title: Ajax Wanderers R.U.F.C.

text: The Ajax Wanderers Rugby Club can lay claim to being the founding club for rugby in post-war Ontario. The club was formed by a group of English immigrants who missed their favorite sport from back home in 1949. The early years saw games against the University of Toronto and McGill University. The Toronto Nomads, Aurora Barbarians, Markham Irish Canadians and to a lesser extent the Brantford Harlequins all owe their existence to those early Wanderers. Once a league was in place Wanderers became immediately successful winning several provincial championships in the late 1950s. The club also began a tradition of touring that continues to this day. Going on tour and hosting teams are one of the finest traditions in rugby and the sport provides an opportunity like no other for players to travel the world as a team or as individuals. Over the years Wanderers have toured extensively within Canada, the United States, Great Britain and even an occasional trip to the continent. The club has also hosted teams from all over the world. Developing players to play on the provincial, national and international stage has always been a priority and the Wanderers have provided players to the Canadian national team almost from its beginnings with John Ackerly representing his country in 1971 and that tradition has continued through the years with the likes of Karl Svoboda playing in the first three World Cups, and Dave Moonlight who is the leading points and try scorer for Canada in sevens. Wanderers have also welcomed players from around the globe to play with the club as they travel or on an exchange basis.


title: Occidental Handicap

text: The status of the race as being important to the Gravesend track's fall racing schedule would change on June 11, 1908, when the Republican controlled New York Legislature under Governor Charles Evans Hughes passed the Hart–Agnew anti-betting legislation. The owners of Gravesend Race Track, and other racing facilities in New York State, struggled to stay in business without income from betting. Racetrack operators had no choice but to drastically reduce the purse money being paid out which resulted in the Occidental Handicap offering a purse in 1909 that was less than one-third of what it had been in earlier years. These small purses made horse racing unprofitable and impossible for even the most successful horse owners to continue in business. As such, for the 1910 racing season management of the Gravesend facility dropped some of its stakes races and used the purse money to bolster its most important events. Although a February 21, 1913 ruling by the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division saw horse racing return in 1913, it was too late for the Occidental Handicap.


title: William Prows

text: In 1829, Prows' parents moved the family to Fulton, Morrow County, Ohio (near present-day Cincinnati), and then in 1831, to Dearborn, Indiana. It was in Indiana that the Prows family became acquainted with Mormonism in the late 1830s. The Prows family desired to move to Nauvoo, Illinois, where Prows, along with his parents and some siblings, joined the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints in 1841. A year later, his mother Eleanor died in 1842. Two months after her death, his grieving father Thomas married Charity Arms, a fellow Mormon, who provided a mother figure for William's younger siblings, the youngest of which was aged one when his mother died. William and his family experienced the troubles faced by the Mormons in Nauvoo from 1842 to 1846. William's father left Mormonism in 1846, but his stepmother Charity Arms decided to stay and move west with the rest of the Mormons. Nineteen-year-old William stayed too and promised to support his stepmother for the trek across the Great Plains to Utah. National events, though, intervened and prevented Prows from keeping part of this promise.


title: William Prows

text: The United States was at war with Mexico and in need of men. In July 1846, military leaders in Washington, D.C. asked the Mormons who had just fled Nauvoo—and had been rebuffed by the federal government when they sought protection and redress for persecution against them—to provide a volunteer battalion to assist with the war efforts for the Mexican–American War. Brigham Young, who was the de facto Mormon leader, agreed to provide a battalion. The enlistees were paid $42 for a uniform allowance. William saw this as an opportunity to earn money to provide for his stepmother for her trek to Utah. He wouldn't accompany her to Utah but she would have money to help prepare for the trek. Prows enlisted in the battalion that became known as the Mormon Battalion. The Mormon Battalion holds two distinctions in U.S. military history—(1) it is the only religiously-based unit in U.S. military history; and (2) it holds the record for the longest march in U.S. military history. Prows served in Company B. The Battalion marched from the banks of the Missouri River in eastern Nebraska to San Diego, California, and on to Los Angeles, California. After one year of service, Prows was discharged in Los Angeles, California, in July 1847. The Mormon Battalion never faced a battle during its service in the Mexican–American War.


title: Kolkheti National Park

text: Kolkheti National Park (Georgian: კოლხეთის ეროვნული პარკი), is a national park located in Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti and Guria in the historical region of Colchis in western Georgia. The wetlands of Central Kolkheti are a Wetland of International Importance, a Ramsar Site. It lies on a coastal plain on the Black Sea, between the mouths of the Tikori and Supsa and spanning the districts of Zugdidi, Khobi, Lanchkhuti, Senaki and Abasha. The park was established during 1998 and 1999 as part of Georgia's Integrated Coastal Management Project, which was backed financially by the World Bank (WB) and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). Kolkheti National Park covers an area of 28,940 hectares and with protected wetlands protected area spans to 33710 hectares, incorporating the land of the former 500-hectare Kolkheti State Nature Reserve, which had been established in 1947, and its surrounding wetlands, including the lake Paliastomi. Because of its unique forests and wetlands, and high numbers of threatened species, the park was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as part of the Colchic Rainforests and Wetlands site in 2021.


title: Kolkheti National Park

text: The swamps and wetland forests of the park contain a number of endangered species such as roe deer, boar, otter and Triturus vittatus, and more recently a population of coypu has been introduced. It is home to the Caucasian subspecies of common treefrog and marsh frog (Rana ridibunda) and numerous types of snake, including ringed snake, dice snake, slowworm, and more rarely the Aesculapian snake. The European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis), and Artwin wood lizard are also found as are common and eastern crested newts. Several species of dolphins including Delphinus delphis, Tursiops truncates and Phocoena phocoena inhabit the marine habitat of the park while 194 different bird species are found in the national park, including 21 species who use the area during seasonal migration. Some of the birds endemic to the park are on the IUCN and Georgian Red Book list because they are verging on extinction in the area, including the black stork, crane and great white egret. The great crested grebe, red-necked grebe, black-necked grebe, great cormorant, squacco heron, Eurasian spoonbill, glossy ibis, lesser white-fronted goose, ruddy shelduck, marsh sandpiper, great snipe, and a diversity of ducks, waders, coots, gulls and terns are common to the park during season and a number of white-tailed sea eagles have been recorded in the park, although these are very rare.


title: Total Recall 2070

text: Total Recall 2070 was created by Art Monterastelli. The series is named after the 1990 film Total Recall, loosely based on Philip K. Dick's short story "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale", but it has been noted as sharing no major plot points or characters with it, other than the Rekall company and the concept of virtual vacations. Instead, a much larger influence in its plot elements and especially visual style has been recognized to be the 1982 film Blade Runner, itself a loose adaptation of Dick's novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?. Series creator Art Monterastelli has admitted the stronger influence of Blade Runner over Total Recall, and explained, he thought doing a paranoid psychological thriller with a strong visual background reminiscent of Blade Runner, would be a better use of their limited budget, provide more creative opportunities to the writers, and even be more in line with the spirit of Dick's antihero storylines as found in his body of work, compared to the Total Recall action film. Despite the influence of his works to the series production, Dick is not credited on the series main or end titles.


title: Total Recall 2070

text: Total Recall 2070 takes place in a dark, crowded, industrial and cosmopolitan setting, with a noir sci-fi aesthetic. The government bureaucracy is heavily influenced by a small number of extremely powerful companies called "the Consortium" (including computer memory and virtual-reality vacation provider Rekall and android manufacturer Uber Braun). David Hume is a senior detective for the Citizens Protection Bureau (CPB), a police agency focused on general public safety. After his partner is killed by self-aware androids, he is partnered against his wishes with Ian Farve, a naive officer new to the department, who is himself secretly an "Alpha Class" android—a model with a more complex psychological nature. Hume and the CPB often have conflicts with the Assessor's Office (the investigative agency that has sole jurisdiction over crimes related to the Consortium) and with the private security forces of Consortium companies. The main story arcs of the series concern the agendas of the Consortium, the mystery of Farve's origins, Hume's wife Olivia, whose memories have been tampered with, and the mysterious manufacturer of Alpha Class androids. Significant plot elements remain unresolved by the end of the series run, due to cancellation; a crucial story arc from the series was the suggestion that the memory expansion used on self-aware androids was part non-human DNA and that a material found by a remote base on Mars could create a hybrid of human and android DNA.


title: Thomas Barclay (diplomat)

text: Thomas Barclay's first decade in Philadelphia was a time of growing friction with England that began with the Stamp Act in 1765 and he was an early member of the resistance. A signer of non-importation agreements in 1765 and 1769, he was on the committee that organized the Philadelphia Tea Party in 1773, which used persuasion rather than violence to refuse the British East India Company's tea. He was one of only four men elected a member of the five successive Philadelphia correspondence committees during the resistance years of 1774–1776. He was also elected to the Philadelphia Corporation in 1774, named a deputy delegate to the Provincial conventions in 1774 and 1775, and appointed to the Pennsylvania Navy Board in 1777. Following the outbreak of war with England and the Declaration of Independence he remained politically active. In 1781, when it became clear that William Palfrey, who had been named consul to France, was lost at sea, the Continental Congress named Barclay to the post.


title: Moral rights in United Kingdom law

text: The right of integrity protects authors from having their copyrighted works altered in such a fashion as to constitute a "distortion" or "mutilation" of the original work, or in a way that harms the author's reputation or honour. Cases vary as to how the right of integrity should be interpreted, with some judges saying that "distortion" or "mutilation" should be taken to be part of the wider clause on reputation and honour to avoid subjective decisions, and others interpreting each clause as distinct types of violation. The right to object to false attribution protects individuals from being identified as the authors of works they have not contributed to; unlike the other moral rights it exists only for the individual's lifetime and the 20 years after death, not for the full term of copyright. The United Kingdom's law on moral rights has been criticised for failing to correctly implement the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, and for being unreasonably narrow in the types of creative works it covers.


