e the capital of one government after another one of such governments was established in one eight six four as a second mexican empire the short lived monarchy led by maximilian of habsburg left its mark on the reconstruction of chapultepec castle and other urban planning a three decade long dictatorship under porfirio diaz left a french style influence upon mexico city the angel of independence was built under his administration to celebrate the first centenary of the beginning of the war of independence other urban highlights built at the time were the palacio de bellas artes and the expansion of paseo de la reforma a la champs lys es the post revolutionary government of mexico following the mexican revolution of one nine one zero reinforced the importance of the city which saw an important influx of immigrants during the rest of the two zero th century most of the growth of mexico city in population occurred in the late two zero th century in one nine five zero the city had about three million inhabitants by two zero zero zero the estimated population for the metropolitan area was around one eight million recent history in one nine six eight the city was host of the olympic games but it was also stained with the massacre of students by federal troops during the tlatelolco massacre another sport event carried in part by the city was the fifa world cup of one nine seven zero that the country hosted and which had its grand finale in mexico city s estadio azteca at zero seven one seven on september one nine one nine eight five the city was struck by an earthquake of magnitude eight one on the richter scale which resulted in the deaths of between five zero zero zero government estimate to two zero zero zero zero people and rendered five zero zero zero zero nine zero zero zero zero people homeless one hundred thousand housing units were destroyed together with many government buildings up to usd four billion of damage was caused in three minutes there was an additional magnitude seven five aftershock three six hours later usgs earthquake report ironically many of the old historical buildings resisted the earthquake unlike the newer ones the recovery of the city was seen on the evidence that it hosted its second fifa world cup final match in one nine eight six when mexico had to host the event at short notice during the one nine nine zero s mexico city continued its growth as an economic and cultural center of importance not only in latin america but also in the rest of the world the construction of new skyscrapers torre mayor and the never ending influx of immigrants have made such development possible in one nine nine seven mexico city was allowed for the first time to elect its own mayor which previously has been selected by the president that same year cuauht moc c rdenas was elected chief of government of the city colonias neighborhoods bellas artes palace in general colonias are a recurrent feature in mexican cities and larger towns they are the basic geographical unit in mexico city and in contrast to the delegaciones the boroughs of the mexican federal district they are always included in a persons address however colonias do not have any administrative attributions and as with most of the city s organization there is no standard for the size population or basic infrastructure to qualify as a colonia some notable colonias are centro covers the historic downtown of mexico city centro hist rico condesa artistic district notable by its art deco architecture colonia roma beaux arts neighbourhood next to condesa del carmen historic countercultural neighborhood in downtown coyoac n las lomas upscale residential neighbourhood san ngel historic residential and shopping area santa fe financial and business district el pedregal upscale residential neighborhood next to unam polanco shopping business and tourist area tepito popular flea market tlatelolco site of the plaza de las tres culturas and the tlatelolco massacre high density residential neighborhood zona rosa shopping district and tourist area attractions the national museum of anthropology famous landmarks in mexico city include the z calo the main central square with its time clashing spanish era cathedral modern times palacio nacional and ancient aztec temple ruins the templo mayor was found in the early one nine zero zero s while digging to place underground electric cables the trademark golden angel of independence found on the wide elegant avenue paseo de la reforma modeled by the order of the emperor maximilian of mexico after the champs lys es in paris the avenida de los insurgentes locally said to be the longest street in the world goes two eight eight km one eight miles from end to end of the city the chapultepec park houses the chapultepec palace museum on a hill that overlooks the park and its numerous museums monuments and the national zoo the national museum of anthropology which houses the aztec calendar stone the bellas artes fine arts palace which is a stunning white marble theater museum whose weight is such that it has gradually been sinking into the soft ground below the plaza of the three cultures in the tlatelolco neighborhood and the shrine and basilicas of our lady of guadalupe in addition the city has around one six zero museums over one zero zero art galleries and some three zero concert halls in many locales the palacio nacional and the instituto nacional de cardiolog a to name a few there are murals by diego rivera he and his wife frida kahlo lived in the southern suburb of coyoac n where several of their homes studios and collections are open to the public nearby is the house of leon trotsky where he was murdered in one nine four zero sports f tbol soccer is mexico s most popular sport and has a wide following in mexico city three very well known teams club america cruz azul and pumas are based in mexico city the aztec stadium estadio azteca home of club america is one of the world s largest stadiums with capacity to seat approximately one one zero zero zero zero fans mexico hosted the football world cup in one nine seven zero and one nine eight six the estadio azteca was witness to spectacular games colored with full capacity attendance and the excitement of mexican fans mexico city hosted the one nine six eight olympic games winning the bids against buenos aires lyon and detroit mexico city hosted the one nine five five pan american games and then the one nine seven five pan american games after santiago and s o paulo withdrew nascar plans to hold annual busch series races at autodromo hermanos rodriguez starting with the two zero zero five event held there also in late two zero zero five mexico city became the first city to host a nfl regular season game outside of the united states transportation taxis in mexico city see also articles in the category mexico city is served by the sistema de transporte colectivo metro an extensive metro system two zero seven km the largest in latin america the first portions of which were opened in one nine six nine one of the busiest in the world the metro transports more than four million people every day surpassed only by moscow s seven five million tokyo s five nine million and seoul s four four million it is heavily subsidized and it is the cheapest in the world each trip currently costing mxn two around eur zero one three or usd zero one nine a number of stations display pre columbian artifacts and architecture that was discovered during the metro s construction however the metro reaches only a fraction of the total inhabited area of the city and therefore an extensive network of bus routes has been implemented these are mostly managed by private companies which are allowed to operate buses as long as they adhere to certain minimal service quality standards the city government also operates a network of large buses in contrast with the privately operated microbuses with fares barely exceeding that of the metro electric transport other than the metro also exists in the form of trolleybuses and the xochimilco light rail line the city s first bus rapid transit line the metrob s began operation in june two zero zero five on avenida insurgentes as the microbuses were removed from its route it was hoped that the metrob s could reduce pollution and decrease transit time for passengers pesero or microb s there are plenty of lime green colored taxi cabs which while occasionally unsafe if taken randomly from the street instead of designated locales are undeniably economical since late two zero zero two they have been joined by red and white taxis as part of a program to replace older vehicles with new ones the freeway system is so dense that there is an ongoing project to construct a second level to the main ringroad that is currently already partially operational mexico city is served by mexico city international airport iata airport code mex it has four major bus stations north south observatorio tapo with bus service to cities across the country and one train station used for commercial purposes intercity passenger trains are now virtually non existent in mexico though recently the tren suburbano suburban rail will be built to serve metropolitan area there are also several toll expressways which connect it with several other major cities the city does not have an expressway network that connects points within the city all cross city trips must be done on arterial roads this is one reason why the city s streets are so congested urban problems as one of the largest urban areas in the world mexico city suffers from no shortage of the problems common to many large cities including traffic poverty and pollution this is perhaps exacerbated by mexico s developing country status this city has a high number of street children some estimate as many as five zero zero zero zero the mountains and volcanoes surrounding the city trap polluted air in the city and contribute to the city s serious problem with poor air quality although major strides have been made to improve the pollution situation in the past two zero years violent crime is also a major concern in two zero zero three mexico had the second highest number of kidnappings in the world with some three zero zero zero reported cases in taxis a particular problem has arisen individuals are sometimes kidnapped by unauthorized taxi drivers in order to empty their bank accounts at atms victims are sometimes kept overnight in order to bypass daily withdrawal limits inside other transportation mostly microbuses pickpocketing is still a common activity and mexico city inhabitants take various levels of precaution to avoid being victims of this police reform has also been a focus of the government for the past decade there is a general sense of distrust against the authorities as conventional wisdom holds that all mexico s police forces are corrupt one way or another this issue came to a head in november two zero zero four when an angry crowd in tl huac allowed themselves to be whipped up into a frenzy by the local criminal elements and burned two undercover police officers alive and seriously injured another on rumors that they were child kidnappers education the library of national autonomous university of mexico mexico city is the location of national autonomous university of mexico unam the most important public university in mexico and one of the most important of latin america unam is north america s oldest university established in one five five one and for many years was the source of many presidents of the country according to the times higher education supplement two zero zero five edition it is the best university of the spanish speaking world other recognized universities in the city include the national polytechnical institute itam itesm two campuses universidad anahuac and universidad iberoamericana furthermore the mexico city campus of alliant international university serves the city with internationally recognized undergraduate and graduate programs politics the angel of independence monument in the heart of mexico city at night due to its special situation as the home of the federal government the local government of mexico city has gone through several incarnations since independence the city sometimes had an independent local government and other times the greater part of the two zero th century was administered directly by the president of the republic who delegated his authority to a head of the federal district department known more tersely as the regent this kind of political organization caused much resentment among the inhabitants of the city because for many years they were deprived of a government that properly represented them the most serious situation arose in one nine eight eight when people from mexico city clearly voted for opposition candidates despite which they were ruled for six years by the party that won the federal presidency under these circumstances political reform became inevitable first a local legislative assembly was established and people were able to elect their head of government jefe de gobierno for the first time both institutions still had limited powers dependent on the federal congress and president the first elected head of government was cuauht moc c rdenas a former presidential candidate who was according to many cheated out of victory in the closely fought one nine eight eight presidential election c rdenas resigned later to compete in the two zero zero zero presidential campaign and left in his place rosario robles who became the first woman to govern mexico city a measure of the democratic development in mexico is that the current two zero zero zero zero six chief of government in the federal district is andr s manuel l pez obrador of the prd which has an left leaning ideology and even has some former members of the communist party among its numbers while at the same time the federal government has a conservative president vicente fox quesada l pez obrador was deprived of his constitutional immunity as head of government in the federal district on april seven two zero zero five with three six zero votes four eight nine total from the chamber of deputies he was impeached because he failed to obey a judge s order to stop a road from being built this event is popularly called the desafuero this issue created a political crisis which was resolved by the judiciary s ultimate decision to refrain from prosecuting l pez obrador on july two nine two zero zero five l pez obrador resigned and left office to be able to run for the presidency in two zero zero six alejandro encinas was appointed l pez obrador s substitute as head of government nickname mexico city was traditionally known as la ciudad de los palacios the city of palaces since two zero zero zero however the democratically elected local administrations of the prd have introduced a new nickname la ciudad de la esperanza or the city of hope acceptance or rejection of this new sobriquet is largely determined by one s political preferences the city is colloquially known as chilangolandia after their locals nickname the chilangos some natives of mexico city dislike that nickname although it has been fully adopted by the hippest young urban classes some argue that the term chilango refers to campesinos who have come to mexico city looking for employment the distrito federal has also been abbreviated d f its inhabitants have thus been called by themselves and others defe os there is even a magazine with that name chilango equivalent to time out which deals only with the numerous entertainment possibilities of the megalopolis external links es federal district government es office of the president es chilangolandia informal guide to restaurants bars and nightclubs el metro de la ciudad de m xico mexico city metro mexico city boroughs mexico city seen from a helicopter mexico city metropolitan area capitals in north america host cities of the summer olympic games mexico city this article is about the merlot wine grape for other meanings see merlot disambiguation merlot is a variety of wine grape used to create a popular red wine merlot based wines usually have medium body with hints of berry plum and currant most connoisseurs consider it easy to drink when compared to other red wines particularly its traditional blending partner cabernet sauvignon its softness and fleshiness combined with its earlier ripening makes merlot an ideal grape to blend with the sterner later ripening cabernet many merlots are made in a style popular with newer red wine drinkers though good merlots accompanying appropriate food are popular with many more experienced wine drinkers as well merlot is produced primarily in france and california and on a lesser scale in australia italy new zealand south africa switzerland croatia slovenia and other parts of the united states merlot from the state of washington has been gaining recognition and a small quantity of high quality wine from this grape is now being produced on the eastern end of long island new york most wines from bordeaux contain at least some merlot and in the regions of pomerol and saint emilion it is not unusual for merlot to comprise the majority of the blend one of the most famous and rare wines in the world ch teau p trus is almost all merlot white merlot is made the same way as its more famous cousin white zinfandel the grapes are crushed and after very brief or even no skin contact the resulting pink must ferments some producers of white merlot include sutter home forest glen and beringer it normally has a hint of raspberry flavor white merlot was reputedly first marketed in the late one nine nine zero s merlot in the media according to anecdotal reports in the us media merlot received sales dampening notoriety due to the following exchange from the two zero zero four film sideways jack if they want to drink merlot we re drinking merlot miles raymond no if anyone orders merlot i m leaving i am not drinking any fucking merlot the source of this claim is a two zero zero five ac nielsen analysis that ironically shows us sales of merlot actually increased after the film s release the analysis does reveal that merlot s relative popularity at the national level compared to other varietals has fallen cited by some to be an indicator of a downturn in sales grape varieties mm or mm or mm can mean or be an abbreviation for military machinist s mate a rating in the united states navy military medal a british and commonwealth decoration commerce million in traditional accounting or investment banking minute maid a brand of orange juice and other beverages mm a bulgarian brand of cigarettes mm a beer produced in the city of varna bulgaria mm the iata code of euroatlantic airways m merry meet the traditional greeting used in pagan circles martin scorsese at cannes in two zero zero two martin scorsese born november one seven one nine four two in queens new york usa is an american film director a highly acclaimed film director scorsese s body of work addresses such themes as italian american identity catholic concepts of guilt and redemption machismo and the violence endemic in american society although he has received much critical acclaim and is one of the most recognizable names in the film industry he has never won an academy award despite numerous nominations scorsese is widely considered one of the most significant and influential of post war american film makers martin scorsese came from a working class italian american family his father luciano charles scorsese one nine one two one nine nine three and mother catherine scorsese one nine one two one nine nine seven both worked in new york s garment district a sickly child he spent much of his time recovering from asthma at home it was at this stage in his life that he developed his passion for cinema his initial desire to become a catholic priest was forsaken for cinema the catholic seminary traded for new york university where he received his m a in film in one nine six six career one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s scorsese attended new york university s film school b a english one nine six four m a film one nine six six making short films his most famous short is the blackly comic the big shave which featured an unnamed man who shaves himself until he is profusely bleeding ultimately slitting his own throat with his razor many critics have claimed the film is an indictment of america s involvement in vietnam whatever its thematic concerns one can argue its visceral quality prefigured the director s entire oeuvre he made his first feature length film the black and white who s that knocking at my door with fellow student actor harvey keitel and editor thelma schoonmaker both of whom were to become long term collaborators this film was a clear precursor perhaps even a dry run for his later mean streets even in embryonic form the scorsese style was already evident a feel for new york italian american street life rapid editing and an eclectic rock soundtrack from there he became a friend and acquaintance of the so called movie brats of the one nine seven zero s francis ford coppola brian de palma george lucas and steven spielberg it was de palma who introduced actor robert de niro to scorsese and the two figures became close friends working together on many projects scorsese during this period also worked as one of the editors of the movie woodstock in one nine seven two scorsese made his directing debut with a depression set gangster film boxcar bertha for famed b movie producer roger corman who had also helped directors such as francis ford coppola james cameron and john sayles launch their careers widely considered a minor work boxcar bertha however taught scorsese how to make films cheaply and quickly preparing him for his first film with de niro mean streets championed by influential movie critic pauline kael mean streets was a breakthrough for scorsese de niro and keitel by now the signature scorsese style was present and correct macho posturing bloody violence catholic guilt and redemption gritty new york locale rapid fire editing and the obligatory rock soundtrack although extraordinarily fresh innovative and exciting it s wired atmosphere edgy documentary style and gritty street level direction perhaps owes a debt to directors john cassavetes and early jean luc godard indeed the film was completed with much encouragement from cassavetes who felt boxcar bertha was undeserving of the young director s prodigious talent actress ellen burstyn chose scorsese to direct her in the one nine seven four movie alice doesn t live here anymore for which she won an oscar for best actress although well regarded the film remains an anomaly in the director s early career focussing as it does on a central female character returning to little italy in new york city to explore his ethnic roots scorsese next came up with italianamerican a rich documentary featuring his parents charles and catherine scorsese both of whom went on to make cameo appearances in several of his movies for many years his mother worked as the official caterer for all of scorsese s films and his father helped in the wardrobe department black and white publicity still from taxi driver one nine seven six martin scorsese s cameo with robert de niro two years later in one nine seven six scorsese sent shockwaves through the cinema world when he directed the iconic taxi driver an unrelentingly grim and violent portrayal of one mans slow descent in to psychosis in a hellishly conceived manhattan scorsese s direction by now was highly accomplished using jump cuts expressionist lighting point of view shots and slow motion to reflect the protagonist s heightened psychological awareness however taxi driver s immense power was no doubt in part down to robert de niro s intense lead performance notable support was also given by jodie foster and harvey keitel taxi driver also marked the start of a series of collaborations with writer paul schrader the film bares strong thematic links to and makes several allusions to the work of french director robert bresson most explicitly pickpocket in essence the diary of a loner obsessive who finds redemption writer director schrader often returns to bresson s work in films such as american gigolo light sleeper and scorsese s later bringing out the dead five years after taxi driver was released in one nine eight one john hinckley jr made an assassination attempt on the american president ronald reagan he subsequently blamed his act on his obsession with jodie foster s character iris in scorsese s movie in taxi driver de niro s character travis bickle makes an assassination attempt on a senator taxi driver won the palme d or at the cannes film festival and also received four oscar nominations including best picture although all were unsuccessful in this cameo scorsese lounges in front of the building where cybill shepherd s character works according to shepherd scorsese requested a cybill shepherd type for the role she played in taxi driver the critical success of taxi driver encouraged scorsese to move ahead with his first big budget project the highly styilized musical new york new york this heart felt tribute to scorsese s home town and the classic hollywood musical was a box office and critical failure new york new york was the director s third collaboration with robert de niro co starring with liza minelli an obvious tribute and allusion to her father legendary musical director vincente minelli although possessing scorsese s usual visual panache and stylistic bravura many critics felt its enclosed studio bound atmosphere left it leaden in comparison to his earlier work often overlooked it remains one of the director s early key studies in to male paranoia and insecurity and hence is in direct thematic lineage with mean streets taxi driver and the later raging bull the disappointing reception new york new york received drove scorsese into depression by this stage the director had also developed a serious cocaine addiction however he did find the creative drive to make what is arguably the finest film about rock and roll the last waltz one nine seven eight a beautifully photographed documentary of the final concert by the band another scorsese directed documentary entitled american boy also appeared in one nine seven eight focussing on steve prince the cocky gun salesman in taxi driver a period of wild partying followed damaging the director s already fragile health one nine eight zero s by many accounts scorsese s included robert deniro practically saved his life when he persuaded him to kick his cocaine addiction to make what many consider his greatest film raging bull one nine eight zero convinced that he would never make another movie he poured his energies into making this violent biopic of middleweight boxing champion jake la motta nicknamed the bronx bull the film is widely viewed as a masterpiece and was voted the greatest film of the one nine eight zero s by britain s prestigious sight and sound magazine it received eight oscar nominations including best picture best actor for robert de niro and scorsese s first for best director de niro won as did thelma schoonmaker for the editing but scorsese lost to first time director robert redford raging bull filmed in high contrast black and white is perhaps where the director s style reached its zenith taxi driver and new york new york had used elements of expressionism to replicate psychological point of view but here the style was taken to new extremes extensive slow motion complex tracking shots extravagant distortion of perspective the size of boxing rings would change from fight to fight thematically too the concerns carried on from mean streets and taxi driver insecure males violence guilt redemption although the screenplay to raging bull was credited to paul schrader and mardik martin who earlier co wrote mean streets the finished script differed extensively from schrader s original draft it was re written several times by various writers including jay cocks who went on to co script the age of innocence and gangs of new york it is widely believed that the final draft was written by scorsese and robert de niro scorsese s next project was his fifth collaboration with robert de niro king of comedy one nine eight three an absurdist satire on the world of media and celebrity it was an obvious departure from the more emotionally committed films he had become associated with visually too it was far less kinetic then the style the director had developed up until this point often using a static camera the expressionism of his recent work gave way to moments of almost total surrealism however it was still an obvious scorsese work apart from the new york locale it bared many similarities to taxi driver not least its focus on an obsessed troubled loner who ironically achives iconic status through a criminal act murder and kidnapping respectively king of comedy bombed at the box office but has become increasingly well regarded by critics in the years since its release it is arguable that its themes of vacuous showbiz and celebrity obsession are more pertinent today then when the film was originally released in one nine eight three scorsese began work on a long cherished personal project the last temptation of christ based on the one nine five one book written by nikos kazantzakis which was introduced to the director by actress barbara hershey when they were both attending new york university in the late one nine six zero s the movie was slated to shoot under the paramount studios banner but shortly before principal photography was to commence paramount pulled the plug on the project citing pressure from religious groups in this aborted one nine eight three version aidan quinn was cast as jesus and sting was cast as pontius pilate in the one nine eight eight version these roles were played by willem dafoe and david bowie after the collapse of this project scorsese again saw his career at a critical point as he described in the recent documentary filming for your life making after hours two zero zero four he saw that in the increasingly commercial world of one nine eight zero s hollywood the highly stylized and personal one nine seven zero s films he and others had built their careers on would not continue to enjoy the same status and decided on an almost totally new approach to his work with after hours one nine eight five he made an aesthetic shift back to a pared down almost underground filmmaking style his way of staying viable filmed on an extremely low budget on location and at night in the soho neighborhood of manhattan the film is a black comedy about one increasingly misfortunate night for a mild new york word processor griffin dunne and featured cameos by such disparate actors as terri garr and cheech and chong a bit of a stylistic anomaly for scorsese after hours fits in well with popular low budget cult films of the one nine eight zero s by lesser known directors e g something wild or repo man along with the iconic one nine eight seven michael jackson music video bad in one nine eight six scorsese made the color of money a sequel to the much admired paul newman film the hustler one nine six zero the original was directed by robert rossen whose one nine four zero s boxing film body and soul was a major influence on raging bull although typically visually assured the colour of money was the directors first foray in to mainstream commercial film making it won actor paul newman a belated oscar and gave scorsese the clout to finally secure backing for a project that had been a long time goal for him the last temptation of christ scorsese filmed the last temptation of christ on a low budget in one nine eight seven knowing that the film would be controversial and would not take in record box office revenues however he did not anticipate the furore and controversy his movie would spark when it was released a year later nationwide protests against the film made it a textbook case for the modern method of religious outrage and influence the movie did have a number of staunch supporters particularly among film critics including scorsese s friend roger ebert scorsese also received his second nomination for best director although the award would go to barry levinson the backing of the movie by important political figures kept scorsese from becoming an outcast in hollywood and it gave him the impetus to film goodfellas one nine nine zero to present with goodfellas scorsese returned to his native new york and reunited with robert de niro and joe pesci whom he had previously directed in raging bull this motion picture of life as a gangster has been called the greatest mob movie since the godfather and it secured scorsese a place among the greatest motion picture directors of all time he earned his third and some would argue most deserving best director nomination but again lost to a first time director kevin costner scorsese gives part of the credit for his inspiration for his two well known gangster films to musketeers of pig alley one of the first ever gangster films made by the biograph company in one nine one two scorsese went on to direct a remake of the one nine six two thriller cape fear which proved to hollywood that he could make a box office hit however scorsese s projects have continued to cast him as a figure who can make critically acclaimed pictures the age of innocence kundun that only turn in modest box office revenues he continued to be intimately involved in filmmaking through the one nine nine zero s making cameo appearances in movies like quiz show as an unscrupulous television sponsor and search and destroy and working to help up and coming filmmakers mad dog and glory clockers he re visited the world of taxi driver in one nine nine nine with bringing out the dead while critics said that his one nine nine five movie casino looked and felt like a re hash of goodfellas scorsese also voiced one of the characters in shark tale as will smith s visibly annoyed boss a blowfish in one nine nine zero martin scorsese acted in a cameo role as vincent van gogh in the film dreams by legendary japanese director akira kurosawa in one nine nine nine he produced a documentary on italian filmakers entitled il mio viaggio in italia aka my voyage to italy the documentary was produced by giuliana del punta and bruno restuccia editing and printing has been made in cinecitta studios rome color timer was paolo verrucci scorsese s two zero zero two production of gangs of new york was seen as his biggest and most risk taking venture to date originally filmed for a release in the winter of two zero zero one to qualify for academy award nominations scorsese delayed the final production of the film until after the beginning of two zero zero two the studio consequently delayed the film for nearly a year until its release in the oscar season of late two zero zero two with a production budget said to be in excess of one zero zero million this was scorsese s most expensive work critical reaction to the film was moderately positive movie critics familiar with scorsese s work felt it was flawed and while the movie wasn t a smashing box office blockbuster it wasn t a dismal failure in theatrical revenue in february of two zero zero three gangs of new york received ten academy award nominations including best picture best director and best actor for daniel day lewis this being his fourth best director nomination many thought it was finally his year to win but the award went instead to roman polanski scorsese s film the aviator is a biopic of director producer legendary eccentric multi millionaire and aviation pioneer howard hughes it was released in december two zero zero four and met mostly with critical acclaim the film was nominated for six golden globe awards including best picture drama best director best screenplay and best actor drama for leonardo dicaprio it won three including best picture drama in january of two zero zero five the aviator became the most nominated film of the seven seven th academy award nominations nominated in one one categories including best picture the film has also garnered nominations in nearly all of the other major categories including best picture a fifth best director nomination for scorsese best actor leonardo dicaprio best supporting actress cate blanchett and a surprise nod for alan alda for best supporting actor despite having a leading tally the film ended up with only five oscars best supporting actress art direction costume design film editing and cinematography scorsese lost out again this time to director clint eastwood for million dollar baby which also won best picture scorsese is currently in post production of a crime thriller set in boston massachusetts based upon infernal affairs a trio of hong kong action pictures centered upon battles between the asian police and the gangs in the area the film is tentatively entitled the departed the film will once again unite scorsese with leonardo dicaprio an actor he has now been working with for three consecutive films the departed will also bring scorsese together with jack nicholson matt damon and mark wahlberg none of whom he has worked with before scorsese is president of the film foundation a non profit organization dedicated to film preservation and decaying motion picture film stock at a ceremony in paris france on january five two zero zero five martin scorsese was awarded the french legion of honor in recognition of his contribution to cinema director trademarks frequently casts robert de niro harvey keitel joe pesci and in recent years leonardo dicaprio frequently works with editor thelma schoonmaker begins his films with segments taken from the middle or end of the story examples include raging bull one nine eight zero goodfellas one nine nine zero and casino one nine nine five frequent use of slow motion e g mean streets one nine seven three taxi driver one nine seven six raging bull one nine eight zero his lead characters are often sociopathic and or want to be accepted in society often uses diegetic music i e source of music is visible on screen his blonde leading ladies are usually seen through the eyes of the protagonist as angelic and ethereal they always wear white in their first scene and are photographed in slow motion cybill shepherd in taxi driver one nine seven six cathy moriarty s white bikini in raging bull one nine eight zero sharon stone s white minidress in casino one nine nine five as the movie progresses these ladies usually prove to be anything but angelic often uses long tracking shots use of montage sequences involving aggressive camera movement and rapid editing set to popular music note his name is pronounced scor seh see themes the main themes of scorsese s work are intimately wrapped up in his roman catholic upbringing and his early attraction to the priesthood scorsese has once remarked that when he was growing up the most powerful people in his neighborhood were the gangsters and the priests he claims that as a filmmaker he is in some ways a combination of the two redemption and sin are the primary themes of scorsese s films his heroes tend to be fallen souls seeking redemption in a world of corruption they often achieve this redemption only through a passion a crucifixion of sorts in which a blood penance is extracted for their former sins charlie s final scene in mean streets travis bickle s psychotic rampage in taxi driver and jake lamotta s pounding his fists into the walls of his prison cell in raging bull would all seem to be expressions of this obsession with sin and redemption scorsese s films have oddly enough become more bleak in this regard as his career goes on goodfellas casino and the aviator all end with their protagonists trapped in a metaphorical purgatory from which it is uncertain they will be redeemed solitude and obsession also permeate scorsese s films his characters tend to be loners or misunderstood outcasts who are driven by emotional forces they cannot fully control over the course of his films these forces tend to gather strength until they erupt into a frenzy of emotional or physical violence it has been said that this is one of the factors which attracts actors to his films because it gives them the opportunity to play extremely emotionally dynamic characters the corruption of the material world and the fall from paradise are also persistent themes in scorsese s films particularly in his gangster films his characters are often torn between the temptations of the material world and the self betrayal of their own spirits that the material world demands of them this conflict often erupts into a cataclysmic fall from grace that sometimes leads to a quiet redemption this theme is most explicit in raging bull which ends with a new testament verse spoken by a blind man who has been given sight by jesus however this quote can be read as part of the film s dedication to haig p manoogian his nyu film school mentor oscar less director scorsese has been nominated five times for an oscar for best director but has never won this places him in the company of such directors as alfred hitchcock five nominations robert altman five stanley kubrick four federico fellini four and ingmar bergman three all of whom are also considered masters of cinema and none of whom won an oscar for directing selected filmography as director the departed two zero zero six no direction home bob dylan a martin scorsese picture two zero zero five the aviator two zero zero four gangs of new york two zero zero two bringing out the dead one nine nine nine my voyage to italy one nine nine nine kundun one nine nine seven a personal journey with martin scorsese through american movies one nine nine five casino one nine nine five the age of innocence one nine nine three cape fear one nine nine one goodfellas one nine nine zero new york stories segment one nine eight nine the last temptation of christ one nine eight eight the color of money one nine eight six after hours one nine eight five the king of comedy one nine eight three raging bull one nine eight zero the last waltz one nine seven eight american boy a profile of steven prince one nine seven eight new york new york one nine seven seven taxi driver one nine seven six alice doesn t live here anymore one nine seven four italianamerican one nine seven four mean streets one nine seven three boxcar bertha one nine seven two street scenes one nine seven zero who s that knocking at my door one nine six seven the big shave short one nine six seven selected filmography as actor shark tale two zero zero four quiz show one nine nine four dreams one nine nine zero round midnight one nine eight six bibliographies martin scorsese bibliography via uc berkeley see also list of directors external links scorsese interviews on bbc senses of cinema great directors critical database birthday spotlight on celebritybirthdayblog com one nine four two births sicilian americans queensites american film directors best director oscar nominees legion of honor recipients roman catholics living people mean streets one nine seven three is an early martin scorsese film starring harvey keitel and robert de niro charlie keitel is a man who is trying to move up in the local mob and who is hampered by his responsibility towards his childish friend johnny boy de niro charlie works for his uncle collecting debts and is in a hidden sexual relationship with johnny boy s cousin who has epilepsy his uncle disapproves of his girlfriend explicitly because of her epilepsy charlie who has a strict catholic upbringing is probably too forgiving in general to get far in the mafia aside from his student film project who s that knocking at my door and boxcar bertha a directing project given him by early independent maverick roger corman this was scorsese s first feature film of his own design director john cassavetes told him after he completed boxcar bertha to make films he wanted to make about things he knew mean streets was based on actual events scorsese saw almost regularly while growing up in little italy the movie features a memorable six zero s soundtrack including two songs by the rolling stones but complemented as in many of his subsequent films by operatic arias and music from varying genre de niro won the national society of film critics award for best supporting actor for his role as john johnny boy civello the film has been deemed culturally significant by the library of congress and selected for preservation in the united states national film registry the title refers to raymond chandler s essay the simple art of murder where he writes but down these mean streets a man must go who is not himself mean who is neither tarnished nor afraid tagline you don t make up for your sins in church you do it on the streets trivia while many consider this to be the quintessential new york film very little of it was actually shot there many scenes including the famous pool hall sequence were shot in los angeles director cameo martin scorsese the director appears a further two times in addition to his credited appearance as jimmy shorts first he is visible in a portrait with harvey keitel for one frame in the opening home movies main title sequence second his voice appears as narration father i m not worthy of your flesh cameo catherine scorsese the woman who comes to teresa s aid when she has an epileptic fit director trademark martin scorsese mother the woman who comes to teresa s aid when she has an epileptic fit the leader of the super eight home movie which runs under the opening credits reads date one two eight six nine title illegible w baptism processed by kodak original the financial backers wanted jon voight to play charlie but he turned them down for the soundtrack music martin scorsese sourced much of his own personal record collection the production was pretty much made on the run from the teamsters as it would have been financially impossible to make the film had it been a union shoot after the release of his previous film boxcar bertha one nine seven two both john cassavetes and john milius advised martin scorsese to do a more personal project next that encouragement led scorsese to finish this script and get it produced marks the first film collaboration between director martin scorsese and star robert de niro the voiceover narration in the opening of the movie you don t make up for your sins in church you do it on the street everything else is bullshit and you know it is actually not said by harvey keitel the character we are intended to believe is thinking these thoughts but director martin scorsese scorsese felt that using a separate voice to make the distinction between keitel s thoughts and actions was necessary and it has never been done in a movie before or since when raising money for the film martin scorsese was offered a healthy sum by his mentor roger corman on the condition that he shoot the movie with an all black cast scorsese had to turn corman down based on a script which martin scorsese co wrote with mardik martin in the one nine six zero s entitled season of the witch the innovative use of the hand held camera was largely down to the fact that the film s meager budget didn t stretch to laying down lots of tracks for all the tracking shots to really get inside harvey keitel s drunken scene the camera was actually strapped to the actor while he swayed about and under cranked to give it a woozy drunken feel external links one nine seven three films united states national film registry films directed by martin scorsese marcel achard july five one eight nine nine september four one nine seven four is the pseudonym of marcel augustin ferr ol a french playwright and author he was born in sainte foy l s lyon in the rh ne d partement in france achard wrote the play l idiot which was adapted for broadway as a shot in the dark after further adaption it became a hollywood movie one eight nine nine births one nine seven four deaths members of the acad mie fran aise french dramatists and playwrights myasthenia gravis mg latin grave muscle weakness is a neuromuscular disease leading to fluctuating weakness and fatiguability it is one of the best known autoimmune disorders and the antigens and disease mechanisms have been well identified weakness is caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors or the musk protein at the post synaptic neuromuscular junction inhibiting the stimulative effect of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine myasthenia is treated with immunosuppression and cholinesterase inhibitors signs and symptoms the hallmark of myasthenia gravis is muscle weakness that increases during periods of activity and improves after periods of rest certain muscles such as those that control eye and eyelid movement facial expression chewing talking and swallowing are often but not always involved in the disorder the muscles that control breathing and neck and limb movements can also be affected although myasthenia gravis may affect any voluntary muscle muscles that control eye and eyelid movement facial expression and swallowing are most frequently affected the onset of the disorder may be sudden or rapid symptoms often are not immediately recognized as myasthenia gravis a proportion only receives a diagnosis after more than a year in most cases the first noticeable symptom is weakness of the eye muscles in others difficulty in swallowing and slurred speech may be the first signs the degree of muscle weakness involved in myasthenia gravis varies greatly among patients ranging from a localized form limited to eye muscles ocular myasthenia to a severe or generalized form in which many muscles sometimes including those that control breathing are affected symptoms which vary in type and severity may include asymmetrical ptosis a drooping of one or both eyelids diplopia blurred or double vision due to weakness of the muscles that control eye movements unstable or waddling gait weakness in arms hands fingers legs and neck a change in facial expression dysphagia difficulty in swallowing and shortness of breath and dysarthria impaired speech often nasal due to weakness of the pharyngeal muscles a myasthenic crisis may give rise to a generalized paralysis including those of the respiratory muscles and assisted ventilation may be required to sustain life in patients whose respiratory muscles are already weak crises may be triggered by infection fever an adverse reaction to medication or emotional stress bedlack edrophonium test is infrequently performed to identify mg its application is limited to the situation when other investigations do not yield a conclusive diagnosis this test requires the intravenous administration of edrophonium chloride tensilon a drug that blocks the breakdown of acetylcholine by cholinesterase and temporarily increases the levels of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction in people with myasthenia gravis involving the eye muscles edrophonium chloride will briefly relieve weakness other methods to confirm the diagnosis include a version of nerve conduction study which tests for specific muscle fatigue by repetitive nerve stimulation this test records weakening muscle responses when the nerves are repetitively stimulated and helps to differentiate nerve disorders from muscle disorders repetitive stimulation of a nerve during a nerve conduction study may demonstrate decrements of the muscle action potential due to impaired nerve to muscle transmission imaging a chest x ray is frequently performed it may point towards alternative diagnoses e g lambert eaton due to a lung tumor and comborbidity it may also identify widening of the mediastinum suggestive of thymoma but computed tomography ct or magnetic resonance imaging mri are more senstive ways to identify thymomas and these are generally done for this reason pulmonary function test spirometry lung function testing may be performed to assess respiratory function if there are concerns about a patient s ability to breathe adequately severe myasthenia myasthenic crisis may cause respiratory failure due to exhaustion of the respiratory muscles pathophysiology myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease it features antibodies directed against the body s own proteins while in various similar diseases the disease has been linked to a cross reaction with an infective agent there is no known causative pathogen that could account for myasthenia there is a slight genetic predisposition particular hla types seem to predispose for mg b eight and dr three with dr one more specific for ocular myasthenia up to two five have a concurrent thymoma a tumor either benign or malignant of the thymus and other abnormalities are frequently found there are various theories that explain why thymoma may predispose to mg the disease process generally remains stationary after thymectomy removal of the thymus for tumor in mg the autoantibodies are directed against the acetylcholine receptor nicotinic type the receptor in the motor end plate for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine that stimulates muscular contraction some forms of the antibody impair the ability of acetylcholine to bind to receptors others lead to the destruction of receptors either by complement fixation or by inducing the muscle cell to eliminate the receptors through endocytosis in normal muscle contraction cumulative activation of the ach receptor leads to influx of sodium and calcium only when the levels of these electrolytes inside the muscle cell is high enough will it contract decreased numbers of functioning receptors therefore impairs muscular contraction epidemiology myasthenia gravis occurs in all ethnic groups and both genders it most commonly affects young adult women under four zero and older people of both sexes over six zero but it can occur at any age the prevalence in the united states is estimated at one four cases per one zero zero zero zero zero or roughly three six zero zero zero cases in the usa in neonatal myasthenia the fetus may acquire immune proteins antibodies from a mother affected with myasthenia gravis generally cases of neonatal myasthenia gravis are transient temporary and the child s symptoms usually disappear within few weeks after birth other children develop myasthenia gravis indistinguishable from adults myasthenia gravis is not directly inherited nor is it contagious occasionally the disease may occur in more than one member of the same family rarely children may show signs of congenital myasthenia or congenital myasthenic syndrome these are not autoimmune disorders but are caused by defective genes that control proteins in the acetylcholine receptor or in acetylcholinesterase treatment myasthenia gravis can usually be controlled with medication medication is used for two different endpoints direct improvement of the weakness reduction of the autoimmune process muscle function is improved by cholinesterase inhibitors such as neostigmine and pyridostigmine these slow the natural enzyme cholinesterase that degrades acetylcholine in the motor end plate the neurotransmitter is therefore around longer to stimulate its receptor immunosuppressive drugs such as prednisone cyclosporin and azathioprine may be used if the myasthenia is serious myasthenic crisis plasmapheresis is used to remove the putative antibody from the circulation similarly intravenous immunoglobulins ivig is used to bind the circulating antibodies thymectomy the surgical removal of the thymus gland which is abnormal in myasthenia gravis patients improves symptoms in more than five zero percent of patients even in those without thymoma some patients are cured by thymectomy suggesting that the thymus plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of myasthenia prognosis with treatment most patients have a near normal quality of life and no significant problems some cases of myasthenia gravis may go into remission temporarily and muscle weakness may disappear completely so that medication can be discontinued stable long lasting complete remissions are the goal of thymectomy references scherer k bedlack rs simel dl does this patient have myasthenia gravis jama two zero zero five two nine three one nine zero six one four pmid one five eight four zero eight six six bedlack rs sanders db how to handle myasthenic crisis essential steps in patient care postgrad med two zero zero zero one zero seven two one one four two two zero two fulltext pmid one zero seven seven eight four two one external links original version based on a us government factsheet the myasthenia gravis foundation of america autoimmune diseases neurology map showing motala str m from lake v ttern left to the baltic sea right motala str m is the river system that drains lake v ttern the second largest lake in sweden into the baltic sea in norrk ping it is named from the city motala where it begins in the early one nine th century the g ta canal was constructed as a parallel to motala str m rivers of sweden foundation albuquerque new mexico april four one nine seven five location redmond washington usa key people bill gates founder microcomputer software the company was founded in albuquerque new mexico on april four one nine seven five by bill gates and paul allen to develop and sell basic interpreters for the altair eight eight zero zero after the market saw a flood of ibm pc clones in the mid one nine eight zero s microsoft used its new position which it gained in part due to a contract from ibm to dominate the home computer operating system market with ms dos the company later released an initial public offering ipo in the stock market which netted several of its employees millions of dollars due to the ensuing rise of the stock price the price of the stock continued its rise steadily into the early two zero zero zero s in microsoft windows the company was selling what would become the most widely used operating system in the world which was originally an add on for ms dos microsoft continued to push into multiple markets such as computer hardware and television in addition microsoft has historically given customer support over usenet newsgroups and the world wide web and awards microsoft mvp status to volunteers who are deemed helpful in assisting the company s customers with what is generally described as a developer centric business culture microsoft has become widely known for some of its internal codes of conduct for its employees one example is the eat your own dogfood mantra which describes the practice of using pre release products inside the company to test them in an environment geared towards the real world microsoft has also become notorious for its business practices the u s justice department among others has sued microsoft for antitrust violations and software bundling in addition microsoft has been criticized for the insecurity of its software despite this microsoft has won several awards such as the one nine nine three most innovative company operating in the u s by fortune magazine the company is on the fortune five zero zero list of companies as of two zero zero five edit this section history first conceived in one nine seven five by bill gates and paul allen microsoft has evolved through several stages throughout its history by one nine eight five the company was selling the microsoft windows operating system and ms dos and had collaborated with ibm to produce os two warp by one nine nine two microsoft had released an ipo in the stock market and discontinued os two development to focus directly on windows by one nine nine five windows was the most widely used graphical operating system in the world and with the introduction of windows nine five the company became a more consumer driven company microsoft would proceed to enter other business markets such as publishing and video games would be sued more than once by the u s justice department and other governments and companies and would continue to dominate the operating system market one nine seven five one nine eight four the founding of microsoft microsoft staff photo from december seven one nine seven eight from left to right top row steve wood bob wallace jim lane middle row bob o rear bob greenberg marc mcdonald gordon letwin bottom row bill gates andrea lewis marla wood paul allen days after reading the january one one nine seven five issue of popular electronics that demonstrated the altair eight eight zero zero bill gates called the creators of the new microcomputer mits micro instrumentation and telemetry systems offering to demonstrate an implementation of the basic programming language for the system gates had no interpreter nor even an altair system but in the eight weeks before the demo he and allen developed the interpreter using stolen computer time on harvard s minicomputers computer resources were for educational not commercial use the interpreter worked at the demo and mits agreed to distribute altair basic gates left harvard university moved to albuquerque new mexico where mits was located and founded microsoft there the name microsoft without the hyphen was first used in a letter from gates to allen on november two nine one nine seven five and on november two six one nine seven six the name became a registered trademark the company s first international office was founded on november one one nine seven eight in japan entitled ascii microsoft on january one one nine seven nine the company moved from albuquerque to a new home in bellevue washington steve ballmer joined the company on june one one one nine eight zero and would later succeed bill gates as ceo the company restructured on june two five one nine eight one to become an incorporated business in its home state of washington with a further change of its name to microsoft inc as part of the restructuring bill gates became president of the company and chairman of the board and paul allen became executive vice president microsoft s first operating system was xenix released in one nine eight zero and later sold to santa cruz operation however the source of the real success for the company was the dos operating system on august one two one nine eight one after negotiations with digital research failed ibm awarded a contract to microsoft to provide a version of the cp m operating system which was set to be used in the upcoming ibm personal computer pc however microsoft did not have an operating system at the time so it purchased a cp m clone called qdos quick and dirty operating system from tim paterson of seattle computer products for five zero zero zero zero which microsoft renamed to pc dos due to potential copyright infringement problems with cp m ibm marketed both cp m and pc dos for two five zero and four zero respectively with pc dos eventually becoming the standard because of its lower price around one nine eight three in collaboration with numerous companies microsoft created a home computer system msx which contained its own version of the dos operating system entitled msx dos this became relatively popular in japan and europe later after compaq successfully cloned the ibm bios the market saw a flood of ibm pc clones microsoft was quick to use its position to dominate the home computer operating system market microsoft began licensing its operating system for use on non ibm pc clones and called this version of the operating system ms dos short for microsoft disk operating system by marketing ms dos aggressively to manufacturers of ibm pc clones microsoft rose from a small player to one of the major software vendors in the home computer industry starting on may two one nine eight three with the microsoft mouse microsoft entered markets such as computer hardware this expansion included microsoft press a book publishing division on november one zero the same year which debuted with two titles exploring the ibm pc home computer by peter norton and the apple macintosh book by cary lu one nine eight five one nine nine one the rise and fall of os two the sign at a main entrance to the microsoft corporate campus the redmond microsoft campus today includes more than eight million square feet seven five zero zero zero zero m and two eight zero zero zero employees the republic of ireland became home to microsoft s first international production facility in one nine eight five and on november two zero microsoft released its first retail version of microsoft windows originally a graphical extension for its ms dos operating system in august microsoft and ibm partnered in the development of a different operating system called os two os two was marketed in connection with a new hardware design proprietary to ibm the ps two shortly afterwards on february one six one nine eight six microsoft relocated to redmond washington around one month later on march one three the company went public with an ipo raising six one million at two one zero zero per share by the end of the trading day the price had risen to two eight zero zero in one nine eight seven microsoft eventually released their first version of os two to oems continuing its trend of rebranding products from other companies microsoft announced sql server on january one three one nine eight eight a relational database management system for companies that was based on technology licensed from sybase in one nine eight nine microsoft announced at comdex that the one nine nine one release of windows three zero would be the last version of windows over the next few years microsoft continued to issue statements indicating that os two was the future of computing on may one six one nine nine one bill gates announced to microsoft employees that the os two partnership was over and that microsoft would henceforth focus its platform efforts on windows and the windows nt kernel some people especially developers who had ignored windows and committed most of their resources to os two were taken by surprise and accused microsoft of deception the windows changeover was frequently referred to in the industry as the head fake in the ensuing years the popularity of os two declined and windows quickly became the favored pc platform one nine nine one also marked the founding of microsoft research an organization in microsoft for researching computer science subjects and microsoft visual basic a popular development product for companies and individuals one nine nine two one nine nine five domination of the corporate market the microsoft sign at the entrance of the german microsoft campus konrad zuse str one unterschlei heim germany microsoft became an international company with headquarters in many countries during the transition from ms dos to windows the success of microsoft s product microsoft office allowed the company to gain ground on application software competitors such as wordperfect and lotus one two three some allege that microsoft used its inside knowledge of the dos and windows kernels and of undocumented application programming interface features to make office perform better than its competitors but internal sources at microsoft later revealed that the office team did not have access to the windows source code at the time and relied on reverse engineering eventually microsoft office became the dominant business suite with a market share far exceeding that of its competitors in march one nine nine two microsoft released windows three one along with its first promotional campaign on tv the software sold over three million copies in its first two months on the market in october windows for workgroups three one was released with integrated networking capabilities such as peer to peer file and printing sharing in november microsoft released the first version of their popular database software microsoft access by one nine nine three windows had become the most widely used gui operating system in the world fortune magazine named microsoft as the one nine nine three most innovative company operating in the u s the year also marked the end of a five year legal case brought by apple dubbed apple computer inc v microsoft corp in which the ruling was in microsoft s favor that same year microsoft released windows for workgroups three one one a new version of the consumer line of windows and windows nt three one a server based operating system with a similar user interface to consumer versions of the operating system but with an entirely different kernel as part of its strategy to broaden its business microsoft released microsoft encarta in one nine nine four the first encyclopedia designed to run on a computer microsoft also created the microsoft plus product support program for its customers a service that offered cost savings on microsoft products the name of that program was later used for several expansion packs for windows the company changed its slogan to where do you want to go today in that year as part of an attempt to appeal to nontechnical audiences in a us one zero zero million advertising campaign which some critics regarded as uninspired dreamworks skg and microsoft formed a new company dreamworks interactive to produce interactive and multimedia entertainment properties in one nine nine five in march microsoft released microsoft bob a windows three one program manager replacement which is widely considered microsoft s most unsuccessful product its unpopularity became the source of many jokes up until one nine nine five microsoft was a business oriented company however in august one nine nine five it released a new version of its flagship software microsoft windows nine five with a completely new user interface including a novel start button more than a million copies of microsoft windows nine five were sold in the first four days after its release the new version of windows was the start of a major transition towards a consumer oriented company in september the chinese government chose windows to be the operating system of choice in that country and entered into an agreement with the company to standardize a chinese version of the operating system microsoft also released the microsoft sidewinder three d pro joystick in an attempt to further expand its profile in the computer hardware market one nine nine five one nine nine nine foray into the internet and other venues in the mid nine zero s microsoft began to expand its product line into computer networking and the world wide web on august two four one nine nine five it launched a major online service msn microsoft network as a direct competitor to aol msn became an umbrella service for microsoft s online services using microsoft passport as a universal login system for all of its websites the company continued to branch out into new markets in one nine nine six starting with a joint venture with nbc to create a new two four seven cable news station msnbc the station was launched on july one six to compete with similar news outlets in particular cnn in the same year microsoft launched slate an online magazine edited by michael kinsley which offered political and social commentary along with the cartoon doonesbury in an attempt to extend its reach in the consumer market the company acquired webtv which enabled consumers to access the internet from their televisions microsoft entered the palm computing market in november with windows ce one zero a new built from scratch version of their flagship operating system specifically designed to run on low memory low performance machines such as handhelds and other palm sized computers one nine nine six saw the release of windows nt four zero which brought the windows nine five gui and windows nt kernel together while microsoft largely failed to participate in the rise of the internet in the early one nine nine zero s some of the key technologies in which the company had invested to enter the internet market started to pay off by the mid nine zero s one of the most prominent of these was activex an application programming interface built on the microsoft component object model com this enabled microsoft and others to embed controls in many programming languages including the company s own scripting languages such as jscript and vbscript activex included frameworks for documents and server solutions the company also released the microsoft sql server six five which had built in support for internet applications later in one nine nine seven microsoft office nine seven as well as internet explorer four zero were released marking the beginning of the takeover of the browser market from rival netscape and by agreement with apple internet explorer was bundled with the apple macintosh operating system as well as windows windows ce two zero the handheld version of windows was released this year which included a host of bug fixes and new features designed to make it more appealing to corporate customers in october the justice department filed a motion in the federal district court in which they stated that microsoft had violated an agreement signed in one nine nine four and asked the court to stop the bundling of internet explorer with windows in one nine nine eight microsoft released an update to the consumer version of windows windows nine eight windows nine eight came with internet explorer four zero sp one which had windows desktop update bundled and included new features from windows nine five osr two x including the fat three two file system and new features specifically for windows nine eight such as support for multiple displays microsoft also launched its indian headquarters that year which would eventually become the company s second largest after its u s headquarters steve ballmer was appointed president of microsoft and bill gates remained as chair and ceo later in one nine nine nine microsoft office two zero zero zero was released along with internet explorer five zero two zero zero zero two zero zero five legal issues xp and net microsoft india development center hitec city hyderabad the largest microsoft campus outside the united states on february one seven two zero zero zero microsoft released windows two zero zero zero which some considered to be a significant improvement over previous versions it provided an os stability similar to that of its unix counterparts unlike previous home user operating systems windows two zero zero zero was built on the windows nt kernel rather than the consumer windows kernel that previous consumer versions had used windows two zero zero zero also provided a dos emulator that could run many legacy dos applications on april three two zero zero zero a judgment was handed down in the case of united states v microsoft forcing the company to split into two separate units part of this ruling was later overturned by a federal appeals court and eventually settled with the u s department of justice in two zero zero one see main article united states v microsoft in the same year microsoft released windows me millennium edition a consumer version of their flagship product widely regarded as one of the most unstable operating systems microsoft had ever produced it mainly featured enhanced multimedia capabilities in june the company released a new version of its hand held operating system windows ce three zero the main change was the new programming apis of the software previous versions of windows ce supported only a small subset of the winapi the main development library for windows and with version three of windows ce the operating system now supported nearly all of the core functionality of the winapi microsoft released windows xp in two zero zero one a version that aimed to encompass the features of both its business and home product lines the release included an updated version of the windows two zero zero zero kernel enhanced dos emulation capabilities and many of the home user features found in previous consumer versions xp introduced a new graphical user interface the first such change since windows nine eight the operating system was the first to require microsoft product activation an anti piracy mechanism that requires users to activate the software with microsoft within three zero days bill gates gives a presentation at it forum in copenhagen in two zero zero four bill gates was the co founder and first ceo of microsoft in two zero zero three microsoft launched the net initiative along with new versions of some of its development products such as microsoft visual studio the initiative has been an entirely new development api for windows programming and includes a new programming language c windows server two zero zero three was launched featuring enhanced administration capabilities such as new user interfaces to server tools in two zero zero four the company released windows xp media center edition two zero zero five a version of windows xp specifically designed for multimedia capabilities and windows xp starter edition a version of windows xp with a smaller feature set designed for entry level consumers in march two zero zero four the european union brought legal action against microsoft for antitrust violations eventually microsoft was fined six one three million ordered to divulge certain protocols to competitors and to produce a version of windows that did not include the windows media player many korean retailers now offer two separate packages one with windows media player and internet explorer and one without either software but with links to obtain third party software microsoft announced a new version of its msn search service later in two zero zero five designed to compete with google two zero zero six and beyond microsoft will release a new version of its windows operating system windows vista formerly known as longhorn in the autumn of two zero zero six it is described by microsoft as the largest upgrade to windows since the release of windows nine five bill gates is quoted as saying that it will be pre installed with computers sold around christmas two zero zero six product divisions microsoft sells a wide range of products many of them developed internally such as microsoft basic and microsoft word others were acquired and rebranded by microsoft microsoft project a project management package visio a charting package microsoft sql server based on technology from sybase foxpro a database links a golf game visual sourcesafe a developer s tool doublespace a compression tool virtual pc software to emulate different version of windows which was acquired from connectix and ms dos itself the basis for the company s success many of these products have undergone continual development by the company internet explorer is based on code licensed from spyglass inc the initial development of the software was performed outside redmond in spyglass headquarters in april two zero zero two microsoft reorganized into seven core business groups each an independent financial entity to delegate all responsibility and more closely track the performance of each unit on september two zero th two zero zero five microsoft announced a rationalization of its original seven business groups to three core divisions the windows client msn and server and tool groups were merged into the microsoft platform products the information worker and microsoft business solutions groups were merged into the microsoft business division and the mobile and embedded devices and home and entertainment groups were merged into the microsoft entertainment and devices division microsoft platform products msn hotmail later in one nine nine nine microsoft introduced msn messenger an instant messaging client to compete with the popular aol instant messenger along with windows vista msn is to become windows live microsoft visual studio is the company s set of programming tools and compilers the software product is gui oriented and links easily with the windows apis but must be specially configured if used with non microsoft libraries the current version is visual studio two zero zero five the previous version visual studio net two zero zero three was named after the net initiative a microsoft marketing initiative covering a number of technologies microsoft s definition of net continues to evolve as of two zero zero four net aims to ease the development of microsoft windows based applications that use the internet by deploying a new microsoft communications system indigo this will address some issues previously introduced by microsoft s dll design which made it difficult to manage install multiple versions of complex software packages on the same system see dll hell and provide a more consistent development platform for all windows applications see common language infrastructure in addition the company established a set of certification programs to recognize individuals who have expertise in its software and solutions similar to offerings from cisco sun microsystems novell ibm and oracle corporation these tests are designed to identify a minimal set of proficiencies in a specific role this includes developers microsoft certified solution developer system network analysts microsoft certified systems engineer trainers microsoft certified trainers and administrators microsoft certified systems administrator microsoft certified database administrator microsoft offers a suite of server software entitled windows server system windows server two zero zero three an operating system for network servers is the core of the windows server system line another server product systems management server is a collection of tools providing remote control abilities patch management software distribution and a hardware software inventory other server products include sql server a relational database management system exchange server for certain business oriented e mail features small business server for messaging and other small business oriented features and biztalk server for employee integration assistance and other functions microsoft business division front entrance to building one seven on the main campus of the company s redmond campus the microsoft business division produces microsoft office which is the company s line of office software the software product includes word a word processor excel a spreadsheet program powerpoint presentation software outlook windows only groupware frequently used with the exchange server access a personal relational database application and microsoft frontpage a wysiwyg html editor with the release of office two zero zero three a number of other products were brought under the office brand including microsoft visio microsoft project microsoft mappoint microsoft infopath microsoft publisher and microsoft onenote the division focuses on developing financial and business management software for companies these products include products formerly produced by the business solutions group which was created in april two zero zero one with the acquisition of great plains subsequently navision was acquired to provide a similar entry into the european market resulting in the planned release of microsoft dynamics nav in two zero zero six the group markets axapta and solomon catering to similar markets which is scheduled to be combined with the navision and great plains lines into a common platform called microsoft dynamics microsoft entertainment and devices division the microsoft xbox microsoft s entry into the gaming console market the assorted accessories accompanying the xbox three six zero microsoft has attempted to expand the windows brand into many other markets with products such as windows ce for pdas and its windows powered smartphone products microsoft initially entered the mobile market through windows ce for handheld devices which today has developed into windows mobile five the focus of the operating system is on devices where the os may not directly be visible to the end user in particular appliances and cars the company produces msn tv formerly webtv a television based internet appliance microsoft used to sell a set top digital video recorder dvr called the ultimatetv which allowed users to record up to three five hours of television programming from a direct to home satellite television provider directv this was the main competition in the uk for bskyb s sky service owned by rupert murdoch ultimatetv has since been discontinued with directv instead opting to market dvrs from tivo inc before later switching to their own dvr brand the division includes consumer and macintosh software along with computer hardware and entertainment software microsoft sells computer games that run on windows pcs including titles such as age of empires and the microsoft flight simulator series it produces a line of reference works that include encyclopedias and atlases under the name encarta microsoft zone hosts free premium and retail games where players can compete against each other and in tournaments microsoft entered the multi billion dollar game console market dominated by sony and nintendo in late two zero zero one with the release of the xbox as of two zero zero five the console ranks second to sony s playstation two and ahead of nintendo s gamecube in market share in the united states although behind the two worldwide the console shipped two two million units compared with competitor playstation two at one zero zero million units and the company took a four billion dollar loss due to the console microsoft develops and publishes its own video games for this console with the help of its microsoft game studios subsidiary in addition to third party xbox video game publishers such as electronic arts and activision who pay a license fee to publish games for the system the most recent gaming system is the xbox three six zero with the xbox three six zero microsoft hopes to compensate for the losses incurred with the original xbox microsoft markets a number of computing related hardware products including mice keyboards joysticks and gamepads along with other game controllers the production of which is outsourced in most cases the division houses microsoft s macintosh business unit the largest developer of macintosh software outside apple itself it produces such software as microsoft office for the mac sometimes called macintosh office which includes entourage a macintosh specific application not available in the windows version of microsoft office on late february two zero zero six microsoft unveiled for the press the project of a gadget device called origami project that is an ultra mobile tablet pc see origami project for more details business culture photo of microsoft s redwest campus microsoft has often been described as having a developer centric business culture a great deal of time and money is spent each year on recruiting young university trained software developers who meet very exacting criteria and on keeping them in the company for example while many software companies often place an entry level software developer in a cubicle desk within a large office space filled with other cubicles microsoft assigns a private or semiprivate closed office to every developer or pair of developers in addition key decision makers at every level are either developers or former developers in a sense the software developers at microsoft are considered the stars of the company in the same way that the sales staff at ibm are considered the stars of their company this culture is reflected in their hiring process the microsoft interview is notorious for off the wall questions such as why is a manhole cover round and is a process often mimicked in other organizations note that although they were once ubiquitous recently fewer interviewers have been using these types of questions within microsoft the expression eating our own dog food is used to describe the policy of using the latest microsoft products inside the company in an effort to test them in real world situations only prerelease and beta versions of products are considered dog food this is usually shortened to just dog food and is used as noun verb and adjective for fun microsoft also hosts the microsoft puzzle hunt an annual puzzle hunt a live puzzle game where teams compete to solve a series of puzzles held at the redmond campus it is a spin off of the mit mystery hunt in an ever changing world microsoft expects its employees to be comfortable with ambiguity they may not for example know with any degree of certainty when a product will ship what it will be called or what features will be included the business culture expects agile thinkers to rapidly adjust to dramatic changes microsoft also fosters a general attitude of long term strategic wariness in its managers who are expected to be ready for any challenge from the competition or the market in this frame of mind being the largest software company in the world is not seen as a form of safety or a guarantee of future success for instance future competitors could rise from other industries or computer hardware companies could try to become less dependent on microsoft or consumers could decide not to upgrade their software as often microsoft requires its managers to maintain vigilance and sustain a dynamic expansion in new markets user culture technical reference for developers and articles for various microsoft magazines such as microsoft systems journal or msj is available through microsoft s msdn site short for microsoft developer network msdn also offers subscriptions for companies and individuals and the more expensive subscriptions usually offer access to pre release beta versions of microsoft software in recent years microsoft launched a community site for developers and users entitled channel nine which provides many modern features such as a wiki and an internet forum most free technical support available through microsoft is provided through online usenet newsgroups in the early days it was also provided on compuserve there are several of these newsgroups for nearly every product microsoft provides and often they are monitored by microsoft employees people who are helpful on the newsgroups can be elected by other peers or microsoft employees for microsoft most valuable professional mvp status which entitles people to a sort of special social status in addition to possibilities for awards and other benefits corporate affairs corporate structure the company is run by a board of directors consisting of ten people made up of mostly company outsiders as is customary for publicly traded companies current members of the board of directors of microsoft are steve ballmer james cash jr dina dublon bill gates raymond gilmartin ann korologos david marquardt charles noski helmut panke and jon shirley the ten board members are elected every year at the annual shareholders meeting and those who do not get a majority of votes must submit a resignation to the board which will subsequently choose whether or not to accept the resignation there are five committees within the board which have oversight over more specific matters these committees include the audit committee which handles accounting issues with the company including auditing and reporting the compensation committee which approves compensation for the ceo and other employees of the company the finance committee which handles financial matters such as proposing mergers and acquisitions the governance and nominating committee which handles various corporate matters including nomination of the board and the antitrust compliance committee which attempts to prevent company practices from violating antitrust laws there are several other aspects to the corporate structure of microsoft for worldwide matters there is the executive team made up of sixteen company officers across the globe which is charged with various duties including making sure employees understand microsoft s culture of business the sixteen officers of the executive team include the chairman and chief software architect the ceo the general counsel and secretary the cfo senior and group vice presidents from the business units the ceo of the europe the middle east and africa regions and the heads of worldwide sales marketing and services human resources and corporate marketing in addition to the executive team there is also the corporate staff council which handles all major staff functions of the company including approving corporate policies the corporate staff council is made up of employees from the law and corporate affairs finance human resources corporate marketing and advanced strategy and policy groups at microsoft other executive officers include the presidents and vice presidents of the various product divisions leaders of the marketing section and the cto among others stock when the company debuted its ipo in march one two one nine eight six the stock price was two two by the close of the first trading day the stock had closed at twenty eight dollars or nine seven c compared with the time period after the company s first nine splits the initial close and ensuing rise in subsequent years made several microsoft employees millions the stock price peaked in one nine nine nine at around one one nine six zero nine two eight adjusting for splits while the company has had nine stock splits the first of which was in september one eight one nine eight seven the company did not start offering a dividend until january one six two zero zero three the dividend for the two zero zero three fiscal year was eight cents per share followed by a dividend of sixteen cents per share the subsequent year the company switched from quarterly to yearly dividends in two zero zero five for eight cents a share per quarter with a special one time payout of three dollars per share for the second quarter of the fiscal year around two zero zero two the stock price began a slow descent that continued through two zero zero five the company had its ninth split on february two two zero zero three in what could have been an attempt to arouse interest in the stock but the price continued to stagnate regardless on the september two three two zero zero five episode of cnbc s mad money the host of the show jim cramer called microsoft s stock the most hated stock on wall street diversity in two zero zero five microsoft received a one zero zero rating in the corporate equality index from the human rights campaign relating to its policies concerning lgbt lesbian gay bisexual and transsexual employees through the work of the gay and lesbian employees at microsoft gleam group and diversity microsoft added gender expression to its antidiscrimination policies in april two zero zero five and the human rights campaign upgraded microsoft s corporate equality index from its eight six rating in two zero zero four to its current one zero zero rating putting it among the most progressive companies in the world in april two zero zero five microsoft received wide criticism for withdrawing support from washington state s h b one five one five bill that would have extended the state s current antidiscrimination laws to people with alternate sexual orientations although some claim they never withdrew support and instead simply were neutral on the bill however under harsh criticism from both outside and inside the company s walls microsoft decided to support the bill again in may two zero zero five even though it hires many domestic american workers microsoft generally goes up to the annual limit in hiring foreign workers with h one b visas bill gates has criticized congress for the cap on the h one b visas which he claims makes it difficult to hire employees for the company proponents of the cap cite economic and security reasons for the current law microsoft was also named one of the one zero zero best companies for working mothers in two zero zero four by working mother magazine logo microsoft logo mid one nine eight zero s in one nine eight seven microsoft adopted its current logo the so called pacman logo designed by scott baker according to the march one nine eight seven computer reseller news magazine the new logo in helvetica italic typeface has a slash between the o and s to emphasize the soft part of the name and convey motion and speed employees ran a campaign to save the old logo which was green in all uppercase and featured a fanciful letter o nicknamed the blibbet but it was discarded criticism the blue screen of death a screen encountered when windows cannot or is in danger of being unable to recover from a system error while not as common on modern windows operating systems such as windows xp the blue screen of death is often cited as a reminder of microsoft products instability microsoft has been the focus of much controversy in the computer industry especially since the one nine eight zero s most critically for its business tactics which some perceive as unfair and anticompetitive often these practices are described with the term embrace extend and extinguish in which microsoft initially embraces and extends a competing standard or product only to later extinguish it through such actions as writing their own incompatible version of the software or standard these and other tactics have led to microsoft being convicted by u s courts of being an abusive monopoly on at least one occasion as well as lawsuits by various companies and governments with varying degrees of success microsoft has also been called a velvet sweatshop in reference to allegations of the company working its employees to the point where it might be bad for their health the first instance of the term in reference to microsoft originated from a seattle times article in one nine eight nine and later became used to describe the company by some of microsoft s own employees some also accuse microsoft of allowing the user interface of its products to become inconsistent and overly complicated requiring interactive wizards to function as an extra layer between the user and the interface the security of microsoft products such as internet explorer is also questioned by some as being overly vulnerable to computer viruses and malicious attacks in addition proponents of open source are engaged with microsoft in a debate over the total cost of ownership tco of its products as some perceive microsoft software as more expensive to purchase use and maintain than competitors software free software proponents and other critics also point to the company s trustworthy computing initiative calling it treacherous computing a security proposal which some speculate will allow software developers to enforce any sort of client side restriction they wish over their software as well as microsoft s use of digital rights management technology designed to provide content and software providers the ability to put restrictions on how their products are used on their customer s machines see also general actimates pirates of silicon valley a movie based on the rise of apple and microsoft studies related to microsoft lists list of assets owned by microsoft corporation list of microsoft software applications list of microsoft topics references introduction and infobox product divisions history doc format clark jim with owen edwards netscape time the making of the billion dollar start up that took on microsoft new york saint martin s press one nine nine nine cusumano michael a selby richard w microsoft secrets how the world s most powerful software company creates technology shapes markets and manages people new york free press one nine nine five business culture charles john indecent proposal doing business with microsoft ieee software january february one nine nine eight pp one one three one one seven edstrom jennifer eller marlin barbarians led by bill gates microsoft from inside how the world s richest corporation wields its power n y holt one nine nine eight moody fred i sing the body electronic a year with microsoft on the multimedia frontier new york viking one nine nine five stock microsoft excel format coporate structure doc format footnotes external links microsoft microsoft official website microsoft update official update site microsoft security bulletins official security update site general yahoo finance microsoft corporation company profile microsoft monitor news research and analysis from jupiter research ms versus dissecting microsoft cnn microsoft ceo before the us congress includes audio yahoo news video of microsoft antitrust case miscellaneous google special search microsoft search microsoft related pages techbooksforfree com collection of free downloadable books available from microsoft companies based in washington dow jones industrial average microsoft software companies one nine seven five establishments microserfs is a novel by douglas coupland published in one nine nine five it was developed from the author s short story of the same name which was published in the may one nine nine four issue of the british magazine personal computer world factually it provides insight into two tiny but globally significant subcultures of the one nine nine zero s the first glimpse is into the lives of employees of microsoft the people that create the technology that sits on the majority of office desks in the world we see the role of both technology and the personality of bill gates in their lives the second is a view of the same characters after they have moved to california to work as a tiny start up company we get an intimate view of this phenomenon the struggle for capital to get to the market first thematically the book explores ideas of identity man s desire for independence and above all the desire to belong the book involves a fictional lego like simulation program oop short for object oriented programming matthew perry actor recorded the abridged audiobook version of microserfs isbn numbers isbn zero six one four nine seven seven eight zero zero paperback one nine nine six isbn zero zero six zero nine eight seven zero four nine paperback one nine nine six one nine nine five books books by douglas coupland canadian novels marconi may refer to guglielmo marconi one eight seven four one nine three seven an italian electrical engineer marconi stallions a sydney football club corporations marconi company founded by guglielmo marconi absorbed into english electric in one nine four six which in turn was purchased by gec in one nine six eight and used as the focus of its defence businesses marconi electronic systems or gec marconi defence arm of gec sold to british aerospace in one nine nine nine to form bae systems marconi plc name adopted by gec in one nine nine nine now a part of ericsson alenia marconi systems a former british italian defence electronics company now split between the bae systems and finmeccanica matra marconi space a former franco british aerospace company now part of astrium moscow russian moskva ipa is the capital of russia and the country s principal political economic financial educational and transportation center located on the river moskva the urban area constitutes about one one zero of the russian population thus making it the most populous city in europe the city is in the central federal district located in the west part of the russian federation historically its position was central in the russian homeland it was the capital of the former soviet union and of muscovite russia the pre imperial russia it is the site of the famous kremlin which serves as the center of the national government moscow is also well known as the site of the saint basil s cathedral with its elegant onion domes the patriarch of moscow whose residence is the danilov monastery serves as the head of the russian orthodox church history saint basil s cathedral and spasskaya tower of moscow kremlin at red square the first reference to moscow dates from one one four seven when it was an obscure town in a small province inhabited mostly by merya speakers of a now extinct finnic language in one one five six prince yuriy dolgorukiy built a wooden wall and a moat around the city after the sacking of one two three seven one two three eight when the mongols burned the city to the ground and killed its inhabitants moscow recovered and became the capital of an independent principality its favorable position on the headwaters of the volga river contributed to steady expansion moscow was also stable and prosperous for many years and attracted a large numbers of refugees from across russia under ivan i the city replaced tver as capital of vladimir suzdal and became the sole collector of taxes for the mongol rulers by paying high tribute ivan won an important concession from the khan unlike other principalities moscow was not divided among his sons but was passed intact to his eldest in one three eight zero prince dmitry donskoy of moscow led a united russian army to an important victory over the mongols in the battle of kulikovo after that moscow took the leading role in liberating russia from mongol domination in one four eight zero ivan iii had finally broken the russians free from tatar control bringing moscow to the zenith of power the russian capital which had wondered from kiev to vladimir came rest in this city by the end of his reign and moscow became the capital of an empire that would eventually encompass all of russia and siberia and parts of many other lands kremlin embankment and moscow skyline with cathedral of christ the saviour on the left and kremlin on the right moscow ceased to be russia s capital when in one seven zero three peter the great founded st petersburg on the baltic coast when napoleon invaded in one eight one two the moscovites burned the city and evacuated as napoleon s forces were approaching september one four napoleon s army plagued by hunger cold and poor supply lines was forced to retreat in january of one nine zero five the institution of the city governor or mayor was officially introduced in moscow and alexander adrianov became moscow s first official mayor following the success of the russian revolution in one nine one seven lenin fearing possible foreign invasion moved the capital from st petersburg back to moscow on march five one nine one eight during the great patriotic war the soviet state committee of defence and the general staff of the red army were located in moscow in one nine four one one six divisions of the national volunteers more than one six zero zero zero zero people two five battalions one eight zero zero zero people and four engineering regiments were formed among the muscovites in november one nine four one german army group centre was stopped at the outskirts of the city and then driven off in the course of the battle of moscow many factories were evacuated together with much of the government and from october two zero the city was declared to be under siege its remaining inhabitants built and manned antitank defenses while the city was bombarded from the air it is of some note that stalin refused to leave the city and the general staff and the council of ministers remained in the city on may one one nine four four a medal for the defence of moscow and in one nine four seven another medal in memory of the eight zero zero th anniversary of moscow were instituted on may eight one nine six five in commemoration of the two zero th anniversary of the victory in world war ii moscow was awarded a title of the hero city in one nine eight zero it hosted the summer olympic games in one nine nine one moscow was the scene of a coup attempt by the government members opposed to the reforms of mikhail gorbachev when the ussr was dissolved in the same year moscow continued to be the capital of the russian federation since then the emergence of a market economy in moscow has produced an explosion of western style retailing services architecture and lifestyles administrative divisions administrative divisions of moscow main article administrative divisions of moscow moscow is divided into ten administrative districts of which only nine are located geographically in the city and one corresponds to a satellite city of zelenograd although being categorized as a city and separated geographically from the rest of moscow administratively zelenograd is part of the russian capital administrative districts administered by prefecturas headed by prefect each administrative district consists of several municipal districts unofficially called raions each municipal district as well as administrative district has its own coat of arms flag and administered by uprava headed by elected person along with municipal districts there are several teoses in moscow territorial unities with special status or shortly territories these usually include areas with small or none permanent population such as all russia exhibition centre botanical garden large parks and industrial zones recent years some teoses were merged with different raions there are no ethnic specific raions in moscow also there are no definitely rich or poor raions although living closer to city centre metro station or green zones is generally considered more prestigious most raions have their own cable television computer network and official newspaper culture moscow and st petersburg have for centuries been the sites of much of the country s internationally known history and culture and the residences of most of its famous personalities architecture the city was once known as sorok sorokov forty times forty in reference to the many orthodox onion domes making up the city s skyline the look of the city was changed drastically during soviet times mostly due to stalin who oversaw a large scale effort to modernize the city by on the one hand introducing very broad avenues and roadways some of them over ten lanes wide and on the other destroying a great number of historically significant architectural works such as the sukharev tower and numerous mansions and stores lining the major streets and various works of religious architecture such as the christ the saviour cathedral the latter was demolished to make way for a huge skyscraper that was never built and reconstructed in the mid to late nine zero s ostankino tower the tallest free standing structure in eurasia stalin did build seven other skyscrapers however allegedly inspired by the municipal building in new york they form a series of huge cathedral like structures with intricate exteriors and are given various labels the seven sisters stalinist gothic wedding cake architecture and so on all seven can be seen from most elevations in the city they are among the tallest constructions in central moscow apart from the ostankino tower which when it was built in one nine six seven was the tallest free standing land structure in the world before the title was taken by the cn tower the soviet policy of providing mandatory housing for every citizen or their family and the rapid growth of the huge moscow population in soviet times also led to the construction of large monotonous housing blocks which can often be differentiated in age sturdiness of construction or style according to the neighbourhood and the materials used most of these date from the post stalin era and the styles are often named after the leader then in power brezhnev krushchev etc and they are usually ill maintained the stalinist era constructions usually in the central city are massive and usually ornamented with socialist realism motifs that imitate classical themes however small churches almost always orthodox that hint on the city s past still dot various parts of the city the old arbat a popular tourist street that was once the heart of a bohemian area preserves most of its one nine th century or older buildings many buildings found off the main streets of the inner city behind the stalinist facades of tverskaya street for example are also examples of the bourgeois decadence in tsarist times ostankino kuskovo and other large estates just outside moscow belonging to nobles from the tsarist era and some both inside and outside the city are open to muscovites and tourists attempts are being made to restore many of the city s best kept examples of pre soviet architecture and these are easily spotted by their bright new colours and spotless facades there are a few examples of notable early soviet avant garde work too such as the house of the architect konstantin melnikov in the arbat area later examples of interesting soviet architecture are usually marked by their impressive size and the semi modernist styles employed such as the novy arbat project designed by mikhail posokhin like in london but on a broader scale plaques on the house exteriors will inform passers by that a well known personality once lived there frequently the plaques are dedicated to soviet celebrities not well known to the outside world there are also many house museums of famous russian writers composers and artists in the city views of moscow image sk three three four jpg presidium of russian academy of sciences image sk three three one jpg moscow international music hall image sk three zero two jpg paveletsky tower business center image sk three two eight jpg triumphal arch on kutuzov avenue near poklonnaya gora image sk two eight zero jpg bogdan khmelnitsky bridge image sk three eight eight jpg riverside building image sk three three seven jpg old andreevsky bridge image sk three four five jpg cathedral of christ the saviour image sk two two five jpg foreign office scyscraper and borodinsky bridge image sk five five jpg moscow international business center tower two zero zero zero image eur jpg square of europe image wintermoscow jpg winter moscow at night image rs one jpg riverside towers business center image mon one jpg moscow monorail image kotelincheskaya naberezhnaja moscow hires jpg stalinist skyscraper at kotelnicheskaya embankment image vd one jpg frendship of nations fountain in all russia exhibition centre visual performing and other arts there are many museums and galleries in moscow with collections that can be compared to those of the best museums in the west frequent art exhibitions thrive on both the new and the classic as they once did in pre revolutionary times and from their diversity in every branch of the arts painting photography sculpture and so on it would appear that the muscovite art world is steeped in many traditions russian western oriental both old and new two of the most notable art museums in moscow are the tretyakov gallery founded by paul tretyakov a wealthy and generous patron of the arts who accumulated a very large private collection before donating it to the city and the pushkin museum of fine arts which was founded among others by marina tsvetaeva s father currently there are two tretyakovs the old tretyakov the original gallery in the tretyakovskaya area on the south bank of the moskva houses the works of the classic russian tradition with famous pre revolutionary painters such as ilya repin going all the way back to early russian icon painting with exhibits of rare originals by andrei rublev the new tretyakov created in soviet times mostly houses the work of soviet and a few contemporary artists but there is some overlap between the two for early two zero th century art the latter includes a small reconstruction of vladimir tatlin s famous monument to the third international and a mixture of other avant