title: Gerhard Raht

text: On 30 March at 00:50, over Welmbüttel, Raht shot down a Halifax. Raht became a night fighter ace on 21/22 June when he claimed a Stirling west of Antwerp, Belgium, at 01:32. His victim was claimed out of a 705-strong force that bombed Krefeld. 262 Lancaster, 209 Halifax, 117 Stirling, 105 Wellington bombers, supported by 12 de Havilland Mosquitos took part. Bomber Command lost 44; 17 Halifax and exactly nine each of the Lancaster, Stirling, and Wellington types were lost. On the night of 29/30 July 1943 Raht achieved his most successful night to date, downing four bombers. Over Hanover at 23:10 and southeast Heide at 00:23 he claimed an unidentified heavy bomber and a Lancaster to increase his personal telly to 8. Hovering in the same sector he downed a Halifax southeast of Heide at 00:40 and then northeast of the town that Raht caught and shot down another Halifax at 00:52 for his 10th victory. One of the bombers was No. 158 Squadron RAF Halifax II, JD277 NP-G. Flying Officer A. H. Boyle survived but pilot Flight Sergeant N. R. McDonald and five others were killed. The other may have been Halifax II JB956, KN-O of No. 77 Squadron RAF flown by Flight Sergeant George Henry Sutton. All eight men were killed on their 11th operation. Raht was flying a Dornier Do 217 on this operation.


title: Gerhard Raht

text: On 17/18 August 1943, Harris ordered Operation Hydra, a series of attacks against the Peenemünde Army Research Center producing V-weapons. Raht scrambled to intercept but only caught one Lancaster with his radar operator east of Flensburg at 02:57. Raht spotted the bomber caught in searchlights and fired off an identification flare to force the anti-aircraft batteries to cease-fire against the bomber. Raht swiftly dispatched the bomber, identified as ED725 PM-P. It belonged to No. 103 Squadron RAF and P. J. O'Donnell and his crew were killed. On 23/24 August Raht claimed his 12th victory southeast of Thomsdorf at 00:58. Raht did not score a victory again until 27/28 September 1943, when he accounted for a Lancaster over Hanover. The report lists Raht as belonging to 4./NJG 3 at this time. Raht claimed his 14th victory northeast of Stendal. The report described the enemy aircraft as a four engine bomber but did not specify the type. The 15th claim was filed that same night, when he reported a Lancaster shot down over Haguenau.


title: Gerhard Raht

text: Raht's 16th and first success in the defence of Berlin occurred in the early evening of the 1 December 1943, when he claimed a Stirling shot down over the Frisian Islands at 15:54. It was one of only two claims submitted by a German night fighter pilot on this night. The other was reported shot down by a Feldwebel Wielding north of Aschaffenburg at 21:15. Bomber Command sent 19 Stirling and 12 Halifax aircraft to the Frisians and to the east coast of Denmark on mine-laying operations. Two Stirlings were reported missing. Stirling III EH880 of No. 75 Squadron RAF, piloted by Warrant Officer G. J. S. Kerr was one of the missing aircraft. All the crew perished when it crashed after reaching base. It hit a house at the end of the airfield and five children were killed. Stirling III, EF191, WP-H, of No. 90 Squadron RAF also crashed near Esbjerg in Denmark. Sergeant J. L. Blackwood, E. Draper, J. H. Flack, Warrant Officer J. E. Nixon, Flight Sergeant C. E. Quickfall, Sergeants H. E. Steele and R. G. Whitmarsh were killed.


title: Gerhard Raht

text: In April 1944 Bomber Command turned to support the American United States Army Air Force (USAAF) Pointblank directive with greater regularity. Against the wishes of Harris, Bomber Command now turned to attacking rail yards, bridges and communications to facilitate Operation Overlord and the D-Day landings when they occurred. II./NJG 3 was based at Vechta on 1 April 1944, at the outset of the offensive. On night of the 22/23 April 1944 Bomber Command attacked targets throughout Germany. Raht caught a Halifax south west of Düsseldorf at 01:23 and another northwest of the city at 01:44 for his 30th victory. One of Raht's victims was Avro Lancaster I DV394, KC-M, from the famous No. 617 Squadron RAF "Dambusters". Flight Lieutenant J. L. Cooper DFC was taken prisoner with all but one of crew—G. J. Harden DFC was the only member of the crew killed. 24/25 April Raht downed a Lancaster 30 to 40 kilometres (19 to 25 miles) south of Echterdingen. The next night over Schweinfurt at 02:15 Raht claimed another Lancaster. On 1 May 1944 Raht was promoted to Hauptmann.


title: Gerhard Raht

text: Raht did not score again until the Allied invasion had begun on 6 June 1944. The month he transferred to Nachtjagdgeschwader 2 (NJG 2) as Gruppenkommandeur of I./NJG 2 in France. Raht's combat claim for the night of the 11/12 June 1944 simply stated he shot down a four-engine bomber over the French coast at 00:53. Another unidentified bomber was claimed southeast of Compiègne at 01:01 on 23 June. His 34th victory was one of 11 claims made by German night fighter crews on this night. The main thrust of Bomber Command operations this night had been inland. 221 aircraft—111 Lancaster and 100 Halifax bombers, supported by 10 Mosquitos from No. 1, 4 and 8 Groups attacked railway yards at Laon and Reims. Four Halifax were lost from the Laon raid and four Lancaster bombers from the Reims raid were reported missing. Minelaying sorties around French ports did not incur losses from German defences. Raht was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes) on 24 June 1944 for 34 night victories.


title: Gerhard Raht

text: A Lancaster over Bailleau-le-Pin at 01:44 on 1 July and another three at 01:04, 01:11 and sector "TD-TE" at 01:29 on 8 July brought his tall to 38. Another double claim at 02:07 and 02:17 over Coulommiers and Gien took him to 40. On the night of the 28/29 July 1944 494 Lancasters and two Mosquitos of No. 1, 3, 5 and 8 Groups attacked Stuttgart. German fighters intercepted the bomber stream while over France on the outward flight; there was a full moon and 39 Lancaster bombers were shot down, 19 per cent of the force. 307 aircraft (187 Halifax, 106 Lancaster, 14 Mosquitos from No. 1, 6 and 8 Groups) raided Hamburg. German fighters again appeared, this time on the homeward flight, and 18 Halifax and four Lancaster bombers were lost, 12 per cent of the force. The bombing was judged ineffective in the later attack. 119 aircraft of No. 1, 4 and 8 Groups also attacked the flying bomb stores area at Forêt De Nieppe without loss. 95 training aircraft flew on a diversionary sweep over the North Sea, and 13 Mosquitos flew to Frankfurt, 50 Mosquito mounted night fighter patrols while five Halifax bombers carried out minelaying in the river Elbe without loss. The conditions and size of the attack saw the Luftwaffe mount a considerable response. This night German night fighters claimed 87 bombers shot down. Raht claimed a bomber shot down his 41st victory over France at 00:45. On 25/26 August 1944 Raht downed his last of the campaign at 01:38 at an unknown location.


title: 37th Battalion (New Zealand)

text: In mid-February 1944, the 37th Battalion, as part of 14th Brigade, was involved in the Battle of the Green Islands, codenamed Operation Squarepeg. The aim was to secure an airfield for use in further advances in the Solomon Islands. On 15 February, the battalion was landed on the western side of Nissan Island, largely a coral reef, along with 35th Battalion. The 30th Battalion was landed on the eastern side of the island; collectively, the landings were the largest amphibious operation mounted by New Zealand forces in the war. Although the Japanese were present on the island, the landing was unopposed. Initially positioned to the north of the island's airstrip, it later moved to the village of Sior. Although the Japanese were reported to be in the south of the island, the battalion still carried out patrols to ensure none were still in their sector. Later in the month, soldiers from the battalion carried out landings on Sau, a small island to the northeast of Nissan Island, to deal with Japanese there. Four were wounded in exchanges of gunfire but this operation effectively ended any meaningful Japanese resistance in the area. With Nissan Island secure by 28 February, the battalion switched to a defensive mode of operations, monitoring for Japanese counterattacks and assisting in the building of the facilities necessary to allow the island to be used for air and sea operations.


title: USS Robinson (DD-562)

text: Robinson cleared Nouméa on 22 August and touched at Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides Islands, to rejoin other ships of her division, then arrived at Purvis Bay of Florida, Solomon Islands on the 26th. She stood out from Purvis Bay on 6 September, with Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf's bombardment group, and arrived off Peleliu Island, on the morning of the 12th for pre-invasion bombardment. During the Battle of Peleliu, Robinson wiped out enemy machine gun emplacements and tumbled snipers out of trees as she blasted enemy troop concentrations near "White" and "Orange" beaches. At various times, she assisted in screening cruisers Louisville (CA-28) and Portland (CA-33) and battleships Idaho (BB-42) and Mississippi (BB-41). She also raked the beach area during the daylight hours to cover underwater demolition teams, and she carried out call fire missions on enemy troops and gun batteries. On 22 September, she knocked out all guns in her area and disabled two groups of enemy tanks. She continued to hit emplacements, troop areas and supply dumps until the early morning of 24 September 1944 when she teamed with Heywood L. Edwards (DD-663) in destroying enemy barges attempting to land troops and supplies on the north shore. That evening she screened cruiser Louisville to Kossol Passage.


title: USS Robinson (DD-562)

text: Robinson cleared Seeadler Harbor on the 12th, and headed for the Philippine Islands. On 17 October 1944, she joined the Dinagat Attack Group. With light cruisers Denver (CL-58) and Columbia (CL-56), and three other destroyers, Robinson supported the Dinagat Attack Group and set course for Dinagat and the three smaller islands, Calicoan, Suluan, and Homonhon, which divided the two entrances to Leyte Gulf and were suspected of harboring enemy search radar. To put these enemy warning stations out of action, the attack group arrived off the islands at daybreak of 17 October. Cruiser Denver had the honor of firing the opening gun for the liberation of Leyte at 08:00 and Company D of the 6th Rangers was landed on Suluan Island some 20 minutes later—the first Americans to "return" to the Philippines. Robinson escorted the Ranger unit to Dinagat Island where they made an unopposed landing. She then covered minesweepers in Leyte Gulf until their retirement on the morning of 19 October. Her guns raked the invasion beaches ahead of the troops landing on Leyte, 20 October 1944, and she delivered illumination fire over the eastern shore of Leyte throughout the night. On 22 October, she rescued a downed American fighter pilot. On 24 October Robinson destroyed enemy installations on the slope of Catmon Hill, Leyte.