title: Moral rights in United Kingdom law

text: Authors can still rely on the old common law rights which remain in force; they act as alternate forms of relief if a claim under dedicated moral rights is dubious, or is seen as unlikely to succeed. Similarly, an author can sometimes rely on contractual rights, as in Frisby v BBC, where the claimant was allowed to block modifications to his work by virtue of a contractual clause prohibiting the BBC from making "structural" changes to his script. Originally these were the only forms of relief for injured authors, although Section 43 of the Copyright Act 1956 created a "tort of misattribution". With the 1988 Act, however, four distinct moral rights were recognised: the right to be identified as the author (the right of paternity), the right to object to derogatory treatment (the right of integrity), the right to object to false attribution, and the right to privacy in private films and photographs. Because moral rights are personal rights attached to the author, rather than economic rights attached to the work, they cannot be transferred or assigned, but they can be waived.


title: Moral rights in United Kingdom law

text: The right to be identified, known as the right of paternity, applies to the creators of original literary, dramatic, musical or artistic works; for films, the right to be identified is granted to the director rather than the writer. Some specific types of work are not protected by this right, particularly those made to report current events, periodicals, newspapers or encyclopaedias. These exceptions were included as a result of lobbying by the publishing industry, and the fear that the need to name the author of a current events report could interfere with its speedy delivery, and undermine the image of the news as objective and neutral. Under Section 79, the right to be identified also does not apply to authors of computer programs, computer-generated works, typefaces or works protected by crown copyright. On those works which are covered by this moral right, there is a need to assert it; this may be done through an instrument assigning copyright, or any other instrument written by the author or director. If the asserting is done through a document designed to assign copyright, it binds the assignee and anyone who claims through him, with or without notice; if it is done through another instrument, it only applies to those who are directly informed of the assertion.


title: Moral rights in United Kingdom law

text: Once the right to be identified has been asserted, it applies for the duration of copyright, but only for works created after 1 August 1989. If the right is then infringed, the author or director has legal recourse. For the right to be infringed, the author must show that they have not been properly identified, that this was in circumstances where the work should have been attributed, and that none of the exceptions or defences apply. In regards to the lack of proper identification, for identification to be acceptable the name of the author must appear in each copy of the work in a prominent fashion, under Section 77(7) of the 1988 Act; where it is not appropriate for the author's name to appear on each copy, it must appear in a fashion that brings their identity to the attention of any person using or acquiring a copy of the work. If the work is a building, the name must be visible to people entering or approaching it. If the author specifies a pseudonym or some other form of identification when asserting the right of attribution, that form of identification should be adopted.


title: Moral rights in United Kingdom law

text: Specific circumstances lead to a requirement for attribution, and it is only in these circumstances that the right to be identified can be infringed. An author of a literary or dramatic work has the right to be identified whenever the work is broadcast, performed in public or sold commercially, while the director of a film has the right to be named when videos are commercially sold, or when the film is broadcast on television or in other formats. Songwriters are treated slightly differently, in that while the author of a song has the right to be named on commercial publications, there is no requirement to identify them when the song is broadcast or performed in public. Where the work is artistic, the artist has the right to be identified where the work is commercially published, exhibited in public, or where a visual image is broadcast; if the artwork is recorded, the artist should be identified when the resulting film is shown in public. If the work is a sculpture, "work of artistic craftsmanship" or building, the author should also be named where "copies of a graphic work representing it or of a photograph of it" are shown to the public.


title: Moral rights in United Kingdom law

text: Once it has been proven that modifications amounted to a "treatment", that treatment must then be derogatory. Section 80(2)(b) of the 1988 Act provides that a treatment is derogatory if it constitutes a "distortion" or "mutilation" of the work, or otherwise damages the honour or reputation of the author. The Act gives no guidance as to what constitutes distortion or mutilation, and the courts have in some cases adopted the idea that these concepts should be considered part of the clause prohibiting damage to the author's honour or reputation, as in Confetti Records v Warner Music UK Ltd. This is because the alternative – simply looking at distortion and mutilation as individual concepts – could result in confusion due to the highly subjective nature of the words. Other judges have supported the interpretation that distortions and mutilations can be treated as individual concepts, and that treatments harming the author's reputation are only considered in that light if the treatment is not derogatory enough to constitute a distortion, as in Tidy v Trustees of the Natural History Museum.


title: Moral rights in United Kingdom law

text: Whether or not a work is attributed to the wrong person depends on, according to Clark v Associated Newspapers, "the single meaning which ... the work conveys to the notional reasonable reader". There is no need to prove that the false attribution caused any harm to the actual author, and the right has been interpreted to cover situations as diverse as a newspaper parody of Alan Clark's diaries, an interview with Dorothy Squires and a replica painting that contained the signature of the original author. The right is closely linked to passing off, defamation and other non-statutory causes of action, which may be used to supplement a claim for infringing the right to object to false attribution. David Vaver, writing in the International Journal of Law and Information Technology, goes as far as to say that the right to object to false attribution is merely "passing off, writ large". Cornish, Llewelyn and Aplin also note a strong overlap between the rights against false attribution and against derogatory treatment.


title: New Clark City

text: New Clark City, initially known as Clark Green City was first planned, designed and founded by the Bases Conversion Development Authority (BCDA) under the administration of then-BCDA President and CEO Arnel Paciano Casanova in 2012. The then-proposal was met with skepticism from some high-ranking government officials due to the development's proposed location being remote. Casanova envisioned a new metropolis north of Metro Manila to be the first green and smart metropolis of the country. Casanova was moved to build the new city as a response to the challenges of climate change which placed Metro Manila and many Philippine coastal cities at risk. This was witnessed in the massive floods in Metro Manila during Typhoon Ketsana in 2009 and the destruction of Tacloban City during Typhoon Haiyan in 2013. The imminent threats of climate change made the movement of new communities to higher and safer ground. This will be a development with numerous parks and wide and tree-shaded pedestrian lanes with the application of innovative technologies to run the city. It was also a response to the hellish gridlock that Metro Manila has been experiencing and the imperative of making mobility better and dignified for citizens. He also envisioned the development to be free of gated communities to discourage heavy traffic.


title: New Clark City

text: To build the human capital of the new city, Casanova caused the donation by BCDA of 70 hectares of land for the new University of the Philippines campus, a 40 hectare property for the Technological University of the Philippines and the 20 hectares for the Philippine Science High School. He also sent to Singapore's Nanyang Technological University, 100 scholars including mayors and town planners of the towns surrounding the new city as well as BCDA core team for training on green city planning and governance under the auspices of the Temasek Foundation. He also initiated talks with the Rungis Market of France for an Asian food logistics hub in Clark Green City to ensure food security in the country and to connect Philippine farmers to the global market. He also led the investment of BCDA for the Luzon Bypass Line with the Department of Communications and Information Technology (then ICTO) and Facebook in exchange for 2tpbs bandwidth to provide fast and free internet access to all government offices, schools and parks and to spark the movement of technopreneurs in the country.


title: Amphitheatre

text: The earliest permanent, stone and timber Roman amphitheatre with perimeter seating was built in the Campus Martius in 29 BCE. Most were built under Imperial rule, from the Augustan period (27 BCE–14 CE) onwards. Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman Empire, especial in provincial capitals and major colonies, as an essential aspect of Romanitas. There was no standard size; the largest could accommodate 40,000–60,000 spectators. The most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were decorated with marble, stucco and statuary. The best-known and largest Roman amphitheatre is the Colosseum in Rome, also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (Amphitheatrum Flavium), after the Flavian dynasty who had it built. After the ending of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and of staged animal hunts in the 6th, most amphitheatres fell into disrepair. Their materials were mined or recycled. Some were razed, and others were converted into fortifications. A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in some of these, churches were sited.


title: Tigst Assefa

text: On 24 September, wearing so-called super shoes, Tigst competed again at the Berlin Marathon and set a new female world record with a landmark time of two hours 11 minutes and 53 seconds, chopping 2:11 minutes from Kenya's Brigid Kosgei's standard of 2:14:04 which had been set at the 2019 Chicago Marathon. Thus Tigst became the first woman to break the 2:14-hour, 2:13-hour and 2:12-hour barriers in a marathon. She completed the first half of the race almost two minutes faster than the previous year with a time of 66:20, putting her on path to improve the world record by more than a minute. Yet racing with a negative split again, she was even almost a minute quicker in the final half, which was covered in 65:33. The Ethiopian ran her 38th kilometre only 3 seconds slower than the male winner, former world record holder Eliud Kipchoge, clocking 3:06 which was also her second half average pace, and closed with her last 2.195 km timed at 6:40 (3:02 min/km pace) to Kipchoge's 6:36. Tigst averaged 3:07.5 min/km pace for the full 42.195-kilometre distance and beat the runner-up by almost six minutes, with the assistance of the male pacemaker Girmay Birhanu Gebru for almost the entire race.


title: History of the University of St Andrews

text: In 1876, the University Senate decided to allow women to receive an education at St Andrews at a level roughly equivalent to the MA men were able to take at the time (two years before University College London would become the first university in the UK to admit women on equal terms to men). The scheme came to be known as the 'L.L.A. examination' (Lady Literate in Arts), required women to pass five subjects at an ordinary level and one at honours level, and entitled them to hold a diploma from the University. In 1889 the Universities (Scotland) Act made it possible to formally admit women to St Andrews, and from this point onwards, the L.L.A was recognized as a university degree, although not on equal footing to the MA. Agnes Forbes Blackadder became the first woman to graduate from St Andrews on the same level as men of the time in October 1895, gaining her MA, going on to receive an MD from Glasgow University and becoming an eminent dermatologist in London. She entered the university in 1892, making St Andrews the first university in Scotland to admit women undergraduates on the same level as men. In response to the increasing number of female students residing in St Andrews, the first women's hall was built in 1896, and was named University Hall.


title: David Astor

text: During the 1980s and 1990s, he campaigned alongside Lord Longford to try and gain parole for the Moors Murderer Myra Hindley, claiming that she was a reformed character and no threat to society, and had therefore qualified for parole from the life sentence imposed on her in 1966 for her role with Ian Brady in the murder of three children. He continued his campaign even after Hindley admitted taking part in two more murders in 1986. In September 1990, he even claimed that her continued imprisonment was comparable to that of Nelson Mandela, who had just been released from prison in South Africa after serving 27 years of a life sentence for his part in the battle against the oppression of black people under that country's apartheid regime. Astor had also been a supporter of the campaign for Mandela's release from prison. Along with Longford, he claimed that she was being kept in prison to serve the interests of successive Home Secretaries and their governments ; these politicians gradually increased Hindley's original minimum of 25 to 30 years and from 1990 to a whole life tariff. The campaign to win parole for Myra Hindley was unsuccessful, with her appeal against the whole life tariff being rejected three times by the High Court, and she remained in prison until her death in November 2002, almost a year after Astor's own death. Longford had died earlier in 2001.