garde works by artists like kazimir malevich or wassily kandinsky and soviet propaganda the pushkin museum is like the british museum in that its halls are a cross section of world civilizations with many plaster casts of ancient sculptures but it also hosts famous paintings from every major western era of art the work of monet cezanne picasso and so on can all be sampled there moscow is also the heart of russian performing arts including ballet theatres and ballet studios are very common in moscow the most famous of these are the bolshoi big and malyy small theatres a centerpiece of moscow the bolshoi is usually closed during the summer but in two zero zero five it closed semi permanently for reconstruction work ticket prices were as low as one in the soviet era but have increased dramatically since the repertories in a typical moscow season are exhaustive and modern interpretations of classic works whether operatic or theatrical are quite common soviet films are integral to film history and the mosfilm studio was at the heart of many classics both artistic and more mainstream productions however despite the continued presence and reputation of internationally renowned russian filmmakers the once prolific native studios are much quieter and there are fewer independent cinema theatres in moscow than there were around the end of the soviet union having given way to multiplexes and recent hollywood productions the overall maintenance and condition of theatres has improved though ticket prices are much higher and increase every year transport heavy traffic and active construction two zero zero three moscow has five airports sheremetyevo international airport domodedovo international airport bykovo airport ostafievo international airport and vnukovo international airport the city is also the main rail hub for russia with daily trains to diverse destinations such as vladivostok nine zero zero zero km and brussels two zero zero zero km local transport includes the moscow metro an excellent metro subway system famous for its art murals mosaics and ornate chandeliers begun in one nine three five the system has one one lines and more than one seven one stations the system is the world s busiest with nine million passengers every day and trains every nine zero seconds at peak times moscow monorail as metro stations outside the city centre are far apart in comparison to other cities up to four km an extensive bus network radiates from each station to the surrounding residential zones suburbs and several city areas also connected with electric train elektrichka network the buses are very frequent often more than one a minute every large street in the city is served by at least one bus route and none of the city s one three zero zero zero apartment blocks are more than a few minutes walk from a stop there are also tram and trolleybus networks underground electric railway elektrichka station in vnukovo airport there are over two five million cars in the city on a daily basis as of two zero zero four recent years have seen explosive growth in the number of cars which have caused traffic jams and the lack of parking space to become major problems the road system is structured with sequences of radial and ring roads the first and innermost bulvarnoye koltso boulevard ring built at the former location of the one six th century city wall around what used to be called bely gorod white town boulevard ring is technically not a ring it is not connected and has a horseshoe like shape the second ring sadovoye koltso garden ring follows the line of another one six th century wall the earth wall encircling historic earth town after the war of one eight one two the earth wall was demolished and replaced by streets and gardens during the reconstruction of the one nine three zero s the garden ring took its current shape the streets were widened and the gardens were gone the third transport ring was completed in two zero zero three and the fourth transport ring is being constructed to reduce traffic congestion the outer ring a large road called mkad forms the approximate boundary of the city mkad along with third and future fourth transport rings are the only freeways within city limits everyday life although less than a quarter of russians live in the countryside many muscovites like other urban dwellers are still attached to the country many live in country homes called dachas over the weekend and over holidays and retire to the country when they are old moscow contains many parks and gardens see sport huge shopping malls both urban and suburban with their multiplex theatres department stores grocery chains food courts and other common features are now very common in moscow and they are very popular with the city s adolescents most of whom like their western counterparts like to project themselves as trendy education moscow state university there are in moscow including the renowned moscow state university housed in the two four zero m high tower on vorobyovy gory sparrow hills the university has over three zero zero zero zero undergraduates and seven zero zero zero postgraduate students bauman moscow state technical university offers a wide range of technical degrees moscow state institute of international relations is russia s best known school of international relations and diplomacy business and trade a major part of russia s profits and development is concentrated in moscow many multi national corporations have branches and offices in the city the plush offices and the lifestyles of the typical corporate employee in moscow are practically indistinguishable from any other western european city although the average salary for the russian is still lower here after the financial crisis in the late nine zero s various business sectors in moscow have shown exponential rates of growth however while the overall stability has improved in the recent years crime and corruption continue to remain a problem hindering business development a recent study showed that far from decreasing corruption in the putin era has been on the rise and large businesses can expect to pay an average of over a hundred thousand dollars a year in bribes to officials the mafia also runs extortion rackets in most parts of the city though there are no reliable data to understand how large their influence is according to a july two two two zero zero four article in forbes moscow became the city with the most billionaires it had three three billionaires passing new york city by two the nouveau riche also called the new russians often pejoratively have a reputation for flaunting their wealth the avenues for doing so and subtly have also increased in recent times a sense of fashion and self consciousness has instilled itself through the many haute couture and haute cuisine spots in moscow tourism average temperature red and precipitations blue in moscow moscow has always been a popular destination for more adventurous tourists the better known attractions include the unesco world heritage sites of the kremlin red square and the church of the ascension at kolomenskoye all dating from between the one four th and one seven th centuries other popular attractions include the zoo expanded in the one nine nine zero s moscow is also the western end of the nine three zero zero km trans siberian railway to vladivostok the city presents a unique look in midwinter when the streets are cloaked in powdery snow and the dusky twilight of the continental winter in winter the locals face the cold with the warm embrace of hospitality however as temperatures can often be below two five c one three f early summer or early autumn can offer a much more comfortable and lively visit russians like to have fun as much as anyone else and the very short summers mean that one can find people involved in social events or roving about or drinking outside at very late hours the abundant greenery of moscow gives the city a semi tropical feel that pleasantly surprises the visitor accustomed to stereotypes about the russian cold the long days will also afford one more time to cover the immense wealth of historical cultural or simply popular sites in moscow scenic vantage points include the sparrow hills on the moscow river to the south west of the city moscow presents many obstacles to the independent foreign tourist without local contacts while it is not hard to get a visa and enter the country it is quite common to resort to somewhat expensive semi legal procedures to register oneself the registration process is deliberately bureaucratic complicated and immensely time consuming if one is not staying at a hotel new medical and work permit requirements have also been introduced by the government which increases the stress and expenses involved for long term visitors who are already required to leave the country every six months and re register upon entry while excellent hotels are found all over moscow they are usually not for the budget traveller and not for long term visitors novodevichy convent is just one of many medieval monuments that dots the city everyone is also required to carry their passport for identification and so that the registration can be checked by local militia who also pose a problem they are found all over the city but especially in and around metro stations being underpaid they frequently attempt to supplement their income by stopping people arbitrarily checking their passports and demanding bribes to prevent arrest over trivial reasons also with the recent terrorist actions being associated with the darker skinned caucasian population official police racism against all dark skinned people is rife and the latter are likely to be stopped much more often sometimes as much as thrice a week violent crime especially but not only directed against foreigners is also a frequent occurrence in moscow however the average tourist making a brief visit on a package tour is not likely to encounter any of these problems the educated section of the populace are open minded and can be very helpful and expatriates who like making russian friends find their curiosity and enthusiasm reciprocated and usually have fond memories of their stay once they understand the system while customer service is still something new to many russian vendors burgeoning westernization means that high profile and tourist stores all over moscow may give you special attention if you are a foreigner moscow tourist attractions bolshoi theatre kolomenskoye kremlin poklonnaya hill kuskovo manege europe s tallest tower stalinist skyscrapers ostankino palace pushkin museum of fine arts red square with lenin s mausoleum monument to minin and pozharsky and lobnoye mesto saint basil s cathedral novodevichy convent donskoy monastery simonov monastery red gate bolshoi kamennyi bridge shukhov tower cathedral of christ the saviour state tretyakov gallery all russian exhibition center alexander garden moscow zoo patriarch s ponds moscow state university krutitsy elokhovo cathedral nativity church in putinki menshikov tower iberian gate and chapel kazan cathedral church of the intercession at fili gostiny dvor tretyakov drive climate moscow s climate is described as continental with warm summers and cold winters typical high temperatures in the warm months of july and august are three zero c eight five nine zero f in the winter temperatures may drop to one five c three f in january and february costs some prices are considerably higher for the foreign visitor than for locals a cost of living survey by mercer human resource consulting puts moscow in second place after tokyo making it the most expensive city in europe for natives small apartments bought or given by the state in the soviet era coupled with extremely low utility costs and easily avoidable income tax serve to lower the cost of living greatly a look at transport prices offers a good illustration a taxi from sheremetyevo international airport will cost the non russian speaking traveller upwards of six zero the russian speaking foreigner will be charged three zero four zero the native moscow dweller will negotiate the price to one five two zero or will avoid the taxi rank altogether and take a marshrutka shuttle shared taxi to the nearest metro station for about zero five dollar dining in recent times there has been a large and quickly growing range of restaurants with a range of prices to match the average cost per person for a meal in a middle to high class restaurant will be three zero to two zero zero especially if one orders vintage wines chain restaurants such as moo moo offer adequate quality canteen food with english menus for around five dollars per person although most moscovites do not eat in even cheap restaurants very often lately many new middle class restaurants have opened targeting families on weekends the korchma chain of ukrainian restaurants offers menus in over a dozen languages a number of fast food restaurants have outlets near many metro stations that includes the omnipresent mcdonald s as well as other chains notably rostiks which specializes in serving chicken and kroshka kartoshka serving traditional baked potato with numerous toppings danish style stardogs and many others many mcdonald s menu items such as mcnuggets are simply phonetically translated into the cyrillic script which makes it virtually possible to order in english recently a large number of coffee shops have sprouted up around the city two of the best known ones are coffee house and coffee mania conceptually identical to the starbucks model foreign cuisines notably the oriental ones japanese chinese and indian are growing in popularity all over the city popular and profitable chain restaurants such as il patio italian cuisine sushi planet japanese and t g i fridays american all connected to the rosinter group are found in clusters in many parts of the city georgian cuisine has been a favourite since soviet times you ll find many small cafes in the city which serve gerogian favourites such as khachapuri and shashlyk other caucasus cuisine that is quite popular is shawarma usually five zero roubles each or about us one seven zero its often found is stalls near most metro and train stations sports modern moscow the sanyo sign overlooks the statue of lenin barely visible above the billboard moscow is the home to more olympic champions than any other city in the world unsurprisingly it was the host city of the one nine eight zero summer olympics although the yachting events were held at tallinn huge new stadium and other athletic facilities were built especially for the occasion the main international airport sheremetyevo terminal two was also built at this time moscow has also made a bid for the two zero one two summer olympics however when final voting commenced on july six two zero zero five moscow was the first city to be eliminated from further rounds the games were finally awarded to london football soccer is probably the most popular spectator sport among the young after ice hockey clubs such as dynamo cska lokomotiv and spartak are prominent on the european stage supporter violence has become a serious problem when international teams play in moscow in two zero zero two a dozen irish fans in moscow for a russia ireland game were attacked by neo nazi groups one later died of his injuries that same year when a russia japan world cup match played in japan but broadcast live to the crowds in pushkin square went badly for the russians the crowd turned violent and wrought havoc in the centre of the city breaking windows smashing and burning cars and looting several shops a chinese restaurant was incidentally attacked and five japanese tourists were beaten one teenager was killed and about one hundred people were injured winter sports have a large following most russians own cross country skis and ice skates and there are many large parks with marked trails for skiers and frozen ponds and canals for skaters often parks will have small local businesses offering ski and skate rental prices range from one to five an hour for rental demographics newly built triumph palace building residental apartments the tallest building in europe residental apartments in strogino although the population of the russian federation declines by about seven zero zero zero zero zero one four three eight million zero five decline every year due to low birth rates moscow appears to be immune to these problems in recent years moscow has a very high population growth rate largely due to migration despite an internal passport system that makes it illegal for non city residents to stay in the capital for more than nine zero days without registration these new moscovites are attracted by the local economic growth rate of up to two zero versus stagnation or even decline in most of russia the result of sharp polarization of the country in recent years the city is home to small numbers of people of every racial and cultural group from african students to irish business people there is an annual st patrick s day parade on the noviy arbat avenue ethnical demographics in moscow one nine nine four russians nine zero five ukrainians two four tatars one nine jewish one five belarusians zero seven armenians zero seven polish zero one others two two see also history of moscow for historical population growth terrorism as with many cities terrorism is a threat in moscow on february six two zero zero four a bomb explosion in a subway car near the avtozavodskaya metro station killed at least four zero and injured many other prominent acts of terror include the destruction of two apartment buildings in september one nine nine nine see russian apartment bombings an explosion in the pedestrian subway under the pushkinskaya square in august two zero zero zero and the capture of the theatre at dubrovka in october two zero zero two air pollution in moscow moscow has a very high air pollution level one obvious source of this pollution is heavy traffic with virtually no automobile emissions control media moscow is the headquarters of many russian television networks radio stations newspapers and magazines the following is a brief list beginning with english language sources followed by russian newspapers the moscow times the largest english language daily operating in russia the exile alternative biweekly known for its irreverent style pranks and club restaurant reviews gazeta ru leading russian web magazine in russian only mosnews com the tabloid style english language site launched by gazeta ru and news ru vedomosti with financial times the leading russian business newspaper radio echo moskvy echo of moscow the first soviet and russian private news radio and information agency nine one two fm in moscow in russian only television ntv one of the first privately owned russian tv stations bibliography karel neubert portrait of moscow one nine six four albert j schmidt the architecture and planning of classical moscow a cultural history one nine eight nine kathleen berton moscow an architectural history st martin s one nine nine one marcel girard splendours of moscow and its surroundings trans from french one nine six seven john bushwell moscow graffiti language and subculture unwin hyman one nine nine zero s s hromov et al eds history of moscow an outline trans from russian one nine eight one galina dutkina moscow days life and hard times in the new russia trans catherine fitzpatrick kodansha america one nine nine five further reading muscovy history of russia history of moscow moscow metro administrative division of moscow external links official moscow administration site committee for tourism of moscow city government current time in moscow history of moscow http www bestofrussia ca moscow life moscow travel guide moscow metro photos panoramic virtual tour moscow attractions travel company moscow weather forecast red square moscow webcams google maps moscow satellite images travel to moscow moscow hotels booking webcams photos exile s field guide to moscow for foreigners don t take it too seriously capitals in europe cities and towns in russia federal cities of russia holy cities host cities of the summer olympic games moscow moscow neighborhoods satellite image the mediterranean sea is a part of the atlantic ocean almost completely enclosed by land on the north by europe on the south by africa and on the east by asia it covers an approximate area of two five million km nine six five zero zero zero mi it is also called the eurafrican mediterranean sea or the european mediterranean sea in oceanography to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere it was a superhighway of transport in ancient times allowing for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region egyptians greeks romans and the middle east arab persian semitic cultures the history of the mediterranean is important in understanding the origin and development of western civilization name the term mediterranean derives from the latin mediterraneus inland medius middle terra land earth in greek mesogeios the mediterranean sea has been known by a number of alternative names throughout human history it was for example commonly called mare nostrum latin our sea by the romans in the bible it is referred to as the great sea or the western sea in modern hebrew it is called ha yam ha tichon the middle sea a literal adaptation of the german equivalent mittelmeer in turkish it is akdeniz the white sea in arabic it is al bahr al abiad al muttawasit the middle white sea currently the med is a common british english contraction for the mediterranean sea and its surrounding regions when employed in informal speech geography map of the mediterranean sea the mediterranean sea is connected to the atlantic ocean by the strait of gibraltar on the west and to the sea of marmara and black sea by the dardanelles and the bosporus respectively on the east the sea of marmara is often considered a part of the mediterranean sea whereas the black sea is generally not the man made suez canal in the south east connects the mediterranean sea with the red sea tides are very limited in the mediterranean as a result of the narrow connection with the ocean the mediterranean climate is generally one of wet winters and hot dry summers special crops of the region are olives grapes oranges tangerines and cork the region has a long history of civilization large islands in the mediterranean include cyprus crete euboea rhodes lesbos chios kefalonia and corfu in the eastern mediterranean sardinia corsica sicily and malta in the central mediterranean ibiza majorca and minorca the balearic islands in the western mediterranean bordering countries modern states two two states bordering the mediterranean sea are europe from west to east spain france monaco italy the island state of malta slovenia croatia bosnia and herzegovina serbia and montenegro albania greece turkey and the island of cyprus divided between the republic of cyprus and the northern break away region of turkish republic of northern cyprus asia from north to south turkey syria lebanon israel and the gaza strip africa from east to west egypt libya tunisia algeria and morocco subdivisions a view across the straits of gibraltar the mediterranean sea is sub divided into a number of smaller seas some names may be come from the ancient legends each with their own designation from west to east the alboran sea between spain and morocco the catalan sea between the iberian peninsula and the balearic islands the ligurian sea between corsica and liguria italy the tyrrhenian sea enclosed by sardinia italian peninsula and sicily the adriatic sea between the italian peninsula and the croatian dalmatian coast the ionian sea between italy and greece the aegean sea between greece and turkey with the thracian sea in its north the mirtoon sea between the cyclades and the peloponnesos the sea of crete north of crete and the libyan sea south of crete between the island and libya the sea of marmara between the aegean and black seas in addition to the seas a number of gulfs and straits are also recognised the gulf of corinth an enclosed sea between the ionian sea and the corinth canal the saronic gulf the gulf of athens between the corinth canal and the mirtoon sea the thermaic gulf the gulf of thessaloniki located in the northern greek region of macedonia the gulf of lyon south of france the strait of messina between sicily and the toe of italy the gulf of taranto southern italy the gulf of haifa between haifa and akko israel the gulf of sidra between tunisia and cyrenaica eastern libya the strait of sicily between sicily and tunisia the corsica channel between corsica and italy the strait of bonifacio between sardinia and corsica the gulf of iskenderun between iskenderun and adana turkey the gulf of antalya between west and east shores of antalya turkey geology the geology of the mediterranean is complex involving the break up and then collision of the african and eurasian plates and the messinian salinity crisis in the late miocene when the mediterranean dried up the mediterranean sea has an average depth of one five zero zero m and the deepest recorded point is five two six seven meters about three two seven miles in the calypso deep in the ionian sea the coastline extends for four six zero zero zero km a shallow submarine ridge the strait of sicily between the island of sicily and the coast of tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions which in turn are divided into subdivisions the western mediterranean and the eastern mediterranean the western mediterranean covers an area of about zero eight five million km and the eastern mediterranean about one six five million km in the last few centuries mankind has done much to alter mediterranean geology structures have been built all along the coastlines exacerbating and rerouting erosional patterns many pollution producing boats travel the sea that unbalance the natural chemical ratios of the region beaches have been mismanaged and the overuse of the sea s natural and marine resources continues to be a problem this misuse speeds along and or confounds natural processes the actual geography has also been altered by the building of dams and canals the mediterranean was once thought to be the remnant of the tethys ocean it is now known to be a structurally younger ocean basin known as neotethys neotethys formed during the late triassic and early jurassic rifting of the african and eurasian plates ecology as a result of the drying of the sea during the messinian salinity crisis the marine biota of the mediterranean are derived primarily from the atlantic ocean the north atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient rich than the mediterranean and the marine life of the mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded the opening of the suez canal in one eight six nine created the first salt water passage between the mediterranean and red seas the red sea is higher than the eastern mediterranean so the canal serves as a salt water river that pours red sea water into the mediterranean the bitter lakes which are hypersaline natural lakes that form part of the canal blocked the migration of red sea species into the mediterranean for many decades but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalized with that of the red sea the barrier to migration was removed and plants and animals from the red sea have begun to colonize the eastern mediterranean the red sea is generally saltier and more nutrient poor than the atlantic so the red sea species have advantages over atlantic species in the salty and nutrient poor eastern mediterranean the construction of the aswan high dam across the nile river in the one nine six zero s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient rich silt from the nile into the eastern mediterranean which has made conditions there even more like the red sea this species exchange is known as the lessepsian migration after ferdinand de lesseps the engineer who oversaw the canal s construction see also seaports of valencia spain mediterranean basin mediterranean forests woodlands and shrub mediterranean sea oceanography term list of islands in the mediterranean familial mediterranean fever history of the mediterranean holy league mediterranean seto inland sea which is sometimes named the japanese mediterranean sea history of the suez canal external links planblue environment and development in the mediterranean region mediterranean mercury or mercurius derives from the roman god mercury mythology it may also refer to science mercury element the chemical element also called quicksilver mercury planet the nearest planet to the sun in the solar system mercury plant members of the genus mercurialis project mercury an early american program for launching humans into space good king henry a species of goosefoot also called mercury or english mercury inches of mercury a measure of atmospheric pressure mercurius crater a crater on the moon culture freddie mercury singer from the rock group queen mercury comics a k a cessily kincaid a marvel comics character who can turn herself into a mercurial substance mercury magazine a popular astronomy magazine published by the astronomical society of the pacific mercury amalgam comics a combination of the characters impulse and quicksilver made for amalgam comics mercury tv series an one nine nine six australian television show mercury fm a commercial radio station in surrey united kingdom mercury nine six six a commercial radio station in hertfordshire united kingdom mercury dime a coin preceding the current dime in the united states mercury music prize a british award mercury records a commercial record label mercury theatre a theatre company founded in new york by orson welles and john houseman mercury the winged messenger a movement in gustav holst s the planets suite mercury cider an alcoholic beverage produced by cascade brewery the mercury hobart a newspaper published in hobart australia the mercury pennsylvania a newspaper published in pennsylvania united states mercury album a two zero zero five music album by long view sunday mercury a sunday newspaper published in birmingham united kingdom mike mercury chief test pilot of the supercar team adam birch a professional wrestler with the stage name joey mercury ami mizuno codenamed sailor mercury in the sailor moon franchise technology mercury automobile a marque of automobile produced by the ford motor company mercury computer developed in the early one nine five zero s by ferranti and the university of manchester computing department mercury programming language a functional logical programming language based on prolog mercury sms a program that sends short message service messages mercury cipher machine a british cipher machine used from the one nine five zero s mercury arc valve a rectifier device intended for high electrical voltages currents mercury autocode a high level language run by the above computer mercury memory kind of delay line memory in use in the one nine five zero s mercury messenger a cross platform instant messaging programme mercury os a real time operating system for embedded systems archer maclean s mercury a video game for the playstation portable bristol mercury a nine cylinder aircraft engine places mercury nevada mercury savoie a commune in the savoie d partement of france business mercury communications a now defunct british telco mercury computer systems an embedded digital signal and image processing solutions provider mercury drug a philippine drug store chain mercury energy an energy company in new zealand mercury interactive a software and consulting company mercury outboard motors a manufacturer of outboard motors for boats the experimenter e persuades the participant s to give what the participant believes are painful electric shocks to another participant a who is actually an actor many participants continued to give shocks despite pleas for mercy from the actor the milgram experiment obedience to authority study was a famous scientific experiment of social psychology the experiment was first described by stanley milgram a psychologist at yale university in an article titled behavioral study of obedience published in the journal of abnormal and social psychology in one nine six three and later discussed at book length in his one nine seven four obedience to authority an experimental view it was intended to measure the willingness of a participant to obey an authority who instructs the participant to do something that may conflict with the participant s personal conscience the experiments began in july one nine six one a year after the trial of adolf eichmann in jerusalem milgram devised the experiment to answer the question could it be that eichmann and his million accomplices in the holocaust were just following orders could we call them all accomplices milgram one nine seven four milgram summed up in the article the perils of obedience milgram one nine seven four writing the legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous import but they say very little about how most people behave in concrete situations i set up a simple experiment at yale university to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist stark authority was pitted against the subjects participants strongest moral imperatives against hurting others and with the subjects participants ears ringing with the screams of the victims authority won more often than not the extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation method of the experiment for the experiment subjects were recruited by newspaper ads and direct mail to participate in a study at yale the experiments themselves took place in two rooms in the basement of linsly chittenden hall on the university s old campus the experiment was advertised as taking one hour for which those responding would be paid four five zero participants were men between the ages of two zero and five zero coming from all educational backgrounds ranging from an elementary school dropout to participants with doctoral degrees the participant and a confederate of the experimenter who would be an actor pretending to be another participant were told by the experimenter that they would be participating in an experiment to test the effects of punishment on learning behavior a slip of paper was given to the participant and another to the confederate the participant was led to believe that one of the slips said learner and the other said teacher and that the participants had been given the slips randomly in fact both slips said teacher but the actor claimed to have the slip that read learner thus guaranteeing that the participant was always the teacher at this point the teacher and learner were separated into different rooms where they could communicate but not see each other the confederate was sure to mention to the participant that he had a heart condition the teacher was given a four five volt electric shock from the electro shock generator as a sample of the shock that the learner would supposedly receive during the experiment the teacher was then given a list of word pairs which he was to teach the learner the teacher began by reading the list of word pairs to the learner the teacher would then read the first word of each pair and read four possible answers the learner would press a button to indicate his response if the answer was incorrect the learner would receive a shock with the voltage increasing by one five volts with each wrong answer if correct the teacher read the next word pair the subjects believed that for each wrong answer the learner was receiving actual shocks in reality there were no shocks after the confederate was separated from the subject the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro shock generator which played pre recorded sounds for each shock level after a number of voltage level increases the actor started to bang on the wall that separated him from the subject after several times banging on the wall and complaining about his heart condition the learner gave no further response to the questions and made no further complaints at this point many people indicated their desire to stop the experiment and check on the learner many test subjects paused at one three five volts and began to question the purpose of the experiment some continued after being assured that they would not be held responsible some subjects began to laugh nervously once they heard the screams of pain coming from the learner if at any time the subject indicated his desire to halt the experiment he was given a succession of verbal prods by the experimenter in this order please continue the experiment requires you to continue please go on it is essential that you continue you have no choice you must continue if the subject still wished to stop after all four successive verbal prods the experiment was halted otherwise it was halted after the subject had given the maximum four five zero volt shock three times in succession results milgram created a documentary film showing the experiment and its results titled obedience legitimate copies of which are hard to find today he then produced a series of five other films on social psychology with harry from some of which touched on his experiments they may all be obtained from penn state media services before the experiment was conducted milgram polled fellow psychologists as to what the results would be they unanimously believed that only a few sadists would be prepared to give the maximum voltage in milgram s first set of experiments six five percent two seven out of four zero of experimental participants administered the experiment s final four five zero volt shock though many were quite uncomfortable in doing so everyone paused at some point and questioned the experiment some even saying they would return the cheque for the money they were paid no participant steadfastly refused to give further shocks before the three zero zero volt level variants of the experiment were later performed by milgram himself and other psychologists around the world with similar results apart from confirming the original results the variations have tested variables in the experimental setup dr thomas blass of the university of maryland baltimore county who is also the author of a biography of milgram called the man who shocked the world performed a meta analysis on the results of repeated performances of the experiment he found that the percentage of participants who are prepared to inflict fatal voltages remains remarkably constant between six one and six six regardless of time or location a popular account of blass results was published in psychology today march april two zero zero two the full results were published in the journal of applied social psychology blass one nine nine nine there is a little known coda to the experiment reported by philip zimbardo none of the participants who refused to administer the final shocks insisted that the experiment itself be terminated nor left the room to check that the victim was well without asking for permission to leave according to milgram s notes and recollections when he was asked on this point by zimbardo reactions the experiment raised questions about the ethics of scientific experimentation itself because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants even though it could be said that this stress was brought on by their own free actions most modern scientists would consider the experiment unethical today though it resulted in valuable insights into human psychology in milgram s defense eight four percent of former participants surveyed later said they were glad or very glad to have participated and one five percent chose neutral nine two of all former participants responding many later wrote expressing thanks milgram repeatedly received offers of assistance and requests to join his staff from former participants six years later during the height of the vietnam war one of the participants in the experiment sent correspondence to milgram explaining why they were glad to have been involved despite the apparent levels of stress while i was a subject participant in one nine six four though i believed that i was hurting someone i was totally unaware of why i was doing so few people ever realize when they are acting according to their own beliefs and when they are meekly submitting to authority to permit myself to be drafted with the understanding that i am submitting to authority s demand to do something very wrong would make me frightened of myself i am fully prepared to go to jail if i am not granted conscientious objector status indeed it is the only course i could take to be faithful to what i believe my only hope is that members of my board act equally according to their conscience however not everyone went through the life changing experience reported by some former participants participants were not fully debriefed by modern standards and exit interviews appeared to indicate that many seemed to never fully understand the nature of the experiment variations milgram describes one nine variations of the experiment that he conducted in obedience to authority an experimental view in general he found that when the immediacy of the victim was increased compliance decreased and when immediacy of the authority increased compliance increased experiments one four for instance in one variation where participants received instructions from the experimenter only by telephone experiment two compliance greatly decreased interestingly a number of participants deceived the experimenter by pretending to continue the experiment in the variation where immediacy of the learner was closest participants had to physically hold the learner s arm onto a shock plate which decreased compliance in this latter condition three zero percent still completed the experiment in experiment eight women were used as participants all of milgram s other experiments used only men obedience did not differ significantly though they indicated experiencing higher levels of stress in one version experiment one zero milgram rented a modest office in bridgeport connecticut purporting to be run by a commercial entity called research associates of bridgeport with no apparent connection to yale in order to eliminate the prestige of the university as a possible factor influencing participants behavior the results of this experiment did not greatly differ from those conducted at the yale campus milgram also combined the power of authority with that of conformity in these experiments the participant was joined by one or two additional teachers who were actually actors like the learner the behavior of the participants apparent peers strongly affected results when two additional teachers refused to comply experiment one seven only four participants of four zero continued the experiment in another version experiment one eight the participant performed a subsidiary task with another teacher who complied fully in this variation only three of four zero defied the experimenter in popular culture variations on the milgram experiment have pervaded the popular culture through film tv and music the tenth level was a one nine seven five tv dramatization of the experiment starring in the film were william shatner ossie davis and john travolta i comme icare english title i as in icarus a one nine seven nine movie by henri verneuil starring yves montand contains a key scene where milgram s experiment on obedience to authority is thoroughly explained and shown it may add up to some conspiracy theories regarding the assassination of john f kennedy since the plot of this film is largely an obvious subtext to the assassination of the kennedy brothers ghostbusters a blockbuster one nine eight four movie written by harold ramis and dan aykroyd contains a scene introducing bill murray s character to the audience as a sly professor administering electrical shocks to a hapless college student while flirting with an attractive co ed harold ramis has said that this parody was inspired by the milgram experiment we do what we re told milgram s three seven is a peter gabriel song found in his one nine eight six album so the title refers to the three seven out of four zero participants who showed complete obedience in one particular experiment enron the smartest guys in the room references the milgram experiment as a rationale for the actions of enron s line level employees in an episode of malcolm in the middle malcolm reveals humiliating secrets about his brother reese for a school assignment by secretly videotaping conversations with him his teacher mr hercobie quotes the milgram experiment after malcolm has shown the video to his class in derren brown s the heist the experiment is used to assist in the decision of who to carry forward to be persuaded through hypnotism and suggestion techniques to perform an armed robbery see also asch conformity experiments stanford prison experiment mind control depersonalization point of no return diffusion of responsibility references blass thomas the milgram paradigm after three five years some things we now know about obedience to authority journal of applied social psychology one nine nine nine two five pp nine five five nine seven eight blass thomas two zero zero two the man who shocked the world psychology today three five two mar apr two zero zero two blass thomas two zero zero four the man who shocked the world the life and legacy of stanley milgram isbn zero seven three eight two zero three nine nine eight basic books two zero zero four levine robert v milgram s progress american scientist book review of the man who shocked the world the life and legacy of stanley milgram thomas blass xxiv three six zero pp basic books two zero zero four milgram stanley official website milgram stanley one nine six three behavioral study of obedience journal of abnormal and social psychology six seven three seven one three seven eight milgram stanley one nine seven four obedience to authority an experimental view isbn zero zero six one three one nine eight three x harpercollins one nine seven four milgram stanley one nine seven four the perils of obedience harper s magazine abridged and adapted from obedience to authority miller arthur g one nine eight six the obedience experiments a case study of controversy in social science new york praeger two nine five p parker ian obedience granta issue seven one autumn two zero zero zero includes an interview with one of milgram s volunteers and discusses modern interest in and scepticism about the experiment wu william practical psychology compliance the milgram experiment film obedience black and white film of the experiment shot by milgram distributed by the pennsylvania state university media sales the milgram reenactment two zero zero two colour exact reenactment of one condition of the obedience experiment created by conceptual uk artist rod dickinson external links synthesis of book a faithful synthesis of obedience to authority stanley milgram a personal account of a participant in the milgram obedience experiments group processes social psychology psychology experiments the miocene epoch is a period of time that extends from about two three to five three million years before the present as with other older geologic periods the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain the miocene was named by sir charles lyell its name comes from the greek words meion less and ceno new and means less recent because it has one eight less than the pliocene of modern sea invertebrates the miocene follows the oligocene epoch and is followed by the pliocene epoch the miocene is the first epoch of the neogene period the miocene boundaries are not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer oligocene and the cooler pliocene miocene subdivisions the miocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are the subdivisions within the miocene are defined by the relative abundance of different species of calcareous nanofossils calcite platelets shed by brown single celled algae and foraminifera single celled protists with diagnostic shells miocene climate climates remained moderately warm although the slow global cooling that eventually led to the pleistocene glaciations continued although a long term cooling trend was well underway there is evidence for a warm period during the miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the oligocene the miocene warming began two one million years ago and continued until one four million years ago when global temperatures took a sharp drop by eight million years ago temperatures dropped sharply once again and the antarctic ice sheet was already approaching its present day size and thickness greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as seven to eight million years ago although the climate for the most part remained warm enough to support forests there well into the pliocene miocene paleogeography continents continued to drift toward their present positions of the modern geologic features only the land bridge between south america and north america was absent mountain building took place in western north america and europe both continental and marine miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines well studied continental exposures occur in the american great plains and in argentina miocene flora grasslands underwent a major expansion as forests fell victim to a generally cooler and drier climate overall grasses also diversified greatly into a number of species and also caused a major increase in the biodiversity of large herbivores including ruminants of which modern cattle and deer belong to miocene fauna both marine and continental fauna were fairly modern only in isolated south america and australia did widely divergent fauna exist mammals recognizable wolves horses beaver deer camels whales etc existed in the miocene birds recognizable crows ducks and owls appear in the miocene miocene oceans the oceans continue cooling and brown algae plants called kelp proliferate supporting new species of sea life including otters fish and various invertebrates see also geologic time scale external references pbs deep time eocene ucmp berkeley miocene epoch page miocene for other senses see monarch disambiguation a monarch see sovereign is a type of ruler or head of state monarchs almost always inherit their titles and are rulers for life that is they have no term limit historically monarchs have been more or less absolute rulers modern monarchs are often figureheads with little power however there are others with substantial or absolute power monarchs usually represent a larger monarchical system which has established rules and customs regarding succession duties and powers a nation ruled by a monarch is called a monarchy the word monarch derives from greek monos archein meaning one ruler and referred to an absolute ruler in ancient greece with time the word has been succeeded in this meaning by others like autocrat or dictator and the word monarch in modern usage almost always refers to a traditional system of hereditary rulership but see the discussion on elective monarchies below possible definitions of the term which rulers are considered monarchs today is partially a matter of tradition so there are no hard and fast rules there are however a number of characteristics that are commonly though not universally distinguishing for monarchs most monarchs hold their office for life while most other rulers do not a monarch may chose to resign his position through abdication though this is a rare and dramatic practice exceptions to this include the french co prince of andorra who is not appointed for life he is the french president elected for a five year period by the french people but still generally considered a monarch because of the use of a traditionally monarchical title though a purist might regard andorra as a diarchy similarly the yang di pertuan agong king of malaysia is considered a monarch although only holding the office five years at a time on the other hand several life time dictators around the world have not been considered monarchs most monarchs are raised within a royal family where they are taught to expect and obey their future duties and they are formally or informally succeeded upon their death or abdication by members of their own family usually their eldest son or eldest child as a result most stable monarchies have a long legacy of rule by a single family or bloodline once again malaysia is an exception as is the vatican city the pope bears the title sovereign of the state of the vatican city also the practice is not totally uncommon in systems which are not considered monarchical such as family dictatorships most monarchs hold titles that are traditional among monarchs see below while this is a fairly arbitrary characteristic it might just be the best distinction between monarchs and non monarchs at the moment different types of monarchs monarchy is the form of government involving a monarch it can be either absolute or constitutional and constitutional monarchies may even restrict the powers of the monarch to the point where he or she is little more than a near powerless figurehead which is a common modern practice the word monarchy can also be used about a country which has such a system normally however such countries identify themselves more narrowly depending on the actual title used by the monarch e g as a kingdom grand duchy or principality elective monarchies were once common although only a very small portion of the population was eligible to vote as the impact of the feudal system diminished many monarchs were eventually allowed to introduce hereditary succession guaranteeing that the title and office will stay within the family today almost all monarchies are hereditary monarchies in which the monarchs come from one royal family with the office of sovereign being passed from one family member to another upon the death or abdication of the incumbent existing elective monarchies include malaysia saudi arabia and the holy see the former system of the election of the doge in venice is also widely known a sovereign is the monarch of a sovereign state although non sovereign states have often had monarchs historically not least within the holy roman empire all european monarchs since one nine one eight have been sovereigns outside europe there still exist several monarchs of subnational entities however most notably in malaysia and the united arab emirates a more obscure example is that of kings of the french wallis and futuna territory in a few cases a monarch is associated with a particular group or nation within a state such as te arikinui te atairangikaahu of the m ori the m ori queen and osei tutu ii of the ashanti european monarchical titles in europe a monarch may traditionally bear any of several titles each of these titles has a male and female version the female versions are used not only in the case that the monarch is female but also for wives of monarchs when there is need to distinguish between the two cases terms like queen regnant and queen consort are used the converse is not true however the husband of a queen regnant is not automatically a king e g the duke of edinburgh is not king philip of the united kingdom there is an urban legend that female rulers are a peculiarly modern phenomenon and that this has lead to more frequent use of the gender neutral word monarch in fact the historical record shows that there have been many female rulers throughout history in a wide variety of cultures the normal monarch title in europe i e the one used if the monarch has no higher title is prince counterpart princess it was a common title within the holy roman empire along with a number of higher titles listed below such titles were granted by the emperor while the titulation of rulers of sovereign states was generally left to the discretion of themselves most often choosing king counterpart queen such titulations could cause diplomatic problems and especially the elevation to emperor counterpart empress was seen as an offensive action during the one nine th and two zero th centuries most small monarchies in europe disappeared to form larger entities and so king has become the most common title today for male rulers and queen for female rulers since the pope is bishop of rome a celibate office forbidden to women there is no female equivalent legends of female popes see pope joan refer to them as pope some european languages have a feminine form of the word pope such as the french papesse to pape or german p pstin to papst used among other things for the high priestess tarot card note that some of these titles have several meanings and do not necessarily designate a monarch a prince can be a person of royal blood some languages uphold this distinction see f rst a duke can be a british peer in imperial russia a grand duke was a son or grand son of the tsar holders of titles in these alternative meanings did not enjoy the same status as actual monarchs of the same title within the holy roman empire there were even more titles that were occasionally used for monarchs although they were normally noble margrave count palatine landgrave an actual monarch with such low titles still outranked a noble duke today there are seven kingdoms one grand duchy and two principalities in europe excluding the peculiar case of andorra monarchical titles in use by non monarchs it is not uncommon that people who are not generally seen as monarchs nevertheless use monarchical titles there are four cases of this claiming an existing title challenging the current holder this has been very common historically for centuries the british monarch used among his other titles the title king of france despite the fact that he had no authority over french territory there have also been numerous antipopes retaining the title of an extinct monarchy this can be coupled with a claim that the monarchy was in fact never or should never have been extinct an example of the first case is the prince of seborga examples of the second case are several deposed monarchs or otherwise pretenders to thrones of abolished monarchies e g leka crown prince of albania who is styled by some as the king of albania retaining the title of an extinct monarchy can however be totally free of claims of sovereignty as when juan carlos i of spain includes king of jerusalem in his full title when it comes to deposed monarchs it is customary to continue the usage of their monarchical title e g constantine ii king of the hellenes as a courtesy title not a constitutional office for the duration of their lifetime however the title then dies with them and cannot be used by anyone else unless the crown is restored constitutionally some republicans take offense at this custom in spite of the fact that the same courtesy is often given to former republican heads of state too a former u s president is usually styled mr president for the rest of his life monarchs who have freely abdicated lose their right to use their former title however where a monarch abdicated under duress e g michael i of romania it is customary to see the abdication as invalid and to treat them as deposed monarchs entitled to use their monarchical style for their lifetime inventing a new title this is common by founders of micronations and also may or may not come with a claim of sovereignty when it does it is most often disregarded by state leaders a notable example is paddy roy bates styling himself the prince of sealand but not recognized as such by any national government thus failing at least the constitutive condition for statehood see sealand for a fuller discussion of his claims other monarchical titles in china king is the usual translation for the term wang which designated the sovereign before the qin dynasty and during the ten kingdoms period during the early han dynasty china had a number of small kingdoms each about the size of a county and subordinate to the emperor of china when a difference exists male titles are placed to the left and female titles are placed to the right of the slash by region africa chieftain leader of a primitive people pharaoh early egypt negus ethiopia oba yoruba people of nigeria kabaka baganda people of buganda in uganda americas cacique aboriginal hispaniola and borinquen hueyi tlatoani aztec empire ajaw maya inca tahuantinsuyu inca empire asia druk gyalpo heriditary title given to the king of bhutan chogyal divine ruler ruled sikkim till one nine seven five hwangje states that unified korea wang states of korea that do not have control over all of korea badshah india emperor huangdi imperial china maharaja maharani india nawab wali muslim rulers of principalities or princes under mughal mogul or british indian empires nizam hyderabad india susuhanan the indonesian princely state of surakarta until its abolition sultan aceh brunei darussalam meurah aceh before islam yang dipertuan agong king of malaysian federations elected each five years among the reining monarch in malaysia tenno or mikado japan wang pre imperial china europe arqa thagavor armenian king germanic king greek vez r ancient hungarian fejedelem ancient medieval hungarian vojvod serbian vajda hungarian serbian hungarian romany title r and ard r respectively king and high king in ireland kniaz knyaginya generally translated as prince kievan rus tsar tsaritsa imperial russia kunigaikshtis kunigaik tis lithuanian duke as in grand duchy of lithuania middle east bei caliph islamic holy title emir arabic holy title khan mongol emperor or turkish afghan pashtun or other central asian chieftain malik malika arabic leader pharaoh ancient egypt shah persia iran afghanistan shahenshah persia iran king of kings or emperor shaikh arabic leader sultan sultana arabic king oceania chieftain leader of a primitive people king there were are also kings in oceania i e tonga wallis and futuna nauru tonga houeiki chief status in the tongan traditional system general monarch titles autocrat general term for absolute monarch emperor empress empire grand duke grand duchess grand duchy king queen kingdom prince princess sovereign principality sovereign duke count baron sovereign duchy county barony grand children have the title princely like princely lord succession succession from one monarch to another varies from country to country traditionally hereditary succession within members of one family has been most common the usual hereditary succession has based on some cognatic principles and on seniority though also merits have influenced thus the most common hereditary system in feudal europe was based on cognatic primogeniture where a lord was succeeded by his eldest son and failing sons by either daughters or by sons of daughters the system of tanistry was semi elective and gave weight also to merits and capability the quasi salic succession provided firstly male members of the family to succeed and secondarily males also from female lines in most feudal fiefs females such as daughters and sisters were allowed to succeed brothers failing but usually the husband of the heiress became the real lord and most often also got title jure uxoris great britain and spain are today continuing this old model of succession law in form of cognatic primogeniture in more complex medieval cases the sometimes conflicting principles of proximity and primogeniture battled and outcomes could have been idiosyncratic as the average life span increased lords limited their own participation in dangerous battles and society s more wealthy had increasingly better sustenance and living conditions which improved general health among princes primogeniture began to win the battle against proximity tanistry seniority and election later when lands were strictly divided among noble families and tended to remain fixed agnatic primogeniture practically the same as salic law became the most usual succession going to the eldest son of the monarch if the monarch had no sons the throne would pass to the nearest male relative through male line some countries however accepted female rulers early on so that if the monarch had no sons the throne would pass to the eldest daughter this cognatic primogeniture was the rule that let elizabeth ii become queen in one nine eight zero sweden became the first european monarchy to abolish this preference for males altogether declaring equal primogeniture or full cognatic primogeniture so that the eldest child of the monarch now ascends to the throne be that child male or female other kingdoms norway in one nine nine zero belgium in one nine nine one and the netherlands have followed in some monarchies e g saudi arabia succession to the throne has passed to the monarch s next eldest brother and only to the monarch s children after that agnatic seniority in some other monarchies e g jordan the monarch chooses who will be his successor who need not necessarily be his eldest son current monarchs note the table comprises all sovereign monarchs of the world today but is severely incomplete with regard to the non sovereign monarchs see also list of monarchs by country relative power of current monarchs archontology wikiproject monarchs external links a glossary of european noble princely royal and imperial titles archontology monarchy positions of authority titles for related meanings see also monarch disambiguation a monarchy from the greek monos one and archein to rule is a form of government that has a monarch as head of state one of the distinguishing characteristics of monarchy is that the head of state usually reigns for life in a republic the head of state often called the president is normally elected for a certain amount of time there are currently two nine extant monarchies in the world the term monarchy is also used to refer to the people especially the dynasty also known as royalty and institutions that make up the royal or imperial establishment or to the realm over which the monarch reigns in most monarchies the monarch serves as a symbol of continuity and statehood many monarchies are constituted by tradition or by codified law so that the monarch has little real politcal power but in others the monarch holds substantial power in some cases the symbolism of monarchy alongside the symbolism of democracy can lead to divisions over seemingly contradictory principles of sovereignty monarchies are one of the oldest forms of government with echoes in the leadership of tribal chiefs many monarchies began with the monarch as the local representative and temporary embodiment of the deity king of babylon the monarch often ruled at the pleasure of the deity and was overthrown or sacrificed when it became apparent that supernatural sanction had been withdrawn emperor of china mayan kings achaemenid king of kings of persia other monarchs derived their power by acclamation of the ruling or of the warrior caste of a clan or group of clans kings of the franks roman emperors even where law is simply the monarch s will the king must rule by custom since one eight zero zero many of the world s monarchies have ceased to have a monarch and become republics or become parliamentary democracies democratic countries which retain monarchy have by definition limited the monarch s power with most having become constitutional monarchies in england this process began with the magna carta of one two one five although it did not reach democratic proportions until after the glorious revolution in one six eight nine among the few states that have absolute monarchies are swaziland brunei bhutan saudi arabia and kuwait in jordan and morocco the monarch retains considerable power there are also recent two zero zero three developments in liechtenstein wherein the regnant prince was given the constitutional power to dismiss the government at will nepal saw several contradictory trends related to the violent rebel movement and the killings by the suicidal crown prince types of monarchy in an absolute monarchy the monarch has power over every aspect of the state and a constitution may be granted or withdrawn while in a constitutional monarchy he is subject to it as well as any citizen though it may grant him such priviliges as inviolability modern versions tend to survive only in societies with sufficient technology to allow the concentration and organization of power but not to allow education and rapid communication the economic structure of such monarchies is often of concentrated wealth with the majority of the population living either as agricultural serfs or as in gulf monarchies a paternalistic model showering benefits on the citizens while politically they may remain subjects and importing cheap foreign labor in some cases a hereditary monarchy exists but actual power resides in the military as often has been the case in thailand and japan see shogun in fascist italy a monarchy coexisted with a fascist party for longer than such co existences occurred in romania hungary or greece spain under francisco franco was officially a monarchy even though there was no monarch on the throne upon his death franco was succeeded as head of state by king juan carlos there have also been situations in which a dictator proclaimed himself monarch of a previous republic thus starting a self proclaimed monarchy with no historical ties to a previous dynasty the most famous example of this was general napoleon bonaparte who created himself emperor of france formerly a kingdom after legally assuming political control of the french republic as first consul for life a blatant imitation of his empire was that of bokassa i in the very poor central african empire on several occasions throughout history the same person has served as monarch of separate independent states in a situation known as a personal union an empire was traditionally ruled by a monarchy whose leader may have been known by different titles in his different realms several former colonies of the british empire such as australia canada jamaica and new zealand continue to recognize the british monarch as their own under a separate title for each country in other cases such as england and scotland a personal union was the precursor to a merger of the states succession the rules for selection of monarchs varies from country to country in constitutional monarchies the rule of succession is generally embodied in a law passed by a representative body such as a parliament elective monarchies distinguished by the monarchs being appointed for life have in most cases been succeeded by hereditary monarchies but both secular sovereign nation cases at present those of malaysia and the united arab emirates are two zero th century creations in the hereditary system the position of monarch involves inheritance according to an order of succession usually within one royal family tracing its origin back to a historical dynasty or bloodline in some cases the ruling family may claim to hold authority by virtue of god s choosing as reflected in the stle phrase by the grace of god or other religion based authority the order of succession in most european monarchical states of the two one st century is by primogeniture meaning the eldest son of the monarch is first in line followed by his male then female siblings in order of age in earlier times the succession was often unclear and this led to a number of wars currently there is some controversy over the succession laws of some monarchies in the european union eu such as that of the united kingdom uk or the scandinavian monarchies which require their monarch to be of a certain faith in the uk under the act of settlement one seven zero one this has been challenged as violating eu rules that prohibit religious disqualification for positions of state authority some autocratic states can appear to have introduced inheritance for the head of state without declaring themselves to be monarchies such as syria and north korea see family dictatorship destruction of monarchies monarchies can come to an end in several ways there may be a revolution in which the monarchy is overthrown or as in italy there may be a referendum in which the electorate decides to form a republic in some cases as with england and spain the monarchy has been overthrown and then restored although it should be noted presently neither monarchy holds political power countries may regard themselves as monarchies even without an actual monarch on the vacant throne as spain did from one nine four seven to one nine seven five and hungary from one nine two zero to one nine four four a person who claims to be the legitimate heir to a deposed or is in the royalist view suspended monarchy is called a pretender see also abolished monarchies for a list of recently abolished monarchies unusual examples sometimes component members of federal states are monarchies even though the federal state as a whole is not for example each of the emirates that form the united arab emirates has its own monarch an emir another unique situation is malaysia in which the federal king called the yang di pertuan agong or paramount ruler is elected for a five year term from and by the nine sultans who are the hereditary rulers of the states of the malay peninsula in addition to his spiritual role as supreme pontiff the pope is the absolute monarch of the vatican city he is elected by and customarily from among the college of cardinals since the catholic episcopate is celibate naturally there can be no official hereditary succession to the papal throne notwithstanding this the papacy has often been under the control of powerful italian families several popes have been succeeded by near relatives in some cases by their own sons officially described as nephews the world s only co principality andorra has two co princes the bishop of urgell in spain thus a prince bishop and the president of france a unique case where an independent country s monarch is democratically elected by the citizens of another country which is not even in full personal union samoa is often disputably described as a monarchy the president for life or o le ao o le malo is malietoa tanumafili ii a member of one of the three princely families the constitution designates him head of state for life with a royal style but he will be succeeded by an elected president current monarchies there are currently four four active monarchies in the world one six of which are dominions and other commonwealth realms that formally recognize the british sovereign as head of state legally in chief of each nation as a monarchy in its own right see also list of countries by system of government not only are the monarchs of constitutive monarchies part of the federal establishment of both present elective monarchies malaysia mainly sultanates and the uae so named after its emirates in many other modern states often republics tribal and other traditional states persist with a dynasty that retains a court and often local prestige and influence some are officially installed with the consent of the official government as some of the many in indonesia waiting for the go ahead can mean years of vacancy on the throne other merely condoned or even in exile in many countries that are legally republics an heir to the throne is recognized by the ryalist part of the nation a list of such countries is available in the pretender article see also abolished monarchies canadian monarchy dutch monarchy emperor of japan family as a model for the state feudalism theocracy indonesian monarchies monarchies of ethiopia list of nigerian traditional states cokossian monarchy kotokolian monarchy monarchies of burma wogodogo monarchy tenkodogo monarchy sources references and external links the monarchist the monarchist league theodore s royalty and monarchy page royalark worldstatesmen by present country constitutional state types feudalism forms of government heads of state political systems monarchy a musical instrument is a device constructed or modified with the purpose of making music in principle anything that produces sound and can somehow be controlled by a musician can serve as a musical instrument the expression however is reserved generally to items that have a specific musical purpose the academic study of musical instruments is called organology types of musical instruments instruments are often divided by the way in which they generate sound wind instruments generate a sound when a column of air is made to vibrate inside them the frequency of the wave generated is related to the length of the column of air and the shape of the instrument while the tone quality of the sound generated is affected by the construction of the instrument and method of tone production the group is typically subdivided into brass and woodwind instruments percussion instruments create sound with or without pitch when struck the shape and material of the part of the instrument to be struck and the shape of the resonating cavity if any determine the sound of the instrument string instruments generate a sound when the string is plucked strummed slapped etc the frequency of the wave generated and therefore the note produced usually depends on the length of the vibrating portion of the string its mass the tension of each string and the point at which the string is excited the tone quality varies with the construction of the resonating cavity voice that is the human voice is an instrument in its own right a singer generates sounds when airflow from the lungs sets the vocal cords into oscillation the fundamental frequency is controlled by the tension of the vocal cords and the tone quality by the formation of the vocal tract a wide range of sounds can be created electronic instruments generate sound through electronic means they often mimic other instruments in their design particularly keyboards keyboard instruments are any instruments that are played with a musical keyboard every key generates one or more sounds most keyboard instruments have extra means pedals for a piano stops for an organ to manipulate these sounds they may produce sound by wind organ vibrating strings either hammered piano or plucked harpsichord by electronic means synthesizer or in some other way sometimes instruments that do not usually have a keyboard such as the glockenspiel are fitted with one many alternate divisions and further subdivisions of instruments exist to learn about a specific instruments consult the list of musical instruments or list of archaic musical instruments history all classes of instruments save the electronic are mentioned in ancient sources such as egyptian inscriptions and the bible and probably predate recorded history the human body generating both voice and percussive sounds may have been the first instrument or perhaps found percussion instruments such as stones and hollow logs for instance nine thousand year old bone flutes or recorders have been found in chinese archeological sites the oldest known man made instrument is a mousterian bone flute from the divje babe i cave site slovenia made by neanderthals around four five zero zero zero five zero zero zero zero years ago from a cave bear bone see also extended technique folk instrument a description and a list music lessons new interfaces for musical expression orchestra vocal and instrumental pitch ranges external links university of akron bierce library smith archives invented instruments instrument links at the sibelius academy musical instruments for the hardcore punk band see mouthpiece band scuba diving and industrial breathing sets nemrod twin hose diving regulator made in the one nine eight zero s its mouthpiece can be strapped in in breathing sets a mouthpiece is a part that the user grips in his mouth to make a watertight seal between the breathing set and his mouth it is composed of a short flattened oval tube that goes in between the lips with on its free end a flange that fits between the lips and the tooth and gums on the flange there are two projections with enlarged ends which are gripped between the teeth most sport diving scuba sets use a mouthpiece rather than a fullface mask in many industrial breathing sets and a few scuba sets e g the siebe gorman salvus and a one nine eight zero s model of twin hose diving regulator made by nemrod the mouthpiece also has an outer rubber flange that fits outside the lips and extends into two straps that fasten together behind the neck that makes the mouthpiece more airtight and watertight and helps to keep the mouthpiece in if the user lets his lips or jaws get slack through unconsciousness or absent mindedness or being preoccupied with work a mouthpiece in the mouth prevents clear speech as a result many work divers and many people who use a breathing set on land e g firefighters use a fullface mask in a loop of wide breathing tubes like in a twin hose aqualung or some rebreathers the word mouthpiece is sometimes taken as including the whole of the rigid assembly between the two flexible tubes musical instruments on wind instruments the mouthpiece is that part of the instrument which is placed in or next to the player s mouth in conjunction with the player s lips and on many woodwind instruments a reed it produces the basic musical tones that characterize each particular instrument from the single reed of the clarinet or saxophone to the flared turned brass tube of the horns such as the horn trumpet trombone tuba and the bugle mouthpieces are human machine interfaces designed to transmit the maximum musical information from the mouth lips tongue and lungs of the performer into the air column of the instrument on the performer s side mouthpiece must be matched to embouchure the exact way of setting the mouth parts to transmit the maximum of musical information to the mouthpiece thus the mouthpiece attached to its instrument is a means of extending the expressive power of the upper body the typical mouthpiece is capable of playing only a few notes on its own often with poor tone by varying the air column in a myriad of ingenious ways these few notes are transformed into many notes of many tones on the various instruments brass instruments trumpet mouthpiece from the side in western instruments of the european classical tradition there are several different kinds of mouthpiece one of the most common is the one seen on brass instruments which is a type also used on several non western instruments this consists of a simple circular opening which leads to the main body of the instrument the player vibrates his lips while they are placed on this opening this causes the column of air contained within the instrument to vibrate in a standing wave pattern cut away view of trumpet mouthpiece one inner rim diameter two rim width three rim contour four rim edge five cup six throat seven backbore eight shank the mouthpiece of many brass instruments including the trumpet and trombone is cup shaped although the horn s mouthpiece is simpler being only slightly flared the degree of flaring and the exact shape of the cup five if present can greatly affect the timbre of the instrument the width of the opening one in the mouthpiece also has an effect a mouthpiece with a narrow bore seven is generally preferred by brass players who concentrate on the upper range of their instrument and a wider bore by those who emphasize the lower range of their instrument in their playing reed instruments clarinet mouthpiece the mouthpiece on a single reed instrument such as the clarinet or saxophone is quite different these mouthpieces are basically wedge shaped with the reed being placed against the flat surface or the table closest to the player s bottom lip here the player s breath causes the reed to vibrate which in turn sets the column of air contained within the instrument in vibration near the top of the mouthpiece there is a small opening into the inside of the instrument as with the brass instruments the shape of the bore immediately beyond the opening can greatly affect the sound of the instrument on some woodwind instruments the bore here is a simple extension of the main body of the instrument although it is possible to widen it by various means mouthpieces with large rounded chambers will produce a quite different sound than one with a small or square chamber most mouthpieces are made out of metal hard rubber or plastic rubber although one of the most common materials for mouthpieces often lacks in durability warps over time and has a tendency to break when bumped with mouthpieces of any material the tip may eventually wear down from reed vibration the double reed of the oboe or bassoon is not generally referred to as a mouthpiece but serves the same function as the mouthpiece reed combination on a single reed instrument it is placed in the player s mouth and supplies the initial vibration which starts the air column vibrating while a double reed consists of two reeds vibrating against eachother the single reed plus mouthpiece has a reed vibrating against a mouthpiece see also scuba set musical instrument smoking pipe diving equipment musical instruments an issue of the mr t comic book mr t born laurence tureaud may two one one nine five two is an actor mostly known for his roles in the one nine eight zero s television series the a team and as boxer clubber lang in the one nine eight two film rocky iii biography laurence tureaud was born in chicago illinois the eleventh of twelve children he and his four sisters and seven brothers grew up in the city s housing projects he was a college football star studied martial arts and won a scholarship to prairie view a next to god there is no better protector than i he always boasts that he never lost a client saying i got hurt worse growing up in the ghetto than working as a bodyguard in one nine seven zero he changed his name by deed poll from laurence tureaud to laurence tero and then in one nine eight zero to mr t so that people would have to address him as mr it was while reading national geographic that mr t first saw the unusual hairstyle for which he is now famous on an african mandinka warrior he decided that adopting the style was a powerful statement about his african origins during his stint as a doorman he would take jewelry from disorderly people and wear them himself as a testament to how well he performed his job as a bouncer at one point his gold chains rings and bracelets were worth about three zero zero zero zero zero it took him about an hour to put it on and most nights he cleaned it in an ultrasonic cleaner although some nights he slept in it to see how my ancestors who were slaves felt in one nine eight six mr t removed many trees from his mansion in lake forest illinois explaining that he had allergies this created a large controversy and led several north shore communities to enact ordinances making the removal of old growth trees illegal in two zero zero five mr t announced he would never wear his chains again saying no t you can never wear your gold again it s an insult to god he came to this decision after seeing the effects of hurricane katrina mr t also donated a great deal of clothing and money to katrina victims he has been reported to be working on a new reality television show for tv land called i pity the fool which will find the devout christian assisting those in need mr t currently lives in sherman oaks california and is single he is a born again christian acting roles and work hulk hogan and mr t at the first wrestlemania in one nine eight two mr t was spotted by sylvester stallone while taking part in the world s toughest bouncer contest his role in rocky iii was originally intended as just a few lines but stallone built up the part around the man his catch phrase i pity the fool comes from the film where he played a boxer facing rocky balboa in a match when asked if he hated rocky he replied i don t hate balboa but i pity the fool mr t also appeared in another boxing film penitentiary two and in a cable television special bizarre before accepting the role of b a in the a team in the a team he played sergeant bosco bad attitude baracus an ex army commando on the run with three other members from the u s government for crimes they didn t commit when asked at a press conference whether he was as stupid as b a baracus he observed quietly it takes a smart guy to play dumb a ruby spears produced cartoon called mr t premiered in one nine eight three on nbc the mr t cartoon starred mr t as himself the owner of a gym where a group of gymnasts trained he would help them with their training but they would also help him solve mysteries and fight crime sixteen episodes were produced in one nine eight four mr t made a motivational video called be somebody or be somebody s fool he gives helpful advice to children throughout the video for example he teaches them how to understand and appreciate their origins how to dress fashionably without buying designer labels how to control their anger and how to deal with peer pressure the video is roughly one hour long but contains three zero minutes of singing either by the mob of children accompanying mr t or by mr t himself mr t sings treat your mother right treat her right video available here in which he enumerates the reasons why it is important to treat your mother right and also raps a song about growing up in the ghetto and praising god the raps in this video were written by ice t that same year he released a related rap album titled mr t s commandments he entered the world of professional wrestling in one nine eight five he was hulk hogan s tag team partner at the first wrestlemania hulk hogan wrote in his autobiography that mr t almost ruined the main event of wrestlemania i between them and rowdy roddy piper and mr wonderful paul orndorff because when he arrived security would not let his entourage into the building mr t was ready to skip the show until hogan personally talked him out of leaving roddy piper mentioned that he and other fellow wrestlers legitimately disliked mr t because he was an actor coming into wrestling and had not paid his dues as a professional wrestler he returned to the world wrestling federation as a special guest referee in one nine eight seven before disappearing from the wrestling world he reappeared as a special referee for a hogan ric flair match seven years later in october one nine nine four mr t was once reported to be earning around eight zero zero zero zero a week for his role in the a team and getting one five zero zero zero for personal appearances but by the end of the one nine nine zero s he was appearing only in the occasional commercial largely because of health problems in one nine nine five he was diagnosed with t cell lymphoma he still seeks acting jobs and has had small roles in several films he frequently appears on the tbn christian television series he has appeared in commercials for mci s one eight zero zero collect collect call service and on late night with conan o brien album album cover to mr t s commandments mr t in one nine eight four released a rap album titled mr t s commandments much in the same tone as his eight four educational video which instructs children to stay in school and to stay away from drugs track listing mr t s commandments come on over here boy the toughest man in the world mr t mr t he was made for loving the one and only mr t no dope no drugs lookin mighty cute in them jeans stay away from my buns album length five three one one four references in pop culture he was the subject of a sketch on british comedy show little britain and cult show bo selecta he was the subject of recurring the all new adventures of mr t sketch on saturday night live by robert smigel in which mr t and a group of teenagers drive around in a van la scooby doo and have adventures while mr t tries to find work on the internet mr t vs are web pages depicting mr t fighting other celebrities political figures fictional characters and other famous people in multi page online comic books mr t traditionally wins the contest later to relax with a glass of milk in two zero zero two he appeared fittingly in the pass the courvoisier music video for busta rhymes p diddy and pharrell williams the two zero zero four veggie tales dvd sumo of the opera is a parody of the rocky franchise and features a character po ta to based on mr t s role in rocky iii as clubber lang po ta to sports a mohawk similar to mr t s utters the catchphrase i pity the fool and is amused by his opponent s jibber jabber in the uk mr t appeared as a pixellated character on digitiser a cult video games magazine shown on channel four teletext from one nine nine three to two zero zero three he would appear on the service s letters page dispensing advice to children which would usually end in him warning viewers to stay away from my bins viewers could also write in comments about mr t there was a campaign to have mr t on lbc a london based radio station all carried out by iain lee a british comedian eventually iain lee read out a letter which had been sent by mr t s agent which stated mr t would not like to take part in a local radio station as a result iain lee s lbc producer is no longer using sound bites of mr t in the videogame crash tag team racing the crunch bandicoot character seems to style himself after mr t complete with an unlockable costume that makes him look like mr t also he often says quit with yo jibber jabber several mr t facts have appeared around the internet similar to the popular chuck norris facts mr t jokes have been made often in issues of nintendo power magazine mr t has also been referred to in the animated comedy family guy numerous times in fore father from season two mr t birds hallucinogenically appear to stewie news anchor tom tucker quotes mr t in the kiss seen around the world saying remember kids mr t says i pity the fool who does drugs the episode brian goes back to college from season four is dedicated to the a team as peter and his neighbours are inspired to form their own version of an a team and set to help out the community after winning a fancy dress competition dressed as them african american slow speaking neighbour cleveland brown sports b a baracus hairdo attire and jewelry in the snes game earthbound known for its quirky portrayal of the west there is an npc sprite which clearly resembles mr t filmography rocky balboa two zero zero seven clubber lang johnny bravo two zero zero five himself the simpsons two zero zero four himself not another teen movie two zero zero one the wise janitor apocalypse iv judgment two zero zero one j t quincy judgment two zero zero zero j t quincy inspector gadget one nine nine nine himself saturday night live the best of eddie murphy one nine nine eight video mister robinson s neighbor spy hard one nine nine six helicopter pilot magic of the golden bear goldy iii one nine nine four the terrible thunderlizards one nine nine three mr t rex freaked one nine nine three the bearded lady one nine nine three t and t one nine eight eight tv series t s turner wrestlemania ii one nine eight six video himself wrestlemania one nine eight five video himself wwf superstars of wrestling one nine eight four tv series himself one nine eight five one nine eight six one nine eight eight be somebody or be somebody s fool one nine eight four video mr t the toughest man in the world one nine eight four tv bruise brubaker mister t one nine eight three tv series himself d c cab one nine eight three samson the a team one nine eight three one nine eight seven tv series sergeant bosco b a baracus twilight theatre one nine eight two tv series rocky iii one nine eight two clubber lang penitentiary ii one nine eight two himself external links mr t and me mr t memorabilia collection guide to be someone the agony booth mr t s be somebody or be somebody s fool review the agony booth mr t the animated series one nine five two births living people african american actors american professional wrestlers american television personalities born again christians chicagoans christian actors entertainers who played football american film actors prairie view a m panthers football players american television actors the a team actors bodyguards united states army soldiers ruby spears superheroes morphology may mean morphology linguistics the study of the structure of word forms morphology biology is the study of the form or shape of an organism or part thereof mathematical morphology a theoretical model based on lattice theory morphological analysis a general method for non quantified modelling morphology astronomy is the shape of an astronomical object like nebulae galaxy or other extended objects morphology folkloristics the structure of narratives such as folk tales morphology architecture the study of the shape and form of buildings ipa m lm is the third largest city in sweden situated in the southernmost province of sk ne near copenhagen denmark it has two seven zero zero zero zero inhabitants about six zero zero zero zero zero in the metro area including lund malm was one of the earliest and most industrialized towns of scandinavia but has in recent decades been struggling with the adaption to post industrialism by the dawn of the two one st century malm had become sweden s most multi ethnic city with two four of the population born abroad with more than a third being first or second generation immigrants and the proportion of muslims estimated to be one six with its old buildings and many parks it appears appealing to outsiders and is also a popular place to shop due to its many different shops and stores during the last few years a university college malm h gskola has been established and the city is now focussing extensively on education arts and culture history st petri church malm in one five eight zero in a german map book malm is held to have been founded in what was then denmark in the one three th century as a fortified quay or ferry berth of the archbishop of lund some two zero kilometers north east its original name was malmhaug sandpile but in the middle ages german merchants from l beck settled there and named it elbogen elbow for the curve at its shoreline that existed at the point around one two nine zero construction on the st petri church began it was the first gothic church to be built within sweden s present day borders similar brick gothic churches can be found around the coastal regions of both sweden and germany for example in ystad landskrona and rostock and were inspired by the german sea merchants the hanseatic league who played a major part in the economical growths around the sound red bricks were used instead of stone due to its scarcity in the area and the color comes from the bedrock and the means the bricks were fabricated in the ensuing century malm and copenhagen would rise in economic importance and until this day this pattern has persisted despite lund and to a lesser degree roskilde being culturally of much greater importance malm and copenhagen have been centers for industrious and economic success the disunity between the burghers of lund and malm has remained a fundamental characteristic the former relying on tradition the latter on modernity and adaption malm was for instance a leading hanseatic town during the decades of the hansa s dominance in the region and leading the process of protestant reformation in denmark of the one five three zero s after the secession to sweden in one six five eight malm suffered an economic decline due to poor harbour facilities and loss of trading privileges that were granted under the danish crown by one seven three zero its population had dwindled to two eight two in one seven seven five a new harbour was constructed but malm s economic status remained poor until the later part of one nine th century and the introduction of the railroad the first fortification was erected at the site of skeppsbron ship bridge and malm central station first hinted at in unfriendly diplomatic correspondence between the king and the archbishop in march one two five six but in one four three four malm s growth gave reason to the erection of a new citadel at the beach south of the town the new fortress malm hus was completed in the mid one six th century and continued to play an essential role after the secession to sweden now as a part of the defense system against the danes during one eight two eight one nine one four the building was re used as a prison and since the one nine three zero s it houses malm museum malm hus castle now housing malm museum heraldry the city arms were granted in one four three seven by king eric of pomerania the arms of pomerania is argent with a griffin gules which gave the griffin s head to malm the coat of arms for the city is similar to the arms of the province of scania and sk ne county which actually are derivations of the arms of malm blazon argent a griffin s head erased gules crowned or note the similarity between this coat of arms and the logo for saab cars geography malm city hall r dhuset built in one five four six at stortorget the big square although the facade is from the one eight six zero s malm is located at one three zero zero east and five three three five north its location in southernmost sweden makes it closer to the italian town of milan than to the northernmost swedish town kiruna malm is part of the transnational oresund region and since two zero zero zero the oresund bridge crosses the oresund strait to copenhagen the bridge was inaugurated july one two zero zero zero and measures eight kilometres the whole link totalling one six km with pylons reaching two zero four five metres vertically except the helsingborg helsing r ferry links further north most ferry connections have been discontinued commuter trains pass the bridge every two zero minutes connecting malm copenhagen and the copenhagen metro inaugurated on oct one nine two zero zero two also some of the x two zero zero zero and intercity trains to stockholm gothenburg and kalmar pass the bridge all these trains stop at copenhagen airport malm as the southern hub of the swedish railway system and the western hub of the scanian commuter train system has excellent train connections a night train line to berlin by ferry over the baltic has been in traffic since one nine zero nine malm s districts in march of two zero zero five digging began on a new railroad connection called citytunneln the city tunnel the tunnel will run from under malm central station to hylliev ng hyllie meadow where it will emerge to connect with the oresund bridge effectively changing malm central from an end station to a through station a new stop will also be built at triangeln the triangle an important square in the city surrouned by shopping housing and cultural attractions at the emergence of the tunnel in hylliev ng a new shopping centre sports hall and hotel are to be built the tunnel will particularly cut travel times between the centre of malm around triangeln and the surrounding towns of sk ne beside the copenhagen airport malm is also served by the malm sturup airport that chiefly is used for low cost carriers charter flight routes and domestic swedish destinations the highway network was further improved in connection with the opening of the oresund bridge european route e six follows the swedish and norwegian west coast from malm helsingborg to kirkenes at barents sea the european route to j nk ping stockholm e four starts at helsingborg main roads in direction of v xj kalmar kristianstad karlskrona ystad and trelleborg start as freeways malm is sometimes referred to as the city of parks parkernas stad the largest two being pildammsparken and kungsparken the long beaches and a longtime tradition of decorating the city with plants and flowers of the season map of sk ne highlighting the municipal area orange and malm urban area dark red biking is a popular means of transport since malm is a city virtually without altitude differences and since the snow season is usually brief a continuous network of bike roads in intersections often with right of precedence over for cars has in recent decades been a priority beside the rather extensive public transport system the tramlines streetcars were however abolished in one nine seven three a swedish deregulation of taxicabs in the one nine nine zero s turned out particularly advantageous for malm the supply of cabs is good and most operate to low fixed fares usually arriving within three four minutes if requested by phone which is the most convenient for tourists however it s advisable to compare prices malm municipality consists of malm and its immediate surroundings it is an administrative unit defined by purely geographical borders in all official contexts the town malm calls itself malm stad or city of malm as does a small number of other swedish municipalities and especially the other two metropolitans of sweden stockholm and gothenburg however the term city has administratively been discontinued in sweden demographics the symbol of malm malm urban area malm t tort with two five zero zero zero zero inhabitants consists of the urban part of the municipality including limhamn an independent town until one nine one five together with the small town of arl v in the municipality of burl v both municipalities also include smaller urban areas and rural areas such as the suburbs of oxie and karp malm t tort is to be distinguished from malm stad the city of malm that is an official name of malm municipality althouth this terminology appears counterintuitive to many locals malm is the most densely populated municipality in sweden with three five eight four inhabitants km compared to stockholm s three two three zero inhabitants km and g teborg s two four nine four inhabitants km the city of malm with a population of two seven zero zero zero zero is the third largest municipality in sweden malm is the largest town in the metropolitan area of south western scania metropolitan malm with some six zero zero zero zero zero inhabitants including nearby lund the region s centre of higher education and academic culture malm lund and metropolitan copenhagen in denmark forms the center of the oresund region that has a total population of three six zero zero zero zero zero inhabitants to some malm may appear as the most recent neighbourhood or suburb of copenhagen economy the economy of malm was traditionally based on shipbuilding kockums and construction related industries such as concrete factories the region s leading university with associated hi tech and pharmaceutical industry is located in lund about one six km to the north east as a result malm had a troubled economic situation following the mid one nine seven zero s however during the last few years there has been a revival contributing factors have been the economic integration brought about by the bridge the university college malm h gskola founded in one nine nine eight the university of lund with its school of technology lth and effects of integration into the european union malm has comparatively high unemployment figures particularly in the eastern and southern parts of the town characterized by a variation in ethnicities and social groups education malm has a variety of both public and private schools one of the most notable private schools is bladins with an impeccable reputation and huge waiting lists malm borgarskola is the largest high school in the city also holding the renowned ib school one of the best in the world rivaling that of london paris and new york other schools with old traditions are malm s t petri skola and malm latinskola malm has the country s eighth largest teaching site malm h gskola established in one nine nine eight with one three zero zero employees and two one zero zero zero students as of two zero zero three also the lund university established in one six six eight has some education located to malm world maritime university is one of the best universities of its kind had holds a variety of students from all over the world government the legislative body of the city of malm is the six one member city council elected by proportional representation for a four year term the council appoints the city s main governing bodies the one one member executive committee and the eight governing commissioners the executive committee and the commissioners are headed by the mayor the current mayor of the city of malm is ilmar reepalu of the social democratic party sites of interest the city is gaining in popularity as a tourist destination it retains much historical charm with an old town section filled with small shops nightlife and music scene are mainly centered around two places lilla torg little square is encircled by trendy pubs and upmarket night clubs while the district of m llev ngen the mill meadow houses hang outs for artists and good opportunities for live music in august each year a festival malm festivalen fills the streets of malm with different kinds of cuisines and events along with pickpocketeers until its dismantling in two zero zero two the kockumskranen a huge crane of the shipyard kockums was the landmark of malm an extension of the city library was finished in two zero zero zero called the light hall its walls are almost entirely made up of glass panels turning torso and bo zero one v stra hamnen the western harbour used to be the location for heavy industry but in two zero zero one was rebuilt becoming the arguably most exclusive neighbourhood in malm the apartment districts features exclusive uniquely designed small houses in a district known as bo zero one and adjacent is the spectacular turning torso by designer santiago calatrava this is a spectacular twisting skyscraper with one nine zero metres six two three feet the second highest residential building in europe and its silhouette can be seen from around the malm area the beach ribersborg in the western harbour and is a shallow beach stretching along malm s coast line it is the site of ribersborgs kallbadhus an open air bath opened in the one eight nine zero s where people go swimming all year round the long boardwalk at the beach has become a new favourite summer hang out for the people of malm and is a popular place for bathing culture the old cemetery gamla kyrkog rden established in one eight one nine and located in the city center appalled william s burroughs when he briefly visited malm in the one nine five zero s in the naked lunch he notes that the city was dreadful since he could not find any open bar or cinema thus there was nothing to do except staying in the hotel room waiting for the ferry back to copenhagen this was asserted by several other visitor to malm during the last decades but with the closure of the ship industry of kockums and the new connection to copenhagen see oresund bridge the image of the city has been transformed into a positive one as new cultural institutions such as theaters and opera house were opened the inauguration of malm university has attracted many students who also chose to settle in malm due to the limitation of housing in nearby lund sports the best known football soccer team in malm is malm ff who play in the top level allsvenskan they had their period of glamour in the one nine seven zero s and one nine eight zero s when they won the league several times in one nine seven nine they advanced to the finals of the european cup now the uefa champions league the one nine nine zero s brought them nothing but difficulties culminating in relegation in one nine nine nine although they would return to the top flight at the first opportunity however several of the players with a foreign background have proven to be golden geese for the team the swedish record transfer fee paid by dutch power ajax for zlatan ibrahimovic in two zero zero one enabled the team to acquire several other players the success of ibrahimovic the malm born son of bosnian immigrants proved that multi ethnicity could work on the field encouraging the addition of more immigrants to the team and in two zero zero four they won the allsvenskan for the first time in one five years the second most notable team is malm redhawks in ice hockey they were the creation of a millionaire and quickly rose to the highest rank in the one nine nine zero s gallery image malm bibliotek two jpg malm public library image malm park three jpg kungsparken king s park image malm park two jpg kungsparken king s park image malm hus slott two jpg malm castle now housing a museum image oresund jpg the oresund bridge connecting malm to copenhagen image st pauli church side jpg st pauli church built circa one eight nine zero image malm c centralplan jpg central station built circa one nine two zero people connected to malm bj rn afzelius one nine four seven one nine nine nine musician caspar bartholin one five eight five one six two nine medical scholar anita ekberg one nine three one model and actress hjalmar gullberg one eight nine eight one nine six one poet member of the swedish academy per albin hansson one eight eight five one nine four six politician zlatan ibrahimovic one nine eight one football player fredrik jonsson one nine seven seven tennis player lukas moodysson one nine six nine director august palm one eight four nine one nine two two politician founder of the swedish social democratic party mikael pernfors one nine six three tennis player bj rn ranelid one nine four nine author pontus madsen one nine seven nine webcomic artist henrik reuterdahl one seven nine five one eight seven zero archbishop of uppsala one eight five six one eight seven zero mats s derlund one nine six nine musician club manager and model frans suell one seven four four one eight one eight businessman who built the harbour jan troell one nine three one film director felix von luckner one eight eight one one nine six six sailor jacques werup one nine four five poet author jazz musician bo widerberg one nine three zero one nine nine seven film director christian wilhelmsson one nine seven nine football player malmo in other media the science fiction themed coffee table book spacewreck contains an account of a derelict spacecraft called the malmo which is rediscovered after several centuries adrift see also eurovision song contest one nine nine two malm opera and music theatre ports of the baltic sea sydsvenska dagbladet external links malm official site malm festivalen the city tunnel english article malm from nordisk familjebok one nine one two gallery one gallery two photos satellite image from google maps coastal cities eurovision host cities malm municipalities of sk ne county municipalities of sweden sk ne south sk ne southwestern scania towns in sweden various meters in classical physics and engineering measurement generally refers to the process of estimating or determining the ratio of a magnitude of a quantitative property or relation to a unit of the same type of quantitative property or relation a process of measurement involves the comparison of physical quantities of objects or phenomena or the comparison of relations between objects e g angles a particular measurement