title: USS Robinson (DD-562)

text: At 17:10 on 24 October, Robinson was relieved from fire support duties and joined a screen for five cruisers on the left flank of the northern entrance to Surigao Strait. The destroyers were divided into three attack sections (of which Robinson was in Destroyer Squadron 56) and severely mauled the attacking Japanese (see: Battle of Surigao Strait). By early morning 25 October, the enemy was limping off in retreat, having lost two battleships, two destroyers and a cruiser. Robinson made rendezvous with the destroyers of section 3 to the north of Hibuson Island after her torpedo attack, and vainly attempted to rescue the many Japanese survivors who refused all efforts to save them. At 07:58, 25 October, Robinson joined other destroyers and cruisers in anticipation of meeting enemy surface and air units retiring from the fierce action with the escort carriers off the east coast of Samar. She cruised east of Leyte until 29 October to cover shipping in and near Leyte Gulf. She assisted in fighting off enemy air raids and escorted the bomb-damaged Killen (DD-593) to her anchorage in San Pedro Bay on 1 November. She was temporarily detached from the task group on 4 November for picket duty in Surigao Strait and rejoined the bombardment group on 13 November as it set course for Manus. She teamed with Bryant (DD-665) to shoot down an enemy plane which approached the formation on the 16th, and entered Seeadler Harbor on the 21st.


title: USS Robinson (DD-562)

text: She got underway from San Pedro Bay on 18 January to escort the attack transport Comet (APA-166) to Humboldt Bay, Hollandia, New Guinea, and returned on 3 February escorting Wright (AG-79). After installation of fighter-director radio equipment, she cleared port with Harmon (DE-678) and Greenwood (DE-679) in the screen for amphibious command ship Blue Ridge (AGC-2) and three transports; and headed for Lingayen Gulf where she performed patrol duty. She returned to San Pedro Bay with the empty troopship on 26 February, and sailed the next day with Bancroft (DD-598), escorting Rear Adm. Forrest B. Royal's amphibious command ship, Rocky Mount (AGC-3) which reached Mangarin Bay, Mindoro, on 1 March. That same day, Robinson put to sea in the screen for Task Group 78.1 (TG 78.1). The American ships arrived off the Zamboanga Peninsula of Mindanao early in the morning of 10 March, and Robinson took station off Coldera Point as troops stormed ashore under the cover of a rocket barrage. During the night, she teamed with McCalla (DD-488) for gunfire support, knocking out an enemy gun emplacement and hitting enemy pillboxes inland. On the 16th, she bombarded Isabela City, Basilan Island, creating a diversion while Army troops landed at Kulibato Point to the east. Assisted by spotting aircraft, she shelled a wharf and the area of suspected enemy underground trenches. On the evening of 18 March, she responded to the request of shore fire-control parties by blasting a Japanese troop concentration of about 150 men in the Gumularang River Valley of Basilan Island, giving support to American Army and guerilla troops. She anchored off the Santa Cruz Bank from 20 to 24 March.


title: USS Robinson (DD-562)

text: Robinson remained in reserve until recommissioned at the Charleston Naval Shipyard on 3 August 1951. She was assigned to Destroyer Division 321 and on 9 September became the flagship of Destroyer Squadron 32. After sea trials off Charleston, S.C., she arrived at Norfolk, Va. on 2 December for shakedown training in the Chesapeake Bay and off the Virginia Capes. She got underway from Norfolk on 10 January 1952 for maneuvers in the Caribbean Sea and returned on 6 March for squadron tactics and plane guard exercises with Saipan (CVL-48) and Midway (CVB-41) off the Virginia Capes. She subsequently operated off the Atlantic coast and in the Caribbean until getting underway from Norfolk on 29 June 1953 for 6 months in the western Pacific. The destroyer transited the Panama Canal and arrived at Yokosuka, Japan on 3 August 1953. Robinson performed plane guard duty with Carrier Task Force 77 off the coast of Korea, participated in hunter-killer exercises off Kobe, Japan, escorted Point Cruz (CVE-119) to Inchon, Korea, patrolled off the east coast of Korea, and visited Pusan, Asau Wan and Tsushima. Robinson then returned home via the Suez Canal and the Mediterranean, reaching Norfolk on 6 February 1954.


title: FC Santa Clarita

text: The Lancaster Rattlers entered the USL Premier Development League in 2007 as the first ever soccer franchise from the Antelope Valley area of Southern California. They played their first competitive game on April 28, 2007, a 2–1 loss to fellow expansion franchise, Ventura County Fusion, and this unfortunately set the standard for a disappointing first season. Four straight losses – including a 5–1 hammering by Bakersfield Brigade – left the Rattlers languishing at the bottom of the table. Head coach Steve McKenzie was replaced halfway through the season by Gary Brunner, the boss's son, but the change resulted in limited success; their first victory (2–1 over the San Francisco Seals) was the single bright spot of a summer which saw them lose eight of their next nine games, scoring 15 goals but conceding an astonishing 32. A difficult first season ended with the Rattlers managing a 2–2 draw against Los Angeles Storm, but finishing dead last in the division, six points adrift of their closest rivals, and second-worst in the entire PDL (only Cocoa Expos had a worse record). Martin Galvan was top scorer.


title: FC Santa Clarita

text: 2008 wasn't much better for the team from Antelope Valley; they started the season with third new head coach, Costas Skouras, but the on-field products remained poor. After a 2–2 tie with Bakersfield Brigade in their opening fixture, the Rattlers went on to lose seven straight games, including a 5–0 hammering by Los Angeles Legends, a 4–2 loss to San Fernando Valley Quakes, and a 4–1 home defeat to Fresno Fuego. The Rattlers finally picked up their first win in a see-saw game against Orange County Blue Star which saw them emerge on the right side of a 4–2 scoreline, and they followed this up with a 2–1 win on the road against Bakersfield Brigade – the first time in franchise history that the Rattlers had enjoyed back-to-back victories. However, this proved to be the year's single bright spot. Coach Skouras was replaced mid-season by Javier Gallegos – the second time the Rattlers made a coaching change during their campaign – but they failed to win another game, ending their year with three ties and three losses, including 4–0 thrashing by Ventura County Fusion. The Rattlers finished the year dead last in the division for the second time, four points adrift of their closest rivals, Southern California Seahorses. Mauricio Harrie was top scorer, with three goals.


title: FC Santa Clarita

text: Lancaster had their best season to date in 2009. Under new head coach David Lopez – their fifth in three years – the Rattlers showed slow and steady improvement as the season progressed. The year began well with a 3–2 win over the Los Angeles Legends thanks to a pair of goals from Mauricio Harrie, but quickly turned sour as the Antelope Valley side failed to win any of their next eight games. They let a four-goal lead slip in their agonizing 5–5 tie with Fresno Fuego at the end of May, and suffered several heavy defeats, including a 3–0 loss away to the Hollywood United Hitmen and 6–1 thrashing at the hands of Los Angeles Legends, who clearly wanted revenge for their defeat earlier in the season. However, sometime in the middle of June, something happened to the Lancaster team, and they began 'rattling' off win after win. They beat Ogden Outlaws 4–3 in a seesaw game in which Richard Galvan scored an 84th-minute winner, comfortably knocked off Bakersfield Brigade 3–0 at home, fought back to tie 2–2 with Ventura County Fusion having gone behind twice, and pummelled Ogden for a second time, winning 5–2 on the road in the penultimate game of the season with two more goals from Mauricio Harrie. The rocky early part of the season meant that the best the Rattlers could do was 7th place in the division – but this was a significant improvement over previous years. Harrie was the team's top scorer with an impressive nine goals, and the fact that Moises Alvarez, Jose Garay, Christian Hernandez and Miguel Ibarra all score five or more goals each highlights their improved fortunes in front of goal.


title: Generación del 13

text: The works of The 13 Generation were in the Post-romanticism style. Their landscapes and portraits were created independently of international trends. They painted themes devoted to the social landscape, the life of poverty and common people. Moving away from traditional themes, they maintained certain concepts, such as respect for an accurate representation of volume and colour, and technical expertise in painting the human form. They also explored melancholy as a theme with rich dark colours, broad brush strokes, and less detailed forms which were sketched masterfully. They became dedicated to portraiture, paying less attention to religion and abandoning mythological themes. Their use of red became their signature, combined with deep greens and earthy colours. The use of light was important to this group, showing some details that were reminiscent of the Spanish style inherited from their teacher. Their use of colours moved them closer to a Realist style. Even though the group shared many common characteristics, many of its student members had a very strong signature style. This was the case for both Arturo Gordon and Pedro Luna, whose styles were drastically different even though they were also two of the most notable members of the 13 Generation.


title: Generación del 13

text: The 13 Generation was the first Chilean artistic group to reach a uniformity of style. Its members – bohemians and admirers of Spanish masters – modified the academic conventions with opaque bitumens and contrasting colours. Although their influence was small among Chilean aristocracy, their work has remained a representation of one of the hardest times for the working class, the poor, farmers and the Mapuche people. Almost all of its members died young and it would be their contemporaries, the Grupo Montparnasse, who would eventually overtake the School of Fine Arts to set a new standard of painting in Chile. Since 1945, the painting of The 13 Generation has been recognized in originality and merit. There have been several studies of their works and their sensibilities, especially those of the most popular members of the group, Arturo Gordon and Pedro Luna, whose works are highly valued in the Chilean art market. The 13 Generation began the art trend of Arte campesino, while under the influence of the Spanish style taught by Alvarez de Sotomayor. One of their most notable achievements was to demonstrate that it was possible for impoverished artists with little training to produce high quality paintings.