title: Caspar Richter

text: In 1969 Lorin Maazel offered Richter a position as repetiteur and assistant conductor at the Deutsche Oper Berlin where Maazel was then music director. Richter served as assistant to Karl Böhm, Eugen Jochum, Herbert von Karajan, Bruno Maderna, Giuseppe Sinopoli and Michael Gielen, and learned to be responsive to singers and give clear impulses to the orchestra players. Richter was promoted to Kapellmeister after three years at the house. He conducted their first production of Stravinsky's L'Histoire du soldat. In 1972, he stepped in for Klaus Tennstedt to conduct von Einem's Der Besuch der alten Dame. He conducted Boris Blacher's Preußisches Märchen, world premieres such as Karl Heinz Wahren 's Fettklößchen, Wilhelm Dieter Siebert's Untergang der Titanic. and Toshiro Mayuzumi's Kinkakuji. He led productions of Lehár's Die lustige Witwe, staged by August Everding with Gwyneth Jones and René Kollo in the leading roles, and Offenbach's Die Banditen. He also conducted the RIAS-Jugendorchester for several years.


title: USS Providence (1775)

text: From early 1775, Royal Navy warships, in particular the post ship Rose, carried out anti-smuggling operations off the New England coast. They frequently searched Rhode Island merchant shipping, annoying the colony's merchants. On 13 June, Deputy Governor Nicholas Cooke wrote the frigate's Captain James Wallace demanding restoration of several ships which Rose had detained. Two days later, the Rhode Island General Assembly ordered the committee of safety to fit out two ships to defend the colony's shipping, and appointed a committee of three to obtain the vessels. That day, the committee chartered the sloop Katy from John Brown of Providence and the sloop Washington at the same time. The General Assembly appointed Abraham Whipple as commander of Katy, the larger ship, and made him commodore of the tiny fleet. Whipple had won fame in burning the British armed schooner Gaspee in 1772, and he captured a tender to HMS Rose before sunset that same day. Katy then cruised in Narragansett Bay through the summer protecting coastal shipping.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: We first introduce the notion of reference frame, itself related to the idea of observer: the reference frame is, in some sense, the "Euclidean space carried by the observer". Let us give a more mathematical definition:… the reference frame is... the set of all points in the Euclidean space with the rigid body motion of the observer. The frame, denoted R {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {R}}} , is said to move with the observer.… The spatial positions of particles are labelled relative to a frame R {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {R}}} by establishing a coordinate system R with origin O. The corresponding set of axes, sharing the rigid body motion of the frame R {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {R}}} , can be considered to give a physical realization of R {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {R}}} . In a frame R {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {R}}} , coordinates are changed from R to R' by carrying out, at each instant of time, the same coordinate transformation on the components of intrinsic objects (vectors and tensors) introduced to represent physical quantities in this frame.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: In traditional developments of special and general relativity it has been customary not to distinguish between two quite distinct ideas. The first is the notion of a coordinate system, understood simply as the smooth, invertible assignment of four numbers to events in spacetime neighborhoods. The second, the frame of reference, refers to an idealized system used to assign such numbers … To avoid unnecessary restrictions, we can divorce this arrangement from metrical notions. … Of special importance for our purposes is that each frame of reference has a definite state of motion at each event of spacetime.…Within the context of special relativity and as long as we restrict ourselves to frames of reference in inertial motion, then little of importance depends on the difference between an inertial frame of reference and the inertial coordinate system it induces. This comfortable circumstance ceases immediately once we begin to consider frames of reference in nonuniform motion even within special relativity.…the notion of frame of reference has reappeared as a structure distinct from a coordinate system.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: Using the tangent vector, the angle of the tangent to the curve, say θ, is given by: sin  θ = y ′ ( s ) x ′ ( s ) 2 + y ′ ( s ) 2 = y ′ ( s ) ; {\displaystyle \sin \theta ={\frac {y'(s)}{\sqrt {x'(s)^{2}+y'(s)^{2}}}}=y'(s)\ ;} and cos  θ = x ′ ( s ) x ′ ( s ) 2 + y ′ ( s ) 2 = x ′ ( s ) . {\displaystyle \cos \theta ={\frac {x'(s)}{\sqrt {x'(s)^{2}+y'(s)^{2}}}}=x'(s)\ .} The radius of curvature is introduced completely formally (without need for geometric interpretation) as: 1 ρ = d θ d s . {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\rho }}={\frac {d\theta }{ds}}\ .} The derivative of θ can be found from that for sin θ: d sin  θ d s = cos  θ d θ d s = 1 ρ cos  θ = 1 ρ x ′ ( s ) . {\displaystyle {\frac {d\sin \theta }{ds}}=\cos \theta {\frac {d\theta }{ds}}={\frac {1}{\rho }}\cos \theta ={\frac {1}{\rho }}x'(s)\ .} Now: d sin  θ d s = d d s y ′ ( s ) x ′ ( s ) 2 + y ′ ( s ) 2 = y ″ ( s ) x ′ ( s ) 2 − y ′ ( s ) x ′ ( s ) x ″ ( s ) ( x ′ ( s ) 2 + y ′ ( s ) 2 ) 3 / 2 , {\displaystyle {\frac {d\sin \theta }{ds}}={\frac {d}{ds}}{\frac {y'(s)}{\sqrt {x'(s)^{2}+y'(s)^{2}}}}={\frac {y''(s)x'(s)^{2}-y'(s)x'(s)x''(s)}{\left(x'(s)^{2}+y'(s)^{2}\right)^{3/2}}}\ ,} in which the denominator is unity according to Eq. 1. With this formula for the derivative of the sine, the radius of curvature becomes: d θ d s = 1 ρ = y ″ ( s ) x ′ ( s ) − y ′ ( s ) x ″ ( s ) = y ″ ( s ) x ′ ( s ) = − x ″ ( s ) y ′ ( s ) , {\displaystyle {\frac {d\theta }{ds}}={\frac {1}{\rho }}=y''(s)x'(s)-y'(s)x''(s)\ ={\frac {y''(s)}{x'(s)}}=-{\frac {x''(s)}{y'(s)}}\ ,} where the equivalence of the forms stems from differentiation of Eq. 1: x ′ ( s ) x ″ ( s ) + y ′ ( s ) y ″ ( s ) = 0 . {\displaystyle x'(s)x''(s)+y'(s)y''(s)=0\ .} Having set up the description of any position on the path in terms of its associated value for s, and having found the properties of the path in terms of this description, motion of the particle is introduced by stating the particle position at any time t as the corresponding value s (t).


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: Using the above results for the path properties in terms of s, the acceleration in the inertial reference frame as described in terms of the components normal and tangential to the path of the particle can be found in terms of the function s(t) and its various time derivatives (as before, primes indicate differentiation with respect to s) with: a ( s ) = d d t v ( s ) = d d t [ d s d t ( x ′ ( s ) , y ′ ( s ) ) ] = ( d 2 s d t 2 ) u t ( s ) + ( d s d t ) 2 ( x ″ ( s ) , y ″ ( s ) ) = ( d 2 s d t 2 ) u t ( s ) − ( d s d t ) 2 1 ρ u n ( s ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {a} (s)&={\frac {d}{dt}}\mathbf {v} (s)={\frac {d}{dt}}\left\\&=\left({\frac {d^{2}s}{dt^{2}}}\right)\mathbf {u} _{t}(s)+\left({\frac {ds}{dt}}\right)^{2}\left(x''(s),\ y''(s)\right)\\&=\left({\frac {d^{2}s}{dt^{2}}}\right)\mathbf {u} _{t}(s)-\left({\frac {ds}{dt}}\right)^{2}{\frac {1}{\rho }}\mathbf {u} _{n}(s)\ ,\end{aligned}}} as can be verified by taking the dot product with the unit vectors ut(s) and un(s). This result for acceleration is the same as that for circular motion based on the radius ρ. Using this coordinate system in the inertial frame, it is easy to identify the force normal to the trajectory as the centripetal force and that parallel to the trajectory as the tangential force.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: In a purely mathematical treatment, regardless of the frame that the coordinate system is associated with (inertial or non-inertial), extra terms appear in the acceleration of an observed particle when using curvilinear coordinates. For example, in polar coordinates the acceleration is given by (see below for details): a = d v d t = d 2 r d t 2 = ( r ¨ − r θ ˙ 2 ) r ^ + ( r θ ¨ + 2 r ˙ θ ˙ ) θ ^ , {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {a}}={\frac {d{\boldsymbol {v}}}{dt}}={\frac {d^{2}\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}=({\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}){\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+(r{\ddot {\theta }}+2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}){\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\ ,} which contains not just double time derivatives of the coordinates but added terms. This example employs polar coordinates, but more generally the added terms depend upon which coordinate system is chosen (that is, polar, elliptic, or any other system). Sometimes these coordinate-system dependent terms also are referred to as "fictitious forces", introducing a second meaning for "fictitious forces", despite the fact that these terms do not have the vector transformation properties expected of forces. For example, see Shankar and Hildebrand. According to this terminology, fictitious forces are determined in part by the coordinate system itself, regardless of the frame it is attached to, that is, regardless of whether the coordinate system is attached to an inertial or a non-inertial frame of reference. In contrast, the fictitious forces defined in terms of the state of motion of the observer vanish in inertial frames of reference. To distinguish these two terminologies, the fictitious forces that vanish in an inertial frame of reference, the inertial forces of Newtonian mechanics, are called in this article the "state-of-motion" fictitious forces and those that originate in the interpretation of time derivatives in particular coordinate systems are called "coordinate" fictitious forces.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: To proceed, consider a single particle, and introduce the generalized coordinates as {qk} = (r, θ). Then Hildebrand shows in polar coordinates with the qk = (r, θ) the "generalized momenta" are: p r = m r ˙ , p θ = m r 2 θ ˙ , {\displaystyle p_{r}=m{\dot {r}}\ ,\ p_{\theta }=mr^{2}{\dot {\theta }}\ ,} leading, for example, to the generalized force: d d t p r = Q r + m r θ ˙ 2 , {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}p_{r}=Q_{r}+mr{\dot {\theta }}^{2}\ ,} with Qr the impressed radial force. The connection between "generalized forces" and Newtonian forces varies with the choice of coordinates. This Lagrangian formulation introduces exactly the "coordinate" form of fictitious forces mentioned above that allows "fictitious" (generalized) forces in inertial frames, for example, the term m r θ ˙ 2 . {\displaystyle mr{\dot {\theta }}^{2}\ .} Careful reading of Hildebrand shows he doesn't discuss the role of "inertial frames of reference", and in fact, says " presence or absence depends, not upon the particular problem at hand but upon the coordinate system chosen." By coordinate system presumably is meant the choice of {qk}. Later he says "If accelerations associated with generalized coordinates are to be of prime interest (as is usually the case), the terms may be conveniently transferred to the right … and considered as additional (generalized) inertia forces. Such inertia forces are often said to be of the Coriolis type."