is the result of such a process normally expressed as the multiple of a real number and a unit where the real number is the ratio obtained from the measurement process for example the measurement of the length of an object might be five m which is an estimate of the object s length a magnitude relative to a unit of length the meter measurement is not limited to physical quantities and relations but can in principle extend to the quantification of a magnitude of any type through application of a measurement model such as the rasch model and subjecting empirical data derived from comparisons to appropriate testing in order to ascertain whether specific criteria for measurement have been satisfied in addition the term measurement is often used in a somewhat looser fashion than defined above to refer to any process in which numbers are assigned to entities such that the numbers are intended to represent increasing amount in some sense without a process that involves the estimation of ratios of magnitudes to a unit such examples of measurement range from degrees of uncertainty to consumer confidence to the rate of increase in the fall in the price of a good or service it is generally proposed that there are four different levels of measurement and that different levels are applicable to different contexts and types of measurement process in scientific research measurement is essential it includes the process of collecting data which can be used to make claims about learning measurement is also used to evaluate the effectiveness of a program or product known as an evaluand a measurement is a comparison to a standard william shockley by number we understand not so much a multitude of unities as the abstracted ratio of any quantity to another quantity of the same kind which we take for unity sir isaac newton one seven two eight units and systems of measurement main articles units of measurement and systems of measurement because measurement involves the estimation of magnitudes of quantities relative to particular quantities called units the specification of units is of fundamental importance to measurement the definition or specification of precise standards of measurement involves two key features which are evident in the syst me international d unit s si specifically in this system the definition of each of the base units makes reference to specific empirical conditions and with the exception of the kilogram also to other quantitative attributes each derived si unit is defined purely in terms of a relationship involving itself and other units for example the unit of velocity is one m s due to the fact that derived units make reference to base units the specification of empirical conditions is an implied component of the definition of all units the measurement of a specific entity or relation results in at least two numbers for the relationship between the entity or relation under study and the referenced unit of measurement where at least one number estimates the statistical uncertainty in the measurement also referred to as measurement error measuring instruments are used to estimate ratios of magnitudes to units prior comparisons underlie the calibration in terms of standard units of commonly used instruments constructed to measure physical quantities metrology metrology is the study of measurement in general a metric is a scale of measurement defined in terms of a standard i e in terms of well defined unit the quantification of phenomena through the process of measurement relies on the existence of an explicit or implicit metric which is the standard to which measurements are referenced if one says i am five that person is indicating a measurement without supplying an applicable standard he could mean i am five years old or i am five feet high however the implicit metric is that he is five years old history main article history of measurement laws to regulate measurement were originally developed to prevent fraud however units of measurement are now generally defined on a scientific basis and are established by international treaties in the united states commercial measurements are regulated by the national institute of standards and technology nist a division of the united states department of commerce the history of measurements is a topic within the history of science and technology the metre us meter was standardized as the unit for length after the french revolution and has since been adopted throughout most of the world the united states and the uk are in the process of converting to the si system this process is known as metrication difficulties in measurement measurement of many quantities is very difficult and prone to large error part of the difficulty is due to uncertainty and part of it is due to the limited time available in which to make the measurement examples of things that are very difficult to measure in some respects and for some purposes include social related items such as a person s knowledge as in testing see also assessment a person s feelings emotions or beliefs a person s senses qualia even for physical quantities gaining accurate measurement can be difficult it is not possible to be exact instead repeated measurements will vary due to various factors affecting the quantity such as temperature time electromagnetic fields and especially measurement method as an example in the measurement of the speed of light the quantity is now known to a high degree of precision due to modern methods but even with those methods there is some variability in the measurement statistical techniques are applied to the measurement samples to estimate the speed in earlier sets of measurements the variability was greater and comparing the results shows that the variability and bias in the measurement methods was not properly taken into account proof of this is that when various group s measurements are plotted with the estimated speed and error bars showing the expected variability of the estimated speed from the actual number the error bars from each of the experiments did not all overlap this means a number of groups incorrectly accounted for the true sources of error and overestimated the accuracy of their methods miscellaneous measuring the ratios between physical quantities is an important sub field of physics some important physical quantities include speed of light planck s constant gravitational constant elementary charge electric charge of electrons protons etc fine structure constant see also units of measurement systems of measurement history of measurement conversion of units dimensional analysis dimensionless number levels of measurement measurement in quantum mechanics orders of magnitude timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology timeline of time measurement technology uncertainty in measurement uncertainty principle weights and measures econometrics instrumentation virtual instrumentation references newton i one seven two eight one nine six seven universal arithmetic or a treatise of arithmetical composition and resolution in d t whiteside ed the mathematical works of isaac newton vol two pp three one three four new york johnson reprint corp external links a dictionary of units of measurement conversion calculator metrology in short two nd edition measurement nasa orbital photo of malden island north at bottom malden island is a low arid uninhabited island in the central pacific ocean about three nine km in area it is one of the line islands belonging to republic of kiribati the island is chiefly notable for its mysterious prehistoric ruins of polynesian origin its once extensive deposits of phosphatic guano exploited by australian interests from c one eight six zero one nine two seven its use as the site of the first british h bomb tests operation grapple one nine five seven and its importance as a protected area for breeding seabirds geography malden island is located four four six km two four one nautical miles south of the equator two eight four zero km one five three zero nautical miles south of honolulu hawaii and more than eight zero zero zero km four zero zero zero nautical miles five zero zero zero statute miles west of the coast of south america the nearest land is uninhabited starbuck island two zero four km one one zero nmi to the southwest the nearest inhabited place is tongareva penhryn island four five zero km two four three nmi to the southwest the nearest airport is on kiritimati christmas island six seven five km three six five nmi to the northwest other nearby islands all uninhabited include jarvis island six nine zero km three seven three nmi to the northwest vostok island seven one three km three eight five nmi to the south southeast and caroline millennium island eight five zero km four six zero nmi to the southeast the island has roughly the shape of an equilateral triangle eight km on a side aligned with the southwest side running northwest to southeast the west and south corners of the triangle are slightly truncated shortening the north east and southwest coasts to about seven km and adding shorter west and south coasts about one to two km in length a large mostly shallow irregularly shaped lagoon containing a number of small islets fills the east central part of the island the lagoon is entirely enclosed by land but only by relatively narrow strips along its north and east sides most of the land area of the island lies to the south and west of the lagoon the total area of the island is about three nine three zero km the island is very low no more than one zero m above sea level at its highest point the highest elevations are found along a rim that closely follows the coastline the interior forms a depression that is only a few meters above sea level in the western part and is below sea level filled by the lagoon in the east central part because of this topography the ocean cannot be seen from much of the interior a continuous heavy surf falls all along the coast forming a narrow white to gray sandy beach except on the west coast where the white sandy beach is more extensive than elsewhere a strip of dark gray coral rubble forming a series of low ridges parallel to the coast lies within the narrow beach extending inward to the island rim history malden was discovered on three zero july one eight two five not two nine july as incorrectly reported in some sources by captain george anson lord byron a cousin of the poet byron commanding the british warship hms blonde was returning to london from a special mission to honolulu to repatriate the remains of the young king and queen of hawaii who had died tragically of measles during a visit to britain the island was named for lt charles robert malden navigator of the blonde who sighted the island and briefly explored it andrew bloxam naturalist of the blonde and james macrae a botanist travelling for the royal horticultural society joined in exploring the island and recorded their observations at the time of its discovery malden was found to be unoccupied but the remains of ruined temples and other structures indicated that the island had at one time been inhabited at various times these remains have been speculatively attributed to wrecked seamen the buccaneers the south american incas early chinese navigators etc in one nine two four the malden ruins were examined by an archaeologist from the bishop museum in honolulu k p emory who concluded that they were the creation of a small polynesian population which had resided there for perhaps several generations some centuries earlier in the first half of the nineteenth century during the heyday of american whaling in the central pacific malden was visited on a number of occasions by american whalers malden was claimed by the u s guano company under the guano islands act of one eight five six which authorized citizens to take possession of uninhabited islands under the authority of the united states for the purpose of removing guano a valuable agricultural fertilizer before the american company began operations however the island was occupied by an australian company under british license this company and its successors exploited the island continuously from the one eight six zero s through one nine two seven in one nine five six the united kingdom selected malden as the instrumentation site for its first series of thermonuclear h bomb weapons tests based at kiritimati christmas island british propagandists insisted that malden should not be called a target island nevertheless the bombing target marker was located at the south point of the island and three thermonuclear devices were detonated at high altitude a short distance offshore in one nine five seven the united states continued to dispute british sovereignty over malden until after the independence of kiribati was granted in july one nine seven nine on two zero september representatives of the united states and kiribati met on tarawa atoll in the gilberts group of kiribati and signed a treaty of friendship between their two nations commonly referred to as the treaty of tarawa of one nine seven nine by which the united states recognized kiribati s sovereignty over malden and thirteen other islands in the line and phoenix islands groups this treaty entered into force on two three september one nine eight three the main value of the island to kiribati lies in the resources of the two zero zero nautical mile three seven zero km exclusive economic zone which surrounds it particularly the rich tuna fisheries gypsum deposits on the island itself are extensive but do not appear to be economically viable under foreseeable market conditions mainly due to cost of transportation some revenue has been realized from ecotourism the world discoverer an adventure cruise ship operated by society expeditions visited the island once or twice annually for several years in the mid one nine nine zero s malden was reserved as a wildlife sanctuary and closed area officially designated the malden island wildlife sanctuary on two nine may one nine seven five under the one nine seven five wildlife conservation ordinance the principal purpose of this reservation was to protect the large breeding populations of seabirds the sanctuary is administered by the wildlife conservation unit of the ministry of line and phoenix islands development headquartered on kiritimati there is no resident staff at malden and the occasional visits by foreign yachtsmen and fishermen cannot be monitored from kiritimati a fire in one nine seven seven possibly caused by visitors threatened breeding seabirds and this remains a potential threat particularly during periods of drought external links malden atoll from space line islands nuclear test sites matres lectionis latin mothers of reading singular form mater lectionis are an early method for indicating vowels in the hebrew alphabet the consonant letters yod waw and aleph were used to give a rough indication of the quality of long vowels most commonly yod indicates i or e while waw indicates o or u aleph was not systematically developed as a mater lectionis in hebrew as it was in aramaic and arabic but it is occasionally used to indicate an a vowel however a silent aleph indicating an original glottal stop consonant sound which has become silent in hebrew pronunciation can occur after almost any vowel at the end of a word he can also be used to indicate that a vowel should be pronounced in some verb forms matres lectionis are used almost always examples letternamevowel qualityexample alephmostly p r n mill hemostly or e l waw or y l b r kh yod or d w d later it became clear that the system of matres lectionis did not suffice to indicate the vowels precisely enough so that supplemental vowel pointing systems diacritic symbols indicating vowel pronunciation and other important phonological features not written by the traditional basic consonantal orthography were developed accordingly historically the practice of using matres lectionis seems to have originated when ay and aw diphthongs written using the yod and waw consonant letters respectively monophthongized to simple long vowels and this epiphenomenal association between consonant letters and vowel sounds was then seized upon and used in words without historic diphthongs in general terms it is observable that early phoenician texts have very few matres lectionis and that during most of the one st millennium b c e hebrew and aramaic were quicker to develop matres lectionis than phoenician however in its latest period of development in north africa referred to as punic the phoenician language developed a very full use of matres lectionis including the use of the letter ayin also used for this purpose much latter in yiddish orthography in pre exilic hebrew there was a significant development of the use of the letter he to indicate word final vowels other than and this was probably inspired by the phonological change of the third person singular possessive suffix from ah aw in most environments however in later periods of hebrew the orthography was changed so that word final was no longer written with the letter he except in a few archaically spelled proper names such as solomon and shiloh the difference between the spelling of the third person singular possessive suffix as attached to singular nouns with he in early hebrew vs with waw in later hebrew has become an issue in the authentication of the jehoash inscription according to sass five already in the middle kingdom there were some cases of matres lectionis i e consonant graphemes which were used to transcribe vowels in foreign words namely in punic jensen two nine zero naveh six two aramaic and hebrew he waw yod sometimes even aleph naveh six two naveh ibid notes that the earliest aramaic and hebrew documents already used matres lectionis some scholars argue that therefore the greeks must have borrowed their alphabet from the arameans but the practice has older roots the semitic cuneiform alphabet of ugarit one three th ct bc already has matres lectionis naveh one three eight bibliography garr w randall one nine eight five dialect geography of syria palestine one zero zero zero five eight six b c e philadelphia university of pennsylvania press jensen hans one nine seven zero sign symbol and script london george allen and unwin ltd transl of die schrift in vergangenheit und gegenwart veb deutscher verlag der wissenschaften one nine five eight as revised by the author naveh joseph one nine seven nine die entstehung des alphabets transl of origins of the alphabet z rich und k ln benziger sass benjamin one nine nine one studia alphabetica on the origin and early history of the northwest semitic south semitic and greek alphabets ch freiburg universit tsverlag freiburg schweiz g ttingen vandenhoeck ruprecht hebrew language the original poster for the broadway production of the show designed by al hirschfeld my fair lady is a one nine five six musical theater production with lyrics and book by alan jay lerner and music by frederic loewe adapted from george bernard shaw s pygmalion which was itself based on the roman myth of pygmalion mythology it was also made into a film by warner bros in one nine six four the stage musical first opened on march one five one nine five six at the mark hellinger theatre in new york city it ran for two seven one seven performances a broadway record at the time it opened in london on three zero th april one nine five eight at the theatre royal drury lane and ran for two two eight one performances it was revived on tour and on broadway in one nine eight zero eight one with rex harrison repeating his role as henry higgins under the direction of patrick garland moss hart directed the musical cecil beaton designed the costumes and hanya holm choreographed the original playbill and original cast album included art by al hirschfeld which depicted eliza doolittle as a marionette being manipulated by henry higgins whose own strings are being pulled by a heavenly puppeteer who looks like george bernard shaw the songs why can t the english wouldn t it be loverly with a little bit o luck i m an ordinary man the servants chorus just you wait the rain in spain i could have danced all night ascot gavotte on the street where you live you did it show me get me to the church on time a hymn to him without you i ve grown accustomed to her face the plot henry higgins an arrogant irascible professor of phonetics finds an impoverished young woman eliza doolittle selling flowers and boasts to a new acquaintance colonel pickering that he can train her to speak so properly that he could pass her off as a duchess eliza finds her way to the professor s house and offers to pay the professor to give her elocution lessons so that she can get a better job a wager is made with colonel pickering that higgins cannot achieve this and he takes her on as a challenge of his skills free of charge eliza s father a dustman arrives later that day to reclaim his daughter or at least some compensation for her loss and is paid off with five pounds higgins is impressed by the man s genuineness and natural gift for language contrasting with his total lack of moral values can t afford em from earlier on in the story eliza s father alfred doolittle comes to her begging for beer money eliza is very disdainful of her father begging her for money but after a few moments of pleading and the line you wouldn t send me home without a drop of liquid protection she finally gives him some drinking money eliza goes through many forms of speech therapy such as speaking with marbles in her mouth in addition she repeats the phrase in hartford hereford hampshire hurricanes hardly hever happen into a machine that spouts flame if she does not drop her h this exercise results in eliza setting a piece of paper on fire much to colonel pickering s surprise eventually after a musical number featuring the servants of mr higgins we come to the scene of eliza mr higgins and the colonel sitting in mr higgins study eliza protest to mr higgins expectations of her and he responds to her with a heart felt speech about the gift of the spoken word at first eliza makes no progress but just as she thinks the idea is hopeless she tries one more time suddenly gets it when higgins explains the value of the english language and begins to talk with an impeccable upper class english accent higgins takes her on her first public appearance at ascot racecourse where she makes a good impression with her polite manners only to shock everyone by a sudden and vulgar lapse into cockney higgins who dislikes the pretentiousness of these upper class people partly conceals a grin behind his hand as if to convey the message to the audience i wish i had said that the bet depends on eliza s passing as a lady at the embassy ball which she does successfully despite the presence of a hungarian phonetics expert who is completely taken in higgins s ungrateful treatment of her after this success leads eliza to walk out on him leaving the seemingly clueless higgins mystified by her ingratitude the ending of the musical was subtly changed from that of the play in order to please audiences by a suggestion of budding romance between eliza and higgins a contemporary version of the pygmalion motif can be found in willy russell s play educating rita one nine eight zero the broadway cast rex harrison as henry higgins julie andrews as eliza doolittle stanley holloway as alfred p doolittle robert coote as colonel pickering harrison and holloway reprised their roles in the film version while andrews was replaced by audrey hepburn and robert coote by wilfrid hyde white the film the cover of cecil beaton s fair lady beaton s diary of working on the film version of the musical pictured audrey hepburn as eliza from the ascot scene the stage musical was later made into a musical film released in one nine six four by warner bros the film was directed by george cukor and starred audrey hepburn rex harrison and stanley holloway it won cukor an academy award for directing and ranked nine one on the american film institute s one zero zero years one zero zero movies the lead role in the film was originally intended for julie andrews who played eliza in the stage version hepburn was cast despite lobbying from lerner because warner brothers didn t want to cast a stage actress marni nixon was cast to dub hepburn s songs the controversy over the casting damaged hepburn s career painting her in a negative light although elizabeth taylor reportedly fought long and hard for the role as well andrews subsequent academy award nomination for mary poppins which she won and lack of a nomination for hepburn was seen by many as vindication for julie andrews though both actresses denied that there was ever any animosity between them film of some of hepburn s original vocal performances for the film was released in the one nine nine zero s and many fans of the actress believe that it was unnecessary for her voice to be dubbed at the very least she could actually sing in contrast to harrison whose songs were mostly recitative the film s copyright was owned by cbs as the head of that company put up the money for the original broadway production in exchange for the rights to the cast album through columbia records when warners bought the film rights for the then unprecedented sum of five million it was agreed that the rights to the film would revert to cbs seven years after its release in the one nine nine zero s the original film elements had fallen into disrepair from heavy printing and were feared in danger of total deterioration film restorers robert a harris and james c katz were brought in to physically restore the film their work was a success preserving this well loved film for future generations and a three zero th anniversary re issue in one nine nine four reinforced the film s popularity the film cast rex harrison as henry higgins audrey hepburn as eliza doolittle marni nixon dubbing the singing voice in this movie stanley holloway as alfred p doolittle wilfrid hyde white as colonel pickering jeremy brett as freddie eynsford hill popular culture the subplot of the family guy episode one if by clam two if by sea is a parody of my fair lady as stewie tries to teach an acquaintance s daughter eliza to overcome her common cockney accent and speak proper english songs from the musical are also parodied the simpsons episode my fair laddy parodies the story as lisa tries to teach groundskeeper willie to be a proper gentleman the musical s songs are parodied here as well the simpsons again parodies the musical in the episode the great louse detective in which sideshow bob sings about his inability to kill bart because he has grown accustomed to his face and in the episode the sweetest apu in which apu produces a version of my fair lady starring all eight of his children to compensate for infidelity see also pygmalion effect external links my fair lady official fox site for the film large collection of film stills news photos and publicity material french language one nine six four films musical films musicals best picture oscar films based on plays best actor oscar film best supporting actor oscar nominee film best supporting actress oscar nominee film films directed by george cukor fish out of water films martial arts film is a film genre that originated in the pacific rim this genre of film is one kind of action film characterized by extensive fighting scenes employing various types of martial arts this genre is no longer limited to asian films there are many action movies starring well known western martial artists such as steven seagal chuck norris wesley snipes jean claude van damme and g j torres martial arts film stars can be classified in two types namely genuine martial artists who pursued a filming career versus regular actors who acted in martial arts film under the directions of choreographers martial arts film stars who are martial artists on their own merits kwan tak hing was the original celluloid wong fei hung starring as the legendary hung gar master in roughly one zero zero films from the late one nine four zero s to the one nine six zero s possibly the most prolific movie series ever kwan himself was a master of tibetan white crane rather than hung gar and specialized in the use of the whip yu so chow is probably the best known martial artist and actress in the five zero s and six zero s and starred in over one seven zero martial arts films still on the top record among all actresses bruce lee s enter the dragon one nine seven three was one of the films that brought the genre into mainstream western acceptance his fame also helped popularize wing chun the martial art that he originally trained in and jeet kune do the martial art that he later created based on wing chun and other styles of martial arts jackie chan continued this crossover during the eight zero s and nine zero s finally conquering the us market with rumble in the bronx one nine nine five and the two rush hour films he is renowned for his blend of martial arts and slapstick comedy but has directed action directed and starred in over five zero films of almost all conceivable genres despite intensive martial arts training from a chinese opera school jackie often tells people that he is an actor not a martial artist cynthia rothrock probably the best known woman in the genre and considered queen of martial arts films who was taught by g j torres sammo hung or gumbo hung was a fellow opera school student of jackie chan and yuen biao he has directed action directed and starred in numerous hong kong films as well as playing the leading role in the american tv series martial law yuen biao trained peking opera with sammo hung and jackie chan and is the youngest of the three lam ching ying learned peking opera in hong kong jet li won the chinese national wushu martial arts championships five times in a row before becoming a movie star starting with the movie shaolin temple donnie yen learned wushu from a young age and trained in beijing as well chuck norris learned tang soo do a martial art similar to taekwondo while in korea norris also trained together with bruce lee steven seagal is indeed an aikido instructor although quite a bit of controversy surrounds him in the aikido world jean claude van damme practiced karate in europe martial arts film stars who are primarily actors chow yun fat starred in many martial arts film in hong kong china and america such as the popular movie crouching tiger hidden dragon michelle yeoh a dancer turned actor aaron kwok a dancer turned to singing and then acting jason scott lee an actor who was trained in martial arts for his role in dragon the bruce lee story others leung kar yan see also hong kong action cinema cinema of hong kong bruceploitation cinema of china kung fu theater wire fu film wu xia film film genres martial arts films the musical film is a film genre in which several songs sung by the characters are interwoven into the narrative the songs are usually used to advance the plot or develop the film s characters a subgenre of the musical is the musical comedy which includes a strong element of humour as well as the usual music dancing and storyline the musical film was a natural development of the stage musical typically the biggest difference between film and stage musicals is the use of lavish background scenery which would be impractical in a theater musical films characteristically contain elements reminiscent of theater performers often treat their song and dance numbers as if there is a live audience watching in a sense the viewer becomes the diegetic audience as the performer looks directly into the camera and performs to it history of the musical the musical is the genre associated with the transition from silent film to sound film the concept of talking pictures had been considered a risky investment by the major hollywood studios until the warner bros studio took the leap and produced the jazz singer one nine two seven starring al jolson jolson s singing in the picture forever changed the medium of film and it jolted hollywood into the era of sound as hollywood adapted to sound films musicals were an important part of hollywood s movie output ranking alongside westerns dramas and comedies musicals of the classical sound era the one nine three zero s one nine four zero s and one nine five zero s are often considered the golden age of the musical when the genre s popularity was at its height busby berkeley during the one nine three zero s director busby berkeley began to enhance the traditional dance number with ideas drawn from the drill precision he had experienced as a soldier during the first world war in films such as four two nd street one nine three three berkeley choreographed a number of films in his unique style berkeley s numbers typically begin on a stage but gradually transcend the limitations of theatrical space his ingenious routines involving human bodies forming patterns like a kaleidoscope could never fit onto a real stage and the intended perspective is viewing from straight above berkeley s use of the female body as an erotic spectacle is regarded by many feminists today as exploitation musical stars musical stars such as fred astaire and ginger rogers were among the most popular and highly respected personalities in hollywood during the classical era the fred and ginger pairing was particularly successful resulting in a number of classic films such as top hat one nine three five swing time one nine three six and carefree one nine three eight many dramatic actors gladly participated in musicals as a way to break away from their typical typecasting for instance the multi talented james cagney had originally risen to fame as a stage singer and dancer but his repeated casting in tough guy roles and gangster movies gave him few chances to display these talents cagney s oscar winning role in yankee doodle dandy one nine four two allowed him to sing and dance and he considered it to be one of his finest moments many comedies and a few dramas included their own musical numbers the marx brothers movies included a musical number in nearly every film allowing the brothers to highlight their musical talents lalla the freed unit during the late one nine four zero s and into the one nine five zero s a production unit at metro goldwyn mayer headed by arthur freed made the transition from old fashioned musicals whose formula had become repetitive to something new recruiting his own workers mostly from broadway and the new york stage freed was responsible for bringing such talents as director vincente minnelli to the world of film starting in one nine four four with meet me in st louis the freed unit worked independently of its own studio to produce some of the most popular and well known examples of the genre the products of this unit include easter parade one nine four eight on the town one nine four nine an american in paris one nine five one singin in the rain one nine five two and the band wagon one nine five three this era allowed the greatest talents in movie musical history to flourish including judy garland gene kelly ann miller donald o connor cyd charisse jane powell howard keel and kathryn grayson fred astaire was also coaxed out of retirement for easter parade and made a permanent comeback the post classical musical the one nine five zero s musical since the one nine five zero s the musical has declined in popularity one reason was the change in culture to rock n roll and the freedom and youth associated with it elvis presley made a few movies that have been equated with the old musicals in terms of form most of the musical films of the five zero s and six zero s e g oklahoma and the sound of music were straightforward adaptations or restagings of successful stage productions the musical today the trend in modern filmmaking after the one nine six zero s has been to avoid musicals as such in favour of using music by popular rock or pop bands as background music in the hope of selling a soundtrack album to fans there are exceptions to this rule however and films about actors dancers or singers have been made as successful modern style musicals with the music as an intrinsic part of the storyline the other exception to the rule is the children s animated movie which almost always include traditional musical numbers some of which such as beauty and the beast and the lion king have later become live stage productions in the early two zero zero zero s however the musical film has begun to rise in popularity once more with new works such as moulin rouge or film remakes of stage shows such as chicago rent and the producers with the last two featuring many of the original broadway cast members lists of musical films a list of musicals in alphabetical order can be found here names beginning a to l and here names beginning m to z note that not all of these have been made into films a list of musical films in chronological order can be found here see also list of movies with sing along scenes list of movies based on stage plays or musicals film genres motala municipality is a swedish municipality in southeast sweden where the city motala is the seat with a three zero zero zero zero inhabitants geographically motala is situated where lake v ttern drains into the river system of motala str m which became its claim for fame during the industrialization in the one nine th century history when the g ta canal was built in the early one nine th century motala became an important city for the trade on the canal motala verkstad was the ship and steam engine industry famous in large parts of the world in the science fiction novel two zero zero zero zero leagues under the sea by jules verne the submarine nautilus s engine was built at motala verkstad the builder of the g ta canal baltzar von platen has his grave by the canal in motala the town received a minor privilege when it became a k ping in one eight two three with full city rights granted as of april one one eight eight one longwave radio another important event in the history of motala is one nine two five when the swedish national longwave radio broadcasting station was built here the city marks the middle of a straight line between sweden s two biggest cities stockholm and gothenburg radio programs were transferred from studios in stockholm to motala by telephone wire the call was stockholm motala the transmitter operated on one nine one khz until one nine six two then the transmission where moved to orlunda since one nine nine one there are no longwave transmissions at all of the swedish broadcasting company but from the transmitter motala which is a museum sometimes transmissions with low power occur which may only receivable in the area of motala as a consequece of the radio station the company luxor was started luxor soon became one of the largest radio and later television manufacturers in sweden in the one nine eight zero s they started producing their own line of computers like the abc eight zero in one nine eight five luxor was acquired by nokia and eventually production moved elsewhere municipal towns figures as of two zero zero zero from statistics sweden motala three zero one three six borensberg two six six seven tj llmo five six two forn sa four four six nykyrka four three four f gelsta three three four sterstad three two nine klockrike two seven five godeg rd two zero zero outside towns six seven nine two total four two one seven five the population decreased with about two in almost all of the towns between the earlier census one nine nine five and the one in two zero zero zero industry the largest employer is the municipality itself employing cirka three four zero zero people there after follows the county council with one seven seven five of the private employers electrolux och dometic have a total of one four zero zero autoliv four two five hycop three two five saab bofors dynamics cirka three zero zero and motala verkstad some one eight zero source sister cities motala has four sister cities whereof three are in nordic countries with origin in the one nine five zero s eigersund norway hyvink finland kors r denmark daugavpils latvia source external links motala official site article motala from nordisk familjebok one nine one three municipalities of sweden municipalities of sterg tland county sterg tland maltese is a semitic language of the afro asiatic language family it is the national language of malta and an official language of the european union it is derived from and most closely related to arabic apart from its phonology maltese is quite similar to urban varieties of tunisian arabic and they are in fact moderately intelligible more so than tunisian arabic is to other arabic dialects such as gulf arabic maltese also shares similarities with other north african arabic dialects however in the course of malta s recent history the language has adopted many loan words and even phonetic and phonological features from southern italian sicilian and english maltese is the only semitic language written in the latin alphabet in its standard form it is also the only semitic language native to a geopolitically european country although geophysically malta is generally regarded as forming part of the african continental plate maltese became an official language of malta in one nine three six alongside english before that year the official language of malta was italian today there are an estimated three three zero zero zero zero maltese speakers there are a significant number of maltese expatriates in australia the united states and canada who can still speak the language the oldest known document in maltese is il cantilena a poem from the one five th century written by pietro caxaro for centuries maltese was nearly exclusively a spoken language with writing being done in arabic or later italian grammar its basis is arabic with a very large influx of romance vocabulary especially sicilian and norman french although influenced by romance languages maltese grammar is still strongly semitic adjectives follow nouns there are no separately formed native adverbs and word order is fairly flexible as in arabic and hebrew both nouns and adjectives those of semitic origin take the definite article for example l art l imqaddsa lit the land the holy the holy land cf arabic al ar al muqaddasa hebrew ha arets hakkedo a this rule does not apply to nouns and adjectives of romance origin nouns are pluralized and also have a dual marker rare among modern european languages others including icelandic slovene and sorbian verbs still show a triliteral semitic pattern in which a verb is conjugated with prefixes suffixes and infixes for example ktibna arabic katabna hebrew katavnu we wrote there are two tenses present and perfect the maltese verb system incorporates romance verbs and adds arabic suffixes and prefixes to them for example idde idejna we decided i dde ieda romance verb ejna arabic first person plural perfect marker arabic only rarely does this although several arabic dialects like tunisian do maltese grammar generally shows two patterns a semitic pattern and a romance pattern usage being selected by word origin and tradition an anglo saxon pattern in the form of english words adapted to a maltese structure is a recent linguistic phenomenon the romance pattern is generally simpler words of romance origin are usually pluralized in two manners addition of i or jiet for example lingwa lingwi languages art artijiet lands territorial possessions or property semitic plurals however are much more complex if they are regular they are marked by iet ijiet cf arabic at and hebrew ot or in cf arabic n and hebrew im if irregular they fall in the pluralis fractus category in which a word is pluralized by internal vowel changes ktieb kotba books ra el ir iel men this is very well developed in arabic and also exhibited by hebrew sefer sfarim books vocabulary maltese vocabulary is a hybrid based on a foundation of arabic semitic roots with a heavy borrowing of sicilian rather than tuscan italian loanwords in this respect it is similar to english a germanic language heavily influenced by french and persian an indo iranian language heavily influenced by arabic it is estimated that six zero of the vocabulary is semitic the rest being romance usually words expressing basic concepts and ideas are of arabic origin whereas more learned words having to do with new ideas objects government law education art literature and general learning are derived from sicilian thus words like ra el man mara woman tifel child dar house xemx sun sajf summer are of arabic origin while words like skola school gvern government repubblika republic re king natura nature pulizija police entru center teatru theater differenza difference are derived from sicilian the perverse result of this highly uneven distribution of loanwords throughout the language is that a speaker of the loanword source language in this case romance language speakers can understand for instance the main page of the maltese wikipedia or know the subject of a newspaper article but cannot understand even such basic things as the man is in the house this situation resembles that of a monolingual english speaker who will often be able to guess the content of something in french if it s formal academic writing but not understand much simpler sentences romance words usually reflect sicilian and not tuscan pronunciation thus final o becomes u in maltese after sicilian e g teatru not teatro as in tuscan also final italian e becomes i arti art fidi faith lokali local cf italian arte fede locale this effect is also found in brazilian portuguese english sh is written x and this produces interesting spellings ambaxxata is embassy xena is scene cf italian ambasciata scena english loan words are commonplace including strajk strike daljali dial along with union as in trade union leave and bonus which are not transliterated alphabet below is the maltese alphabet with ipa symbols and approximate english pronunciation external links choosemalta com maltese phrase sampler open source spellchecker aspell ispell online version of above tom edgar s maltese language page maltese verbal morphology pdf l akkademja tal malti il kunsill nazzjonali ta l ilsien malti maltese english dictionary from webster s online dictionary the rosetta edition languages of malta maltese language masaki kobayashi kobayashi masaki february one four one nine one six october four one nine nine six was a japanese director who is probably best known for kwaidan a collection of four ghost stories drawn from the book by lafcadio hearn each of which has a surprise ending kobayashi also directed the human condition a trilogy on the effects of world war ii on a japanese pacifist and socialist the total length of the films is over nine hours making it a true epic also notable are harakiri one nine six two and samurai rebellion one nine six seven both of which were scathing indictments of the injustice and hypocrisy of the pre meiji samurai era he was also a candidate for directing the japanese sequences for tora tora tora one nine seven zero but instead kinji fukasaku and toshio masuda were chosen kobayashi himself a pacifist was drafted into the japanese army during world war ii but refused to fight or be promoted to rank higher than private partial filmography the human condition trilogy one nine five nine one nine six one harakiri one nine six two kwaidan one nine six four samurai rebellion one nine six seven external links one nine one six births one nine nine six deaths japanese film directors pacifists meroitic is an adjective referring to things related to the kingdom of meroe in pre islamic sudan the meroitic period was approximately three zero zero bc to four zero zero ad the meroitic script was their writing system the meroitic language was what they spoke external links information on the meroitic state from the nubia museum mormon is a colloquial term used to refer to members of most of the forms of christianity within the latter day saint movement which began during the one eight three zero s and in the united states the term is derived from the title of the movement s best known book of scripture the book of mormon its compiler gave his name as mormon and describes himself as living at a time that would fall in the four th century the word is also an adjective referring to various cultural and religious aspects of mormonism the largest and best known mormon denomination is the church of jesus christ of latter day saints lds church the largest and most well known denomination within the latter day saint movement who are also sometimes called latter day saints or lds origin of the term mormon the term mormon and its related terms were first used in modern times in the one eight three zero s for those who believed that joseph smith jr had been called as a prophet of god and who accepted the book of mormon as scripture translated by joseph smith the book of mormon is self described as a compilation of smaller books compiled edited and abridged by a prophet historian named mormon hence the title of the book joseph smith jr in a letter to the editor of times and seasons defines the term mormon as meaning more good the first usage chronologically of the word mormon in the book of mormon is in reference to a place which was called mormon that had a fountain of pure water where alma taught the people who were desirous to come into the fold of god and baptized them in the waters of mormon after the initial publishing of the book mormon originated as a derogatory term referring to those who believed in the book of mormon but the name soon lost most of its negative connotation and is generally not considered offensive today throughout the one nine th and early two zero th centuries the related terms mormonite mormonist mormonish mormonic and mormoness were used but such terms are now very rare and may be considered somewhat offensive scope of the term mormon within the latter day saint movement some scholars feel the terms mormon and mormonism are useful to collectively describe all denominations within the latter day saint movement who originate from the religion founded by joseph smith jr however some feel the terms mormon and mormonism should be used exclusively to refer to the church of jesus christ of latter day saints the lds church which is by far the largest latter day saint denomination members of the community of christ formerly the reorganized church of jesus christ of latter day saints which separated from the church of jesus christ of latter day saints in nauvoo illinois rarely use the term mormon to describe themselves and instead apply it to members of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints the associated press stylebook likewise notes the term mormon is not properly applied to the other churches that resulted from the split after joseph smith s death however this usage is problematic because mormon is employed by members of other schisms of the early latter day saint movement that were prior to the succession crisis mormon is also used by some schisms that split from the lds church in the two zero th century however these groups often refer to themselves as mormon fundamentalists and call members of the lds church mainstream mormons the more general guidelines of the ap stylebook recommend that people should be called by those labels with which they self identify in addition to those members of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints who seek for that denomination to be the only denomination referred to as mormon other members of that church disapprove of the term mormon and prefer instead to be called latter day saints or lds many members of that denomination also use the term lds when speaking to fellow church members and mormon when speaking to others the phrase mormon church also generally refers colloquially to this denomination which maintains an official website presenting its basic beliefs and tenets at www mormon org and another website directed more at church members at www lds org therefore the only universally accepted terminology in referring to latter day saint denominations is to use the full name of the church and to refer to individual latter day saints as members or adherents of their particular denomination use of the term mormon by the church of jesus christ of latter day saints the church of jesus christ of latter day saints with whom the term mormon is most commonly identified has changed its position on the term mormon over time for many years it was common for members to use quotes around the word mormon to indicate that this is something non mormons called latter day saints by the one nine seven zero s the term had become so common the lds church began to use the term mormon in advertising including well known television commercials which ended a message from the church of jesus christ of latter day saints the mormons more recently the organization has asked the media to use the church s complete name and follow any second reference with the name the church of jesus christ to recognize jesus christ s importance to the faith this style suggestion is rarely followed because of the ambiguity of the abbreviation and most still use the previous abbreviation lds church although the lds church objects to the use of the referent mormon church it stops short of rejecting the terms mormonism and mormon and occasionally claims these terms as exclusive references only to itself and its members in a press release from two zero zero one the lds church stated that the word mormon as an adjective in such expressions as mormon pioneers mormons as a noun in reference to church members and mormonism as a doctrine culture and lifestyle were all acceptable claims for exclusivity of usage are primarily to avoid confusion between the lds church and mormon fundamentalist groups the lds church argues mormon mormon fundamentalist and mormon dissident in reference to organizations or groups outside of the lds church especially those that practice plural marriage is a misunderstanding of mormon theology in particular the principle of continuous revelation and priesthood authority members of the lds church who are found guilty of practicing polygamy are excommunicated from the church despite this perspective the term mormon fundamentalist is widely used by latter day saints in some areas including members of the lds church and the fundamentalists themselves and by people outside the movement however this is strongly discouraged by the current president of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints gordon b hinckley sometimes restorationist or restoration movement are used as umbrella terms for those derived from the campbellites or stone campbell churches for example the church of christ and the disciples of christ mormons however while sharing some general beliefs of the campbellites are not a break off group of the campbellites but instead a group which believes that a restoration of the original church of jesus christ known as the primitive church by historians has taken place as god called joseph smith to be a prophet independent of any other church or movement there are some general similarities to campbellite teachings and many of mormonism s first adherents including sidney rigdon were previously campbellites but the book of mormon and the book of doctrine and covenants define the mormons doctrine in a unique way from any other restoration movement body utah mormons and missouri mormons some scholars such as melton in his encyclopedia of american religion subdivide the mormons into utah mormons and missouri mormons however these terms are not of common usage and even unheard of among the majority of those who call themselves mormons in this scheme the utah mormon group includes all the organizations descending from those mormons who followed brigham young to what is now utah the church of jesus christ of latter day saints is by far the largest of these groups and the only group to initially reside in utah when the united states outlawed plural marriage the church established a few mormon colonies like colonia ju rez in mexico as plural marriage was still legal there when the leaders of the lds church proclaimed that god had revealed to them that the practice of plural marriage was to be discontinued october six one eight nine zero however there were a number of families who left the church of jesus christ of latter day saints and continued to practice plural marriage in scattered and usually isolated communities while these smaller groups have a membership in the thousands the church of jesus christ of latter day saints now claims a world wide membership of over one two million but due to heavy media focus on these fractional bodies misidentification of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints with these polygamous groups is not uncommon these groups include the fundamentalist church of jesus christ of latter day saints the kingston clan the true utah mormons and missouri mormons are problematic because the majority of members of each of these branches no longer live in either of these states while the majority of the population of the state of utah are members of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints it has a large membership in many other states most notably arizona california idaho and nevada the majority of the membership of the church today resides outside of the united states the missouri mormons are those mormons who did not travel to utah and the organizations formed from them the community of christ church of christ temple lot remnant church of jesus christ of latter day saints etc not all missouri mormon groups are based in missouri however notable exceptions include the pennsylvania based church of jesus christ bickertonite which considers sidney rigdon joseph smith s rightful successor and the wisconsin based church of jesus christ of latter day saints strangite which considers james j strang smith s legitimate successor addressing some of the limitations of the utah missouri designations historian jan shipps has now coined the terms rocky mountain saints and prairie saints to rename the utah and missouri branches of the movement these new terms have begun to gain a following among some historians today but similar to the above mentioned titles they are not of common usage among the majority of those who call themselves mormons distinctions from other religious groups despite some misconceptions over similar nicknames and stereotypes mormons are not the same religious group as quakers members of the religious society of friends mennonites or amish mormons originated separately from these groups and are distinct in culture practice and theology mormonism originated in the united states the quaker and mennonite faiths originally came from europe the groups also have numerous doctrinal differences for example both quakers and mennonites which include the amish are traditionally strict pacifists and are both peace churches whereas mormons believe in self defense and will participate in the military in the united states many mormons are members of the armed forces and there are lds chaplains one source of confusion in regions where spanish french russian polish or italian are the predominant languages comes from a mistranslation in the film witness starring harrison ford into spanish french russian polish and italian amish was translated incorrectly to mormon how this happened with different translators into different languages is not clear but demonstrates a general misunderstanding about the identity of either the amish or the mormons or both mormons as public figures and in popular culture see also list of latter day saints mormons depicted in movies and television are often presented as a stereo type blond haired caucasians having large families are very religious with a focus on genealogy and fundamentalism more recent productions with the intent of presenting a more accurate picture of their culture have demonstrated that their religion is inclusive representing a vast spectrum of ethnic backgrounds the emphasis on genealogy is not surprising given the immense importance genealogical research www familysearch org has in mormon culture including in particular as a point of outreach contact with non mormons they have been both objects of ridicule in comedic media tonight show south park and other tv shows and other films usually making fun of the lds church s history and doctrines including polygamy or portrayed in a neutral manner larry king live newsweek or as role models for ethics frasier often their door to door missionary work is compared with that of the jehovah s witnesses but the two religions have few other similarities mormons have been active in producing general and mormon targeted plays books and cinema many films aimed at mormon audiences have been produced in the last decade see lds fiction and lds cinema mormon producers actors directors etc are present in the television and movie industries more today than in the past producer glen a larson placed elements of his faith in the television series battlestar galactica one nine seven eight which mostly didn t survive into the two zero zero three reimagined series the movie napoleon dynamite also had a largely mormon crew many mormons are also well known authors particularly in the field of speculative fiction these include orson scott card and tracy hickman among others in music mormon singers songwriters gladys knight and donny osmond are well known in the world of professional sports notable mormon athletes include hall of fame nfl quarterback steve young and former vikings quarterback sean salisbury mormons are becoming increasingly prominent in politics within the united states some examples of well known lds politicians include the senate minority leader harry reid massachusetts governor and potential presidential candidate in two zero zero eight mitt romney and veteran senator orrin hatch in business some of the better known names include kevin rollins ceo of dell inc j w marriott jr president and ceo of marriott international david neeleman ceo of jetblue airways and stephen covey chairman of franklincovey additionally kim b clark the former dean of the harvard business school accepted the position of president of brigham young university idaho june five two zero zero five see also the church of jesus christ of latter day saints mormonism latter day saint movement history of the latter day saint movement list of latter day saints for other well known mormons mormonism mariana trench location the mariana trench or marianas trench is the deepest known submarine trench and the deepest location in the earth s crust itself it is located in the floor of the western north pacific ocean to the east of the mariana islands at which is near guam the trench is the boundary where two tectonic plates meet a subduction zone where the pacific plate is being subducted under the philippine plate the bottom of the trench is further below sea level than mount everest is above sea level the trench has a maximum depth of one zero nine one one m three five seven nine eight feet below sea level taking into account its latitude and the earth s equatorial bulge this puts it at six three six six four km from the centre of the earth the arctic ocean on the other hand is four four five km deep which would put its floor at six three five two eight km from the earth s centre one three six km closer it was first surveyed in one nine five one by the british navy vessel challenger ii which gave its name to the deepest part of the trench the challenger deep using echo sounding the challenger ii measured a depth of five nine six zero fathoms one zero nine zero zero m at this sounding was repeatedly made using earphones to hear the return of the signal as the stylus passed across the graduated depth scale whilst the timing of the speed of the echo sounding machine a necessary part of the process was made with a hand held stopwatch for these reasons it was considered prudent to subtract one scale division of two zero fm when officially reporting a new greatest depth of five nine four zero fm one zero eight six three m in one nine five seven the russian vessel vityaz reported a depth of one one zero three four m three six two zero one ft dubbed the mariana hollow this measurement has never been replicated and is not considered accurate in one nine six two the m v spencer f baird recorded a greatest depth of one zero nine one five m three five eight one zero ft in one nine eight four the japanese sent the takuyo a highly specialized survey vessel out to the mariana trench and collected data using a narrow multi beam echo sounder they reported a maximum depth of one one zero four zero four m one this is also reported as one zero nine two zero one zero m two the most accurate measurement on record was taken by another japanese probe kaiko on march two four one nine nine five one zero nine one one m three five seven nine eight ft three january two three one nine six zero just before the dive in an unprecedented dive the u s navy bathyscaphe trieste reached the bottom at one zero six pm on january two three one nine six zero with u s navy lt don walsh and jacques piccard iron shot was used for ballast with gasoline for buoyancy the onboard systems indicated a depth of three seven eight zero zero ft one one five two one m but this was later revised to three five eight one three ft one zero nine one six m at the bottom walsh and piccard were surprised to discover soles or flounder about one foot three zero cm long as well as shrimp according to piccard the bottom appeared light and clear a waste of firm diatomaceous ooze at the bottom of the mariana trench water exerts a pressure of one zero eight six bar one zero eight six mpa or one five seven five one psi see also list of oceanic trenches pacific ocean oceanic trenches this article is about the slavic language for the language spoken in the ancient world see ancient macedonian language the macedonian language makedonski is a language in the eastern group of south slavic languages and is the official language of the republic of macedonia macedonian is also spoken in serbia and montenegro albania bulgaria greece and in the macedonian diasporas in western europe north america and australia the total number of native macedonian speakers is estimated around two three million not to be confused with the ancient macedonian language the modern slavic macedonian language is closely related to bulgarian macedonian also has similarities with serbian particularly old serbian torlakian dialect bulgarian and macedonian share typological similarities with romanian greek and albanian these five languages make up the balkan language league even though they are all from different language families romanian is a romance language while greek and albanian comprise their own branches in the indo european family macedonian is the official language in the republic of macedonia and officially recognized in the district of kor in albania native speakers are also found in serbia and montenegro greece bulgaria and albania also the kosovo government announced that the gorani people from southern kosovo gora region will receive school education in the macedonian language as of two zero zero six along with bulgarian macedonian is the only slavic language not to use noun cases except for vocative and to have a definite article a modified cyrillic script macedonian cyrillic with three one letters is used for writing while the transliteration to latin script is easy in principle there is currently a lot of confusion about which standard to use when macedonia was part of former yugoslavia macedonian was typically written using the latin script used for serbo croatian for example the cyrillic letter was written as since then the use of zh or simply z has gained currency especially problematic is the cyrillic letter which can be found transliterated into latin as d dzh dz or even x the macedonian language is taught as a subject in several of the university centres of the world and is currently taught in all universities of the former yugoslavia history one of the varieties of old church slavonic the one of the ohrid literary school one of the literary schools of the first bulgarian empire from the one zero th century on and written primarily in glagolitic is sometimes regarded as macedonian due to it being based on the local slavic vernacular of the region there were three schools of macedonian linguists in the recent history of slavic macedonia the first one was called the bulgarophiles and it tried to reach the linguistical and political unity with bulgaria this group tried in the one nine th century accompanied by pan slavic nationalism to make the first attempt to resolve the question of linguistic norms in what they considered the bulgarian macedonian diasystem bulgarophile writers from macedonia kuzman apkarev miladinov brothers grigor prlichev advocated a common bulgarian language based on the slavic dialects in macedonia or on a compromise between the upper bulgarian northeastern bulgarian and the western macedonian dialects which they considered as bulgarian writers from northern bulgaria however insisted on the adoption of the northeastern bulgarian dialect only the establishment of an autonomous bulgarian principality north of the stara planina led eventually to the adoption of the eastern literary variant still even after the codification of the bulgarian language in one eight nine nine the preservation of the letters and with dialect dependant double reading allowed some differences between eastern bulgarian and western bulgarian and macedonian dialects within the codified norm at the same time the serbian scholars and a part of intellectuals from macedonia called the serbophiles considered the macedonian language merely a southernmost dialect of serbian language thus forcing this idea that become prevalent in vardar macedonia after the balkan wars and world war i between the world wars in serbia macedonian dialects was treated as a serbian dialects literary serbo croatian was the language of education media and public life even so macedonian literature was tolerated as a local dialectal folkloristic form the serbophile idea was later abandoned in favour of the formation of separate macedonian language in one nine four four when the third group of linguists led by bla e koneski codified the macedonian literary language the idea of the separate macedonian language which is neither bulgarian nor serbian in essence is called macedonism and it has been official nowadays macedonian shares similar features both with serbian lexical fund slang script present tense forms accentuation position through unrelated processes stress in both languages has generally come to be placed closer to the beginning of the word than in their eastern neighbour etc and bulgarian virtually complete lack of cases definite article formation of future tense non melodical accent etc but also posesses some unique features source victor a friedman p one five dialects a major bundle of isoglosses running roughly from skopje and crna gora along the rivers vardar and crna divides macedonian territory into eastern and western regions shows the main dialect regions the vocalic inventories of the west central dialects are characterized bya map of macedonian dialects in the republic of macedonia and adjacent areas a five vowel system a e i o u with the exception of mala reka reka drimkol golobrdo rado da vev ani nestram korca and parts of lower prespa all the remaining dialects also have phonemic phonemic is found in all of these latter schwa less dialects except mala reka and korca phonemic occurs in rado da vev ani suho and visoka and korca vocalic l occurs in mala reka vocalic r is absent from those dialects that decompose original r except rado da vev ani korca also has phonemic the dialects of the western region all tend to fixed stress antepenultimate in the republic of macedonia penultimate in greece and albania the eastern region along with the neighboring bulgarian dialects has various non fixed stress systems in lower vardar and seres nevrokop unstressed a e o are reduced raised to i u most dialects have e from original but the eastern region is characterized by the development of to a after c eastern cal western cel whole in easternmost aegean and pirin macedonia gives a or under stress in the aegean dialects regardless of the environment in the pirin dialects a if there is a back vowel in the following syllable e if there is a front vowel as can be seen in white seres drama b ala b ali suho and visoka b la b li nevrokop b ala bell in korca gives i under stress the modern reflexes of the proto slavonic reduced vowels jers vocalic sonorants and the back nasal o can be used to separate the dialects into six groups one north tetovo skopje crna gora kumanovo kriva palanka two peripheral gostivar ohrid prespa kostur korca lower vardar three west central prilep kicevo bitola lerin four east central tikves mariovo stip strumica malesevo pirin five debar and six seres nevrokop for consonantal features the entire western region is distinguished from the east by loss of x except tetovo gora and korca and the loss of v in intervocalic position except mala reka and parts of kostur korca glava head gla glavi heads glaj the eastern region preserves x except tikves mariovo and kumanovo kriva palanka and intervocalic v the east is also characterized by the development of prothetic v before original o where the west has prothetic j eastern vaglen coal but western jaglen the diphonemic reflexes are most characteristic of the pirin and aegean dialects kostur korca and ohrid prespa the seres nevrokop dialects have a series of phonemically palatalized consonants different political views on the language as with the issue of macedonian ethnicity the politicians linguists and common people from macedonia and neighboring countries have opposing views about the existence and distinctivity of the macedonian language macedonian dialects are indeed a part of dialectal continuum which stretches from croatian bosnian and serbian shtokavian dialect through torlakian on the northwest to western and eastern bulgarian dialects on the east like many other languages macedonian language is just a standardized form of a group of dialect s according to the macedonian view now prevalent and official in the books in republic of macedonia macedonian was the first official language of the slavs thanks to the st cyril and st methodius s introduction of slavic literacy language through the glagolitic script that was based confirmed by britannica on the southern macedonian dialect of thessaloniki solun bulgarian and serbian views state each in its own favor that macedonian is a modern coinage which merely denotes the western bulgarian or southern serbian dialects of the area and that the macedonian language is merely a dialect of their respective languages bulgarian and some international linguists view macedonian as another literary form of bulgarian malherbe m one nine nine five les langages de l humanit paris robert laffont although bulgaria was the first country to recognize the independence of the republic of macedonia it has refused to recognize the existence of a separate macedonian nation and a separate macedonian language serbia gradually accepted both although extreme nationalistic views still exist on the other hand the name of the language is considered offensive by many greeks who assert that the ancient macedonian language is the only macedonian language and that it was a northern greek dialect although greeks do not generally participate in the language versus dialect dispute they object to the use of the macedonian name in reference to the modern language calling it slavomacedonian or skopjan alphabet the macedonian alphabet as any slavic cyrillic alphabet is ultimately based on the cyrillic alphabet of saint cyril and saint methodius it is an adaptation of vuk karad i s phonetic alphabet which is the official alphabet of serbian language it is different from serbian cyrillic in letters and which have distinct phonetic value from their serbian counterparts while dze is unique in macedonian cyrillic common phrases classification and related languages the bosnian serbian croatian slovenian and bulgarian languages are related to macedonian but they are significantly different except for bulgarian which is mutually intelligible with some difficulties with macedonian they all compose the south slavic dialect continuum for the southern branch of the slavic languages the exact classification of the macedonian language is a political issue with serbia s standard language being based a good distance from macedonia s border the transitional language linking macedonian and bulgarian on the one hand with serbo croat and slovenian on the other is the torlakian which is spoken in northern macedonia and north western bulgaria and all over southern and eastern serbia republic of serbia is in fact roughly diagonally divided into two equal pieces from djerdap to metohija with the upper north western half speaking shtokavian and the lower south eastern half speaking torlakian dialects which southern branch is very similar to the literary macedonian the bulgarian linguists use to emphasise that a lexicological comparison between macedonian and bulgarian reveals that roughly one five of the whole vocabulary of both languages is different although most words usually exist in the other language with a different or slightly modified meaning six five of the words are only differently accented and two zero are identical lexical differences are owing to a great extent to loanwords borrowed by bulgarian from russian and by macedonian from serbian in the middle and the end of the two zero th century according to them compared to other languages the statistical differences between bulgarian and macedonian are similar to those between afrikaans and dutch on the other hand the fact is that the people of macedonia usually understand better the southern serbian dialects or literary serbian itself because of the cultural and historical links with serbia and they speak serbian more or less fluently due to historical reasons the modern slang of macedonian is usually identical with the serbian slang thus increasing the macedonian bulgarian differences nowadays after some decades of bulgarian and also serbian attempts to pronounce macedonian merely a dialect of their own language macedonian is now officially accepted as a language on its own that stands approximately right between bulgarian and serbian in features some specific features of the macedonian language the macedonian language shows some special and in some cases unique characteristics due to its central position in the balkans a very peculiar feature that has no parallel in other balkan languages is the existence of three definite articles pertaining to position of the object whereas bulgarian only has the basic unspecified form although other forms exist in bulgarian dialects another feature that sets macedonian apart from other slavic languages is the possibility to form the perfect tense with the verb to have and a neuter past passive participle as is common in germanic and romance languages in slavic languages that have perfect tenses these are almost universally built with the verb to be and a past active participle that is also an option in macedonian the older common slavic form with to be is predominant in the east of the country while the form with to have is more widespread in the west but has spread in the younger gernerations due to the influence of the standard language example new perfect old perfect i have caressed two other interesting features which however are shared with bulgarian are double object much more common in macedonian than in bulgarian and the mediative mood called renarrative mood in bulgarian linguistics and sometimes admirative in general linguistics see mood the mediative is a mood that designs the transmission of thoughts and enounciations which have been pronounced by another person but the locutor has heard them through rumors or gossip the l form is a mood for expression of the metaphoric category according to the french linguist claude hag ge an indigenous north american language central pomo possesses this category a phonetic characteristic of macedonian speech that sets it apart from the neighbouring languages is the permanent short stress falling on the syllable third from last and gradually moving along each time the word lengthens za mina vozot the train departed za mi nuvaj go from here imperative zami nu vanje departure zaminu va njeto the departure even so this tends not to be the case when the word has entered the language more recently and from a foreign source chiefly english menad ment management is pronounced me naj ment the use of the sound dz is also a unique characteristic of the macedonian language as compared with its neighbours the unique macedonian letter written as the latin s is associated to that sound neither bulgarian nor any other south slavic language possesses that characteristic letter and while the phoneme does occur in bulgarian it is restricted to foreign proper names and isn t considered a part of its standard phonemic inventory this phoneme has not been present in serbian alphabet either since the reforms of vuk karad i in the one nine th century although it is present in all the areas adjascent to macedonia torlakian dialects and as in bulgarian in foreign proper names the reason of dropping the letter from both serbian and bulgarian alphabets is the fact that the literary languages of those two nations deliberatery avoided the influence of torlakian or shop dialects where dz is frequently pronounced it is also present in serbian dialects from boka kotorska please compare the wikipedia or other published alphabets of slavic languages external links a grammar of macedonian by victor friedman macedonian english greek albanian german french italian translator ethnologue report for macedonian bbc education languages macedonian makedonski the macedonian language macedonian english dictionary reading and pronouncing macedonian an interactive tutorial otto kronsteiner the collapse of yugoslavia and the future prospects of the macedonian literary language ucla language materials project krste misirkov za makedonckite raboti complete text of the book south slavic languages languages of the republic of macedonia languages of greece languages of bulgaria languages of serbia and montenegro languages of albania a municipality or general purpose district compare with special purpose district is an administrative local area generally composed of a clearly defined territory and commonly referring to a city town or village government municipalities are not necessarily the same as townships in most countries this is the smallest administrative subdivision to have its own democratically elected representative leadership in several european countries municipalities as second level entities are referred to as communes municipalities as second level entities in australia a municipality is a city or shire and is a subdivision of a state in austria a municipality gemeinde is part of a district bezirk which is in turn part of a state bundesland in belgium a municipality gemeente commune is part of a province provincie province in bosnia and herzegovina a municipality op ina or op tina is part of a canton kanton a subdivision grouped in regions in brazil a municipality munic pio is part of a state estado in canada a municipality is a city town township county or regional municipality which has been incorporated by statute by the legislatures of the provinces and territories of canada it is also a specific designation for certain municipalities in quebec and ontario certain areas of saskatchewan and manitoba are designated as rural municipalities in chile a municipality comuna is part of a province provincia in colombia a municipality municipio is part of a department departamento in croatia a municipality op ina is part of a county upanija in denmark a municipality kommune is part of a county amt in finland a municipality kunta kommun is part of a province l ni l n in france a municipality commune is part of a department d partement in germany a municipality gemeinde is part of a district kreis larger entities of the same level are called towns stadt in greece a municipality is either an urban demoi or rural koinotetes which is then part of a prefecture nomos and then a larger region known as a periphery in italy a municipality comune is part of a province provincia which is part of a region regione in japan any government other than the japanese national government is called a municipality in mexico a municipality municipio is a subdivision of a state estado and a borogh delegaci n is a subdivision of the federal district see municipalities of mexico and boroughs of the mexican federal district in the netherlands a municipality gemeente is part of a province provincie every part of mainland new zealand is part of either a city mostly urban or a district mostly rural the term municipality has become rare in new zealand since about one nine seven nine and has no legal status in norway a municipality kommune is part of a county fylke in the philippines a municipality bayan is part of a province lalawigan and is composed of barangays in poland a municipality gmina is a part of a county powiat in portugal a municipality munic pio is subdivision of a district distritos in puerto rico a municipality municipio is a city each municipality has an elected mayor in romania a municipality municipiu is a town or a city ranked by law at this level see municipality in romania for more information in serbia a municipality op tina is part of a county okrug in south africa municipalities are subdivisions of a province and are ranked by size in descending order metropolitan district local in sweden a municipality kommun is part of a county l n in switzerland a municipality commune gemeinde comune is part of a canton canton kanton cantone and defined by cantonal law in the united states the entities that have status as a municipality vary from state to state cities towns boroughs or villages are common terms for municipalities townships counties and parishes are not generally considered to be municipalities although there are exceptions in some states towns have a non municipal status similar to townships in venezuela a municipality municipio is part of a state as well as a subdivison of the capital district estado first level entities and other forms of municipalities in the people s republic of china a municipality in pinyin zh xi sh is a city with equal status to a province beijing tianjin shanghai and chongqing see municipality of china in the republic of china on taiwan a municipality in wade giles chi hsia shih is a city with equal status to a province taipei and kaohsiung see municipality of china in portugal a municipality munic pio concelho is the primary local administrative unit although it is a part of a district distrito for certain national administrative purposes the municipality is not subordinate to the district and decentralization is doing away with the districts a municipality contains one or more freguesias in puerto rico there are no first order administrative divisions and the municipalities municipio serves as second order but first level administrative divisions in montenegro a municipality op tina is the topmost regional division municipalities of libya some very large in slovenia a municipality ob ina is the primary local administrative unit there are one nine three of them one one of which have a special urban status with additional autonomy in spain a municipality munic pio is the primary local administrative unit it is a part of a province provincia for all national administrative purposes a municipality contains one or more parroquias in the galiza region the municipalities are called concellos see also with lists for countries municipal government mayor council manager government mayor council government special purpose district subnational entity political science muni washington city government political subdivisions of new york state municipal services subnational entities marlon williams born september three zero one nine six two in queens new york city better known as marley marl was an influential hip hop producer he was the house producer of the juice crew which included in addition to him big daddy kane biz markie roxanne shant kool g rap mc shan his cousin and masta ace as well as king tee and ll cool j he was also an important figure in the careers of eric b my melody and eric b is president mixing james brown samples and synthetic beats in a fashion unheard of marley marl was one of the pioneers of sampling in hip hop he debuted as an electro producer but his records became more sample heavy as can be seen if one compares the first two mc shan lps the rhythms became less electronic with drum machines becoming less prominent marl started his career working for tuff city records he debuted with his own track called dj cuttin in one nine eight five released under the pseudonym nyc cutter discography in control volume one one nine eight eight in control volume ii for your steering pleasure one nine nine one re entry two zero zero one compilations house of hits one nine nine five best of cold chillin two zero zero one see also juice crew external links all music guide biography globaldarkness biography one nine six two births living people hip hop producers hot metal work from a blacksmith in chemistry a metal greek metallon is an element that readily forms ions cations and has metallic bonds and metals are sometimes described as a lattice of positive ions cations in a cloud of electrons the metals are one of the three groups of elements as distinguished by their ionisation and bonding properties along with the metalloids and nonmetals on the periodic table a diagonal line drawn from boron b to polonium po separates the metals from the nonmetals elements on this line are metalloids sometimes called semi metals elements to the lower left are metals elements to the upper right are nonmetals nonmetal elements are more abundant in nature than are metallic elements but metals in fact constitute most of the periodic table some well known metals are aluminium copper gold iron lead silver titanium uranium and zinc the allotropes of metals tend to be lustrous ductile malleable and good conductors while nonmetals generally speaking are brittle for solid nonmetals lack luster and are insulators a more modern definition of metals is that they have overlapping conductance and valence bands in their electronic structure this definition opens up the category for metallic polymers and other organic metals which have been made by researchers and employed in high tech devices these synthetic materials often have the characteristic silvery grey reflectiveness of elemental metals the properties of conductivity are mainly because each atom exerts only a loose hold on its outermost electrons valence electrons thus the valence electrons form a sort of sea around the close packed metal nucleii cations most metals are chemically unstable reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over varying timescales e g iron rusts over years potassium burns in seconds the alkali metals react quickest followed by the alkaline earth metals found in the leftmost two groups of the periodic table the transition metals take much longer to oxidise e g iron copper zinc nickel others like palladium platinum and gold do not react with the atmosphere at all some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades e g aluminium some steels titanium painting or anodising metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion alloys an alloy is a mixture with metallic properties that contains at least one metal element examples of alloys are steel iron and carbon brass copper and zinc bronze copper and tin and duralumin aluminium and copper alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications such as jet engines may contain more than ten elements physical properties traditionally metals have certain characteristic physical properties they are usually shiny they have lustre have a high density are ductile and malleable usually have a high melting point are usually hard and conduct electricity and heat well however this is mainly because the low density soft low melting point metals happen to be reactive and we rarely encounter them in their elemental metallic form metals are also sonorous which means that they conduct sound well metal oxides the oxides of metals are basic those of nonmetals are acidic astronomy in the specialised usage of astronomy and astrophysics the term metal is often used to refer to any element other than hydrogen or helium see metal rich see also base metal electric field screening metal working metallic bond precious metal external link live metal prices usd lb condensed matter physics metallic elements metals metalworking numismatics multipurpose internet mail extensions mime is an internet standard for the format of e mail virtually all human written internet e mail and a fairly large proportion of automated e mail is transmitted via smtp in mime format internet e mail is so closely associated with the smtp and mime standards that it is sometimes called smtp mime e mail introduction the basic internet e mail transmission protocol smtp supports only seven bit ascii characters see also eight bitmime this effectively limits internet e mail to messages which when transmitted include only the characters sufficient for writing a small number of languages primarily english other languages based on the latin alphabet typically include diacritics not supported in seven bit ascii meaning text in these languages cannot be correctly represented in basic e mail mime defines mechanisms for sending other kinds of information in e mail including text in languages other than english using character encodings other than ascii as well as eight bit binary content such as files containing images sounds movies and computer programs mime is also a fundamental component of communication protocols such as http which requires that data be transmitted in the context of e mail like messages even though the data may not actually be e mail mapping messages into and out of mime format is typically done automatically by an e mail client or by mail servers when sending or receiving internet smtp mime e mail the basic format of internet e mail is defined in rfc two eight two two which is an updated version of rfc eight two two these standards specify the familiar formats for text e mail headers and body and rules pertaining to commonly used header fields such as to subject from and date mime defines a collection of e mail headers for specifying additional attributes of a message including content type and defines a set of transfer encodings which can be used to represent eight bit binary data using characters from the seven bit ascii character set mime also specifies rules for encoding non ascii characters in e mail message headers such as subject allowing these header fields to contain non english characters mime is extensible its definition includes a method to register new content types and other mime attribute values one of the explicit goals of the mime definition was to not require changes to pre existing e mail servers and to allow plain text e mail to function in both directions with pre existing clients this goal is achieved by allowing all mime message attributes to be optional with default values making a non mime message likely to be interpreted correctly by a mime capable client in addition a simple mime text message is likely to be interpreted correctly by a non mime client although it has e mail headers the non mime client won t know how to interpret mime headers mime version the presence of this header indicates the message is mime formatted the value is typically one zero so this header appears as mime version one zero content type this header indicates the type and subtype of the message content for example content type text plain the combination of type and subtype is generally called a mime type although in modern applications internet media type is the favored term indicating its applicability outside of mime messages a large number of file formats have registered mime types any text type has an additional charset parameter that can be included to indicate the character encoding a very large number of character encodings have registered mime charset names although originally defined for mime e mail the content type header and mime type registry is reused in other internet protocols such as http and sip the mime type registry is managed by iana through the use of the multipart type mime allows messages to have parts arranged in a tree structure where the leaf nodes are any non multipart content type and the non leaf nodes are any of a variety of multipart types this mechanism supports simple text messages using text plain the default value for content type text plus attachments multipart mixed with a text plain part and other non text parts a mime message including an attached file generally indicates the file s original name with the content disposition header so the type of file is indicated both by the mime content type and the usually os specific filename extension reply with original attached multipart mixed with a text plain part and the original message as a message rfc eight two two part alternative content such as a message sent in both plain text and another format such as html multipart alternative with the same content in text plain and text html forms many other message constructs content transfer encoding mime rfc two zero four five defines a set of methods for representing binary data in ascii text format the content transfer encoding mime header indicates the method that has been used the rfc and the iana s list of transfer encodings define the following values which are not case sensitive suitable for use with normal smtp seven bit up to nine nine eight octets per line of the code range one one two seven with cr and lf codes one zero and one three only allowed to appear as part of a crlf line ending this is the default value quoted printable used to encode arbitrary octet sequences into a form that satisfies the rules of seven bit designed to be efficient and mostly human readable when used for text data consisting primarily of us ascii characters but also containing byte values outside that range base six four used to encode arbitrary octet sequences into a form that satisfies the rules of seven bit has a fixed overhead and is intended for non text data and text that is not ascii heavy suitable for use with smtp servers that support the eight bitmime transport smtp extension eight bit up to nine nine eight octets per line cr and lf codes one zero and one three only allowed to appear as part of a crlf line ending not suitable for use with smtp binary any sequence of octets not usable with smtp mail there is no encoding defined which is explicitly designed for sending arbitrary binary data through eight bitmime transports thus base six four or quoted printable with their associated inefficiency must sometimes still be used encoded word since rfc two eight two two message header names and values are always ascii characters values that contain non ascii data must use the mime encoded word syntax rfc two zero four seven instead of a literal string this syntax uses a string of ascii characters indicating both the original character encoding the charset and the content transfer encoding used to map the bytes of the charset into ascii characters the form is charset encoding encoded text charset is often utf eight but may be any character set registered with iana iso two zero two two jp is common in japan iso eight eight five nine one and more recently iso eight eight five nine one five are common in western europe encoding can be either q denoting quoted printable encoding or b denoting base six four encoding encoded text is the quoted printable or base six four encoded text for example subject utf eight q c two a one hola two zero se c three b one or is interpreted as subject hola se or the encoded word format is not used for header names such as subject these header names are always in english in the raw message when viewing a message with a non english e mail client the header names are translated by the client multipart messages a mime multipart message contains a boundary in the content type header this boundary which must not occur in any of the parts is placed between the parts and at the beginning and end of the body of the message as follows content type multipart mixed boundary frontier mime version one zero frontier content type text plain this is the body of the message frontier content type application octet stream content transfer encoding base six four gajwo four n two fy four fv three v seven zd nine awd seven ug eight titp viocxxnnf five mjgqjcipbul one b three uylwavtblop four nv ldiahszlznylaf eight na zero n seven g six oseej seven aqil three nixcfxdspsy six nqjsvv seven seven j four hwejlf agls six ghfju fgrr ox eight qzmi one omr four rujus seven xgoknalqj three hjvaopeb three cflni nine vgzyz six h six zuqbowzznb eight glwpc frontier there are several different types of multipart messages multipart related a multipart related has as its first part its main content all following items should have the mime header content id followed by some unique title often times a url is used as the content id the main part can then reference those items as inline a common technique is to have the main part an html document and use image tags to reference images stored in the latter parts multipart alternative the multipart alternative message is supposed to have the same or similar content in each part has a different content type header the mail client that displays the message then chooses which type is best to display most mail clients choose text html as the default spammers can take advantage of this and fill a text plain part of a multipart alternative message with words that make it sound like a legitimate e mail this is particularly good at fooling bayesian filtering spam filters multipart mixed multipart mixed is used for sending files with different content type headers inline or as attachments if sending pictures or other easily readable files most mail clients will display them inline unless otherwise specified with the content disposition header otherwise it will display them as attachments multipart report this is a message type that contains data formatted for a mail server to read it is split between a text plain or some other content type easily readable and a message delivery status which contains the data formatted for the mail server to read multipart signed a multipart signed message has two parts a body part and a signature part the whole of the body part including mime headers is used to create the signature part there are many signature types are possible like application pgp signature and application x pkcs seven signature multipart encrypted a multipart encrypted message has two parts the first part has control information that is needed to decrypt the application octet stream second part see also soap with attachments dime microsoft proposed a technology called dime which would have streamlined mime primarily for use in web services s mime mailcap unicode and e mail references rfc one eight four seven security multiparts for mime multipart signed and multipart encrypted rfc two zero four five multipurpose internet mail extensions mime part one format of internet message bodies n freed nathaniel borenstein november one nine nine six format txt seven two nine three two bytes obsoletes rfc one five two one rfc one five two two rfc one five nine zero updated by rfc two one eight four rfc two two three one status draft standard rfc two zero four six multipurpose internet mail extensions mime part two media types n freed nathaniel borenstein november one nine nine six format txt one zero five eight five four bytes obsoletes rfc one five two one rfc one five two two rfc one five nine zero updated by rfc two six four six status draft standard rfc two zero four seven mime multipurpose internet mail extensions part three message header extensions for non ascii text k moore november one nine nine six format txt three three two six two bytes obsoletes rfc one five two one rfc one five two two rfc one five nine zero updated by rfc two one eight four rfc two two three one status draft standard rfc two zero four eight multipurpose internet mail extensions mime part four registration procedures n freed j klensin jon postel november one nine nine six format txt four five zero three three bytes obsoletes rfc one five two one rfc one five two two rfc one five nine zero updated by rfc three zero two three also bcp zero zero one three status best current practice rfc two zero four nine multipurpose internet mail extensions mime part five conformance criteria and examples n freed n borenstein november one nine nine six format txt five one two zero seven bytes obsoletes rfc one five two one rfc one five two two rfc one five nine zero status draft standard rfc two three eight seven the mime multipart related content type obsoletes rfc two one one two external links blog tracking internet mail related drafts and standards list of iana registered mime media types list of character sets mime at the debian wiki a more detailed overview of mime ftp ftp rfc editor org in notes rfc two three eight seven txt rfc two three eight seven e mail internet standards mehmed ii by gentile bellini mehmed ii mehmet ii or muhammed ii also known as el fatih the conqueror in ottoman turkish or in modern turkish fatih sultan mehmet march three zero one four three two may three one four eight one arabic was first the sultan of the ottoman empire for a short time from one four four four to one four four six and later from one four five one to one four eight one he was also the first ottoman ruler to claim the title of caesar of the roman empire supreme ruler of all christians besides such usual titles as king sultan ruler of a muslim state khan ruler of turks etc he made this claim after his conquest of constantinople and assumption of that imperial regalia along with his own early reign mehmed was born in edirne then the capital city of the ottoman state on march three zero one four three two his father was sultan murad ii and his mother huma hatun was a daughter of abd allah of hum huma meaning a girl woman from hum when mehmed was one one years old he was sent to amasya to govern and thus gain experience as per the custom of ottoman rulers before his time after murad made peace with the karaman emirate in anatolia in august one four four four he resigned the throne to his one two year old son mehmed during his first reign mehmed asked his father murad to reclaim the throne in anticipation of the battle of varna but murad refused enraged at his father who had long since retired to a contemplative life in southwestern anatolia mehmed wrote if you are the sultan come and lead your armies if i am the sultan i hereby order you to come and lead my armies it was upon this letter that murad led the ottoman army in the battle of varna in one four four four it is said murad s return was forced by chandarli khalil pasha the grand vizier of the time who was not fond of mehmed s rule since mehmed s teacher was influential on him and did not like chandarli chandarli was later executed by mehmed during the siege of constantinople on the grounds that he had been bribed by or had somehow helped the defenders conquest of the byzantine empire two years after reclaiming the throne in one four five one mehmed brought an end to the byzantine empire by capturing its capital during the siege of constantinople after this conquest he conquered the despotate of morea in the peloponnese this last vestige of byzantine rule was absorbed by one four six one the conquest of constantinople bestowed immense glory and prestige on the country the ottoman state began to be recognized as an empire for the first time the historian steven runciman recounts that during the siege of constantinople mehmet promised his men the women and boys of the city upon its conquest he ordered the one four year old son of the grand duke lucas notaras be brought to him for his personal pleasure when the father refused to deliver his son to such a fate he had them both decapitated on the spot runciman the fall of constantinople one four five three cambridge university press one nine six five this story was originally recorded by doukas a byzantine greek living in constantinople at the time of the fall of the city and does not appear in accounts by other greeks who witnessed the conquest some modern scholars believe that the tale is merely one of a long series of attempts to portray muslims as morally inferior and point to the story of saint pelagius as its probable inspiration other explanations for this alleged departure from mehmet s nominal amnesty were that lucas notaras a treasury official had attempted to ingratiate himself with mehmet by retaining money from the byzantine treasury as a gift for the sultan mehmet was neither impressed nor grateful instead suggesting it should have been used for the defense of the city and viewed it as treason conquests in asia the conquest of constantinople allowed mehmed to turn his attention to anatolia mehmed tried to create a single political entity in anatolia by capturing turkish states called beyliks and the christian empire of trebizond in northeastern anatolia and allied himself with the golden horde in the crimea these conquests allowed him to push further into europe conquests in europe with anatolia secure and constantinople as his capital mehmed advanced into europe mehmed thought of himself as the heir to the throne of the roman empire which technically he was after capturing constantinople and as a result adopted the title kayser i r m roman caesar and invaded italy in one four eight zero the intent of his invasion was to capture rome and reunite the roman empire for the first time since seven five one and at first looked like he might be able to do it with the easy capture of otranto in one four eight zero however a rebellion led by a former janissary named skanderbeg in albania between one four four three and one four six eight and later in one four eight zero cut into his military links allowing a massive force led by pope sixtus iv to defeat and evict his army in one four eight one he led successful campaigns against small kingdoms in the balkans mehmed advanced toward eastern europe as far as belgrade and attempted to conquer the city from john hunyadi at the siege of belgrade in one four five six he also came into conflict with his former ally prince vlad iii dracula of wallachia in one four six two in one four seven five the ottomans suffered a defeat at the hands of stephen the great of moldavia at the battle of vaslui administrative actions mehmed amalgated the old byzantine adminsitration into the ottoman state as he gathered italian humanists and greek scholars at his court kept the byzantine church functioning ordered the patriarch to translate the christian faith into turkish and called gentile bellini from venice to paint his portrait he was extremely serious about his efforts to continue the roman empire with him as its caesar and came closer than most people realize to capturing rome and conquering italy he also tried to get muslim scientists and artists to his court in constantinople started a university built mosques waterways and the topkapi palace his reign is also well known for the tolerance with which he treated his subjects especially among the conquered byzantines which was very unusual for europe in the middle ages within the conquered city he established a millet or an autonomous religious community and he appointed the former patriarch as essentially governor of the city however his authority extended only unto the orthodox christians of the city and this excluded the genoese and venetian settlements in the suburbs and excluded the coming muslim and jewish settlers entirely this method allowed for an indirect rule of the christian byzantines and allowed the occupants to feel relatively autonomous even as mehmed began the turkish remodeling of the city eventually turning it into the turkish capital which it remained until the one nine two zero s other facts he is also recognized as the first sultan to codify criminal and constitutional law long before suleyman the magnificent also the lawmaker or kanuni and he thus established the classical image of the autocratic ottoman sultan padishah after the fall of constantinople he founded many universities and colleges in the city some of which are still active it is claimed that he spoke about seven languages when he was two one years old the age he conquered constantinople and early ottoman historians claimed that the prophet of islam praised him with the quote they will conquer kostantinaya hail to the prince and the army to whom that good fortune will be given babinger one nine seven eight p eight five his tomb is located at fatih mosque in istanbul the fatih sultan mehmet bridge is also named after him see also byzantine empire fall of constantinople sultan battle of varna turkey references one four three two births one four eight one deaths sultans of the ottoman empire east west schism country switzerland residence trubbach sui wesley chapel florida usa height five ft seven in one seven zero cm weight one three zero lb five nine kg plays right racket yonex nanospeed rq seven shoes adidas climacool feather ii turned pro one nine nine four retired two zero zero two comeback in two zero zero five highest singles ranking one march three one one nine nine seven singles titles four zero doubles titles three seven prize money us one eight six four five six zero six colspan two bgcolor ffffff grand slam recordsingles titles five australian open w one nine nine seven nine eight nine nine french open f one nine nine seven nine nine wimbledon w one nine nine seven us open w one nine nine seven martina hingis born september three zero one nine eight zero in ko ice czechoslovakia now slovakia is a former world no one ranked woman tennis player from switzerland she has won five grand slam singles titles three australian open one wimbledon and one us open she has also won nine grand slam women s doubles titles and in one nine nine eight captured all four grand slam women s doubles crowns she set a series of youngest ever records