title: Big Round Top

text: Late in the day of July 3, Union brigadier general Judson Kilpatrick ordered the cavalry brigade of Brigadier General Elon Farnsworth to charge Confederate infantry of Major General John Bell Hood's division who were on and near the slopes of Big Round Top. Hood had been wounded the previous day, and his division was under the command of Brigadier General Evander Law. One after another, three of the four regiments of Farnsworth's brigade charged over broken ground into Confederate fire and were repulsed. The final regiment, the 1st Vermont, then made the attempt. Farnsworth divided it into three battalions and personally led the second battalion. The tower was built in the late 19th century. Fred Lyons of Baltimore led the construction team that moved the foundation's granite blocks to the Big Round Top summit using block and tackle driven by a 12-horsepower engine. Constructed on the Gettysburg Battlefield's highest hill, the Big Round Top tower was to be replaced for the 1938 anniversary reunion by a stone "Gettysburg Peace Memorial" with a 75-foot-high observation deck above the summit and a flame 30 feet higher.


title: German Askarov

text: In 1907, he established the Paris-based émigré magazine Anarkhist, which he edited, under the pseudonym "Oskar Burrit". In the pages of the magazine, he penned a series of articles that were fiercely critical of syndicalism, although he took a more moderate approach than many of his fellow anarchist communists. He at first distinguished between English and German reformist trade unions (‹See Tfd›Russian: профсоюзы, romanized: profsoiuzy), which he felt were trying to reconcile the forces of labour and capital; and the French revolutionary syndicates (‹See Tfd›Russian: синдикаты, romanized: sindikaty), which remained loyal to the goal of overcoming both the state and private property. But he also cautioned the syndicates from repeating the mistakes of the International Workingmen's Association (IWA) and upholding a form of authoritarian centralism, which he felt would open their ranks to politicians and union officials, diluting their anarchist character. He encouraged anarcho-syndicalists to ostracise Marxist politicians and instead draw their membership entirely from the working class, proposing the formation of underground unions that would "declare an unrelenting war against authority, always and everywhere." By 1909, Anarkhist was forced to cease publication due to a lack of funds, although Askarov continued to collaborated on other emigrant anarchist periodicals and co-edited an anti-militarist newspaper together with Errico Malatesta and Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis.


title: German Askarov

text: Following the February Revolution of 1917, Askarov moved to Moscow, where the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups had occupied the Merchants' House and renamed it the "House of Anarchy". Although open to syndicalists and individualists, the Federation's membership consisted primarily of anarchist communists, with Askarov himself being brought on as editor of the organisation's newspaper Anarkhiia. After the October Revolution and the ratification of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Russian anarchists quickly became dissilusioned with the government of Vladimir Lenin and the Moscow Federation began establishing armed units known as the Black Guards. When the Guards began carrying out unilateral expropriations, Anarkhiia repudiated such actions and declared the prohibition of unilateral action by Black Guardsmen. But this had already proved too much for the Bolshevik government, which launched a raid on the House of Anarchy, shutting down Anarkhiia and suppressing the Moscow Federation after a battle with the Black Guards.


title: Eaux Claires

text: On November 15, 2017 the fourth edition of the festival was announced and tickets went on sale immediately, alongside a cryptic 29-minute audio file Please Listen #1 that included voice recordings and music clips. A second audio collection called Please Listen #2 was released alongside several Instagram posts with videos featuring discussions about The National and Sharon Van Etten performing. The organizers later revealed that there would be no "marketed lineup" for this fourth year of the festival, though through his Twitter feed Justin declared many of the bands from the Please Listen podcasts as being highly likely, while later making note that they've not "announced anything". The week before the festival started Vernon noted "you could find out basically everyone who's playing if you really wanted to", and soon after the official Eaux Claires app started publishing playlist that seemed to confirm many of the hinted artists, though the official release of the lineup didn't occur until the day of the festival.


title: Chitika

text: On March 16, 2011, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) appeared before the United States Senate Commerce Committee and announced its first behavioral advertising case, filed against Chitika for use of a deceptive opt-out mechanism. According to the FTC, Chitika's cookies that opt users out of behavioral tracking were expiring in ten days rather than the stated ten years. A settlement was reached under which Chitika was forbidden from making misleading statements about the extent of data collection about consumers and the extent to which consumers can control the use of their data. Further, the settlement required that Chitika link all its advertising to an effective opt-out mechanism in future. It has been commented that, "this requirement of a hyperlink embedded in online advertisements is a good indicator of the type of Do Not Track mechanism that will be acceptable to the FTC if "Do Not Track" becomes mandatory." According to a press release by the company, their opt-out cookies have been set to ten days since March 2010 when the FTC began their investigation. Chitika subsequently claimed to have made only a total of fifty-five cents from the ten-day opt-out expiration.


title: Labor omnia vincit

text: The phrase is also a frequent motto across many townships, cities, and states. Currently the state motto of the State of Oklahoma and incorporated into its state seal in 1907, the slogan originally appeared on the territorial seal of Oklahoma Territory. In addition, it has been known to be the motto of the city of El Eulma, Algeria as shown on its coat of arms, of the towns and cities of Bradford, West Yorkshire, West Bromwich, and Ilkeston in England, the motto of Wrexham County Borough Council in Wales and the state motto of Zacatecas granted by King Phillip II in 1588 and the city of León, State of Guanajuato, Mexico, and in the city of Presidente Prudente, Brazil. It is also the motto of Ferraz de Vasconcelos, a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil, as well as the city of Polokwane, formerly known as Pietersburg in South Africa. It is the motto of Carlton Cricket Club in Barbados. It is also the motto of Kajang High School and St Jago High School (Jamaica), St Paul's Secondary School, Kabwe Zambia, as well as Mitchell High School in Durban, South Africa. It is a slogan of the football clubs Rasta IL in Norway and Luton Borough Youth in England. The phrase can be seen written in the golden letters on the so-called Kroch-Hochhaus in the center of German city Leipzig. It is also the motto of West Bromwich Albion FC • In cinema this slogan was used in a landmark French picture "Le Voyage dans la lune" or "A Trip To The Moon" a silent film brought to life in 1902 by director Georges Méliès. This is a classic vision about a group of men venturing to the moon and back. The scene in which the slogan is depicted comes at the end when they return to earth. Celebrating the triumph, a statue is brought forth with a scholar pointing to the heavens with the word SCIENCE surrounded by olive branches on the base, above this states the term LABOR • OMNIA • VINCIT


title: Optical storage

text: Another technical improvement during this era was the introduction of higher-frequency semiconductor lasers operating in the blue and near ultraviolet spectrum. These shorter wavelengths, combined with improvements in the underlying media, allowed much more data to be stored on a disk. With the widespread introduction of high-definition television in the early 2000s, the need for a medium able to store the much larger higher-resolution video files became an issue, leading to two competing standards, HD DVD and Blu-ray. The former could be produced on existing DVD production equipment but (initially) offered lower resolution video formats (and less data storage) while the later required new production equipment but offered 1080p support. Over time, Blu-ray won the resulting high-definition optical disc format war, with Toshiba announcing their withdrawal of HD DVD on February 19, 2008. This proved to be a Pyrrhic victory as the market quickly moved to streaming services. Blu-ray remains preferred to streaming services for its technical qualities, but has a tiny market share as of 2023.


title: Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau

text: In 1871, Clermont-Ganneau identified the biblical city of Gezer (Joshua 16:11) with that of Abu Shusha, formerly known as Tell el Jezer. In the same year he discovered the Temple Warning inscription in Jerusalem. In 1874 he was employed by the British government to take charge of an archaeological expedition to Palestine. Among his discoveries there was the rock-cut tomb of the Biblical Shebna. He explored/discovered many tombs in Wady Yasul, a valley immediately south of Jerusalem, which he claimed served as an auxiliary cemetery for Jerusalem at some ancient period(s). Based on geographic and linguistic evidence he theorized that this valley was Azal mentioned in Zechariah 14:5 in the Bible. He was the first to make archeological soundings at Emmaus-Nicopolis. He was subsequently entrusted by his own government with similar missions to Syria and the Red Sea. He was made chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1875. After serving as vice-consul at Jaffa from 1880 to 1882, he returned to Paris as secrétaire interpréte for oriental languages, and in 1886 was appointed consul of the first class. He subsequently accepted the post of director of the École des Langues Orientales and professor at the Collège de France.


title: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

text: ADHD is often comorbid with disruptive, impulse control, and conduct disorders. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) occurs in about 25% of children with an inattentive presentation and 50% of those with a combined presentation. It is characterised by angry or irritable mood, argumentative or defiant behaviour and vindictiveness which are age-inappropriate. Conduct disorder (CD) occurs in about 25% of adolescents with ADHD. It is characterised by aggression, destruction of property, deceitfulness, theft and violations of rules. Adolescents with ADHD who also have CD are more likely to develop antisocial personality disorder in adulthood. Brain imaging supports that CD and ADHD are separate conditions: conduct disorder was shown to reduce the size of one's temporal lobe and limbic system, and increase the size of one's orbitofrontal cortex, whereas ADHD was shown to reduce connections in the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex more broadly. Conduct disorder involves more impairment in motivation control than ADHD. Intermittent explosive disorder is characterised by sudden and disproportionate outbursts of anger and co-occurs in individuals with ADHD more frequently than in the general population.


text: Individuals with ADHD are at increased risk of substance use disorders.: 9 This is most commonly seen with alcohol or cannabis.: 9 The reason for this may be an altered reward pathway in the brains of ADHD individuals, self-treatment and increased psychosocial risk factors.: 9 This makes the evaluation and treatment of ADHD more difficult, with serious substance misuse problems usually treated first due to their greater risks. Other psychiatric conditions include reactive attachment disorder, characterised by a severe inability to appropriately relate socially, and cognitive disengagement syndrome, a distinct attention disorder occurring in 30–50% of ADHD cases as a comorbidity, regardless of the presentation; a subset of cases diagnosed with ADHD-PIP have been found to have CDS instead. Individuals with ADHD are three times more likely to be diagnosed with an eating disorder compared to those without ADHD; conversely, individuals with eating disorders are two times more likely to have ADHD than those without eating disorders.