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: Using these derivatives, the first and second derivatives of position are: v = d r d t = r ˙ r ^ + r θ ˙ θ ^ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {v}}={\frac {d\mathbf {r} }{dt}}={\dot {r}}{\hat {\boldsymbol {r}}}+r{\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}} and: a = d v d t = d 2 r d t 2 = ( r ¨ − r θ ˙ 2 ) r ^ + ( r θ ¨ + 2 r ˙ θ ˙ ) θ ^ , {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {a}}={\frac {d{\boldsymbol {v}}}{dt}}={\frac {d^{2}\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}=({\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}){\hat {\boldsymbol {r}}}+(r{\ddot {\theta }}+2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}){\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\ ,} where dot-overmarkings indicate time differentiation. With this form for the acceleration a {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {a}}} , in an inertial frame of reference Newton's second law expressed in polar coordinates is: F = m a = m ( r ¨ − r θ ˙ 2 ) r ^ + m ( r θ ¨ + 2 r ˙ θ ˙ ) θ ^ , {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {F}}=m{\boldsymbol {a}}=m({\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}){\hat {\boldsymbol {r}}}+m(r{\ddot {\theta }}+2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}){\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\ ,} where F is the net real force on the particle. No fictitious forces appear because all fictitious forces are zero by definition in an inertial frame.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: From a mathematical standpoint, however, it sometimes is handy to put only the second-order derivatives on the right side of this equation; that is we write the above equation by rearrangement of terms as: F + m r θ ˙ 2 r ^ − m 2 r ˙ θ ˙ θ ^ = m a ~ = m r ¨ r ^ + m r θ ¨ θ ^ , {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {F}}+mr{\dot {\theta }}^{2}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}-m2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}=m{\tilde {\boldsymbol {a}}}=m{\ddot {r}}{\hat {\boldsymbol {r}}}+mr{\ddot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\ ,} where a "coordinate" version of the "acceleration" is introduced: a ~ = r ¨ r ^ + r θ ¨ θ ^ , {\displaystyle {\tilde {\boldsymbol {a}}}={\ddot {r}}{\hat {\boldsymbol {r}}}+r{\ddot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\ ,} consisting of only second-order time derivatives of the coordinates r and θ. The terms moved to the force-side of the equation are now treated as extra "fictitious forces" and, confusingly, the resulting forces also are called the "centrifugal" and "Coriolis" force.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: What if one used polar coordinates in the two frames? In frame S the radial motion is constant and there is no angular motion. Hence, the acceleration is: a = ( r ¨ − r θ ˙ 2 ) r ^ + ( r θ ¨ + 2 r ˙ θ ˙ ) θ ^ = 0 , {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {a}}=\left({\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}\right){\hat {\boldsymbol {r}}}+\left(r{\ddot {\theta }}+2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}\right){\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}=0\ ,} and each term individually is zero because θ ˙ = 0 , θ ¨ = 0 {\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}=0,\ {\ddot {\theta }}=0} and r ¨ = 0 {\displaystyle {\ddot {r}}=0\ } . There is no force, including no r θ ˙ 2 {\displaystyle r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}} "force" in frame S. In frame S' , however, we have: a ′ = ( r ¨ ′ − r ′ θ ˙ ′ 2 ) r ^ ′ + ( r ′ θ ¨ ′ + 2 r ˙ ′ θ ˙ ′ ) θ ^ ′ . {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {a}}'=\left({\ddot {r}}'-r'{\dot {\theta }}'^{2}\right){\hat {\boldsymbol {r}}}'+\left(r'{\ddot {\theta }}'+2{\dot {r}}'{\dot {\theta }}'\right){\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}'.\ } In this case the azimuthal term is zero, being the rate of change of angular momentum. To obtain zero acceleration in the radial direction, however, we require: r ¨ ′ = r ′ θ ˙ ′ 2 . {\displaystyle {\ddot {r}}'=r'{\dot {\theta }}'^{2}\ .} The right-hand side is non-zero, inasmuch as neither r ′ {\displaystyle r'} nor θ ˙ ′ {\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}'} is zero. That is, we cannot obtain zero force (zero a ′ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {a}}'} ) if we retain only r ¨ ′ {\displaystyle {\ddot {r}}'} as the acceleration; we need both terms.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: Despite the above facts, suppose one were to adopt polar coordinates, and wish to say that r θ ˙ 2 {\displaystyle r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}} is "centrifugal force", and reinterpret r ¨ {\displaystyle {\ddot {r}}} as "acceleration" (without dwelling upon any possible justification). How does this decision fare when one considers that a proper formulation of physics is geometry and coordinate-independent? See the article on general covariance. To attempt to form a covariant expression, this so-called centrifugal "force" can be put into vector notation as: F θ ˙ = − ω × ( ω × r ) , {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {F_{\dot {\theta }}}}=-{\boldsymbol {\omega \times }}\left({\boldsymbol {\omega \times r}}\right)\ ,} with: ω = θ ˙ k ^ , {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\omega }}={\dot {\theta }}{\boldsymbol {\hat {k}}}\ ,} and k ^ , {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {{\hat {k}},}}} a unit vector normal to the plane of motion. Unfortunately, although this expression formally looks like a vector, when an observer changes origin the value of θ ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}} changes (see Figure 2), so observers in the same frame of reference standing on different street corners see different "forces" even though the actual events they witness are identical.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: Next, the same approach is used to find the fictitious forces of a (non-inertial) rotating frame. For example, if a rotating polar coordinate system is adopted for use in a rotating frame of observation, both rotating at the same constant counterclockwise rate Ω, one can find the equations of motion in this frame as follows: the radial coordinate in the rotating frame is taken as r, but the angle θ' in the rotating frame changes with time: θ ′ = θ − Ω t . {\displaystyle \theta '=\theta -\Omega t\ .} Consequently, θ ˙ ′ = θ ˙ − Ω . {\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}'={\dot {\theta }}-\Omega \ .} Plugging this result into the acceleration using the unit vectors of the previous section: d 2 r d t 2 = [ r ¨ − r ( θ ˙ ′ + Ω ) 2 ] r ^ + [ r θ ¨ ′ + 2 r ˙ ( θ ˙ ′ + Ω ) ] θ ^ = ( r ¨ − r θ ˙ ′ 2 ) r ^ + ( r θ ¨ ′ + 2 r ˙ θ ˙ ′ ) θ ^ − ( 2 r Ω θ ˙ ′ + r Ω 2 ) r ^ + ( 2 r ˙ Ω ) θ ^ . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {d^{2}\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}&=\left{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+\left{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\\&=({\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\theta }}'^{2}){\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+(r{\ddot {\theta }}'+2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}'){\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}-\left(2r\Omega {\dot {\theta }}'+r\Omega ^{2}\right){\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+\left(2{\dot {r}}\Omega \right){\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\ .\end{aligned}}} The leading two terms are the same form as those in the inertial frame, and they are the only terms if the frame is not rotating, that is, if Ω=0. However, in this rotating frame we have the extra terms:


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: − ( 2 r Ω θ ˙ ′ + r Ω 2 ) r ^ + ( 2 r ˙ Ω ) θ ^ {\displaystyle -\left(2r\Omega {\dot {\theta }}'+r\Omega ^{2}\right){\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+\left(2{\dot {r}}\Omega \right){\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}} The radial term Ω2 r is the centrifugal force per unit mass due to the system's rotation at rate Ω and the radial term 2 r Ω θ ˙ ′ {\displaystyle 2r\Omega {\dot {\theta }}'} is the radial component of the Coriolis force per unit mass, where r θ ˙ ′ {\displaystyle r{\dot {\theta }}'} is the tangential component of the particle velocity as seen in the rotating frame. The term − ( 2 r ˙ Ω ) θ ^ {\displaystyle -\left(2{\dot {r}}\Omega \right){\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}} is the so-called azimuthal component of the Coriolis force per unit mass. In fact, these extra terms can be used to measure Ω and provide a test to see whether or not the frame is rotating, just as explained in the example of rotating identical spheres. If the particle's motion can be described by the observer using Newton's laws of motion without these Ω-dependent terms, the observer is in an inertial frame of reference where Ω = 0.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: Using relations like this one: e j ˙ = ∑ k = 1 d ∂ ∂ q k e j q ˙ k = ∑ k = 1 d ∑ i = 1 d Γ k i j q ˙ i e k , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\dot {\boldsymbol {e_{j}}}}=\sum _{k=1}^{d}{\frac {\partial }{\partial q_{k}}}{\boldsymbol {e_{j}}}{\dot {q}}_{k}\\&=\sum _{k=1}^{d}\sum _{i=1}^{d}{\Gamma ^{k}}_{ij}{\dot {q}}_{i}{\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}\ ,\end{aligned}}} which allows all the time derivatives to be evaluated. For example, for the velocity: v = d d t r = ∑ k = 1 d q ˙ k e k + ∑ k = 1 d q k e k ˙ = ∑ k = 1 d q ˙ k e k + ∑ j = 1 d q j e j ˙ , = ∑ k = 1 d q ˙ k e k + ∑ k = 1 d ∑ j = 1 d ∑ i = 1 d q j Γ k i j e k q ˙ i = ∑ k = 1 d ( q ˙ k + ∑ j = 1 d ∑ i = 1 d q j Γ k i j q ˙ i ) e k , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\boldsymbol {v}}&={\frac {d}{dt}}{\boldsymbol {r}}=\sum _{k=1}^{d}{\dot {q}}_{k}\ {\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}+\sum _{k=1}^{d}q_{k}\ {\dot {\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}}\\&=\sum _{k=1}^{d}{\dot {q}}_{k}\ {\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}+\sum _{j=1}^{d}q_{j}\ {\dot {\boldsymbol {e_{j}}}},\\&=\sum _{k=1}^{d}{\dot {q}}_{k}\ {\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}+\sum _{k=1}^{d}\sum _{j=1}^{d}\sum _{i=1}^{d}q_{j}\ {\Gamma ^{k}}_{ij}{\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}{\dot {q}}_{i}\\&=\sum _{k=1}^{d}\left({\dot {q}}_{k}\ +\sum _{j=1}^{d}\sum _{i=1}^{d}q_{j}\ {\Gamma ^{k}}_{ij}{\dot {q}}_{i}\right){\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}\ ,\end{aligned}}} with the Γ-notation for the Christoffel symbols replacing the bracket notation. Using the same approach, the acceleration is then: a = d d t v = ∑ k = 1 d v ˙ k e k + ∑ k = 1 d v k e k ˙ = ∑ k = 1 d ( v ˙ k + ∑ j = 1 d ∑ i = 1 d v j Γ k i j q ˙ i ) e k . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\boldsymbol {a}}&={\frac {d}{dt}}{\boldsymbol {v}}=\sum _{k=1}^{d}{\dot {v}}_{k}\ {\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}+\sum _{k=1}^{d}v_{k}\ {\dot {\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}}\\&=\sum _{k=1}^{d}\left({\dot {v}}_{k}\ +\sum _{j=1}^{d}\sum _{i=1}^{d}v_{j}{\Gamma ^{k}}_{ij}{\dot {q}}_{i}\right){\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}\ .\end{aligned}}} Looking at the relation for acceleration, the first summation contains the time derivatives of velocity, which would be associated with acceleration if these were Cartesian coordinates, and the second summation (the one with Christoffel symbols) contains terms related to the way the unit vectors change with time.