before ankle ligament injuries and the necessary surgery in both of her ankles forced her to withdraw from pro tennis at the relatively young age of two two after several surgeries and long recuperarions on november two nine two zero zero five at the age of two five hingis announced that she would return to the wta tour and made her professional comeback on january two two zero zero six at a low key tournament in gold coast australia martina s comeback progressed into the two zero zero six australian open where she won several singles matches to advance to the quarter final and with mahesh bhupathi won her first ever grand slam mixed doubles title childhood swiss miss on the tour and the chuckster by tennis commentator mary carillo who compared her cheshire cat smile and method of dissecting her opponents to the horror movie character quickly won over crowds with her attractive playing style she lacked the outright power of many of her strongest opponents but compensated for this with fluent precise groundstrokes skill at the net and outstanding shot selection her bright bubbly demeanour in public helped make her a favourite with tennis fans hingis was twice rated among fhm magazine s one zero zero sexiest women and her championship doubles partnership with tennis s all time glamour girl anna kournikova two grand slam championships in the late one nine nine zero s and early two zero zero zero s attracted a great deal of attention jestingly they announced that they were the spice girls of tennis grand slam success hingis becomes the youngest grand slam singles winner in the two zero th century by winning the one nine nine seven australian open in one nine nine six hingis became the youngest ever wimbledon champion when she teamed helena sukov to win the women s doubles title aged one five years and nine months she also won her first professional singles title that year at filderstadt germany she reached the singles semi finals at the one nine nine six us open and she lost to steffi graf in a five set final at the year end wta tour championships in january one nine nine seven hingis became the youngest grand slam singles winner in the two zero th century by winning the australian open aged one six years and three months in march she became the youngest ever player to attain the world no one ranking and in july she became the youngest singles champion at wimbledon since lottie dod in one eight eight seven she went on to win the us open title by defeating another up and coming star venus williams in the final the only grand slam singles title she failed to win that year was the french open where she lost in the final to iva majoli in one nine nine eight hingis won all four of the grand slam women s doubles titles the australian open with mirjana lucic and the other three events with jana novotn and she became only the third woman to simultaneously hold the no one ranking in both singles and doubles she also retained her australian open singles title by beating conchita mart nez in straight sets in the final and lost in the final of the us open to lindsay davenport davenport ended an eight zero week stretch hingis had enjoyed as the no one single player in october one nine nine eight but hingis ended the year by beating davenport in the final of the tour championships one nine nine nine saw hingis win her third successive australian open singles crown as well as the doubles title with teammate anna kournikova she then reached the french open final and was three points away from victory in the second set against steffi graf but ended up losing four six seven five six two hingis bounced back from the experience to reach her third consecutive us open final where she lost to serena williams hingis won a total of seven singles titles that year and reclaimed the no one singles ranking she also reached the finals of the chase championships the former wta championships but lost four six two six to lindsay davenport in two zero zero zero martina and mary pierce were runners up in the australian open women s doubles tournament injuries and hiatus from tennis martina hingis receiving treatment for her injured ankle hingis three year stranglehold on the australian open singles title came to an end in two zero zero zero when she lost in the final to lindsay davenport six one seven five though she won no grand slams that year she held on to the no one ranking following nine tournament wins including the tour championships hingis reached her fifth consecutive australian open final in two zero zero one where she lost to jennifer capriati six four six three she briefly ended her coaching relationships with her mother melanie early in the year but had a change of heart two months later just before the french open hingis underwent surgery on her right ankle in october two zero zero one coming back from injury hingis won the australian open doubles final at the start of two zero zero two again teaming with kournikova and reached a sixth straight australian open final in singles again facing capriati but having led by a set and four zero and even having a few match points hingis went on to lose four six seven six six two in may two zero zero two she needed another ankle ligament operation this time on her left ankle after that she continued to struggle with injuries and was never able to recapture her best form her doctors thought that she was able to play and some doubting thomases believed that her losses were more a result of the new power game as played by davenport venus williams serena williams jennifer capriati etc passing her by than any debilitating physical ailments in two zero zero three at the age of two two hingis announced her retirement from tennis after losing her battle with severe ankle problems ligament damage and dwindling results during her career she had won four zero singles titles and three six doubles events she held the world no one singles ranking for a total of two zero nine weeks in two zero zero five tennis magazine put her in two two nd place in its list of four zero greatest players of the tennis era in february two zero zero five hingis made an unsuccessful return to competition at an event in pattaya thailand where she lost to germany s marlene weingartner in the first round after the loss she claimed that she had no further plans to attempt a comeback return to the game hingis resurfaced in july two zero zero five having completed two years of a law degree at oxford she played singles doubles and mixed doubles in world team tennis notching up singles victories over two top one zero zero players she also shut out martina navr tilov in singles competition on july seven with these promising results behind her hingis announced on november two nine her return to the wta tour in two zero zero six hingis at the australian open two zero zero six hingis began her wta comeback in the mondial australian women s hardcourt tournament where she reached the semifinals before losing to then no two three ranked flavia pennetta she also played at the sydney international tournament losing in the opening round to justine henin hardenne in straight sets upon her return hingis had a wta rank of no three four nine hingis made her grand slam comeback debut at the two zero zero six australian open advancing to the quarterfinals with a slew of straight set victories over vera zvonareva emma laine iveta bene ov and samantha stosur she was beaten by then no two ranked kim clijsters in a tough three setter however hingis won the mixed doubles finals with teammate mahesh bhupathi of india this was her first career grand slam mixed doubles title and fifteenth overall five singles nine doubles at the toray pan pacific open in tokyo hingis continued her successful comeback by reaching the final which included a victory over top seed maria sharapova in straight sets before falling to second seeded elena dementieva the run to the final lifted her back to top five zero at no four eight as of february six two zero zero six and she achieved a high to date of no four four as of february two seven two zero zero six list of players hingis has beaten since comeback maria vento kabchi venezuela ranked six two score six two six one kl ra koukalov czech republic ranked three five score six three six two nuria llagostera vives spain ranked five zero score six two four six six zero vera zvonareva russia ranked two nine score six one six two emma laine finland ranked eight five score six one six one iveta bene ov czech republic ranked four two score six four six one samantha stosur australia ranked nine eight score six one seven six eight yoon jeong cho korea ranked six one score six zero six zero nathalie dechy france ranked two one score four six seven five six two maria kirilenko russia ranked two three score six two six one maria sharapova russia ranked four score six three six one sania mirza india ranked three six score six three seven five anastasia myskina russia ranked one two score six four six three mashona washington united states ranked nine four score six one six two francesca schiavone italy ranked one one score six one six two svetlana kuznetsova russia ranked one four score seven six seven six two note her six zero six zero victory over yoon jeong cho marked her fourth double bagel victory list of players hingis has lost to since comeback flavia pennetta italy ranked two three score six one two six seven two six justine henin hardenne belgium ranked eight score three six three six kim clijsters belgium ranked two score three six six two four six elena dementieva russia ranked nine score two six zero six maria sharapova russia ranked four score three six four six amelie mauresmo france ranked two score two six two six quotes one it was probably one russian too many it used to be two williams sisters and a lindsay davenport now there s a whole army of russians in the way toray two zero zero six final post match interview two sometimes it lasts less long because your priorities change or because in your mind the motivation goes physically you can only keep up with everyone for so long players will dominate for one or two years at the most wta ranking current ranking four four as of february two seven th two zero zero six grand slam singles finals wins five runners up seven performance timeline wta tour singles titles four zero external links the martina hingis fan community hingisnews website martina hingis toile du tennis french language one nine eight zero births living people slovak tennis players swiss tennis players australian open champions french open champions wimbledon champions us open champions mass is a property of a physical object that quantifies the amount of matter it contains unlike weight the mass of something stays the same regardless of location it is a central concept of classical mechanics and related subjects there are three different quantities called mass inertial mass is a measure of an object s resistance to changing its state of motion when a force is applied an object with small inertial mass changes its motion more readily and an object with large inertial mass does so less readily passive gravitational mass is a measure of the strength of an object s interaction with the gravitational field within the same gravitational field an object with a smaller passive gravitational mass experiences a smaller force than an object with a larger passive gravitational mass this force is called the weight of the object in informal usage the word weight is often used synonymously with mass because the strength of the gravitational field is roughly constant everywhere on the surface of the earth in physics the two terms are distinct an object will have a larger weight if it is placed in a stronger gravitational field but its passive gravitational mass remains unchanged active gravitational mass is a measure of the strength of the gravitational field due to a particular object for example the gravitational field that one experiences on the moon is weaker than that of the earth because the moon has less active gravitational mass introduction although inertial mass passive gravitational mass and active gravitational mass are conceptually distinct no experiment has ever unambiguously demonstrated any difference between them one of the consequences of the equivalence of inertial mass and passive gravitational mass is the fact famously demonstrated by galileo galilei that objects with different masses fall at the same rate assuming factors like air resistance are negligible the theory of general relativity the most accurate theory of gravitation known to physicists to date rests on the assumption that inertial and passive gravitational mass are completely equivalent this is known as the weak equivalence principle classically active and passive gravitational mass were equivalent as a consequence of newton s third law but a new axiom is required in the context of relativity s reformulation of gravity and mechanics thus standard general relativity also assumes the equivalence of inertial mass and active gravitational mass this equivalence is sometimes called the strong equivalence principle if one were to treat inertial mass m i passive gravitational mass m p and active gravitational mass m a distinctly newton s law of universal gravitation would give as force on the second mass due to the first mass m a two fracm newton s third law of reciprocal actions shows that active and passive mass are proportional as a result they can be defined to be equal units of mass in the si system of units mass is measured in kilograms kg many other units of mass are also employed such as grams g metric tons pounds ounces long and short tons quintals slugs atomic mass units planck masses solar masses and ev c two the ev c two unit is based on the electron volt ev which is normally used as a unit of energy however because of the relativistic connection between rest mass and energy e mc two see below it is possible to use any unit of energy as a unit of mass instead thus in particle physics where mass and energy are often interchanged it is common to use not only ev c two but even simply ev as a unit of mass roughly one seven eight three one zero three six kg because the gravitational acceleration is approximately constant on the surface of the earth a unit like the pound is often used to measure either mass or force e g weight although the pound is officially defined as a unit of force for more information on the different units of mass see orders of magnitude mass inertial mass inertial mass is the mass of an object measured by its resistance to acceleration to understand what the inertial mass of a body is one begins with classical mechanics and newton s laws of motion later on we will see how our classical definition of mass must be altered if we take into consideration the theory of special relativity which is more accurate than classical mechanics however the implications of special relativity will not change the meaning of mass in any essential way according to newton s second law we say that a body has a mass m if at any instant of time it obeys the equation of motion f frac mv where f is the force acting on the body and v is its velocity for the moment we will put aside the question of what force acting on the body actually means now suppose that the mass of the body in question is a constant this assumption known as the conservation of mass rests on the ideas that i mass is a measure of the amount of matter contained in a body and ii matter can never be created or destroyed only split up or recombined these are very reasonable assumptions for everyday objects though as we will see the situation gets more complicated when we take special relativity into account another point to note is that even in classical mechanics it is sometimes useful to treat the mass of an object as changing with time for example the mass of a rocket decreases as the rocket fires however this is an approximation based on ignoring pieces of matter which enter or leave the system in the case of the rocket these pieces correspond to the ejected propellant if we were to measure the total mass of the rocket and its propellant we would find that it is conserved when the mass of a body is constant newton s second law becomes f m frac m a where a denotes the acceleration of the body this equation illustrates how mass relates to the inertia of a body consider two objects with different masses if we apply an identical force to each the object with a bigger mass will experience a smaller acceleration and the object with a smaller mass will experience a bigger acceleration we might say that the larger mass exerts a greater resistance to changing its state of motion in response to the force however this notion of applying identical forces to different objects brings us back to the fact that we have not really defined what a force is we can sidestep this difficulty with the help of newton s third law which states that if one object exerts a force on a second object it will experience an equal and opposite force to be precise suppose we have two objects a and b with constant inertial masses ma and mb we isolate the two objects from all other physical influences so that the only forces present are the force exerted on a by b which we denote fab and the force exerted on b by a which we denote fba as we have seen newton s second law states that f m a a a and f m b a b where aa and ab are the accelerations of a and b respectively suppose that these accelerations are non zero so that the forces between the two objects are non zero this occurs for example if the two objects are in the process of colliding with one another newton s third law then states that f f substituting this into the previous equations we obtain m a frac m b note that our requirement that aa be non zero ensures that the fraction is well defined this is in principle how we would measure the inertial mass of an object we choose a reference object and define its mass mb as say one kilogram then we can measure the mass of every other object in the universe by colliding it with the reference object and measuring the accelerations gravitational mass gravitational mass is the mass of an object measured using the effect of a gravitational field on the object the concept of gravitational mass rests on newton s law of gravitation let us suppose we have two objects a and b separated by a distance r ab the law of gravitation states that if a and b have gravitational masses ma and mb respectively then each object exerts a gravitational force on the other of magnitude f two where g is the universal gravitational constant the above statement may be reformulated in the following way if g is the acceleration of a reference mass at a given location in a gravitational field then the gravitational force on an object with gravitational mass m is f mg this is the basis by which masses are determined by weighing in simple bathroom scales for example the force f is proportionate to the displacement of the spring beneath the weighing pan see hooke s law and the scales are calibrated to take g into account allowing the mass m to be read off note that a balance see the subheading within weighing scale as used in the laboratory or the health club measures mass only the spring scale measures weight equivalence of inertial and gravitational masses the equivalence of inertial and gravitational masses is sometimes referred to as the galilean equivalence principle or weak equivalence principle the most important consequence of this equivalence principle applies to freely falling objects suppose we have an object with inertial and gravitational masses m and m respectively if the only force acting on the object comes from a gravitational field g combining newton s second law and the gravitational law yields the acceleration k frac g this says that the ratio of gravitational to inertial mass of any object is equal to some constant k if and only if all objects fall at the same rate in a given gravitational field this phenomenon is referred to as the universality of free fall in addition the constant k can be taken to be one by defining our units appropriately the first experiments demonstrating the universality of free fall were conducted by galileo it is commonly stated that galileo obtained his results by dropping objects from the leaning tower of pisa but this is unlikely to be true actually he performed his experiments with balls rolling down inclined planes increasingly precise experiments have been performed such as those performed by lor nd e tv s using the torsion balance pendulum in one eight eight nine to date no deviation from universality and thus from galilean equivalence has ever been found more precise experimental efforts are still being carried out it should be noted that the universality of free fall only applies to systems in which gravity is the only force acting all other forces especially friction and air resistance must be absent or at least negligible for example if a hammer and a feather are dropped from the same height we all know that the feather will take much longer to reach the ground this happens because the feather is not really in free fall the force of air resistance on it is about as strong as the force of gravity on the other hand if the experiment is performed in a vacuum where there is no air resistance the hammer and the feather should fall at the same rate and reach the ground together this demonstration was in fact carried out in one nine seven one during the apollo one five moon walk by commander david scott a stronger version of the equivalence principle known as the einstein equivalence principle or the strong equivalence principle lies at the heart of the general theory of relativity einstein s equivalence principle states that it is impossible to distinguish between a uniform acceleration and a uniform gravitational field thus the theory postulates that inertial and gravitational masses are fundamentally the same thing all of the predictions of general relativity such as the curvature of spacetime are ultimately derived from this principle relativistic relation among mass energy and momentum special relativity is a necessary extension of classical physics in particular special relativity succeeds where classical mechanics fails badly in describing objects moving at speeds close to the speed of light in relativistic mechanics the mass m of a free particle is related to its energy e and momentum p by the equation frac m two c two p two where c is the speed of light this is sometimes referred to as the mass energy momentum relation the first thing to notice about this equation is that it can cope with massless objects m zero for which it reduces to e pc in classical mechanics massless objects are an ill defined concept since applying any force to one would produce via newton s second law an infinite acceleration a nonsensical result in relativistic mechanics they are objects that are always traveling at the speed of light an example being light itself in the form of photons the above equation says that the energy carried by a massless object is directly proportional to its momentum let us now consider objects with non zero mass for these the quantity m has a simple physical meaning it is the inertial mass of the object as measured in its rest frame the frame of reference in which its velocity is zero note massless objects do not possess a rest frame they are moving at the speed of light in any frame of reference the way we would measure m is exactly the same as in classical mechanics which we described above bouncing it off a reference object and measuring the accelerations as long as the velocity of each object remains much smaller than the speed of light during this procedure relativistic corrections to classical mechanics will be utterly negligible in the rest frame the velocity is zero and thus so is the momentum p the mass energy momentum relation thus reduces to e mc two which states that the energy of an object as measured in its rest frame its rest energy is equal to its mass times the square of the speed of light some books follow this up by stating that mass and energy are equivalent but this is somewhat misleading the mass of an object as we have defined it is a quantity intrinsic to the object and independent of our current frame of reference the energy e on the other hand varies with the frame of reference if the frame is moving at a high velocity relative to the object e will be very large simply because the object has a lot of kinetic energy in that frame thus e mc two is not a good relativistic statement it is true only in the rest frame of the object some authors define a quantity known as the relativistic mass which is basically the quantity e c two this makes the equivalence of mass and energy true by definition though neither quantity is frame independent relativistic mass was used in many early writings on relativity and it is still used in books for laymen as well as introductory physics classes however the concept is downplayed or discouraged by many physicists nowadays for reasons explained in the article on mass in special relativity following the modern usage whenever we refer to mass in this article we always mean the rest mass unless otherwise identified having defined the mass of an object let us look at how it behaves when not at rest we can arrange the mass energy momentum relation in the following way e mc two sqrt right two when the momentum p is much smaller than mc we can taylor expand the square root with the result e mc two cdots the leading term which is the largest is of course the rest energy the object always has this minimum amount of energy regardless of its momentum the second term is the classical expression for the kinetic energy of the particle and the higher order terms are basically relativistic corrections for the kinetic energy for a macroscopic object the rest energy mc two includes the thermal energy which depends on the temperature of the object and is related to the random motion of the atoms or molecules of which the object is composed this contribution is usually much smaller than the total rest energy but often bigger than the kinetic energy for example if two objects stick together after a collision between them the total kinetic energy of the objects is not conserved and a significant part of it is transformed into thermal energy so their mass increases by a tiny amount similarly metabolism fire and other exothermic chemical processes convert mass to energy however the mass change is usually negligible more significant changes of the rest energy occur in processes that split or combine subatomic particles the reason is that mass as we have defined it is not conserved during such processes the simplest example is the process of electron positron annihilation in which an electron and a positron annihilate each other to produce a pair of photons the electron and positron both have non zero mass but the photons are massless other examples include nuclear fusion and nuclear fission energy unlike mass is always conserved in special relativity so roughly speaking what is happening in these reactions is that the rest energy of the reactants is being transformed into the kinetic energy of the reaction products the fact that rest energy can be liberated in this way is one of the most important predictions of special relativity references r v e tv s et al ann phys leipzig six eight one one one nine two two see also density higgs boson mass in special relativity orders of magnitude mass planck units volume weight external links usenet physics faq does mass change with velocity does light have mass mass energy the law of the inertia of energy and the speed of the gravity see chapter three the energy has mass dialog use and abuse of the concept of mass from spacetime physics by edwin f taylor and john a wheeler photons clocks gravity and the concept of mass by l b okun the apollo one five hammer feather drop physical chemistry classical mechanics mass mark can refer to the following name mark given name marks a surname bible gospel of mark one of the books of the bible mark the evangelist the supposed author of this book mark of the beast a sign or number mentioned in the book of revelation measurement and currency mark weight an archaic european unit of weight whose use for precious metal gave rise to the currencies mark money a unit of currency in various countries german mark or deutsche mark the currency of west germany and germany from one nine four eight until one nine nine nine east german mark or ostmark the currency of the german democratic republic german gold mark the currency of the german empire from one eight seven three until one nine one four german papiermark the currency of germany from one nine one four until one nine two three german rentenmark the currency of germany from one nine two three until one nine two four german reichsmark the currency of germany from one nine two four until one nine four eight estonian mark the currency of estonia until one nine two seven markka or finnish mark the former currency of finland bosnia and herzegovina convertible mark the currency of bosnia and herzegovina geography marks mississippi a town in the united states mark municipality a municipality in westrogothia sweden mark hundred a former hundred an administrative division in westrogothia sweden mark county a former state in westphalia part of the holy roman empire marches or a mark or march also called a margravate a border territory of a country mainly used in the holy roman empire the mark brandenburg or the mark for short an area in germany formerly a mark of the holy roman empire the mark of britain an obsolete name for brittany mark dintel a river in the netherlands and belgium mark dender or marcq a village and a river in belgium mark somerset a village in the united kingdom marcq several towns in belgium and france literature and legend mark of cornwall a king of cornwall in arthurian legend the mark colloquial name for the fictional land of the riddermark rohan in j r r tolkien s the lord of the rings the name was probably taken from the meaning borderland technology mark computing a delimiter at the beginning or end of a transmission sequence mark frequency in radio transmission sport to mark in football soccer association football is to have a player follow an opposing striker or other prominent player and attempt to prevent them getting control of the ball and or scoring a mark australian football is a clean catch from a kick by another player in australian football resulting in a free kick in rugby union a player can only make the mark when they catch a high ball inside their own two two metre or in goal area as they catch the ball they shout mark at the top of their voice if they catch the ball cleanly the referee will give that player a free kick on the spot where they caught the ball a mark in sailing is a permanent or temporary buoy that marks the course in a yacht race it is illegal for a boat to touch any mark on the racecourse other uses mark victim the victim of a con game or an assassination mark professional wrestling a professional wrestling fan who believes what they see is legitimate mark in law short for trademark or service mark mark the sign an illiterate signatory of legal documents can make in place of a written signature usually in the form of an x mark a grade education awarded to students work used especially in commonwealth english markka image one markka one nine nine four front jpgimage one markka one nine nine four back jpg one markka coin one nine nine four the markka or mark was the currency used in finland from one eight six zero until january one one nine nine nine in practice on january one two zero zero two when it was replaced by the euro the currency code used for the markka was fim and the usual familiar notation was a postfix mk it was divided into one zero zero penni the conversion for one euro was five nine four five seven three markkaa the finnish plural forms strictly speaking partitive singular forms of the words markka and penni are markkaa and penni history one markka banknote from one eight six zero the markka was introduced in one eight six zero as a quarter of the russian ruble in one eight six five the markka was separated from the russian ruble and tied to the value of silver after finland gained independence in one nine one seven the bank of finland was founded and the markka was reintroduced as an independent currency backed by gold the gold standard was abolished in one nine four zero and the markka suffered heavy inflation during the war years in one nine six three the markka was replaced by the new markka equivalent to one zero zero old units the name markka was based on a medieval unit of weight both markka and penni are loanwords based on the same roots as the german mark and pfennig although the word markka predates the currency by several centuries the currency was established before being named markka a competition was held for its name and some of the other entries included sataikko meaning having a hundred parts omena apple and suomo from suomi the finnish name for finland during the history of the finnish markka spanning over one four zero years two eight coins denominated in markka have been minted the pictorial subjects have changed over the years but they have all been distinctly finnish the finnish markka is now history when finland changed its currency to the euro in one nine nine nine markka coins and notes were not withdrawn from circulation until two zero zero two portraits in banknotes this section covers the last design series of the finnish markka designed in the one nine eight zero s by finnish designer erik bruun and issued in one nine eight six one zero markkaa blue paavo nurmi one eight nine seven one nine seven three athlete and olympic winner note discontinued upon introduction of the two zero markkaa note two zero markkaa blue green v in linna one nine two zero one nine nine two author and novelist note introduced in one nine nine three five zero markkaa brown alvar aalto one eight nine eight one nine seven six architect one zero zero markkaa green jean sibelius one eight six five one nine five seven composer five zero zero markkaa red elias l nnrot one eight zero two one eight eight four historian one zero zero zero markkaa blue purple anders chydenius one seven two nine one eight zero three priest and statesman the series also included a preliminary design for a five zero zero zero markkaa red purple note depicting priest and linguist mikael agricola but the note was never officially introduced into use earlier banknotes the second to last banknote design series designed by tapio wirkkala was introduced in one nine five five and revised in the reform of one nine six three it was the first series to depict actual specific persons these included juho kusti paasikivi on the one zero markkaa note j v snellman on the one zero zero markkaa note and urho kekkonen on the five zero zero markkaa note introduced later unlike erik bruun s series this series did not depict any other real life subjects but only abstract ornaments in addition to the person depictions a popular joke at the time was to cover all but the right hand side of paasikivi s face on the one zero markkaa note ending up with something resembling a mouse said to be the only animal illustration in the entire series the still older notes designed by eliel saarinen were introduced in one nine two two they also depicted humans but these were generic men and women and did not represent any specific persons the fact that these men and women were depicted nude caused a minor controversy at the time coins the last series of finnish markka coins included five coins one zero penni silver coloured a honeycomb on the reverse and a lily of the valley flower on the obverse five zero penni silver coloured haircap moss on the reverse and a bear on the obverse one markka copper coloured the finnish coat of arms on the obverse five markkaa copper coloured a lily pad leaf and a dragonfly on the reverse and a saimaa seal on the obverse one zero markkaa two metal coin copper coloured centre and silver coloured edge rowan tree branches and berries on the reverse and a wood grouse on the obverse see also scandinavian monetary union euro external links overview of markka from the bbc historical finnish banknotes and coins at the bank of finland pictures of banknotes chronology of finnish history history of the finnish markka one eight six zero two zero zero two economy of finland currencies replaced by the euro manganese is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol mn and atomic number two five notable characteristics manganese is a gray white metal resembling iron it is a hard metal and is very brittle fusible with difficulty but easily oxidized manganese metal is ferromagnetic only after special treatment the most common oxidation states of manganese are two three four six and seven though oxidation states from one to seven are observed mn two often competes with mg two in biological systems and manganese compounds where manganese is in oxidation state seven are powerful oxidizing agents applications manganite a manganese oxide manganese is essential to iron and steel production by virtue of its sulfur fixing deoxidizing and alloying properties steelmaking including its ironmaking component has accounted for most manganese demand presently in the range of eight five to nine zero of the total demand among a variety of other uses manganese is a key component of low cost stainless steel formulations and certain widely used aluminium alloys it is also added to gasoline in order to reduce engine knocking manganese iv oxide manganese dioxide is used in the original type of dry cell battery manganese dioxide is also used as a catalyst manganese is used to decolorize glass removing the greenish tinge that presence of iron produces and in higher concentration make violet colored glass manganese oxide is a brown pigment that can be used to make paint and is a component of natural umber potassium permanganate is a potent oxidizer and used in chemistry and in medicine as a disinfectant manganese phosphating is used for rust and corrosion preventation on steel it is very occasionally used in coins the only united states coins to use manganese were the wartime nickel from one nine four two one nine four five and the sacagawea dollar two zero zero zero present the overall level and nature of manganese use in the united states is expected to remain about the same in the near term no practical technologies exist for replacing manganese with other materials or for using domestic deposits or other accumulations to reduce the complete dependence of the united states on other countries for manganese ore substitutes manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major applications in minor applications e g manganese phosphating zinc and sometimes vanadium are viable substitutes history manganese latin magnes meaning magnet was in use in prehistoric times paints that were pigmented with manganese dioxide can be traced back one seven zero zero zero years the egyptians and romans used manganese compounds in glass making to either remove color from glass or add color to it manganese can be found in the iron ores used by the spartans some speculate that the exceptional hardness of spartan steels derives from the inadvertent production of an iron manganese alloy in the one seven th century german chemist johann glauber first produced permanganate a useful laboratory reagent although some people believe that it was discovered by ignites kaim in one seven seven zero by the mid one eight th century manganese dioxide was in use in the manufacture of chlorine the swedish chemist scheele was the first to recognize that manganese was an element and his colleague johan gottlieb gahn isolated the pure element in one seven seven four by reduction of the dioxide with carbon around the beginning of the one nine th century scientists began exploring the use of manganese in steelmaking with patents being granted for its use at the time in one eight one six it was noted that adding manganese to iron made it harder without making it any more brittle in one eight three seven british academic couper noted an association between heavy exposure to manganese in mines with a form of parkinson s disease in one nine one two manganese phosphating electrochemical conversion coatings for protecting firearms against rust and corrosion were patented in the united states and have seen widespread use ever since biological role manganese is an essential trace nutrient in all forms of life the classes of enzymes that have manganese cofactors are very broad and include such classes as oxidoreductases transferases hydrolases lyases isomerases ligases lectins and integrins the best known manganese containing polypeptides may be arginase mn containing superoxide dismutase and the diphtheria toxin occurrence manganese ore manganese occurs principally as pyrolusite mno two and to a lesser extent as rhodochrosite mnco three land based resources are large but irregularly distributed those of the united states are very low grade and have potentially high extraction costs south africa and ukraine account for more than eight zero of the world s identified resources south africa accounts for more than eight zero of the total exclusive of china and ukraine us import sources one nine nine eight two zero zero one manganese ore gabon seven zero south africa one zero australia nine mexico five and other six ferromanganese south africa four seven france two two mexico eight australia eight and other one five manganese contained in all manganese imports south africa three one gabon two one australia one three mexico eight and other two seven manganese is mined in burkina faso and gabon vast quantities of manganese exist in manganese nodules on the ocean floor attempts to find economically viable methods of harvesting manganese nodules were abandoned in the one nine seven zero s compounds potassium permanganate also called condy s crystals is a commonly used laboratory reagent because of its oxidizing properties and finds use as a topical medicine for example in the treatment of fish diseases manganese iv oxide manganese dioxide is used in dry cells and can be used to decolorize glass that is polluted by trace amounts of iron manganese compounds can color glass an amethyst color and are responsible for the color of true amethyst manganese dioxide is also used in the manufacture of oxygen and chlorine and in drying black paints the most stable oxidation state for manganese is two and many manganese ii compounds are known such as manganese ii sulfate mnso four and manganese ii chloride mncl two this oxidation state is also seen in the mineral rhodochrosite manganese ii carbonate the three oxidation state is also known in compounds such as manganese iii acetate but these are quite powerful oxidising agents isotopes naturally occurring manganese is composed of one stable isotope five five mn one eight radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being five three mn with a half life of three seven million years five four mn with a half life of three one two three days and five two mn with a half life of five five nine one days all of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lives that are less than three hours and the majority of these have half lives that are less than one minute this element also has three meta states manganese is part of the iron group of elements which are thought to be synthesized in large stars shortly before supernova explosion manganese five three decays to five three cr with a half life of three seven million years because of its relatively short half life five three mn is an extinct radionuclide manganese isotopic contents are typically combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology and radiometric dating mn cr isotopic ratios reinforce the evidence from two six al and one zero seven pd for the early history of the solar system variations in five three cr five two cr and mn cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an initial five three mn five five mn ratio that suggests mn cr isotopic systematics must result from in situ decay of five three mn in differentiated planetary bodies hence five three mn provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the solar system the isotopes of manganese range in atomic weight from four six amu four six mn to six five amu six five mn the primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope five five mn is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay precautions manganese in excess is toxic exposure to manganese dusts and fumes should not exceed the ceiling value of five mg m three for even short periods because of its toxicity level acidic permanganate solutions will oxidize any organic material they come into contact with the oxidation process can generate enough heat to ignite some organic substances in two zero zero five a study suggested a possible link between manganese inhalation and central nervous system toxicity in rats it is hypothesized that long term exposure to the naturally occurring manganese in shower water puts up to eight seven million americans at risk a form of parkinson s disease type neurodegeneration called manganism has been linked to manganese exposure since the early one nine th century allegations of inhalation induced manganism have been made regarding the welding industry listed on the hazardous substance list manganese is regulated by osha due to its high level of toxicity see also parkerize potassium permanganate magnet chemical element periodic table references los alamos national laboratory manganese external links national pollutant inventory manganese and compounds fact sheet webelements com manganese international manganese institute parkinson s disease and manganese neurotoxicity of inhaled manganese public health danger in the shower welder s disease chemical elements transition metals molybdenum is a chemical element in the periodic table its symbol is mo and its atomic number four two notable characteristics molybdenum is a transition metal the pure metal is silvery white in color and very hard and has one of the highest melting points of all pure elements in small quantities molybdenum is effective at hardening steel molybdenum is important in plant nutrition and is found in certain enzymes including xanthine oxidase molybdenum prices have increased from a low of about two pound in two zero zero zero to about four zero pound in two zero zero five applications over two three of all molybdenum is used in alloys molybdenum use soared during world war i when demand for tungsten wolfram made tungsten scarce and high strength steels were at a premium molybdenum is used to this day in high strength alloys and in high temperature steels special molybdenum containing alloys such as the hastelloys are notably heat resistant and corrosion resistant molybdenum is used in oil pipelines aircraft and missile parts and in filaments molybdenum finds use as a catalyst in the petroleum industry especially in catalysts for removing organic sulfurs from petroleum products mo nine nine is used in the nuclear isotope industry molybdenum oranges are pigments ranging from red yellow to a bright red orange and used in paints inks plastics and rubber compounds molybdenum disulfide is a good lubricant especially at high temperatures molybdenum is also used in some electronic applications as the conductive metal layers in thin film transistors tfts history molybdenum from the greek molybdos meaning lead like is not found free in nature and the compounds that can be found were until the late one eight th century confused with compounds of other elements such as carbon or lead in one seven seven eight carl wilhelm scheele was able to determine that molybdenum was separate from graphite and lead and isolated the oxide of the metal from molybdenite in one seven eight two hjelm isolated an impure extract of the metal by reducing the oxide with carbon molybdenum was little used and remained in the laboratory until the late one nine th century subsequently a french company schneider and co tried molybdenum as an alloying agent in steel armor plate and noted its useful properties occurrence though molybdenum is found in such minerals as wulfenite pbmoo four or powellite camoo four the main commercial source of molybdenum is molybdenite mos two molybdenum is mined directly and is also recovered as a byproduct of copper mining molybdenum is present in ores from zero zero one to about zero five about half of the world s molybdenum is mined in the united states with phelps dodge corporation being a primary provider the russian luna two four mission discovered a single grain one x zero six m of pure molybdenum in a pyroxene fragment taken from mare crisium on the moon biological role molybdenum has been found to have a role in the biology of all classes of organisms it is found in two groups of enzymes the nitrogenases and the molybdopterins the nitrogenases are found in bacteria and are involved in the pathways of nitrogen fixation the bacteria may be found inside plants the molybdenum atom is present in a cluster see cluster chemistry which includes iron and sulfur atoms the name molybdopterin is misleading as the group of enzymes includes tungsten containing enzymes and the word molybdopterin does not actually refer to the metal atom the group may also be referred to as the mononuclear molybdenum enzymes as the metal atom is not present in a cluster this group of enzymes are involved in a variety of processes as part of the global sulfur nitrogen and carbon cycles and generally involve an oxygen atom transfer as part of the process there is a trace requirement for molybdenum in plants and soils can be barren due to molybdenum deficiencies plants and animals generally have molybdenum present in amounts of a few parts per million in animals molybdenum is a cofactor of the enzyme xanthine oxidase which is involved in the pathways of purine degradation and formation of uric acid in some animals adding a small amount of dietary molybdenum enhances growth francis crick suggested that since molybdenum is an essential trace element that plays an important role in many enzymatic reactions despite being less abundant than the more common elements such as chromium and nickel that perhaps this fact is indictative of panspermia crick theorized that if it could be shown that the elements represented in terrestrial living organisms corelate closely with those that are abundant in some class of star molybdenum stars for example that this would provide evidence of such directed panspermia isotopes molybdenum has six stable isotopes and almost two dozen radioisotopes the vast majority of which have half lives measured in seconds mo nine nine is used in sorpation generators to create tc nine nine for the nuclear isotope industry the market for mo nine nine products is estimated to be on the order of us one zero zero million per year precautions molybdenum dusts and molybdenum compounds such as molybdenum trioxide and water soluble molybdates may have slight toxicities if inhaled or ingested orally laboratory tests suggest compared to many heavy metals that molybdenum is of relatively low toxicity acute toxicity in humans is unlikely because the dose required would be exceptionally large there is the potential for molybdenum exposure in mining and refining operations as well as the chemical industry but to date no instance of harm from this exposure has been reported though water soluble molybdenum compounds can have a slight toxicity those that are insoluble such as the lubricant molybdenum disulfide are considered to be non toxic however environmental chains of events can end in serious molybdenum related health consequences in one nine nine six an increase in acid rain near uppsala sweden caused a depletion in the natural foods of moose in nearby rural areas this caused the moose to venture into the fields of oat farmers who had been heavily liming their soil to compensate for the effect of the acid the lime caused changes to the levels of cadmium and other trace metals in the soil causing the oat crops to uptake trace molybdenum in large quantities ingestion of the oats by hundreds of moose brought on a severe disturbance in the ratio of molybdenum to copper in their livers which caused emaciation hair discoloration ulcers diarrhea convulsions blindness osteoporosis and finally heart failure osha regulations specify maximum molybdenum exposure in an eight hour day four zero hour week to be one five milligrams per cubic meter niosh recommends exposure limit of five zero zero zero mg per cubic meter toxicity in animals in ruminants the molybdenum toxicity occurs if the animals are let to graze on soil rich in molybdenum but deficient in copper the molybdenum causes excretion of copper reserves from the animal and cause copper deficiency in young calves the molybdenum toxicity is manifested as teart or shooting diarrhoea where the dung is watery full of air bubbles and with a fetid odor in pig and sheep molybdenum toxicity combined with copper deficiency can lead to a condition called sway back or paralysis of hind quarters in black coated animals the toxicity of this metal is characterized by depigmentation of the skin surrounding the eyes which is often referred to as spectacled eyes references los alamos national laboratory molybdenum external links webelements com molybdenum international molybdenum association environmental data chemical elements transition metals this article is about minerals in the geologic sense for nutrient minerals see dietary mineral for the band see mineral band minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes the term mineral encompasses not only the material s chemical composition but also the mineral s structure minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms organic compounds are usually excluded the study of minerals is called mineralogy an assortment of minerals photo from us geological survey mineral definition and classification to be classified as a true mineral a substance must be a solid and have a crystal structure it must also be an inorganic naturally occurring homogeneous substance with a defined chemical composition the chemical composition may vary between end members of a mineral system for example the plagioclase feldspars comprise a continuous series from sodium rich albite naalsi three o eight to calcium rich anorthite caal two si two o eight with four recognized intermediate compositions between mineral like substances that don t strictly meet the definition are sometimes classified as mineraloids other natural occurring substances are nonminerals industrial minerals is a commercial term and refers to commercially valuable mined materials see also minerals and rocks section below a crystal structure is the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a mineral there are one four basic crystal lattice arrangements of atoms in three dimensions in the six crystal systems and all crystal structures currently recognized fit in one of these one four arrangements this crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic or ionic arrangement that is often visible as the mineral form even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped the crystal structure can be determined by x ray analysis and or optical microscopy chemistry and crystal structure define together a mineral in fact two or more minerals may have the same chemical composition but differ in crystal structure these are known as polymorphs for example pyrite and marcasite are both iron sulfide similarly some minerals have different chemical compositions but the same crystal structure for example halite made from sodium and chlorine galena made from lead and sulfur and periclase made from magnesium and oxygen all share the same cubic crystal structure crystal structure greatly influences a mineral s physical properties for example though diamond and graphite have the same composition both are pure carbon graphite is very soft while diamond is the hardest of all known minerals there are currently just over four zero zero zero known minerals according to the international mineralogical association which is responsible for the approval of and naming of new mineral species found in nature minerals and rocks a mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and a crystalline structure a rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals a rock may also include organic remains the specific minerals in a rock can vary a lot some minerals like quartz mica or feldspar are common while others have been found in only one or two locations worldwide over half of the mineral species known are so rare that they have only been found in a handful of samples and many are known from only one or two small grains commercially valuable minerals and rocks are refered to as industrial minerals physical properties of minerals classifying minerals can range from simple to very difficult a mineral can be identified by several physical properties some of them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation in other cases minerals can only be classified by more complex chemical or x ray diffraction analysis these methods however can be costly time consuming and even risk damaging the sample physical properties commonly used are crystal structure and habit see the above discussion of crystal structure a mineral may show good crystal habit or form or it may be massive granular or compact with only microscopically visible crystals hardness the physical hardness of a mineral is usually measured according to the mohs scale of mineral hardness luster indicates the way a mineral s surface interacts with light and can range from dull to glassy vitreous color indicates the appearance of the mineral in reflected light or transmitted light for translucent minerals i e what it looks like to the naked eye streak refers to the color of the powder a mineral leaves after rubbing it on an unglazed porcelain streak plate cleavage describes the way a mineral may come apart or cleave in different ways in thin section cleavage is visible as thin parallel lines across a mineral fracture describes how a mineral breaks when broken contrary to its natural cleavage planes specific gravity relates the mineral mass to the mass of an equal volume of water namely the density of the material other properties fluorescence response to ultraviolet light magnetism radioactivity tenacity response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form and reactivity to dilute acids chemical properties of minerals minerals may be classified according to chemical composition they are here categorized by anion group the list below is in approximate order of their abundance in the earth s crust the list follows the dana classification system silicate class the largest group of minerals by far are the silicates which are composed largely of silicon and oxygen with the addition of ions such as aluminium magnesium iron and calcium some important rock forming silicates include the feldspars quartz olivines pyroxenes amphiboles garnets and micas carbonate class the carbonate minerals consist of those minerals containing the anion co three two and include calcite and aragonite both calcium carbonate dolomite magnesium calcium carbonate and siderite iron carbonate carbonates are commonly deposited in marine settings when the shells of dead planktonic life settle and accumulate on the sea floor carbonates are also found in evaporitic settings e g the great salt lake utah and also in karst regions where the dissolution and reprecipitation of carbonates leads to the formation of caves stalactites and stalagmites the carbonate class also includes the nitrate and borate minerals sulfate class sulfates all contain the sulfate anion in the form so four two sulfates commonly form in evaporitic settings where highly saline waters slowly evaporate allowing the formation of both sulfates and halides at the water sediment interface sulfates also occur in hydrothermal vein systems as gangue minerals along with sulfide ore minerals another occurrence is as secondary oxidation products of original sulfide minerals common sulfates include anhydrite calcium sulfate celestite strontium sulfate barite barium sulfate and gypsum hydrated calcium sulfate the sulfate class also includes the chromate molybdate selenate sulfite tellurate and tungstate minerals halide class the halides are the group of minerals forming the natural salts and include fluorite calcium fluoride halite sodium chloride sylvite potassium chloride and sal ammoniac ammonium chloride halides like sulfates are commonly found in evaporitic settings such as playa lakes and landlocked seas such as the dead sea and great salt lake the halide class includes the fluoride chloride and iodide minerals oxide class oxides are extremely important in mining as they form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be extracted they commonly occur as precipitates close to the earth s surface oxidation products of other minerals in the near surface weathering zone and as accessory minerals in igneous rocks of the crust and mantle common oxides include hematite iron oxide magnetite iron oxide chromite chromium oxide spinel magnesium aluminium oxide a common component of the mantle rutile titanium dioxide and ice hydrogen oxide the oxide class includes the oxide and the hydroxide minerals sulfide class many sulfides are economically important as metal ores common sulfides include pyrite iron sulfide commonly known as fools gold chalcopyrite copper iron sulfide and galena lead sulfide the sulfide class also includes the selenides the tellurides the arsenides the antimonides the bismuthinides and the sulfosalts sulfur and a second anion such as arsenic phosphate class the phosphate mineral group actually includes any mineral with a tetrahedral unit ao four where a can be phosphorus antimony arsenic or vanadium by far the most common phosphate is apatite which is an important biological mineral found in teeth and bones of many animals the phosphate class includes the phosphate arsenate vanadate and antimonate minerals element class the elemental group includes metals and intermetallic elements gold silver copper semi metals and non metals antimony bismuth graphite sulfur this group also includes natural alloys such as electrum a natural alloy of gold and silver phosphides silicides nitrides and carbides which are usually only found naturally in a few rare meteorites see also a list of minerals with associated wikipedia articles a comprehensive list of minerals industrial minerals mineral water water containing minerals or other dissolved substances that alter its taste or give it therapeutic value mineral wool mining norman l bowen quarry dietary mineral external links mineral gallery minerals net mindat org mineral database webmineral com a directory of on line databases related to mineralogy and crystallography references photo glossary of volcano terms from the usgs volcano hazards program geology mineralogy minerals for glass metal or ceramic toys see marbles marble is a metamorphic rock resulting from the metamorphism of limestone composed mostly of calcite a crystalline form of calcium carbonate caco three it is extensively used for sculpture as a building material and in many other applications the word marble is colloquially used to refer to many other stones that are capable of taking a high polish faux marble or faux marbling is a wall painting technique that imitates the color patterns of real marble not to be confused with paper marbling marble dust can be combined with cement or synthetic resins to make reconstituted or cultured marble places named after the stone include marble hill manhattan new york the sea of marmara india s marble rocks and the towns of marble minnesota marble colorado and marble arch london the elgin marbles are marble sculptures from the parthenon that are on display in the british museum they were brought to britain by the earl of elgin marble origins marble is a metamorphic rock resulting from regional or at times contact metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks either limestone or dolostone this metamorphic process causes a complete recrystallization of the original rock into an interlocking mosaic of calcite and or dolomite crystals the temperatures and pressures necessary to form marble usually destroy any fossils and sedimentary textures present in the original rock pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of very pure limestones the characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay silt sand iron oxides or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally high magnesium limestone or dolostone with silica impurities these various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism kinds of marble natural patterns on the polished surface of landscape marble can resemble a city skyline or even trees blocks of cut marble at the historic quarry in marble colorado some historically important kinds of marble named after the locations of their quarries include paros from greece penteli from greece carrara from italy proconnesus from turkey macael from spain danby from vermont white marbles like carrara have been prized for sculpture since classical times this preference has to do with the softness and relative isotropy and homogeneity and a relative resistance to shattering also the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate several millimeters into the stone before being scattered out resulting in the characteristic waxy look which gives life to marble sculptures of the human body construction marble in the construction trade the term marble is used for any massive crystalline calcitic rock and some non calcitic rocks useful as building stone for example tennessee marble is really a massive highly fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon ordovician dolostone known as the holston formation by geologists industrial use of marble colorless marbles are a very pure source of calcium carbonate which is used in a wide variety of industries finely ground marble powder is a component in paints toothpaste plastics and used in many other trades the corporation omya with quarries throughout the world extracts and processes much of the marble used for these purposes etymology the word marble derives from the greek marmaros shining stone oed this stem is also the basis for the english word marmoreal meaning marble like cultural associations as the favorite medium for greek and roman sculptors and architects marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material and are often imitated e g in background patterns for computer displays in folklore marble is associated with the astrological sign of gemini pure white marble is an emblem of purity it is also an emblem of immortality and an ensurer of success in education see also three marble patterns available in a graphics program the gimp list of minerals building material limestone travertine alabaster granite sandstone marble sculpture marquetry inlaying with marble and other stones faux marbling painting surfaces to look like marble scagliola imitating marble with plasterwork cultured marble marble powder with a binder paper marbling external links tips for cleaning marble marblemaster cleaning and restoration advice calcite limestone and marble by kelly snyder and peter russel marble institute of america a trade organization geology types and history learning to carve by marc levoy art materials metamorphic rocks stone manufacturing consent movie poster manufacturing consent noam chomsky and the media one nine nine two is a documentary film that explores the political life and ideas of noam chomsky world renowned linguist intellectual and political activist created by two canadian independent filmmakers mark achbar and peter wintonick it expands on the ideas of chomsky s earlier book manufacturing consent the political economy of the mass media which he co wrote with edward s herman the film argues that corporate media as profit driven institutions tend to serve and further the agendas of the interests of dominant elite groups in the society a centerpiece of the film is a long examination into the history of the new york times s coverage of indonesia s invasion and occupation of east timor which chomsky claims exemplifies the media s unwillingness to criticize an ally companion book mark achbar edited a companion book of the same name it features a copy of the script annotated with excerpts from referenced and relevant materials as well as several comments from chomsky interspersed throughout a resource guide explains how to get involved one eight philosophy all star baseball cards as seen in the film are also included the book made the national bestseller list in canada the first half of the book hyperlinked to the relevant portions of the film s audio is available online from z magazine see also propaganda model concentration of media ownership external links official website zeitgeist films us distributor page for the film manufacturing consent first half of the companion book with corresponding audio from the film in realaudio format first half of the film s audio mp three the corporation official website one nine nine two films documentary films criticism of journalism munich and the bavarian alps munich german m nchen pronounced image ltspkr png listen is the largest city and capital of the german federal state of bavaria munich is germany s third largest city and one of europe s most prosperous cities the city has a population of about one three million as of two zero zero five and the munich metropolitan area is home to around three million people the city is located on the river isar north of the bavarian alps the city s motto was die weltstadt mit herz the world city with a heart for a long time and has been recently replaced by m nchen mag dich munich likes you the figure on munich s coat of arms is a monk referred to as the m nchner kindl the child of munich history the city was founded next to an already existing settlement of monks munichen latin monacum monachium by the welf henry the lion duke of saxony and bavaria the village grew around st peter church next to a bridge that henry initially built over the river isar to force traders to use his bridge and of course charge them for doing so he destroyed a nearby bridge owned by bishop otto von freising freising therefore the bishop and henry quarreled about the city before the emperor at a imperial diet held in augsburg in one one five eight henry s spoliation was finally sanctioned with a yearly compensation for the bishop munich s trading and currency rights were confirmed by emperor frederick i barbarossa almost two decades later in one one seven five munich was granted city status and fortified in one one eight zero with the trial of henry the lion otto i wittelsbach became duke of bavaria and munich was handed over to the bishop of freising otto s heirs the wittelsbach dynasty would rule bavaria until one nine one eight in one two four zero munich itself was transferred to otto ii wittelsbach and in one two five five when the dukedom of bavaria was split in two munich became the ducal residence of upper bavaria duke louis iv was elected german king in one three one four and crowned as holy roman emperor in one three two eight munich was his residence he strengthened her position by granting the city the salt monopoly thus assuring her of additional income in one three two seven most of the city was destroyed by a fire but was rebuilt extended and protected with a new fortification some years later since the citizenry several times revolted against the dukes a new castle was built close to the fortification from one three eight five onwards in the late one five th century munich went to a time of revival of gothic arts the old town hall was enlarged and a new frauenkirche constructed from one four six eight onwards within only twenty years the cathedral has become a symbol for the city with its two brick onion topped towers when bavaria was reunited in one five zero six munich became capital of the whole of bavaria the arts and the policy were more and more dominated by the court during the one six th century munich was a center of german counter reformation but also of renaissance arts duke wilhelm v created the hofbr uhaus for brewing brown beer in one five eight nine in one six two three during the thirty years war munich became electoral residence when maximilian i duke of bavaria was invested with the electoral dignity but in one six three two the city was occupied by gustav ii adolph of sweden when the bubonic plague broke out in one six three four and one six three five about one third of the population died after the war was ended munich became quickly a center of baroque life the baroque theatinerkirche on odeonsplatz in the historic city centre in one seven zero five during the war of the spanish succession it was under the control of the habsburg family for some years since maximilian ii emanuel elector of bavaria made a pact with france the occupation was leading to bloody uprisings of the people against the austrian imperial troops the coronation of his son elector charles albert as emperor karl vii in one seven four two led to another habsburg occupation the city s first academic institution the bavarian academy of sciences was founded in one seven five nine by maximilian iii joseph from one seven eight nine onwards when the old medieval fortification was demolished the english garden was arranged it is one of the world s largest urban public parks by that time the city was growing very quickly and was one of the largest cities in continental europe in one eight zero six it became the capital of the new kingdom of bavaria with the state s parliament the landtag and the new archdiocese of munich and freising being located in the city twenty years later landshut university was moved to munich the glyptothek on k nigsplatz many of the city s finest buildings belong to this period and were built under the reign of the king ludwig i these neoclassical buildings include the ruhmeshalle with the bavaria statue by ludwig michael von schwanthaler and those on the magnificent ludwigstra e and the k nigsplatz built by the architects leo von klenze and friedrich von g rtner under king max ii the maximilianstra e was constructed in perpendicular style in one eight three nine the first railway line and in one eight seven six the tram were opened the technical university of munich was founded in one eight six eight in one eight eight two electric lighting was introduced to the country munich and the city hosted germany s first exhibition of electricity and in one nine three zero the first ever electrical television was showcased at the deutsches museum founded in one nine zero three in munich on isar river inventors like alois senefelder joseph von fraunhofer carl von linde and rudolf diesel worked in munich and the young albert einstein attended the luitpold gymnasium in one nine zero one the hellabrunn zoo opened in the city the decades before world war i were a period of economic and cultural rising munich especially schwabing became the domicile of many artists and writers thomas mann wrote about this period munich shone der blaue reiter the blue rider a group of expressionist artists established in munich in one nine one one in one nine one six during air raids three french bombs fall on munich after world war i the city was at the center of much unrest in november one nine one eight on the eve of revolution ludwig iii and his family fled munich after the murder of the first republican premier of bavaria kurt eisner in february one nine one nine communists took power establishing the bavarian soviet republic m nchner r terepublik which was put down already on may three one nine one nine by the militarist freikorps many of whom were later drawn to adolf hitler and national socialism in one nine two three hitler and his supporters who then were concentrated in munich staged the beer hall putsch an attempt to overthrow the weimar republic and seize power but the revolt failed resulting in hitler s arrest and the temporary crippling of the nazi party which was virtually unknown outside munich however the city would once again become a nazi stronghold when they took power in germany in one nine three three because of its importance to the rise of nazism the nazis called it hauptstadt der bewegung capital of the movement the nsdap headquarters were in munich and many f hrerbauten f hrer buildings were built around the k nigsplatz some of which have survived to this day in one nine three eight the munich agreement was signed in the city ceding the mostly german speaking sudetenland previously a part of czechoslovakia since the end of wwi to germany it was signed by representatives of germany italy france and britain one year later in one nine three nine georg elser failed with his attempt to assassinate hitler while the latter was giving his annual speech to commemorate the beer hall putsch in the b rgerbr ukeller in munich munich was the city where the white rose german die wei e rose a group of students that formed a resistance movement from june one nine four two to february one nine four three was based the core members were arrested following a distribution of leaflets in munich university by hans and sophie scholl the city was very heavily damaged by allied bombing during world war ii the city was hit by seven one air raids over a period of five years after american occupation in one nine four five munich was completely rebuilt following a meticulous and by comparison to other war ravaged german cities a rather conservative plan which preserved its pre war street grid munich s olympiapark from bigfoto munich was the site of the one nine seven two summer olympics during which israeli athletes were assassinated by palestinian terrorists see munich massacre where terrorist gunmen from the palestinian black september group took hostage members of the israeli olympic team a rescue attempt by the west german government was unsuccessful and resulted in the deaths of the israeli hostages five of the terrorists and one german police officer several games of the one nine seven four world cup were also held in the city it was the stage of the german triumph against the netherlands in a legendary final in two zero zero six it will again be host to several games including the opening match of the next fifa two zero zero six world cup in one nine nine two munich s new airport was inaugurated and the inauguration of the neue messe the new exhibition centre on the site of the former airport of riem took place in one nine nine eight the current roman catholic pope benedict xvi joseph ratzinger was ordained a priest in the archdiocese of munich and freising on june two nine one nine five one ratzinger served as archbishop of munich from one nine seven seven to one nine eight two main sights and culture munich frauenkirche and town hall steeple munich is a popular tourist destination and has been described as germany s secret capital center of the city is the marienplatz named after the mariens ule a marian column in its centre with the old and the new townhall its tower contains as attraction the rathaus glockenspiel an ornate clock with almost life sized moving figures that show scenes from a medieval jousting tournament as well as a performance of the famous sch fflertanz roughly translated barrel makers dance the peterskirche is the oldest church of the inner city founded already in the romanesque period around this church munich grew already as a settlements of monks before the city was officially founded in one one five eight the frauenkirche dom zu unserer lieben frau cathedral of our lady is the most famous building in the city center this is munich s central cathedral and is famous for the brass onion domes that top the twin towers the domes were added in the one six th century not matching the gothic style of the building and thus giving it a somewhat peculiar style mix the original design asked for pointed towers like the dome of cologne but those where never built for lack of money at first glance the two towers appear to be the same height but in actual fact one is slightly taller than the other unlike most buildings in munich s old town the towers of the frauenkirche but not the church itself survived the war intact making them more than five zero zero years old the frauenkirche s towers nine nine meters or three two five feet are also the measurement for a new rule which limits the height of new buildings to the same height in the city this rule was passed in november two zero zero four by the people of munich in a referendum organized by georg kronawitter a former spd mayor against the will of the political parties in the city s parliament stadtrat who feared that it would harm the city s attractiveness to investors three gates of the demolished medieval fortification have survived until today the isartor the sendlinger tor and finally the karlstor at stachus a grand square dominated by the palace of justice also the alter hof a medieval castle and first residence of the wittelsbach dukes in munich still exists hofgarten nearby the residenz the michaelskirche is the largest renaissance church north of the alps the theatinerkirche is a basilica in italianate high baroque which had a major influence on southern german baroque architecture the asamkirche was endowed and built by the brothers asam pioneering artists of the rococo period st michael in berg am laim was built almost simultaneously by johann michael fischer and might be the most remarkable church out of the inner city among the baroque and neoclassical mansions which still exist in munich is the palais holnstein the residence of the archbishop of munich and freising with the residenz munich owns one of europe s most significant interior decoration museums the palace was built in one three eight five and gradually expanded and contains also the treasury and the splendid rococo cuvilli s theatre many operas were staged here including the premiere of mozart s idomeneo in one seven eight one munich national theatre munich citizens also enjoy a world renown neo classical opera house the national theatre where several operas of richard wagner had premiere under the patronage of ludwig ii of bavaria this theatre is today the home of the bavarian state opera the modern gasteig center at the river isar houses the munich philharmonic orchestra the third orchestra in munich with international importance is the bavarian radio symphony orchestra four grand royal avenues of the one nine th century with magnificent official buildings remind on the kingdom of bavaria the brienner strasse with the k nigsplatz next to the kunstareal the neoclassical ludwigstrasse with the ludwig maximilian university the maximilianstrasse with the parliament and finally the prinzregentenstrasse two large baroque palaces with grand parks remind on bavaria s monarchy as well schlo nymphenburg nymphenburg palace and schlo schlei heim schleissheim palace the city has several important art museums most of them can be found in the kunstareal as the alte pinakothek the neue pinakothek and the pinakothek der moderne before world war i it was also the site of the blaue reiter group of artists many of which can be seen at the lenbachhaus a profound collection of greek and roman art is provided by the glyptothek and the staatliche antikensammlung the state museum of ethnology is the second largest in germany of artifacts and objects from outside europe the bavarian national museum is one of europe s major art and cultural history museums other famous tourist attractions include the deutsches museum germany s largest science museum and the english garden englischer garten a garden park roughly in the center of the city that contains a nudist area jogging tracks and bridle paths the olympic park with its stadium was built for the one nine seven two summer olympics which were held in munich the olympic buildings are famous for their design which was inspired by dew covered cobwebs visitors can be elevated on top of the olympic tower olympiaturm which is also an important radio and tv broadcasting tower the two zero zero six world cup however will not take place in the traditional olympic stadium but in munich s new football stadium the allianz arena nearby the oldest church within the city borders hl kreuz with a romanesque fresco oktoberfest two zero zero three perhaps munich s most famous attraction is the oktoberfest a two week long fair with many rides and several very large tents the oktoberfest was first held october one two one eight one zero in honor of the marriage of crown prince ludwig to princess therese von sachsen hildburghausen the festivities were closed with a horse race and in the following years the horse races were continued and later developed into what is now known as the oktoberfest despite its name oktoberfest actually begins in september it lasts two weeks and always finishes on the first sunday in october unless the german national holiday on three october tag der deutschen einheit day of german unity is a monday or tuesday then the oktoberfest still opens for these days bmw headquarters building one of the few buildings that have been built from the top to the bottom and the bowl shaped bmw museum other k nigsplatz hofbr uhaus dallmayr bmw headquarters arabella high rise building around munich lying on the plain of the voralpenland the munich agglomeration sprawls unhindered by geography several smaller traditional bavarian cities are today part of the munich suburbia and are worth a visit when the main munich sights are exhausted dachau erding f rstenfeldbruck freising garching bei m nchen starnberg economy munich is one of the centers of the new german economy as a center for biotechnology software and other service industries the city is home to the global headquarters of german insurance companies allianz and munich re the car manufacturer bmw the truck manufacturer man nutzfahrzeuge the aircraft engine manufacturer mtu aero engines the manufacturer of desktop monitors nec displays the technology firms siemens and infineon technologies as well as the german headquarters of mcdonald s and microsoft lufthansa has opened a second hub at munich s franz josef strauss international airport in addition to this munich is home to many publishing houses second only to new york city the s ddeutsche zeitung one of the largest german language daily newspapers is published in munich lifestyle residents of munich enjoy a high quality of life mercer hr consulting consistently rates the city among the top one zero cities with highest quality of life worldwide the two zero zero five survey ranked munich as five th munich enjoys a thriving economy principally information technology biotechnology and publishing environmental pollution is low although currently the city is concerned about levels of fine dust in the air the public transport is extremely efficient although delays on the s bahn commuter train often cause frustration during extreme winter weather the crime rate is very low this high quality of life and safety has caused the city to be nicknamed toytown amongst some of the english speaking residents nightlife is thriving there are over six zero zero zero licensed establishments in the city cafe culture is strong in munich especially during the summer there are many restaurants accommodating all preferences of cuisine and possibly the most important free time activity during the summer the beer gardens there are around two zero major beer gardens with four of the most famous and popular being located in the englischer garten one of the largest city parks in the world politics munich s current mayor is christian ude of the spd social democratic party of germany munich has a nearly unbroken history of spd governments since world war ii this is extraordinary because the rest of bavaria is a conservative stronghold with the csu christian social union winning absolute majorities among the bavarian electorate in nearly all elections at the communal state and federal levels see also list of mayors of munich transportation public transport network franz josef strauss international airport iata muc icao eddm is the main airport in munich the airport can be reached by suburban train lines s one and s eight munich has a large public transport system including subways suburban trains trams and buses for its population munich has one of the most comprehensive systems in the world the local transportation is supervised by the munich transport and tariff association m nchner verkehrs und tarifverbund from two eight may two zero zero six on munich will be connected to nuremberg via ingolstadt by a three zero zero km h high speed railway line sports clubs bayern munich tsv one eight six zero munich spvgg unterhaching not really a club from munich as unterhaching is a rural town of its own munich irish rovers fc colleges and universities ludwig maximilians universit t m nchen lmu founded in one four seven two in ingolstadt moved to munich in one eight two six technical university of munich tum founded in one eight six eight munich university of applied sciences fhm founded in one nine seven one universit t der bundeswehr m nchen founded in one nine seven three hochschule f r musik und theater m nchen founded in one eight three zero akademie der bildenden k nste m nchen founded in one eight zero eight hochschule f r fernsehen und film founded in one nine six six hochschule f r philosophie m nchen founded in one nine two five in pullach moved to munich in one nine seven one hochschule f r politik m nchen katholische stiftungsfachhochschule m nchen founded in one nine seven one munich business school mbs european school of management and technology esmt max planck institute for physics werner heisenberg institute fraunhofer institute twin cities bordeaux since one nine six four cincinnati since one nine eight nine edinburgh since one nine five four harare since one nine nine six kiev since one nine eight nine sapporo since one nine seven two verona since one nine six zero see also eurovision song contest one nine eight three munich post external links muenchen de the city s own website oktoberfest official website information in both english and german lonely planet guide to munich toytown munich an english language community website for munich in your pocket an english language city guide to munich munich travel guide insights from a local citizen photos of munich sights daily life oktoberfest etc munich city panoramas views and virtual tours eurovision host cities german state capitals host cities of the summer olympic games munich cities in bavaria monotremes monos single trema hole refers to the cloaca are mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth to live young like marsupials metatheria and placental mammals eutheria the subclass comprises a single order monotremata though sometimes the subclass prototheria is used general characteristics like other mammals monotremes are warm blooded with high metabolic rates though not as high as other mammals see below have hair on their bodies produce milk to feed their young have a single bone in their lower jaw and have three middle ear bones though this feature is now thought to have evolved independently in monotremes see below monotremes were very poorly understood for many years and to this day some of the one nine th century myths that grew up around them endure it is still sometimes thought for example that the monotremes are inferior or quasi reptilian and that they are a distant ancestor of the superior placental mammals it now seems plain that modern monotremes are the survivors of an early branching of the mammal tree a later branching is thought to have led to the marsupial and placental groups similarly it is still sometimes said that monotremes have less developed internal temperature control mechanisms than other mammals but more recent research shows that monotremes maintain a constant body temperature in a wide variety of circumstances without difficulty such as the platypus which can maintain its body temperature even while living in an icy mountain stream early researchers were misled by two factors monotremes maintain a lower average temperature than most mammals around nine zero f three two c compared to about nine five f three five c for marsupials and one zero zero f three eight c for most placentals secondly the short beaked echidna which is much easier to study than the reclusive platypus only maintains normal temperature when it is active during cold weather it conserves energy by switching off its temperature regulation platypus physiology the key physiological difference between monotremes and other mammals is the one that gave them their name monotreme means single opening in greek and comes from the fact that their urinary defecatory and reproductive systems all open into a single duct the cloaca this structure is very similar to the one found in reptiles in contrast to the single cloaca of monotremes other mammal females have separate openings for reproduction urination and defecation the vagina the urethra and the anus monotremes lay eggs however the egg is retained for some time within the mother who actively provides the egg with nutrients monotremes also lactate but have no defined nipples excreting the milk via their skin all species are long lived with low rates of reproduction and relatively prolonged parental care of infants living monotremes lack teeth as adults fossil forms and modern platypus young have the tribosphenic three cusped molars which are one of the hallmarks of mammals however recent work suggests that monotremes acquired this form of molar independently of placental mammals and marsupials luo et al two zero zero one the jaw of monotremes is constructed somewhat differently from that of other mammals and the jaw opening muscle is different as in all true mammals the tiny bones that conduct sound to the inner ear are fully incorporated into the skull rather than lying in the jaw as in cynodonts and other pre mammalian synapsids however this feature too is now claimed to have evolved independently in monotremes and therians rich et al two zero zero five however the external opening of the ear still lies at the base of the jaw the monotremes also have extra bones in the shoulder girdle including an interclavicle which are not found in other mammals monotremes retain a reptile like gait with legs that are on the sides of rather than underneath the body the monotreme leg bears a spur in the ankle region the spur is non functional in echidnas but contains a powerful venom in the male platypus their metabolic rate is remarkably low by mammalian standards although the extent to which this is a characteristic of monotremes as opposed to an adaptation on the part of the small number of surviving species to harsh environmental conditions is uncertain taxonomy the only surviving examples of monotremes are all indigenous to australia and new guinea although there is evidence that they were once more widespread fossils of a jaw fragment one one zero million years old were found at lightning ridge new south wales these fragments from species steropodon galmani are the oldest known fossils of monotremes fossils from the genera kollikodon teinolophos and obdurodon have also been discovered in one nine nine one a fossil tooth of a six one million year old platypus was found in southern argentina since named monotrematum though it is now considered to be an obdurodon species see fossil monotremes below order monotremata family ornithorhynchidae platypus genus ornithorhyncus platypus ornithorhyncus anatinus family tachyglossidae echidnas genus tachyglossus short beaked echidna tachyglossus aculeatus genus zaglossus western long beaked echidna zaglossus brujinii sir david s long beaked echidna zaglossus attenboroughi eastern long beaked echidna zaglossus bartoni fossil monotremes excepting ornithorhynchus anatinus all the animals listed in this section are extinct family kollikodontidae genus kollikodon species kollikodon ritchiei ancient monotreme one zero eight nine six million years old family ornithorhynchidae genus ornithorhynchus oldest ornithorhynchus specimen four five million years old species ornithorhyncus anatinus platypus oldest specimen one zero zero zero zero zero years old genus obdurodon includes a number of miocene five two four million years ago platypuses species obdurodon dicksoni species obdurodon insignis species monotrematum sudamericanum six one million years old originally placed in separate genus now thought an obdurodon family tachyglossidae genus zaglossus upper pleistocene one one eight million years ago species zaglossus hacketti species zaglossus robustus family steropodontidae may be part of ornithorhynchidae closely related to modern platypus genus steropodon species steropodon galmani genus teinolophos species teinolophos trusleri one two three million years old oldest monotreme specimen references and external links luo z x cifelli r l kielan jaworowska z two zero zero one dual origin of tribosphenic mammals nature four zero nine five three five seven rich t h hopson j a musser a m flannery t f vickers rich p two zero zero five independent origins of middle ear bones in monotremes and therians science three zero seven nine one zero nine one four university of tasmania s monotreme web site ucmp introduction to monotremes http www paleoportal org fossil gallery taxon php taxon id nine four monotremes millsaps college is a private liberal arts college in jackson mississippi supported by the united methodist church the college was founded by a confederate veteran major reuben webster millsaps in one eight eight nine nine zero by the donation of the college s land and five zero zero zero zero dr william b murrah was the college s first president and bishop charles b galloway of the united methodist church organized the college s early fundraising efforts both men now have halls named after them major millsaps and his wife are both interred in a tomb on campus dr frances lucas millsaps current president was named to her position in two zero zero zero and is the one zero th person to hold the millsaps position of president she is the first female president of millsaps in the college s history millsaps college image millsapscrest jpg millsaps college motto ad excellentiam president frances lucas school type private religious affiliation methodist founded one eight nine zero location jackson mississippi enrollment one zero eight six undergraduate six zero graduate one one four six total faculty nine two full time faculty campus surroundings urban campus size one zero three acres four one seven zero zero zero m mascot the millsaps major academics despite its religious affiliation the curriculum is secular this has been a source of criticism among many mississippians who see millsaps as an extremely liberal school all students have a writing intensive core curriculum they must complete to graduate which includes a writing portfolio that is to be completed before a student can finish their sophomore year millsaps offers b s b a b b a and m b a degrees and corresponding programs millsaps sends large numbers of graduates to graduate schools law school and medical school the current undergraduate population is around one one zero zero students on one zero three acres four one seven zero zero zero m of campus in downtown jackson mississippi the student to faculty ratio is one two one with the average class size being one five students millsaps offers two eight academic majors and has one nine different academic departments approximately nine nine of the professors on the tenure track have the highest degree in their field the college offers research partnerships for undergraduate students along with a variety of study abroad programs millsaps reports that four five of their student body comes from outside mississippi a large portion of the out of state students are from neighboring louisiana the college also offers the continuing education program and the community enrichment series for adults in the jackson area campus the millsaps campus is situated close to downtown jackson it is bordered by woodrow wilson avenue to the north north state street to the east west street to the west and marshall street to the south situated in the center of the campus is the bowl where many campus events take place throughout the year including homecoming activities concerts the multicultural festival and commencement activities adjacent to the bowl is the campbell college center renovated in two zero zero zero which contains the campus bookstore post office cafeteria and student life offices also in this central section of campus are the gertrude c ford academic complex olin science hall sullivan harrell hall and the millsaps wilson library the north part of campus is dominated by the hall activities center commonly known as the hac the school s sports fields and the freshman dormitories on the far northwestern end of campus is the james observatory currently the oldest building on campus operational since one nine zero one the observatory underwent major renovations in one nine eight zero upperclassmen dormitories are located on the south side of campus which also includes fraternity row and the christian center originally constructed as a memorial to honor former students and graduates of millsaps who died in service during world war ii the christian center currently houses the campus auditorium and departments of performing arts history and religious studies between the christian center and murrah hall which houses the else school of management is the tomb of major millsaps and the m bench erected by the classes of one nine two six one nine two seven and one nine two eight the nicholson garden was recently put in place to improve the aesthetics of the m bench area statistics as of two zero zero five enrollment one zero six four average gpa three five two average sat one one eight three average act two six student to faculty ratio one two one rankings and distinctions millsaps is ranked as number eight one on u s news to hell with milsaps sic on the millsaps observatory the football rivalry resumed in two zero zero zero as the backyard brawl with games at mississippi veterans memorial stadium the rivalry took a one year hiatus in two zero zero four but will resume in two zero zero five there has also been an effort to develop a rivalry with naia belhaven college whose campus is less than a mile to the east of millsaps organizations the school is home to six different fraternities alpha phi alpha kappa alpha order kappa sigma sigma alpha epsilon pi kappa alpha and lambda chi alpha as well as six sororities delta delta delta kappa delta phi mu chi omega alpha kappa alpha and delta sigma theta notable alumni distinguished alums include claude passeau a all star pitcher in major league baseball during the one nine four zero s actor michael beck author ellen gilchrist noted historian david herbert donald and general louis h wilson a decorated war veteran who served as commandant of the marine corps important dates in millsaps history one nine zero one millsaps builds the first golf course in mississippi one nine zero two mary letitia holloman becomes the first female graduate of millsaps one nine zero eight sing ung zung of soochow china becomes the first international student to graduate from millsaps one nine one four old main one of the first buildings on campus burns and is replaced by murrah hall one nine one six major millsaps dies and is buried on campus one nine three one the first night football game in mississippi is played on the millsaps campus between the majors and mississippi a m now mississippi state university one nine four three johnny carson comes to millsaps for basic training entertaining his comrades with a magic and humor act one nine five three dean martin and jerry lewis judge a millsaps beauty contest one nine six five millsaps becomes the first college in the south to voluntarily desegregate one nine eight eight millsaps initiates the first campus chapter of habitat for humanity in mississippi one nine eight nine millsaps becomes the first school in mississippi to have a chapter of phi beta kappa honorary list of presidents of millsaps william belton murrah one eight nine zero one nine one zero david carlisle hull one nine one zero one nine one two dr alexander farrar watkins one nine one two one nine two three dr david martin key one nine two three one nine three eight dr marion lofton smith one nine three eight one nine five two dr homer ellis finger jr one nine five two one nine six four dr benjamin barnes graves one nine six five one nine seven zero dr edward mcdaniel collins jr one nine seven zero one nine seven eight dr george marion harmon one nine seven eight two zero zero zero dr frances lucas two zero zero zero current external links millsaps college liberal arts colleges universities and colleges in mississippi universities and colleges affiliated with the united methodist church mississippi is a southern state of the united states the state takes its name from the mississippi river which flows along the western boundary the name itself comes from either the ojibwe a native american language spoken around the river s headwaters or some other closely related algonquian language meaning great river other nicknames attached to mississippi are the magnolia state and the hospitality state history main article history of mississippi mississippi was part of the mississippian culture in the early part of the second millennium ad descendant native american tribes include the chickasaw and choctaw other tribes who inhabited the territory of mississippi and gave their names to local towns include the natchez the yazoo and the biloxi the first expedition into the territory that became mississippi was that of hernando de soto who passed through in one five four zero however the first settlement was that of ocean springs or old biloxi settled by pierre le moyne d iberville in one six nine nine in one seven one six natchez was founded on the mississippi river as fort rosalie it became the dominant town and trading post of the area after spending some time under spanish british and french nominal jurisdiction the mississippi area was deeded to the british after the french and indian war under the terms of the treaty of paris the mississippi territory was organized on april seven one seven nine eight from territory ceded by georgia and south carolina it was later twice expanded to include disputed territory claimed by both the u s and spain land was purchased generally through unequal treaties from native american tribes from one eight zero zero to about one eight three zero mississippi was the two zero th state admitted to the union on december one zero one eight one seven when cotton was king during the one eight five zero s mississippi plantation owners especially those of the delta and black belt regions became increasingly wealthy due to the high fertility of the soil and the high price of cotton on the international market the severe wealth imbalances and the necessity of large scale slave populations to sustain such income played a heavy role in both state politics and in the support for secession mississippi was the second state to secede from the union as one of the confederate states of america on january nine one eight six one during the civil war the confederate states were defeated under the terms of reconstruction mississippi was readmitted to the union on february two three one eight seven zero mississippi was considered to typify the deep south during the era of jim crow a series of increasingly restrictive racial segregation laws enacted during the first part of the two zero th century resulted in the emigration of almost half a million people three quarters of them black in the one nine four zero s however at the same time mississippi became a center of rich quintessentially american music traditions gospel music jazz music blues and rock and roll all were invented promulgated or heavily developed by mississippi musicians mississippi was also noted for its authors in the early twentieth century especially william faulkner and tennessee williams mississippi was a center of the american civil rights movement while many in the state supported the effort to secure voting and other rights for african americans the vocal opposition of many politicians and officials and the violent tactics of ku klux klan members and sympathizers gave mississippi a reputation as a reactionary state during the one nine six zero s the state was the last to repeal prohibition and to ratify the thirteenth amendment which abolished slavery in one nine six six and one nine nine five respectively on august one seven one nine six nine category five hurricane camille hit the mississippi coast killing two four eight people and causing us one five billion in damage one nine six nine dollars in recent years mississippi has been noted for its political conservatism improved civil rights record and increasing industrialization in addition a decision in one nine nine zero to legalize riverboat gambling has led to economic gains for the state however an estimated five zero zero zero zero zero per day in tax revenue was lost following hurricane katrina s severe damage to several riverboat casinos in august two zero zero five gambling towns in mississippi include the gulf coast towns of gulfport and biloxi and the river towns of tunica greenville vicksburg and natchez before hurricane katrina struck the gulf coast mississippi was the second largest gambling state in the union ahead of new jersey and behind nevada on august two nine two zero zero five hurricane katrina caused even greater destruction across the entire nine zero miles of mississippi gulf coast from louisiana to alabama on october one seven two zero zero five governor haley barbour signed a bill into law that now allows casinos in hancock and harrison counties to rebuild on land but within eight zero zero feet of the water the only exception is in harrison county where the new law states that casinos can be built to the southern boundary of u s highway nine zero the old capitol in jackson served as the capitol building from one eight three nine until its replacement in one nine zero three law and government after the civil war mistreatment of southerners during reconstruction by the federally appointed republican governors led to considerable resentment toward the republican party as a result mississippi s state government had a very long unbroken record of single party dominance for one one six years from one eight seven six to one nine nine two mississippians only elected democratic governors for most of that time period democrats also held the majority of seats in the state legislature which they still do not to mention most other elected offices including the state s federal representation although some republicans began to win congressional elections in the one nine seven zero s as with all other u s states and the federal government mississippi s government is based on the separation of legislative executive and judicial power executive authority in the state rests with the governor currently haley barbour republican the lieutenant governor currently amy tuck originally elected as a democrat she switched to the republican party in two zero zero two is elected on a separate ballot both the governor and lieutenant governor are elected to four year terms of office unlike the federal government but like many other u s states most of the heads of major executive departments are elected by the citizens of mississippi rather than appointed by the governor see list of governors of mississippi see list of lt governors of mississippi see list of state treasurers of mississippi see mississippi general election results two zero zero three legislative authority resides in the state legislature composed of the senate and house of representatives the lieutenant governor presides over the senate while the house of representatives selects their own speaker the state constitution permits the legislature to establish by law the number of senators and representatives up to a maximum of five two senators and one two two representatives current state law sets the number of senators at five two and representatives at one two two the term of office for senators and representatives is four years see list of state legislatures of the united states greetings from mississippi supreme judicial authority rests with the state supreme court which has statewide authority in addition there is a statewide court of appeals as well as circuit courts chancery courts and justice courts which have more limited geographical jurisdiction the nine judges of the supreme court are elected from three districts three judges per district by the state s citizens in non partisan elections to eight year staggered terms the ten judges of the court of appeals are elected from five districts two judges per district for eight year staggered terms judges for the smaller courts are elected to four year terms by the state s citizens who live within that court s jurisdiction at the federal level mississippi s two u s senators are trent lott republican and thad cochran republican as of the two zero zero one reapportionment the state has four congressmen in the u s house of representatives see list of united states representatives from mississippi mississippi has eight two counties citizens of mississippi counties elect the five members of their county board of supervisors from single member districts as well as other county officials see list of mississippi counties mississippi is an alcoholic beverage control state economics fishing boats in biloxi the bureau of economic analysis estimates that mississippi s total state product in two zero zero three was seven two billion per capita personal income in two zero zero three was two three four six six five one st in the nation ranking includes the district of columbia mississippi s rank as the poorest state can be traced to the civil war before the civil war mississippi was the fifth wealthiest state in the nation the war cost the state three zero zero zero zero men plantation owners who survived the war were virtually bankrupted by the emancipation of slaves and