks, Babughat, Princep Ghat and Hastings. Another important park is Millennium Park on Strand Road, beside the Hooghly River. Fort William, on the western part of the city (besides Maidan), houses the headquarters of the Eastern Command of the Indian Army.