text: In April 2018, the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health published a systematic review of 24 studies researching associations between internet gaming disorder (IGD) and various psychopathologies that found an 85% correlation between IGD and ADHD. In October 2018, PNAS USA published a systematic review of four decades of research on the relationship between children and adolescents' screen media use and ADHD-related behaviours and concluded that a statistically small relationship between children's media use and ADHD-related behaviours exists. In November 2018, Cyberpsychology published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 5 studies that found evidence for a relationship between problematic smartphone use and impulsivity traits. In October 2020, the Journal of Behavioral Addictions published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 studies with 33,650 post-secondary student subjects that found a weak-to-moderate positive association between mobile phone addiction and impulsivity. In January 2021, the Journal of Psychiatric Research published a systematic review of 29 studies including 56,650 subjects that found that ADHD symptoms were consistently associated with gaming disorder and more frequent associations between inattention and gaming disorder than other ADHD scales.


text: In July 2021, Frontiers in Psychiatry published a meta-analysis reviewing 40 voxel-based morphometry studies and 59 functional magnetic resonance imaging studies comparing subjects with IGD or ADHD to control groups that found that IGD and ADHD subjects had disorder-differentiating structural neuroimage alterations in the putamen and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) respectively, and functional alterations in the precuneus for IGD subjects and in the rewards circuit (including the OFC, the anterior cingulate cortex, and striatum) for both IGD and ADHD subjects. In March 2022, JAMA Psychiatry published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 87 studies with 159,425 subjects 12 years of age or younger that found a small but statistically significant correlation between screen time and ADHD symptoms in children. In April 2022, Developmental Neuropsychology published a systematic review of 11 studies where the data from all but one study suggested that heightened screen time for children is associated with attention problems. In July 2022, the Journal of Behavioral Addictions published a meta-analysis of 14 studies comprising 2,488 subjects aged 6 to 18 years that found significantly more severe problematic internet use in subjects diagnosed with ADHD to control groups.


text: Systematic reviews in 2017 and 2020 found strong evidence that ADHD is associated with increased suicide risk across all age groups, as well as growing evidence that an ADHD diagnosis in childhood or adolescence represents a significant future suicidal risk factor. Potential causes include ADHD's association with functional impairment, negative social, educational and occupational outcomes, and financial distress. A 2019 meta-analysis indicated a significant association between ADHD and suicidal spectrum behaviours (suicidal attempts, ideations, plans, and completed suicides); across the studies examined, the prevalence of suicide attempts in individuals with ADHD was 18.9%, compared to 9.3% in individuals without ADHD, and the findings were substantially replicated among studies which adjusted for other variables. However, the relationship between ADHD and suicidal spectrum behaviours remains unclear due to mixed findings across individual studies and the complicating impact of comorbid psychiatric disorders. There is no clear data on whether there is a direct relationship between ADHD and suicidality, or whether ADHD increases suicide risk through comorbidities.


text: ADHD presents with reduced size, functional connectivity and activation as well as low noradrenergic and dopaminergic functioning in brain regions and networks crucial for executive functioning and self-regulation. Typically, a number of genes are involved, many of which directly affect brain functioning and neurotransmission. Those involved with dopamine include DAT, DRD4, DRD5, TAAR1, MAOA, COMT, and DBH. Other genes associated with ADHD include SERT, HTR1B, SNAP25, GRIN2A, ADRA2A, TPH2, and BDNF. A common variant of a gene called latrophilin 3 is estimated to be responsible for about 9% of cases and when this variant is present, people are particularly responsive to stimulant medication. The 7 repeat variant of dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4–7R) causes increased inhibitory effects induced by dopamine and is associated with ADHD. The DRD4 receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor that inhibits adenylyl cyclase. The DRD4–7R mutation results in a wide range of behavioural phenotypes, including ADHD symptoms reflecting split attention. The DRD4 gene is both linked to novelty seeking and ADHD. The genes GFOD1 and CDH13 show strong genetic associations with ADHD. CDH13's association with ASD, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression make it an interesting candidate causative gene. Another candidate causative gene that has been identified is ADGRL3. In zebrafish, knockout of this gene causes a loss of dopaminergic function in the ventral diencephalon and the fish display a hyperactive/impulsive phenotype.


text: ADHD arises from a core deficit in executive functions (e.g., attentional control, inhibitory control, and working memory), which are a set of cognitive processes that are required to successfully select and monitor behaviours that facilitate the attainment of one's chosen goals. The executive function impairments that occur in ADHD individuals result in problems with staying organised, time keeping, procrastination control, maintaining concentration, paying attention, ignoring distractions, regulating emotions, and remembering details. People with ADHD appear to have unimpaired long-term memory, and deficits in long-term recall appear to be attributed to impairments in working memory. Due to the rates of brain maturation and the increasing demands for executive control as a person gets older, ADHD impairments may not fully manifest themselves until adolescence or even early adulthood. Conversely, brain maturation trajectories, potentially exhibiting diverging longitudinal trends in ADHD, may support a later improvement in executive functions after reaching adulthood.


text: ADHD is diagnosed by an assessment of a person's behavioural and mental development, including ruling out the effects of drugs, medications, and other medical or psychiatric problems as explanations for the symptoms. ADHD diagnosis often takes into account feedback from parents and teachers with most diagnoses begun after a teacher raises concerns. While many tools exist to aid in the diagnosis of ADHD, their validity varies in different populations, and a reliable and valid diagnosis requires confirmation by a clinician while supplemented by standardized rating scales and input from multiple informants across various settings. The diagnosis of ADHD has been criticised as being subjective because it is not based on a biological test. The International Consensus Statement on ADHD concluded that this criticism is unfounded, on the basis that ADHD meets standard criteria for validity of a mental disorder established by Robins and Guze. They attest that the disorder is considered valid because: 1) well-trained professionals in a variety of settings and cultures agree on its presence or absence using well-defined criteria and 2) the diagnosis is useful for predicting a) additional problems the patient may have (e.g., difficulties learning in school); b) future patient outcomes (e.g., risk for future drug abuse); c) response to treatment (e.g., medications and psychological treatments); and d) features that indicate a consistent set of causes for the disorder (e.g., findings from genetics or brain imaging), and that professional associations have endorsed and published guidelines for diagnosing ADHD.


text: The most commonly used rating scales for diagnosing ADHD are the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) and include the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) used for parents to rate their child's behaviour, the Youth Self Report Form (YSR) used for children to rate their own behaviour, and the Teacher Report Form (TRF) used for teachers to rate their pupil's behaviour. Additional rating scales that have been used alone or in combination with other measures to diagnose ADHD include the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC), Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Second Edition (BRIEF2), Revised Conners Rating Scale (CRS-R), Conduct-Hyperactive-Attention Problem-Oppositional Symptom scale (CHAOS), Developmental Behavior Checklist Hyperactivity Index (DBC-HI), Parent Disruptive Behavior Disorder Ratings Scale (DBDRS), Diagnostic Infant and Preschool Assessment (DIPA-L), Pediatric Symptom Checklist (PSC), Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ), Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD Symptoms and Normal Behavior Rating Scale (SWAN). and the Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic rating scale.


text: The management of ADHD typically involves counseling or medications, either alone or in combination. While there are various options of treatment to improve ADHD symptoms, medication therapies substantially improves long-term outcomes, and while completely eliminating some elevated risks such as obesity, they do come with some risks of adverse events. Medications used include stimulants, atomoxetine, alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists, and sometimes antidepressants. In those who have trouble focusing on long-term rewards, a large amount of positive reinforcement improves task performance. Medications are the most effective treatment, and any side effects are typically mild and easy to resolve although any improvements will be reverted if medication is ceased. ADHD stimulants also improve persistence and task performance in children with ADHD. To quote one systematic review, "recent evidence from observational and registry studies indicates that pharmacological treatment of ADHD is associated with increased achievement and decreased absenteeism at school, a reduced risk of trauma-related emergency hospital visits, reduced risks of suicide and attempted suicide, and decreased rates of substance abuse and criminality". Data also suggest that combining medication with CBT is a good idea: although CBT is substantially less effective, it can help address problems that reside after medication has been optimised. The nature and range of desirable endpoints of ADHD treatment vary among diagnostic standards for ADHD. In most studies, the efficacy of treatment is determined by reductions in symptoms. However, some studies have included subjective ratings from teachers and parents as part of their assessment of treatment efficacies.


text: There is good evidence for the use of behavioural therapies in ADHD. They are the recommended first-line treatment in those who have mild symptoms or who are preschool-aged. Psychological therapies used include: psychoeducational input, behavior therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, interpersonal psychotherapy, family therapy, school-based interventions, social skills training, behavioural peer intervention, organization training, and parent management training. Neurofeedback has greater treatment effects than non-active controls for up to 6 months and possibly a year following treatment, and may have treatment effects comparable to active controls (controls proven to have a clinical effect) over that time period. Despite efficacy in research, there is insufficient regulation of neurofeedback practice, leading to ineffective applications and false claims regarding innovations. Parent training may improve a number of behavioural problems including oppositional and non-compliant behaviours.


text: Several clinical trials have investigated the efficacy of digital therapeutics, particularly Akili Interactive Labs's video game-based digital therapeutic AKL-T01, marketed as EndeavourRx. The pediatric STARS-ADHD randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, controlled trial demonstrated that AKL-T01 significantly improved performance on the Test of Variables of Attention, an objective measure of attention and inhibitory control, compared to a control group after four weeks of at-home use. A subsequent pediatric open-label study, STARS-Adjunct, published in Nature Portfolio's npj Digital Medicine evaluated AKL-T01 as an adjunctive treatment for children with ADHD who were either on stimulant medication or not on stimulant pharmacotherapy. Results showed improvements in ADHD-related impairment (measured by the Impairment Rating Scale) and ADHD symptoms after 4 weeks of treatment, with effects persisting during a 4-week pause and further improving with an additional treatment period. Notably, the magnitude of the measured improvement was similar for children both on and off stimulants. In 2020, AKL-T01 received marketing authorization for pediatric ADHD from the FDA, becoming "the first game-based therapeutic granted marketing authorization by the FDA for any type of condition."