union troops left widespread destruction in their wake demographics population as of two zero zero five mississippi has an estimated population of two nine two one zero eight eight which is an increase of two zero three two zero or zero seven from the prior year and an increase of seven six four three two or two seven since the year two zero zero zero this includes a natural increase since the last census of eight zero seven three three people that is two two eight eight four nine births minus one four eight one one six deaths and an increase due to net migration of seven five people into the state immigration from outside the united states resulted in a net increase of one zero six five three people and migration within the country produced a net loss of one zero five seven eight people the two zero zero zero census reported mississippi s population as two eight four four six five eight racial makeup and ancestry the census bureau considers race and hispanic origin to be two separate categories this data however is only for non hispanic members of each group non hispanic whites non hispanic blacks etc for more information on race and the census see here two zero zero zero census two zero zero three estimate white six zero seven six zero zero black three six two three six eight hispanic one four one five asian zero seven zero eight two or more races zero five zero six native american and inuit zero four zero four native hawaiian and other pacific islander zero zero two zero zero two until about one nine four zero blacks made up a majority of mississippians their share of the population has since declined but has in recent years begun to increase due mainly to a younger black age structure caused by a relatively high black birthrate although this has subsided somewhat in recent years in mississippi s public school system the majority of students are black blacks currently predominate in the northwestern yazoo delta the southwestern and central parts of the state nearly one zero zero zero zero native americans mostly choctaw live in the east central section of the state the small chinese population found in the delta is descended from farm laborers brought there from california in the one eight seven zero s the chinese did not adjust well to the mississippi plantation system however and most of them became small merchants the coastal fishing industry has attracted southeast asian refugees more than nine eight of the white population of mississippi is native born predominantly of northern european descent according to the two zero zero zero census the largest ancestries are american one four two irish six nine english six one german four five and italian people one four two there is also to a lesser extent french population however french creoles are the largest demographic group in hancock county on the gulf coast the black choctaw in neshoba county and chinese segments of the population are also almost entirely native born religion mississippi s religious affiliations principally consist of evangelical protestant denominations particularly the baptists southern baptist missionary baptist etc along with methodists and presbyterians the small roman catholic population is found primarily in urban areas and on the gulf coast and the tiny jewish population is also mainly concentrated in urban areas the current religious affiliations of the people of mississippi are as follows christian nine two protestant eight six baptist five eight methodist one zero pentecostal three presbyterian two other protestant one three roman catholic five other christian one other religions jackson gulfport biloxi natchez vicksburg centreville columbus greenville greenwood kosciusko tupelo hattiesburg grenada ridgeland clinton florence richland picayune bay st louis hernando holly springs raymond moss point meridian oxford laurel mccomb batesville flowood madison brandon clarksdale winona yazoo city pearl brookhaven ocean springs pascagoula pontotoc poplarville corinth amory southaven starkville west point d iberville itta bena woodville port gibson canton gautier petal cleveland vancleave waveland waynesboro education colleges and universities alcorn state university belhaven college blue mountain college copiah lincoln community college coahoma community college delta state university east central community college hinds community college holmes community college itawamba community college jackson state university magnolia bible college millsaps college mississippi college mississippi gulf coast community college mississippi state university mississippi university for women mississippi valley state university northeast mississippi community college reformed theological seminary rust college tougaloo college university of mississippi university of mississippi medical center university of southern mississippi wesley biblical seminary wesley college william carey college transportation mississippi is served by six interstate highways interstate one zero interstate two zero interstate five five interstate five nine interstate one one zero interstate two two zero and fourteen main u s highways u s highway one one u s highway four five u s highway four nine u s highway five one u s highway six one u s highway six five u s highway seven two u s highway seven eight u s highway eight zero u s highway eight two u s highway eight four u s highway nine zero u s highway nine eight u s highway two seven eight as well as a system of state highways for more information visit the mississippi department of transportation website miscellaneous information state motto virtute et armis by valor and arms state song adopted one nine six two patron saint our lady of sorrows state flower and state tree magnolia state bird mockingbird state beverage milk state fish largemouth bass state insect honeybee state water mammal bottlenose dolphin state shell oyster state fossil a whale fossil nicknamed ziggy state land mammals white tailed deer and red fox state waterfowl wood duck state stone petrified wood state wildflower coreopsis state butterfly spicebush swallowtail state dance square dance statehood quarter was minted in two zero zero two pledge to the flag i salute the flag of mississippi and the sovereign state for which it stands with pride in her history and achievements and with confidence in her future under the guidance of almighty god uss mississippi was named in honor of this state famous mississippians mississippi has produced a number of notable and famous individuals including author william faulkner author eudora welty musician elvis presley blues musicians b b king muddy waters and robert johnson novelist john grisham entertainer oprah winfrey author richard wright actor morgan freeman playwright tennessee williams rap music singer david banner and country music singer faith hill see list of mississippians further reading abbott dorothy ed mississippi writers reflections of childhood and youth vol two nonfiction one nine eight six ballard michael b civil war mississippi a guide two zero zero zero busbee westley f mississippi a history two zero zero five cobb james c the most southern place on earth the mississippi delta and the roots of regional identity one nine nine two cresswell stephen multiparty politics in mississippi one eight seven seven one nine zero two one nine nine five dittmer john local people the struggle for civil rights in mississippi one nine nine four harris william c the day of the carpetbagger republican reconstruction in mississippi one nine seven nine james dorris clayton ante bellum natchez one nine six eight kirwan albert d revolt of the rednecks mississippi politics one eight seven six one nine two five one nine six five krane dale and stephen d shaffer mississippi government politics modernizers versus traditionalists one nine nine two mcmillen neil r dark journey black mississippians in the age of jim crow one nine eight nine moody anne coming of age in mississippi one nine six eight memoir of black girlhood olsen christopher j political culture and secession in mississippi masculinity honor and the antiparty tradition one eight three zero one eight six zero two zero zero zero polk noel natchez before one eight three zero one nine eight nine ownby ted american dreams in mississippi consumers poverty culture one eight three zero one nine nine eight one nine nine eight rosengarten theodore all god s dangers the life of nate shaw one nine seven four memoir of a black mississippian swain martha h ed mississippi women their histories their lives two zero zero three one seven short biographies sydnor charles s slavery in mississippi one nine three three bond bradley g ed mississippi a documentary history two zero zero three peirce neal r the deep south states of america people politics and power in the seven deep south states one nine seven four external links state of mississippi mississippi authors the mississippi writers page mississippi arts mississippi states of the united states location map m laren details with stockholm urban area pink m laren at dusk m laren is the third largest lake in sweden after lakes v nern and v ttern its area is one one four zero km and its greatest depth is six four m the lake drains from west to east into the baltic sea at stockholm through s dert lje kanal norrstr m slussen and hammarbyslussen the easternmost bay of m laren in central stockholm is called riddarfj rden the lake is located in svealand and bounded by the provinces of uppland s dermanland n rke and v stmanland the two largest islands in m laren are sela n nine one km and svartsj landet seven nine km the alien species zebra mussels are causing serious problems in m laren and they are considered an invasive species birka older name for bj rk and hovg rden on the neighbouring island adels is a unesco world heritage site since one nine nine three in norse mythology the lake was created by the goddess gefjun when she tricked gylfi the swedish king of gylfaginning larger islands this is a selection adels asp n bj rk eker helg kur n lilla essingen smaller essingen lov muns sela n stora essingen larger essingen svartsj landet toster n see also roslagen almarest ket m laren valley m lardalen lakes of sweden geography of stockholm external links m larguiden guide to m laren mostly in swedish but a lot of maps and some english text str mma kanalbolaget boat tours and ferries in m laren castles around m laren m laren align center colspan two align center colspan two style background f nine f nine f nine location of macau china official language portuguese chinese both cantonese and putonghua spoken de facto chief executive edmund ho hau wah area total water ranked one nine one st two seven three km zero population total two zero zero four density ranked one six two nd four five one zero zero zero one six five two one km establishment date handover from portugal to the prc two zero december one nine nine nine gdp ppp total two zero zero five per capita ranked one three nine th nine billion one nine four zero zero currency pataca mop time zone utc eight internet tld mo calling code eight five three the macao special administrative region of the people s republic of china portuguese regi o administrativa especial de macau da rep blica popular da china short raem traditional chinese simplified chinese short form macau or macao pinyin om n also informally known as see names is a small territory on the southern coast of china administered by portugal until one nine nine nine it was the oldest european colony in china dating to the one six th century the administrative power in portuguese pot ncia administrante over macau was transferred to the people s republic of china in one nine nine nine and it is now a special administrative region of the prc macau has played a unique and influential role in relations between china and the west especially between the late one six th and one nine th centuries residents of macau mostly speak cantonese natively mandarin portuguese and english are also spoken the macanese language is a distinctive creole that was spoken by the macanese an ethnic group of mixed asian and portuguese ancestry however macanese is also used in the broader sense to describe any permanent resident of macau besides historical colonial relics macau s biggest attraction is its gambling industry and casinos though many forms of gambling are legal here the most popular game is pai gow played with chinese dominoes gamblers from hong kong often take one day excursions to macau ferry service by hydrofoil to and from hong kong is available two four hours a day seven days a week names the name macau portuguese pronunciation ipa is thought to be derived from the templo de a m temple of a ma cantonese jyutping maa one gok three miu six local pronunciation maa five gok three miu six or maa five gok three miu five a still existing landmark built in one four four eight dedicated to the goddess matsu the chinese name aomen pinyin om n cantonese jyutping ou three mun four means inlet gates the gates refer to two erect gate like mountains of nantai and beitai alternately ao may derive from macau s previous name heong san ou as it is geographically situated at cross door macau is also known as hou keng ou pinyin haojing ao oyster mirror inlet heong san ou xiangshan ao fragrant mountain inlet lin tou liandao lotus island as well as soda port while om n ou three mun four is the traditional chinese name of the place it is common among the cantonese speaking population of the territory to use the portuguese name when speaking in cantonese pronouncing it maa three gaau one jyutping romanization occasionally rendering it phonetically as in chinese characters the form macao was the original portuguese spelling and has been retained in most european languages in modern portuguese the correct spelling is macau during the two zero th century the official spelling macau became more and more common in english language sources including most print media since the handover of sovereignty the government of macau considers macao the official english spelling of the name whereas macau remains the official spelling in portuguese this is the practice followed in official documents such as passports and immigration forms the pinyin transcription aomen has occasionally been used in english as if it were the official name for macau however this is not the case as only macao is official in english and macau is used to a certain extent the chapel of st francis xavier on coloane island with a forecourt displaying the territory s distinctive striped tiling history main article history of macau macau was first settled by the portuguese in one five five seven beginning in one six seven zero portugal leased the territory although there was no transfer of sovereignty macau prospered as a port and was the subject of repeated attempts by the dutch to conquer it in the one seven th century after the house of braganza regained control of portugal from the spanish habsburgs in one six four zero macau was granted the official title of cidade do santo nome de deus de macau n o h outra mais leal or city of the holy name of god of macau there is none more loyal the motto there is none more loyal was granted in honour of the fact that the territory of macau amacao in older portuguese writings never recognized spanish sovereignty and thus it is considered by historians as a now former part of portugal that was never surrendered realistically the habsburgs could never have changed this situation anyway since they were heavily involved in european wars and macau was far away additionally the successful decades long resistance against dutch privateers demonstrated that macau was not a soft target with hong kong established as a british crown colony macau s status as the major regional trading centre declined due to the fact that larger ships were drawn to the deep water port of victoria harbour in one eight four nine portugal declared the colony independent of china this was recognised by the chinese government in one eight eight seven in one nine five five the salazar regime declared macau as well as other portuguese colonies an overseas province of portugal although macanese culture had always been a mixture between chinese and portuguese this did not always come about peacefully chinese citizens efforts to establish their own identity were often counter to the aims of the portuguese government fortaleza do monte in one nine six six residents tried to obtain a licence for a private school in taipa the first of two islands connected to and forming part of macau after being rejected many times they went ahead and started building without permits on november one five one nine six six the portuguese police arrested the school officials and beat construction workers residents and press reporters as a result chinese teachers and students gathered at the governor s palace to protest some even got inside the palace to cite the quotations of mao zedong and sang chinese revolutionary songs on december three the government ordered them to be arrested this stirred up the anger of the general public and more people came to protest they pulled down the statue of colonel vicente nicolau de mesquita at largo do senado at the city centre and burnt down archive documents some irreplaceable at the leal senado building and the holy house of mercy portuguese soldiers from africa who came to macau on holiday were called in and martial law was declared as a result of the protests one one people died and two zero zero were injured the chinese people adopted a three no s approach as a means to continue their struggle with the government no taxes no service no selling to the portuguese they were successful and on january two nine one nine six seven the portuguese government of macau signed a statement of apology this marked the beginning of equal treatment and recognition of chinese identity and of de facto chinese control of the colony after the leftist military coup of one nine seven four the now democratic portuguese government was determined to relinquish all its overseas possessions but the people s republic of china did not favour macau s immediate return to chinese sovereignty in one nine seven six lisbon redefined macau as a special territory and granted it a large measure of administrative and economic autonomy in addition portugal and the prc agreed to regard macau as a chinese territory under portuguese administration this status was made anomalous by the agreement in one nine eight five to return hong kong to china and in one nine eight seven an agreement known as the joint declaration was made to make macau a special administrative region of the prc the macau special administrative region finally came into being on december two zero one nine nine nine politics main article politics of macau the chief executive is appointed by the people s republic of china s central government after selection by an election committee whose members are nominated by corporate bodies the chief executive appears before a cabinet the executive council of between seven and one one members edmund ho a community leader and banker is the first china appointed chief executive of the macau sar having replaced general de rocha vieira on december two zero one nine nine nine the legislative organ of the territory is the legislative assembly a two seven member body comprising one zero directly elected members one zero appointed members representing functional constituencies and seven members appointed by the chief executive the legislative assembly is responsible for general lawmaking and like many other legislatures it has power to impeach the chief executive it has power to amend the makeup of its successors after two zero zero nine the legal system is based largely on portuguese law the territory has its own independent judicial system headed by the court of final appeal cfa which makes final judgments on court cases judges are selected by a committee and appointed by the chief executive the administrative division within macao subdivisions main article list of cities and parishes in macau macau comprises two administrative subdivisions the macau district the macau peninsula the islands district taipa and coloane geography main article geography of macau macau is seven zero km southwest of hong kong and one four five km from guangzhou it consists of a peninsula and the islands of taipa and coloane the peninsula is formed by the zhujiang pearl river estuary on the east and the xijiang west river on the west it borders the zhuhai special economic zone in mainland china macau has a generally flat terrain resulting from extensive land reclamation but numerous steep hills mark the original natural land mass the macau peninsula was originally an island but gradually a connecting sandbar turned into a narrow isthmus land reclamation in the one seven th century made macau into a peninsula with a dense urban environment macau has no arable land pastures forest or woodland because of this deficiency macau s people traditionally have looked to the sea for their livelihood economy main article economy of macau macau s economy is based largely on tourism including gambling efforts to diversify have spawned other small industries such as textile toy artificial flowers and electronics manufacturing the clothing industry has provided about three fourths of export earnings and the gambling industry is estimated to contribute more than four zero of macau s gdp and seven zero of macau government revenue from nine one million in two zero zero zero arrivals to macau has grown to one eight seven million in two zero zero five with over five zero of the arrivals coming from mainland china this recent growth has been driven by gambling and related tourism tourists from hong kong remain numerous representing about three zero of arrivals recently triad underworld violence a dark spot on the economy has significantly declined to the benefit of the tourism sector the average growth rate between two zero zero one and two zero zero five has been approximately one zero annually the gdp per capita in two zero zero four was usd two two six two zero in the first quarter of two zero zero five the unemployment rate was four one with the opening of the sands casino in two zero zero four gambling revenues from macau s casinos were for the first time greater than those of las vegas each about five billion making macau currently the highest volume gambling centre in the world other casinos slated to be opened through two zero zero eight are the wynn macau casino in two zero zero six the venetian macau in two zero zero seven the galaxy crown macau and others as a result the small economy is growing rapidly due to gambling related tourism from china and construction from the new casino entrants demographics considered as a dependency macau is the world s most densely populated country dependency macau s population is nine five chinese primarily cantonese and some hakka both from nearby guangdong province the remainder are of portuguese or mixed chinese portuguese ancestry or the so called macanese some japanese including descendants of japanese catholics who were expelled by shoguns also live in macau the official languages are portuguese and chinese though the residents commonly speak cantonese both cantonese and mandarin are de facto official english is spoken in tourist areas macanese patu an ancient portuguese based dialect is almost extinct culture main article culture of macau landmarks ruins of saint paul s cathedral casino lisboa macau tower macau fisherman s wharf some two four historic monuments and eight public squares together forming the historic centre of macao has been inscribed onto the world cultural heritage list of unesco on one five july two zero zero five a fountain in the shape of a lotus which is the symbol of macau outside the macau tower miscellaneous like hong kong and the united kingdom but unlike both mainland china and portugal traffic in macau travels on the left and the majority of vehicles are right hand drive portugal and southern provinces of china also originally drove on the left like hong kong macau also has a flower to represent the city while the representative flower of hong kong is the bauhinia the representative flower of macau is the lotus the lotus is always used as a symbol of the macau special administrative region macau related topics main article list of macao related topics communications in macau crime and police in macau education in macau gambling in macau legal system of macau list of universities in macao macau grand prix macau law military of macau transportation in macau postage stamps and postal history of macau external links macauhub a designated economic information portal to promote business ties between china and the portuguese speaking world simplified chinese page portuguese page english page documentary by rthk on fifth anniversary of macao sar profile of macau on bbc news profile of macau on the cia world factbook expatriate guide portal of the government of macau government information bureau of the macao speical administrative region traditional chinese page portuguese page english page government printing bureau traditional chinese version portuguese version english version guide to macau hongkong macau info macau hotels and resorts tours library of congress country study macau data as of august two zero zero zero blogmacau info an independent weblog about macau nate s guide to macau open directory project macau directory category yahoo macau directory category entry for macao on catholic encyclopedia macau heritage net list of historic centre of macao cultural affairs bureau of the macao special administrative region traditional chinese version simplified chinese version portuguese version english version satellite map of macau from google maps macau child development association cities in china coastal cities former portuguese colonies macau pearl river delta special territories this article details the history of macau early history evidence of chinese material cultural dating back four zero zero zero to six zero zero zero years has been discovered on the macau peninsula and dating back five zero zero zero years on coloane island imperial times historical records show that what was later known as macau was part of panyu county nanhai district guangdong province under the qin empire two two one two zero six bc during the jin dynasty two six five four two zero the area was part of dongguan county and later alternated under the control of nanhai and dongguan in one one five two during the song dynasty nine six zero one two seven nine it was identified as administratively part of the new xiangshan county since at least the five th century merchant ships traveling between southeast asia and guangzhou used haojingao as a way stop for refuge fresh water and food members of the southern song dynasty and some five zero zero zero zero followers were the first recorded inhabitants of the area seeking refuge in macau from invading mongols in one two seven seven they were able to defend their settlements and establish themselves there mong h has long been the center of chinese life in macau and the site of what may be the region s oldest temple a shrine devoted to the buddhist guanyin goddess of mercy the hoklo boat people were the first to show commercial interest in macau as a trading center for the southern provinces during the ming dynasty one three six eight one six four three fishermen migrated to macau from various parts of guangdong and fujian provinces and built the a ma temple in which they prayed for safety on the sea portuguese settlement macau did not develop as a major settlement until the portuguese arrived in the one six th century having established themselves at goa in one five one zero and malacca in one five one one the first portuguese arrived on the china coast in one five one three aboard a hired junk sailing from malacca they landed on lintin island in the zhujiang pearl river estuary and erected a stone marker claiming the island for the king of portugal when portuguese fleets arrived in the vicinity of haojing ao in one five one seven and one five one eight chinese officials expressed displeasure over violations of china s sovereignty portuguese adventurers were forcibly expelled from along the coast of guangdong in one five two one following a ship wreck in one five three six portuguese traders were allowed to moor at haojingao however most historians note the date of the permanent presence of the portuguese in macau as one five five three the year they started establishing on shore trading depots there macau in one six three nine although portuguese attempts to settle other islands along the southern coast of china including shangchuan island had failed macau prospered the portuguese set up bases of operations there for trade with china especially guangzhou and for trade with japan both portuguese and chinese merchants flocked to macau and it quickly became an important node in the development of portugal s trade with india southern china japan and southeast asia lisbon obtained a leasehold for macau in return for tribute paid to beijing in one five five seven and during that same year established a walled village there ground rent payments began in one five seven three china retained sovereignty and chinese residents were subject to chinese law but the territory was under portuguese administration in one five eight two a land lease was signed and annual rent was paid to xiangshan county in one five eight six macau became a self governing city in one six zero five dutch attacks led the portuguese to build a city wall without china s permission china officially established macau as a foreign trade port in one six eight five initially the portuguese developed macau s port as a trading post for china japan trade and as a staging port on the long voyage from lisbon to nagasaki when chinese officials banned direct trade with japan in one five four seven macau s portuguese traders carried goods between the two countries the first portuguese governor of macau was appointed to macau in one six eight zero but the chinese continued to assert their authority collecting land and customs taxes during the one seven th one eight th and one nine th centuries macau served as an important center for portuguese trade with china primarily with guangzhou japan the philippines mainland and island southeast asia goa and mexico during the ming one three six eight one six four three and qing one six four four one nine one one dynasties the decline of lisbon s world trade system in the mid one seven th century ended macao s role as a major trade entrep t the development of hong kong by the british and the opening of treaty ports along the china coast after one eight four two further overshadowed the commercial importance of macau until april two zero one eight four four macau was under the jurisdiction of portugal s indian colonies the so called estado portugu s da india portuguese state of india but after this date it along with east timor was accorded recognition by lisbon but not by beijing as an overseas province of portugal the treaty of peace amity and commerce between china and the united states also known as the treaty of mong h was signed on july three one eight four four in a temple in macau the temple was used by a chinese judicial administrator who also oversaw matters concerning foreigners and was located in the village of mong h in one eight four five portugal declared macau a free port expelled chinese officials and soldiers and thereafter levied taxes on chinese residents one eight eight eight german map of hong kong macau and canton now guangzhou portugal continued to pay rent to china until one eight four nine when the portuguese abolished the chinese customs house and declared macau s independence a year which also saw chinese retaliation and finally the assassination of gov ferreira do amaral portugal gained control of the island of wanzai to the north of macau and which now is under the jurisdiction of zhuhai in one eight four nine but relinquished it in one eight eight seven control over taipa in chinese jyutping tam five zai two pinyin d ngz i and coloane in chinese jyutping lou six waan four pinying l hu n two islands south of macau was obtained between one eight five one and one eight six four the treaty of tianjin signed august one three one eight six two recognized macau as a portuguese colony but because china never ratified the treaty macau was never officially ceded to portugal macau and east timor were again combined as an overseas province of portugal under control of goa in one eight eight three the protocol respecting the relations between the two countries signed in lisbon march two six one eight eight seven confirmed perpetual occupation and government of macau by portugal with portugal s promise never to alienate macau and dependencies without agreement with china taipa and coloane were also ceded to portugal but the border with the mainland was not delimited the treaty of commerce and friendship august two eight one eight eight eight recognized portuguese sovereignty over macau but was never ratified by china ilha verde in chinese jyutping ceng one zau one or cing one zau one pinyin q ngzh u was incorporated into macau s territory in one eight nine zero and once a kilometer offshore by one nine two three it had been absorbed into peninsular macau through land reclamation macau enjoyed a brief period of economic prosperity during world war ii as the only neutral port in south china after the japanese occupied guangzhou canton and hong kong in one nine four three japan created a virtual protectorate over macau japanese domination ended in august one nine four five when the chinese communists came to power in one nine four nine they declared the protocol of lisbon to be invalid as an unequal treaty imposed by foreigners on china however beijing was not ready to settle the treaty question requesting a maintenance of the status quo until a more appropriate time beijing took a similar position on treaties relating to the hong kong territories of the united kingdom portugal designated macau a separate overseas province in one nine five five riots broke out in one nine six six when the pro communist chinese elements and the macau police clashed the portuguese government reached an agreement with the prc to end the flow of refugees from china and to prohibit all communist demonstrations this move ended the conflict and relations between the government and the leftist organizations have remained peaceful the portuguese tried once in one nine six six after the riots in macau and again in one nine seven four the year of a military revolution in portugal to hand administration over macau to the prc in one nine seven four the new portuguese government granted independence to all overseas colonies and recognized macau as part of china s territory but the chinese government did not accept administration of the territory handover to the people s republic of china portugal and the people s republic of china established diplomatic relations on february eight one nine seven nine and beijing acknowledged macau as chinese territory under portuguese administration a year later gen melo egidio became the first governor of macau to visit china the visit underscored both parties interest in finding a mutually agreeable solution to macau s status a joint communiqu signed may two zero one nine eight six called for negotiations on the macau question and four rounds of talks followed between june three zero one nine eight six and march two six one nine eight seven the joint declaration on the question of macau was signed in beijing on april one three one nine eight seven setting the stage for the return of macau to full chinese sovereignty as a special administrative region on december two zero one nine nine nine the basic law of the macau special administrative region of the people s republic of china was adopted by the national people s congress npc on march three one one nine nine three as the constitutional law for macau taking effect on december two zero one nine nine nine the prc has promised that under its one country two systems formula china s socialist economic system will not be practiced in macau and that macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs until two zero four nine fifty years after the handover see also jorge lvares external links macau handover asia s last colony history of macau macau the administrative division within macao click here for satellite image macau is a city on the southern coast of china it is located at the south of guangdong province on the tip of the peninsula formed by the zhujiang pearl river estuary on the east and the xijiang west river on the west macau is situated sixty kilometers west of hong kong and one four five kilometers southwest of guangzhou the capital of guangdong province it is immediately adjacent to the zhuhai special economic zone the region comprises the macau peninsula and the islands of taipa and coloane macau was once an island but gradually a connecting sandbar turned into a narrow isthmus land reclamation in the one seven th century made macau into a peninsula and a barrier gate was built to mark the separation between the peninsula and the mainland pre colonial records show that macau totaled only two seven eight km but began to increase as a result of portuguese settlement land growth has accelerated since the last quarter of the two zero th century from one five square kilometers in one nine seven two to one six one square kilometers in one nine eight three to two one three square kilometers in one nine nine four macau s size has gradually increased as result of continued land reclamation especially on taipa and coloane in two zero zero zero the total land area was approximately two three six km there is a zero three four kilometer long border between macau and mainland china and a forty kilometer long coastline location size border and coastline location eastern asia bordering the south china sea and china geographic coordinates area total two one km land two one km water zero km land boundaries total zero three four km border city zhuhai guangdong province zero three four km coastline four zero km maritime claims not specified topography terrain generally flat elevation extremes lowest point south china sea zero m highest point coloane alto one seven four m macau has generally flat terrain resulting from extensive land reclamation but numerous steep hills mark the original natural land mass the modern high rise skyline of macau obscures much of the hilly landscape the macau skyline both defines and obscures its topography map of macau hong kong and surrounding countries climate subtropical marine with cool winters warm summers the climate is subtropical and is hot and humid with an average year round temperature of two five c and temperatures exceeding three zero c from june to september temperatures rarely fall below one four c the average for january and february there is about two zero three zero millimeters of rainfall annually macau is exposed to tropical storms originating from the southern pacific ocean during the summer major destruction occurred in september one eight seven four when a devastating typhoon hit macau and high seas swept across the low lying area of the peninsula natural resources negligible in the past large amounts of granite were extracted from macau s hills for use as building material land use no arable land pastures forest or woodland because of this deficiency macau s people traditionally have looked to the sea for their livelihood arable land zero permanent crops two permanent pastures zero forests and woodland zero other nine eight one nine nine eight est environmental factors dense urban environment geography note essentially urban one causeway and two bridges connect the two islands of coloane and taipa to the peninsula on mainland see also geography of china geography by country geography of macau macau macau s population is nine five chinese primarily cantonese and some hakka both from nearby guangdong province the remainder are of portuguese or mixed chinese portuguese ancestry some japanese including descendants of japanese catholics who were expelled by shoguns also live the official languages are portuguese especially its creole macanese patu or macaista chapado which is almost extinct and mandarin chinese though the residents commonly speak cantonese chinese english is spoken in tourist areas macau has a number of universities population four four five five nine four july two zero zero zero est age structure zero one four years two three male five three nine eight six female five zero three seven nine one five six four years six nine male one four six four seven four female one six two six seven two six five years and over eight male one two nine three two female one nine one five one two zero zero zero est population growth rate one eight three two zero zero zero est birth rate one two five four births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate three six four deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate nine four one migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero seven male s female one five six four years zero nine male s female six five years and over zero six eight male s female total population zero nine two male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate four four nine deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population eight one six years male seven eight eight years female eight four five five years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate one three children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun chinese adjective chinese ethnic groups chinese nine five macanese mixed portuguese and asian ancestry portuguese other religions buddhist five zero roman catholic one five none and other three five one nine nine seven est languages portuguese chinese cantonese literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population nine zero male nine three female eight six one nine eight one est see also macau macau politics of macau takes place in a framework of a political system dominated by the people s republic of china an own legislatur the chief executive as the head of government and of a pluriform multi party system executive power is exercised by the government macau as part of the people s republic of china in accordance with article three one of the constitution of the people s republic of china macau has special administrative region status which provides constitutional guarantees for implementing the policy of one country two systems and the constitutional basis for enacting the basic law of the macau special administrative region although geographically part of guangdong province the macau special administrative region is directly under the authority of the central government of the people s republic of china in beijing which controls the foreign affairs and defense of macau but otherwise grants the region a high degree of authority the basic law took force upon handover of sovereignty from portugal on december two zero one nine nine nine and is to remain in effect for fifty years that is until two zero four nine macau s seven deputies to the national people s congress npc are selected by an electoral conference they attended their first session of the npc in beijing in march two zero zero zero previously in december one nine nine nine the npc standing committee approved the membership of the npc committee for the basic law of the macau special administrative region chaired by npc vice chairman qiao xiaoyang for a five year term half of the ten members are from macau the others from mainland china macau also has representation on the national committee of the chinese people s political consultative conference executive branch president of the prc hu jintao communist party of china march two zero zero three chief executive edmund ho hau wah two zero december one nine nine nine the chief executive of macau is appointed by the people s republic of china s central government after selection by an election committee whose members are nominated by corporate bodies the chief executive appears before a cabinet the executive council of between seven and one one members the term of office of the chief executive is five years and no individual may serve for more than two consecutive terms the governor has strong policymaking and executive powers similar to those of a president these powers are however limited from above by the central government in beijing to whom the governor reports directly and from below to a more limited extent by the legislature in may one nine nine nine edmund ho a community leader and banker is the first prc appointed chief executive of the macau sar having replaced general de rocha viera on two zero december one nine nine nine he was elected by the two zero zero member chief executive selection committee ho born in macau in one nine five five was the first chinese person to govern the region since the one five five zero s prior to two zero december one nine nine nine ho nominated major officials in the new government and carried out other transfer tasks the executive branch of the macau government has the following cabinet departments each headed by a secretary administration and justice economic and financial affairs security social affairs and culture and transport and public works there also are two commissions against corruption and audit and a chief public prosecutor upon macau s reversion to china the executive offices were moved from macau government house temporarily to the banco tai fung legislative branch the legislative organ of the territory is the legislative council a two nine member body comprising fourteen directly elected members eight appointed members representing functional constituencies and seven members appointed by the chief executive the legislative assembly is responsible for general lawmaking including taxation the passing of the budget and socioeconomic legislation in the last election held in september one nine nine six pro business groups won four of the eight directly elected seats while pro china parties dropped from four seats to three and the number of pro democracy representatives fell from two seats to one unlike in hong kong the legislature s term straddled the handover of sovereignty to the prc and has even been extended from its normal four year term until october two zero zero one the city of macau and the islands of taipa and coloane each have a municipal council the legislative assembly is chaired by its president industrialist susana chou who is assisted by the vice president lawyer lau cheok va it was relocated to a new building on rua de xangai separate from the executive offices in december one nine nine nine the twenty three member assembly consisted of eight members from direct elections eight members from indirect elections and seven members as appointed by the chief executive terms are for four years with annual sessions running from one five october to one six august standing committees perform the following functions examination and issuance of reports and statements on projects and proposals of law on resolutions and deliberations and on proposals of alteration presented to the legislative assembly examination of petitions submitted to the legislative assembly voting on issues as approved in general by the legislative assembly general meeting and answering questions raised by the president or the general meeting there also are two urban councils that have carried over from the colonial administration one represents the macau peninsula and one represents taipa and coloane mayors were nominated by the portuguese governor and are answerable to their respective executive committee and municipal assembly political parties and elections judicial branch the court of final appeal in the macau special administrative region the legal system is based largely on portuguese law the territory has its own independent judicial system with a high court judges are selected by a committee and appointed by the chief executive foreign judges may serve on the courts in july one nine nine nine the chief executive appointed a seven person committee to select judges for the sar twenty four judges were recommended by the committee and were then appointed by mr ho included are three judges who serve on the macau sar s highest court the court of final appeal cfa three nine year old sam hou fai who will be chief justice three two year old chu kin and the four six year old viriato manuel pinhiero de lima political pressure groups and leaders catholic church domingos lam bishop macau society of tourism and entertainment or stdm stanley ho managing director union for democracy development antonio ng kuok cheong leader foreign affairs the central government in beijing controls the foreign affairs of macau the commission of the ministry of foreign affairs opened its office in macau on two zero december one nine nine nine a central government agency the commission interacts with the macau government in matters of foreign policy it also processes applications from foreign nations and international organizations wishing to establish consulates or representative offices in macau macau is also authorized to handle some external affairs on its own these affairs include economic and cultural relations and agreements it concludes with states regions and international organizations in such matters macau functions under the name macao china macau displays the flag and national emblem of the people s republic of china but is also authorized to display its own regional flag and emblem taiwanese organizations in macau are allowed to continue operations and are required to abide by the basic law international organization participation ccc escap associate international maritime organization associate interpol subbureau unesco associate wmo wtoo associate wtro see also politics of hong kong politics of the people s republic of china politics of macau the economy of macau is based largely on tourism including gambling and textile and fireworks manufacturing efforts to diversify have spawned other small industries toys artificial flowers and electronics the tourist sector has accounted for roughly two five of gdp and the clothing industry has provided about three fourths of export earnings the gambling industry probably represents over four zero of gdp more than eight million tourists visited macau in two zero zero zero although the recent growth in gambling and tourism has been driven primarily by mainland chinese tourists from hong kong remain the most numerous recently gang violence a dark spot in the economy has declined somewhat to the benefit the tourism sector the casino industry the linchpin of the economy has been controlled by the sociedade de turismo e diversoes de macau stdm monopoly for the last three nine years this was changed in two zero zero one when casino licenses were offered to other casino operators these new operators include las vegas sands which opened the sands macau in two zero zero four and will open the venetian macau in two zero zero seven the wynn macau in two zero zero six and galaxy declining catches led to the suspension of fishing in july one nine nine six in the previous two years only one nine zero zero metric tons one nine nine four and one six zero zero metric tons one nine nine five of seafood were caught labor force in one nine nine nine macau s labor force totaled around two one seven zero zero zero most two seven nine workers were in public administration and personal and social services two six two in wholesale retail restaurant and hotel trades two two in manufacturing eight one in construction and public works seven eight in financial activities real estate leasing and commercial services seven four in transportation and communications and zero six in other services nearly one three of macau s labor force is made up of mainland construction workers and filipino shop and restaurant employees a presence that was the cause of demonstrations in may and july two zero zero zero labor force two eight one one one seven one nine nine eight labor force by occupation industry three one restaurants and hotels two eight other services four one unemployment rate the official average unemployment rate was four three for one nine nine six three two for one nine nine seven and four six for one nine nine eight unemployment jumped to six five in one nine nine nine for the january june two zero zero zero period the rate reached seven and unofficially may have been higher trade in one nine nine nine macau s free market economy produced total exports of us two two billion mptc one seven six billion and consisted mainly of textiles and garments toys electronic goods and footwear total imports for the same period reached us two billion mptc one six three billion and consisted mostly of raw materials and semi manufactures consumer goods capital goods and mineral fuels and oils total reexports were about us three one seven million mptc two five billion in one nine nine nine positive growth rates were seen in all three categories principal import trade partners in one nine nine nine were china three five seven hong kong one eight one the european union one two nine taiwan nine five japan six seven the united states five one and other countries one two exports went to the united states four seven the european union three zero two china nine two hong kong six eight and other countries six eight in the second half of the two zero th century macau s economy was diversified with the development of light industry the influx of migrants from mainland china to serve as a labor force and increased tourism portugal s efforts to develop economic and cultural links between macau and brazil and portuguese holdings in africa however were not successful economic ties to the european union and taiwan are considered important aspects of macau s economic role as part of the people s republic of china direct access to the neighboring zhuhai special economic zone facilitates trade with mainland china as a special administrative region macau functions as a free port and as a separate customs territory exports one seven billion f o b one nine nine nine exports commodities textiles clothing toys electronics cement footwear machinery exports partners us four eight eu three one hong kong eight mainland china seven one nine nine eight imports one five billion c i f one nine nine nine imports commodities raw materials foodstuffs capital goods fuels consumer goods imports partners mainland china three three hong kong two four eu one one taiwan one zero japan eight one nine nine eight see also closer economic partnership arrangement financial institutions two banks issue currency the banco nacional ultramarino and the bank of china starting in october one nine nine five there are twenty other licensed banks sixteen of which are foreign macau has five of the top five zero zero commercial banks in asia including banco tai fung tai fung bank and banco seng heng seng heng bank see also monetary authority of macau currency exchange rate currency one pataca p one zero zero avos exchange rates patacas p per us one eight zero one january two zero zero zero seven nine nine one nine nine nine seven nine eight one nine nine eight seven nine nine one nine nine seven seven nine six two one nine nine six eight zero three four one nine nine three nine five note linked to the hong kong dollar at the rate of one zero three patacas per hong kong dollar us one macau patacas mptc m or mop seven nine nine zero seven august seven two zero zero zero one pataca divides into one zero zero avos coins are issued in one zero two zero and five zero avos and one and five patacas notes are in five one zero two zero five zero one zero zero and five zero zero pataca denominations hong kong currency is freely used and represents about two thirds of the currency in circulation the new banknotes were issued by the bank of china and the banco nacional ultramarino on december two zero one nine nine nine and are fully convertible to foreign currencies tourism major source of foreign exchange us one nine billion in one nine nine three employed estimated three zero of labor force and contributed estimated four five gnp in one nine nine five according to official figures for one nine nine nine some seven four million persons visited macau nearly five seven came from hong kong two two from mainland china one three from taiwan and eight from other sources most made short overnight visits overall tourism declined in the one nine nine zero s but increased in one nine nine nine gambling gambling has been licensed since one eight five zero and has always been an important source of revenue for the government in the early one nine six zero s gambling provided five zero of macau s official revenue starting in one nine six two the gambling industry has been operated under a government issued monopoly license by the sociedade de turismo e divers es de macau macau tourism and entertainment corporation macau had nine casinos in the one nine nine zero s gambling reportedly represented two zero to two five of macau s gdp direct taxes on gambling were four four five of total government revenue in one nine nine eight up from four zero one in one nine nine seven in one nine nine nine however there was a nine one decrease in this sector internet gaming with its worldwide access was scheduled to be initiated in macau in summer two zero zero zero the monopoly license of the sociedade de turismo e divers es de macau expires in two zero zero one organized crime is reported to be heavily involved in gambling in macau see organized crime q v economic diversification the large role of gaming and tourism underscores a degree of risk for macau s economy because the economy is so reliant on tourism and gambling for its well being if the flow of tourists slows it could come as a shock to the small market the push for diversification came in the closing years of portuguese administration under governor general vasco rocha vieira and has continued to the present under governor edmund ho hau wah the government is seeking foreign investment as a means of economic diversification as well much of the foreign investment into macau however has gone into the gaming sector after the end of the monopoly in two zero zero one otherwise foreign companies have entered into the mobile phone market and internet services after telecommunications market liberalization in two zero zero one miscellaneous gdp purchasing power parity nine one zero billion two zero zero five est gdp real growth rate two eight two zero zero four gdp per capita purchasing power parity one nine four zero zero two zero zero five est gdp composition by sector agriculture one industry four zero services five nine one nine nine seven population below poverty line na household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices two eight two zero est budget revenues one three four billion expenditures one three four billion including capital expenditures of two six zero million one nine nine eight est electricity production one three four zero gwh one nine nine eight fossil fuel one zero zero hydro zero nuclear zero other zero one nine nine eight electricity consumption one four two zero gwh one nine nine eight electricity exports one gwh one nine nine eight electricity imports one seven five gwh one nine nine eight debt external one seven billion one nine nine seven economic aid recipient na fiscal year calendar year see also economy of the people s republic of china economy of asia economy of macau macau wto members newspapers there are seventeen newspapers twelve in chinese five in portuguese aomen ribao or ou mun iat pou macau daily news is sponsored by the communist party of china and has the largest circulation one zero zero zero zero zero additionally chinese language newspapers from hong kong are popular macau has eight chinese language three portuguese language and one english language daily the macau post daily is macau s only english language newspaper it is owned by a local publishing company everbright co ltd which is independent radios and radio stations there are two five zero zero zero zero radios two twenty hour fm radio stations one portuguese one chinese and four am stations hong kong radio stations also are popular in macau radio broadcast stations am zero fm two shortwave zero one nine nine eight radios one six zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven televisions and television channels there are seven zero three zero zero television sets one nine nine seven estimate two television channels one portuguese and one chinese television broadcasts also are received from hong kong and widely watched by macau residents television broadcast stations zero receives hong kong broadcasts one nine nine seven televisions four nine zero zero zero one nine nine seven telephones the number of telephone lines has been increasing since the mid one nine nine zero s in one nine nine seven there were two two two four five six telephones by one nine nine nine three zero zero zero six six lines were in use in one nine nine nine there were six eight six telephone lines per one zero zero zero people cellular telephone use statistics were not available international access is via hong kong and china and via intelsat indian ocean telephones main lines in use two two two five zero zero one nine nine seven telephones mobile cellular five five zero zero zero one nine nine eight telephone system fairly modern communication facilities maintained for domestic and international services domestic na international hf radiotelephone communication facility access to international communications carriers provided via hong kong and china satellite earth station one intelsat indian ocean internet service providers isps na country code top level domain mo see also macau communications in china list of chinese language television channels communications by country macau roads and bridges macau has three two one kilometers of public roads two highway bridges link macau to zhuhai the most recent of which the one three kilometer long six lane lotus bridge opened in december one nine nine nine three bridges link peninsular macau with taipa the first a two six kilometer long highway bridge was completed in one nine seven four the second completed in one nine nine four to serve the new macau international airport is four four kilometers long and four lanes wide a third bridge has been completed in two zero zero four to link taipa and macau peninsula at sai van an eight kilometre long dual lane highway links the airport and the zhuhai border crossing taipa is connected to coloane with a two two kilometer long causeway moreover a three eight kilometer long connector has been proposed to link macau and zhuhai with shenzhen and hong kong see hong kong zhuhai macau bridge also traffic in macau travels on the left side of the road like in hong kong but unlike mainland china highways total five zero km paved five zero km unpaved zero km one nine nine six est buses and numerous taxicabs provide public transportation motorists in one nine nine nine used some five five one one four automobiles and trucks and five eight one one six motorcycles sea transportation jetfoils turbo catamarans and catamarans operate between the macau maritime terminal and hong kong central or kowloon depending on type of craft the trip between macau and hong kong takes between five five and seven zero minutes depending on the type of craft about one five zero trips per day are made between macau and hong kong the macau maritime terminal is located on the east shore of the macau peninsula macau outer harbor the macau container port located near the macau international airport was opened in one nine nine one vessels leaving the port provide multiple daily round trips to hong kong and regular container ship service to taiwan singapore and to chinese ports within the zhujiang estuary macau s shallow harbor and channels however limit the size and number of ships that can enter the port ports macau container port near macau international ariport kai ho on ilha de coloane merchant marine none one nine nine nine est air transportation airports one one nine nine nine est airports with paved runways macau international airport total one over three zero four seven m one one nine nine nine est the macau international airport opened in december one nine nine five on reclaimed land on the east side of taipa it handles commercial and general aviation and accommodates all major aircraft up to boeing seven four seven four zero zero s there are two offshore runways three two eight five meters and three three six zero meters and one taxiway one four six zero meters up to six million passengers per year capacity is available air macau established one nine nine four with five one percent ownership by china and more than twenty other airlines provide international flights to and from singapore manila bangkok pyongyang anchorage and los angeles and domestic flights to and from taiwan taipei and kaohsiung beijing chongqing fuzhou guilin haikou kunming nanjing ningbo sanya shanghai wuhan xiamen xi an and zhengzhouaround two zero zero flights are scheduled per week helicopter service is available every three zero minutes during the day from the macau maritime terminal to central hong kong miscellaneous rail transport none bus transit transportas companhia de macau and transmac macau transportation in macau since december two zero one nine nine nine the defense of macau has been the responsibility of the chinese people s liberation army pla which stations up to one zero zero zero troops in the macau special administrative region the garrison has its logistics base medical care and food supply in the zhuhai special economic zone across the border from macau according to the law on stationing troops in the macau special administrative region or macau garrison law passed by the npc standing committee on june two eight one nine nine nine the mission of the pla in macau is to defend the special administrative region by preventing and resisting aggression safe guarding the security of macau undertaking defence services managing military facilities and handling related foreign military affairs the pla can also be called upon by the chief executive to help maintain public order and assist with disaster relief efforts the members of the garrison are mainly ground force troops pre handover garrison prior to the handover the last major military presence in macau was in one nine seven four portugal had limited military personnel in macau during world war ii the portugese had infantry company one st light mozambique and two nd light mozambique one artillery company one heavy machine gun company two native companies one depot section one gunboat four nine seven men two two officers three five nco s and four four zero soldiers including two two four native soldiers other installations included fortress of st paul of monte or monte fort one six one six one seven six two barra fort once had two two cannons san francisco barracks one eight six four fort mong ha one eight six four one nine six zero s the naval station in macau was part of the far east fleet portugese naval ships stationed in macau cruiser rainha de amelia cruiser vasco da gama gunboat patria small shallow draught gunboat macau a naval air station was established in one nine two seven with limited equipment fairey iiid four hawker osprey floatplanes avro six two six grumman g two one b commanders in macau navy commander gabriel mauricio teixeira one nine four one one nine four five chief of staff major carlos da silva carvalho no portuguese troops had been stationed in macau since the carnation revolution in one nine seven four current garrison the macau garrison is under the command and control of the central military commission and its budget is administered by the central government in beijing a pla major general heads the macau garrison military manpower military age residents of macau are prohibited from joining the pla military manpower availability none military manpower fit for military service none military manpower reaching military age annually none military expenditures dollar figure not applicable note separate budget for macau not established by the people s republic of china military expenditures percent of gdp not applicable military note national defence as enshrined in the basic law macau s constitution is the responsibility of the government of the people s republic of china military of the people s republic of china macau this article is about the region spanning several countries in southeastern europe for other uses see macedonia macedonia is a geographical and historical region of the balkan peninsula in south eastern europe whose area was re defined in the early two zero th century it covers about six seven zero zero zero square kilometres and a population of four seven six million the territory corresponds to the basins of from west to east the ali kmon vardar axios and struma strymon rivers of which the axios vardar drains by far the largest area and the plains around thessaloniki and serres the region is divided between four countries greece with more than half the area and population split between the three peripheries of central macedonia west macedonia and east macedonia and thrace the republic of macedonia with around four zero bulgaria with less than a tenth in blagoevgrad province and albania with around one five around lake ohrida etymology of the name of macedonia according to ancient greek mythology macedon ancient greek maked n poetic mak d n was the name of the first phylarch tribal chief of the maked nes the part of the makedno tribe which initially settled western southern and central macedonia and founded the kingdom of macedon ccording to herodotus histories eight four seven the makedno were in turn a tribe of the dorians all these names are probably derived from the doric adjective makedn s attic m kedan s meaning tall this in turn is derived from the doric noun m kos attic and modern greek m kros and m kos meaning length both the macedonians maked nes and their makedno tribal ancestors were regarded as tall people and they are likely to have received their name on account of their height see also list of traditional greek place names homer uses the genitive makedn s to describe a tall poplar tree and others weave webs or as they sit twirl the yarn like unto the leaves of a tall poplar tree of the female slaves of the phaeacians od seven one zero five f it has been suggested that the name maked nes may mean highlanders from a hypothetical i e unattested macedonian bahuvrihi maki ked nes of the high earth with the first constituent maki allegedly meaning high and an unattested second part ked n being cognate to attic khth n earth however the word has only been used to describe tall physical stature in humans and only in two instances has it been used to mean height of inanimate objects the aforementioned homeric tall poplar tree and the imaginary wall built around the city of the birds in the comedy by the same name by aristophanes furthermore if the word makiked n actually ever existed it should be paroxytone as in etc not oxytone boundaries and definitions the name of macedonia has not been always used with regard to the region as defined above in its beginnings the ancient state of macedon encompassed only a part of this region approximately equal to the present day greek macedonia but also including parts of the republic of macedonia as well macedonian province of roman empire the majority of the roman province of macedonia consisted of what is today northern greece but also included the present day geographical region of macedonia and albania due to macedonian expansion the roman province of macedonia covered a much larger area than the original state of macedon according to h r wilkinson author of maps and politics a review of the ethnographic cartography of macedonia macedonia defies definition for a number of reasons hardly two authorities can be found to agree on its exact delineation although many agree on its general location the name itself is the latin form of an ancient greek place name one of many which has persisted right down to our own day for describing this part of europe this persistence has largely been due to the effect of the turkish conquest ignorance of balkan languages difficulties of transliteration lack of topographical survey all combined to restrict the use of contemporary place names so that the opening of the one nine th century still found western european scholars thinking of balkan geography in terms of ptolemy and strabo macedonia to them meant the roman province framed by a natural boundary of mountains marching with geometrical precision on all sides the pindus the scardus the rhodope these somewhat oversimplified interpretations may be the root cause of the modern tendency to define macedonia as a natural region a tendency apparent in the works of bulgarian british american french italian and german geographers wilkinson also identifies problems with defining it as a single geographical area the use of the name natural boundaries and natural region in connection with these definitions is highly misleading in view of the diversity of structure relief and climate found within the prescribed region as well as the debatable nature of the so called limits on examination of a detailed orographical map the natural framework is found to consist of complicated systems of mountain ranges which achieve only here and there a lineal form and within which prevails a diversity of land forms and a complex drainage system of all teh attempts to define macedonia that which makes its appeal to physical geography is the least profitable and also the easiest to refute the difficulty also affects the identification of a historical continuity of boundaries perhaps equally facile are the attempts to define macedonia historically by invoking its past political boundaries historians less concerned with the propagandist value of their researches have revealed the traditional ephemeral character of macedonian political boundaries from being reduced to the confines of salonika at certain periods of its classical history macedonia has at other times reached the adriatic the haemus and the danube no useful purpose therefore is achieved by insisting on the hypothetical stability of the historical boundaries of macedonia the osmanli turks who inherited so much from their byzantine precursors never recognized any macedonian administrative unit it is not unreasonable to conclude that history no more sets its seal upon the boundaries of macedonia than does physical geography in the byzantine empire there was a number of different themas provinces dividing the geographical region of macedonia a thema under the name of macedonia was carved out of the original thema of thrace well to the east of the struma river during the middle ages this thema variously included parts of eastern rumelia and western thrace within its shifting boundaries and gave its name to the macedonian dynasty under emperor basil i the region of macedonia ruled by the first bulgarian empire throughout the nine th and the one zero th century was incorporated into the byzantine empire in one zero one eight as the thema of bulgaria with the conquest of the region by the ottomans in the late one four th century and its incorporation into the ottoman rumili province the name macedonia as an administrative designation disappeared for several centuries and was rarely displayed on maps the name was again revived in the one nine th century by european cartographers to mean a distinct geographical region with roughly the same borders as today demographics distribution of races in the balkan peninsula and asia minor in one nine one zero historical atlas by william r shepherd new york as a frontier region where several very different cultures meet macedonia has an extremely diverse demographic profile today greeks form the majority of its population living almost entirely in greece the second largest group of people in the region are the macedonians a slavic people who form the majority of the population in the republic of macedonia also there is a small three zero zero zero strong macedonian minority in the bulgarian region of blagoevgrad which is otherwise known as pirin macedonia the number of macedonians in greek macedonia is disputed as greece s censuses have not included the criteria of ethnicity and mother tongue since the one nine five zero s however human rights watch released a report in one nine nine four estimating one zero zero zero zero zero two zero zero zero zero zero people of macedonian decent in the region it is important to note that the identity of the macedonians is a hotly disputed question in the region most greeks oppose their use of the term macedonians and bulgarians and greeks alike consider them to be a subset of another people the bulgarians this issue is further discussed in the article regarding macedonians ethnic group the other two major ethnic groups in the region are the bulgarians who represent the majority of the population of pirin macedonia and the albanians who are the majority inhabitants of the western and southwestern parts of the republic of macedonia albanians represent approximatlly two five of the population in the reupblic of macedonia from cia world factbook smaller numbers of turks bosniaks roma serbs and vlachs may also be found in macedonia most of the inhabitants of the regions are christians of the eastern orthodox rite principally the bulgarian orthodox the greek orthodox and the serbian orthodox churches as well as the unrecognized macedonian orthodox church there is however a substantial muslim minority principally among the albanians pomaks muslim bulgarians bosniaks and turks history a general view the two zero th century was an infinite struggle for the balkan states to expand their territory sfetas believes that the nation state as a political entity is a creation of the one nine th century however the elements of which the nation consists must already exist language tradition historical memories historical area defined even by arbitrary criteria national myths but on a real historical base are some of the important components of a collective identity the motivation aims to the establishment of a nation state which contributes decisively to the political assimilation of the nation s idea therefore according to sfetas without a common historical background a nation state cannot exist for this modern states have sought to prove their historical continuity justifying their existence this chapter aims is to explain the evolution of the macedonian identity macedonia has concerned historians not a few times and the name dispute between the republic of macedonia and greece is only the last aspect of it in fact macedonia has been the apple of discord between the balkan states especially at the end of the ottoman sovereignty and for its lands took place the balkan wars this chapter examines macedonia from a historical perspective in order to offer a deeper understanding of the dispute it is necessary to begin from the ancient years not for literal interest but because the dispute between the republic of macedonia and greece has an emotional and theoretical aspect ancient macedonia five zero zero bc to one four six bc for a more complete treatment of early macedonia see macedon classical macedonia and environs from alexander g findlay s classical atlas to illustrate ancient geography new york one eight four nine macedonia is known to have been inhabited since neolithic times its recorded history began with the emergence of the ancient kingdom of macedon in what is now the greek part of macedonia and the neighbouring bitola district in the south of today s republic of macedonia by five zero zero bc the early macedonian kingdom had become subject to the persian empire but played no significant part in the wars between the persians and the greeks king alexander i of macedon died four five zero bc was the first macedonian king to play a significant role in greek politics promoting the adoption of the attic dialect and culture under the rule of philip ii of macedon in the four th century bc macedon extended its control over the region of modern day northern greece philip s son alexander the great created an even bigger empire not only conquering the entire balkan region but also seizing control of the persian empire egypt and lands as far east as the fringes of india much of the impetus towards the creation of a common identity was provided by alexander the great alexander s conquests produced an extension of hellenic culture throughout the ancient near east but his empire broke up upon word of his death his generals divided the empire between them founding their own states and dynasties notably antigonus i antipater lysimachus perdiccas ptolemy i and seleucus i macedon itself was taken control by cassander who ruled it until his death in two nine seven bc antigonus ii took control in two seven seven bc following a period of civil strife during his long reign which lasted until two three nine bc he successfully restored macedonian prosperity despite losing control of many of the subjugated greek city states his successor antigonus iii reigned two two nine bc two two one bc re established macedonian power across the region macedon sovereignty was brought to an end at the hands of the rising power of rome in the two nd century bc philip v of macedon took his kingdom to war against the romans in two wars during his reign two two one bc one seven nine bc the first macedonian war two one five bc two zero five bc was fairly successful for the macedonians but philip was decisively defeated in the second macedonian war in two zero zero bc one nine seven bc although he survived war with rome his successor perseus of macedon reigned one seven nine bc one six eight bc did not having taken macedon into the third macedonian war in one seven one bc one six eight bc he lost his kingdom and his life when he was defeated macedonia was initially divided into four republics subject to rome before finally being annexed in one four six bc as the first roman province classical ages macedonian history has its roots deep in time however modern scholars dispute its origins some scholars believe that the ancient macedonians were a hellenic tribe dorians to be exact whose presence is believed can be dated earlier than the nine th century bc some scholars in contrast believe that the greek identity of macedonia is not supportable to support their claim they note that ancient and classical authros did not recognise macedonians as their fellow country men calling them barbarians forigners furthermore to support their claim these scholars indicate that ancient and classical historians made clear distinctions between the greeks and macedonians ethnically culturally and linguistically useful to their research are the ancient texts the following are only some of the passages of several ancient authors which make the above mentioned comments and distinctions diodorus siculus ancient greek historian said the following the macedonians and alexander backed coragus because he was one of them while the greeks favored dioxippus one seven one zero zero four when perdiccas heard of the revolt of the greeks he drew by lot from the macedonians three zero zero zero infantry and eight zero zero horsemen one eight seven three now that this great force had been added to the athenians the greeks who far outnumbered the macedonians were successful one eight one two four then after such a combat i have described the battle was broken off as the scales of victory swung in favour of the macedonians more then five zero zero of the greeks were killed in the battle and one three zero of the macedonians one eight one seven five the commandant of the garrison of that city archelaus who was a macedonian by race welcomed attalus and surrendered the city to him one eight three seven three four strabo ancient historian and geographer said the thessalians in particular wore long robes probably because they of all the greeks lived in the most northerly and coldest region one one one four one two note macedon is located north of thessaly quintus curtius rufus roman historian said alexander speaking to his macedonians where is that shout of yours that shows your enthusiasm where that characteristic look of my macedonians the history of alexander penguin classics p two one seven in contrast strabo one st century bc also says of course macedonia is a part of hellas he defines the frontiers of macedonia including more or less the whole south balkan peninsula with lands streching from albania to the republic of macedonia to bulgaria turkey and greece we should note that this frontier differs from the one that splits macedonia in three parts aegean greece vardar the republic of macedonia and the pirin bulgaria the official historiography of the republic of macedonia argues that the greeks considered the macedonian domination in greece as an alien rule imported from outside by the members of other tribes the as plutarch says allophyloi different nation however the greeks believe that the macedonians were enjoying great appreciation among the ancient greeks for instance king alexander a four nine eight four five four bc was honored by a special decree in the olympic games for his contribution to the greek struggle against the persians he received the title of philellin which means friend of the greeks these titles were bestowed to alexander because he was the first macedonian king to show an interest in the affairs and politics of the greeks in addition the greeks believe philip was a rough king who wanted to reign over greece they believe that he had greek conscience and that he had decided upon his persian expedition both to exact revenge for the persian invasions of european greece in the five th century bc and to liberate greece of asia from persia they also believe that alexander the great had greek culture under the strict order of his father who admired greek knowledge and he was educated by the philosopher aristotle of makedon besides he was dreaming of a long peace embracing all greek states holding high ideals of hellenism and seeking to promote them widely alexander assumed the roles of king of macedon as well as the leader of the league of corinth boldly he committed himself to the liberation of the greeks of asia minor who had been subjects to the persian empire for many decades for this he was being spontaneously worshipped as a living god by the asiatic greeks during the times of philip the greek cities were in dispute with macedonia however the greeks believe that the opposition of sparta or thebes was not because of a barbaric origin of the macedonians but for political reasons furthermore the greeks believe that demosthenes an athenian politician was a hard adversary of philip s policy and as a result calls him barbarian but not the macedonians as a whole they believe that it is totally accepted that this characterization was cultural and not ethnic and it is he who admits that the macedonians live at the centre of greece his anti macedonian feelings the greeks believe are also a result of the political mentality of the south against the north democracy against monarchy and philip had diminished the political freedom of the greeks lastly the greeks believe that three elements constituted the commonality of the ancient greeks common language common religion and participation to the olympic games they believe that the macedonians were fulfilling all three conditions and as a result hardly anyone could disprove their greek identity they believe that the macedonian language was greek differing from the neighboring ancient illyrian and thracian languages in contrast stardelov argues that the macedonian mother language was not understood by the greeks and greek names had only the aristocracy of macedonia but alongside them are to be found names which cannot be explained by means of greek etymology the greeks state however that he does not give any example thus renders his point meaningless martis based on herodotus supports that macedonians have always spoken greek because the greek peoples have always spoken the same tongue and andriotis says that the macedonian names were greek without exception moreover the greeks believe that the macedonians used to worship the olympian gods because many ancient greek temples are situated alongside in other words border macedonian territory finally they believe the macedonians were accepted to the olympic games like all the other greek tribes roman and byzantine period the macedonian state succeeded rome that conquered greece one four six bc the empire s division into two states made macedonia a province of the eastern one with the city of thessalonica becoming an important trade and cultural centre of the byzantine state which soon adopted the greek idiosyncrasy with the advancement of the macedonian s dynasty on the throne despite its power from the beginning of the six th century the byzantine dominions were subject to frequent massive movements and attacks on the part of the trans danubian slavs in the beginning of the seven th century at the time when domestic troubles weakened the defenses at the northern frontier of the byzantine state they made their settlement between the danube and the aimos range from then onwards slavic invasions were carried on intermittently and slavic penetrations of the northern parts of the balkan peninsula continued either in the form of war like invasions and the capture of greeks when the byzantine army was fighting on other fronts or by the peaceful settlement of slavic peasants and shepherds when those invaders submitted to byzantine rule medieval macedonia with the division of the roman empire into west and east in three nine five ad macedonia came under the rule of rome s byzantine successors whereas the byzantine state s prevailing greek culture flourished in thessaloniki and the aegean sea littoral the rest of macedonia was settled from around six zero zero ad by slavs with slavic tribes reaching as far south as thessaly and the peloponnese the bulk of the slavs settled in the north of the region but substantial slavic populations also settled in what is now the northern part of greek macedonia the population of the entire region was however severely depleted by destructive invasions of visigoths huns and vandals in the five th and the six th centuries a number of slavic tribes settled in macedonia central hellas thessaly and peloponnesos they were referred to by byzantine historians as sklavines the sklavines represented a solid mass in most of inland macedonia but in the aegean sea littoral thessaly and peloponnesos they lived alongside the indigenous greek population although the sklavines participated in several assaults against the byzantine empire alone or aided by bulgars or avars they generally recognised the authority of the byzantine emperor until eight three seven ad when most of inland macedonia was incorporated into bulgaria by bulgarian khan presian there are no byzantine records of sklavines after eight three six eight three seven as the slavs of inland macedonia gradually merged with the bulgars to form the bulgarian people while those living in the aegean sea littoral the chalcidice peninsula and inland greece were gradually forced upwards further north or expelled by the indigenous greek population and the byzantine emperors at the end of the one zero th century macedonia turned into the political and cultural centre of bulgaria as byzantine emperor basil ii conquered the eastern part of the country including the capital of preslav in nine seven two a new capital was established at ohrid which also became the seat of the bulgarian patriarchate after several decades of almost incessant war bulgaria fell under byzantine rule in one zero one eight the whole of macedonia was incorporated into the byzantine empire as the province of bulgaria and the bulgarian patriarchate was reduced in rank to an archbishopric in the one three th and one four th century byzantine control was punctuated by periods of bulgarian and serbian rule in the north conquered by the ottoman army in the first half of the one five th century macedonia remained a part of the ottoman empire for nearly five zero zero years during which it gained a substantial turkish minority thessaloniki later becomes the home of a large jewish population following spain s expulsions of jews after one four nine two ottoman period the ottomans in their struggle to capture constantinople included many slavs in their army who after the fall of the empire settled places in the greek mainland in spite of belonging to the same race these populations never felt a common national feeling and most of them were absorbed by the greek nation the slavs of the ottoman macedonia were members of the orthodox millet according to the ottoman administration system that was recognizing religious and not national identities and they were equalized politically with the greeks macedonia s division map of the region contested by serbia and bulgaria and subject to the arbitration of the russian tsar after the revival of greek serbian and bulgarian statehood in the one nine th century macedonia became a focus of the national ambitions of all three governments leading to the creation in the one eight nine zero s and one nine zero zero s of rival armed groups who divided their efforts between fighting the turks and one another the most important of these was the internal macedonian revolutionary organization vmro under goce delchev who in one nine zero three rebelled in the ilinden uprising and the greek efforts from one nine zero four till one nine zero eight greek struggle for macedonia diplomatic intervention by the european powers led to plans for an autonomous macedonia under ottoman rule the birth of nationalism and of the macedonian identity the next centuries macedonia became a rather multicultural region inhabited by greeks macedonians turks albanian gypsies jews and vlachs the birth of the modern greek state in one eight three zero disappointed with its small borders the greeks of northern greece epirus and macedonia regarding these concerns in one eight four four the greek prime minister kolettis addressed the constitutional assembly in athens that the kingdom of greece is not greece it is only a part the smallest and poorest of greece the greek is not only he who inhabits the kingdom but also he who lives in ioannina epirus or thessalonica macedonia or seres macedonia or andrianople thrace he mentions cities and islands that were under ottoman possession composing the great idea which dreamt of a reconstructed classical greek world or byzantine state the important here is that for greece macedonia was a region with mass greek populations expecting liberty to come then also the region which today is the modern republic of macedonia was known as the fief of skopje the big changes of the congress of berlin one eight seven eight changed the balkan map again the treaty restored macedonia and thrace to the ottoman empire serbia romania and montenegro were granted full independence granted some territory expansion at the expense of the ottoman empire russia would maintain an occupying force in bulgaria and eastern rumelia until may one nine seven nine austria hungary was permitted to occupy bosnia herzegovina and the sanjak of novi pazar san stefano bulgaria s size april one eight seven eight was reduced at the half losing macedonia the territorial losses dissatisfied bulgaria whose ambition was to review the treaty besides serbia was now interested in macedonian lands as well as greece that after the addition of thessaly one eight eight one was bordering them thus the berlin congress renewed the struggle for macedonia rather than setting up a permanent regime the following years all neighboring states would seek to conquest the macedonian lands and it was merely a strenuous process not only because of the capabilities of the ottoman army but mainly because the great powers were officially engaged in balkan politics conversely to slovenians croats serbians and albanians that beyond the lack of a state tradition in favor of protestantism enlightment or napoleonic policy they kept their lingual and slavic identity someone would have objections to accept the ethnic identity of moldavians bosnian muslims and macedonians the latter s identities were shaped basically for political reasons of external factors which are analyzed below the moldavian nation was serving the russian romanian competition the bosnian muslim nation was serving the serbian croatian competition and the macedonian nation was serving the serbian bulgarian competition in other words the macedonian identity was invented to serve the effort of bulgaria and serbia to control these lands the serbian policy had a distinct anti bulgarian orientation preventing the influence of the bulgarian exarchate established in one eight seven zero to the inhabitants of macedonia on the other hand bulgaria was using the power of its religious institution to promote its language and make more people feel bulgarians bramos argues that behind bulgarian foreign policy was hidden the russian factor who wanted to acquire an exit to aegean sea and a serious obstacle was the greek influence on macedonia greece in addition was in the advantageous position to protect its interests through the influence of the patriarchate of constantinople responsible for educational issues because of sponsoring schools in greek language was in dispute with the exarchate the protector of the bulgarian interests indeed belonging to one or another institution could define the national identity precisely if someone supported the patriarchate s authority was regarded greek while if the same person supported the exarchate s was regarded bulgarian macedonian identity is a result of the balance of power in balkans the aim of the adversaries was not to bring macedonia closer to each one but to keep it far from the opponent this often violent attempt to persuade the people that they belong to one ethnic group or another pushed someone to reject both the harsh pressure on the peaceful peasants of macedonia worked reverse to the plans of the serbians and bulgarians to make them adopt their ethnic idea and eventually a social distinction erected a british ambassador in belgrade in one nine two seven was reporting on this at present the unfortunate macedonian peasant is between the hammer and the anvil one day comitadjis come to his house and demand under threat lodging food and money and the next day the gendarm hales him off to prison for having given them the macedonian is really a peaceable fairly industrious agriculturist and if the serbian government give him adequate protection education freedom from malaria and decent communications there seems no reason why he should not become just as serbian in sentiment as he was bulgarian one zero years ago in actual fact the slavs of macedonia did not have any national identity this was the result serbian bulgarian propaganda moreover when the imperialistic plans of the surrounding states made possible the division of macedonia some macedonian intellectuals such as misirkov mentioned the necessity of creating a macedonian national identity which would diverse the macedonian slavs from bulgarians serbians or greeks baptizing macedonian slavs serbian or bulgarians aimed therefore to justify these countries territorial claims over macedonia the greek side with the assistance of the patriarchate that was responsible for the schools could easier maintain control because they were spreading the greek identity for the very same reason the bulgarians preparing the exarchate s regulation one eight seven one included macedonians in the assembly as brothers to prevent any ethnic diversification on the other hand the serbs unable to establish serbian speaking schools waged propaganda their main concern was to prevent the slavic speaking macedonians from acquiring bulgarian conscience concentrated on the myth of their ancient origins and simultaneously with the classification of bulgarians as tatars and not as slavs emphasizing their macedonian characteristics as an intermediate stage between serbs and bulgarians to sum up the serbian propaganda blocked by the bulgarian to persuade the slavs of macedonia of being serbians chose to inspire them a separate ethnic identity to diminish the bulgarian influence this choice was the macedonian ethnicity the bulgarians never accepted an ethnic diversity from the slav macedonians giving geographic meaning to the term in one eight nine three they established the vmro internal macedonian revolutionary organization aiming to confront the serbian and greek action in macedonia vmro hoped to succeed in the macedonian question through a revolutionary movement for this they instigated the ilinden uprising one nine zero three to release some ottoman territory bulgaria used it to internationalise the macedonian question ilinden changed greece s stance which decided to take para military action for a first time and in order to protect the greek macedonians and interests greece sent officers to train guerrillas and organise militias known as makedonomahoi macedonian fighters oriented basically against the bulgarians after that it was obvious that the macedonian question could be answered only with a war the rise of the albanian and the turkish nationalism after one nine zero eight however prompted greece serbia and bulgaria to bury their differences with regard to macedonia and to form a joint coalition against the ottoman empire in one nine one two disregarding public opinion in bulgaria which was in support of the establishment of an autonomous macedonian province under a christian governor the bulgarian government entered a pre war treaty with serbia which divided the region into two parts the part of macedonia west and north of the line of partition was contested by both serbia and bulgaria and was subject to the arbitration of the russian tsar after the war serbia formally renounced any claims to the part of macedonia south and east of the line which was declared to be within the bulgarian sphere of interest the pre treaty between greece and bulgaria however did not include any agreement on the division of the conquered territories evidently both countries hoped to occupy as much territory as possible having their sights primarily set on thessaloniki ottoman territories occupied by bulgaria serbia greece and montenegro after the first balkan war in the first balkan war bulgaria serbia greece and montenegro occupied almost all ottoman held territories in europe bulgaria bore the brunt of the war fighting on the thracian front against the main ottoman forces both her war expenditures and casualties in the first balkan war were higher than those of serbia greece and montenegro combined macedonia itself was occupied by greek serbian and bulgarian forces the ottoman empire in the treaty of london in may one nine one three assigned the whole of macedonia to the balkan league without specifing the division of the region in order to promote problems between the allies dissatisfied with the creation of an autonomous albanian state which denied her access to the adriatic serbia asked for the suspension of the pre war division treaty and demanded from bulgaria greater territorial concessions in macedonia later in may the same year greece and serbia signed a secret treaty in thessaloniki stipulating the division of macedonia according to the existing lines of control both serbia and greece as well as bulgaria started to prepare for a final war of partition macedonia s division in one nine one three in june one nine one three bulgarian tsar ferdinand without consulting the government and without any declaration of war ordered bulgarian troops to attack the greek and serbian troops in macedonia initiating the second balkan war the bulgarian army was in full retreat in all fronts the serbian army chose to stop its operations when achieved all its territorial goals and only then the bulgarian army took a breath during the last two days the bulgarians managed to achieve a defensive victory against the advancing greek army in the kresna gorge however at the same time the romanian army crossed the undefended northern border and easily advanced towards sofia romania interfered in the war in order to satisfy its territorial claims against bulgaria the ottoman empire also interfered easily reassuming control of eastern thrace with edirne the second balkan war also known as inter ally war left bulgaria only with the struma valley and a small part of thrace with minor ports at the aegean sea vardar macedonia was incorporated into serbia and thereafter referred to as south serbia southern aegean macedonia was incorporated into greece and thereafter was referred to as norther greece the region suffered heavily during the second balkan war during its advance at the end of june the greek army set fire to the bulgarian quarter of the town of kukush kilkis and over one six zero villages around kukush and serres driving some five zero zero zero zero refugees into bulgaria proper the bulgarian army retaliated by burning the greek quarter of serres and by arming muslims from the region of drama which led to a massacre of greek civilians in september of one nine one five the greek government allowed the landing of the troops of the allies in thessaloniki in one nine one six the pro german king of greece agreed with the germans to allow military forces of the central powers to enter greek macedonia in order to attack the forces of the allies in thessaloniki as a result of that bulgarian troops occupied the eastern part of greek macedonia with the port of kavala the region was however restored to greece following the victory of the allies in one nine one eight after the destruction of the greek army in asia minor in one nine two two greece and turkey exchanged most of macedonia s turkish minority and the greek inhabitants of thrace and anatolia as a result of which aegean macedonia experienced a large addition to its population and became overwhelmingly greek in ethnic composition serbian ruled macedonia was incorporated into the kingdom of serbs croats and slovenes later the kingdom of yugoslavia in one nine one eight yugoslav macedonia was subsequently subjected to an intense process of serbianization during the one nine two zero s and one nine three zero s during world war ii the boundaries of the region shifted yet again when the german forces occupied the area most of yugoslav macedonia and part of aegean macedonia were transferred for administration to bulgaria during the bulgarian admininstration of eastern greek macedonia some one zero zero zero zero zero bulgarian refugees from the region were resettled there and perhaps as many greeks were deported or fled to greece western aegean macedonia was occupied by italy with the western parts of yugoslav macedonia being annexed to italian occupied albania the remainder of greek macedonia including all of the coast was occupied by nazi germany one of the worst episodes of the holocaust happened here when six zero zero zero zero jews from thessaloniki were deported to extermination camps in occupied poland only a few thousand survived macedonia was liberated in one nine four four when the red army s advance in the balkan peninsula forced the german forces to retreat the pre war borders were restored under u s and british pressure because the bulgarian government was insisting to keep its military units on greek soil the bulgarian macedonia returned fairly rapidly to normality but the bulgarian patriots in yugoslav macedonia underwent a process of ethnic cleansing by the belgrade authorities and greek macedonia was ravaged by the greek civil war which broke out in december one nine four four and did not end until october one nine four nine after this civil war a large number of former elas fighters who took refuge in communist bulgaria and yugoslavia and described themselves as ethnic bulgarian macedonian were prohibited from reestablishing to their former estates by the greek authorities most of them were accused in greece for crimes committed during the period of the german occupation macedonia in balkan wars world war i and ii the balkan wars the decline of the ottoman empire and its imminent collapse was what the balkan states had been waiting to inherit its european territory the young turks revolution one nine zero eight proved a nationalistic movement thwarting the peoples expectations of the empire s modernization and sped up the end of the ottoman occupation of balkans to this direction was oriented the alliance between the balkan states in the spring one nine one three precisely the first balkan war which lasted six weeks commenced on eight one zero one nine one two when montenegro declared war on the ottoman empire whose forces finally fought four different wars in thrace macedonia northern and southern albania and kosovo the macedonian campaign which is the main concern of this chapter was fought in atrocious conditions the retreat of the ottoman army from macedonia succeeded the desperate effort of the greek and bulgarian forces to reach the city of thessalonica the single prize of the first balkan war for whose status no prior agreements were done in this case possession would be equal to acquisition the greek forces entered the city first liberating officially a progress only positive for them glenny says for the greeks it was a good war the first balkan war managed to liberate balkans from turks and settled the major issues except macedonia in the spring one nine one three the serbs and greeks begun the serbianization and the hellenization of the parts in macedonia they already controlled while bulgarians faced some difficulties against the jews and the turkish populations moreover the possession of thessalonica was a living dream for the bulgarians that were preparing for a new war for this the bulgarian troops had a secret order to launch surprise attacks on the serbs greece and serbia acknowledging the bulgarian plans signed a bilateral defensive agreement may one nine one three consequently greece and serbia decided to attack bulgaria in its moment of maximum weakness exhausted by its sacrifice the previous winter besides they had to fight also the romanians who were claim bulgarian lands the treaty of bucharest august one nine one three took off most of the bulgarian conquests of the previous years large part of macedonia became southern serbia including the territory of what today is the republic of macedonia and aegean macedonia became northern greece greece almost doubled its territory and population size and its northern frontiers remain today more or less the same since the balkan wars however when serbia acquired vardarska banovina the region of vardar macedonia modern republic of macedonia it launched having expansionist views aiming to descend to the aegean with thessalonica as he highest ambition however greece after the population exchange with bulgaria soon after its victory in the balkan wars managed to give national homogeneity in the aegean and any remaining slavic speakers were softly absorbed world war i after world war i the status quo of macedonia remained the same the establishment of the kingdom of serbians croats and slovenes in one nine one eight which in one nine two nine was renamed yugoslavia south slavia predicted no special regime for skopje neither recognized any macedonian national identity in fact the claims to macedonian identity remained silent at a propaganda level because eventually north macedonia had been a serbian conquest the situation in serbian macedonia changed after the revolution in russia one nine one eight one nine one nine according to sfetas comintern was handling macedonia as an matter of tactics depending on the political circumstances in early one nine two zero s supported the position for a single and independent macedonia in a balkan soviet democracy in actual fact the soviets wished a common frontier of the bulgarian communist agriculturists and the bulgarian macedonian societies in order to destabilize the balkan peninsula vmro under the protection of comintern promoted the idea of an independent macedonia in a federation of balkan states unifying all macedonians however the possible participation of bulgaria in a new war on the axon s side ended the soviet support some years later world war ii and beyond during the german occupation of greece one nine four one one nine four four the greek communist party kke was the main resistance factor with its military branch eam elas national liberating frontier although many members of eam were slavic speaking they had either bulgarian greek or distinct macedonian conscience to take advantage of the situation kke established snof macedonian liberating frontier one nine four three with the cooperation of the yugoslav leader tito who was ambitious enough to make plans for the greek macedonia for this he established the anti fascistic assembly for the national liberation of macedonia asnom giving an actual liberating character to the whole region of macedonia besides kke was very positive to the option of a greater macedonia including the greek region since it realised that a victory in the greek civil war was utopic later eam and snof disagreed in issues of policy and they finally crashed and the former was expelled from greece one nine four four yugoslav macedonia was the only region that tito had not developed a partisan movement because of the bulgarian occupation of a large macedonian area to the improvement of the situation in one nine four three was established the communist party of macedonia in tetovo with the prospect that it would support the resistance against axon in the meanwhile the bulgarians proved very violent losing any moral support from the civilians in the end of the war a macedonia national consciousness hardly existed beyond a general conviction gained from bitter experience that rule from sofia was as unpalatable as that from belgrade bur if there were no macedonian nation there was a communist party of macedonia around which the people s republic of macedonia was built in august one nine four four tito established people s republic of macedonia firstly he limited the serbian territory and