title: Mechanics of planar particle motion

text: The "coordinate" approach to Newton's law above is to retain the second-order time derivatives of the coordinates {qk} as the only terms on the right side of this equation, motivated more by mathematical convenience than by physics. To that end, the force law can be rewritten, taking the second summation to the force-side of the equation as: F − m ∑ j = 1 d ∑ i = 1 d v j Γ k i j q ˙ i e k = m a ~ , {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {F}}-m\sum _{j=1}^{d}\sum _{i=1}^{d}v_{j}{\Gamma ^{k}}_{ij}{\dot {q}}_{i}{\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}=m{\tilde {\boldsymbol {a}}}\ ,} with the convention that the "acceleration" a ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {\boldsymbol {a}}}} is now: a ~ = ∑ k = 1 d v ˙ k e k . {\displaystyle {\tilde {\boldsymbol {a}}}=\sum _{k=1}^{d}{\dot {v}}_{k}{\boldsymbol {e_{k}}}\ .} In the expression above, the summation added to the force-side of the equation now is treated as if added "forces" were present. These summation terms are customarily called fictitious forces within this "coordinate" approach, although in this inertial frame of reference all "state-of-motion" fictitious forces are identically zero. Moreover, these "forces" do not transform under coordinate transformations as vectors. Thus, the designation of the terms of the summation as "fictitious forces" uses this terminology for contributions that are completely different from any real force, and from the "state-of-motion" fictitious forces. What adds to this confusion is that these "coordinate" fictitious forces are divided into two groups and given the same names as the "state-of-motion" fictitious forces, that is, they are divided into "centrifugal" and "Coriolis" terms, despite their inclusion of terms that are not the "state-of-motion" centrifugal and Coriolis terms. For example, these "coordinate" centrifugal and Coriolis terms can be nonzero even in an inertial frame of reference where the "state-of-motion" centrifugal force (the subject of this article) and Coriolis force always are zero.


title: Unity makes strength

text: The motto was used by Belgium after its Revolution of 1830, initially only in its French form "L'union fait la force". Only when Dutch was made equal in status to French did the Belgian state also take "Eendracht maakt macht" as its motto, sometimes with the variant "Eenheid baart macht". In 1830, this unity was identified with the unification of Belgium's nine provinces, whose nine provincial coats of arms are represented on the national arms, and the new country's unification of its liberal progressives and Catholic conservatives. Indeed, it was launched in 1827–1828 by newspapers published in Liège, which allied liberals and Catholics in the unionism which brought about the revolution and which then dominated Belgian politics until the founding of the Liberal Party in 1846. Although the motto is often used in Belgicist or unitarist circles (as a call to Flemings and Walloons, natives of Brussels and German speakers, all to maintain Belgium's unity), this is a historical misinterpretation; the motto is a unionist – not a unitarist – slogan. Its German version is "Einigkeit macht stark".


title: Italian destroyer Corazziere (1909)

text: Corazziere joined the battle on its second day when, according to some sources, she was operating off Igoumenitsa with other Italian ships on the morning of 30 September 1911 and the Italians sighted a force of Ottoman torpedo boats leaving the port of Preveza. When they reported the sighting to higher command, they received orders to let the torpedo boats move away from the coast and then, taking advantage of the greater speed of the Italian ships, close with them and sink them. The Italian ships managed to surround the torpedo boats, which at that point attempted to escape at full steam towards the south instead of heading back toward Preveza. The Italians found this suspicious, and while Corazziere and her sister ship Artigliere pursued the torpedo boats, the destroyer Alpino steamed north to conduct a reconnaissance of the approaches to Preveza, where she discovered steamers attempting to reach Prevenza while the Ottoman torpedo boats distracted the Italian ships, and she seized one of the steamers. Meanwhile, Corazziere and Artigliere closed with the Ottoman torpedo boats, which opened fire ineffectively. Corazziere and Artigliere returned fire, reducing the torpedo boats Alpagot and Hamidiye to wrecks and inducing an ammuniton magazine explosion aboard one of them. The two torpedo boats struggled back to port and sank there, and the two Italian destroyers rescued some members of their crews. Those members of their crews who reached a nearby beach opened rifle fire on the two Italian destroyers, which returned fire and silenced them. Other Ottoman torpedo boats that had been operating with Alpagot and Hamidiye returned safely to port. Meanwhile, Corazziere and Artigliere captured the armed yacht Teties (referred to as "Thetis" or "Tarabulus" in some sources); the yacht later was incorporated into the Regia Marina as the gunboat Capitano Verri.


title: Italian destroyer Corazziere (1909)

text: In a 1912 magazine article and a 1913 book based on contemporary sources, United States Navy Commodore W. H. Beehler offers a different version of the events of 30 September 1911. He states that an officer from Corazziere went ashore at Prevenza on the evening of 29 September 1911 and ascertained the positions at which Alpagot and Hamidiye were anchored, which he reported to Capitano di fregata (Frigate Captain) Guido Biscaretti di Ruffia, the commanding officer of Artigliere and a future ammiraglio di squadra (squadron admiral). Artigliere and Corazziere penetrated the harbor on the morning of 30 September, where they sank Alpagot and Hamidiye with gunfire while they were at anchor; all but one man from the two torpedo boats' crews escaped to shore. Corazziere then made preparations to tow the armed yacht "Telied" away as a prize, and a "mob" on shore opened fire on her. She returned fire, silencing the mob and damaging the fort at Prevenza, which did not fire during the battle. The two destroyers then put back to sea with the yacht in tow, having fired 76 shells in an engagement lasting 45 minutes.


title: Italian destroyer Corazziere (1909)

text: The historian Charles Stephenson offers yet another version of events. According to him, the Italians decided not to attempt an incursion into the harbor at Preveza to attack the Ottoman torpedo boat Antalya, which had reached that port at the end of the first day of the battle on 29 September, and instead proceeded to the waters off Igoumenitsa, where Alpagot and Hamidiye were anchored in the harbor. Corazziere, Alpino, and Artigliere then penetrated the harbor at Igoumenitsa on the morning of 30 September, where Artigliere and Corazziere sank Alpagot and Hamidiye with gunfire while they still were at anchor. Meanwhile, Alpino came alongside the armed yacht "Trablus," whose boilers were under repair. The yacht's crew opened her seacocks in an attempt to scuttle her and abandoned ship. Alpino sent a boarding party aboard the yacht and closed the seacocks to prevent her from sinking. The Alpino crewmen were cutting the yacht's mooring lines when civilians on shore opened fire on the boarding party, prompting Corazziere to bombard the town, silencing the civilian gunfire and damaging the fort at Igoumenitsa, which did not fire during the battle. Alpino then towed the yacht out of port.


title: Physcidia striata

text: Physcidia striata is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), microfoliose lichen in the family Ramalinaceae. Found in South America, it was formally described as a new species in 2014 by lichenologists André Aptroot, Marcela Cáceres, and Einar Timdal. The type specimen was collected by the first two authors from the Estação Ecológica de Cuniã (Rondônia), where it was found growing on the smooth bark of a tree in a primary rainforest. It also occurs in Peru. The thallus of the lichen is a loose mat of squamules (scales) without a hypothallus. Its lobes are smooth, flat, branched, and greyish-green, measuring 2–7 mm long by 0.5–1.5 mm wide. The species epithet striata refers to the faint longitudinal striations that are present on the lobe undersides. Isidia occur on the thallus surface; they are the same colour as the thallus, with dimensions of 0.3–0.7 mm long by 0.1–0.2 mm wide. When they are abraded, it reveals the whitish colour of the underlying medulla. The lichen contains divaricatic acid, a lichen product that is revealed with the use of thin-layer chromatography.