text: Methylphenidate and amphetamine or its derivatives are often first-line treatments for ADHD. About 70 per cent respond to the first stimulant tried and as few as 10 per cent respond to neither amphetamines nor methylphenidate. Stimulants may also reduce the risk of unintentional injuries in children with ADHD. Magnetic resonance imaging studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine or methylphenidate decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD. A 2018 review found the greatest short-term benefit with methylphenidate in children, and amphetamines in adults. Studies and meta-analyses show that amphetamine is slightly-to-modestly more effective than methylphenidate at reducing symptoms, and they are more effective pharmacotherapy for ADHD than α2-agonists but methylphenidate has comparable efficacy to non-stimulants such as atomoxetine. In a Cochrane clinical synopsis, Dr Storebø and colleagues summarised their meta-review on methylphenidate for ADHD in children and adolescents. The meta-analysis raised substantial doubts about the drug's efficacy relative to a placebo. This led to a strong critical reaction from the European ADHD Guidelines Group and individuals in the scientific community, who identified a number of flaws in the review. Since at least September 2021, there is a unanimous and global scientific consensus that methylphenidate is safe and highly effective for treating ADHD. The same journal released a subsequent systematic review of extended-release methylphenidate for adults, concluding similar doubts about the certainty of evidence. Other recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses, however, find certainty in the safety and high efficacy of methylphenidate for reducing ADHD symptoms, for alleviating the underlying executive functioning deficits, and for substantially reducing the adverse consequences of untreated ADHD with continuous treatment. Clinical guidelines internationally are also consistent in approving the safety and efficacy of methylphenidate and recommending it as a first-line treatment for the disorder.


text: Safety and efficacy data have been reviewed extensively by medical regulators (e.g., the US Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency), the developers of evidence-based international guidelines (e.g., the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence and the American Academy of Pediatrics), and government agencies who have endorsed these guidelines (e.g., the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council). These professional groups unanimously conclude, based on the scientific evidence, that methylphenidate is safe and effective and should be considered as a first-line treatment for ADHD. The likelihood of developing insomnia for ADHD patients taking stimulants has been measured at between 11 and 45 per cent for different medications, and may be a main reason for discontinuation. Other side effects, such as tics, decreased appetite and weight loss, or emotional lability, may also lead to discontinuation. Stimulant psychosis and mania are rare at therapeutic doses, appearing to occur in approximately 0.1% of individuals, within the first several weeks after starting amphetamine therapy. The safety of these medications in pregnancy is unclear. Symptom improvement is not sustained if medication is ceased.


text: Dietary modifications are not recommended as of 2019 by the American Academy of Pediatrics, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, or the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality due to insufficient evidence. A 2013 meta-analysis found less than a third of children with ADHD see some improvement in symptoms with free fatty acid supplementation or decreased consumption of artificial food colouring. These benefits may be limited to children with food sensitivities or those who are simultaneously being treated with ADHD medications. This review also found that evidence does not support removing other foods from the diet to treat ADHD. A 2014 review found that an elimination diet results in a small overall benefit in a minority of children, such as those with allergies. A 2016 review stated that the use of a gluten-free diet as standard ADHD treatment is not advised. A 2017 review showed that a few-foods elimination diet may help children too young to be medicated or not responding to medication, while free fatty acid supplementation or decreased eating of artificial food colouring as standard ADHD treatment is not advised. Chronic deficiencies of iron, magnesium and iodine may have a negative impact on ADHD symptoms. There is a small amount of evidence that lower tissue zinc levels may be associated with ADHD. In the absence of a demonstrated zinc deficiency (which is rare outside of developing countries), zinc supplementation is not recommended as treatment for ADHD. However, zinc supplementation may reduce the minimum effective dose of amphetamine when it is used with amphetamine for the treatment of ADHD.


text: ADHD persists into adulthood in about 30–50% of cases. Those affected are likely to develop coping mechanisms as they mature, thus compensating to some extent for their previous symptoms. Children with ADHD have a higher risk of unintentional injuries. Effects of medication on functional impairment and quality of life (e.g. reduced risk of accidents) have been found across multiple domains. Rates of smoking among those with ADHD are higher than in the general population at about 40%. About 30–50% of people diagnosed in childhood continue to have ADHD in adulthood, with 2.58% of adults estimated to have ADHD which began in childhood. In adults, hyperactivity is usually replaced by inner restlessness, and adults often develop coping skills to compensate for their impairments. The condition can be difficult to tell apart from other conditions, as well as from high levels of activity within the range of normal behaviour. ADHD has a negative impact on patient health-related quality of life that may be further exacerbated by, or may increase the risk of, other psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and depression. Individuals with ADHD may also face misconceptions and stigma.


text: Despite showing a higher frequency of symptoms associated with ADHD, non-White children in the US are less likely than White children to be diagnosed or treated for ADHD, a finding that is often explained by bias among health professionals, as well as parents who may be reluctant to acknowledge that their child has ADHD. Crosscultural differences in diagnosis of ADHD can also be attributed to the long-lasting effects of harmful, racially targeted medical practices. Medical pseudosciences, particularly those that targeted Black populations during the period of slavery in the US, lead to a distrust of medical practices within certain communities. The combination of ADHD symptoms often being regarded as misbehaviour rather than as a psychiatric condition, and the use of drugs to regulate ADHD, result in a hesitancy to trust a diagnosis of ADHD. Cases of misdiagnosis in ADHD can also occur due to stereotyping of people of color. Due to ADHD's subjectively determined symptoms, medical professionals may diagnose individuals based on stereotyped behaviour or misdiagnose due to cultural differences in symptom presentation.


title: Stefon

text: After the dress rehearsal for Stefon's first appearance on Weekend Update, a line from the script had to be changed because it received no response. As the lines for Weekend Update are read from cue cards, Hader, who was unaware of the change during the show, broke character. Mulaney was amused by this and decided to continue to change the script before the live broadcast to make Hader laugh. To make sure Hader did not stumble on his lines, Mulaney would tell him the new jokes shortly before he entered the set. Mulaney characterized getting Hader to crack as a "group effort", adding that cast member Andy Samberg would stand near the camera, cross his hands, and look at Hader, tempting him to laugh. Hader also attributed his frequent corpsing as Stefon to the character's animated personality, which made him immerse himself in the role and lose his composure. Despite Stefon's popularity among fans, Hader felt pressure while portraying the role, as he often struggled to stay in character.


title: Stefon

text: The character made his last recurring appearance on Weekend Update at the end of season 38 because Hader was leaving SNL. Former Weekend Update co-anchor Amy Poehler made a guest appearance for a "Really?!?" segment with Meyers before Stefon emerged, expressing disapproval of Poehler. After Stefon's usual comment on "New York's hottest club", Meyers criticized his recommendations, making Stefon flee NBC Studios to get married. After Poehler advised Meyers to follow Stefon, Meyers pursued Stefon to the wedding at Marble Collegiate Church on Fifth Avenue but found Stefon was marrying journalist Anderson Cooper. Seth enters the church, finds Stefon, and takes him back to Studio 8H, where they proclaim their love for each other. The guests at the wedding include many of the idiosyncratic people Stefon has mentioned during his Weekend Update segments. Ben Affleck made a cameo appearance, reprising his role as David Zolesky from Stefon's debut sketch. After Seth and Stefon return to the studio, characters from Weekend Update gather to congratulate them. The wedding segment is a reference to the 1967 film The Graduate.


title: Stefon

text: In February 2014, Stefon returned to Weekend Update as a guest along with Amy Poehler to bid farewell to Meyers in his final Weekend Update as Meyers prepared to become the new host of Late Night. During Hader's first time hosting of SNL the same year, Stefon returned to Weekend Update, hosted by Colin Jost and Michael Che, to recommend New York clubs for tourists interested in autumn activities and ended the sketch by announcing his pregnancy. As part of the Weekend Update segment of the Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special in 2015, Edward Norton portrayed Stefon but was confronted by the real Stefon portrayed by Hader and Meyers. On Hader's second time hosting in 2018, Stefon returned to Weekend Update for a St. Patrick's Day-themed segment of New York City recommendations. Stefon, who usually uses the term "midget" to describe his bizarre recommendations, did not use the term to avoid being insensitive; he consulted his attorney and "conceptual piss artist" Shy (John Mulaney) for a better term, ultimately using "little people".


title: Stefon

text: Stefon has had a generally positive reception, with James Poniewozik of Time describing it as one of the best contemporary SNL skits. David Reddish of Queerty wrote that he loved Stefon "in all his messy, gay glory" and that "even though Hader is straight, he made the character vulnerable and lovable". David Sims of The A.V. Club and Daniel Holloway of Variety said Stefon was one of the few recurring characters they never grew tired of. Tess Lynch of Grantland and Laura Bennett of The New Republic said Meyers and Stefon's chemistry made the character stand out. According to Jordan Crucchiola of Wired, Stefon was "too funny to let go of", and Brian Welk of TheWrap said that although Stefon often covers his face with his hands due to Hader breaking, it has made the character "forever endearing". Stefon's final appearance as a recurring character on Weekend Update also received praise. Zack Sharf of IndieWire considered it "one of the best sketches in recent SNL history", while Erik Voss of Vulture said there was "no better sendoff than a gay wedding between Stefon and Seth Meyers".


title: Maladzyechna

text: After Michael's heirless death, the locality passed through different hands until finally in 1567 it was acquired by Princess Nastazja Zbaraska, wife of Stafan Zbaraski, the voivode of Trakai. In 1568, that is the following year, a battle took place in the vicinity of the castle, in which the 40,000 men strong army of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth defeated the forces of Muscovy. In 1617 it was bought by Lew Sapieha, the Grand Chancellor of Lithuania. Around that time the village had 1,000 inhabitants. On August 20, 1631, Sapieha sold it to Stanisław Szemiott, the chamberlain of Samogitia, who then divided the villages surrounding Maladziečna among his sons. Following a testament conflict between the descendants of Szemiott and Aleksander Gosiewski, the Voivode of Smolensk, the town remained a property of the Gosiewski family. During their ownership of Maladziečna the fortifications were extended and strengthened significantly by addition of several bastions. Around that time Maladziečna started to be referred to as a town, even though it was officially a village and was not granted with a city charter. Nevertheless, it served as a centre of trade and commerce for the surrounding villages and also gained significant profits from transit between Lithuania and Poland. In 1708 the castle was one of the headquarters of the Swedish Army of King Charles XII of Sweden, which led to its partial devastation in the effect of a battle between the Swedes and the Russian forces.