secondly he implied with his political decision that only macedonia of bardar was liberated whilst the aegean and pirin were still under foreign occupation the end of the war did not bring peace to greece and a strenuous civil war between the government forces and eam broke out with about five zero zero zero zero casualties for both sides the defeat of the communists one nine four nine forced its slav speaking members to leave greece followed by the last non greek speaking inhabitants since one nine two three the only internationally recognized minority in greece are the muslims in west thrace the yugoslav communist leader josip broz tito separated yugoslav macedonia from serbia after the war it became a republic of the new federal yugoslavia as the socialist republic of macedonia in one nine four six with its capital at skopje tito also promoted the concept of a separate macedonian nation as a means of severing the ties of the slav population of yugoslav macedonia with bulgaria although the macedonian language is very close to bulgarian the differences were deliberately emphasized and the region s historical figures were promoted as being uniquely macedonian rather than serbian or bulgarian a separate macedonian orthodox church was established splitting off from the serbian orthodox church but it has not been recognised by any other orthodox church including the ecumenical patriarchate of constantinople the communist party sought to deter pro bulgarian sentiment which was punished severely convictions were still being handed down as late as one nine nine one tito had a number of reasons for doing this first as an ethnic croat he wanted to reduce serbia s dominance in yugoslavia establishing a territory formerly considered serbian as an equal to serbia within yugoslavia achieved this effect secondly he wanted to sever the ties of the macedonian slav population with bulgaria as recognition of that population as bulgarian would have undermined the unity of the yugoslav federation third of all tito sought to justify future yugoslav claims towards the rest of macedonia pirin and aegean in the name of the liberation of the region the potential macedonian state would remain as a constituent republic within yugoslavia and so yugoslavia would manage to get access to the aegean sea tito s designs on macedonia were asserted as early as august one nine four four when in a proclamation he claimed that his goal was to reunify all parts of macedonia divided in one nine one two and one nine one three by balkan imperialists to this end he opened negotiations with bulgaria for a new federal state which would also probably have included albania and supported the greek communists in the greek civil war the idea of reunification of all of macedonia under communist rule was abandoned as late as one nine four nine when the greek communists lost and tito fell out with the soviet union and pro soviet bulgaria across the border in greece macedonians were seen as a potentially disloyal fifth column within the greek state by both the us and greece the existence of a slav minority was officially denied with macedonians referred to in official censuses as being merely slavophone greeks slavonic names were forbidden and a strip along the border was subjected to security restrictions greeks were resettled in the region many of whom emigrated especially to australia along with many greek speaking natives because of the hard economic conditions after the second world war and the greek civil war although there was some liberalization between one nine five nine and one nine six seven the greek military dictatorship re imposed harsh restrictions the situation gradually eased after greece s return to democracy although even as recently as the one nine nine zero s greece has been criticised by international human rights activists for harassing macedonian slav political activists who nonetheless are free to maintain their own political party rainbow party elsewhere in greek macedonia economic development after the war was brisk and the area rapidly became the most prosperous part of the region the coast was heavily developed for tourism particularly on the khalkidhiki peninsula bulgaria initially accepted the existence of a distinctive macedonian identity but it was under soviet and yugoslav pressure it had been agreed that pirin macedonia would join yugoslavian macedonia and for this reason the population was forced to declare itself macedonian in the one nine four six census this caused resentment and many people were imprisoned or interned in rural areas outside macedonia after tito s split from the soviet bloc this position was abandoned and the existence of a macedonian nation or language was denied attempts of macedonian historians after the one nine four zero s to claim a number of prominent figures of the one nine th century bulgarian cultural revival and armed resistance movement as macedonians has caused ever since a bitter resentment in sofia bulgaria has repeatedly accused the republic of macedonia of appropriating bulgarian national heroes and symbols and of editing works of literature and historical documents so as to prove the existence of a macedonian slav consciousness before the one nine four zero s the publication in the republic of macedonia of the folk song collections bulgarian folk songs by the miladinov brothers and songs of the macedonian bulgarians by serbian archaelogist verkovic under the politically correct titles collection and macedonian folk songs are some of the examples quoted by the bulgarians the issue has soured the relations of bulgaria with former yugoslavia and later with the republic of macedonia for decades the republic of macedonia and the nomination issue with greece about aegean macedonia the disintegration of yugoslavia the cold war froze the historical process in balkans greece cooperated with tito s yugoslavia even if he was rarely referring to the existence of a macedonian minority in greece provoking the latter s complaints the fall of the ussr however lead eventually to the break up of yugoslavia which started with the secession of slovenia and croatia one nine nine one shortly after these two countries the republic of macedonia declared its independence september one nine nine one under the strong objections of greece because of the use of a greek name according to the greek side greek historical heritage therefore any use of its name or symbols by another entity is unacceptable furthermore north greece is also called macedonia which creates confusion besides it is mentioned above that the macedonians had expansionist ideas considering that the macedonians supported that a large macedonian lives in greece this could bring disorder in the balkans once more in addition the republic of macedonia adopted as its national symbol the star of vergina the burial place of philip ii an artifact of the greek civilization an action insensitive and na ve however this is not to condemn the republic of macedonia greece did little effort to prevent this unpleasant situation in the past the greek governments did not wish to provoke problems to their relations with tito and yugoslavia in other cases the dictatorship of one nine six seven and the turkish invasion in cyprus one nine seven four detracted and monopolized greek foreign policy respectively and the hidden name of a small federal state seemed an issue of less importance when the crisis erupted the slav macedonians had an already shaped ethnic conscience even if on a mythic basis and it could not change from one day to another furthermore it was the first time to declare a fully independent state and be clearly distinct from the serbians and bulgarians a gift that they would not deny at any cost besides any name change would erase the historical basis and question the macedonian identity while more than three zero of the population was albanians expecting privileges to sum up greece objected to the recognition to protect regional stability and its own security but also for saving its own historical myth later is analyzed the aspect of international relations and the importance of size it will be explained why the eu refused to recognize republic of macedonia under a name not acceptable by all member states under the greek intolerance and that the internal politics influenced greek foreign policy furthermore the several initiatives of resolution are presented why greece embargoed the republic of macedonia even if as a greater power had other means to negotiate and also how did the adversaries reached the interim agreement that improved the relations of the neighbors since then the relations between the two countries are normal and greece has become the biggest industrial and trade partner of the republic of macedonia even if the name issue remains as communism fell throughout eastern europe in the late two zero th century macedonia followed its other federation partners and declared its independence from yugoslavia in late one nine nine one the new macedonian constitution took effect november two zero one nine nine one and called for a system of government based on a parliamentary democracy the first democratically elected coalition government was led by prime minister branko crvenkovski of the social democratic union of macedonia sdsm and included the ethnic albanian party for democratic prosperity pdp kiro gligorov became the first president of an independent macedonia president gligorov was the first president of a former yugoslav republic to relinquish office in accordance with the terms of the macedonian constitution his presidency ended in november one nine nine nine after eight years in office which included surviving a car bombing assassination attempt in one nine nine five he was succeeded by former deputy foreign minister boris trajkovski vmro who defeated tito petkovski sdsm in a second round run off election for the presidency november one four one nine nine nine trajkovski s election was confirmed by a december five one nine nine nine partial re vote in two three zero polling stations which the macedonian supreme court mandated due to election irregularities macedonia was the only republic of the former yugoslavia whose secession in one nine nine one was not clouded by ethnic or other armed conflict although the ethnic albanian population declined to participate in the referendum on independence during the yugoslav period macedonian ethnic identity exhibited itself in that most of macedonia s slavic population identified themselves as macedonians while several minority groups in particular ethnic albanians sought to retain their own distinct political culture and language although interethnic tensions simmered under yugoslav authority and during the first decade of its independence the country avoided ethnically motivated conflict until several years after independence the united states department of state controversy republic of macedonia and greece although no controversy exists in regards to whether or not parts of the historic region of macedonia are incorporated in the modern republic of macedonia as indeed part of the ancient macedonian kingdom is there is controversy however with regards to the slavic people who currently populate much of the region some believe in a so called slavic migration theory which states that the slavic people who currently populate much of the region of macedonia did not arrive in the balkans until approximately one zero zero zero years after the death of alexander the great as a result the appropriation of what greece considered ancient greek symbols by the people of macedonia fueled nationalist anger in greece this anger was reinforced by the legacy of the civil war and the view in many quarters that greece s slavic speaking populations were a disloyal minority the republic of macedonia s status became a heated political issue in greece where demonstrations took place in athens and thessaloniki in one nine nine two against the state under the slogan macedonia is greek referring to the name and history rather than the modern region as a whole the greek government objected formally to any use of the name macedonia including any derivative names and also to the use of symbols such as the vergina sun the controversy was not just nationalist but had much to do with internal greek politics as well the two leading greek political parties the ruling conservative new democracy under constantine mitsotakis and the socialist pasok under andreas papandreou sought to outbid each other in whipping up nationalist sentiment against the republic of macedonia to complicate matters further new democracy itself was divided mitsotakis favoured a compromise solution on the macedonian question while his foreign minister antonis samaras took a hard line approach the two eventually fell out and samaras was sacked with mitsotakis reserving the foreign ministry for himself he failed to reach an agreement on the macedonian issue despite united nations mediation and fell from power in october one nine nine three largely as a result of his handling of the issue when papandreou took power following the october one nine nine three elections he restated his party s hard line position on the issue the united nations recommended recognition of the republic of macedonia under the temporary name of the former yugoslav republic of macedonia or fyrom for short which would be used internationally while the country continued to use republic of macedonia as its constitutional name the united states and european union agreed to this proposal and duly recognized macedonia prompting demonstrations in greek cities against what was termed a betrayal by greece s allies papandreou supported and encouraged the demonstrations boosting his own popularity by taking the hard line against the republic of macedonia in february one nine nine four he imposed a total trade embargo on the country with the exception of food and medicines the effect on the republic of macedonia s economy was devastating the blockade also had a political cost for greece as there was little understanding or sympathy for the country s position and exasperation over what was seen as greek obstructionism from some of its european union partners greece was criticized in some quarters for contributing to the rising tension in the balkans even if the wars in the former yugoslavia were widely seen as having been triggered by the premature recognition of its successor republics by other european countries a move to which greece had objected from the beginning it later emerged that greece had only agreed to the dissolution of yugoslavia in return for eu solidarity on the macedonian issue in one nine nine four the european commission took greece to the european court of justice in an effort to overturn the embargo but before a ruling could be reached as a result of international pressure the republic of macedonia and greece entered into an interim agreement in which the republic of macedonia agreed to remove any implied territorial claims to the greater macedonia region from its constitution and to drop the vergina sun from its flag in return greece lifted the blockade discussions continue over the greek objection regarding the country s name but without any resolution so far outside greece and international diplomatic settings the country is usually simply called macedonia about four zero countries notably the united states people s republic of china and russian federation have recognised it by its constitutional name while the remaining majority of countries the united nations and other international organisations recognize it as the former yugoslav republic of macedonia often abbreviated as fyrom controversy republic of macedonia and bulgaria bulgarian governments throughout the period continued their policy of non recognition of macedonians as a distinct ethnic group there were repeated complaints of official harassment of macedonian slav activists in the one nine nine zero s attempts of slav macedonian separatist organisation umo ilinden to commemorate the grave of revolutionary yane sandanski throughout the one nine nine zero s were usually hampered by the bulgarian police several incidents of mobbing of umo ilinden members by bulgarian imro activists were also reported after the bulgarian electoral committee endorsed in two zero zero one the registration of a wing of umo ilinden which had dropped separatist demands from its charter the mother organisation became largely inactive no major incidents or harassment has been reported since then similar cases of harassment of pro bulgarian organisations and activists have been reported in the republic of macedonia in two zero zero zero several teenagers threw smoke bombs at the conference of pro bulgarian organisation radko in skopje causing panic and confusion among the delegates the perpetrators were afterwards acclaimed by the macedonian press as national heroes radko was later banned by the macedonian constitutional court as separatist the organisation has continued its activity though mostly in the cultural field front cover of songs of the macedonian bulgarians by stefan verkovic first edition one eight six zero in two zero zero one radko issued in skopje the original version of the folk song collection bulgarian folk songs by the miladinov brothers issued under an edited name in the republic of macedonia and viewed as a collection of slav macedonian lyrics the book triggered a wave of other publications among which the memoirs of the greek bishop of kastoria in which he talked about the greek bulgarian church struggle at the beginning of the two zero th century as well the report of the carnegie commission on the causes and conduct of the balkan wars from one nine one three neither of these addressed the slavic population of macedonia as macedonian slav but as bulgarian being the first publications to question the official macedonian position of the existence of a distinct macedonian slav identity going back to the time of alexander the great the books triggered a reaction of shock and disbelief in macedonian slav public opinion the scandal after the publication of bulgarian folk songs resulted in the sacking of the macedonian minister of culture dimitar dimitrov as from two zero zero zero bulgaria started to grant bulgarian citizenship to members of the bulgarian minorities in a number of countries including the republic of macedonia the vast majority of the applications have been from macedonian citizens as at may two zero zero four some one four zero zero zero macedonians had applied for a bulgarian citizenship on the grounds of bulgarian origin and four zero zero zero of them had already received their bulgarian passports the main reason behind this was the posibility to travel in european union and other countries without need of a visa which is still not possible having only the macedonian passport in june two zero zero four the macedonian state television announced with alarm that at least one member of every fourth household in the eastern part of the republic of macedonia had already received a bulgarian passport or had at least applied for one the last quoted number so far was of six three zero zero zero macedonians the number has not been confirmed officially by the macedonian daily vecher on april five two zero zero five see also irredentism demographic history of macedonia macedonia greece pirin macedonia republic of macedonia history of europe history of the balkans history of greece history of bulgaria history of the republic of macedonia history of serbia history of macedonia reference h r wilkinson author of maps and politics a review of the ethnographic cartography of macedonia one external links general herodotus on the origins of the makedno history of macedon macedonian dance regions map greek perspective macedonia the historical profile an online review of macedonian affairs history and culture open epistle by martis former greek minister macedonia on the web pro bulgarian on line books about macedonia original documents and maps regarding macedonia pro serbian perspective serbs and serbian name in geographic macedonia from early medieval to modern times macedonian slav perspective history literature history of macedonia my macedonia macedonia info org history ancient roman provinces macedonia republic of macedonia this article is about the history of the southeast european country whose contitutional name is republic of macedonia however it is also known under the temporary reference former yugoslav republic of macedonia for history of the wider macedonian region three eight of which is in the present day republic of macedonia five one in greece and one one in bulgaria see macedonia one nine one two one nine four four the valley of the river vardar which was later to become the central area of the republic of macedonia was ruled by the ottoman empire prior to the first balkan war of one nine one two it was captured by serbia during that war and was subsequently annexed to serbia in the post war peace treaties it had no administrative autonomy and was called ju na srbija southern serbia or stara srbija old serbia after the first world war the kingdom of serbia joined the newly formed kingdom of serbs croats and slovenes in one nine two nine the kingdom was officially renamed the kingdom of yugoslavia and was divided into provinces called banovinas the territory of the modern republic of macedonia became a part of the vardar banovina during world war ii the vardar banovina was occupied between one nine four one and one nine four four by italian ruled albania which annexed the albanian populated western regions and pro german bulgaria which occupied the remainder the occupying powers imposed a harsh regime on the province s inhabitants which prompted many of them to join the communist resistance movement of josip broz tito one nine four four one nine four nine following world war ii yugoslavia was reconstituted as a federal state under the leadership of tito s yugoslav communist party when the former vardar province was liberated in one nine four four most of it was made into a separate republic while the northernmost parts of the province remained with serbia in one nine four six the new republic was given federal status as an autonomous people s republic of macedonia within the new socialist federal republic of yugoslavia in the one nine six three constitution of yugoslavia it was slightly renamed to bring it into line with the other yugoslav republics as the socialist republic of macedonia greece was offended by the yugoslav government s actions as they were seen as pretext for future territorial claims since the greek province of northern greece which in one nine eight eight was renamed to province of macedonia was part of the spoils that greece received during the balkan wars and to which both serbia and bulgaria have made hystoric claims the yugoslav authorities also promoted the development of the macedonians ethnic identity and macedonian language the macedonian language was codified in one nine four four keith two zero zero three from the language spoken by the majority of the population in the republic of macedonia this angered both greece and bulgaria because of the possible territorial claims of the new states to the greek and bulgarian parts of the region of macedonia received after the balkan wars during the greek civil war one nine four four one nine four nine many macedonians regardless of ethnicity participated in the elas resistance movement organized by the greek communist party elas and yugoslavia were on good terms until one nine four nine when they split due to tito s lack of allegiance to stalin cf cominform after the end of the war the elas fighters who took refuge in southern yugoslavia and bulgaria were not all permitted to return to greece only those who considered themselves greeks were allowed whereas those who considered themselves bulgarians or macedonians were barred these events also contributed to the bad state of yugoslav greek relations in macedonia one nine nine zero s on september one seven one nine nine one the socialist republic of macedonia held a referendum that established its independence from yugoslavia under the name of the republic of macedonia bulgaria was the first country to recognize the republic of macedonia under its constitutional name however international recognition of the new country was delayed by greece s objection to the use of what it considered a hellenic name and national symbols as well as controversial clauses in the republic s constitution to compromise the united nations recognised the state under the name of the former yugoslav republic of macedonia in one nine nine three greece was still dissatisfied and it imposed a trade blockade in february one nine nine four the sanctions were lifted in september one nine nine five after the republic of macedonia changed its flag and apects of its constitution that were perceived as granting it the right to intervene in the affaires of third countries the two neighbours immediately went ahead with normalizing their relations but the state s name remains a source of local and international controversy the usage of each name remains controversial to supporters of the other after the state was admitted to the united nations under the temporary reference the former yugoslav republic of macedonia other international organisations adopted the same convention more than half of the un s member states have recognised the country as the republic of macedonia including the united states of america while the rest use the temporary reference the former yugoslav republic of macedonia or fyrom or have not established any diplomatic relations with republic of macedonia as of august two zero zero five poland became the one one two th country out of one nine one total members of un to recognize republic of macedonia under its constitutional name a permanent agreement between greece and the republic of macedonia s name has not yet been reached however the acceptance by greece of a temporary name that includes macedonia reflects athens willingness to accept a permanent name that includes macedonia the latest publicized proposal was republika makedonija skopje with that spelling but was rejected by the republic of macedonia the un mediator matthew nimitz proposed another form several months afterwards without publicizing the exact formulation but this form was rejected by greece in one nine nine nine the kosovo war led to nearly four zero zero zero zero zero albanian refugees from kosovo fleeing into the republic of macedonia greatly disrupting normal life in the region and threatening to upset the balance between macedonians and albanians refugee camps were set up in the republic of macedonia meanwhile athens rallied behind skopje and allowed greek macedonia to be used as a transit corridor for nato forces moving to the region ahead of a possible invasion of serbia thessaloniki became the main depot for humanitarian aid to the region the republic itself did not become involved in the conflict in the event the serbian government under president slobodan milo evi capitulated and the refugees were allowed home under un protection however the war increased tensions and relations between ethnic macedonians and albanian macedonians became strained on the possitive side athens and ankara presented a united front of non involvment in greece there was a strong reaction against nato and the united states but the small anti war political parties lost rather than gained support two zero zero zero s in the spring of two zero zero one ethnic albanian rebels calling themselves the national liberation army some of whom were former members of the kosovo liberation army took up arms in the west of the republic of macedonia they demanded that the constitution be rewritten to enshrine certain ethnic albanian interests such as language rights the guerillas received support from albanians in nato controlled kosovo and ethnic albanian guerrillas in the demilitarized zone between kosovo and the rest of serbia the fighting was concentrated in and around tetovo the second largest city in the republic after a joint nato serb crackdown on albanian guerillas in kosovo european union eu officials were able to negotiate a cease fire in june the government would give ethnic albanians greater civil rights and the guerilla groups would voluntarily relinquish their weapons to nato monitors this agreement was a success and in august two zero zero one three five zero zero nato soldiers conducted operations essential harvest to retrieve the arms directly after the operation finished in september the nla officially dissolved itself ethnic relations have since improved significantly although hardliners on both sides have been a continued cause for concern and some low level violence continues particularly directed against police on february two six two zero zero four president boris trajkovski died in a plane crash on the territory of bosnia and herzegovina the results of the official investigation revealed that the cause of the plane accident was procedural mistakes by the crew committed during the approach to land at mostar airport in march two zero zero four the republic of macedonia submitted an application for membership of the eu on december one seven th two zero zero five eu presidency conclusions enlisted republic of macedoina as an accession candidate it is expected that the eu will announce in late two zero zero six the date for eu accession negotiations see also republic of macedonia yugoslavia history of the balkans history of europe references macedonian history history of europe location southeastern europe north of greece map of the republic of macedonia geographic coordinates map references europe area total two five three three three km land two four eight five six km water four seven seven km area comparative slightly larger than vermont land boundaries total seven four eight km border countries albania one five one km bulgaria one four eight km greece two two eight km serbia and montenegro two two one km all with serbia coastline zero km landlocked maritime claims none landlocked climate warm dry summers and autumns and relatively cold winters with heavy snowfall terrain mountainous territory covered with deep basins and valleys three large lakes each divided by a frontier line country bisected by the vardar river elevation extremes lowest point vardar river five zero m highest point golem korab maja e korabit two seven five three m natural resources chromium lead zinc manganese tungsten nickel low grade iron ore asbestos sulfur timber arable land land use arable land two four permanent crops two permanent pastures two five forests and woodland three nine other one zero one nine nine three est irrigated land eight three zero km one nine nine three est natural hazards high seismic risks environment current issues air pollution from metallurgical plants environment international agreements party to air pollution biodiversity climate change hazardous wastes law of the sea ozone layer protection wetlands signed but not ratified none of the selected agreements geography note landlocked major transportation corridor from western and central europe to aegean sea and southern europe to western europe see also macedonia region republic of macedonia geography of the republic of macedonia population demographics of the republic of macedonia data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands some statistics are from the two zero zero two census data while the rest are estimates from the cia world factbook publication total two zero two two five four seven two zero zero two census two zero seven one two one zero july two zero zero four est age structure zero one four years two one five male two three one zero seven eight female two one three nine zero six one five six four years six seven eight male seven zero seven two nine eight female six nine six eight three zero six five years and over one zero seven male nine seven four three seven female one two four six six one two zero zero four est population growth rate zero three nine two zero zero four est birth rate one three one four births one zero zero zero population two zero zero four est death rate seven eight three deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero four est net migration rate one four five migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero four est sex ratio at birth one zero eight male s female under one five years one zero eight male s female one five six four years one zero two male s female six five years and over zero seven eight male s female total population one male s female two zero zero four est infant mortality rate total one one seven four deaths one zero zero zero live births female one zero seven three deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero four est male one two six seven deaths one zero zero zero live births life expectancy at birth total population seven four seven three years male seven two four five years female seven seven two years two zero zero four est total fertility rate one seven four children born woman two zero zero four est hiv aids adult prevalence rate less than zero one two zero zero one est people living with hiv aids less than one zero zero one nine nine nine est deaths less than one zero zero two zero zero one est nationality noun macedonian adjective macedonian ethnic map of the republic of macedonia according to the one nine eight one census ethnic groups based on two zero zero two census macedonians one two nine seven nine eight one or six four one eight this also includes macedonian muslims albanians five zero nine zero eight three or two five one seven turks seven seven nine five nine or three eight five roma five three eight seven nine or two six six serbs three five nine three nine or one seven eight bosniaks one seven zero one eight or zero eight four one aromanians nine six nine five or zero four seven nine others two zero nine nine three or one zero four religions eastern orthodox macedonian orthodox seven zero muslim two nine other one languages macedonian six eight albanian two five turkish three serbo croatian two other two literacy definition na total population na male na female na trends the process of industrialization and urbanization after the wwii that caused the population growth to decrease involved the macedonians to a greater extent than the muslims rates of increase are very high among rural muslims turks and torbesh are two five times those of the macedonian majority while albanians and roma have three times as high this has resulted in a significant demographic change as the albanian population part has swelled from eight after wwii to two five in the one nine nine zero s this have caused political tension for a long time and ultimately after a brief conflict forced the country to undertake reforms that decentralized the government see also republic of macedonia external links results of the two zero zero two census cia s world factbook entry on the republic of macedonia demographics by country republic of macedonia politics of the republic of macedonia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic whereby the prime minister is the head of government and of a pluriform multi party system executive power is exercised by the government legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature executive branch president branko crvenkovski sdsm one two may two zero zero four prime minister vlado bu kovski sdsm one five december two zero zero four the prime minister is appointed by the president the council of ministers is elected by the majority vote of all the deputies in the assembly the president is elected by popular vote for a five year term the last election was last held october two zero zero four the late branko crvenkovski was elected president on second round ballot with six six six defeating sasko kedev with three three three the role of the president of the republic is mostly ceremonial with the real power resting in the hands of the president of the government of macedonia legislative branch the assembly sobranie has one two zero members elected for a four year term by proportional representation political parties and elections judicial branch constitutional court judges are elected by the judicial council judicial court of the republic judges are elected by the judicial council administrative divisions with the passage of a new law and elections held in two zero zero five local government functions are divided between seven eight municipalities op tini singular op tina the capital skopje is governed as a group of ten municipalities collectively referred to as the city of skopje ethnic diversity the country s main political divergence is between the largely ethnically based political parties representing the country s macedonian majority and albanian minority the issue of the power balance between the two communities led to a brief war in two zero zero one following which a power sharing agreement was reached in august two zero zero four the republic s parliament passed legislation redrawing local boundaries and giving greater local autonomy to ethnic albanians in areas where they predominate foreign relations the republic is member of the acct bis ce cei eapc ebrd ece fao iaea ibrd icao icct icrm ida ifad ifc ifrcs ilo imf imo interpol ioc iom observer iso itu opcw osce pca pfp un unctad unesco unido upu wcl wco who wipo wmo wtoo wtro observer politics of the republic of macedonia economy overview the breakup of yugoslavia in one nine nine one deprived republic of macedonia then its poorest republic only five of the total federal output of goods and services of its key protected markets and large transfer payments from the center an absence of infrastructure un sanctions on its largest market federal republic of yugoslavia and a greek economic embargo hindered economic growth until one nine nine six worker remittances and foreign aid have softened the subsequent volatile recovery period gdp has increased each year rising by five in two zero zero zero however growth in one nine nine nine was held down by the severe regional economic dislocations caused by the kosovo war successful privatization in two zero zero zero boosted the country s reserves to over seven zero zero million also the leadership demonstrated a continuing commitment to economic reform free trade and regional integration the economy can meet its basic food needs but depends on outside sources for all of its oil and gas and most of its modern machinery and parts inflation jumped to one one in two zero zero zero largely due to higher oil prices gdp purchasing power parity one four one billion two zero zero four est gdp real growth rate one four in two zero zero four gdp per capita purchasing power parity seven one zero zero two zero zero four est gdp composition by sector agriculture one two industry two five services six three two zero zero zero est population below poverty line two five two zero zero zero est household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices zero four two zero zero four est labor force eight five five zero zero zero two zero zero four est labor force by occupation agriculture na industry na services na unemployment rate three seven two zero zero four budget revenues one zero six billion expenditures one billion including capital expenditures of one zero seven million one nine nine six est industries coal metallic chromium lead zinc ferronickel textiles wood products tobacco industrial production growth rate three two zero zero zero electricity production six three nine five gwh one nine nine nine electricity production by source fossil fuel eight two two five hydro one seven seven five nuclear zero other zero one nine nine nine electricity consumption five nine nine two gwh one nine nine nine electricity exports three zero kwh one nine nine nine electricity imports seven five kwh one nine nine nine agriculture products rice tobacco wheat corn millet cotton sesame mulberry leaves citrus vegetables beef pork poultry mutton exports one four billion f o b two zero zero zero est exports commodities food beverages tobacco miscellaneous manufactures iron and steel exports partners germany two two serbia and montenegro two two usa one two greece seven italy six two zero zero zero imports two billion f o b two zero zero zero est imports commodities machinery and equipment chemicals fuels food products imports partners germany one three ukraine one three russia one zero serbia and montenegro eight greece eight two zero zero zero debt external one four billion two zero zero zero economic aid recipient one zero zero million from the eu two zero zero zero currency one macedonian denar mkd one zero zero deni exchange rates denars per us one macedonian denars per us dollar six four seven five seven january two zero zero one six five nine zero four two zero zero zero five six nine zero two one nine nine nine five four four six two one nine nine eight five zero zero zero four one nine nine seven three nine nine eight one one nine nine six three seven eight eight two one nine nine five fiscal year calendar year see also economy of europe republic of macedonia wto members economies by country republic of macedonia telephones main lines in use five five zero zero zero zero two zero zero five telephones mobile cellular one zero zero zero zero zero zero two zero zero five telephone system domestic na international na radio broadcast stations am two nine fm two zero shortwave zero one nine nine eight radios four one zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations one three six one nine nine seven televisions five one zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet service providers isps two zero two zero zero five internet users three eight zero zero zero zero two zero zero five source state stati tical office country code top level domain mk see also republic of macedonia communications by country republic of macedonia railways total six nine nine km standard gauge six nine nine km one four three five m gauge two three three km electrified note a new five six km extension of the kumanovo beljakovci line to the bulgarian border is under construction two zero zero one railway links with adjacent countries serbia and montenegro yes bulgaria no greece yes albania no highways total eight seven six four km paved five six two zero km including one nine two km of expressways plus four seven km of expressways under construction two zero zero three unpaved three one four four km one nine nine seven est waterways none lake transport only on the greek and albanian borders pipelines oil one two zero km two zero zero four gas two six eight km two zero zero four ports and harbors none airports one seven two zero zero two est airports with paved runways total one one two four three eight to three zero four seven m two under nine one four m eight two zero zero zero est airports with unpaved runways total six nine one four to one five two three m three under nine one four m three two zero zero zero est see also republic of macedonia republic of macedonia transportation by country the armed forces of the republic of macedonia macedonian were formed in one nine nine two after withdrawal of yugoslav people s army which left behind only small number of infantry weapons and four broken world war two t three four tanks to equip new army organization the primary arm of the military in the republic of macedonia is the army arm the arm is commanded by the minister of defense through the chief of general staff cgs of the arm two deputy cgs positions include the deputy cgs for planning operations and readiness under whom operates the general staff of the arm and the deputy cgs for civil military cooperation land command the largest command of the arm is the land command which is further broken up into the rapid reaction forces the strategic reserve forces and the support forces the rapid reaction forces represent the main active combat capability of the arm and consist of the one st brigade two nd brigade and the armour battalion the strategic reserve forces provide reserve brigades that can be called up in times of emergency the three rd brigade and four th brigade are considered priority reserve units while a further six units numbered five through ten also are maintained the support forces include a number of units to support the rapid reaction and reserve forces in operation they include a rocket artillery unit an air defense battalion a signal battlaion a logistic battalion an engineer battalion a nbc company a reconnaissance company and a military police company military aviation and air defense the air component of arm is represented by the command of military aviation and air defense of the republic of macedonia which consists of the aviation wing and the support forces the aviation wing consists of an air force combat squadron a transport squadron a reconnaissance squadron a training squadron the air defense battalion the air reconnaissance battalion and the securing and logistics support battalion special forces command special forces command controls operations of the military police and reconnaissance battalions as well as the squad for special actions training command training command consists of the educational centers in the republic of macedonia and is responsible for ensuring training and readiness standards in particular for meeting of nato goals are met logistics command formed in two zero zero one the logistics command oversees all combat service support operations and controls the land forces logistic base the military hospital and the facility for building and maintenance other commands other commands under the cgs include an electronic warfare unit the honor guard unit and an engineer regiment and signal regiment statistics military branches army navy air and air defense forces police force current strength one two zero zero zero active including four zero zero zero conscripts four eight zero zero zero reserves military manpower military age one nine years of age military manpower availability males age one five four nine five four eight one eight three two zero zero one est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine four four two zero five three two zero zero one est military manpower reaching military age annually males one seven nine zero five two zero zero one est military expenditures dollar figure seven six three million fy zero zero zero one military expenditures percent of gdp two one seven fy zero zero zero one the united states military has a liaison relationship with the republic s military by way of the partnership for peace program the vermont national guard acts as the agent through which military exchanges are conducted and relationships built references and links ministry of defense official site vv i pvo arm air force and air defence of the army of the republic of macedonia republic of macedonia armed forces militaries republic of macedonia international recognition the republic of macedonia became a member state of the united nations on eight april one nine nine three eighteen months after its independence from the former socialist federal republic of yugoslavia it is provisionaly referred within the un as the the former yugoslav republic of macedonia or fyrom pending a resolution to the long running dispute about the country s name other international bodies such as the european union nato european broadcasting union and the international olympic committee have adopted the same convention the un s member states all recognise the republic of macedonia but are divided over what to call it an increasing number of countries recognise the country by its constitutional name the republic of macedonia rather than the former yugoslav republic of macedonia or fyrom this notably includes three of the five un security council members the united states russia and the people s republic of china about one one zero countries are reported to recognise the country as the republic of macedonia this constitutes about five seven of the un s member states with more than nine zero of the population of un member states given that both names are rather long winded the state is often referred to simply as macedonia by non greeks international disputes albania the albanian government calls for the protection of the rights of ethnic albanians in the republic of macedonia while continuing to seek regional cooperation the two zero zero one conflict in macedonia between macedonia s majority macedonians and minority albanians caused some tensions between the two countries however the subsequent peace agreement and the implementation of greater rights for ethnic albanians has helped to stabilise the situation bulgaria bulgaria was the first country to recognize the independence of the republic of macedonia bulgaria has however refused to recognise the existence of a separate macedonian nation and a separate macedonian language it argues that the macedonians are a subgroup of the bulgarian nation and that the macedonian language is a dialect of bulgarian this leads to some complications when signing treaties between both countries they are signed with this long phrase in the end done in the official languages of the two states bulgarian language according to the constitution of the republic of bulgaria and macedonian language according to the constitution of the republic of macedonia bulgaria gives the macedonians the right to obtain bulgarian citizenship and an estimated one three zero zero zero of them who feel that they have bulgarian heritage have taken advantage of this macedonia has very good relations with bulgaria in the political economic and military spheres the governments of the two countries work to improve business relations bulgaria supports the macedonian bid to enter the eu and nato bulgaria has also donated tanks artillery and other military technology to the macedonian army greece the indeterminate status of the republic of macedonia s name arises from a long running dispute with greece which criticizes the use of what it considers to be an hellenic name and symbols the three main points of the dispute are the name the republic of macedonia is only part of the wider region of macedonia much of which is now in greece the flag the sixteen ray vergina sun symbol that appeared on the post independence flag of the republic of macedonia was a symbol of the ancient kingdom of macedon to which greece claims to be the sole heir see also vergina the constitution the republic of macedonia s constitution included articles that greece considered promoted separatism and territorial claims on its northern regions the naming issue was parked in a compromise agreed at the united nations in one nine nine three however greece refused to grant diplomatic recognition to the republic and imposed an economic blockade that lasted until the flag and constitutional issues were resolved in one nine nine five naming issue greek concerns over the name arise from a number of factors the name is historically associated with greek or at least greek speaking cultures notably that of the kingdom of macedon greeks consider that the inhabitants of the neighbouring republic most of whom are descendants of slavic tribes who moved into the region around the six th century ad have no moral or historical right to claim the name macedonia for themselves some macedonian nationalists and communist era yugoslav propagandists have tried to associate the republic with ancient macedon making a number of historically dubious claims the territory of the republic of macedonia was not called as such until one nine four four when it was split off from serbia and made into a separate republic thus although it is certainly part of the historical region of macedonia there is no political continuity between ancient macedon and the modern republic of macedonia greece suspected that the republic of macedonia had territorial ambitions in the northern greek provinces of macedonia this has been a greek concern for decades as far back as one nine five seven the greek government expressed concern about reported yugoslav ambitions to create an independent people s republic of macedonia with the greek city of thessaloniki as its capital the naming issue has not yet been resolved but it has effectively reached a stalemate in one nine nine three the united nations obtained greece s acquiesence to the admission of the republic of macedonia by adopting the temporary name of the former yugoslav republic of macedonia or fyrom however much to the annoyance of the greek government the compromise is wearing increasingly thin many states have abandoned the un provisional reference the former yugoslav republic of macedonia or fyrom and have recognised the country as the republic of macedonia instead these include the permanent un security council members of the united states russia and the people s republic of china and the former yugoslavian republics of serbia and montenegro croatia bosnia herzegovina and slovenia in addition bulgaria and turkey have also recognized the nation by its constitutional name however all un member states have agreed to accept any final agreement resulting from negotiations between the two countries the dispute continues to excite passions in both nations but in practice the two countries deal pragmatically with each other economic relations and cooperation have resumed since one nine nine five to such an extent that greece is now considered one of the republic s most important foreign economic partners and investors within greece most greeks reject any use of the word macedonia to describe the republic of macedonia instead calling it skopje and its inhabitants skopjeans greek skopiani after the country s capital this metonymic solution has not been adopted by non greeks and many inhabitants of the republic regard it as insulting greek official sources sometimes use the term slavomacedonians to refer to the republic s inhabitants the united nations set a target of september one three two zero zero two for reaching a solution to the issue this date passed without any solution being found and it is unclear how the issue will be resolved given the apparently irreconcilable positions of the two sides the republic of macedonia says that it will not abandon the name macedonia while greece says that it will not accept any permanent name that includes macedonia the march two zero zero four application of the republic of macedonia for membership of the european union may help to speed efforts to find a solution in a meeting of one four september two zero zero four the eu noted that the difference over the name of the former yugoslav republic of macedonia still persists and encouraged parties to find a mutually acceptable solution but stated that it is not part of the conditions for eu accession in two zero zero five matthew nimitz un special representative for the country suggested using republika makedonija skopje sic for official purposes greece did not accept the proposal outright but characterized it as a basis for constructive negotiations prime minister vlado buckovski rejected the proposal and counterproposed a double formula where the international community uses republic of macedonia and greece uses former yugoslav republic of macedonia in october two zero zero five matthew nimitz made a new proposal it proposes that the name republika makedonija should be used by the one zero six countries that have recognized the country under that name it proposes also that greece should use the formula republika makedonija skopje while the international institutions and organizations should use the name republika makedonia in latin alphabet transcription while the government of the republic of macedonia accepted the proposal as a good basis for solving the dispute greece rejected the proposal as unacceptable flag issue the former flag of republic of macedonia used from one nine nine two one nine nine five republic of macedonia s first post independence flag caused a major controversy when it was unveiled the use of the vergina sun on the flag offended greeks as they regarded the symbol as being associated with king philip ii of macedon and by extension with his son alexander the great the greek viewpoint was summed up in an faq circulated on the internet in the late one nine nine zero s the vergina sun the emblem of philip s dynasty symbolizes the birth of our nation it was the first time four th century bc that the greek mainland city states and kingdoms with the same language culture and religion were united against the enemies of asia in one league at the same time the fractured greek world grew conscious of its unity and in this sense we have never been apart since then the sun was excavated in greece in one nine seven eight and it is sacred to us the symbol was removed from the flag under an agreement reached between the republic of macedonia and greece in september one nine nine five the republic agreed to meet a number of greek demands for changes to its national symbols and constitution while greece agreed to establish diplomatic relations with the republic and end its economic blockade constitutional issue the republic of macedonia s first post independence constitution adopted on november one seven one nine nine one included a number of clauses that greece interpreted as promoting secessionist sentiment among the slav speaking population of northern greece and making irredentist claims on greek territory article four nine of the constitution caused particular concern it read one the republic cares for the status and rights of those persons belonging to the macedonian people in neighboring countries as well as macedonian expatriates assists their cultural development and promotes links with them in the exercise of this concern the republic will not interfere in the sovereign rights of other states or in their internal affairs two the republic cares for the cultural economic and social rights of the citizens of the republic abroad in the greek view this was effectively a license for the republic to interfere in greek internal affairs the offending articles were removed under the one nine nine five agreement between the two sides serbia and montenegro a february two zero zero one agreement with serbia and montenegro settled the alignment of the boundary between the two countries mandating implementation within two years however ethnic albanians on both sides of the border have expressed opposition to the agreement due to the imposition of tighter border controls and the transfer of some territory to the macedonian side transnational issues the country is a major transshipment point for southwest asian heroin and hashish it is also a minor transit point for south american cocaine destined for europe although most criminal activity is thought to be domestic and not a financial center money laundering is a problem due to a mostly cash based economy and weak enforcement no arrests or prosecutions for money laundering to date references report two zero zero three national bank of the republic of macedonia greek macedonia not a problem the times london august five one nine five seven constitution of the republic of macedonia adopted one seven november one nine nine one amended on six january one nine nine two external links differences between the ancient macedonians and the ancient greeks by j s gandeto macedonia and greece analysis of the macedonian greek conflict by john shea letter from greek foreign minister antonis samaras to his eu counterparts one seven january one nine nine two former yugoslav republic of macedonia and greece the name issue via the hellenic ministry of foreign affairs athens skopje an uneasy symbiosis one nine nine five two zero zero two greek view of one nine nine five interim agreement interim accord between the hellenic republic and the former yugoslav republic of macedonia one three september one nine nine five ministry of foreign affairs of the republic of macedonia republic of macedonia foreign relations by country the republic of malawi pronunciation is a land locked nation in southern africa although sometimes it is considered to also be situated in eastern africa it is bordered by tanzania to the north zambia on the north west and mozambique on the east south and west lake malawi comprises about a fifth of the country s territory and it is stretched through most of its eastern border the origin of the name malawi remains unclear it is held to be either derived from that of southern tribes or noting the glitter of the sun rising across the lake as seen in its flag history main article history of malawi hominid remains and stone implements have been identified in malawi dating back more than one million years and early humans inhabited the vicinity of lake malawi five zero zero zero zero to six zero zero zero zero years ago human remains at a site dated about eight zero zero zero bc show physical characteristics similar to peoples living today in the horn of africa at another site dated one five zero zero bc the remains possess features resembling bushman people the earliest inhabitants of the area were khoisan hunter gatherers they were largely replaced by bantu tribes during bantu migrations although the portuguese reached the area in the one six th century the first significant western contact was the arrival of david livingstone along the shore of lake malawi in one eight five nine subsequently scottish presbyterian churches established missions in malawi one of their objectives was to end the slave trade to the persian gulf that continued to the end of the one nine th century in one eight seven eight a number of traders mostly from glasgow formed the african lakes company to supply goods and services to the missionaries other missionaries traders hunters and planters soon followed in one eight eight three a consul of the british government was accredited to the kings and chiefs of central africa and in one eight nine one the british established the british central africa protectorate by one nine zero seven the nyasaland protectorate nyasa is the yao word for lake although the british remained in control during the first half of the one nine zero zero s this period was marked by a number of unsuccessful malawian attempts to obtain independence a growing european and u s educated african elite became increasingly vocal and politically active first through associations and after one nine four four through the nyasaland african congress nac during the one nine five zero s pressure for independence increased when nyasaland was joined with northern and southern rhodesia in one nine five three to form the central african federation in july one nine five eight dr hastings kamuzu banda returned to the country after a long absence in the united states where he had obtained his medical degree at meharry medical college in nashville tennessee in one nine three seven the united kingdom where he practiced medicine and ghana he assumed leadership of the nac which later became the malawi congress party mcp in one nine five nine banda was sent to gwelo prison for his political activities but was released in one nine six zero to participate in a constitutional conference in london on april one five one nine six one the mcp won an overwhelming victory in elections for a new legislative council it also gained an important role in the new executive council and ruled nyasaland in all but name a year later in a second constitutional conference in london in november one nine six two the british government agreed to give nyasaland self governing status the following year dr banda became prime minister on february one one nine six three although the british still controlled malawi s financial security and judicial systems a new constitution took effect in may one nine six three providing for virtually complete internal self government the federation of rhodesia and nyasaland was dissolved on december three one one nine six three and malawi became a fully independent member of the formerly british commonwealth on july six one nine six four two years later malawi became a republic with dr banda as its first president and was also declared a one party state in one nine seven zero dr banda was declared president for life of the mcp and in one nine seven one banda consolidated his power and was named president for life of malawi itself the paramilitary wing of the malawi congress party the young pioneers helped keep malawi under authoritarian control until the one nine nine zero s increasing domestic unrest and pressure from malawian churches and from the international community led to a referendum in which the malawian people were asked to vote for either a multi party democracy or the continuation of a one party state on june one four one nine nine three the people of malawi voted overwhelmingly in favor of multi party democracy free and fair national elections were held on may one seven one nine nine four bakili muluzi leader of the united democratic front udf was elected president in those elections the udf won eight two of the one seven seven seats in the national assembly and formed a coalition government with the alliance for democracy aford that coalition disbanded in june one nine nine six but some of its members remained in the government the president is referred to as dr muluzi having received an honorary degree at lincoln university in missouri in one nine nine five malawi s newly written constitution one nine nine five eliminated special powers previously reserved for the malawi congress party accelerated economic liberalization and structural reform accompanied the political transition on june one five one nine nine nine malawi held its second democratic elections dr bakili muluzi was re elected to serve a second five year term as president despite an mcp aford alliance that ran a joint slate against the udf malawi saw its first transition between democratically elected presidents in may two zero zero four when the udf s presidential candidate bingu wa mutharika defeated mcp candidate john tembo and gwanda chakuamba who was backed by a grouping of opposition parties the udf however did not win a majority of seats in parliament as it had done in one nine nine four and one nine nine nine elections through the politicking of party chairperson and former president bakili muluzi the party successfully secured a majority by forming a government of national unity with several opposition parties president bingu wa mutharika left the udf party on february five two zero zero five citing differences with the udf particularly over his anti corruption campaign he went on to form his own party the democratic progressive party dpp politics main article politics of malawi the government of malawi has been a multi party democracy since one nine nine four under the one nine nine five constitution the president who is both chief of state and head of the government is chosen through universal direct suffrage every five years malawi has a vice president who is elected with the president the president has the option of appointing a second vice president who must be from a different political party the members of the presidentially appointed cabinet can be drawn from either within or outside of the legislature malawi s national assembly has one nine three seats all directly elected to serve five year terms the constitution also provides for a second chamber a senate of eight zero seats but to date no action has been taken to create the senate the senate is intended to provide representation for traditional leaders and the different geographical districts as well as various special interest groups such as women youth and the disabled the constitution provides for an independent judiciary malawi s judicial system based on the english model is made up of magisterial lower courts a high court and a supreme court of appeal local government is carried out in two eight districts within three regions administered by regional administrators and district commissioners who are appointed by the central government local elections the first in the multi party era took place in on november two one two zero zero zero the udf party won seven zero of the seats in this election the third multiparty presidential and parliamentary elections originally planned for may one eight two zero zero four were postponed by two days following a high court appeal by the main opposition mgwirizano unity coalition the run up to the poll was overshadowed by opposition claims of irregularities in the voters roll european union and commonwealth observers said although voting passed peacefully they were concerned about serious inadequacies in the poll districts main article districts of malawi malawi is divided into two seven districts balaka blantyre chikwawa chiradzulu chitipa dedza dowa karonga kasungu likoma lilongwe machinga mangochi mchinji mulanje mwanza mzimba nkhata bay nkhotakota nsanje ntcheu ntchisi phalombe rumphi salima thyolo zomba geography map of malawi mulanje mountain in malawi main article geography of malawi malawi is situated in southeastern africa the great rift valley traverses the country from north to south in this deep trough lies lake malawi also called lake nyasa the third largest lake in africa comprising about two zero of malawi s area the shire river flows from the south end of the lake and joins the zambezi river four zero zero kilometres two five zero mi farther south in mozambique east and west of the rift valley the land forms high plateaus generally between nine zero zero and one two zero zero m three zero zero zero four zero zero zero ft above sea level in the north the nyika uplands rise as high as two six zero zero m eight five zero zero ft south of the lake lie the shire highlands with an elevation of six zero zero one six zero zero m two zero zero zero five zero zero zero ft rising to mts zomba and mulanje two one three zero and three zero four eight m seven zero zero zero and one zero zero zero zero ft in the extreme south the elevation is only six zero nine zero m two zero zero three zero zero ft above sea level malawi is one of sub saharan africa s most densely populated countries the population of lilongwe malawi s capital since one nine seven one exceeds four zero zero zero zero zero all government ministries and the parliament are located in lilongwe blantyre remains malawi s major commercial center and largest city having grown from an estimated one zero nine zero zero zero inhabitants in one nine six six to nearly five zero zero zero zero zero in one nine nine eight malawi s president resides in lilongwe the supreme court is seated in blantyre malawi s climate is generally subtropical a rainy season runs from november through april there is little to no rainfall throughout most of the country from may to october it is hot and humid from october to april along the lake and in the lower shire valley lilongwe is also hot and humid during these months albeit far less than in the south the rest of the country is warm during those months from june through august the lake areas and far south are comfortably warm but the rest of malawi can be chilly at night with temperatures ranging from five one four c four one five seven f see also list of cities in malawi exclaves and enclaves the islands of likoma and chizumulu belong to malawi but lie entirely within mozambique territorial waters forming maritime exclaves economy main article economy of malawi malawi is a landlocked densely populated country its economy is heavily dependent on agriculture malawi has few exploitable mineral resources its three most important export crops are in order tobacco tea and sugar malawi s president recently urged farmers to consider growing other crops such as cotton as an alternative to the country s principal crop tobacco as cigarette consumption in the west continues to decline traditionally malawi has been self sufficient in its staple food maize and during the one nine eight zero s exported substantial quantities to its drought stricken neighbors agriculture represents three eight six of the gdp accounts for over eight zero of the labor force and represents about eight zero of all exports nearly nine zero of the population engages in subsistence farming smallholder farmers produce a variety of crops including maize corn beans rice cassava tobacco and groundnuts peanuts the agricultural sector contributes about six three seven of total income for the rural population six five of manufacturing sector s raw materials and approximately eight seven of total employment financial wealth is generally concentrated in the hands of a small elite malawi s manufacturing industries are situated around the city of blantyre malawi s economic reliance on the export of agricultural commodities renders it particularly vulnerable to external shocks such as declining terms of trade and drought high transport costs which can comprise over three zero of its total import bill constitute a serious impediment to economic development and trade malawi must import all its fuel products paucity of skilled labor difficulty in obtaining expatriate employment permits bureaucratic red tape corruption and inadequate and deteriorating road electricity water and telecommunications infrastructure further hinder economic development in malawi however recent government initiatives targeting improvements in the road infrastructure together with private sector participation in railroad and telecommunications have begun to render the investment environment more attractive malawi has undertaken economic structural adjustment programs supported by the world bank the international monetary fund imf and other donors since one nine eight one broad reform objectives include stimulation of private sector activity and participation through the elimination of price controls and industrial licensing liberalization of trade and foreign exchange rationalization of taxes privatization of state owned enterprises and civil service reform malawi qualified for highly indebted poor country hipc debt relief as of late may two zero zero four the imf program begun in two zero zero zero was canceled and a staff monitored program smp was implemented in the wake of questions about fiscal credibility the smp s goal is to give malawi s newly elected government the chance to establish a track record of fiscal discipline real gdp increased by an estimated three nine in two zero zero four from four three in two zero zero three and two four in two zero zero two inflation has been largely under control since two zero zero three averaging one zero in that year and one one one est in two zero zero four discount and commercial lending rates also declined from four zero four five in two zero zero three to two five in early two zero zero four the kwacha slid from nine zero to one zero one against the u s dollar in mid two zero zero three and was at one zero eight to the u s dollar at the end of two zero zero four malawi has bilateral trade agreements with its two major trading partners south africa and zimbabwe both of which allow duty free entry of malawian products into their countries humanitarian situation main article two zero zero five malawi food crisis life expectancy in malawi is now as low as three six five years five years lower than it was five zero years ago this drop is due to populations impoverishment which is constituted by many factors low income the mean per capita income in malawi is less than one per day insufficient nutrition poor access to medical treatment insufficient school education spread of hiv aids health child mortality is one zero three one zero zero zero there are more than a million orphans seven zero zero zero zero zero of which became orphans when their parents died of aids according to malawi government estimates one four two per cent of the population are hiv positive and nine zero zero zero zero deaths in two zero zero three were due to aids unofficial estimates based on private hospital entries give a hiv infection percentage of three zero per cent nutrition malawi s staple food is maize but like other countries in southern africa malawi has repeatedly been affected by famines since two zero zero two when food was scarce for almost one third of the population in two zero zero three three zero percent of the population were affected according to a fao report from june two zero zero five four two two million inhabitants of malawi one four of the population would not have enough food in two zero zero five to survive in the south of the country the rate of the population affected will be between five five and seven six per cent in the end of november two zero zero five the first famine deaths were recorded these repeated famines are caused by different factors widespread monocultures poor distribution of fertilizers droughts widespread aids epidemic bilharzia malaria some relief organisations such as the community of sant egidio catholic relief services and other local and international organisations try to respond to the famine by distributing food parcels the government also had a starter pack farm input programme for maize seed and fertliser the scheme was however subject to gross abuses and sometimes the poorest people did not receive any of the items that were purpotedly earmarked for them this programme was discontinued by the bingu wa muntharika administration which instead subsidised fertiliser for the local subsistence farmers foreign relations malawi has continued the pro western foreign policy established by former president banda it maintains excellent diplomatic relations with principal western countries malawi s close relations with south africa throughout the apartheid era strained its relations with other african nations following the collapse of apartheid in one nine nine four malawi developed and currently maintains strong diplomatic relations with all african countries between one nine eight five and one nine nine five malawi accommodated more than a million refugees from mozambique the refugee crisis placed a substantial strain on malawi s economy but also drew significant inflows of international assistance the accommodation and eventual repatriation of the mozambicans is considered a major success by international organizations in one nine nine six malawi received a number of rwandan and congolese refugees seeking asylum the government did not turn away refugees but it did invoke the principle of first country of asylum under this principle refugees who requested asylum in another country first or who had the opportunity to do so would not subsequently be granted asylum in malawi there were no reports of the forcible repatriation of refugees important bilateral donors in addition to the u s include canada libya germany iceland japan the netherlands norway finland sweden taiwan and the united kingdom multilateral donors include the world bank the imf the european union the african development bank and the united nations organizations malawi is a member of the following international organizations un and some of its specialized and related agencies i e unctad unesco unido imf world bank multilateral investment guarantee agency miga world intellectual property organization wipo berne convention universal copyright convention african union lome convention african development bank afdb southern african development community sadc the common market for eastern and southern africa comesa nonaligned movement g seven seven and the world health organization who demographics man in malawi main article demographics of malawi malawi derives its name from the maravi a bantu people who came from the southern congo about six zero zero years ago on reaching the area north of lake malawi the maravi divided one branch the ancestors of the present day chewas moved south to the west bank of the lake the other the ancestors of the nyanjas moved down the east bank to the southern part of the country by one five zero zero ad the two divisions of the tribe had established a kingdom stretching from north of the present day city of nkhotakota to the zambezi river in the south and from lake malawi in the east to the luangwa river in zambia in the west migrations and tribal conflicts precluded the formation of a cohesive malawian society until the turn of the two zero th century in more recent years ethnic and tribal distinctions have diminished regional distinctions and rivalries however persist despite some clear differences no significant friction currently exists between tribal groups and the concept of a malawian nationality has begun to take hold predominantly a rural people malawians are generally conservative and traditionally nonviolent the chewas constitute nine zero of the population of the central region the nyanja tribe predominates in the south and the tumbuka in the north in addition significant numbers of the tongas live in the north ngonis an offshoot of the zulus who came from south africa in the early one eight zero zero s live in the lower northern and lower central regions and the yao who are mostly muslim live along the southeastern border with mozambique culture an initiation ritual in malawi main article culture of malawi african baptist assembly of malawi malawian english music of malawi athletics in malawi references cia world factbook us state department see also communications in malawi foreign relations of malawi list of islands of malawi list of malawi related topics military of malawi transportation in malawi references owen j m kalinga and cynthia a crosby historical dictionary of malawi three rd ed scarecrow press two zero zero one isbn zero eight one zero eight three four eight one two mitchell maura living our faith the lenten pastoral letter of the bishops of malawi and the shift to multiparty democracy one nine nine two one nine nine three journal for the scientific study of religion two zero zero two mar four one one five one eight this article looks in depth at the role religion played in the transition to democracy in malawi external links government government of the republic of malawi official site malawi national assembly official site ministry of information and tourism official site news allafrica com malawi news headline links friday in malawi free weekly emagazine what s on classifieds the nation online daily national newspaper overviews bbc news country profile malawi cia world factbook malawi directories looksmart malawi directory category open directory project malawi directory category stanford university africa south of the sahara malawi directory category the index on africa malawi directory category university of pennsylvania african studies center malawi directory category yahoo malawi directory category zikomo net free online business directory for malawi new malawi free forum and classifieds for malawi tourism go two malawi travel log to promote malawi visit malawi official tourism site other child rights in malawi human rights in malawi malawi open source society malawi national game two zero zero five malawi famine community of sant egidio s page about the predicted two zero zero five malawi famine african union member states landlocked countries malawi madagascar historically has remained outside the mainstream of african affairs although it is an active member of the organization of african unity and the non aligned movement from one nine seven eight until one nine nine one then president ratsiraka emphasized independence and nonalignment and followed an all points policy stressing ties with socialist and radical regimes including north korea cuba libya and iran taking office in one nine nine three president albert zafy expressed his desire for diplomatic relations with all countries early in his tenure he established formal ties with south korea and sent emissaries to morocco globalization has encouraged the government and president ratsiraka since one nine nine seven to adhere to market oriented policies and to engage world markets external relations reflect this trend although madagascar s physical isolation and strong traditional insular orientation have limited its activity in regional economic organizations and relations with its east african neighbors it enjoys closer and generally good relations with its indian ocean neighbors mauritius r union and the comoros islands active relationships with europe especially france germany and switzerland as well as with russia japan india and the prc have been strong since independence disputes international claims bassas da india europa island glorioso islands and juan de nova island all administered by france illicit drugs illicit producer of cannabis cultivated and wild varieties used mostly for domestic consumption transshipment point for heroin see also madagascar foreign relations by country politics of madagascar government of madagascar hominid remains and stone implements have been identified in malawi dating back more than one million years and early humans inhabited the vicinity of lake malawi five zero zero zero zero to six zero zero zero zero years ago human remains at a site dated about eight zero zero zero bc show physical characteristics similar to peoples living today in the horn of africa at another site dated one five zero zero bc the remains possess features resembling bushmen people although the portuguese reached the area in the one six th century the first significant western contact was the arrival of david livingstone along the shore of lake malawi in one eight five nine british protectorate subsequently scottish presbyterian churches established missions in malawi one of their objectives was to end the slave trade to the persian gulf that continued to the end of the one nine th century in one eight seven eight a number of traders mostly from glasgow formed the african lakes company to supply goods and services to the missionaries other missionaries traders hunters and planters soon followed in one eight eight three a consul of the british government was accredited to the kings and chiefs of central africa and in one eight nine one the british established the nyasaland protectorate nyasa is the chichewa word for lake it was also known as the british central africa protectorate for several years around the turn of the century although the british remained in control until one nine six four this period was marked by a number of unsuccessful malawian attempts to obtain independence a growing european and u s educated african elite became increasingly vocal and politically active first through associations and after one nine four four through the nyasaland african congress nac during the one nine five zero s pressure for independence increased when nyasaland was joined with northern and southern rhodesia in one nine five three to form the federation of rhodesia and nyasaland in july one nine five eight dr hastings kamuzu banda returned to the country after a long absence in the united states where he had obtained his medical degree at meharry medical college in nashville tennessee in one nine three seven the united kingdom where he practiced medicine and ghana he assumed leadership of the nac which later became the malawi congress party mcp in one nine five nine banda was sent to gwelo prison for his political activities but was released in one nine six zero to participate in a constitutional conference in london on april one five one nine six one the mcp won an overwhelming victory in elections for a new legislative council it also gained an important role in the new executive council and ruled nyasaland in all but name a year later in a second constitutional conference in london in november one nine six two the british government agreed to give nyasaland self governing status the following year hastings kamuzu banda became prime minister on february one one nine six three although the british still controlled malawi s financial security and judicial systems a new constitution took effect in may one nine six three providing for virtually complete internal self government malawian independence the federation of rhodesia and nyasaland was dissolved on december three one one nine six three and malawi became a fully independent member of the commonwealth formerly the british commonwealth on july six one nine six four two years later malawi adopted a republican constitution and became a one party state with dr banda as its first president in one nine seven zero dr banda was declared president for life of the mcp and in one nine seven one banda consolidated his power and was named president for life of malawi itself the paramilitary wing of the malawi congress party the young pioneers helped keep malawi under authoritarian control until the one nine nine zero s increasing domestic unrest and pressure from malawian churches and from the international community led to a referendum in which the malawian people were asked to vote for either a multi party democracy or the continuation of a one party state on june one four one nine nine three the people of malawi voted overwhelmingly in favor of multi party democracy free and fair national elections were held on may one seven one nine nine four under a provisional constitution ruujrs which took full effect the following year bakili muluzi leader of the united democratic front udf was elected president in those elections the udf won eight two of the one seven seven seats in the national assembly and formed a coalition government with the alliance for democracy aford that coalition disbanded in june one nine nine six but some of its members remained in the government the president is referred to as dr muluzi having received an honorary degree at lincoln university in missouri in one nine nine five malawi s newly written constitution one nine nine five eliminated special powers previously reserved for the malawi congress party accelerated economic liberalization and structural reform accompanied the political transition on june one five one nine nine nine malawi held its second democratic elections dr bakili muluzi was re elected to serve a second five year term as president despite an mcp aford alliance that ran a joint slate against the udf two one st century as of october two zero zero one the udf holds nine six seats in the national assembly while the aford holds three zero and the mcp holds six one six seats are held by independents who represent the national democratic alliance nda opposition group the nda is not recognized as an official political party at this time the national assembly has one nine three members of whom one seven are women including one of the deputy speakers malawi saw its first transition between democratically elected presidents in may two zero zero four when the udf s presidential candidate bingu wa mutharika defeated mcp candidate john tembo and gwanda chakuamba who was backed by a grouping of opposition parties the udf however did not win a majority of seats in parliament as it had done in one nine nine four and one nine nine nine elections through the politicking of party chairperson and former president bakili muluzi the party successfully secured a majority by forming a government of national unity with several opposition parties president bingu wa mutharika left the udf party on february five two zero zero five citing differences with the udf particularly over his anti corruption campaign history of malawi british empire malawi derives its name from the maravi a bantu people who came from the southern congo about six zero zero years ago on reaching the area north of lake malawi the maravi divided one branch the ancestors of the present day chewas moved south to the west bank of the lake the other the ancestors of the nyanjas moved down the east bank to the southern part of the country by ad one five zero zero the two divisions of the tribe had established a kingdom stretching from north of the present day city of nkhotakota to the zambezi river in the south and from lake malawi in the east to the luangwa river in zambia in the west migrations and tribal conflicts precluded the formation of a cohesive malawian society until the turn of the two zero th century in more recent years ethnic and tribal distinctions have diminished regional distinctions and rivalries however persist despite some clear differences no significant friction currently exists between tribal groups and the concept of a malawian nationality has begun to take hold predominantly a rural people malawians are generally conservative and traditionally nonviolent the chewas constitute nine zero of the population of the central region the nyanja tribe predominates in the south and the tumbuka in the north in addition significant numbers of the tongas live in the north ngonis an offshoot of the zulus who came from south africa in the early one eight zero zero s live in the lower northern and lower central regions and the yao who are mostly muslim predominate in the southern region of the country and live in a wide band from blantyre and zomba north to lake malawi and east to the border with mozambique demographics of malawi data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population one zero three eight five eight four nine note estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to aids this can result in lower life expectancy higher infant mortality and death rates lower population and growth rates and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected july two zero zero zero est age structure zero one four years four five male two three three five four four zero female two three two four zero one two one five six four years five two male two six seven one five eight zero female two seven six six five six zero six five years and over three male one one seven nine three two female one seven zero three two five two zero zero zero est population growth rate one six one two zero zero zero est birth rate three eight four nine births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate two two four four deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate zero migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero three male s female under one five years one male s female one five six four years zero nine seven male s female six five years and over zero six nine male s female total population zero nine seven male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate one two two two eight deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population three seven five eight years male three seven two years female three seven nine eight years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate five three three children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun malawian s adjective malawian ethnic groups chewa nyanja tumbuka yao lomwe sena tonga ngoni ngonde asian european religions protestant five five roman catholic two zero muslim two zero indigenous beliefs languages english official chichewa official other languages important regionally literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population five eight male seven two eight female four three four one nine nine nine est see also malawi demographics by country malawian society the government of malawi has been a multi party democracy since one nine nine four under the one nine nine five constitution the president who is both chief of state and head of the government is chosen through universal direct suffrage every five years malawi has a vice president who is elected with the president the president has the option of appointing a second vice president who must be from a different party the members of the presidentially appointed cabinet can be drawn from either within or outside of the legislature malawi s national assembly has one nine three seats all directly elected to serve five year terms the constitution also provides for a second house a senate of eight zero seats but to date no action has been taken to create the senate the senate is intended to provide representation for traditional leaders and the different geographical districts as well as various special interest groups such as women youth and the disabled the constitution provides for an independent judiciary malawi s judicial system based on the english model is made up of magisterial lower courts a high court and a supreme court of appeal local government is carried out in two eight districts within three regions administered by regional administrators and district commissioners who are appointed by the central government local elections the first in the multi party era took place on november two one two zero zero zero the udf party won seven zero of the seats in this election bakili muluzi was president from two one may one nine nine four to may two zero zero four having won reelection in two zero zero zero with five one four of the vote to leading challanger gwandaguluwe chakuamba s four four three for the mcp aford party in the two zero zero four election bingu wa mutharika defeated chakuamba by a ten point margin country name conventional long form republic of malawi conventional short form malawi former nyasaland data code mi government type multiparty democracy capital lilongwe administrative divisions two nine districts balaka blantyre chikwawa chiradzulu chitipa dedza dowa karonga kasungu likoma lilongwe machinga mangochi mchinji mulanje mwanza mzimba nkhata bay nkhotakota nsanje ntcheu ntchisi neno phalombe rumphi salima thyolo zomba independence six july one nine six four from uk national holiday independence day six july one nine six four republic day six july one nine six six constitution one eight may one nine nine five legal system based on english common law and customary law judicial review of legislative acts in the supreme court of appeal has not accepted compulsory icj jurisdiction suffrage one eight years of age universal executive branch chief of state president bingu wa mutharika since may two zero zero four note the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government president bingu wa mutharika cabinet two eight member cabinet named by the president elections president elected by popular vote for a five year term election last held two zero may two zero zero four election results bingu wa mutharika three five nine gwanda chakuamba two five seven legislative branch national assembly one nine three seats members elected by popular vote to serve five year terms elections last held two zero may two zero zero four election results malawi congress party won six zero seats the united democratic front won four nine seats the mgwirizano coalition won two eight seats and independents won three eight seats at the one nine nine nine elections the united democratic front won nine three seats the malawi congress party won six six seats and the alliance for democracy won two nine seats two zero zero four election percent of vote by party udf four eight mcp three four aford one five others three seats by party udf nine three mcp six six aford two nine others four vacancy one judicial branch supreme court of appeal high court chief justice appointed by the president puisne judges appointed on the advice of the judicial service commission magistrate s courts political parties and leaders alliance for democracy or aford chakufwa chihana president malawi congress party or mcp john tembo president malawi democratic party or mdp kampelo kalua president social democratic party or sdp eston kakhome president united democratic front or udf bakili muluzidemocratic progressive party or dpp bingu wa munthalika governing party international organization participation acp afdb c ccc eca fao g seven seven ibrd icao icc icftu icrm ida ifad ifc ifrcs ilo imf imo intelsat interpol ioc iso correspondent itu nam oau opcw sadc un unctad unesco unido unmik upu wftu who wipo wmo wtoo wtro diplomatic representation in the us chief of mission ambassador willie chokani chancery two four zero eight massachusetts avenue nw washington dc two zero zero zero eight telephone one two zero two seven nine seven one zero zero seven diplomatic representation from the us chief of mission ambassador amelia ellen shippy embassy address na in new development area in lilongwe mailing address p o box three zero zero one six lilongwe three malawi telephone two six five seven eight three one six six fax two six five seven eight zero four seven one flag description three equal horizontal bands of black top red and green with a radiant rising red sun centered in the black band government note the executive exerts considerable influence over the legislature see also heads of state of malawi politics of malawi economy overview landlocked malawi ranks among the world s least developed countries the economy is predominantly agricultural with about nine zero of the population living in rural areas agriculture accounts for three seven of gdp and eight five of export revenues the economy depends on substantial inflows of economic assistance from the imf the world bank and individual donor nations the government faces strong challenges e g to spur exports to improve educational and health facilities to face up to environmental problems of deforestation and erosion and to deal with the rapidly growing problem of hiv aids malawi has few exploitable mineral resources its two most important export crops are tobacco and tea tea was introduced in one eight seven eight most of it is grown in mulanje and thyolo traditionally malawi has been self sufficient in its staple food maize corn and during the one nine eight zero s exported substantial quantities to its drought stricken neighbors agriculture represents three six of the gdp accounts for over eight zero of the labor force and represents about eight zero of all exports nearly nine zero of the population engages in subsistence farming smallholder farmers produce a variety of crops including maize beans rice cassava tobacco and groundnuts peanuts financial wealth is generally concentrated in the hands of a small elite malawi s manufacturing industries are situated around the city of blantyre malawi s economic reliance on the export of agricultural commodities renders it particularly vulnerable to external shocks such as declining terms of trade and drought high transport costs which can comprise over three zero of its total import bill constitute a serious impediment to economic development and trade malawi must import all its fuel products paucity of skilled labor difficulty in obtaining expatriate employment permits bureaucratic red tape corruption and inadequate and deteriorating road electricity water and telecommunications infrastructure further hinder economic development in malawi however recent government initiatives targeting improvements in the road infrastructure together with private sector participation in railroad and telecommunications have begun to render the investment environment more attractive malawi has undertaken economic structural adjustment programs supported by the world bank ibrd the international monetary fund imf and other donors since one nine eight one broad reform objectives include stimulation of private sector activity and participation through the elimination of price controls and industrial licensing liberalization of trade and foreign exchange rationalization of taxes privatization of state owned enterprises and civil service reform malawi qualified for heavily indebted poor country hipc debt relief and is in the process of refining its poverty reduction strategy real gdp grew by three six in one nine nine nine and two one in two zero zero zero the government s monetary policy has been expansionary and the average annual inflation has hovered around three zero in two zero zero zero and two zero zero one keeping discount and commercial bank rates high the discount rate was four seven in december two zero zero zero in the second half of two zero zero one the kwacha strengthened sharply against the u s dollar moving from eight zero to six zero malawi has bilateral trade agreements with its two major trading partners south africa and zimbabwe both of which allow duty free entry of malawian products into their countries the government faces challenges such as the improvement of malawi s educational and health facilities particularly important because of the rising rates of hiv aids and environmental problems like deforestation erosion and overworked soils gdp purchasing power parity nine four billion one nine nine nine est gdp real growth rate four two one nine nine nine est gdp per capita purchasing power parity nine four zero one nine nine nine est gdp composition by sector agriculture three seven industry two nine services three four one nine nine eight est population below poverty line five four one nine nine zero nine one est household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices four five one nine nine nine labor force three five million labor force by occupation agriculture eight six wage earners one four one nine nine zero est unemployment rate na budget revenues four nine zero million expenditures five two three million including capital expenditures of na fy nine nine zero zero est industries tobacco tea sugar sawmill products cement consumer goods industrial production growth rate na electricity production nine two two gwh one nine nine eight electricity production by source fossil fuel two three nine hydro nine seven six one nuclear zero other zero one nine nine eight electricity consumption eight five seven gwh one nine nine eight electricity exports zero kwh one nine nine eight electricity imports zero kwh one nine nine eight agriculture products tobacco sugar cane cotton tea maize potatoes cassava tapioca sorghum pulses cattle goats exports five one zero million f o b one nine nine nine exports commodities tobacco tea sugar cotton coffee peanuts wood products exports partners south africa one five us nine germany nine netherlands seven japan one nine nine eight imports five one two million f o b one nine nine nine imports commodities food petroleum products semimanufactures consumer goods transportation equipment imports partners south africa three eight zimbabwe one eight zambia eight japan four us uk germany one nine nine eight debt external two three billion one nine nine nine est economic aid recipient four one six five million one nine nine five currency one malawian kwacha mk one zero zero tambala exchange rates malawian kwachas mk per us one four six three four nine four december one nine nine nine four four zero eight eight one one nine nine nine three one zero seven two seven one nine nine eight one six four four four two one nine nine seven one five three zero eight five one nine nine six one five two eight three seven one nine nine five fiscal year one july three zero june see also malawi economy of africa references anthony and doreen young one nine seven eight a geography of malawi second edition evans brothers limited london isbn zero two three seven five zero two nine six eight wto members economies by country economy of malawi african union member economies telephone telephones main lines in use eight five zero zero zero as of two zero zero three telephones mobile cellular one three five one zero zero as of two zero zero three telephone system domestic fair system of open wire lines microwave radio relay links and radiotelephone communications stations international satellite earth stations two intelsat one indian ocean and one atlantic ocean radio radio broadcast stations am nine fm five plus one five repeater stations shortwave two plus a third station held in standby status as of two zero zero one radios two six million as of one nine nine seven television television broadcast stations one as of two zero zero one televisions zero as of one nine nine nine internet internet service providers isps one eight as of two zero zero three country code top level domain mw see also malawi communications in malawi railways total seven nine seven km narrow gauge seven nine seven km one zero six seven m gauge two zero zero one highways total one four five nine seven km paved two seven seven three km unpaved one one eight two one km two zero zero one waterways lake nyasa lake malawi shire river one four four km ports and harbours chipoka monkey bay nkhata bay nkhotakota chilumba airports four four two zero zero one airports with paved runways total six over three zero four seven m one one five two four to two four three seven m one nine one four to one five two three m four two zero zero two airports with unpaved runways total three seven one five two four to two four three seven m one nine one four to one five two three m one four under nine one four m two two two zero zero two see also malawi transportation in malawi military branches army includes air wing and naval detachment police includes paramilitary mobile force unit military manpower availability males age one five four nine two five three five two zero seven two zero zero two est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine one three zero one six two five two zero zero two est military expenditures dollar figure nine five million fy zero zero zero one military expenditures percent of gdp zero seven six fy zero zero zero one references and links malawi military of malawi malawi s president muluzi has continued the pro western foreign policy established by former president banda it maintains excellent diplomatic relations with principal western countries malawi s close relations with south africa throughout the apartheid era strained its relations with other african nations following the collapse of apartheid in one nine nine four malawi developed and currently maintains strong diplomatic relations with all african countries between one nine eight five and one nine nine five malawi accommodated more than a million refugees from mozambique the refugee crisis placed a substantial strain on malawi s economy but also drew significant inflows of international assistance the accommodation and eventual repatriation of the mozambicans is considered a major success by international organizations in one nine nine six malawi received a number of rwandan and congolese refugees seeking asylum the government did not turn away refugees but it did invoke the principle of first country of asylum under this principle refugees who requested asylum in another country first or who had the opportunity to do so would not subsequently be granted asylum in malawi there were no reports of the forcible repatriation of refugees important bilateral donors in addition to the united states include canada denmark germany iceland japan the netherlands norway sweden republic of china taiwan and the united kingdom multilateral donors include the world bank the international monetary fund the european union the african development bank and the united nations organizations malawi assumed the chair of the southern african development community sadc in two zero zero one president muluzi has taken an active role in sadc on issues such as the global coalition against terrorism and land reform in zimbabwe malawi has been a member of the acp group since lom i and is also a party to the cotonou agreement the partnership agreement between the european community european union and seven seven states from africa the caribbean and the pacific malawi is a member of the following international organizations un and some of its specialized and related agencies i e unctad unesco unido imf world bank international criminal court icc multilateral investment guarantee agency miga world intellectual property organization wipo berne convention universal copyright convention organization of african unity oau lome convention african development bank afdb southern african development community sadc the common market for east and southern africa comesa nonaligned movement g seven seven and the world health organization who disputes international dispute with tanzania over the boundary in lake nyasa lake malawi see also malawi government of malawi politics of malawi demographics of malaysia is diverse it comprises of many ethnic groups with the politically dominant malays make up the plurality in two zero zero two there were two four five million people and in two zero zero four the population grew to two five million five million malaysians live in east malaysia malaysian population continues to grow at a rate of two four per annum about three four of the population is under the age of one five malays malays are by constitutional definition according to article one six zero of the malaysian constitution muslims these people combined with indigenous peoples of malayo polynesian origins e g kadazandusun iban dayak melanau etc mainly concentrated in sabah and sarawak are denoted bumiputra non malay indigenous groups make up more than half of sarawak s population and about six six of sabah s they are divided into dozens of ethnic groups but they share some general patterns of living and culture until the two zero th century most practiced traditional beliefs but many have become christian or muslim minorities the second largest ethnic group is chinese who have historically played an important role in trade and business ethnic indians make up the third largest ethnic group there is a small minority crudely grouped and known as the others category which includes malaysians of inter alia european and middle eastern descent population distribution is uneven with some one five million residents concentrated in the lowlands of peninsular malaysia an area slightly smaller than the state of michigan in the u s there is no general consensus on the ethnic profiling of children of mixed parentage some choose to be identified according to paternal ethnicity while others simply think that they fall in the others category the majority choose to identify as malay as long as either parent is malay mainly due to the legal definition of bumiputra children of chinese indian parentage are known as chindians though this is not an official category in national census data orang asli the indigenous people of peninsular malaysia are known as orang asli which literally means original man is a catch all term for a variety of ancient peoples they number about six zero zero zero zero six zero percent jungle dwellers and four zero percent village dwellers and were the first inhabitants of the area the most numerous of the orang asli are called negritos and are related to native papuans in indonesia and papua new guinea and possibly even to aborigines in australia and peoples of east africa they came about eight zero zero zero years ago and are nomadic the next largest is the senoi who arrived six to eight zero zero zero years ago similar to hill tribes in cambodia and vietnam and are shifting cultivators the