title: Manly ferry services

text: In the mid-1960s hydrofoil services were introduced to complement the traditional ferries. They halved the travel time of the ferries but had significantly higher fares. The hydrofoils were replaced in 1990 by Jetcats, however, these proved unreliable and expensive and were replaced by the current Manly fast ferry service. The Sydney JetCats high speed service, was discontinued on 31 December 2008 and replaced with a privately owned service operated by Manly Fast Ferries. In March 2010, the government announced that that Manly Fast Ferries contract had not been renewed. Instead another private operator, Sydney Fast Ferries, was awarded a five-year contract from 1 April 2010. However both operators continued to operate services between Circular Quay and Manly During 2014 Transport for NSW put out a tender for a combined service to commence during 2015 with Bass & Flinders Cruises, SeaLink Travel Group, Sydney Fast Ferries and Transit Systems responding. On 13 December 2014, it was announced that Manly Fast Ferries had won back the rights to operate the service, with a new contract which commenced on 1 April 2015.


title: It's Alive III: Island of the Alive

text: In a courtroom, Stephen Jarvis is pleading for the court to spare his mutant son's life, who he argues acts aggressively because it's reacting to the hostility of the people and chaos surrounding him. The baby breaks out of its cage, but Jarvis calms it, convincing the judge to spare the child and four others like him by quarantining them on a remote deserted island. After the trial, Jarvis is a social pariah, unable to work his former acting job and the child's mother, Ellen, wants to live her own life without him as if she never gave birth. Jarvis soon becomes remarkably bitter, as he can't pay his legal fees and women want nothing to do with him, afraid that he'll pass on the mutation through casual touch. Aware that the babies are still alive and the mutations were a side effect of a medication his pharmaceutical company produced, Cabot and some of his associates travel to the island. They hope to kill the babies to manufacture the drug under a new label, only for the mutant babies to kill and eat the entire party.


title: It's Alive III: Island of the Alive

text: Five years later, Lt. Perkins approaches Jarvis, telling him that Dr. Swenson has recruited him to launch an expedition to the island to study the babies' growth and wants Jarvis to accompany them. The trip proves to be disastrous; only Jarvis and Perkins survive - Perkins has been deserted on the island while Jarvis remains on the boat as the mutants' captive as they want to travel to Cape Vale, Florida. While traveling, Jarvis realizes that the babies grew quickly and have reached adulthood, as one of them has given birth to a baby, with the father implied to be Jarvis's son. Jarvis discerns that the mutants communicate with each other telepathically. He also determines that the only reason he's still alive is because of the existence of the ship's sailing crew's bodies and because his son has been protecting him. He also realizes that the children are traveling to find Ellen. Eventually, their ship comes across another vessel, at which point Jarvis's son throws his father overboard to save his life, expecting that the ship will pick him up.


title: It's Alive III: Island of the Alive

text: When Jarvis awakens, he finds himself held captive in Cuba but manages to convince his captors of his identity, that the mutant children pose a danger to those around them, and to get them to take him back home. Meanwhile, the children arrive in the United States, where they promptly kill several people they consider a threat to either them or Ellen while also defending a woman being attacked by killing a gang of punks. Ultimately both Jarvis and the mutants find Ellen, upon which point the mutants try to get her to take the child. Initially reluctant, Ellen accepts the child after Jarvis convinces that the mutants looked for her out of love for their child, as they're dying of measles and would be unable to care for the child and because they strongly instinctually associated her with motherhood. The two accept the child just as its parents die from measles, while the final remaining adult mutant distracts the police, allowing Jarvis and Ellen to escape. The film ends with the two driving away together with the child, searching for a safe place to raise it.


title: U.S. Route 50 Business (Salisbury, Maryland)

text: After crossing the North Prong of the Wicomico River on a drawbridge, the business route intersects Division Street, the original alignment of US 13. The highway drops to four lanes as ramps to Baptist Street heading eastbound and from Broad Street heading westbound leave the highway; these streets are used to access US 13 Business (Salisbury Boulevard). US 50 Business expands to six lanes again after passing under US 13 Business and the Delmarva Subdivision track of the Delmarva Central Railroad. The business route returns to four lanes after the intersection with MD 346 (Main Street), which is the original alignment of US 50. The median expands as US 50 Business passes commercial and industrial properties. A park and ride lot is located at the southeast corner of the Phillip Morris Drive intersection. Shortly after the intersection with Tilghman Road, the business route reaches its eastern terminus at a partial cloverleaf interchange with the Salisbury Bypass, which features US 13 and US 50 west. The divided highway continues east as US 50 (Ocean Gateway) toward Ocean City.


text: The original east–west highway through Salisbury entered the city from Hebron along its present course from the northwest to Isabella Street. The highway then followed Main Street to downtown Salisbury. The highway followed Broad Street to Church Street, which the road followed east toward Parsonsburg. This highway was one of the original state roads designated for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission (SRC) in 1909. The state roads from Hebron to the western limit of Salisbury and from the eastern limit of Salisbury to Parsonsburg were both completed in 1914. The SRC directed two major changes on Main Street in the mid-1920s. First, the SRC took over maintenance of the drawbridge over the North Prong of the Wicomico River in 1924 and completed its replacement in 1928. While Main Street is no longer a state highway, MDSHA continues to maintain the Main Street drawbridge. The drawbridge was reconstructed in 1980 and is designated as MD 991, which is unsigned. Secondly, the SRC extended Main Street east from downtown along its present course east and then northeast to Church Street in 1926. US 213 was designated as the main east–west highway through Salisbury in 1927. US 213 was moved from Church Street to Main Street around 1940. US 50 replaced US 213 through Salisbury in 1949.


title: Pew Research Center political typology

text: The Outsider Left are younger liberal voters that are skeptical of the political system and both major political parties. They make up 10% of the public and 16% of the Democratic coalition. Nearly all of the Outsider Left believe that the American political system unfairly favors powerful interests, and about half say that the government is wasteful and inefficient. They are the group most likely to say that no political candidate represents their political views and the group least likely to say that there is a "great deal of difference" between the parties. 94% of the Outsider Left voted for Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election. In the Democratic primary, 38% supported Bernie Sanders, 18% supported Elizabeth Warren, and 12% supported Joe Biden. Demographically, the Outsider Left are the youngest group, with 83% being under the age of 50. The group is racially diverse, with only 49% being white Americans. They are also one of the least religious groups, with 51% identifying as religiously unaffiliated.


title: Pew Research Center political typology

text: The Progressive Left are younger highly liberal voters. They make up 6% of the public and 12% of the Democratic coalition. The Progressive Left typically believe that the scope of government should "greatly expand" and that the institutions of the United States need to be "completely rebuilt" to combat racism. They are the most likely group to say that there are countries better than the United States, that the American military should be reduced, that fossil fuels should be phased out, and that the existence of billionaires is bad for society. 98% of the Progressive Left voted for Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election. In the Democratic primary, 35% supported Bernie Sanders, 28% supported Elizabeth Warren, and 15% supported Joe Biden. Demographically, 68% of the Progressive Left is made up of white voters, making it the least racially diverse group of Democratic coalition. They lean younger and less religious, and they are the most likely group to be fully vaccinated against COVID-19.


title: Pew Research Center political typology

text: Stressed Sideliners make up the portion of the American electorate that do not strongly associate with any political ideology and have low interest in politics. They make up 15% of the public, 13% of the Democratic coalition, and 15% of the Republican coalition. 45% lean Democratic, 45% lean Republican, and 10% do not lean toward either party. As a whole, Stressed Sideliners generally lean liberal on economic issues and lean conservative on social issues. They generally support raising the minimum wage to $15 per hour and believe that the American economic system unfairly favors the powerful. They are also the group most likely to agree with the statements that "most big issues facing the country today don't have clear solutions" and "you can't be too careful in dealing with people". 49% voted for Donald Trump while 48% voted for Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election. However, Stressed Sideliners are less likely to vote than other groups, with only 45% voting in 2020. Demographically, 57% of Stressed Sideliners are white, 56% are women, and they are one of the least wealthy and least educated groups.


title: Pew Research Center political typology

text: Enterprises were pro-business, anti-government Republicans that wished to reduce the deficit through decreased spending. Moralists were highly conservative, highly religious middle-aged Republicans. Upbeats were young, Republican-leaning voters that believed in American exceptionalism and were optimistic about the governing of the United States. Disaffecteds were middle-aged Republican-leaning voters that were highly skeptical of both government and business. Bystanders were voters that did not vote, typically young and poorly educated. Followers were Democratic-leaning voters that were indifferent to American government but supported spending to reduce unemployment. Seculars were non-religious Democratic-leaning voters. '60s Democrats were upper-middle-class Democrats that supported social justice and government spending. The New Dealers were older blue-collar union Democrats that favored social spending but opposed social tolerance. The Passive Poor were older and poorer Democrats that supported American government and social justice. The Partisan Poor were low income Democrats that supported social justice and showed strong partisan support.


title: Pew Research Center political typology

text: The 1999 report updated the typology to reflect the electorate going into the 2000 presidential election. Among the Republicans, the Staunch Conservatives were defined as the successors to the Enterprisers, supporting pro-business and socially conservative politics. The Moderate Republicans were defined as the successors of the Upbeats that remained with the Republican Party after many shifted their support to the Democratic Party. The Populist Republicans were defined as successors to the Moralists, poorer and highly religious voters that support social conservatism and government spending. Among the center, New Prosperity Independents were defined as wealthy independents that were satisfied with the government. The Disaffecteds were restored from the 1987 report, replacing the Embittered as low income voters that feel estranged from both political parties. The Bystanders were retained from the previous report. Among the Democrats, the Liberal Democrats were defined as a merger of the Seculars and the 60s Democrats, highly educated voters that supported liberal views on social issues. The Socially Conservative Democrats were defined as successors to the New Dealers. The New Democrats and the Partisan Poor were retained from the previous report.


title: Pew Research Center political typology

text: Among Republicans, the Enterprisers were retained from previous reports as highly conservative pro-business Republicans. The Social Conservatives represented a merger of the Moralists and the Moderate Republicans, supporting strong foreign policy while opposing welfare and immigration. The Pro-Government Conservatives were defined as successors to the Populist Republicans, being highly religious and conservative but supporting a social safety net. The Upbeats were retained as supporters of both government and business, also absorbing the New Prosperity Independents. Among the center, the Disaffecteds were retained, representing those that were skeptical of both parties. The Bystanders were also retained, representing those that did not participate in politics. Among Democrats, the Liberals were identified as the largest share of Democrats, representing a merger of the Liberal Democrats, the Seculars, and the 60s Democrats. The Conservative Democrats were the successors of the Socially Conservative Democrats and the New Dealers, being more religious and less liberal than other Democrats. The Disadvantaged Democrats were the successors of the Partisan Poor, supporting Democrats and the government while opposing big business.