title: Mukesh Haikerwal

text: From early in his career Haikerwal has advocated for better conditions for medical staff. As a representative of junior doctors in the Southern Trent Region of England, he facilitated a meeting in 1989 with Members of Parliament to discuss concerns about the long hours of work. Haikerwal told the meeting that doctors were commonly working 72 hours a week, or longer, ..."life or death decisions when sometimes are too tired to talk properly." The doctors used various publicity stunts to draw public attention to the issues, which Haikerwal described as being mostly the risk to patient safety. He said it was about "changing some practices and organising time better", in the context of Regional Health Authorities guidelines being that "junior doctors should not work more than 104 hours a week, or 48 hour continuously." By June 1990 a move to have a survey on social action for a shorter week was approved by the British Medical Association junior doctors committee, and on 2 July 1990, it was confirmed that authorised surveys would be sent out to all junior doctors in England to discover if they were prepared to take industrial action. Recalling his time at Leicester General Hospital, he later told The Age newspaper: "If you want someone to work hard, pay them properly and give them good conditions. If you've got doctors that are working and happy, they'll do a better job. And the patients will benefit at the end of the day, too."


title: Mukesh Haikerwal

text: Haikerwal is an advocate for the responsible use of digital technologies to manage medical data on behalf of doctors and patients. Between 2007 and 2013 in his role as an eHealth Head of Clinical Leadership and Stakeholder Management on the Australian National E-Health Transition Authority (NEHTA) he had a major role in implementing the Personally Controlled Electronic Health Record System (PCEHR). In 2010 Haikerwal co-authored a paper in the Medical Journal of Australia that critically examined the implementation of e-health in Australia at the time. The authors noted the benefits of the system to patients following government funding and legislation, but identified that due to hospitals generally not being adequately computerized, there was a lack of coordination in securely sharing patient data, ..."to ensure the clinical relevance, utility, safety and acceptability of e-health systems, health professionals urgently need technical capacity and expert guidance." When Haikerwal resigned from his position at NEHTA in August 2013, the Australian Medical Association President said it is raised concerns about a lack of consultation with doctors in the PCEHR implementation process, noting that this was "the sort of expertise that Dr Haikerwal and his colleagues brought to NEHTA and the whole e-health sector." Haikerwal however, said that his decision to move on was appropriate because the eHealth systems were now being "tweaked to encompass utility, usability, usefulness and meaningful use in the products to be rolled out into the healthcare sector......I believe eHealth and the PCEHR will be the way of the future and I will continue to encourage my patients and my clinical colleagues to consider taking advantage of the benefits of these systems." Peter Flemming, CEO at NEHTA explained that discussions he had with Haikerwal ..."with NEHTA's shift in focus from designing and building national eHealth infrastructure to implementing and supporting adoption of eHealth......Mukesh brought to NEHTA the advocacy for a clinically led national eHealth programme and built a strong network of clinical leads who are experts across the entire Australian clinical landscape."


title: Mukesh Haikerwal

text: On 27 September 2008, Haikerwal was assaulted and robbed by five men near Dennis Reserve in Williamstown, Victoria. Haikerwal sustained serious head injuries in the attack, and was in a coma for 24 hours, remaining in hospital for two months. Maikerwal recalls trying to reason with the youths who assaulted him, but has no memory of the actual blow to the head. However, he quickly realised the potential of a bleed in his brain and managed to call his wife, and with the assistance of a nearby police officer and his brother Dr Deepak Haikerwal, a cardiologist, was able to get to hospital. He underwent emergency brain surgery to remove two blood clots from his brain and suffered an injury which required him to learn how to walk and talk again. He was transferred to Epworth Hospital's in-patient rehabilitation centre, where he underwent a "five-week program of intense physiotherapy and speech therapy, after which he was talking and walking as before." When one of the attackers was not deported to his home country, Haikerwal said he supported the decision in principle, but expressed some concerns whether victims' interests were being carefully considered in these cases. The prison sentences the attackers received are said to have given Haikerwal little comfort but he commented ..."violence is something we cannot tolerate in our community...I think (this sentence) shows police have investigated and police work is seen to have some value."


title: Winant Avenue Bridge

text: Designed by Waddell and Hardesty Consulting Engineers, the double-leaf bascule deck girder bridge was built by the New Jersey Highway Department, the predecessor to NJDOT. John Alexander Low Waddell, a partner in the firm was also involved with other bridges in the region, including the now defunct CRRNJ Newark Bay Bridge. It carries two lanes of traffic in each direction, with sidewalks, but no shoulders. It has a concrete substructure and sixteen approach spans. Four octagonal concrete towers are located at the corners of the bascule span; two are gate tenders' houses, one contains houses operating mechanisms, and one is used for storage. A NJDOT survey in 2001 found the S46 to be "technologically distinguished, historically significant, and well-preserved example of an increasingly rare bridge type," While the State Historic Preservation Office and the New Jersey Register of Historic Places identified the historic significance of the structure known as US Route 46 Bascule Bridge in 1997 it is not listed on the NRHP.


title: Winant Avenue Bridge

text: Once an important commercial waterway within the Port of New York and New Jersey, the Hackensack River is tidally influenced and channelized to its middle reaches and considered partially navigable for commercial marine traffic. Route 46 is a major thoroughfare across northern New Jersey, ending at the midpoint of the George Washington Bridge (GWB). Traffic on the Hackensack River Bridge and in its vicinity has long been reputed to be precarious, with regular requests for guard rails to be installed. In 2009, the NJDOT announced a $21 million rehabilitation project. The repairs will address structural deficiencies and are expected to extend the useful life of the bridge by ten years, though it will remain "functionally obsolete' since the roadway has no shoulders. They will not diminish its function as a movable bridge or the historic status of the structure. While funding for the project has been identified as of December 2011 work had not begun, though that at Little Ferry Circle was underway. Work is scheduled to begin in Fall 2013. Construction on the bridge began in June 2014 and was expected to take 18 months. The $33.8 million project will rehabilitate a bridge deemed structurally deficient, turn the Little Ferry Circle into a conventional four-way intersection and install a new drainage system and pump station to reduce flooding in the area.


title: Avian influenza

text: Because of the impact of avian influenza on economically important chicken farms, a classification system was devised in 1981 which divided avian virus strains as either highly pathogenic (and therefore potentially requiring vigorous control measures) or low pathogenic. The test for this is based solely on the effect on chickens - a virus strain is highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) if 75% or more of chickens die after being deliberately infected with it. The alternative classification is low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI). This classification system has since been modified to take into account the structure of the virus' haemagglutinin protein. Other species of birds, especially water birds, can become infected with HPAI virus without experiencing severe symptoms and can spread the infection over large distances; the exact symptoms depend on the species of bird and the strain of virus. Classification of an avian virus strain as HPAI or LPAI does not predict how serious the disease might be if it infects humans or other mammals.


title: Mario Girotti (general)

text: In January 1931 he was promoted to colonel and appointed Head of Office at the Inspectorate of Alpine Troops, replacing Colonel Vincenzo Paolini, a post he held until 1939. He was promoted to brigadier general and on 10 June 1940, following Italy's entry into World War II, he assumed command of the "Levanna" Alpini Groupment, composed of three Alpini battalions and deployed in the Orco-Baltea-Stura sector during the attack on France. In September 1940 he assumed command of the 3rd Alpine Division Julia, which he led in the bitter fighting in the mountains of the Epirus during the Greco-Italian War, participating in the battle of Pindus and in the battle of Klisura Pass between October 1940 and January 1941. At the start of the campaign the Julia Division spearheaded the Italian advance into Greece, but was surrounded and cut off by the Greek counterattack in the battle of the Pindus; Girotti managed to break the encirclement and save most of the division from certain destruction, and for this on February 15 he was promoted to the rank of major general for war merit. In late February the division repelled a Greek offensive aimed at capturing Tepelenë, for which Girotti was awarded a Silver medal for military valor.


title: What's Cooking? (film)

text: Ruth and Herb Seelig welcome their daughter Rachel home, along with her girlfriend Carla. Ruth and Herb struggle to adjust their expectations for their daughter's future with her current living arrangement. On Thanksgiving, Rachel's older brother, Art, his wife Sarah, and Sarah's brother, Jerry, are in attendance as well as Bea and David, an elderly Jewish couple from a nearby retirement home. Over dinner Bea persistently questions Rachel about her romantic prospects, unaware that Rachel and Carla are lesbians, and Ruth and Herb both attempt to dissuade Bea from talking more, afraid that the truth of their daughter's homosexuality will come out. Eventually Rachel declares she has an announcement to make, much to her parents' chagrin, and states that she is pregnant. Her parents are dumbfounded, and it is revealed that Jerry, himself gay, was the sperm donor for Rachel and Carla. Rachel makes an impassioned plea to her family to accept her for who she is, and Ruth and Herb come to terms with accepting Carla and their new grandchild.


title: What's Cooking? (film)

text: Mrs. Elizabeth "Lizzy" Avila is separated from her husband, Javier, after he ran off with Lizzy's cousin, Rosa. Meanwhile, Lizzy has taken a lover of her own, a coworker named Daniel. The day before Thanksgiving, Lizzy and Javier's son, Tony, runs into his father at the grocery store. Finding out that his father would be celebrating Thanksgiving Day alone, Tony invites Javier to Lizzy's house the next day. When Lizzy finds out, she commands Tony to uninvite Javier, but the message is not conveyed. The Avilas' daughter, Gina, drives home from college on Thanksgiving Day with her Vietnamese American boyfriend, Jimmy. Jimmy faces some racist remarks from members of the Avila family, but he takes it in stride. At one point during the day, Lizzy sends Jimmy and Gina to return a video cassette to the store that Jimmy's family owns, and Jimmy witnesses his own family fighting, troubling him. Despite Gina's assurances that he can leave the Avila celebration to go check on his family, Jimmy declines, feeling that he can't be himself around them. Tensions boil over when Javier and Daniel arrive at Lizzy's house, leading to an argument between Lizzy and Javier. Lizzy refuses to give Javier a second chance for his infidelity and he storms out of the house.