rest are proto malays from sumatra who arrived about four zero zero zero years ago and are similar in features to malays some have been known to practice cannibalism and become violent upon sight of outsiders although some who venture out into the towns and cities have been known to become assimilated with the malays through marriage demographics of malaysia data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population two three nine five three one three six july two zero zero five est age structure zero one four years three three male four zero six seven zero zero six female three eight three seven seven five eight one five six four years six two four male seven four eight eight three six seven female seven four four seven zero four seven six five years and over four six male four nine zero three three four female six two two six two four two zero zero five est statistics population growth rate one eight two zero zero five est birth rate two three zero seven births one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est death rate five zero six deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est net migration rate zero migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est note does not reflect net flow of an unknown number of illegal immigrants from other countries in the region sex ratio at birth one zero seven male s female under one five years one zero six male s female one five six four years one zero one male s female six five years and over zero seven nine male s female total population one zero one male s female two zero zero five est infant mortality rate two zero nine six deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population seven two two four years male six nine five six years two zero zero two est female seven five one one years two zero zero two est total fertility rate three zero seven children born woman two zero zero five est nationality noun malaysian s adjective malaysian ethnic groups bumiputra six one four malays and indigenous people chinese two three seven indian seven one of which about eight five is tamil others seven five religions islam see islam in malaysia buddhism daoism hinduism christianity sikhism note in addition shamanism is practiced in east malaysia languages malay official english chinese dialects mandarin cantonese hokkien hakka teochew hainan foochow tamil telugu malayalam thai note in addition in east malaysia several indigenous languages are spoken the largest of which are iban and kadazan the english language in use in offical correspondence and examinations is based on british english though there has been much american influence through television however english as spoken in malaysia has been diverging and is known locally as manglish manglish is very similar to singlish the english spoken in singapore though the slang terms tend to be different literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population eight eight seven male nine two female eight five four two zero zero two geography of malaysia demographics by country malaysian society malaysia is a constitutional monarchy nominally headed by the yang di pertuan agong paramount ruler customarily referred to as the king kings are elected for five year terms from among the nine sultans of the peninsular malaysian states the king also is the leader of the islamic faith in malaysia executive power is vested in the cabinet led by the prime minister the malaysian constitution stipulates that the prime minister must be a member of the lower house of parliament who in the opinion of the yang di pertuan agong commands a majority in parliament the cabinet is chosen from among members of both houses of parliament and is responsible to that body the bicameral parliament consists of the senate dewan negara and the hall of the people dewan rakyat all seven zero senate members sit for three year terms with a maximum of two terms two six are elected by the one three state assemblies and four four are appointed by the king based on the advice of the prime minister members of parliament in the hall are elected from single member districts by universal adult suffrage the two one nine members of the dewan rakyat are appointed by popular election parliament has a maximum mandate of five years by law the king may dissolve parliament at any time and usually does so upon the advice of the prime minister general elections must be held within three months of the dissolution of parliament in practice this means that elections are held every three five years depending on the current political situation the parliament building in kuala lumpur legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures malaysia has two constituencies of law one is for the entire nation and is sovereign this is set by parliament the highest of this is the constitution and requires a two thirds majority to amend however the ruling party has never had less than this number the second constituency of law is syariah islamic law which applies to muslims in this country the federal government has little input into the setting of syariah and it falls to the states to determine what is islamic law not surprisingly this means that islamic law differs from state to state however all claim that it is god s law and all also claim to worship the same god the malaysian legal system is based on english common law however most of the laws and the constitution are lifted from indian law the federal court reviews decisions referred from the court of appeals it has original jurisdiction in constitutional matters and in disputes between states or between the federal government and a state peninsular malaysia and the east malaysian states of sabah and sarawak each has a high court the federal government has authority over external affairs defense internal security justice except civil law cases among malays or other muslims and other indigenous peoples adjudicated under islamic and traditional law federal citizenship finance commerce industry communications transportation and other matters political conditions malaysia s predominant political party the united malays national organization umno has held power in coalition with other parties since malaya s independence in one nine five seven in one nine seven three an alliance of communally based parties was replaced with a broader coalition the barisan nasional composed of one four parties today the barisan nasional alliance has three prominent members the umno mca malaysian chinese association and mic malaysian indian congress the prime minister of malaysia has always been a member from the malay party umno of barisan national alliance in early september one nine nine eight prime minister mahathir bin mohamad dismissed deputy prime minister anwar ibrahim and accused anwar of immoral and corrupt conduct anwar said his ouster actually owed to political differences and led a series of demonstrations advocating political reforms later in september anwar was arrested beaten while in prison by among others the chief of police at the time and charged with corrupt practices in both legal and moral contexts charges including obstruction of justice and sodomy in april one nine nine nine he was convicted of four counts of corruption and sentenced to six years in prison in august two zero zero zero anwar was convicted of one count of sodomy and sentenced to nine years to run consecutively after his earlier six year sentence both trials were viewed by domestic and international observers as unfair anwar s conviction on sodomy has since been overturned and having completed his six year sentence for corruption he has since been released from prison in the november one nine nine nine general election the barisan nasional was returned to power with three fourths of the parliamentary seats but umno s seats dropped from nine four to seven two the opposition barisan alternatif coalition led by the islamic party of malaysia pas increased its seats to four two pas retained control of the state of kelantan and won the additional state of terengganu the current prime minister is dato seri abdullah ahmad badawi fondly known as pak lah he took office following the retirement of dr mahathir now tun dr mahathir on the three one st of october two zero zero three he is seen as a more compromising and affable figure as opposed to tun dr mahathir s more confrontational and direct style he has pledged to continue tun dr mahathir s growth oriented policies while taking a less belligerent stance on foreign policy than tun dr mahathir who has regularly offended western countries the united states of america and australia in particular in the march two zero zero four general election dato seri abdullah ahmad badawi led barisan nasional to a landslide victory in which barisan nasional recaptured the state of terengganu the coalition now controls nine two of the seats in parliament in two zero zero five mahathir stated that i believe that the country should have a strong government but not too strong a two thirds majority like i enjoyed when i was prime minister is sufficient but a nine zero majority is too strong we need an opposition to remind us if we are making mistakes when you are not opposed you think everything you do is right references krishnamoorthy m dec one one two zero zero five dr m stand up and speak out the star malaysia politics of malaysia malaysia is a small and relatively open economy as of two zero zero five the three three rd largest economy in the world through purchasing power parity its estimated gross domestic product for two zero zero five is estimated to be two nine zero billion background the malay peninsula and indeed southeast asia has been a center for trade for centuries various items such as porcelain and spice were actively traded even before malacca and singapore rose to prominence in the one seven th century large deposits of tin were found in several malay states later as the british started to take over as administrators of malaya rubber and palm oil trees were introduced for commercial purposes over time malaya became the world s major largest producer of tin rubber and palm oil these three commodities along with other raw materials firmly set malaysia s economic tempo well into the mid two zero th century during the one nine seven zero s malaysia imitated the footsteps of the original four asian tigers and committed itself to a transition from reliance on mining and agriculture to an economy that depends more on manufacturing with japan s and the west s assistance heavy industries flourished and in a matter of years malaysian exports became the country s primary growth engine malaysia consistently achieved more than seven gdp growth along with low inflation in the one nine eight zero s and the one nine nine zero s tiger economy from one nine eight eight to one nine nine seven the economy experienced a period of broad diversification and sustained rapid growth averaging nine annually by one nine nine nine nominal per capita gdp had reached three two three eight new foreign and domestic investment played a significant role in the transformation of malaysia s economy manufacturing grew from one three nine of gdp in one nine seven zero to three zero in one nine nine nine while agriculture and mining which together had accounted for four two seven of gdp in one nine seven zero dropped to nine three and seven three respectively in one nine nine nine manufacturing accounted for three zero of gdp one nine nine nine major products include electronic components malaysia is one of the world s largest exporters of semiconductor devices electrical goods and appliances during the same period the government tried to eradicate poverty with a controversial race conscious program called new economic policy nep first established in one nine seven one after race riot known as the may one three incident occurred it sought to eradicate poverty and end the identification of economic function with ethnicity in particular it was designed to enhance the economic standing of ethnic malays and other indigenous peoples collectively known as bumiputras in malay the program ended in one nine nine one rapid growth was achieved partly through privatisation of inefficient state owned enterprises thus subjecting them to commercial pressures and forcing them to better utilise their resources mostly deals were done behind closed doors and put through rather quickly in one example khazanah nasional alienated shares in drb hicom to mega consolidated this led to such deals being labelled mega projects foreign funds were attracted to invest making the local money market and bourse liquid this created opportunity for local businesses to raise capital on the klse and carry out infrastructure development in areas like telecommunications highways and power generation to meet bottlenecks caused by rapid industrialisation an intense labor shortage created employment for milions of foreign workers subsequent events show that more than five zero were illegal the influx of foreign investment led to the klse composite index trading above one three zero zero in one nine nine four and the ringgit trading above two five in one nine nine seven at various times the klse was the most active exchange in the world with trading volume exceeding even the nyse some of the more visible projects from that period are putrajaya a new international airport kuala lumpur international airport a hydroelectric dam bakun dam the petronas towers and the multimedia super corridor proposals that were eventually cancelled include the nine five km sumatra malaysia bridge would have been world s longest the mega international sea and air port on reclaimed land in kedah would have been worlds biggest and the kl linear city would have been worlds largest mall and worlds first city built over a river concerns were raised during the time about the sustainability of the rapid growth and the ballooning current account the mainstream opinion prevalent at that time was that the the deficit was temporary and would reverse once imported equipment started producing for export in spite of that measures were taken to moderate growth especially when it threatened to overheat into the double digits the main target was asset prices and restrictions were further tightened on foreign ownership of local assets exposure of local banks to real estate loans were also capped at two zero as was widely expected the current account deficit did narrow steadily year to year from nine to five of gdp asian financial crisis and subsequent recovery the year one nine nine seven saw the drastic changes in local scenarios foreign direct investment fell at an alarming rate and ringgit depreciated substantially from myr two five zero per usd to much levels lower up to myr four eight zero per usd at its bottom as capital flowed out the kuala lumpur stock exchange s composite index fell from approximately one three zero zero to nearly merely four zero zero points in a few short weeks in response the malaysian government imposed capital controls and pegged the malaysian ringgit at three eight zero to a us dollar while refusing economic aid from international monetary fund imf which came with austere lending conditions by refusing aid and thus the conditions attached thereof from the imf malaysia was not affected to the same degree in the asian financial crisis as indonesia thailand and the philippines regardless the gdp suffered a sharp seven five contraction in one nine nine eight it however rebounded to grow by five six in one nine nine nine the government of malaysia predicted five eight real gdp growth in the year two zero zero zero but most analysts predicted growth will exceed eight for the year in order to rejuvenate the economy massive government spending was made and malaysia continuously recorded budget deficits in the years that followed economic recovery has been led by strong growth in exports particularly of electronics and electrical products to the united states malaysia s principal trade and investment partner inflationary pressures remained benign and as a result bank negara malaysia the central bank had been able to follow a low interest rate policy later the country enjoyed faster economic recovery compared to its neighbors though in many ways the level of pre one nine nine seven affluence has yet to be achieved the fixed exchange rate regime was abandoned in july two zero zero five in favor of managed floating system within an hour of china s announcing of the same move in the same week ringgit strengthened a percent against various major currencies and was expected to appreciate further as of december two zero zero five there has been no further appreciation of the ringgit in spite of the large positive current account surplus foreign reserves have started to fall at a rapid rate trade malaysia is an important trading partner for the united states in one nine nine nine two way bilateral trade between the u s and malaysia totaled u s three zero five billion with u s exports to malaysia totaling u s nine one billion and u s imports from malaysia increasing to u s two one four billion malaysia was the united states one two th largest trading partner and its one seven th largest export market during the first half of two zero zero zero u s exports totaled u s five billion while u s imports from malaysia reached u s one one six billion the malaysian government encourages foreign direct investment fdi according to malaysian statistics in one nine nine nine the u s ranked first among all countries in approved fdi in malaysia s manufacturing sector with approved new manufacturing investments totaling rm five two billion us one three seven billion principal u s investment approved by the malaysian investment development authority mida was concentrated in the chemicals electronics and electrical sectors the cumulative value of u s private investment in malaysia exceeded one zero billion six zero of which is in the oil and gas and petrochemical sectors with the rest in manufacturing especially semiconductors and other electronic products see also islamic banking in malaysia external links read longtime prime minister mahathir bin mohamad s interview with the pbs series commanding heights on the subject of east asian economic development prime minister of malaysia since one nine eight one dr mahathir bin mohamad has overseen malaysia s transformation into one of the wealthiest nations in southeast asia and has become a vocal critic of western style globalization economy of malaysia economies by country wto members telephones main lines in use four five eight million two zero zero three telephones mobile cellular one one one two million two zero zero three internet dial up two eight eight million two zero zero three internet broadband one one zero zero zero zero two zero zero three in two zero zero four zero eight five of malaysians using it two one eight zero zero four the government targets a figure of five by two zero zero six and one zero by two zero zero eight telephone system international service good domestic good intercity service provided on peninsular malaysia mainly by microwave radio relay adequate intercity microwave radio relay network between sabah and sarawak via brunei domestic satellite system with two earth stations international submarine cables to india hong kong and singapore satellite earth stations two intelsat one indian ocean and one pacific ocean telco companies tm berhad celcom zero one three and zero one nine maxis zero one two and zero one seven and digi zero one six radio broadcast stations am five six fm three one plus one three repeater stations shortwave five one nine nine nine radios nine one million one nine nine seven television broadcast stations two seven plus one five high power repeaters one nine nine nine televisions three six million one nine nine seven terrestrial television stations rtm one rtm two tv three ntv seven eight tv channel nine satellite television stations astro cable television stations mitv finetv internet service providers isps jaring dialup and broadband tm net dialup and streamyx broadband time webbit wireless broadband maxis broadband utopia wi fi blackberry nasionet see also malaysian telephone codes see also malaysian mobile phone codes country code top level domain my amateur radio stations two zero zero zero two zero zero six see also malaysia communications by country communications in malaysia the nine six six km north south expressway is the longest expressway in malaysia railways there are a total of two four one eight km of rail tracks of which two zero seven km are electrified roads there are four nine nine three five km of paved roads including one one nine two km of expressways in malaysia as of one nine nine nine there are also one five nine four two km of unpaved roads see also malaysian federal roads system see also malaysian state roads system see also malaysian expressway system waterways malaysia has seven two zero zero km of waterways most of them rivers of this three two zero zero km are in peninsular malaysia while one five zero zero km are in sabah and sarawak has two five zero zero km these figures are true as of year two zero zero four pipelines as of two zero zero four malaysia has two seven nine km of condensate five zero four nine km of gas one eight four one km of oil and one one four km of refined products pipelines ports and harbours this is a list of malaysian ports and harbours bintulu kota kinabalu kuantan kemaman kuching kudat labuan lahad datu lumut miri pasir gudang george town penang port dickson port klang sandakan sibu tanjung berhala tanjung kidurong tawau marine merchantile total three six zero ships one zero zero zero grt or over five three eight nine three nine seven grt seven five three nine one seven eight dwt by type bulk five nine cargo one zero zero chemical tanker three eight container six six liquefied gas two five livestock carrier one passenger two petroleum tanker five six roll on roll off five vehicle carrier eight foreign owned china one germany two hong kong eight indonesia two japan two south korea one liberia one monaco one norway one philippines two singapore eight one vietnam one registered in other countries seven five two zero zero three est airports one one seven two zero zero three est airports with paved runways total three eight over three zero four seven m five two four three eight to three zero four seven m seven one five two four to two four three seven m one zero nine one four to one five two three m nine under nine one four m seven two zero zero four est heliports one two zero zero three est transportation within kuala lumpur see kuala lumpur kuala lumpur star light rail transit kuala lumpur putra light rail transit kuala lumpur monorail north south expressway source the world factbook see also malaysia malaysian car number plates road signs in malaysia transportation in malaysia angkatan tentera malaysia military manpower military age one eight years of age availabilitymales age one five four nine five five eight four two three one two zero zero five est fit for military servicemales age one five four nine four five seven four eight five four two zero zero five est reaching military age annuallymales two four four four one eight two zero zero five est military expenditures dollar figure one six nine billion fy zero zero est percent of gdp one three two zero three fy zero zero this article concerns the military of malaysia the malaysian military known officially as the malaysian armed forces maf consists of three branches the royal malaysian navy the royal malaysian army and the royal malaysian air force for the first time the new malaysian coast guard will be created and integrated into the malaysian armed forces in early two zero zero six role of the maf the malaysian armed forces maf has the role of defending the sovereignty and strategic interests of malaysia from all forms of threat responsible in helping the civilian authorities in overcoming all internal threats preserving public order helping in situation of natural disasters and always participating in national development programs sustaining and upgrading its capabilities in the international sphere in order to uphold the national foreign policy of being involved under the guidance of the united nations un history army navy royal malaysian navy crestthe royal malaysian navy originated from the straits settlement volunteer reserve force formed on two seven april one nine three four in singapore the formation of a penang branch in one nine three eight saw its expansion when second world war broke out in one nine three nine the british strengthen its naval force in southeast asia by forming a unit was called the malay section of the royal navy to protect the security of singapore and federation of malaya this unit which consisted of four zero zero men underwent training at a training camp hmms pelandok a british naval base in singapore expansion saw the unit increase to one four five zero men during world war ii due to shortage of funds the british disbanded the force after world war ii in april one nine four seven the malayan naval forces was again created in one nine four eight in response to the emergency with the loan of one landing ship and five fast surface launches from the royal navy in one nine five three hrh queen elizabeth awarded the royal status to become the royal malayan navy the first vessel was a minesweeper called hms penyu or turtle after independence it was transferred from singapore on one two july one nine five eight as an independent sovereign navy on one six september one nine six three it was renamed royal malaysian navy in accordance to the formation of malaysia air force royal malaysian airforce crestit was created in one nine three six as malayan auxiliary air force disbanded after world war ii reactivated in one nine five zero the passing of air force ordinance by the parliament on two june one nine five eight saw the creation of royal malayan air force the first adviser was seconded from the royal air force raf air commodore a v r johnstsone who became the first chief of the royal malayan air force rmaf the proud few who formed the rmaf were flying officer lim heng lip sergeant subramanian corporal othman mohd ismail corporal wan said corporal jd parsley corporal mahadeven senior aircraftman sac surindam sac md noor sac zainal sac mohd hussain and junior technician jt ismail ariffin the first aircraft acquired for no one squadron was scottish aviation twin pioneer which served rmaf for one two years it was named lang rajawali by tunku abdul rahman the first prime minister with the formation of malaysia on one six september one nine six three the name of the force was changed to tentera udara diraja malaysia or royal malaysian air force theater of operations majority of theatre of operation were within the malaysian borders to fight communist insurgency during the emergency the only foreign attack on malaysian soil in modern times were world war ii by the japanese malaya was technically a british colony and indonesia during the indonesia malaysia confrontation of ganyang malaysia initiated by president sukarno operations on foreign soil were mostly peacekeeping under the auspices of the united nations peacekeeping operations unpko first emergency the malayan emergency in malaya one nine four eight one nine six zero peacekeeping in congo as part of onuc in one nine six zero one nine six two personnel sent were called malayan special force for united nations source of rejabhad s cartoon in gila gila indonesia malaysia confrontation one nine six three one nine six six during the start of the confrontation indonesian armed forces launched small parties of regular and irregular soldiers to wage terrorist and propaganda actions in borneo sarawak and sabah in one nine six four parachuted into peninsular malaysia and landed on beaches in johor in one nine six five indonesian army leaders staged a coup against sukarno which then stopped the policy of konfrontasi second emergency resurgence of communist activity in malaysia one nine six eight one nine eight nine communist party of malaya cpm restarted its aim to topple the government malaysian armed forces initiated multiple parallel operations which crushed the cpm and a peace treaty was signed on two december one nine eight nine at hatyai thailand the cpm was represented by chin peng and rashid maidin while dato rahim noor and dato megat junid megat ayub represented malaysia the second emergency is declared over on three one julai one nine six zero observers in iraq iran as part of uniimog one nine eight eight one nine nine one a battalion of observers in namibia as part of untag in one nine eight nine observers in western sahara as part of mission international des nations unies pour le referedum au sahara occidental or minurso one nine nine one observers in angola as part of unavem ii from one nine nine one observers in iraq kuwait as part of unikom in one nine nine two observers in cambodia as part of untac from one nine nine two one nine nine three peacekeeping in bosnia herzegovina from one nine nine three to one nine nine eight eight zero zero zero strong malbatt force within unprofor posted in konjic jablanica and pazaric malcon was sent to participate in ifor at livno glamoc and kupres the final participation was with sfor observers in liberia as part of unomil one nine nine three one nine nine six peacekeeping in somalia as part of unosomii by the nine zero zero strong malbatt one nine malaysian mechanized battalion one nine the fighting tigers in one nine nine three commanded by brigadier general datuk abdul latif ahmad malbatt saw action in the battle of mogadishu where three two condor armoured personal carriers apc with one one three personnel were sent to rescue seven five american servicemen in the operation one eight us soldiers were killed and seven zero were wounded condor driver private mat aznan awang was killed by heavy machine gun fire an rpg ripped apart his apc while eleven others were injured four malaysian condors were immobilised observers in mozambique as part of unumoz in one nine nine four other limited participation under unpko are united nations international police force uniptf since december one nine nine five united nations mission di kosovo unmik since jun one nine nine nine united nations observer mission di sierra leone unamsil since october one nine nine nine united nations transitional administration di east timur untaet since september one nine nine nine and united nations organisation mission in democratic republic of congo monuc since february two zero zero zero one eight malaysian armed forces personnel have been killed during un peacekeeping operations current developments in the early one nine nine zero s malaysia undertook a major program to expand and modernize its armed forces this included procurement of f a one eight d hornet and c one three zero hercules aircraft from the united states however budgetary constraints imposed by the one nine nine seven financial crisis slowed military procurement the recent economic recovery may lead to relaxation of budgetary constraints on the resumption of major weapons purchases in october two zero zero zero the defense minister announced a review of national defense and security policy to bring it up to date this review will address new security threats that have emerged in the form of low intensity conflicts such as the kidnapping of malaysians and foreigners from resort islands located off the east malaysian state of sabah current procurements for the air force include one eight su three zero mkm with a possible additional one zero augusta westland a one zero nine light helicopters for the army while aew c platforms are being evaluated including brazilian embraer emb one four five sa for rmaf no recent news on the offer of super hornets by the us however the chief of rmaf has expressed interest in the procurement of the aircraft the malaysian army is getting four eight twardy pt nine one main battle tanks from poland last major procurement was the astros mrls from brazil ma is rapidly mechanizing its current inventory where about one one three adnan ifvs infantry fighting vehicle has been acquired by the army in two zero zero four the ma is also looking forward to strengthen its anti armor capabilities such as the discussion of purchasing south african rooivalk attack helicopter and the recent procurement of the pakistani bakhtar shikan anti armor missile launcher installed on the adnans the royal malaysian navy placed a contract for two scorpene attack submarines in june two zero zero two and are expected to enter service in two zero zero eight two seven meko one zero zero new generation patrol vessels are in delivery six ngpvs next genration patrol vessel were also in manufacturing by a local defense company although the delivery process was delayed due to the installtion problem of the control systems on the vessel in early two zero zero four the ministry of defense initiated compulsory national service for one seven years old malaysians participants fo the malaysian national service are chosen randomly military branches royal malaysian army royal malaysian navy royal malaysian air force additional information and links foreign relations of malaysia five power defence arrangements external links royal malaysian army royal malaysian navy royal malaysian air force museum bases and squadrons airod perpective from a military personnel in the liaison military of malaysia this article concerns the foreign relations of malaysia malaysia is an active member of various international organisations including the commonwealth of nations the united nations the organization of islamic conference and the non aligned movement it has also in recent times been an active proponent of regional co operation malaysia is currently the chairman of nam oic and asean foreign policy one nine five seven one nine six nine malaysia has been a member of the commonwealth since independence in one nine five seven when it entered into the anglo malayan defence agreement amda with the united kingdom whereby britain guaranteed the defence of malaya and later malaysia the presence of british and other commonwealth troops were crucial to malaysia s security during the malayan emergency one nine four eight one nine six zero and the indonesian confrontation one nine six two one nine six six which was sparked by malaya s merger with the british colonies of singapore sarawak and north borneo to form malaysia in one nine six three the british defence guarantee ended following britain s decision in one nine six seven to withdraw its forces east of suez and was replaced in one nine seven one with the five power defence arrangements fpda by which britain australia new zealand malaysia and singapore agreed to co operate in the area of defence and to consult in the event of external aggression or the threat of attack on malaysia or singapore the fpda continues to operate and the five powers have a permanent integrated area defence system based at rmaf butterworth and organise annual naval and air exercises under the leadership of prime minister tunku abdul rahman up to one nine seven zero malaysia pursued a strongly pro commonwealth anti communist foreign policy nonetheless malaysia was active in the opposition to apartheid that saw south africa quit the commonwealth in one nine six one and was a founding member of the association of southeast asian nations asean in one nine six seven and the organisation of the islamic conference oic in one nine six nine with the tunku as its first secretary general in one nine seven one malaysia continues not to recognise the state of israel foreign policy since one nine six nine under prime ministers tun abdul razak and tun hussein onn malaysia shifted its policy towards non alignment and neutrality in one nine seven one asean issued its neutralist and anti nuclear zone of peace freedom and neutrality zopfan declaration malaysia joined the non aligned movement and in one nine seven four recognised the people s republic of china this policy shift was continued and strengthened by prime minister mahathir bin mohamad who pursued a regionalist and pro south policy with at times strident anti western rhetoric he long sought to establish an east asian economic group as an alternative to apec excluding australia new zealand and the americas and during his premiership malaysia signed up to an asean free trade area afta and asean three a regional forum with china japan and south korea he was involved with a spat with australian prime minister paul keating who called him a recalcitrant after he refused to attend the apec summit in seattle malaysia views regional cooperation as the cornerstone of its foreign policy malaysia was a leading advocate of expanding asean s membership to include laos vietnam and myanmar arguing that constructive engagement with these countries especially burma will help bring political and economic changes malaysia is also a member of g one five and g seven seven economic groupings despite mahathir s frequently anti western and anti semitic rhetoric he worked closely with western countries and led a crackdown against islamic fundamentalists after the september one one two zero zero one attacks under his successor abdullah badawi relations with western countries particularly australia have improved the current minister of foreign affairs is datuk seri syed hamid albar international affiliations un and many of its specialized agencies including unesco world bank international monetary fund international atomic energy agency general agreement on tariffs and trade association of southeast asian nations asian development bank five power defense arrangement south south commission g one five east asia summit eas asia pacific economic cooperation apec the commonwealth non aligned movement and organization of islamic conference international disputes spratly malaysia has asserted sovereignty over the spratly islands together with people s republic of china philippines republic of china vietnam and possibly brunei while the two zero zero two declaration on the conduct of parties in the south china sea has eased tensions over the spratly islands it is not the legally binding code of conduct sought by some parties malaysia was not party to a march two zero zero five joint accord among the national oil companies of proc the philippines and vietnam on conducting marine seismic activities in the spratly islands singapore disputes continue over deliveries of fresh water to singapore singapore s land reclamation bridge construction maritime boundaries and pulau batu putih but parties agree to icj arbitration on island dispute within three years ligitan sipadan and ambalat icj awarded ligitan and sipadan islands also claimed by indonesia and philippines to malaysia but left maritime boundary in the hydrocarbon rich celebes sea in dispute culminating in hostile confrontations in march two zero zero five over concessions to the ambalat oil block pattani separatist violence in thailand s predominantly muslim southern provinces prompts both malaysia and thailand monitor their mutual borders sabah philippines retains a now dormant claim to malaysian state sabah in northern borneo limbang malaysia s land boundary with brunei around limbang is in dispute in two zero zero three brunei and malaysia ceased gas and oil exploration in their disputed offshore and deepwater seabeds and negotiations have stalemated prompting consideration of international adjudication external links for more on the ambalat offshore area and spratly islands disputes see schofield clive and storey ian two zero zero five energy security and southeast asia the impact on maritime boundary and territorial disputes harvard asia quarterly nine one three six four six foreign relations of malaysia history of malaysia align center style vertical align top colspan two national motto n a align center colspan two style background ffffff official language dhivehi capital and largest city mal president maumoon abdul gayyoom area total water ranked one eight five th two nine eight km negligible population total year density ranked one six six th three four nine one zero six two zero zero five est one one seven one km gdp ppp total year gdp head ranked one eight three rd one two five zero million three nine zero zero hdi two zero zero three zero seven four five nine six th medium currency rufiyaa mvr time zone utc five independence two six july one nine six five national anthem gavmii mi ekuverikan matii tibegen kuriime salaam in national unity do we salute our nation internet tld mv calling code nine six zero the republic of maldives is an island nation consisting of the maldive group of atolls and the suvadive group of atolls in the indian ocean south of lakshadweep group of islands of india about seven zero zero kilometers south west of sri lanka the two six atolls encompass a territory featuring one one nine two islets roughly two zero zero of which are inhabited by people the country s name may stand for the palace or mountain islands from al mahal in arabic or malai in malayalam mala in tamil and dvipa in sanskrit respectively or it might mean a thousand islands following the introduction of islam in one one five three the islands later became a portuguese one five five eight dutch one six five four and british one seven nine six colonial possession in one nine six five maldives declared its independence from britain and in one nine six eight the sultanate was replaced by a republic history western interest in the archaeological remains of early cultures on maldives began with the work of h c p bell a british commissioner of the ceylon civil service bell was shipwrecked on the islands in one eight seven nine and returned several times to investigate ancient buddhist ruins the early inhabitants of maldives were from present day kerala and probably spoke an archaic form of tamil a dravidian language in fact people in the neighbouring lakshadweep islands speak a form of malayalam that is an off shoot of archaic tamil but by the fourth century a d theravada buddhism originating from ceylon present day sri lanka became the dominant religion of the people of maldives some scholars believe that the name maldives derives from the sanskrit maladvipa meaning garland of islands in the mid one nine eight zero s the maldivian government allowed the noted explorer and expert on early marine navigation thor heyerdahl to excavate ancient sites heyerdahl studied the ancient mounds called hawitta by the maldivians found on many of the atolls some of his archaeological discoveries of stone figures and carvings from pre islamic civilizations are today exhibited in a side room of the small national museum on mal heyerdahl s research indicates that as early as two zero zero zero b c maldives lay on the maritime trading routes of early egyptian mesopotamian and indus valley civilizations heyerdahl believes that early sun worshipping seafarers called the redin first settled on the islands this was evident then in many mosques facing the sun and not mecca lending credence to this theory because building space and materials were scarce successive cultures constructed their places of worship on the foundations of previous buildings heyerdahl thus surmises that these sun facing mosques were built on the ancient foundations of the redin culture temples heyerdahl s early mosques have now in large part been converted to face mecca as islam gained solidarity in maldives in the earlier half of the modern republic according to maldivian legend a sinhalese prince named koimala was stranded with his bride daughter of the king of sri lanka in a maldivian lagoon and stayed on to rule as the first sultan from the house of theemuge prior to that mal had belonged a group of people today called as giravaaru who claim ancestry from ancient tamils tamilas according to clarence maloney a noted anthropologist there is a clear tamil substratum in the language which also appears in place names kin terms poetry dance and religious beliefs this is actually tamil malayalam as up to about the one zero th century when the malayalam language acquired a separate identity what is now kerala was considered to be part of the tamil area there are numerous references in the tamil sangam one st three rd century and medieval literature to kings of kerala having ships conducting invasions by sea and ruling the northern part of sri lanka people of kerala settled the lakshadvip islands and evidently viewed the maldives as an extension of them there is a maldivian epic about koimala who is said to have come from sri lanka bringing with him his royal lineage landing on a northern atoll and then making mal his capital but the name koi is from malayalam koya son of the prince which is also the name of a high caste group in the lakshadvip islands koimala has now become a generalized eponymous ancestor of the pre muslim divehis the medieval settlements from sri lanka were strongest in the southern islands and this gave rise to the divehi language buddhism and the ideals of kinship the maldivians followed buddhism before they converted to islam and the conversion is explained in a controversial mythological story about the demon rannamaari over the centuries the islands have been visited and their development influenced by sailors from countries on the arabian sea and the indian ocean littorals mappila pirates from the malabar coast present day kerala state in india harassed the islands although governed as an independent islamic sultanate for most of its history from one one five three to one nine six eight maldives was a british protectorate from one eight eight seven until july two five one nine six five in one nine five three there was a brief abortive attempt to form a republic but the sultanate was re imposed in one nine five nine objecting to nasir s changes the inhabitants of the three southernmost atolls protested against the government they formed the united suvadive republic and elected a president abdulla afeef didi after independence from britain in one nine six five the sultanate continued to operate for another three years on november one one one nine six eight it was abolished and replaced by a republic and the country assumed its present name tourism and fishing are now being developed on the archipelago in november one nine eight eight tamil mercenaries from sri lanka invaded the maldives after an appeal by the maldivian government for help india launched a military campaign to throw the mercenaries out of maldives on the night of november three one nine eight eight the indian air force airlifted a parachute battalion group from agra and flew them non stop over two zero zero zero km to maldives the indian paratroopers landed at hulule and secured the airfield and restored the government rule at mal within hours the brief bloodless operation showcased the capability of the indian air force and the indian navy in what was labelled operation cactus on two six december two zero zero four the maldives were devastated by a tsunami following the two zero zero four indian ocean earthquake the absence of land mass against which waves could be built up reduced the destructive impact preventing the waves from reaching much more than one two one five meters in height despite this the archipelago s low lying nature one of the lowest lying countries on earth meant that nearly all of the country was swamped at least seven five people perished including six foreigners and all infrastructure was lost on one three of the inhabited islands and two nine of the resort islands economy see also industries in maldives fisheries the maldivian economy was for many centuries entirely dependent on fishing and other marine products therefore fishing has been and still remains the main occupation of the people the government gives special priority to the development of the fisheries sector the mechanization of the traditional fishing dhoani in one nine seven four was a major milestone in the development of the fisheries industry and the country s economy in general a fish canning plant was installed in the island of felivaru in one nine seven seven as a joint venture with a japanese firm in one nine seven nine a fisheries advisory board was set up with the mandate of advising the government on policy guidelines for the overall development of the fisheries sector manpower development programs were begun in the early one nine eight zero s and fisheries education was incorporated into the school curriculum fish aggregating devices and navigational aids were located at various strategic points moreover the opening up of the exclusive economic zone eez of maldives for fisheries has further enhanced the growth of the fisheries sector today fisheries contribute over one five percent of the gdp and engage about three zero percent of the country s work force it is also the second largest foreign exchange earner after tourism tourism the capital of the maldives mal the development of tourism has fostered the overall growth of the country s economy it has created direct and indirect employment and income generation opportunities in other related industries today tourism is the country s biggest foreign exchange earner contributing to two zero percent of the gdp with eight six tourist resorts in operation the year two zero zero zero recorded four six seven one five four tourist arrivals cottage industries the development tourism sector gave a major boost to the country s fledging traditional cottage industries such as mat weaving lacquer work handicraft and coir rope making new industries that have since emerged include printing production of pvc pipes brick making marine engine repairs bottling of aerated water and garment production politics maumoon abdul gayoom was first elected president in one nine seven eight and has retained power more or less in a dictatorial manner he has survived a coup attempt that was foiled with help of indian troops in one nine eight eight at present he is the longest serving leader in asia since two zero zero three the country has experienced occasional antigovernment demonstrations calling for political reforms political parties were allowed in june two zero zero five the first party to register was the maldivian democratic party mdp headed by popular opposition figures such as mohamed nasheed anni and mohamed latheef gogo the dhivehi raiyyithunge party drp headed by president gayyoom was to register next judiciary ustaz mohamed rasheed ibrahim from fuvahmulah is the present chief justice of maldives maldives and the indian ocean commission since one nine nine six maldives has been the official progress monitor of the indian ocean commission in two zero zero two maldives applied for full membership but was refused the first reason they were rejected is that their geographical position is different from other member states maldives are considered in asia instead of africa the other reason was more complicated the official language spoken by the commission was french with creole used in friendly conversations maldives speak english and a language totally unrelated to the other members it was proposed to change the language to english which the people of reunion comoros and mayotte do not speak and so the idea was dropped the third reason was due to the difference in historic background however maldives were given a more important role and semi membership atolls satellite image of the maldives by nasa note that the southern most atoll of the maldives addu atoll is not visible on the image maldives has two six natural atolls which have been divided into two zero administrative atolls and one city the northern most atoll is haa alif atoll and the southern most is seenu the smallest atoll is gnaviyani atoll with only one island the largest island in maldives the largest atoll in both maldives and the whole world is gaafu alif atoll which is just south of the one and a half degree channel each atoll is administered by an atoll chief atholhu veriyaa appointed by the president maumoon abdul gayoom atoll chiefs administer as directed by the president the ministry of atoll administration and its northern and southern regional offices atoll offices and island offices are collectively responsible to the president for atolls administration the administrative head of each island is the island chief katheeb appointed by the president the island chief s immediate superior is the atoll chief geography maldives holds the record for being the flattest country in the world with a maximum altitude of only two three metres although there have been reports of rising sea levels threatening the islands the sea level has actually lowered in recent decades a tsunami in the indian ocean caused by the two zero zero four indian ocean earthquake caused parts of maldives to be covered by sea water and left many people homeless after the disaster cartographers are planning to redraw the maps of the islands due to alterations by the tsunami the people and government are worried that maldives could be wiped from the map eventually demographics the maldivian ethnic identity is a blend of the cultures of peoples who settled on the islands reinforced by religion and language the earliest settlers were probably from southern india indo aryan speakers followed them from sri lanka in the fourth and fifth centuries ad in the one two th century ad sailors from east africa and arab countries came to the islands originally buddhists maldivians were converted to sunni islam in the mid one two th century islam is the official religion of the entire population as adherence to it is required for citizenship strict adherence to islamic precepts and close community relationships have helped keep crime low and under control the official and common language is dhivehi an indo european language related to sinhalese the language of sri lanka the written script is called thaana and is written from right to left english is used widely in commerce and increasingly as the medium of instruction in government schools some social stratification along the lines similar to indian caste system exists on the islands it is not rigid since rank is based on varied factors including occupation wealth islamic virtue and family ties members of the social elite are concentrated in mal outside of the service industry this is the only location where the foreign and domestic populations are likely to interact the tourist resorts are not on islands where the natives live and casual contacts between the two groups are discouraged there still exists a small population of people called giravaaru who claim be the original settlers of maldives thus different from the maldivian mainstream culture islam in maldives music of maldives miscellaneous topics communications in maldives currency of maldives economy of maldives education in maldives finance in maldives foreign relations of maldives list of birds of maldives military of maldives president of the maldives tourism in maldives transportation in maldives effect of the two zero zero four indian ocean earthquake two zero zero five maldives civil unrest external links official sites republic of maldives other sites maldives from space google maps indian ocean atolls maldives island nations saarc members archipelagoes dive sites historical setting maldives is an isolated nation and is among the smallest and poorest countries in the world in olden times the islands provided the main source of cowrie shells then used as currency throughout asia and parts of the east african coast moreover historically maldives has had a strategic importance because of its location on the major marine routes of the indian ocean maldives nearest neighbors are sri lanka and india both of which have had cultural and economic ties with maldives for centuries although under nominal portuguese dutch and british influences after the one six th century maldivians were left to govern themselves under a long line of sultans and occasionally sultanas maldives gained independence in one nine six five the british who had been maldives last colonial power continued to maintain an air base on the island of gan in the southernmost atoll until one nine seven six the british departure in one nine seven six almost immediately triggered foreign speculation about the future of the air base the soviet union requested use of the base but maldives refused the greatest challenge facing the republic in the early one nine nine zero s was the need for rapid economic development and modernization given the country s limited resource base in fishing agricuture and tourism concern was also evident over a projected long term rise in sea level which would prove disastrous to the low lying coral islands fortunately in the early two zero zero zero s it was found sea level had fallen during preceding decades maldivians consider the introduction of islam in a d one one five three as the cornerstone of their country s history islam remains the state religion in the one nine nine zero s except for a brief period of portuguese occupation from one five five eight seven three maldives also has remained independent because the muslim religion prohibits images portraying gods local interest in ancient statues of the pre islamic period is not only slight but at times even hostile villagers have been known to destroy such statues recently unearthed early age western interest in the archaeological remains of early cultures on maldives began with the work of h c p bell a british commissioner of the ceylon civil service bell was shipwrecked on the islands in one eight seven nine and he returned several times to investigate ancient buddhist ruins historians have established that by the fourth century a d theravada buddhism originating from ceylon present day sri lanka became the dominant religion of the people of maldives some scholars believe that the name maldives derives from the sanskrit maladvipa meaning garland of islands in the mid one nine eight zero s the maldivian government allowed the noted explorer and expert on early marine navigation thor heyerdahl to excavate ancient sites heyerdahl studied the ancient mounds called hawitta by the maldivians found on many of the atolls some of his archaeological discoveries of stone figures and carvings from pre islamic civilizations are today exhibited in a side room of the small national museum on mal heyerdahl s research indicates that as early as two zero zero zero b c maldives lay on the maritime trading routes of early egyptian mesopotamian and indus valley civilizations heyerdahl believes that early sun worshipping seafarers called the redin first settled on the islands even today many mosques in maldives face the sun and not mecca lending credence to this theory because building space and materials were scarce successive cultures constructed their places of worship on the foundations of previous buildings heyerdahl thus surmises that these sun facing mosques were built on the ancient foundations of the redin culture temples introduction of islam see also islam in maldives the interest of middle eastern peoples in maldives resulted from its strategic location and its abundant supply of cowrie shells a form of currency that was widely used throughout asia and parts of the east african coast since ancient times middle eastern seafarers had just begun to take over the indian ocean trade routes in the tenth century a d and found maldives to be an important link in those routes the importance of the arabs as traders in the indian ocean by the twelfth century a d may partly explain why the last buddhist king of maldives converted to islam in the year one one five three the king thereupon adopted the muslim title and name in arabic of sultan besides the old divehi title of maha radun or ras kilege muhammad al adil initiating a series of six islamic dynasties consisting of eighty four sultans and sultanas that lasted until one nine three two when the sultanate became elective the person responsible for this conversion was a sunni muslim visitor named abu al barakat his venerated tomb now stands on the grounds of hukuru mosque or miski in the capital of mal built in one six five six this is the oldest mosque in maldives arab interest in maldives also was reflected in the residence there in the one three four zero s of the well known north african traveler ibn battutah era of colonial powers portuguese in one five five eight the portuguese established themselves on maldives which they administered from goa on india s west coast fifteen years later a local guerrilla leader named muhammad thakurufaanu al azam organized a popular revolt and drove the portuguese out of maldives this event is now commemorated as national day and a small museum and memorial center honor the hero on his home island of utheemu on south thiladhummathi atoll dutch in the mid seventeenth century the dutch who had replaced the portuguese as the dominant power in ceylon established hegemony over maldivian affairs without involving themselves directly in local matters which were governed according to centuries old islamic customs however the british expelled the dutch from ceylon in one seven nine six and included maldives as a british protected area the status of maldives as a british protectorate was officially recorded in an one eight eight seven agreement in which the sultan accepted british influence over maldivian external relations and defense the british had no presence however on the leading island community of mal they left the islanders alone as had the dutch with regard to internal administration to continue to be regulated by muslim traditional institutions british during the british era from one eight eight seven to one nine six five maldives continued to be ruled under a succession of sultans the sultans were hereditary until one nine three two when an attempt was made to make the sultanate elective thereby limiting the absolute powers of sultans at that time a constitution was introduced for the first time although the sultanate was retained for an additional two one years maldives remained a british crown protectorate until one nine five three when the sultanate was suspended and the first republic was declared under the short lived presidency of muhammad amin didi this first elected president of the country introduced several reforms while serving as prime minister during the one nine four zero s didi nationalized the fish export industry as president he is remembered as a reformer of the education system and a promoter of women s rights muslim conservatives in mal eventually ousted his government and during a riot over food shortages didi was beaten by a mob and died on a nearby island beginning in the one nine five zero s political history in maldives was largely influenced by the british military presence in the islands in one nine five four the restoration of the sultanate perpetuated the rule of the past two years later the united kingdom obtained permission to reestablish its wartime airfield on gan in the southernmost addu atoll maldives granted the british a one zero zero year lease on gan that required them to pay two zero zero zero a year as well as some four four zero zero zero zero square metres on hitaddu for radio installations in one nine five seven however the new prime minister ibrahim nasir called for a review of the agreement in the interest of shortening the lease and increasing the annual payment but nasir who was theoretically responsible to then sultan muhammad farid didi was challenged in one nine five nine by a local secessionist movement in the southern atolls that benefited economically from the british presence on gan this group cut ties with the maldives government and formed an independent state with abdulla afif didi as president the short lived state one nine five nine six two called the united suvadivan republic had a combined population of two zero zero zero zero inhabitants scattered in the atolls then named suvadiva since renamed north huvadu and south huvadu and addu and fua mulaku in one nine six two nasir sent gunboats from mal with government police on board to eliminate elements opposed to his rule abdulla afif didi fled to the then british colony of seychelles where he was granted political asylum meanwhile in one nine six zero maldives allowed the united kingdom to continue to use both the gan and the hitaddu facilities for a thirty year period with the payment of seven five zero zero zero zero over the period of one nine six zero to one nine six five for the purpose of maldives economic development independence on july two six one nine six five maldives gained independence under an agreement signed with united kingdom the british government retained the use of the gan and hitaddu facilities in a national referendum in march one nine six eight maldivians abolished the sultanate and established a republic nasir the second republic was proclaimed in november one nine six eight under the presidency of ibrahim nasir who had increasingly dominated the political scene under the new constitution nasir was elected indirectly to a four year presidential term by the majlis legislature he appointed ahmed zaki as the new prime minister in one nine seven three nasir was elected to a second term under the constitution as amended in one nine seven two which extended the presidential term to five years and which also provided for the election of the prime minister by the majlis in march one nine seven five newly elected prime minister zaki was arrested in a bloodless coup and was banished to a remote atoll observers suggested that zaki was becoming too popular and hence posed a threat to the nasir faction during the one nine seven zero s the economic situation in maldives suffered a setback when the sri lankan market for maldives main export of dried fish collapsed adding to the problems was the british decision in one nine seven five to close its airfield on gan in line with its new policy of abandoning defense commitments east of the suez canal a steep commercial decline followed the evacuation of gan in march one nine seven six as a result the popularity of nasir s government suffered maldives s two zero year period of authoritarian rule under nasir abruptly ended in one nine seven eight when he fled to singapore a subsequent investigation revealed that he had absconded with millions of dollars from the state treasury gayoom elected to replace nasir for a five year presidential term in one nine seven eight was maumoon abdul gayoom a former university lecturer and maldivian ambassador to the united nations un the peaceful election was seen as ushering in a period of political stability and economic development in view of gayoom s priority to develop the poorer islands in one nine seven eight maldives joined the international monetary fund and the world bank tourism also gained in importance to the local economy reaching more than one two zero zero zero zero visitors in one nine eight five the local populace appeared to benefit from increased tourism and the corresponding increase in foreign contacts involving various development projects despite coup attempts in one nine eight zero one nine eight three and one nine eight eight gayoom s popularity remained strong allowing him to win three more presidential terms in the one nine eight three one nine eight eight and one nine nine three elections gayoom received more than nine five of the vote although the government did not allow any legal opposition gayoom was opposed in the early one nine nine zero s by islamists also seen as fundamentalists who wanted to impose a more traditional way of life and by some powerful local business leaders whereas the one nine eight zero and one nine eight three coup attempts against gayoom s presidency were not considered serious the third coup attempt in november one nine eight eight alarmed the international community about eight zero armed tamil mercenaries landed on mal before dawn aboard speedboats from a freighter disguised as visitors a similar number had already infiltrated mal earlier although the mercenaries quickly gained the nearby airport on hulele they failed to capture president gayoom who fled from house to house and asked for military intervention from india the united states and the united kingdom indian prime minister rajiv gandhi immediately dispatched one six zero zero troops by air to restore order in mal less than one two hours later indian paratroopers arrived on hulele causing some of the mercenaries to flee toward sri lanka in their freighter those unable to reach the ship in time were quickly rounded up nineteen people reportedly died in the fighting and several taken hostage also died three days later an indian frigate captured the mercenaries on their freighter near the sri lankan coast in july one nine eight nine a number of the mercenaries were returned to maldives to stand trial gayoom commuted the death sentences passed against them to life imprisonment the one nine eight eight coup had been headed by a once prominent maldivian businessperson named abdullah luthufi who was operating a farm on sri lanka ex president nasir denied any involvement in the coup in fact in july one nine nine zero president gayoom officially pardoned nasir in absentia in recognition of his role in obtaining maldives independence external links maldives history original records articles and translations sources and references skj lsvold arne one nine nine one archaeological test excavations on the maldive islands the kon tiki museum occasional papers vol two oslo worldstatesmen history of the maldives maldives comprises some one nine zero zero islands in the indian ocean the earliest settlers were probably from southern india indo european speakers followed them from sri lanka in the fourth and fifth centuries bc in the one two th century ad sailors from east africa and arab countries came to the islands today the maldivian ethnic identity is a blend of these cultures reinforced by religion and language originally buddhists maldivians were converted to sunni islam in the mid one two th century islam is the official religion of the entire population strict adherence to islamic precepts and close community relationships have helped keep crime low and under control the official and common language is divehi the written script is called thaana an indo european language related to sinhalese the language of sri lanka the writing system is from right to left english is used widely in commerce and increasingly as the medium of instruction in government schools some social stratification exists on the islands it is not rigid since rank is based on varied factors including occupation wealth islamic virtue and family ties members of the social elite are concentrated in mal outside of the service industry this is the only location where the foreign and domestic populations are likely to interact the tourist resorts are not on islands where the natives live and casual contacts between the two groups are discouraged there still exists a small population of people called giravaaru who claim be the original settlers of maldives thus different from the maldivian mainstream demographics of the maldives data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population three zero one four seven five july two zero zero zero est age structure zero one four years four six male seven one two seven three female six seven three two three one five six four years five one male seven eight five nine eight female seven five three three one six five years and over three male four six six six female four two eight four two zero zero zero est population growth rate three zero six two zero zero zero est birth rate three eight nine six births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate eight three two deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate zero migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero six male s female one five six four years one zero four male s female six five years and over one zero nine male s female total population one zero five male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate six five five two deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population six two two years male six one zero five years female six three four years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate five six two children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun maldivian s adjective maldivian ethnic groups south indians sinhalese arabs religions sunni muslim languages maldivian dhivehi dialect of sinhala script derived from arabic english spoken by most government officials literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population nine three two male nine three three female nine three one nine nine five est see also maldives maldives demographics by country politics of maldives takes place in a framework of a presidential republic whereby the president is the head of government executive power is exercised by the government the president heads the executive branch and appoints the cabinet the president is nominated to a five year term by a secret ballot of the majlis parliament a nomination which must be confirmed by national referendum the unicameral majlis is composed of four eight members serving five year terms two male members from each atoll are elected directly by universal suffrage eight are appointed by the president parties were not allowed until two zero zero five after the elections the maldivian legal system derived mainly from traditional islamic law is administered by secular officials a chief justice and lesser judges on each of the one nine atolls who are appointed by the president and function under the ministry of justice there also is an attorney general each inhabited island within an atoll has a chief who is responsible for law and order every atoll chief appointed by the president functions as a district officer in the british south asian tradition see also constitution of maldives history main article history of maldives a one nine six eight referendum approved a constitution making maldives a republic with executive legislative and judicial branches of government the constitution was amended in one nine seven zero one nine seven two one nine seven five and one nine nine seven and is again under revision ibrahim nasir prime minister under the pre one nine six eight sultanate became president and held office from one nine six eight to one nine seven eight he was succeeded by maumoon abdul gayoom who was elected president in one nine seven eight and reelected in one nine eight three one nine eight eight one nine nine three one nine nine eight and two zero zero three on november three one nine eight eight sri lankan tamil mercenaries tried to overthrow the maldivian government at president gayoom s request the indian military suppressed the coup attempt within two four hours violent protests broke out in mal on september two zero two zero zero three after evan naseem a prisoner was killed in maafushi jail after the most brutal torture reportedly by prison staff an attempt to cover up the death was foiled when the mother of the dead man discovered the marks of torture on his body and made the knowledge public therefore triggering the riots a subsequent disturbance at the prison resulted in three deaths when police guards at the prison opened fire on the inmates several government buildings were set on fire during the riots as a result of pressure from reformists the junior prison guards responsible for naseem s death were subsequently tried convicted and sentenced in two zero zero five in what was believed to be a show trial that avoided the senior officers involved being investigated the report of an inquiry into the prison shootings was heavily censored by the government citing national security grounds pro reformists claim this was in order to cover up the chain of authority and circumstances that led to the killings there were fresh protests on august one three two zero zero four black friday which appear to have begun as a demand for the release of four political activists from detention up to five zero zero zero demonstrators were involved after two police officers were reportedly stabbed allegedly by government agents provocateur president gayoom declared a state of emergency and brutally suppressed the demonstration beating up onlookers suspending all human rights guaranteed under the constitution banning demonstrations and the expression of views critical of the government at least two five zero pro reform protestors were arrested as part of the state of emergency and to prevent independent reporting of events the government shut off internet access and some mobile telephony services to maldives on august one three and one four two zero zero four executive branch president maumoon abdul gayoom one one november one nine seven eight note the president is both the chief of state and head of government legislative branch the assembly majlis has five zero members four two members elected for a term of five years in two seat constitutencies and eight members appointed by the president political parties and elections on a national level maldives elects a head of state the president and a legislature the president is elected for a five year term by parliament and confirmed in a referendum by the people in this referendum on one seven october two zero zero three nine zero three voted in favour of present day president maumoon abdul gayoom turnout seven seven at the last parliamentary elections two two january two zero zero five only non partisans have been elected no legal parties exist out of the four two elected parliamentaries according to adam carr two zero three two three of popular vote support the government and one eight three one one of popular vote are endorsed by the maldivian democratic party maldivian parliament voted unanimously for the creation of a multiparty system on june two two zero zero five prior to june two zero zero five the maldivian political system was based around the election of individuals rather than the more common system of election according to party platform in june two zero zero five as part of an ongoing programme of democratic reform new regulations were promulgated to formally recognised political parties within the framework of the electoral system the maldivian democratic party was allready active new parties include the maldivian peoples party the islamic democratic party and the adhaalath party judicial branch the legal system is based on islamic law with admixtures of english common law primarily in commercial matters maldives has not accepted compulsory icj jurisdiction administrative divisions two zero atolls atholhu singular and plural and one first order administrative city alif alif alif dhaal baa dhaalu faafu gaafu alifu gaafu dhaalu gnaviyani haa alifu haa dhaalu laamu lhaviyani kaafu meemu noonu raa seenu shaviyani thaa vaavu international organization participation asdb c ccc cp escap fao g seven seven ibrd icao ida idb ifad ifc imf imo intelsat nonsignatory user interpol ioc itu nam oic opcw saarc un unctad unesco unido upu who wmo wtoo wtro external links amnesty international reports on the maldives penn law school students help draft a criminal code for the maldives from the university of pennsylvania website politics of the maldives republics economy overview tourism maldives largest industry accounts for two zero of gdp and more than six zero of the maldives foreign exchange receipts over nine zero of government tax revenue comes from import duties and tourism related taxes over five zero zero zero zero zero tourists visited the islands in two zero zero three fishing is a second leading sector the maldivian government began an economic reform program in one nine eight nine initially by lifting import quotas and opening some exports to the private sector subsequently it has liberalized regulations to allow more foreign investment agriculture and manufacturing continue to play a minor role in the economy constrained by the limited availability of cultivable land and the shortage of domestic labor most staple foods must be imported industry which consists mainly of garment production boat building and handicrafts accounts for about one eight of gdp maldivian authorities worry about the impact of erosion and possible global warming on their low lying country eight zero of the area is one meter or less above sea level of maldives one nine zero zero islands only one nine eight are inhabited the population is scattered throughout the country and the greatest concentration is on the capital island mal limitations on potable water and arable land constrain expansion development has been centered upon the tourism industry and its complementary service sectors transport distribution real estate construction and government taxes on the tourist industry have been plowed into infrastructure and used to improve technology in the agricultural sector gdp in two zero zero zero totaled four three five million or about one four zero zero per capita maldives has experienced relatively low inflation in recent years real gdp growth averaged about one zero in the one nine eight zero s it expanded by an exceptional one six two in one nine nine zero declined to four in one nine nine three and has since bounced back to the seven to nine range maldives has been running a merchandise trade deficit in the range of two zero zero to two six zero million since one nine nine seven the trade deficit declined to two three three million in two zero zero zero from two six two million in one nine nine nine international shipping to and from the maldives is mainly operated by the private sector with only a small fraction of the tonnage carried on vessels operated by the national carrier maldives shipping management ltd over the years maldives has received economic assistance from multilateral development organizations including the united nations development programme asian development bank and the world bank individual donors including japan india australia and european and arab countries including islamic development bank and the kuwaiti fund also have contributed see economic aid to maldives a one nine five six bilateral agreement gave the united kingdom the use of gan in addu atoll in the far south for two zero years as an air facility in return for british aid the agreement ended in one nine seven six shortly after the british closed the gan air station economic sectors tourism in recent years maldives has successfully marketed its natural assets for tourism beautiful unpolluted beaches on small coral islands diving in blue waters abundant with tropical fish and glorious sunsets tourism now brings in about three two five million a year tourism and related services contributed three three of gdp in two zero zero zero since the first resort was established in one nine seven two more than eight four islands have been developed with a total capacity of some one six zero zero zero beds the number of tourists mainly from europe visiting the maldives increased from one one zero zero in one nine seven two to two eight zero zero zero zero in one nine nine four in two zero zero zero tourist arrivals exceeded four six six zero zero zero the average occupancy rate is six eight with the average tourist staying eight days and spending about seven five five fishing this sector employs about two zero of the labor force and contributes one zero of gdp the use of nets is illegal so all fishing is done by line production was about one one nine zero zero zero metric tons in two zero zero zero most of which was skipjack tuna about five zero is exported largely to sri lanka germany the u k thailand japan and singapore about four two of exports consist of dried or canned fish and another three one is frozen one zero is exported as fresh fish total export proceeds from fish were about four zero million in two zero zero zero the fishing fleet consists of some one one four zero small flat bottomed boats dhonis since the dhonis have shifted from sails to outboard motors the annual tuna catch per fisherman has risen from one four metric tons in one nine eight three to five six in one nine nine nine agriculture poor soil and scarce arable land have historically limited agriculture to a few subsistence crops such as coconut banana breadfruit papayas mangoes taro betel chilies sweet potatoes and onions agriculture provides about six of gdp industry the industrial sector provides only about seven of gdp traditional industry consists of boat building and handicrafts while modern industry is limited to a few tuna canneries five garment factories a bottling plant and a few enterprises in the capital producing pvc pipe soap furniture and food products environmental concerns there is growing concern about coral reef and marine life damage because of coral mining used for building and jewelry making sand dredging and solid waste pollution mining of sand and coral have removed the natural coral reef that protected several important islands making them highly susceptible to the erosive effects of the sea in april one nine eight seven high tides swept over the maldives inundating much of mal and nearby islands that event prompted high level maldivian interest in global climatic changes but fortunately a two zero zero three inqua study found actual sea levels had dropped in the one nine seven zero s and forecast little change in the next century investment in education the government expenditure for education was one eight of the budget in one nine nine nine both formal and nonformal education have made remarkable strides in the last decade unique to maldives modern and traditional schools exist side by side the traditional schools are staffed by community paid teachers without formal training and provide basic numeracy and literacy skills in addition to religious instruction the modern schools run by both the government and private sector provide primary and secondary education as the modern english medium school system expands the traditional system is gradually being upgraded by early one nine nine eight more than three zero islands were equipped to provide education for grades eight nine and one zero some one six four islands provided education up to grade five six or seven in mal is the only school for grades one one and one two with a school in the southern most island of gan scheduled to offer the final two years starting in two zero zero two seven post secondary technical training institutes provide opportunities for youth to gain skills that are in demand the world bank has already committed one seven million for education development in two zero zero zero zero four and plans to commit further one five million for human development and distance learning during this period over two zero zero one zero three the adb is planning to support post secondary education development in maldives see also maldives maldives economies by country wto members telephones main lines in use two one zero zero zero one nine nine nine telephones mobile cellular over seven one nine zero zero two zero zero four telephone system minimal domestic and international facilities domestic interatoll communication through microwave links all inhabited islands are connected with telephone and fax service international satellite earth station three intelsat indian ocean radio broadcast stations am one fm one shortwave one one nine nine eight radios three five zero zero zero one nine nine nine television broadcast stations one one nine nine seven televisions one zero zero zero zero one nine nine nine internet service providers isps two two zero zero three internet users six zero zero zero two zero zero one country code top level domain mv mv domain registrar http www dhivehinet net mv some useful links see also dhiraagu maldives wataniya telecom maldives external links website of dhiraagu website of wataniya maldives communications by country maldives information on transport in the maldives railways zero km highways total na km paved na km unpaved na km note mal has nine six km of coral highways within the city one nine eight eight est ports and harbors gan mal merchant marine total one four ships one zero zero zero grt or over totaling five one five three two grt seven one two nine eight dwt ships by type cargo one three short sea passenger one two zero zero two est airports five two zero zero one airports with paved runways total two over three zero four seven m one two four three eight to three zero four seven m one two zero zero two airports with unpaved runways total three nine one four to one five two three m three two zero zero two see also list of airports in maldives maldives transportation by country military branches combat forces national security service military manpower availability males age one five four nine seven eight zero two five two zero zero three est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine four three three eight six two zero zero three est military expenditures dollar figure three four four six million fy zero two military expenditures percent of gdp eight six fy zero two head of military president maumoon abdul gayyoom references and links maldives maldives militaries see also the empire of mali and the town of mali guinea the republic of mali r publique du mali is a landlocked nation in west africa it is the second largest country among west african nations it borders algeria on the north niger on the east burkina faso and the c te d ivoire on the south guinea on the south west and senegal and mauritania on the west its straight borders on the north stretch into the centre of the sahara desert while the country s south where the majority of inhabitants live features the niger and senegal rivers formerly french sudan the country is named after the empire of mali history main article history of mali the mand peoples settled the sahel including present day mali and formed a succession of sahelian kingdoms including the ghana empire the mali empire and the songhai empire timbuktu was a key city in these empires as an outpost for trans saharan trade and a center for scholarship the songhai empire declined under a moroccan invasion in one five nine one mali was invaded by france starting in one eight eight zero which annexed it as an overseas department of france the colony which at times also included neighbouring countries was known as french sudan or the sudanese republic in early one nine five nine the union of mali and senegal became the mali federation which gained independence from france on june two zero one nine six zero senegal withdrew from the mali federation after a few months the republic of mali under modibo ke ta withdrew from the french community on september two two one nine six zero mali was ruled by a series of dictators from independence until one nine nine one anti government protests in one nine nine one led to a coup a transitional government and a new constitution in one nine nine two alpha oumar konar won mali s first democratic multi party presidential election upon his reelection in one nine nine seven president konar pushed through political and economic reforms and fought corruption in two zero zero two he was succeeded in democratic elections by amadou toumani tour a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of one nine nine one democratic uprising politics main article politics of mali geography map of mali main article geography of mali mali is landlocked and has a subtropical to arid climate it is mostly flat rising to rolling northern plains covered by sand with savanna around the niger river in the south the hills of the air massif and djado plateau lie in the northeast most of the country lies in the sahara desert which produces a hot dust laden harmattan haze common during dry seasons and leads to recurring droughts the nation has considerable natural resources with gold uranium phosphates kaolin salt and limestone being most widely exploited see list of cities in mali economy market scence in kati view over bamako mosque under construction in bamako djingareiber timbuktu river scene in djenn main article economy of mali mali is among the poorest countries in the world with six five of its land area desert or semidesert economic activity is largely confined to the riverine area irrigated by the niger river about one zero of the population is nomadic and some eight zero of the labor force is engaged in farming and fishing industrial activity is concentrated on processing farm commodities mali is heavily dependent on foreign aid and vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices for cotton its main export in one nine nine seven the government continued its successful implementation of an imf recommended structural adjustment program that is helping the economy grow diversify and attract foreign investment mali s adherence to economic reform and the five zero devaluation of the african franc in january one nine nine four has pushed up economic growth several multinational corporations increased gold mining operations in one nine nine six one nine nine eight and the government anticipates that mali will become a major sub saharan gold exporter in the next few years demographics main article demographics of mali mali s population consists of diverse sub saharan ethnic groups sharing similar historic cultural and religious traditions exceptions are the tuaregs and maurs desert nomads related to the north african berbers the tuaregs traditionally have opposed the central government starting in june one nine nine zero in the north by tuaregs seeking greater autonomy led to clashes with the military in april one nine nine two the government and most opposing factions signed a pact to end the fighting and restore stability in the north its major aims are to allow greater autonomy to the north and increase government resource allocation to what has been a traditionally impoverished region the peace agreement was celebrated in one nine nine six in timbuktu during an official and highly publicized ceremony called flamme de la paix peace flame culture main article culture of mali approximately nine zero of the malians follow sunni islam but not always to the exclusion of traditional religious beliefs and practices the muslims have their own educational systems leading in some cases to the equivalent of baccalaureate and doctoral studies an increasingly large number of muslims make the pilgrimage to mecca and study in arab countries christians comprise about five of the population under french colonial rule the introduction of missionaries into predominantly islamic areas was discouraged literacy in french the official language is low and is concentrated in the urban areas the government has expanded literacy considerably since one nine six zero by stressing education at the primary and lower secondary levels a national university was established in bamako in the one nine nine zero s architecture of mali great mosque of djenn list of writers from mali languages of mali music of mali miscellaneous topics communications in mali foreign relations of mali military of mali reporters without borders worldwide press freedom index two zero zero two rank four three out of one three nine countries two way tie transportation in mali external links government the embassy of mali in washington dc government information and links news allafrica com mali news headline links overviews bbc news country profile mali cia world factbook mali united nations human rights mali dating from one nine nine seven mali folkecenter mali from an organisation aiming to promote the sustainable management of natural resources directories looksmart mali directory category open directory project mali directory category stanford university africa south of the sahara mali directory category the index on africa mali directory category university of pennsylvania african studies center mali directory category yahoo mali directory category music cora connection west african music tourism official tourism site african union member states landlocked countries mali the history of mali covers the course of events in the area now constituting the nation of mali early history mali s early history is dominated by three famed west african empires ghana mali or malink and songhai these empires controlled trans saharan trade in gold salt and other precious commodities and were in touch with mediterranean and middle eastern centers of civilization all of the empires arose in the area then known as the western sudan a vast region of savanna between the sahara desert to the north and the tropical rain forests along the guinean coast to the south all were characterized by strong leadership matrilineal and kin based societies none had rigid geopolitical boundaries or ethnic identities ghana empire the ghana empire dominated by the soninke people and centered in the area along the border of the modern states of mali and mauritania the ghana empire began possibly as early as the fifth century a d and was a powerful trading state by the seven zero zero to one zero seven five from its capital in kumbi saleh on the edge of the desert the empire expanded throughout southeastern mauritania southwestern mali and northern senegal from about a d seven zero zero one zero seven eight although originally formed by berbers the empire was soon dominated by the sonink a mande speaking people the sonink kings never fully adopted islam but the empire had good relations with muslim traders nevertheless the ghana empire fell in one zero seven eight as a result of invasions by the almoravids nomadic muslim berbers who expanded and spread islam throughout northwest africa in the late eleventh century kumbi saleh was destroyed in one two zero three by a former vassal state the anti muslim soso kingdom which ultimately controlled the southern portions of the former ghana empire mali empire the mali empire began with the malinke kingdom of mali on the upper niger river in the one one th century expanding rapidly in the one three th century under the leadership of the malink sundiata keita sundiata led a mande revolt against the soso king and then unified a vast region of the western sudan into the mali empire it reached its height about one three two five when it conquered timbuktu and gao and extended over a large area centered in the upper niger and encompassed numerous vassal kingdoms and provinces the most famous ruler of the mali empire during its peak was mansa kankan musa i one three one two three seven like other mande rulers who had adopted islam fairly early musa was muslim and the mali empire s wealth in gold became renowned in both the arab and western worlds when he made the hajj to mecca in one three two four two five under the mali empire the ancient trading cities of djenn and tombouctou often seen as timbuktu were centers of both trade and islamic learning subsequently the empire declined as a result of court intrigue and disputes over the succession vassal provinces revolted in the late fourteenth century and the songhai empire ultimately supplanted the mali empire in the fifteenth century songhai empire the songhai people originated in what is now northwestern nigeria and gradually expanded up the niger river in the eighth century they were well established at gao by eight zero zero and accepted islam in around one zero zero zero for several centuries they expanded and controlled neighboring states but were subject to the mali empire in the late fourteenth century the songhai gradually gained independence from the mali empire and expanded ultimately subsuming the entire eastern part of the mali empire the songhai empire expanded its power from its center in gao during the period one four six five one five three zero at its peak under askia mohammad i who established the askia dynasty one four nine two one five nine two it encompassed the hausa states as far as kano in present day nigeria and much of the territory that had belonged to the mali empire in the west tombouctou and djenn prospered once again as the rulers actively promoted islam the empire eventually collapsed as a result of both internal and external pressures including a moroccan berber invasion in one five nine one the fall of the songhai empire marked the end of the region s role as a trading crossroads following the establishment of sea routes by the european powers the trans saharan trade routes lost their significance french colonization and independence french military penetration of the area began around one eight eight zero ten years later the french made a concerted effort to occupy the interior the timing and method of their advances were determined by resident military governors a civilian governor of french sudan as it was called was appointed in one eight nine three but resistance to french control did not end until one eight nine eight when the malink warrior samory tour was defeated after seven years of war the french attempted to rule indirectly but in many areas they disregarded traditional authorities and governed through appointed chiefs the colony of french sudan was administered with other french colonial territories as the federation of french west africa in one nine five six with the passing of france s fundamental law loi cadre the territorial assembly obtained extensive powers over internal affairs and was permitted to form a cabinet with executive authority over matters within the assembly s competence after the october four one nine five eight french constitutional referendum the r publique soudanaise became a member of the french community and enjoyed complete internal autonomy in one nine five eight the renamed sudanese republic obtained complete internal autonomy and joined the french community in january one nine five nine french sudan joined senegal to form the mali federation which became fully independent within the french community on june two zero one nine six zero the federation collapsed on august two zero one nine six zero when senegal seceded on september two two soudan proclaimed itself the republic of mali and withdrew from the french community president modibo keita whose party union soudanaise du rassemblement democratique africain us rda had dominated preindependence politics moved quickly to declare a single party state and to pursue a socialist policy based on extensive nationalization keita also had close ties to the eastern bloc a continuously deteriorating economy led to a decision to rejoin the franc zone in one nine six seven and modify some of the economic excesses one party rule on november one nine one nine six eight a group of young officers staged a bloodless coup and set up a one four member military committee for national liberation cmln with lt moussa traore as president the military leaders attempted to pursue economic reforms but for several years faced debilitating internal political struggles and the disastrous sahelian drought a new constitution approved in one nine seven four created a one party state and was designed to move mali toward civilian rule however the military leaders remained in power in september one nine seven six a new political party was established the democratic union of the malian people udpm based on the concept of democratic centralism single party presidential and legislative elections were held in june one nine seven nine and gen moussa traore received nine nine of the votes his efforts at consolidating the single party government were challenged in one nine eight zero by student led anti government demonstrations which were brutally put down and by three coup attempts the political situation stabilized during one nine eight one and one nine eight two and remained generally calm throughout the one nine eight zero s in late december one nine eight five however a border dispute between mali and burkina faso over the mineral rich agacher strip erupted into a brief war the udpm spread its structure to cercles and arrondissements across the land shifting its attention to mali s economic difficulties the government approved plans for cereal marketing liberalization reform in the state enterprise system new incentives to private enterprise and worked out a new structural adjustment agreement with the international monetary fund imf attempting to address mali s economic problems the government implemented some reforms in the state enterprise system created new incentives for private enterprise and attempted to control public corruption it also signed a new structural adjustment agreement with the international monetary fund imf but the populace became increasingly dissatisfied with the austerity measures imposed by the imf plan as well as their perception that the ruling elite was not subject to the same strictures in response to the growing demands for multiparty democracy then sweeping the continent the traor regime did allow some limited political liberalization in national assembly elections in june one nine eight eight multiple udpm candidates were permitted to contest each seat and the regime organized nationwide conferences to consider how to implement democracy within the one party framework nevertheless the regime refused to usher in a fullfledged democratic system however by one nine nine zero there was growing dissatisfaction with the demands for austerity imposed by the imf s economic reform programs and the perception that the president and his close associates were not themselves adhering to those demands cohesive opposition movements began to emerge including the national democratic initiative committee and the alliance for democracy in mali alliance pour la d mocratie au mali adema the increasingly turbulent political situation was complicated by the rise of ethnic violence in the north in mid one nine nine zero the return to mali of large numbers of tuareg who had migrated to algeria and libya during a prolonged drought increased tensions in the region between the nomadic tuareg and the sedentary population ostensibly fearing a tuareg secessionist movement in the north the traor regime imposed a state of emergency and harshly repressed tuareg unrest despite the signing of a peace accord in january one nine nine one unrest and periodic armed clashes continued transition to multiparty democracy as in other african countries demands for multi party democracy increased the traore government allowed some opening of the system including the establishment of an independent press and independent political associations but insisted that mali was not ready for democracy in early one nine nine one student led anti government rioting broke out again but this time it was supported also by government workers and others on march two six one nine nine one after four days of intense anti government rioting a group of one seven military officers led by current president amadou toumani tour arrested president traore and suspended the constitution within days these officers joined with the coordinating committee of democratic associations to form a predominantly civilian two five member ruling body the transitional committee for the salvation of the people ctsp the ctsp then appointed a civilian led government a national conference held in august one nine nine one produced a draft constitution approved in a referendum january one two one nine nine two a charter for political parties and an electoral code political parties were allowed to form freely between january and april one nine nine two a president national assembly and municipal councils were elected on june eight one nine nine two alpha oumar konar the candidate of the association for democracy in mali adema was inaugurated as the president of mali s third republic in one nine nine seven attempts to renew national institutions through democratic elections ran into administrative difficulties resulting in a court ordered annulment of the legislative elections held in april one nine nine seven the exercise nonetheless demonstrated the overwhelming strength of president konar s adema party causing some other historic parties to boycott subsequent elections president konar won the presidential election against scant opposition on may one one in the two round legislative elections conducted on july two one and august three adema secured over eight zero of the national assembly seats konar stepped down after his constitutionally mandated limit of two terms and did not run in the two zero zero two elections tour then reemerged this time as a civilian running as an independent on a platform of national unity tour won the presidency in a runoff against the candidate of adema which had been divided by infighting and suffered from the creation of a spin off party the rally for mali rassemblement pour le mali rpm tour had retained great popularity because of his role in the transitional government in one nine nine one nine two the two zero zero two election was a milestone marking mali s first successful transition from one democratically elected president to another despite the persistence of electoral irregularities and low voter turnout in the two zero zero two legislative elections no party gained a majority tour then appointed a politically inclusive government and pledged to tackle mali s pressing social and economic development problems see also history of africa history of west africa references united states department of state background note mali history of mali children playing in a buguni courtyard mali s population consists of diverse sub saharan ethnic groups sharing similar historic cultural and religious traditions exceptions are the tuaregs and maurs desert nomads related to the north african berbers the tuaregs traditionally have opposed the central government starting in june one nine nine zero in the north by tuaregs seeking greater autonomy led to clashes with the military in april one nine nine two the government and most opposing factions signed a pact to end the fighting and restore stability in the north its major aims are to allow greater autonomy to the north and increase government resource allocation to what has been a traditionally impoverished region the peace agreement was celebrated in one nine nine six in timbuktu during an official and highly publicized ceremony called flamme de la paix peace flame historically good interethnic relations throughout the rest of the country were facilitated by easy mobility on the niger river and across the country s vast savannahs each ethnic group was traditionally tied to a specific occupation all working within close proximity the bambara malink sarakole and dogon and songhay are farmers the fulani maur and tuareg are herders while the bozo are fishers in recent years this linkage has shifted as ethnic groups seek diverse nontraditional sources of income although each ethnic group speaks a separate language nearly eight zero of malians communicate in bambara the common language of the marketplace malians enjoy a relative harmony rare in african states demographics of mali data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population one one three four zero four eight zero july two zero zero two est age structure zero one four years four seven two male two six eight seven nine nine eight female two six five eight six zero five one five six four years four nine eight male two six nine eight seven eight nine female two nine five zero two seven six six five years and over three male one six zero six zero four female one eight four two zero eight two zero zero two est population growth rate two nine seven two zero zero two est birth rate four eight three seven births one zero zero zero population two zero zero two est death rate one eight three two deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero two est net migration rate zero three five migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero two est sex ratio at birth one zero three male s female under one five years one zero one male s female one five six four years zero nine one male s female six five years and over zero eight seven male s female total population zero nine six male s female two zero zero two est infant mortality rate one one nine six three deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero two est life expectancy at birth total population four seven three nine years male four six one eight years female four eight six four years two zero zero two est total fertility rate six seven three children born woman two zero zero two est hiv aids adult prevalence rate one seven two zero zero one est hiv aids people living with hiv aids one four zero zero zero zero two zero zero one est hiv aids deaths nine nine zero zero one nine nine nine est nationality noun malian s adjective malian ethnic groups mande five zero bambara malinke soninke peul one seven voltaic one two songhai six tuareg and moor one zero other five religions muslim nine zero indigenous beliefs nine christian one languages french official somewhat spoken by three zero bambara eight zero numerous african languages literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population three eight male four five female three one one nine nine eight est see also mali geography of mali malian society demographics by country under mali s one nine nine two constitution the president is chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces the president is elected to five year terms with a limit of one term the president appoints the prime minister as head of government the president chairs the council of ministers the prime minister and currently two two other ministers including six women which adopts proposals for laws submitted to the national assembly for approval the national assembly is the sole legislative arm of the government it currently consists of one four seven members representation is apportioned according to the population of administrative districts election is direct and by party list the term of office is five years the assembly meets for two regular sessions each year it debates and votes on legislation proposed either by one of its members or by the government and has the right to question government ministers about government actions and policies eight political parties aggregated into four parliamentary groups are represented in the assembly adema currently holds the majority minority parties are represented in all committees and in the assembly directorate mali s constitution provides for a multi party democracy with the only restriction being a prohibition against parties based on ethnic religious regional or gender lines in addition to those political parties represented in the national assembly others are active in municipal councils administratively