title: Pew Research Center political typology

text: Staunch Conservatives were highly conservative and highly religious voters affiliated with the Tea Party movement, supporting military strength while opposing big government and environmental laws. Main Street Republicans were conservative voters primarily from the South and the Midwest, generally opposing government while supporting environmental regulations. Libertarians were economically conservative and socially liberal voters, with a higher proportion of wealthy and male voters than other groups. The Disaffecteds were poorer socially conservative voters that supported government assistance to the poor but saw the government as inefficient. The Post-Moderns were well-off voters that supported government regulation and environmentalism while opposing liberal stances on race and welfare. The New Coalition Democrats were poorer religious voters that supported immigration and government regulation, making up the only majority-minority group. Hard-Pressed Democrats were socially conservative blue-collar Democrats that supported welfare but opposed immigration and big business. Solid Liberals were pro-government Democrats that supported regulation, environmentalism, and welfare, making up the most secular group. Bystanders were Americans that were not registered to vote, leaning younger, poorer, and less educated.


title: Elizabeth Reitz

text: Elizabeth Jean "Betsy" Reitz is a zooarchaeologist and Professor Emerita in the Georgia Museum of Natural History and the Department of Anthropology at the University of Georgia. She was born in 1946 in Lake Alfred, Florida. She attended Florida Presbyterian College (now Eckerd College) from 1966 to 1967. She received her BA , MA , and her PhD in Anthropology from the University of Florida. Her dissertation was directed by Elizabeth Wing. Reitz is a member of the International Council for Archaeozoology's Committee of Honor. In 2012, she was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and in 2014, she was named to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. She was the recipient of the 2016 Fryxell Award for Interdisciplinary Research in Archaeology, given by the Society for American Archaeology. The Fryxell Award is given to scholars who have made significant contributions in the application of the zoological sciences in archaeology. She is a member of the Committee of Honor of the International Council for Zooarchaeology (ICAZ). In 2019, Reitz was awarded the Southeastern Archaeological Conference's Lifetime Achievement Award.


title: Robert Katzmann

text: Katzmann served as a law clerk to Judge Hugh H. Bownes of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit from 1980 to 1981. He was a fellow at the Brookings Institution from 1981 to 1999. He was an adjunct professor at Georgetown University Law Center from 1984 to 1989. He was an adjunct professor with the Georgetown University Public Policy Program from 1987 to 1992. Katzmann was president of the Governance Institute from 1986 to 1999. He was a special assistant to the director of the Federal Judicial Center from 1986 to 1988. He was a visiting professor of the University of California, Los Angeles (Washington, D.C., program), from 1990 to 1992. He was the Wayne Morse Chair in law and politics at the University of Oregon in 1992. He was acting program director at the Brookings Institution in 1998. Katzmann was the Walsh Professor of Government, professor of law and professor of public policy at Georgetown University from 1992 to 1999. His twin brother, Gary Katzmann, is a judge of the United States Court of International Trade.


title: Robert Katzmann

text: Katzmann was a board director of the American Judicature Society, a public member of the Administrative Conference of the United States, and a vice-chair of the Committee on Government Organization and Separation of Powers of the ABA Section on Administrative Law and Regulatory Practice. He has also been a consultant to the Federal Courts Study Committee. He served as co-chair of the FTC transition team, and as special counsel to Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan on the confirmation of Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg. He has also been chair of the Section on Legislation of the Association of American Law Schools. Katzmann was a member of the Board of Trustees of the New York Public Library, the Board of Visitors of Georgetown University Law Center, the Board of Directors of the Institute of Judicial Administration of NYU, the advisory board of Roosevelt House of Hunter College, and a member of the National Board of Academic Advisors of the Rehnquist Center located in the James E. Rogers College of Law at the University of Arizona. He was recipient of the American Political Science Association's Charles E. Merriam Award , "given to a person whose published work and career represents a significant contribution to the art of government through the application of social science research." Since 2003, Judge Katzmann has been a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.


title: Robert Katzmann

text: For his judicial writing, Katzmann was recognized as an "Exemplary Legal Writing 2008" honoree by the Green Bag, a journal dedicated to good legal writing. Judge Katzmann has also been awarded: the Learned Hand Medal for Excellence in Federal Jurisprudence of the Federal Bar Council; the Chesterfield Smith Award of the Pro Bono Institute, presented by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg; the Thurgood Marshall Award of the American Bar Association; the Stanley H. Fuld Award of the New York State Bar Association; the Edward Weinfeld Award of the New York County Lawyers Association, presented by Robert M. Morgenthau; NYU Annual Survey of American Law Dedicatee; Honorary Doctor of Law degrees from New York Law School, John Jay College of Criminal Justice and Pace University; the Michael Maggio Memorial Pro Bono Award of the American Immigration Lawyers Association; Sanctuary for Families' Abeley Award; Burton Award for Education in Law; Public Service Champion of Legal Outreach and the Public Interest Scholarship Organization Lifetime Achievement Award. His lectures include: the James Madison Lecture of New York University School of Law; the Orison Marden Lecture of the NYC Bar Association; and the Robert L. Levine Distinguished Lecture of Fordham University School of Law.


title: Robert Katzmann

text: Katzmann's tenure as Chief Judge was described as "remarkable" and pioneering. As Chief Judge, he launched a civic education initiative of the federal courts of the Second Circuit, Justice For All: Courts and the Community. The project, with the active participation of judges, court staff, the bar, and educators, encompasses a wide range of activities and seeks to increase public understanding of the role and operations of the federal courts and bring courts closer to the communities they serve. Chief Judge Katzmann convened, along with Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts Director, James C. Duff, the first national conference on civic education and the federal courts, at the Thurgood Marshall U.S. Courthouse in New York City, in October 2019. Conferees included three Supreme Court Justices – Breyer, Sotomayor and Gorsuch – as well as judges and educators from across the country. During his term as Chief Judge, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals engaged in a year-long 125th anniversary retrospective on the history of the court, a collaborative effort of judges, staff, and the bar, resulting in a book of judicial biographies, a volume on the jurisprudence of the Second Circuit, and a variety of public programs.


title: Fred M. Guirey

text: He was born on December 6, 1908, in Oakland, California, he graduated University of California, Berkeley with a degree in architecture in 1933. After his graduation he worked for the Arizona highway department as a landscape architect. In 1939 he married Catherine Bolen. that same year they began building their home in Phoenix. In 1946 he began his profession as a Phoenix architect with a partnership with Stan Quist as the firm Guirey & Quist. Stan Quist died in 1947 and Guirey subsequently entered a partnership with Hugh Jones as the firm Guirey & Jones. The two were associated until 1950 at which time Guirey began to practice on his own. In 1952 he built his architecture office at 506 East Camelback in Phoenix. In 1961 he entered partnership with Milan E. Srnka and Richard M. Arnold and his firm became known as Guirey, Srnka & Arnold. In 1965 they hired George Sprinkle to manage the firm's satellite Flagstaff office. Around 1970 George Sprinkle was made a partner and the firm became known as Guirey, Srnka, Arnold & Sprinkle or GSAS Architects for short. In the early 1980s Guirey had two heart attacks which restricted his work. In 1980 George Sprinkle died of a brain tumor. In 1982 Richard Arnold died; that same year, there was a fire at the office. The firm was merged with Daniel, Mann, Johnson & Mendenhall in 1982. Fred Guirey died in 1984.


title: Thomas Harrison (soldier)

text: ...(Harrison) not only pleaded not guilty, but justified the sentence passed upon the King (Charles I), and the authority of those who had commissioned him to act as one of his judges. He plainly told them, when witnesses were produced against him, that he came not thither with an intention to deny anything he had done, but rather to bring it to light, owning his name subscribed to the warrant for executing the King, to be written by himself; charging divers of those who sat on the Bench, as his judges, to have been formerly as active for the cause, in which he had engaged, as himself or any other person; affirming that he had not acted by any other motive than the principles of conscience and justice; for proof of which he said it was well known, he had chosen to be separated from his family, and to suffer a long imprisonment rather than to comply with those who had abused the power they had assumed to the oppression of the people. He insisted that having done nothing, in relation to the matter in question, otherwise than by the authority of the Long Parliament, he was not justly accountable to this or any other inferior Court; which being a point of law, he desired to have council assigned upon that head; but the Court over-ruled; and by interrupting him frequently, and not permitting him to go on in this defense, they clearly manifested a resolution of gratifying the resentments of the Court upon any terms. So that a hasty verdict was brought in against him, and the question being asked, if he had anything to say, why judgement should not pass, he only said, that since the Court had refused to hear what was fit for him to speak in his defense, he had no more to say; upon which Bridgeman pronounced the sentence. And that the inhumanity of these men may the better appear, I (Edmond Ludlow) must not omit, that the executioner in an ugly dress, with a halter in his hand, was placed near the Major-General, and continued there during the whole time of his trial, which action I doubt whether it was ever equaled by the most barbarous nations. But having learned to condemn such baseness, after the sentence had been pronounced against him, he (Major-General Harrison) said aloud as he was withdrawn from the Court, that he had no reason to be ashamed of the cause in which he had been engaged.