title: What's Cooking? (film)

text: Ronald Williams works for the conservative, white governor of California, much to the dismay of his son Michael, who has progressive leanings and a strong sense of pride in his heritage. Michael and some friends attack the governor at a photo-shoot with paint, but Ronald uses his influence to keep Michael out of trouble. Meanwhile, Audrey Williams and her daughter Kristin pick up Ronald's mother, Grace, from the airport. Audrey fields constant criticism and questions concerning Ronald and Michael's whereabouts from Grace, and when Ronald returns home he unsuccessfully tries to keep the peace between Grace and Audrey. On Thanksgiving Day, Ronald's white colleague James Moore, his second wife Paula, and daughter from his first marriage, Monica, join the Williams. Grace gets into an argument with Audrey over the preparation of the food, Audrey choosing to prepare a traditional spread to impress the Moores rather than the usual soul food the Williams clan would enjoy on Thanksgiving. During dinner, Michael returns home and the secrets Ronald and Audrey were trying to hide all come out: Ronald had an affair with his coworker, Michael dropped out of college, and Michael was behind the attack on the governor. Grace, Paula, and Michael comfort Audrey, who has an emotional breakdown, and Grace goes to confront her son. After the Moores leave, Ronald and Audrey reconcile, and Ronald gives his blessing to his son Michael to pursue his dreams.


title: What's Cooking? (film)

text: Trinh and Duc Nguyen are dealing with multiple problems at their home. Their oldest son, Jimmy, away at college, lies to them saying he cannot come home for Thanksgiving due to a busy midterm schedule where in reality he is across the street at his girlfriend's house, celebrating Thanksgiving with them. Their daughter Jenny is sneaking around with a White boyfriend, and is discovered to have a condom in her coat pocket. Younger son Gary was recently suspended from his school for bad behavior, and later Jenny discovers a gun hidden in Gary's bedroom. When she confronts him over the matter, he claims he's just keeping it for his friend, so Jenny meets her boyfriend at the family's video store for advice. Duc finds Jenny and her boyfriend in an intimate moment and drags Jenny back home to be berated by the family. Jenny's grandmother tries to comfort her after the fight, insisting that Trinh and Duc love her despite the cultural and generational differences in communication. Over a tense, silent Thanksgiving dinner, Jenny reveals to the family that Gary is hiding a gun, and the family now berates Gary, who they suspect is in a gang. As the Nguyen family fights, youngest son Joey sees the gun on the kitchen table and accidentally fires it, breaking a window and getting the attention of the Nguyens' neighbors: the Avilas, the Williamses, and the Seeligs. Hearing the gunshot from his house, Jimmy runs back home and rejoins his family as they recover from the multiple fights they had. Lizzy encourages Gina to introduce herself to the Nguyens, so the Nguyen clan finally sits down to enjoy their Thanksgiving dinner, now with Jimmy and Gina.


title: Epithet Erased

text: The show takes place in the world of Sweet Jazz City, where one out of five people are born with powers attached to their souls known as "Epithets". An Epithet stems from a single word that can grant its user any kind of power (e.g Soup, Coupon, Sundial). A magical amulet known as the Arsene Amulet is rumored to steal a person's epithet and is hidden somewhere inside the Sweet Jazz Museum. The story begins with the main character, Molly Blyndeff, going on a field trip with her class. The two people leading this tour are Mera Salamin and her bodyguard, Indus Tarbella. Her father, Martin Blyndeff is also chaperoning, but seems to be air-headed and neglecting. It is revealed that her epithet is the word "Dumb", which can mute or simplify things. Molly bumps into a random person, and seems to fall asleep in the museum. When she wakes up, the museum is closed down. A group of thieves called "Banzai Blasters" and their captain Giovanni Potage burst down the doors in the middle of the night. Giovanni threatens Molly, but it is later revealed that he is inscribed, and his epithet is "Soup". Indus finds Molly being confronted by the Banzai Blasters and Giovanni Potage, and later defeats the thieves alongside Lady Mera. It is later revealed Mera and Indus are also thieves, planning to steal the Arsene Amulet, and later imprison Molly and Giovanni. The two manage to trick Indus into freeing them so that they can prevent Lady Mera from finding the Amulet. They then encounter a psychologist named Sylvester "Sylvie" Ashling, who later attacks the two. Molly and Giovanni manage to convince Sylvie to join their side to stop Lady Mera. When they meet Mera, it is later revealed that the reason she plans to steal the Amulet is because her epithet is "Fragile", making her feel extreme pain constantly, but give her powers. Molly and Giovanni team up to defeat Mera and successfully retrieve the Amulet. Since Molly was attempting to call the police earlier, an officer by the name of Percival "Percy" King arrests Mera and Indus. At the end, Molly is able to "dumb" down Mera's pain using her epithet.


title: Epithet Erased

text: The story continues with Giovanni Potage making a deal with a mysterious character relating to the Arsene Amulet. Giovanni and the person agree to meet at a hideout called "Redwood Run". When Giovanni later goes to the hideout, it is later revealed that other Banzai Blasters are meeting up at this hideout. Giovanni goes into a sheriff's office and finds the mysterious man he was talking to, who is later revealed to be named Ramsey Murdoch, who's epithet is "Goldbricker", the ability to turn objects into gold. Ramsey tells Giovanni that because of his power, he doesn't need the Amulet. While Giovanni is exiting, two "vice presidents" named Bugsy Pugsler and Arnold Markdown, stop him and steal the Amulet. Earlier, Percy is told to go to Redwood Run to catch criminals. It is revealed her epithet is "Parapet" the ability to craft fantasy towers in battle. Then, while Ramsey is resting in his cell, a woman named Zora Salazar—who is hunting for him— finds him and threatens him to go run and hide, before she escapes. Percy then goes into the sheriff's office, and is encountered by Ramsey, who promises to catch multiple bad guys for "the price of one". Percy agrees and goes to a local bar, where she finds Giovanni Potage, but is later caught by Bugsy, Arnold, and the rest of the Banzai Blasters. It is revealed that Bugsy's epithet is "Bellybutton", which allows him to use an attack after placing a finger over his belly button, and that Arnold's epithet is "Coupon", which allows him to support allies by using "coupons" with magical effects. Giovanni and Percy later defeat the two. Bugsy and the rest of the Banzai Blasters them escape off without Arnold. Arnold then tells Percy and Ramsey they were planning to escape to a train station, where Percy and Ramsey will later go. When Bugsy and the Banzai Blasters escape off, they are encountered by Zora who turns Bugsy into a baby, before walking off. When Ramsey and Percy go to the train station, they are encountered by Zora, who attacks them. It is later revealed her epithet is "Sundial" which allows her to speed up and reverse any kind of process, this includes but is not limited to gravity, inertia, the cycle of the sun and even a person's lifespan. The reason she plants to steal the amulet is because she hates epithets, and as she quotes, "You can train your whole life and be the best you that you can be, just to get beat by some schmo born with a superpower". The story ends with Ramsey and Percy successfully defeated Zora.


title: British hardened field defences of World War II

text: With the German invasion of Low Countries in May 1940 came the realisation that the United Kingdom was vulnerable to invasion. Late in May 1940, the Chiefs of Staff Committee decided that vulnerable beaches needed to be fortified with pillboxes and anti-tank obstacles. This proposal was resisted by the Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces, Sir Walter Kirke, who favoured a mobile reserve to counter invasion, but shortly afterwards, he was replaced by Sir Edmund Ironside. Having very few tanks or lorries to form such a reserve, Ironside formulated a plan to have a "coastal crust" of defended beaches, backed up by a network of "stop lines" which would limit any incursion, with localised defences for "vulnerable points" such as airfields. Work on these defences continued through the summer of 1940, until in late July, Ironside was replaced by Sir Alan Brooke. By then, there were more resources for mobile defence and work on fixed defences became a lower priority, especially the stop lines which Brooke disliked. In February 1941, British General Headquarters issued an order that no more pillboxes were to be constructed. By then, some 28,000 pillboxes had been constructed; about 25 per cent of these have survived.


text: The Royal Ordnance Factories (ROFs) and depots were critical to the war effort and considered vulnerable to enemy ground attack so were often protected by pillboxes. In the case of the larger factories, the standard FW3 types were used, but at smaller sites a special type was used. These were small flat-roofed square pillboxes, usually with distinctive long narrow embrasures in at least three of their sides; the door was usually low and protected by a blast wall. In some cases, such as at Norton Fitzwarren in Somerset, an AA position accessed by a ladder was added to the top of the pillbox. In a few locations, the narrow embrasure was replaced by a more standard rifle embrasure, as the narrow embrasure would have been difficult to use as a firing position due to its position and size. The long narrow observation type embrasure suggests these pillboxes were mainly intended as guard posts or fire watching posts, but would have served as a defensive position in the event of an attack. They are usually about 8 ft square but there is some variation in size across the country, and could accommodate two or three men. This type of pillbox is probably the most at risk as former ROF sites are being redeveloped for housing and industry; approximately 30 still exist.


title: Alfred von Degenfeld

text: Von Degenfeld joined the 3rd Infantry Regiment of the Baden Army in 1833 and had become a captain and company commander in the 1st Infantry Regiment by 1845. In 1848/49 he was involved in the campaign against revolutionary free troops. In 1849 he was temporarily retired, but then called back to the regiment's office. In 1850 he transferred to the 2nd Infantry Regiment when the Baden Army Corps was re-established, and in 1855 to the Leibgrenadier Regiment. In 1858 he was appointed major and in 1861 lieutenant colonel and commander of the 2nd Fusilier Battalion. In 1863 he led the Baden contingent of the Rastatt Fortress garrison, but was relieved of this command in 1864 due to a change of garrison. In 1865 von Degenfeld was promoted to colonel and given command of the Leibgrenadier Regiment. During the Austro-Prussian War the unit was part of the Baden Division under the command of the Prince Wilhelm and participated in the Campaign of the Main. There they fought in the Battle of Hundheim on 23 July 1866, the Battle of Werbach on 24 July and the Battle of Gerchsheim. In 1868 von Degenfeld was promoted to major general and commander of the 2nd Infantry Brigade.