title: Jaswant Singh Rawat

text: During the Battle of Nuranang on 17 November 1962 in the North-East Frontier Agency (now Arunachal Pradesh), the Rifleman Jaswant Singh Rawat was serving in the 4th battalion of 4th Garhwal Rifles regiment. On that day, the 4th Garhwal Rifles had beaten back two People's Liberation Army charges on their position. During a third intrusion, a Chinese medium machine gun (MMG) had come close to the Indian defenses and was firing accurately at their positions. Rifleman Jaswant Singh Rawat, along with Lance Naik Trilok Singh Negi and Rifleman Gopal Singh Gusain volunteered to subdue the MMG. Rawat and Gusain, aided by covering fire from Negi closed within a grenade-throwing distance of the machine gun position and neutralized the Chinese detachment of five sentries, seizing the MMG in the process. However, while returning, Gusain and Negi lost their lives and Rawat was seriously injured, although he managed to return with the captured weapon. The battle resulted in 300 Chinese casualties, whereas the 4th Garhwal Rifles lost two men and had eight wounded.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: During his first 100 days as president, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing the New Deal, building the New Deal coalition, and realigning American politics into the Fifth Party System. He created numerous programs to provide relief to the unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery with the National Recovery Administration and other programs. He also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor, and presided over the end of Prohibition. In 1936, Roosevelt won a landslide reelection. He was unable to expand the Supreme Court in 1937, the same year the conservative coalition was formed to block the implementation of further New Deal programs and reforms. Major surviving programs and legislation implemented under Roosevelt include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the National Labor Relations Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and Social Security. In 1940, he ran successfully for reelection, one entire term before the official implementation of term limits.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Roosevelt obtained a declaration of war on Japan. After Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. on December 11, 1941, the United States Congress approved additional declarations of war in return. He worked closely with other national leaders in leading the Allies against the Axis powers. Roosevelt supervised the mobilization of the American economy to support the war effort and implemented a Europe first strategy. He also initiated the development of the first atomic bomb and worked with the other Allied leaders to lay the groundwork for the United Nations and other post-war institutions, even coining the term "United Nations". Roosevelt won reelection in 1944 but died in 1945 after his physical health seriously and steadily declined during the war years. Since then, several of his actions have come under criticism, such as his ordering of the internment of Japanese Americans. Nonetheless, historical rankings consistently place him among the three greatest American presidents.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in Hyde Park, New York, to businessman James Roosevelt I and his second wife, Sara Ann Delano. His parents, who were sixth cousins, came from wealthy, established New York families—the Roosevelts, the Aspinwalls and the Delanos, respectively—and resided at Springwood, a large estate south of Hyde Park's historic center. Roosevelt's father, James, graduated from Harvard Law School but chose not to practice law after receiving an inheritance from his grandfather. James, a prominent Bourbon Democrat, once took Franklin to meet President Grover Cleveland, who said to him: "My little man, I am making a strange wish for you. It is that you may never be President of the United States." Franklin's mother, the dominant influence in his early years, once declared, "My son Franklin is a Delano, not a Roosevelt at all." James, who was 54 when Franklin was born, was considered by some as a remote father, though biographer James MacGregor Burns indicates James interacted with his son more than was typical at the time. Franklin had a half-brother, James Roosevelt "Rosy" Roosevelt, from his father's previous marriage.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt had several extramarital affairs. He commenced an affair with Eleanor's social secretary, Lucy Mercer, soon after she was hired in 1914. That affair was discovered by Eleanor in 1918. Franklin contemplated divorcing Eleanor, but Sara objected, and Mercer would not marry a divorced man with five children. Franklin and Eleanor remained married, and Franklin promised never to see Mercer again. Eleanor never forgave him for the affair, and their marriage shifted to become a political partnership. Eleanor soon established a separate home in Hyde Park at Val-Kill and devoted herself to social and political causes independent of her husband. The emotional break in their marriage was so severe that when Franklin asked Eleanor in 1942—in light of his failing health—to come live with him again, she refused. Roosevelt was not always aware of Eleanor's visits to the White House. For some time, Eleanor could not easily reach Roosevelt on the telephone without his secretary's help; Franklin, in turn, did not visit Eleanor's New York City apartment until late 1944.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt cared little for the practice of law and told friends he planned to enter politics. Despite his admiration for cousin Theodore, Franklin shared his father's bond with the Democratic Party, and in preparation for the 1910 elections, the party recruited Roosevelt to run for a seat in the New York State Assembly. Roosevelt was a compelling recruit: he had the personality and energy for campaigning and the money to pay for his own campaign. But Roosevelt's campaign for the state assembly ended after the Democratic incumbent, Lewis Stuyvesant Chanler, chose to seek re-election. Rather than putting his political hopes on hold, Roosevelt ran for a seat in the state senate. The senate district, located in Dutchess, Columbia, and Putnam, was strongly Republican. Roosevelt feared that opposition from Theodore could end his campaign, but Theodore encouraged his candidacy despite their party differences. Acting as his own campaign manager, Roosevelt traveled throughout the senate district via automobile at a time when few could afford a car. Due to his aggressive campaign, his name gained recognition in the Hudson Valley, and in the Democratic landslide in the 1910 United States elections, Roosevelt won a surprising victory.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt saw the establishment of a number of agencies and measures designed to provide relief for the unemployed and others. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration, under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, distributed relief to state governments. The Public Works Administration (PWA), under Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes, oversaw the construction of large-scale public works such as dams, bridges, and schools. The Rural Electrification Administration (REA) brought electricity for the first time to millions of rural homes. The most popular of all New Deal agencies—and Roosevelt's favorite—was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which hired 250,000 unemployed men for rural projects. Roosevelt also expanded Hoover's Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which financed railroads and industry. Congress gave the Federal Trade Commission broad regulatory powers and provided mortgage relief to millions of farmers and homeowners. Roosevelt also set up the Agricultural Adjustment Administration to increase commodity prices, by paying farmers to leave land uncultivated and cut herds. In many instances, crops were plowed under and livestock killed, while many Americans died of hunger and were ill-clothed; critics labeled such policies "utterly idiotic".


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt expected that his party would lose seats in the 1934 Congressional elections, as the president's party had done in most previous midterm elections; the Democrats gained seats instead. Empowered by the public's vote of confidence, the first item on Roosevelt's agenda in the 74th Congress was the creation of a social insurance program. The Social Security Act established Social Security and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor, and the sick. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from the general fund, saying, "We put those payroll contributions there so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security program." Compared with the social security systems in western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative. But for the first time, the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed, dependent children, and disabled people. Against Roosevelt's original intention for universal coverage, the act excluded farmers, domestic workers, and other groups, which made up about forty percent of the labor force.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: In the election against Landon and a third-party candidate, Roosevelt won 60.8% of the vote and carried every state except Maine and Vermont. The Democratic ticket won the highest proportion of the popular vote. Democrats expanded their majorities in Congress, controlling over three-quarters of the seats in each house. The election also saw the consolidation of the New Deal coalition; while the Democrats lost some of their traditional allies in big business, they were replaced by groups such as organized labor and African Americans, the latter of whom voted Democratic for the first time since the Civil War. Roosevelt lost high-income voters, especially businessmen and professionals, but made major gains among the poor and minorities. He won 86 percent of the Jewish vote, 81 percent of Catholics, 80 percent of union members, 76 percent of Southerners, 76 percent of blacks in northern cities, and 75 percent of people on relief. Roosevelt carried 102 of the country's 106 cities with a population of 100,000 or more.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: The Supreme Court became Roosevelt's primary domestic focus during his second term after the court overturned many of his programs, including NIRA. The more conservative members of the court upheld the principles of the Lochner era, which saw numerous economic regulations struck down on the basis of freedom of contract. Roosevelt proposed the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, which would have allowed him to appoint an additional Justice for each incumbent Justice over the age of 70; in 1937, there were six Supreme Court Justices over the age of 70. The size of the Court had been set at nine since the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1869, and Congress had altered the number of Justices six other times throughout U.S. history. Roosevelt's "court packing" plan ran into intense political opposition from his own party, led by Vice President Garner since it upset the separation of powers. A bipartisan coalition of liberals and conservatives of both parties opposed the bill, and Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes broke with precedent by publicly advocating the defeat of the bill. Any chance of passing the bill ended with the death of Senate Majority Leader Joseph Taylor Robinson in July 1937.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: With Roosevelt's influence on the wane following the failure of the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, conservative Democrats joined with Republicans to block the implementation of further New Deal programs. Roosevelt did manage to pass some legislation, including the Housing Act of 1937, a second Agricultural Adjustment Act, and the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938, which was the last major piece of New Deal legislation. The FLSA outlawed child labor, established a federal minimum wage, and required overtime pay for certain employees who work in excess of forty hours per week. He also passed the Reorganization Act of 1939 and subsequently created the Executive Office of the President, making it "the nerve center of the federal administrative system". When the economy began to deteriorate again in mid-1937, Roosevelt launched a rhetorical campaign against big business and monopoly power, alleging that the recession was the result of a capital strike and even ordering the Federal Bureau of Investigation to look for a criminal conspiracy (they found none). He then asked Congress for $5 billion in relief and public works funding. This created as many as 3.3 million WPA jobs by 1938. Projects accomplished under the WPA ranged from new federal courthouses and post offices to facilities and infrastructure for national parks, bridges, and other infrastructure across the country, and architectural surveys and archaeological excavations—investments to construct facilities and preserve important resources. Beyond this, however, Roosevelt recommended to a special congressional session only a permanent national farm act, administrative reorganization, and regional planning measures, all of which were leftovers from a regular session. According to Burns, this attempt illustrated Roosevelt's inability to settle on a basic economic program.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in the environment and conservation starting with his youthful interest in forestry on his family estate. Although he was never an outdoorsman or sportsman on Theodore Roosevelt's scale, his growth of the national systems was comparable. When Franklin was Governor of New York, the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration was essentially a state-level predecessor of the federal Civilian Conservation Corps, with 10,000 or more men building fire trails, combating soil erosion and planting tree seedlings in marginal farmland in New York. As President, Roosevelt was active in expanding, funding, and promoting the National Park and National Forest systems. Their popularity soared, from three million visitors a year at the start of the decade to 15.5 million in 1939. The Civilian Conservation Corps enrolled 3.4 million young men and built 13,000 miles (21,000 kilometres) of trails, planted two billion trees, and upgraded 125,000 miles (201,000 kilometres) of dirt roads. Every state had its own state parks, and Roosevelt made sure that WPA and CCC projects were set up to upgrade them as well as the national systems.


title: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the Good Neighbor Policy, which was a re-evaluation of U.S. policy toward Latin America. The United States frequently intervened in Latin America following the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823, and occupied several Latin American nations during the Banana Wars that occurred following the Spanish–American War of 1898. After Roosevelt took office, he withdrew U.S. forces from Haiti and reached new treaties with Cuba and Panama, ending their status as U.S. protectorates. In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the Montevideo Convention, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries. Roosevelt also normalized relations with the Soviet Union, which the United States had refused to recognize since the 1920s. He hoped to renegotiate the Russian debt from World War I and open trade relations, but no progress was made on either issue and "both nations were soon disillusioned by the accord."