title: Roman Catholic relief bills

text: In 1593 by the Popish Recusants Act 1592, the consequences of such non-conformity were limited to Popish recusants. A Papist, convicted of absenting himself from church, became a Popish recusant convict, and besides the monthly fine of twenty pounds, was prohibited from holding any office or employment, from keeping arms in his house, from maintaining actions or suits at law or in equity, from being an executor or a guardian, from presenting to an advowson, from practising the law or physic, and from holding office civil or military. He was likewise subject to the penalties attaching to excommunication, was not permitted to travel five miles (8.0 km) from his house without licence, under pain of forfeiting all his goods, and might not come to Court under a penalty of one hundred pounds. Other provisions extended similar penalties to married women. Popish recusants convict were, within three months of conviction, either to submit and renounce their papistry, or, if required by four justices, to abjure the realm. If they did not depart, or returned without licence, they were guilty of a capital felony.


title: Roman Catholic relief bills

text: There were at this period considerable dissensions within the Catholic ranks. These concerned first the question of Veto on the appointment of bishops in Ireland, which it was proposed to confer on the English Government, and belongs chiefly to the history of Emancipation in that country. There was another cause of dissension, more properly English, which was connected with the adjuration of the supposed Catholic doctrines contained in the oath imposed upon those who wished to participate in the benefits conferred by the Act of 1791, as previously by that of 1778. The lay members of the Catholic committee who had framed this disclaimer were accused by the vicars Apostolic, who then administered the Church in England, of tampering with matters of ecclesiastical discipline; and although the bishops had their way in the matter of the oath, the feud survived, and was proclaimed to the world by the formation in 1792 of the Cisalpine Club, the members whereof were pledged "to resist any ecclesiastical interference which may militate against the freedom of English Catholics".


title: Roman Catholic relief bills

text: The Treaty was not ratified. For more than a quarter of a century the work of outlawry and proscription was continued by an exclusively Protestant Parliament at Dublin. An Irish Judge declared in 1760 that the law did not recognize the existence of an Irish Catholic, and, assuredly the penal code had placed him effectually beyond its pale. It branded Catholics with proscription and inferiority, struck at every form of Catholic activity, and checked every symptom of Catholic enterprise. It excluded them from Parliament, from the corporations, from the learned professions, from civil and military offices, from being executors, or administrators, or guardians of property, from holding land under lease, or from owning a horse worth £5. They were deprived of arms and of the franchise, denied education at home and punished if they sought it abroad, forbidden to observe Catholic Holy Days, to make pilgrimages, or to continue to use the old monasteries as the burial places of their dead. For the clergy there was no mercy, nothing but prison, exile, or death.


title: Roman Catholic relief bills

text: These friendlier dispositions, however, were slow to develop into legislative enactments, and not until 1771 did the first instalment of emancipation come. By the Act of that year Catholics were allowed to reclaim and hold under lease for sixty-one years 50 acres (20 ha) of bog but it should not be within a mile of any city or market town. Three years later an oath of allegiance was substituted for that of supremacy. A further concession was granted in 1778 when Catholics were allowed to hold leases of land for 999 years, and might inherit land in the same way as Protestants, the preamble of the Act declaring that the law was passed to reward Catholics for their long-continued peaceable behaviour, and for the purpose of allowing them to enjoy "the blessings of our free constitution". Distrust of them, however, continued, and though they subscribed money to equip the volunteers, they would not be admitted within the ranks. Nor was the Irish Parliament of 1782 willing to do more than to repeal the law compelling bishops to quit the kingdom, and the law binding those who had assisted at Mass to give the celebrant's name. Further, Catholics were no longer prohibited from owning a horse worth £5, and Catholic schools might be opened with the consent of the Protestant bishop of the diocese. These small concessions were not supplemented by others for ten years.


title: Roman Catholic relief bills

text: Such grudging concessions irritated rather than appeased in the existing temper of the Catholic body. To consider their position and take measures for the future, the Catholic Committee had delegates appointed by the different parishes in Ireland, and in December, 1792, a Catholic convention commenced its sittings in Dublin. By some Protestants, it was derisively called the Back Lane Parliament, and every effort was made to discredit its proceedings and identify it with sedition. FitzGibbon excited the fears of the Protestant landlords by declaring that the repeal of the penal code would involve the repeal of the Act of Settlement, and invalidate the titles by which they held their lands. The Catholic convention, however, went on unheeding, and, turning with contempt from the Dublin Parliament, sent delegates with a petition to London. The relations between Catholics and Dissenters were then so friendly that Keogh became a United Irishman, and a Protestant barrister named Theobald Wolfe Tone, the ablest of the United Irishmen, became secretary to the Catholic Committee. And when the Catholic delegates on their way to London passed through Belfast, their carriage was drawn through the streets by Presbyterians amid thunders of applause.


title: Roman Catholic relief bills

text: The king received the Catholics, and William Pitt and Dundas, the Home Secretary, warned the Irish junta that the time for concessions had come, and that if rebellion broke out in Ireland, Protestant ascendency would not be supported by British arms. And then these Protestants, whom FitzGibbon and the viceroy painted as ready to die rather than yield quietly, gave way. The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1793 was enacted, giving the Catholics the parliamentary and municipal franchise, and admitting them to the university and to office. They were still excluded from Parliament in the sense that the oath required before taking a seat was repugnant to them, and from the higher offices, and from being king's counsel, but in all other respects they were placed on a level with Protestants. In the Commons Foster spoke and voted against the Bill. In the Lords, though not opposing it, FitzGibbon spoiled the effect of the concession by a bitter speech, and by having an Act passed declaring the Catholic convention illegal, and prohibiting all such conventions, Catholic or otherwise, in the future.


title: Roman Catholic relief bills

text: Relief from so many disabilities left the Catholics almost free. Few of them were affected by exclusion from the higher offices, fewer still by exclusion from the inner Bar; and liberal Protestants would always be found ready to voice Catholic interests in Parliament if they owed their seats to Catholic votes. Besides, in the better temper of the times, it was certain that these last relics of the penal code would soon disappear. Meantime what was needed was a sympathetic and impartial administration of the law. But with FitzGibbon the guiding spirit of Irish government this was impossible. The grandson of a Catholic peasant, he hated Catholics and seized upon every occasion to cover them and their religion with insults. Autocratic and overbearing, he commanded rather than persuaded, and since he became attorney-general in 1783, his influence in Irish government was immense. His action on the regency question in 1789 procured him the special favour of the king and of Pitt, and he became a peer and Lord Chancellor. It was one of the anomalies of the Irish constitution that a change of measures did not involve a change of men, and hence the viceroy and the chief secretary, who had opposed all concessions to Catholics, were retained in office, and FitzGibbon was still left as if to prevent further concessions and to nullify what had been done.


title: Roman Catholic relief bills

text: For a brief period, however, it seemed as if men as well as measures were to be changed. At the end of 1794 a section of the English Whigs joined Pitt's administration. The Duke of Portland became Home Secretary, with Irish affairs in his department, and Earl Fitzwilliam became Lord Lieutenant. He came to Ireland early in 1795. His sympathy with the Catholics was well known; he was the friend of Grattan and the Ponsonbys, the champions of Emancipation, and, in coming to Ireland, he believed he had the full sanction of Pitt to popularize Irish Government and finally settle the Catholic question. At once he dismissed Cooke, the Under Secretary, a determined foe of concession and reform, and also John Beresford who, with his relatives, filled so many offices that he was called the "King" of Ireland. FitzGibbon and Foster he seldom consulted. Further, when Grattan, at the opening of Parliament, introduced an Emancipation Bill, Fitzwilliam determined to support it. Of all that he did or intended to do, he informed the English Ministry, and got no word of protest in reply, and then when the hopes of the Catholics ran high, Pitt turned back and Fitzwilliam was recalled. Why he was thus repudiated, after being allowed to go so far, has never been satisfactorily explained. It may be because Pitt changed his mind, and meditating a union, wished to leave the Catholic question open. It may be because of the dismissal of Beresford who had powerful friends. It may be that Fitzwilliam, misunderstanding Pitt, went further than he wished him to go; and it seems evident that he managed the question badly and irritated interests he ought to have appeased. Lastly, it is certain that FitzGibbon poisoned the king's mind by pointing out that to admit Catholics to Parliament would be to violate his coronation oath.


title: Roman Catholic relief bills

text: The change, however it be explained, was certainly complete. The new viceroy was instructed to conciliate the Catholic clergy by establishing a seminary for the education of Irish priests, and he established Maynooth College. But all further concessions to Catholics and every attempt to reform Parliament, he was firmly to oppose. He was to encourage the enemies of the people and frown upon their friends, and he was to rekindle the dying fires of sectarian hate. And all this he did. Beresford and Cooke were restored to office, Foster favoured more than ever, FitzGibbon made Earl of Clare, Grattan and Ponsonby regarded with suspicion, and the corrupt majority in Parliament petted and caressed. The religious factions of the "Defenders" and the "Peep o' Day Boys" in Ulster became embittered with a change of names. The Defenders became United Irishmen, and these, despairing of Parliament, became republicans and revolutionists, and after Fitzwilliam's recall were largely recruited by Catholics. Their opponents became identified with the Orange society recently formed in Ulster, with William of Orange as its patron saint, and intolerance of Catholicism as the chief article in its creed. These rival societies spread to the other provinces, and while every outrage done by Catholics was punished by Government, those done by Orangemen were condoned.


title: Roman Catholic relief bills

text: When it was suppressed Pitt's policy of a legislative union gradually unfolded itself, and Foster and Clare, who had so long acted together, had reached the parting of the ways. The latter, with Castlereagh, was ready to go on and support the proposed union; but Foster drew back, and in the union debates his voice and influence were the most potent on the opposition side. His defection was considered a serious blow by Pitt, who vainly offered him offices and honours. Others followed the lead of Foster, incorruptible amidst corruption; Grattan and his friends returned to Parliament; and the opposition became so formidable that Castlereagh was defeated in 1799, and had to postpone the question of a union to the following year. During this interval, with the aid of Cornwallis who succeeded Camden as viceroy in 1798, he left nothing undone to ensure success, and threats and terrors, bribery and corruption were freely employed. Cornwallis was strongly in favour of emancipation as part of the union arrangement, and Castlereagh was not averse; and Pitt would probably have agreed with them had not Clare visited him in England and poisoned his mind. That bitter anti-Catholic boasted of his success; and when Pitt in 1799 brought forward his union resolutions in the British Parliament, he would only promise that at some future time something might be done for the Catholics, dependent, however on their good conduct, and on the temper of the times.