mali is divided into eight regions and the capital district of bamako each under the authority of an appointed governor each region consists of five to nine districts or cercles administered by commandants cercles are divided into communes which in turn are divided into villages or quarters plans for decentralization have begun with the establishment of seven zero two elected municipal councils headed by elected mayors further plans envision election of local officials greater local control over finances and the reduction of administrative control by the central government mali s legal system is based on codes inherited at independence from france new laws have been enacted to make the system conform to malian life but french colonial laws not abrogated still have the force of law the constitution provides for the independence of the judiciary however the ministry of justice appoints judges and supervises both law enforcement and judicial functions the supreme court has both judicial and administrative powers under the constitution there is a separate constitutional court and a high court of justice with the power to try senior government officials in cases of treason country name conventional long form republic of mali conventional short form mali local long form republique de mali local short form mali former french sudan and sudanese republic data code ml government type republic capital bamako administrative divisions eight regions regions singular region gao kayes kidal koulikoro mopti segou sikasso tombouctou independence two two september one nine six zero from france national holiday anniversary of the proclamation of the republic two two september one nine six zero constitution adopted one two january one nine nine two legal system based on french civil law system and customary law judicial review of legislative acts in constitutional court which was formally established on nine march one nine nine four has not accepted compulsory icj jurisdiction suffrage two one years of age universal executive branch chief of state president amadou toumani tour since eight june two zero zero two head of government prime minister ousmane issoufi maiga since april two zero zero four cabinet council of ministers appointed by the prime minister elections president elected by popular vote for a five year term election last held one one may one nine nine seven next to be held na may two zero zero two prime minister appointed by the president election results alpha oumar konare reelected president percent of vote alpha oumar konare nine five nine mamadou diaby four one legislative branch unicameral national assembly or assemblee nationale one four seven seats members are elected by popular vote to serve five year terms elections last held two zero july and three august one nine nine seven next to be held in two rounds in two zero zero two note much of the opposition boycotted the election election results percent of vote by party na seats by party adema one three zero parena eight cds four udd three pdp two judicial branch supreme court cour supreme political parties and leaders alliance for democracy or adema ibrahim boubacar keita party chairman block of alternative for the renewal of africa or bara yoro diakite democratic and social convention or cds mamadou bakary sangare chairman movement for the independence renaissance and integration of africa or miria mohamed lamine traore mouhamedou dicko national congress for democratic initiative or cnid mountaga tall chairman party for democracy and progress or pdp me idrissa traore party for national renewal or parena yoro diakite chairman tiebile drame secretary general rally for democracy and labor or rdt ali gnangado rally for democracy and progress or rdp almamy sylla chairman see also malisudanese union african democratic rally or us rda mamadou bamou toure secretary general union of democratic forces for progress or ufdp youssouf toure secretary general union for democracy and development or udd moussa balla coulibaly political pressure groups and leaders patriotic movement of the ghanda koye or mpgk united movement and fronts of azawad or mfua international organization participation acct acp afdb ccc eca ecowas fao fz g seven seven iaea ibrd icao icc icftu icrm ida idb ifad ifc ifrcs ilo imf intelsat interpol ioc iom itu miponuh monuc nam oau oic opcw un un security council temporary unctad unesco unido upu wadb waemu wcl wftu who wipo wmo wtoo wtro flag description three equal vertical bands of green hoist side yellow and red uses the popular pan african colors of ethiopia see also mali politics of mali the economy of mali is based to a large extent on agriculture mali is among the ten poorest nations of the world and is dependent upon foreign aid the per capita gross domestic product gdp of mali was eight two zero in one nine nine nine its potential wealth lies in mining and the production of agricultural commodities livestock and fish the most productive agricultural area lies along the banks of the niger river agriculture agricultural activities occupy seven zero of mali s labor force and provide four two of the gdp cotton and livestock make up seven five eight zero of mali s annual exports small scale traditional farming dominates the agricultural sector with subsistence farming of cereals primarily sorghum millet and maize on about nine zero of the one four zero zero zero km the surplus smoked salted and dried is exported due to drought and diversion of river water for agriculture fish production has steadily declined since the early one nine eight zero s mining mining is a rapidly growing industry in mali with gold accounting for some eight zero of mining activity there are considerable proven reserves of other minerals not currently exploited gold has become mali s third largest export after cotton and livestock there are two large private investments in gold mining anglogold ashanti two five zero million in sadiola and yatela and randgold one four zero million in morila both multinational south african companies located respectively in the north western and southern parts of the country manufacturing during the colonial period private capital investment was virtually nonexistent and public investment was devoted largely to the office du niger irrigation scheme and to administrative expenses following independence mali built some light industries with the help of various donors manufacturing consisting principally of processed agricultural products accounted for about eight of the gdp in one nine nine zero economic reform with the encouragement of the major donors and international financial institutions the government of mali initiated a series of adjustment and stabilization programs beginning in one nine eight two measures were introduced to reduce budgetary deficits public enterprise operating losses and public sector arrears substantial progress was made in the first few years of the adjustment program but the pace of reform slowed considerably in one nine eight seven and required the intervention of donors to avert a financial crisis under the economic reform program signed with the world bank and the imf in one nine eight eight the government has taken a number of steps to liberalize the regulatory environment and thereby attract private investment for example applications for the establishment of business enterprises now enjoy one window guichet unique processing through a single ministry allowing a business to be established in a matter of days in addition price controls on consumer goods have been progressively eliminated the last price control on petroleum products was removed on one july one nine nine two import quotas were eliminated in one nine eight eight and export taxes were dropped in one nine nine one the commerce code was revised in one nine nine one to remove impediments to commercial activity the investment and the mining codes also were revised in the early one nine nine zero s in order to present a good investment climate also in one nine nine one a system of commercial and administrative courts was established to handle private trade complaints and claims against the government during the period one nine eight eight nine six the government implemented a large reform program of the public enterprise sector including the privatization of one six enterprises the partial privatization of one two and the liquidation of two zero others were restructured among the two zero enterprises left five recently were proposed for privatization and two large companies energie du mali electricity and water and societe de telecommunications du mali telecommunications plan partial privatization foreign aid mali is a major recipient of foreign aid from many sources including multilateral organizations most significantly the world bank african development bank and arab funds and bilateral programs funded by the european union france united states canada netherlands and germany before one nine nine one the former soviet union had been a major source of economic and military aid including construction of a cement plant and the kalana gold mine currently aid from russia is restricted mainly to training and provision of spare parts chinese aid remains high and chinese malian joint venture companies have become more numerous in the last three years leading to the opening of a chinese investment center the chinese are major participants in the textile industry and in largescale construction projects including a bridge across the niger a conference center an expressway in bamako and a new national stadium scheduled to be completed for the africa cup competition in two zero zero two in one nine nine eight u s assistance reached over four zero million this included three nine million in sector support through united states agency for international development usaid programs largely channeled to local communities through private voluntary agencies peace corps program budget of two two million for more than one six zero volunteers serving in mali self help and the democracy funds of one seven zero five zero zero and six five zero zero zero zero designated for electoral support military assistance includes two seven five zero zero zero for the international military education training imet program one six million for the african crisis response initiative acri six zero zero zero zero for joint combined exercise training jcet and one zero zero zero zero zero for humanitarian assistance statistics gdp purchasing power parity eight five billion one nine nine nine est gdp real growth rate five one nine nine nine est gdp per capita purchasing power parity eight two zero one nine nine nine est gdp composition by sector agriculture four six industry two one services three three one nine nine eight population below poverty line na household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices three one nine nine nine est labor force na labor force by occupation agriculture and fishing eight zero one nine nine eight est unemployment rate na budget revenues seven three zero million expenditures seven seven zero million including capital expenditures of three two zero million one nine nine seven est industries minor local consumer goods production and food processing construction phosphate and gold mining industrial production growth rate zero six one nine nine five est electricity production three one zero gwh one nine nine eight electricity production by source fossil fuel three eight seven one hydro six one two nine nuclear zero other zero one nine nine eight electricity consumption two eight eight gwh one nine nine eight electricity exports zero kwh one nine nine eight electricity imports zero kwh one nine nine eight agriculture products cotton millet rice maize vegetables peanuts cattle sheep goats exports six four zero million f o b one nine nine nine est exports commodities cotton five zero gold livestock one nine nine eight est exports partners thailand two zero italy two zero china nine brazil five franc zone one nine nine seven imports six five zero million f o b one nine nine nine est imports commodities machinery and equipment construction materials petroleum foodstuffs textiles imports partners cote d ivoire one nine france one seven other franc zone and eu countries one nine nine seven debt external three one billion one nine nine eight economic aid recipient five nine six four million one nine nine five currency one communaute financiere africaine franc cfaf one zero zero centimes exchange rates communaute financiere africaine francs cfaf per us one six four seven two five january two zero zero zero six one five seven zero one nine nine nine five eight nine nine five one nine nine eight five eight three six seven one nine nine seven five one one five five one nine nine six four nine nine one five one nine nine five note since one january one nine nine nine the cfaf is pegged to the euro at a rate of six five five nine five seven cfa francs per euro fiscal year calendar year see also mali economy of africa economy of mali african union member economies wto members telephones main lines in use four five zero zero zero two zero zero zero telephones mobile cellular four zero zero zero zero two zero zero one there are two mobile telephone operators ikatel a subsidiary of sonatel of senegal and malitel a subsidiary of sotelma the state owned telecommunications company in june of two zero zero three legislation passed allowing other telecommunications operators to enter the market telephone system domestic system unreliable but improving provides only minimal service domestic network consists of microwave radio relay open wire and radiotelephone communications stations expansion of microwave radio relay in progress international satellite earth stations two intelsat one atlantic ocean and one indian ocean radio broadcast stations am one shortwave one this is suspicious mali has since one nine nine four when law allowed for private as in non state radios to begin operating foreign funding and some commercial funding mostly in the capital have helped to established one six zero fm stations in mali though many of those are small community suitcase radio stations private radio stations are required to be members of urtel the radio union http urtel radio org ml the state operated radio is ortm office de radiodiffusion au television de mali which operates two fm stations and one television station with repeaters throughout the country note the shortwave station in bamako has seven frequencies and five transmitters and relays broadcasts for china radio international two zero zero one radios five seven zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations one plus repeaters two zero zero one televisions four five zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet service providers isps one three two zero zero one there are an estimated two four private internet service providers recently an association has been formed called afim association de fournisseurs de l internet au mali which is intended to represent these providers sotelma the state telecom provides x two five and dial up telephone services many operators offer dial up internet service and wireless internet services most isps are small bamako based providers with a vsat connection a cyber cafe and use wireless systems alviron eight zero two one one a b g motorola to share their service with their clients bamako has at least two one wireless providers ranging from small vsat operators to sophisticated multi access point full services providers internet users three zero zero zero zero two zero zero two country code top level domain ml see also mali communications in mali railways total seven two nine km linked to senegal s rail system through kayes two zero zero one narrow gauge seven two nine km one zero zero zero m gauge railway links with adjacent countries algeria no potential break of gauge one zero zero zero mm one four three five mm niger no railways burkina faso no same gauge one zero zero zero mm ivory coast no same gauge one zero zero zero mm guinea no senegal yes mauritania no break of gauge one zero zero zero mm one four three five mm highways total one five one zero zero km paved one eight two seven km unpaved one three two seven three km one nine nine six waterways one eight one five km navigable ports and harbors koulikoro railhead airports two seven two zero zero one airports with paved runways total seven two four three eight to three zero four seven m four one five two three to two four three seven m one nine one four to one five two three m two two zero zero two airports with unpaved runways total one nine one five two four to two four three seven m six nine one four to one five two three m five under nine one four m eight two zero zero two see also mali transport in mali mali s armed forces number some seven zero zero zero and are under the control of the minister of armed forces and veterans the gendarmerie and local police forces under the ministry of territorial administration and security maintain internal security in the sixties and seventies mali s army and air force relied primarily on the soviet union for materiel and training a few malians receive military training in the united states france and germany military expenditures total about one three of the national budget the army controls the small navy approx one three zero sailors and three river patrol boats since the collapse of the soviet union and the end of the tuareg rebellion the army has struggled to maintain its size despite recent military aid from the united states it is organized into a single brigade consisting of four motorized infantry battalions an mbt battalion operating t three four eight five s and a light armoured battalion of type six two s an airborne battalion and two companies of commandos comprise the nation s special forces manpower is provided by two year selective conscription military branches army air force gendarmerie republican guard national guard national police surete nationale military manpower availability males age one five four nine two three six nine five seven eight two zero zero two est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine one three five eight six four six two zero zero two est military expenditures dollar figure six eight million fy zero three military expenditures procurement five million fy zero three military expenditures percent of gdp two fy zero one references and links mali government of mali militaries since independence in one nine six zero malian governments have shifted from an ideological commitment to socialism and a policy alignment with communist states to a pragmatism that judges issues and their merits welcomes assistance from all sources and encourages private investment the present government which assumed office in september one nine nine seven is committed to democracy economic reform free market policies and regional integration mali is a member of the united nations and many of its specialized agencies the international monetary fund imf the world bank the international labour organization ilo the international telecommunication union itu the universal postal union upu and the international criminal court icc it also belongs to the organization of african unity oau organization of islamic countries oic non aligned movement nam an associate member of the european community ec and african development bank adb mali is active in regional organizations it participates in the economic community of west african states ecowas and the west african economic monetary union uemoa for regional economic integration liptako gourma authority which seeks to develop the contiguous areas of mali niger and burkina faso the niger river commission the permanent interstate committee for drought control in the sahel cilss and the senegal river valley development organization omvs disputes international none government of mali politics of mali foreign relations by country repubblika ta maltarepublic of malta style background efefef align center colspan two align center colspan two location of malta official languages maltese and english capital valletta three five four eight three nine n zero one four two eight four five e largest city birkirkara president edward fenech adami prime minister lawrence gonzi religion nine six seven roman catholicism area total water ranked one eight five th three one six km negligible population total two zero zero five density ranked one six five th three nine eight five three four one two six two km independence date from the ukseptember two one one nine six four currency maltese lira lm mtl time zone in summer cet utc one cest utc two national anthem l innu malti internet tld mt calling code three five six patron saints saint paul saint agatha saint publius pope pius v national bird blue rock thrush il merill national plant maltese rock centaury widnet il ba ar national tree tetraclinis articulata l g arg ar national poet dun karm psaila the republic of malta usually shortened to malta is a small and densely populated island nation consisting of an archipelago in the middle of the mediterranean sea although malta geophysically constitutes a part of north africa lying on the african continental plate directly south of sicily east of tunisia and north of libya the country is geopolitically part of southern europe the maltese language is the only semitic language of the afro asiatic language family native to a geopolitically european country these strategically located islands have been ruled and fought over by various powers over the centuries malta is the smallest eu country in terms of both population and area malta has many museums shops beaches and leisure activities in a densely packed area it is a well known popular vacation destination among europeans history malta has been inhabited since around five two zero zero bc a significant prehistoric culture that predates the pyramids of giza by a millennium is believed to have existed on the islands phoenicians colonized the islands at around one zero zero zero bc using it as an outpost from which they expanded sea explorations and trade in the mediterranean in seven three six bc they were occupied by the greeks who called the colony melita hagar qim temples qrendi malta these islands later came under the control of carthage four zero zero bc and then of rome two one eight bc the islands prospered under roman rule during which time it was considered a municipium and a feodorata civitas many roman antiquities still exist testifying to the close link between the maltese inhabitants and the people of rome in ad six zero the islands were visited by saint paul who is said to have been shipwrecked on the shores of the aptly named saint paul s bay after a period of byzantine rule four th to nine th century and a probable sack by the vandals the islands were conquered by the arabs in ad eight seven zero life in malta during the arab rule was completely different from contemporary maltese life the official language of malta was arabic and the majority of the population adopted it as their mother tongue malta s official religion was islam and by the one one th century the majority of malta s population was muslim their influence can be seen most prominently in the modern maltese language which is derived from arabic maltese has also been heavily influenced by romance languages and is written in a variety of the latin alphabet the period of arab rule lasted until one zero nine zero when the islands were taken by the sicilian normans restoring christianity again subsequent rulers included the angevines hohenstaufen and the aragonese one two eight seven the maltese nobility was established during this period some of it dating back to one zero nine zero about three two noble titles remain in use today of which the oldest is barons of djar il bniet and buqana in one five three zero the islands were given by spain to the order of knights of the hospital of st john of jerusalem in perpetual lease aragon having owned the island as part of their mediterranean empire for some time these knights a militant monastic order now known as the knights of malta had been driven out of rhodes by the ottoman empire in one five two two they withstood a full blown siege by the ottoman turks in one five six five who at that time were considered to be the greatest non european military power after this they decided to increase the fortifications particularly in the inner harbour area where the new city of valletta named after jean parisot de la valette was built their reign ended when malta was captured by napoleon in one seven nine eight en route to his expedition of egypt as a ruse napoleon asked for safe harbor to resupply his ships and then turned his guns against his hosts once safely inside valetta grand master hompesch capitulated and napoleon stayed in malta for a few days during which he systematically looted the moveable assets of the order and established an administration controlled by his nominees he then sailed for egypt leaving a substantial garrison in malta the occupying french forces were unpopular however due particularly to their negative attitude towards religion the maltese rebelled against them and the french were forced behind the fortifications great britain along with the kingdom of the two sicilies sent munitions and aid to the rebels britain also sent her navy which instigated a blockade of the islands the isolated french forces under general claude henri belgrand de vaubois surrendered in one eight zero zero and the island became a british protectorate being presented by several maltese leaders to sir alexander ball fortifications of malta harbor in one eight one four as part of the treaty of paris malta officially became a part of the british empire and was used as a shipping waystation and fleet headquarters malta s proximity to the suez canal proved to be its main asset during these years and it was considered to be a most important stop on the way to india in the one nine three zero s due to malta s cultural and geographical proximity to italy the british mediterranean fleet was moved to alexandria malta played an important role during world war ii owing to its vicinity to axis shipping lanes and its people s bravery led to the awarding of the george cross now seen on its flag after the war and after a short period of political instability due to the malta labour party s unsuccessful attempt at integration with britain malta was granted independence on september two one one nine six four independence day under its one nine six four constitution malta initially retained queen elizabeth ii as queen of malta with a governor general exercising executive authority on her behalf but on december one three one nine seven four it became a republic within the commonwealth with the president as head of state republic day a defence agreement signed soon after independence and re negotiated in one nine seven two expired on march three one one nine seven nine freedom day when the british military forces were withdrawn malta joined the european union on may one two zero zero four politics dr edward fenech adami president of malta since two zero zero four malta is a republic enjoying representative democracy whose parliamentary system and public administration is closely modeled on the westminster system the unicameral house of representatives known in maltese as il kamra tad deputati is elected by direct universal suffrage through single transferable vote every five years unless the house is dissolved earlier by the president on advice of the prime minister the party who wins the majority forms the cabinet the house of representatives is made up of six five members of parliament however where a party wins an absolute majority of votes but does not have a majority of seats that party the cabinet is given additional seats to ensure a parliamentary majority by the constitution of malta the president appoints the prime minister who in general is the leader of the party forming the cabinet the president of the republic is elected every five years by the house of representatives the role of the president as head of state is highly ceremonial the main political parties are the nationalist party which is christian democrat and the malta labour party which is social democrat there is also alternattiva demokratika a green party which at the moment has no parliamentary seats the two other smaller parties are the alpha party led by dr emmy bezzina and dr john zammit and imperium europa which promotes pan europeanism libertarian ideologies the nationalist party is currently at the helm of the government the prime minister being dr lawrence gonzi the malta labour party led by dr alfred sant is in the opposition geography map of malta malta is an archipelago in the central mediterranean sea some nine three km south of sicily only the three largest islands malta island malta gozo g awdex and comino kemmuna are inhabited numerous bays along the indented coastline of the islands provide good harbours the landscape is characterised by low hills with terraced fields the highest point which even many locals have no idea how to locate is the ta dmejrek on malta island at two five three m near dingli the malta channel to the north seperates malta from the island of sicily the largest isle in italy the local climate is mediterranean temperate climate with mild rainy winters and hot dry summers effectively there are only two seasons which makes the islands attractive for tourists especially during the drier months contrary to popular belief the south of malta is not europe s most southern point malta is europe s four th southernmost country spain punta de tarifa cyprus and greece island of gavdos rank three rd two nd and one st respectively since one nine nine three malta has been subdivided into six eight local councils or localities these form the most basic form of local government there are no intermediate levels between local government and national government economy a maltese worker producing system components for wireless communication until one eight zero zero malta had very few industries except the cotton tobacco and shipyards industry the dockyard was later used by the british for military purposes at times of war malta s economy prospered due to its strategic location in one eight six nine the opening of the suez canal benefited malta s economy greatly as there was a massive increase in the shipping which entered in the port by the end of the one nine th century the economy began declining and by the one nine four zero s malta s economy was in serious crisis this was due to invention of large ships which did not require refuelling nowadays malta s major resources are limestone a favourable geographic location and a productive labour force malta produces only about two zero of its food needs has limited freshwater supplies and has no domestic energy sources the economy is dependent on foreign trade serving as a freight trans shipment point manufacturing especially electronics and textiles and tourism tourism infrastructure has increased dramatically over the years and a number of quality hotels are present on the island malta has recently privatised some state controlled firms and liberalised markets in order to prepare for membership in the european union which it joined on may one two zero zero four malta and tunisia are currently discussing the commercial exploitation of the continental shelf between their countries particularly for petroleum exploration the maltese government is intending to adopt the euro as the country s currency on one january two zero zero eight having entered erm ii in may two zero zero five although malta is now a member of the european union it is not a member of the schengen treaty yet it is currently adopting schengen regulations with the goal to be finished by two zero zero seven demographics the maltese at their local fish market according to the last demographic survey december two zero zero four the estimated population of the malta at the end of that year including foreign residents was four zero two six six eight of whom one nine nine five eight zero four nine six were males and two zero three zero zero eight five zero four were females the maltese resident population was of three eight nine seven six nine one nine three nine one seven four nine six male and one nine six seven five two five zero four female malta s population density of one two seven four km is one of the highest in the world in the same year there was a net natural increase of eight eight eight persons seven eight three maltese residents and an estimated using data of the previous three years net inflow of one nine one three persons in the total population though the fertility rate continues to decrease with a crude birth rate of nine four six compared to last year s one zero zero six and one nine nine five s one two four four malta still remains one of the youngest european populations the zero one four age group represents one seven eight of the total population through all the censuses since one eight four two except two there was always a slightly higher female to male ratio over the last decade this ratio was of nine five males to one zero zero females the national language of malta is maltese the maltese alphabet is based on the latin alphabet but uses the diacritically altered letters also found in polish as well as the letters and which are unique to maltese the official languages are english and maltese italian is also widely spoken and taught in secondary schools education students during the graduation ceremony at the university of malta education is compulsory between the ages of five and one six years whilst the state provides education free of charge the church and the private sector run a number of schools in malta and gozo most of the teachers salary in church schools is paid by the state education in malta is based on the british model the first years of education in malta are done in kindergarten attendance is up to five years and not compulsary compulsary education starts at the age of six with primary education primary education lasts for six years following public examinations students enter secondary education following a five year course preparing for the secondary education certificate sec equivalent to the british ordinary level general certificate of education gce students sit for final examinations results are used in the school leaving certificate and in general also sit for the sec examinations sec examinations require students to be aged one six and over or to have a school leaving certificate students who have repeated years are therefore able to apportion their sec examinations over the last two years at school once compulsory secondary education ends students may enter either in a vocational college such as mcast or a sixth form sixth forms provide a two year course leading to the matriculation certificate which is the equivalent of the uk advanced level examinations and advanced subsidiary examinations for students unsuccessful in their sec examinations there is the option of attending a higher secondary school a sort of safety net to give students the possibility to catch up where any core subjects mathematics english language maltese and a natural science previously failed are again taught at ordinary in preperation for sec examinations while also teaching intermediate and advanced level subjects students may also choose to attend specialised private institutions leading to diplomas and degrees of foreign examination bodies in careers such as it london university networking cisco accountancy acca and banking tertiary education at diploma undergraduate and postgraduate level is mainly provided by the university of malta uom qualifications from the uom are fully recognised internationally after its conversion to using the european ects credits system admission requires a minimum overall c grade in the matriculation certificate and passes at ordinary level of the core subjects special course requirements are mostly based on single subject results in the matriculation certificate some of the qualifications obtained from private institutions are also recognised full time attendance by maltese citizens is free of charge while part time evening attendance is not the employment and training corporation etc satisfies one of its dual roles by offering training for adults of any age and experience the university of malta offers similar courses and also gives the option of entering normal full part time courses as a mature student persons aged two three and over are exempted from satisfying the university entry requirements though these still have to satisfy any special cource requirements the adult literacy rate is nine two culture a typical village feast list of maltese people music of malta maltese cuisine maltese nobility see also coat of arms of malta communications in malta flag of malta foreign relations of malta economy of malta list of cities in malta armed forces of malta the scout association of malta transportation in malta pan am flight one zero three the great siege of malta history of malta external links gov mt maltese government official site malta forums discussion forums about malta in english map of malta scalable map of the maltese islands and towns only in malta collection of user submitted images of the maltese islands references this article has been created by making reference to the following malta members of the commonwealth of nations european union member states collective george cross recipients island nations malta is one of the most densely populated countries in the world with about one two six five inhabitants per square kilometer three zero zero zero mi this compares with about three two per square kilometer eight five mi for the united states inhabited since prehistoric times malta was first colonized by the phoenicians who were the primary ancestors of the modern maltese subsequently arabs italians and the british have influenced maltese life and culture to varying degrees most of the foreign community in malta predominantly active or retired british nationals and their dependents is centered on sliema and surrounding modern suburbs roman catholicism is established by law as the religion of malta however full liberty of conscience and freedom of worship is guaranteed and a number of faiths have places of worship on the island malta has two official languages maltese a semitic language and english the literacy rate has reached nine zero compared to six three in one nine four six schooling is compulsory until age one six a census held every one zero years was held in november two zero zero five demographics of malta data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population three nine nine eight six seven two zero zero three est age structure zero one four years two zero male four one zero four six female three eight two seven three one five six four years six seven male one three two six nine two female one three one five three two six five years and over one three male two zero zero nine one female two eight zero three six two zero zero zero est population growth rate zero seven four two zero zero zero est birth rate one two seven five births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate seven seven deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate two three nine migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero six male s female under one five years one zero seven male s female one five six four years one zero one male s female six five years and over zero seven two male s female total population zero nine eight male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate five nine four deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population seven seven nine four years male seven five four nine years female eight zero six two years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate one nine two children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun maltese singular and plural adjective maltese ethnic groups maltese descendants of ancient carthaginians and phoenicians with strong elements of italian and other mediterranean stock religions roman catholic nine one languages maltese official english official literacy definition age one zero and over can read and write total population eight eight male eight eight female eight eight one nine eight five see also malta maltese society geography of malta demographics by country politics of malta takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic whereby the prime minister of malta is the head of government and of a pluriform multi party system executive power is exercised by the government legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament since long times the party system is dominated by the conservative nationalist party partit nazzjonalista and the socialist malta labour party partit laburista political developments since independence two parties dominate malta s polarized and evenly divided politics the nationalist party partit nazzjonalista led by prime minister lawrence gonzi and the malta labour party partit laburista led by alfred sant elections invariably generate a widespread voter turnout exceeding nine six the margin between the two parties is so narrow that a five two share of the votes can still be considered a landslide for the winning party prior to the may one nine eight seven election the maltese constitution was amended to ensure that the party that obtained more than five zero of the popular vote would have a majority of seats in parliament and would thereby form the government the then labour party government proposed this constitutional amendment in exchange for nationalist party in opposition at the time agreement to two other amendments to the constitution the first stipulates malta s neutrality status and policy of nonalignment and the second prohibits foreign interference in malta s elections the one nine nine six elections resulted in the election of the labour party by eight zero zero zero votes to replace the nationalists who had won in one nine eight seven and one nine nine two voter turnout was characteristically high at nine six with the labour party receiving five zero seven two the nationalist part four seven eight alternativa demokratika the greens one four six and independent parties zero two in one nine nine eight the labour party lost a parliamentary vote leading the prime minister to call early elections the nationalist party was returned to office in september one nine nine eight by a majority of one three zero zero zero votes and holds a five seat majority in parliament voter turnout was nine five the nationalist party won five one eight one the labour party won four six nine seven alternativa demokratika one two one and independent parties zero one the nationalist government elected in one nine nine eight wrapped up negotiations for european union membership by the end of two zero zero two a referendum on the issue was called in march two zero zero three for which the nationalists and alternattiva demokratika asked for a yes vote while labour asked its supporters to vote no invalidate their vote or abstain turnout was nine one with more than five three voting yes labour did not recognise the result arguing that less than five zero of registered voters said yes parliament was dissolved and fresh elections were called as a final word on the matter the nationalists were returned to office with five one seven nine of the vote to labour s four seven five one alternattiva demokratika managed only zero six eight and no parliamentary seats the nationalists were thus able to form a government and sign and ratify the eu accession treaty executive branch under its one nine six four constitution malta became a parliamentary democracy within the commonwealth queen elizabeth ii of the united kingdom was sovereign of malta and a governor general exercised executive authority on her behalf while the actual direction and control of the government and the nation s affairs were in the hands of the cabinet under the leadership of a maltese prime minister on december one three one nine seven four the constitution was revised and malta became a republic within the commonwealth with executive authority vested in the president of malta the president is elected by the house of representatives for a five year term he appoints as prime minister the leader of the party with a majority of seats in the unicameral house of representatives known in maltese as kamra tar rappre entanti the president also nominally appoints upon recommendation of the prime minister the individual ministers ministers are selected from among the members of the house of representatives which usually consists of six five members unless bonus seats are given to a party which gains an absolute majority of votes but not a parliamentary majority elections must be held at least every five years and the electoral system used is single transferable vote president eddie fenech adami pn four april two zero zero four prime minister lawrence gonzi pn one two april two zero zero four legislative branch the house of representatives il kamra tar raprezentanti has six five members elected for a five year term in one three multi seat constituencies with a possibility of rewarding bonus members for the popular largest party which doesn t succeed in getting absolute majority in parliament political parties and elections judicial branch malta s judiciary is independent the president on the advice of the prime minister appoints the chief justice and one six judges their mandatory retirement age is six five there is a civil court a commercial court and a criminal court in the latter the presiding judge sits with a jury of nine the court of appeal hears appeals from decisions of the civil court and of the commercial court the court of criminal appeal hears appeals from judgments of conviction by the criminal court the highest court the constitutional court hears appeals in cases involving violations of human rights interpretation of the constitution and invalidity of laws it also has jurisdiction in cases concerning disputed parliamentary elections and electoral corrupt practices there also are inferior courts presided over by a magistrate administrative divisions malta is divided into six eight elected local councils with each council responsible for the administration of cities or regions of varying sizes administrative responsibility is distributed between the local councils and the central government in valletta the local councils act one nine nine three act xv of one nine nine three was published on june three zero one nine nine three subdividing malta into five four local councils in malta and one four in gozo the inhabitants who are registered elect the council every three years as voters in the local councils electoral register elections are held by means of the system of proportional representation using the single transferable vote the mayor is the head of the local council and the representative of the council for all effects under the act the executive secretary who is appointed by the council is the executive administrative and financial head of the council all decisions are taken collectively with the other members of the council local councils are responsible for the general upkeep and embellishment of the locality local wardens and refuse collection and carry out general administrative duties for the central government such as collection of government rents and funds and answering government related public inquiries international organization participation malta is member of c ce ebrd ece eu member from one may two zero zero four fao g seven seven iaea ibrd icao icct icftu icrm ifad ifrcs ilo imf imo inmarsat intelsat interpol ioc iom observer iso correspondent itu nam opcw osce pca un unctad unesco unido upu wcl wco who wipo wmo wtoo wtro external links local councils of malta central government of malta house of representatives constitution of malta pdf file alternativa demokratika alliance for social justice or ad harry vassallo s official page laws of malta nationalist party maltese labour party see also malta politics of malta economy overview major resources of malta are limestone a favorable geographic location and a productive labour force malta produces only about two zero of its food needs has limited freshwater supplies and has no domestic energy sources the economy is dependent on foreign trade manufacturing especially electronics and textiles and tourism the state owned malta drydocks employs about three eight zero zero people in one nine nine nine over one million tourists visited the island per capita gdp of one three eight zero zero places malta in the ranks of the less affluent eu countries the island has joined the eu in two zero zero four despite having been the divided politically over the question earlier the sizable budget deficit remains a key concern economic history until one eight zero zero malta had very few industries except the cotton tobacco and shipyards industry the dockyard was later used by the british for military purposes at times of war malta s economy prospered due to its strategic location during the napoleonic wars one eight zero zero one eight one five malta s economy prospered and became the focal point of a major trading system in one eight zero eight two thirds of the cargo consigned from malta went to levant and egypt later one half of the cargo was usually destined for trieste cargo consisted of largely british and colonial manufactured goods malta s economy became prosperous from this trade and many artisans such as weavers found new jobs in the port industry in one eight two zero during the battle of navarino which took place in greece the british fleet was based in malta in one eight three nine the peninsular and oriental steam navigation company and east india companies used malta as a calling port on their egypt and levant runs in one eight six nine the opening of the suez canal benefited malta s economy greatly as there was a massive increase in the shipping which entered in the port the economy had entered a special phase the mediterranean became the world highway of trade and a number of ships called at malta for coal and various supplies on their way to the indian ocean and the far east from one eight seven one to one eight eight one about eight zero zero zero workers found jobs in the malta docks and a number of banks opened in malta by one eight eight two malta reached the height of its prosperity however the boom did not last long by the end of the one nine th century the economy began declining and by the one nine four zero s malta s economy was in serious crisis this was primarily due to the invention of large ships which had become oil fired and therefore had no need to stop in the grand harbour of malta to refuel the british government had to extend the dockyard at the end of world war ii malta s strategic importance had reached a low point modern air warfare technology and the invention of the atomic bomb had changed the importance of the military base the british lost control of the suez canal and withdrew from the naval dockyard transforming it for commercial shipbuilding and ship repair purposes economy in greater depth possessing few indigenous raw materials and a very small domestic market malta has based its economic development on the promotion of tourism and labor intensive exports since the mid one nine eight zero s expansion in these activities has been the principal engine for strong growth in the maltese economy investment in infrastructure since one nine eight seven has stimulated an upswing in malta s tourism economic fortunes tourist arrivals and foreign exchange earnings derived from tourism have steadily increased since the one nine eight seven watershed in which there was growth from the previous year of respectively three zero and six three increase in terms of u s dollars following september one one two zero zero one terrorist attack the tourist industry has suffered some setbacks with the help of a favorable international economic climate the availability of domestic resources and industrial policies that support foreign export oriented investment the economy has been able to sustain a period of rapid growth during the one nine nine zero s malta s economic growth has generally continued this brisk pace both domestic demand mainly consumption boosted by large increases in government spending and exports of goods and services contributed to this favorable performance buoyed by continued rapid growth the economy has maintained a relatively low rate of unemployment labor market pressures have increased as skilled labor shortages have become more widespread despite illegal immigration and real earnings growth has accelerated growing public and private sector demand for credit has led in the context of interest rate controls to credit rationing to the private sector and the introduction of noninterest charges by banks despite these pressures consumer price inflation has remained low reflecting the impact of a fixed exchange rate policy and lingering price controls the maltese government has pursued a policy of gradual economic liberalization taking some steps to shift the emphasis in trade and financial policies from reliance on direct government intervention and control to policy regimes that allow a greater role for market mechanisms however by international standards the economy remains highly regulated and continues to be hampered by some longstanding structural weaknesses there is a strong manufacturing base for high value added products like electronics and pharmaceuticals and the manufacturing sector has more than two five zero foreign owned export oriented enterprises tourism generates three five of gdp with malta attracting more than one two million visitors in two zero zero zero in two zero zero zero the economy grew by seven in nominal terms and four three in real terms unemployment was down to four four its lowest level in three years many formerly state owned companies are being privatized and the market liberalized fiscal policy is now directed toward bringing down the budget deficit public debt grew from two four of gdp in one nine nine zero to five six in one nine nine nine the target is a deficit to gdp ratio of around three in three years in two zero zero zero deficit to gdp ratio was six six of gdp down from one one last year economy in figures gdp purchasing power parity five three billion one nine nine nine est gdp real growth rate four one nine nine nine est gdp per capita purchasing power parity one three eight zero zero one nine nine nine est gdp composition by sector agriculture three industry two six services seven one one nine nine seven est population below poverty line na household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices one eight one nine nine nine est labor force one four three seven zero zero october one nine nine seven labor force by occupation industry two four services seven one agriculture five one nine nine nine est unemployment rate five five september one nine nine nine budget revenues one three two billion expenditures one seven six billion including capital expenditures of na one nine nine eight est industries tourism electronics ship building and repair construction food and beverages textiles footwear clothing tobacco industrial production growth rate na electricity production one six two zero gwh one nine nine eight electricity production by source fossil fuel one zero zero hydro zero nuclear zero other zero one nine nine eight electricity consumption one five zero seven gwh one nine nine eight electricity exports zero kwh one nine nine eight electricity imports zero kwh one nine nine eight agriculture products potatoes cauliflower grapes wheat barley tomatoes citrus cut flowers green peppers pork milk poultry eggs exports one eight billion f o b one nine nine eight exports commodities machinery and transport equipment manufactures exports partners france two zero seven us one eight one germany one two six uk seven seven italy four eight one nine nine eight imports two seven billion f o b one nine nine eight imports commodities machinery and transport equipment manufactured goods food drink and tobacco imports partners italy one nine three france one seven eight uk one two four germany one zero five us eight nine one nine nine eight debt external one three zero million one nine nine seven economic aid recipient na currency one maltese lira lm one zero zero cents exchange rates maltese liri lm per us one zero four zero eight six january two zero zero zero zero three nine nine four one nine nine nine zero three eight eight five one nine nine eight zero three eight five seven one nine nine seven zero three six zero four one nine nine six zero three five two nine one nine nine five fiscal year one april three one march see also economy of europe malta economy of malta european union member economies telephones main lines in use one eight seven zero zero zero one nine nine seven telephones mobile cellular one seven six nine one one nine nine seven one four one zero zero six march two zero zero one three zero three nine eight zero i e seven five eight per one zero zero population two zero zero four telephone system automatic system satisfies normal requirements domestic submarine cable and microwave radio relay between islands international two submarine cables satellite earth station one intelsat atlantic ocean radio broadcast stations am one fm one eight shortwave six one nine nine nine radios two five five zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations six two zero zero zero televisions two eight zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet service providers isps one seven two zero zero five broadband wireless internet service provider licenses three two zero zero five internet users five nine zero zero zero two zero zero two eight five six seven two i e two one three one zero zero inhabitants two zero zero four country code top level domain mt see also malta communications in malta railways zero km maltese bus buses the route bus service in malta comprises five zero eight buses all of which are privately owned in most cases by the drivers themselves the fleet deep yellow in colour with an orange band are a collection of different models and hybrids highways total one seven four two km paved one six seven seven km unpaved six five km one nine nine seven est waterways none ports and harbours marsaxlokk valletta mgarr island of gozo merchant marine total one three two three ships one zero zero zero grt or over totalling two seven two zero eight eight one nine grt four four six one seven eight seven seven dwt ships by type bulk four four zero cargo three three four chemical tanker five four combination bulk one zero combination ore oil one two container seven five liquefied gas four livestock carrier three multi functional large load carrier one passenger six passenger cargo one petroleum tanker two seven zero refrigerated cargo three nine roll on roll off four five short sea passenger nine specialised tanker three vehicle carrier one seven note includes some foreign owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience australia four austria six bangladesh one belgium three bulgaria one nine canada two china one six croatia one four cuba one cyprus seven denmark three estonia five finland one germany five four greece six two seven hong kong one two iceland three india one zero iran two israel two six italy three six japan two latvia two four lebanon six monaco two nine netherlands one zero nigeria two norway four three poland two nine portugal two romania one five russia eight five saudi arabia one slovenia two south korea five spain one switzerland five four syria four turkey eight four ukraine two five united arab emirates three united kingdom four united states one zero two zero zero two est heliport in xewkija gozo one airports with paved runways malta international airport is the only airport in the islands external links malta transport authority transportation in malta military branches armed forces of malta including land forces with subordinate air squadron and maritime squadron and the revenue security corps maltese police force military manpower availability males age one five four nine nine nine one zero seven two zero zero two est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine seven eight nine zero nine two zero zero two est military expenditures dollar figure six zero million two zero zero zero est military expenditures percent of gdp one seven two zero zero zero references and links malta military of malta for several years after independence malta followed a policy of close co operation with the united kingdom and other nato countries this relationship changed with the election of the malta labour party government in june one nine seven one led by dom mintoff the nato subheadquarters in malta was closed at the request of the government and the u s six th fleet discontinued recreational visits to the country after substantially increased financial contributions from several nato countries including the united states british forces remained in malta until one nine seven nine following their departure the labour government charted a new course of neutrality and became an active member of the non aligned movement malta is an active participant in the united nations the commonwealth the council of europe osce the non aligned movement and various other international organisations in these forums malta has frequently expressed its concern for the peace and economic development of the mediterranean region the nationalist party malta partit nazzjonalista government has continued a policy of neutrality and non alignment but in a western context the government desires close relations with the united states and western europe with an emphasis on increased trade and private investment in one nine nine two u s navy ships started paying liberty calls again and currently do so on a regular basis although this is against malta s constitution on may one two zero zero four malta officially became a member of the european union it is one of ten new members north africa malta has enjoyed cordial relations with libya since a one nine eight four treaty of friendship and co operation signed with qaddafi s regime this treaty signed by dom mintoff included a security protocol in which libyan forces agreed to train and arm their maltese counterparts libya has supplied malta with refined crude oil since one nine seven five and provided aid to build a sports stadium libyan nationals are frequent visitors to malta and did not require visas until two zero zero four malta and tunisia are discussing the commercial exploitation of the continental shelf between their countries particularly for oil exploration malta is a minor trans shipment point for hashish from north africa to western europe foreign relations by country government of malta politics of malta the republic of the marshall islands rmi is a micronesian island nation in the western pacific ocean located north of nauru and kiribati east of the federated states of micronesia and south of the u s territory of wake island align center style vertical align top colspan two national motto n a align center colspan two style background ffffff official languages marshallese english capital majuro president kessai note area total water ranked one eight seven th one eight one km negligible population total two zero zero three density ranked one eight five th five six four two nine three one two km independence october two one one nine eight six hdi two zero zero three na unranked currency us dollar time zone utc one two national anthem forever marshall islands internet tld mh calling code six nine two history while settled by micronesians in the two nd millennium bc little is known of the early history of the islands spanish explorer alonso de salazar was the first european to sight the marshalls but the islands remained virtually unvisited by europeans for several more centuries before being visited by english captain john marshall in one seven eight eight the islands owe their name to him a german trading company settled on the islands in one eight eight five and they became part of the protectorate of german new guinea some years later japan conquered the islands in world war i and administered them as a league of nations mandate in world war ii the united states invaded the islands one nine four four and they were added to the trust territory of the pacific islands including several more island groups in the south sea in one nine seven nine the republic of the marshall islands was established and a compact of free association with the u s government was signed becoming effective in one nine eight six the independence was formally completed under international law in one nine nine zero when the un officially ended the trust given to the usa politics the marshallese president is both head of state and head of government the president who is elected by and from the members of the nitijela parliament appoints his own cabinet elections for the parliament which has three three seats are held every four years municipalities map of the marshall islandsaverage temperature and pecipitations on majurothe marshall islands are divided into two four legislative districts which correspond to the inhabited islands and atolls of the country see geography geography the country consists of two nine atolls and five isolated islands the most important atolls and islands form two groups the ratak chain and the ralik chain meaning sunrise and sunset chains two thirds of the nation s population lives on majuro which is also the capital and ebeye the outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and economic development life on the outer atolls is generally still fairly traditional and the nutrition of the rural population being grown and caught is superior that of most of the urban residents who rely considerably on white rice the climate is hot and humid with a wet season from may to november the islands occasionally suffer from typhoons ailinginae atoll uninhabited ailinglaplap atoll legislative district ailuk atoll legislative district arno legislative district aur atoll legislative district bikar atoll or bikaar uninhabited bikini atoll bokak atoll uninhabited ebon atoll legislative district enewetak atoll legislative district erikub atoll uninhabited jabat island legislative district jaluit atoll legislative district jemo island uninhabited kili island legislative district kwajalein atoll legislative district lae atoll legislative district lib island legislative district likiep atoll legislative district majuro atoll legislative district maloelap atoll legislative district mejit island legislative district mili atoll legislative district nadikdik atoll or knox uninhabited namorik atoll or namdrik legislative district namu atoll legislative district rongelap atoll legislative district rongerik atoll uninhabited toke atoll uninhabited ujae atoll legislative district ujelang atoll legislative district utirik atoll or utrik legislative district wotho atoll legislative district wotje atoll legislative district economy united states government assistance is the mainstay of this tiny island economy agricultural production is concentrated on small farms and the most important commercial crops are coconuts tomatoes melons and breadfruit small scale industry is limited to handicrafts fish processing and copra the tourist industry now a small source of foreign exchange employing less than one zero of the labor force remains the best hope for future added income the islands have few natural resources and imports far exceed exports around one nine nine nine a tuna loining plant was built and employed upwards to four zero zero people mostly women after absorbing significant training costs and lack of government assistance the plant was closed in two zero zero five although providing almost six million into the economy and a significant number of jobs that previously had not existed the government let the plant close and chose to not provide any incentives to the owners to keep it open under the terms of the compact of free association the us provides roughly six five million in annual aid negotiations were under way in one nine nine nine for an extended agreement government downsizing drought a drop in construction and the decline in tourism and foreign investment due to the asian financial difficulties caused gdp to fall in one nine nine six nine eight the united states also maintains the u s army s reagan test site rts on kwajalein atoll it is an important aspect of the marshallese economy as the marshallese land owners receive rent for the base and a large number of marshallese work at the base demographics the marshallese are of micronesian origin and migrated from asia several thousand years ago although english is an official language and is spoken widely although not fluently marshallese is used by the government japanese is also occasionally spoken in some areas of marshall islands virtually all marshallese are christian most of them protestant culture although now in decline the marshallese were once able navigators using the stars and stick and shell charts they are also experienced in canoe building and still hold annual competitions involving the unique oceanic sailing canoe the proa nuclear testing between one nine four six and one nine five eight the usa tested six seven nuclear weapons in the marshall islands including the largest nuclear test the us ever conducted castle bravo which resulted in the radiation poisoning of two three six marshallese in one nine nine four documents were released which suggested this act was premeditated by the atomic energy commission in human radiation experiments known as project four one nuclear claims between the united states and the marshall islands are ongoing and health effects still linger from these tests miscellaneous topics communications in the marshall islands foreign relations of the marshall islands military of the marshall islands scouting in the marshall islands transportation in the marshall islands external links cia world factbook marshall islands marshall islands embassy to the us information on marshall islands marshall islands digital archive and library yokwe online everything marshall islands jane s marshall islands home page encyclopedia of the nations marshall islands marshall islands maps photos links nutrition study university of akron atomic testing information pictures of victims of us nuclear testing in the marshall islands on nuclear files org marshall islands is two zero three rd olympic nation freely associated states island nations marshall islands micronesia archipelagoes oceanian countries the marshalls are comprised of two nine atolls and five major islands which form two parallel groups the ratak sunrise chain and the ralik sunset chain two thirds of the nation s population lives in majuro and ebeye the outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and economic development location oceania group of atolls and reefs in the north pacific ocean about one half of the way from hawaii to papua new guinea geographic coordinates map references oceania area total one eight one three sq km land one eight one three sq km water zero sq km note includes the atolls of bikini enewetak and kwajalein area comparative about the size of washington dc land boundaries zero km coastline three seven zero four km maritime claims contiguous zone two four nm exclusive economic zone two zero zero nm territorial sea one two nm climate wet season from may to november hot and humid islands border typhoon belt terrain low coral limestone and sand islands elevation extremes lowest point pacific ocean zero m highest point unnamed location on likiep one zero m natural resources phosphate deposits marine products deep seabed minerals land use arable land zero permanent crops six zero permanent pastures zero forests and woodland zero other four zero irrigated land na sq km natural hazards occasional typhoons environment current issues inadequate supplies of potable water environment international agreements party to biodiversity climate change desertification law of the sea ozone layer protection ship pollution signed but not ratified climate change kyoto protocol geography note two archipelagic island chains of three zero atolls and one one five two islands bikini and enewetak are former us nuclear test sites kwajalein the famous world war ii battleground is now used as a us missile test range see also marshall islands geography of the marshall islands geography by country the people of the marshall islands are of micronesian origin which is traced to a combination of peoples who emigrated from southeast asia in the remote past the matrilineal marshallese culture revolves around a complex system of clans and lineages tied to land ownership virtually all marshallese are christian most of them protestant other christian denominations include roman catholicism seventh day adventistism mormon salvation army and jehovah s witness a small bah community also exists both marshallese and english are official languages english is spoken by most of the urban population however both the nitijela parliament and national radio use marshallese the public school system provides education through grade one two although admission to secondary school is selective the elementary program employs a bilingual bicultural curriculum english is introduced in the fourth grade there is one post secondary institution in the marshall islands the college of the marshall islands demographics of the marshall islands data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population six eight one two six july two zero zero zero est age structure zero one four years five zero male one seven two zero four female one six five two one one five six four years four eight male one six eight two six female one six one one one six five years and over two male six nine three female seven seven one two zero zero zero est population growth rate three eight eight two zero zero zero est birth rate four five one seven births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate six four deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate zero migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero four male s female one five six four years one zero four male s female six five years and over zero nine male s female total population one zero four male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate four zero nine five deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population six five five years male six three seven two years female six seven three six years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate six six one children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun marshallese singular and plural adjective marshallese ethnic groups micronesian religions christian mostly protestant languages english universally spoken and is the official language two major marshallese dialects from the malayo polynesian family japanese literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population nine three male one zero zero female eight eight one nine eight zero est see also marshall islands demographics by country marshall islands the legislative branch of the government of the marshall islands consists of the nitijela parliament with an advisory council of high chiefs the nitijela has three three members from two four districts elected for concurrent four year terms members are called senators the president is elected by the nitijela from among its members presidents pick cabinet members from the nitijela amata kabua was elected as the first president of the republic in one nine seven nine subsequently he was re elected to four year terms in one nine eight three one nine eight seven one nine nine one and one nine nine six after amata kabua s death in office his first cousin imata kabua won a special election in one nine nine seven the current president was elected in the general elections of november one nine nine nine and took office in january two zero zero zero the republic of the marshall islands has four court systems supreme court high court district and community courts and the traditional rights court trial is by jury or judge jurisdiction of the traditional rights court is limited to cases involving titles or land rights or other disputes arising from customary law and traditional practice political conditions citizens of the marshall islands live with a relatively new democratic political system combined with a hierarchical traditional culture the first two presidents were chiefs kessai note is a commoner there have been a number of local and national elections since the republic of the marshall islands was founded and in general democracy has functioned well there have been some incidents of human rights concern however such as undue government pressure on the judiciary and the press the united democratic party running on a reform platform won the one nine nine nine parliamentary election taking control of the presidency and cabinet the new government has publicly confirmed its commitment to an independent judiciary political parties and elections other data government type constitutional government in free association with the us the compact of free association entered into force two one october one nine eight six administrative divisions three three municipalities ailinginae ailinglaplap ailuk arno aur bikar bikini bokak ebon enewetak erikub jabat jaluit jemo kili kwajalein lae lib likiep majuro maloelap mejit mili namorik namu rongelap rongrik toke ujae ujelang utirik wotho wotje legal system based on adapted trust territory laws acts of the legislature municipal common and customary laws suffrage one eight years of age universal executive branch chief of state president kessai hesa note since three january two zero zero zero note the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government president kessai hesa note since three january two zero zero zero note the president is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet cabinet selected by the president from among the members of parliament elections president elected by parliament from among its own members for a four year term election last held one five november one nine nine nine next to be held na november two zero zero three election results kessai hesa note elected president percent of parliament vote one zero zero legislative branch unicameral parliament or nitijela three three seats members elected by popular vote to serve four year terms note the council of chiefs is a one two member body that advises on matters affecting customary law and practice judicial branch supreme court high court political parties and leaders traditionally there have been no formally organized political parties what has existed more closely resembles factions or interest groups because they do not have party headquarters formal platforms or party structures the following two groupings have competed in legislative balloting in recent years kabua party imata kabua and united democratic party or udp litokwa tomling international organization participation asdb escap g seven seven iaea ibrd icao icc ida ifc imf imo inmarsat intelsat nonsignatory user interpol itu opcw sparteca spc spf un unctad unesco who marshall islands telephones main lines in use three zero zero zero one nine nine four telephones mobile cellular two eight zero one nine nine four telephone system telex services domestic majuro atoll and ebeye and kwajalein islands have regular seven digit direct dial telephones other islands interconnected by shortwave radio telephone used mostly for government purposes international satellite earth stations two intelsat pacific ocean us government satellite communications system on kwajalein radio broadcast stations am three fm four shortwave zero one nine nine eight radios na television broadcast stations three of which two are us military stations one nine nine seven televisions na internet service providers isps na country code top level domain mh see also marshall islands communications by country marshall islands railways zero km highways total na km paved six four five km unpaved na km note paved roads on major islands majuro kwajalein otherwise stone coral or laterite surfaced roads and tracks two zero zero two ports and harbors majuro merchant marine total three four two ships one zero zero zero grt or over totaling one four four seven one six nine zero grt two three eight zero two eight nine six dwt ships by type bulk eight six cargo one eight chemical tanker three one combination bulk four combination ore oil seven container six nine liquified gas eight multi functional large load carrier one passenger six petroleum tanker one zero six roll on roll off one short sea passenger one vehicle carrier one two zero zero two est note a flag of convenience registry includes the ships of china one cyprus one denmark nine germany seven zero greece five four hong kong two japan four monaco eight netherlands eight united kingdom three united states eight seven and uruguay one two zero zero two est airports one five two zero zero two airports with paved runways total five one five two four to two four three seven m four eniwetok iata airport code ent kwajalein kwa and majuro international maj rongelap nine one four to one five two three m one two zero zero two airports with unpaved runways total one one nine one four to one five two three m one zero under nine one four m one two zero zero two see also marshall islands marshall islands transportation by country military branches no regular military forces a coast guard may be established police force military expenditures dollar figure na military expenditures percent of gdp na military note defense is the responsibility of the united states see also list of countries without an army references and links marshall islands marshall islands militaries while the government of the marshall islands is free to conduct its own foreign relations it does so under the terms of the compact of free association since independence the republic of the marshall islands has established relations with six seven nations including most other pacific island nations regional cooperation through membership in various regional and international organizations is a key element in its foreign policy the marshall islands became a member of the united nations in september one nine nine one the marshall islands maintains embassies in the united states fiji japan and the republic of china taiwan instead of the people s republic of china in may two zero zero five chen shui bian president of the republic of china became the first foreign head of state to make an official visit to the marshall islands disputes international the united states and the marshall islands governments both claim wake island see also marshall islands external links permanent mission of the republic of the marshall islands to the united nations rmi embassy to the u s us embassy in majuro marshall islands foreign relations by country mass deacidification is a term used in library and information science for one possible measure against the degradation of paper in old books the so called slow fires one technique proposed was to place books in an evacuated chamber then introduce diethyl zinc dez in theory the diethyl zinc would react with acidic residues in the paper leaving an alkaline residue that would protect the paper against further degradation in practice the heating required to remove trace water from the books before reaction dez reacts violently with water caused an accelerated degradation of the paper and a range of other chemical reactions between dez and other components of the book glues bindings caused further damage and the production of unpleasant smells regardless in the one nine eight zero s a pilot plant for mass deacidification using this process was constructed by nasa but it was discovered in one nine eight six that the dez had not been removed in one of the deacidification runs and was pooled in the bottom of the chamber and probably remained within some of the plumbing dez is violently flammable in contact with oxygen so the vacuum chamber could not be opened to remove the books within eventually explosives were used to rupture the suspect plumbing suspicions of the presence of residual dez were confirmed by the subsequent fire that destroyed the plant the chemical company akzo made later attempts at refining the process though the risks of fire and explosions were reduced by better process design damage and odours remained a problem in the end akzo decided the process was not a viable commercial proposition and shut down their research at the end of one nine nine four external links an loc paper on mass deacidification library and information science mass deacidification is a term used in the field of library and information science that refers to any large scale process designed to increase the ph of the paper of works printed on acidic paper from the one eight seven zero s to the one nine eight zero s most paper production methods resulted in paper that was acidic even though much acidic paper is still being produced worldwide cheaper paper production methods that produce alkaline paper have become predominant in paper manufacture in the united states acidic paper especially when exposed to light yellows and becomes brittle over time embrittlement can be prevented if the paper is deacidified there are currently three commercial mass deacidification methods the wei t o process the bookeeper process and the interleaf phase vapor process the wei t o process uses a magnesium carbonate complex to deacidify the paper the bookeeper method uses magnesium oxide to neutralize acidic paper the interleaf vapor phase process uses cyclohexamine carbonate to deacidify paper attempts to develop a commercially viable mass deacidification process using diethyl zinc have failed a mile is any of a number of units of distance each in the magnitude of one one zero km in contemporary english contexts mile refers to the statute mile of one seven six zero yards which is about one six zero nine m or to the international nautical mile being exactly one eight five two m there have been several abbreviations for mile with and without trailing period mi ml m m nist now uses and recommends mi but miles per hour are usually shortened to m p h or mph instead of mi h the original mile a unit of distance called a mile was first used by the romans and originally denoted a distance of one zero zero zero double steps mille passuum in latin which amounted at approximately zero seven five m per single step to one five zero zero metres per mile types of mile in modern usage various distances are referred to as a mile statute miles a statute of the english parliament during the reign of elizabeth i established the statute mile as eight furlongs or one seven six zero yards that is five two eight zero feet or six three three six zero inches prior to the statute the mile in england was commonly considered five zero zero zero feet a length not divisible into yards rods or furlongs without fractions there are two slightly different statute miles in current use the international mile is the distance typically meant when the word mile is used without qualification it is defined to be precisely one seven six zero international yards by definition zero nine one four four m each and is therefore exactly one six zero nine three four four metres one six zero nine three four four km it is used in the united states and the united kingdom as part of the u s customary and imperial systems of units respectively the international mile is equivalent to eight furlongs eight zero chains or five two eight zero international feet the u s survey mile is based on an inch defined by one m three nine three seven inches exactly it is equal to five two eight zero u s survey feet six three three six three nine three seven km or approximately one six zero nine three four seven metres one international mile is equal to zero nine nine nine nine nine eight survey miles the survey mile is used by the united states public land survey system nautical miles the international nautical mile is defined to be one eight five two m it is used universally for aviation naval and maritime purposes and originated from the geographical mile the collins english dictionary defines a sea mile as six zero seven six feet one eight five two m by definition one nautical mile is one minute between latitudes or on the equator thus the circumference of the earth is two one six zero zero nautical miles other miles the italian mile one five km was a thousand paces of five roman feet each the roman foot being one fifth of an inch less than the london foot the obsolete scottish and irish miles are longer than the english nautical mile by about a half two five km the german mile was reckoned to be the one five th part of a degree and thus about four nautical miles in length or six four km traditionally the danes swedes and hungarians had long miles which were about a german mile and a half or nine six km today in norway and sweden a distance of one zero km is most commonly referred to as a mile or metric mile see mil in sports such as athletics and speedskating the term metric mile is used to denote a distance of one five km the dutch mile was nearly the one nine th part of a degree five eight km the polish mile was nearly equal to the dutch mile see also square mile league imperial units u s customary units ancient weights and measures medieval weights and measures fibonacci sequence application convert to kilometers reference of divers measures in laurence echard one seven four one the gazetteer s or newsman s interpreter london ballard et al first published one seven zero three external links nist general tables of units of measurement ancient rome units of length imperial units customary units in the united states terry jones eric idle and graham chapman in the monty python skit spam spam is a popular monty python sketch first broadcast in one nine seven zero in the sketch two customers are trying to order a breakfast from a menu that includes the processed meat product in almost every item the term spam in electronic communication is derived from this sketch it features terry jones as the waitress eric idle as mr bun and graham chapman as mrs bun the televised skit also featured john cleese as the hungarian but this part was left out of audio recordings of the sketch only two and a half minutes long it builds up into a semi argument between the waitress who is offering spam with just about everything and mrs bun who does not want it waitress brightly well there s spam egg sausage and spam that s not got much spam in it mrs bun exasperated i don t want any spam mr bun attempts to mollify his wife mr bun sssh dear don t cause a fuss i ll have your spam i love it i m having spam spam spam spam spam spam spam baked beans spam spam spam and spam waitress baked beans are off mr bun to waitress well could i have her spam instead of the baked beans then waitress you mean spam spam spam spam spam spam spam spam spam spam spam and spam at several points a group of vikings in the green midget cafe drown out all conversation by jumping up and loudly singing a song about spam lovely spam wonderful spam they are interrupted by the waitress many times but they resume singing more and more loudly until at last the song reaches an operatic climax the sketch was the final sketch of the two five th show of monty python s flying circus and was first aired december one five one nine seven zero despite its shortness the sketch became immensely popular the word spam is mentioned at least one three two times menu egg and bacon egg sausage and bacon egg and spam egg bacon and spam egg bacon sausage and spam spam bacon sausage and spam spam egg spam spam bacon and spam spam sausage spam spam spam bacon spam tomato and spam spam spam spam egg and spam spam spam spam spam spam spam baked beans spam spam spam and spam lobster thermidor aux crevettes with a mornay sauce served in a proven ale manner with shallots and aubergines garnished with truffle pat brandy and with a fried egg on top and spam trivia spam was one of the few meats excluded from the british food rationing that began in world war ii and continued for a number of years after the war and the british grew heartily tired of it hence the sketch the phenomenon some years later of marketers drowning out discourse by flooding usenet newsgroups and individuals email with junk mail advertising messages was named spamming recounting the repetitive and unwanted presence of spam in the sketch the hormel company the makers of the meat product spam while never quite happy with the use of the word spam for junk email have always seemed supportive of monty python and their skit hormel issued a special tin of spam for the broadway premiere of eric idle s hit musical spamalot comedy rap act sudden death incorporated the monty python spam chant albeit sung by the band not sampled from the skit into the chorus of their song spam though the song is about the junk e mail spam and not the lunchmeat spam sudden death s song also includes parts that parody two other songs about the lunchmeat originally recorded by weird al yankovic and the great luke ski both also called spam external links full text and audio of the sketch more complete script of the spam sketch video of spam sketch monty python sketches palin cleese and the dead parrot the dead parrot sketch alternatively and originally known as pet shop sketch or parrot sketch is a popular sketch from monty python s flying circus it portrays a confrontation between disgruntled customer mr eric praline played by john cleese and a shopkeeper michael palin who hold contradictory positions on the vital state of a norwegian blue parrot an absurdity in itself since parrots are tropical and not indigenous to scandinavia the skit pokes fun at the many euphemisms for death used in english culture the sketch aired in the eighth episode of the television series the dead parrot sketch was inspired by a car salesman sketch that palin and graham chapman had done in how to irritate people in it palin played a car salesman who refused to admit that there was anything wrong with his customer s chapman car even as it fell apart in front of him that sketch was based on an actual incident between palin and a car salesman over the years cleese and palin have done many versions of the dead parrot sketch for various television shows record albums and live performances plot norwegian blue parrot pining for the fjords mr praline enters a pet shop complaining that the parrot he has recently purchased at the location is in fact dead the shopkeeper denies this and points out the beauty of its plumage further suggesting that the bird is merely asleep praline is unconvinced especially when shouting and the offer of a lovely fresh cuttlefish fails to evoke a response from the bird praline takes the parrot out of the cage and thumps its head on the counter then tosses it up in the air and watches it plummet to the floor without reacting in any way the shopkeeper remains unconvinced claiming that it is now stunned and that it is pining for the fjords praline points out that the only reason that the parrot had been sitting on its perch in the first place was that it had been nailed there the shopkeeper counters that it was simply to stop it escaping praline disagrees in these words mr praline it s not pinin it s passed on this parrot is no more it has ceased to be it s expired and gone to meet its maker this is a late parrot it s a stiff bereft of life it rests in peace if you hadn t nailed it to the perch it would be pushing up the daisies it s rung down the curtain and joined the choir invisible this is an ex parrot the shopkeeper admits defeat claims that he is right out of parrots and offers a slug as replacement the dialogue continues mr praline does it talk pause shopkeeper not really no mr praline well it s scarcely a replacement then is it the action then moves to bolton or possibly ipswich or maybe even notlob bolton spelled backwards much play is made of the location including the suggestion that the confusion between the towns is due to a pun or possibly a palindrome just as the dialogue is getting too silly graham chapman s no nonsense colonel bursts in and stops the sketch in and now for something completely different the skit ended by going into the lumberjack song in the secret policeman s biggest ball a benefit for amnesty international the sketch opens similarly but ends very differently mr praline it s dead that s what s wrong with it audience goes wild shopkeeper so it is ere s your money back and a couple of holiday vouchers mr praline spends a few seconds acting and looking flabbergasted well you can t say thatcher hasn t changed some things the dead parrot in popular culture palin and chapman in the car salesman sketch from how to irritate people at graham chapman s memorial service cleese began his eulogy by stating that graham chapman was no more that he had ceased to be that he had expired and gone on to meet his maker and so on cleese went on to justify his eulogy by claiming that chapman would never have forgiven him if he had not delivered it exactly as he did the same lines from the skit are frequently used to describe anything which the speaker wishes to describe as defunct or no longer viable the name dead parrot is also sometimes used and specifically applies to a controversial joint policy document which the liberal party and social democrats issued in one nine eight eight in the process of their merger into the liberal democratic party shortly before her downfall as prime minister margaret thatcher described this party in her deadpan comedy voice saying this is a dead parrot it has ceased to be the loss of the eastbourne parliamentary seat at a by election to the liberal democrats shortly afterward was cause for david steel its leader at the time to say it looks like this dead parrot gave her a good pecking the emblem of the liberal democrats is a flying yellow bird another british television comedy not the nine o clock news referred to the parrot sketch in one of their sketches about python worshippers it went as so bishop in the words of john cleese whenever two or three are gathered together in one place then they shall perform the parrot sketch interviewer it is an ex parrot alexander walker bishop in unision it has ceased to be when michael palin and john cleese made surprise appearances on saturday night live they recreated the parrot sketch the parrot sketch was parodied in a short south park skit created specially for the bbc s python night cartman tries to explain to kyle that kenny is dead borrowing nearly all of the dialogue from the parrot sketch in addition in the two zero zero zero s a toy norwegian blue complete with nails was released on the market on his two zero zero five tour of new zealand john cleese recreated the parrot sketch substituting a dead sheep for the parrot life imitates art in february of two zero zero five itzik simkowitz of beersheba sued a pet shop in tel aviv for selling him a dying cockatoo the shop owner had assured him that the one one zero zero zero shekel two five zero zero usd bird only needed time to adjust to his new surroundings external links the complete script a short animated gif of the parrot sketch on ytmnd com monty python sketches fictional parrots the cheese shop sketch is a famous sketch from monty python s flying circus it appears in episode three three salad days it is a fairly typical john cleese set piece in essence john cleese attempts to purchase some cheese from the cheese shop unfortunately the proprietor mr henry wensleydale michael palin as before playing the obstructive shopkeeper to cleese s irate customer appears to have not one single variety in stock not even a morsel of cheddar cheese the single most popular cheese in the world the slow crescendo of bouzouki music played by live musicians in the shop in the background mirrors cleese s growing anger as he lists various increasingly obscure cheeses to no avail the secondary punchline of this sketch is when john cleese who at the beginning said he wasn t annoyed by the music suddenly loudly interrupts the musicians and tells them to stop the main punchline of course is that there is no cheese in the shop when palin admits this fact cleese shoots him in the head in the television program the sketch is revealed to be a teaser for sam peckinpah s rogue cheddar this provides a link to further discussions of peckinpah films other versions the sketch was reworked for the brand new monty python bok becoming a two player word game in which one player the customer must keep naming different cheeses and the other player the shopkeeper must keep coming up with different excuses otherwise the customer wins and may punch the shopkeeper in the teeth the sketch was parodied in an episode of the young ones alexei sayle rushes into a shop also seeming to do a silly walk paying homage to the ministry of silly walks sketch and asks if it is a cheese shop rik mayall the palinesque proprietor replies no sir alexei says well that s that sketch knackered then innit the asian bride shop sketch in an episode of goodness gracious me also pays homage to the cheese shop sketch in that the characters are asian versions of cleese and palin and substitute the names of cheese types with descriptions of types of brides another pastiche was a script circulated on the internet in early two zero zero four which parodied the sco v ibm lawsuit in the script a judge taking cleese s role inquires of the palinesque attorney for the sco group as to the evidence he will be presenting for his suit only to discover after a monotonous line of questioning similar to the original sketch that sco has no evidence at all the script was a sharp parody of the quality of the sco lawsuit implying that it was exceedingly frivolous still another variation on the sketch appeared in the order of the stick a webcomic satirizing dungeons and dragons in this one the cheese shop is replaced by a polearm shop with the warrior roy greenhilt trying to get a replacement for his broken sword however this time the punchline is changed so that he is unable to assault the owner due to his lack of a suitable weapon the skit was also referenced in the weird al yankovic song albuquerque in this version the main character attempts to buy donuts at a donut shop with similiar results the scene ends when the shopkeeper reveals that all he has is a box of one dozen starving crazed weasels which the main character purchases opens and is then attacked by footnotes in the sketch itself palin refers to his character s name simply as mister wensleydale however the name henry wensleydale appears above the shop front in the series of stills that precede the original tv version of the sketch the list comes to a typically bizarre conclusion with cleese s desperate request for venezuelan beaver cheese external links sco v ibm parody order of the stick parody the cheese shop sketch s script transcribed phonetically with many incorrect spellings monty python sketches cheeses bruces philosophers song bruces song was a popular monty python song a feature of the group s stage appearances as well as of its recordings and ostensibly rendered by a number of australian university lecturers they were all called bruce and taught at the university of woolloomooloo woolloomooloo is an inner suburb of sydney there is actually no university there though the real life sydney university is not far away although the bruces sketch previously appeared in the tv show monty python s flying circus the song itself was original to the stage show the song s lyrics make a series of scurrilous allegations against a number of highly respected philosophers usually with regard to their capacity or incapacity for imbibing intoxicating liquors for a long time opinion has been divided as to whether the sixth line is both schopenhauer and hegel or just william friedrich hegel or whether it was eric hoffer or thomas hobbes who is described as being fond of his dram this is used as a drinking song among hash house harriers and rugby players save for hoffer if indeed he rather than hobbes is being cited all the thinkers whom the song mentions were dead by the time it appeared with one conspicuous exception since heidegger credited in the lyrics with the same prodigious alcohol intake ascribed to socrates aristotle descartes kant a great piss ant wittgenstein et al lived until one nine seven six the intriguing possibility remains that he might have learnt of the ditty s existence and thus of his own unexpected immortality as a comedic icon see also monty pythons flying circus bruces sketch monty python songs this article describes the monty python sketch for dr richard wiseman s research see world s funniest joke the funniest joke in the world is the most frequent title used to refer to a monty python s flying circus comedy sketch also known by two other phrases that appear within it joke warfare and killer joke the premise of the sketch is fatal hilarity the joke is simply so funny that anyone who reads or hears it promptly dies laughing the sketch is set during world war ii when one ernest scribbler a struggling british writer creates the funniest joke in the world and then dies laughing his horrified mother played by eric idle enters clutching her chest and sobbing carefully taking the crumpled paper from his hand assuming it was a suicide note she reads it then falls over the desk laughing hysterically and dies further attempts to retrieve the joke are made one including an officer who declares he will enter the home aided by the sound of sombre music played on gramophone records and also by the chanting of laments by the men of q division unfortunately this is still not enough to stop the joke from killing the officer it is finally retrieved by the british army and after careful testing the joke is translated into german for use on the battlefield because the joke is so lethal translators are only allowed to work on one word each a translator who accidentally saw two words had to be hospitalised for two months it replaces an earlier failed joke stock footage of neville chamberlain holding the infamous munich agreement the nonsensical german translation of the joke including words that are not real german wenn ist das nunst ck git und slotermeyer ja beiherhund das oder die flipperwaldt gersput the joke is so successful in the war effort that it proves superior to an older german joke stock footage of hitler addressing a crowd with english subtitles under unrelated german speech hitler my dog has no nose crowd how does it smell hitler awful as a result the germans formulate a counter joke played over the radio to london there were zwei peanuts walking down der strasse and one was assaulted peanut this of course fails to amuse anyone other than the german propagandist reading it out the joke is finally put to rest when peace broke out it is buried and left under a monument bearing the inscription to the unknown joke as compared with the unknown soldier the sketch appeared in the first episode of the television show monty python s flying circus and was remade in a shorter version for the movie and now for something completely different it is also available on the cd rom game of monty python s the meaning of life external links full transcript of the monty python sketch motif of harmful sensation monty python sketches jokes the spanish inquisition was one of the most popular monty python sketches the principal catchphrase in this sketch was nobody expects the spanish inquisition http people csail mit edu paulfitz spanish tt two jpg image nobody in their right mind could have expected this form of spanish inquisition in which the inquisitors proceed to use such extremities of torture as poking with soft cushions and forcible seating in a comfy chair as a means of forcing a heretic a housewife to recant this inquisition has a hard time starting to inquisit as they get bogged down in recitations of their chief weapons among which are such diverse elements as fear surprise ruthless efficiency an almost fanatical devotion to the pope and nice red uniforms listen this was a recurring sketch always predicated by an unrelated sketch in which one character expressing irritation at being questioned by another would announce i didn t expect a kind of spanish inquisition at this point the inquisition consisting of cardinal ximinez michael palin cardinal biggles terry jones and cardinal fang terry gilliam would burst into the room ximinez would shout with a particular and high pitched emphasis on the first syllable no body expects the spanish inquisition one of the sketch s features was that ximinez s blood thirsty bluster ran into the problem of not being able to produce the desired tortures when he called for the rack his assistants immediately produced a dish drying rack after expressing his frustration with a furious clench toothed grin ximinez was barely able to seriously order the victim to be tied to the rack and interrogated when poking the victim with soft cushions produced no confession ximinez would inquire whether his assistants had gotten all the stuffing together into one end of the cushions for supposed maximum effectiveness in the original monty python s flying circus tv episode episode one five the spanish inquisition makes several unexpected appearances until at the very end of the show they were caught by surprise as the closing credits roll the inquisitors race to where they weren t expected only to arrive just as the words the end appear ximinez crying nobody expects the sp oh bugger which incidentally was a strong word for a bbc comedy show at the time and some bbc regions omitted it from the broadcast its influence this sketch may have been an inspiration for the inquisition portion of the movie history of the world part i nobody expects the spanish inquisition appeared as a fictional crossover in a batman comic book robin is fighting desperately against terrible odds when batgirl unexpectedly arrives to help after the villains are safely dispatched in the panel at the bottom right corner of the page robin unleashes a barrage of questions at batgirl asking what are you doing here why did you come how did you know where i was and so on causing the overwhelmed batgirl to reply with hey slow down i didn t expect the spanish inquisition when the reader turns the page the first panel on the next page features the spanish inquisition arriving on horseback shouting nobody expects the spanish inquisition in a clever bit of plot twisting this unlikely event was actually worked in as a rational part of the overall plot in the cult series mystery science theater three zero zero zero a running gag was that when a character in the film being watched would burst through a door tom servo would yell out nobody expects the spanish inquisition when the british abbey national bank was taken over by the spanish banco santander in a surprise move in two zero zero four the now show used the catch phrase nobody expects the spanish acquisition john hannah and gwyneth paltrow made a connection with each other in the film sliding doors using the phrase see also mel brooks s film history of the world part i has a sketch with a singing and dancing inquisition references the monty python script a ytmnd page featuring the robin and batgirl joke mentioned in the article monty python sketches in jokes running gags maya ying lin pinyin l n y ng born october one zero one nine five nine is a chinese american artist and architect her best known work is the vietnam veterans memorial in washington d c she was born in athens ohio and studied at yale at age two one while still an undergraduate she won a public design competition for the vietnam memorial the cut stone masonry wall officially opened to the public on november one one one nine eight two the wall was granite and v shaped with one side pointing to the lincoln memorial and the other to the washington monument l n who now owns and operates maya lin studios in new york new york went on to design other structures including the civil rights memorial in montgomery alabama one nine eight nine she was also on the committee that selected the nine one one memorial to be constructed at ground zero in new york she is the subject of the academy award winning documentary maya lin a strong clear vision the title comes from an address she gave at yale where she speaks of the monument design process in two zero zero three lin served on the selection jury of the world trade center site memorial competition some have attributed the trend toward minimalism and abstraction among the entrants finalists and current world trade center memorial to lin s presence on the jury in two zero zero five lin was elected to the american academy of arts and letters as well as the national women s hall of fame in seneca falls new york she is married to daniel wolf and they have two young children external links maya lin profile from pbs online video full biography and photo gallery of maya lin at achievement org maya lin a strong clear vision dvd one nine nine five one nine five nine births living people american architects american artists chinese americans members of the american academy of arts and letters women architects a manuscript latin manu scriptus written by hand strictly speaking is any written document that is put down by hand in contrast to being printed or reproduced some other way information may be hand recorded in other ways than in manuscripts as inscriptions that are chiselled upon a hard material or scratched the original meaning of graffiti as with a knife point in plaster or with a stylus on a waxed tablet the way romans made notes or are in cuneiform writing impressed with a pointed stylus in a flat tablet of unbaked clay in southeast asia in the first millennium documents of sufficiently great importance were inscribed on soft metallic sheets such as copperplate softened by refiner s fire and inscribed with a metal stylus in the philippines for example as early as nine zero zero ce specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus but were punched much like the style of today s dot matrix printers this type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed however neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the metal document in the hot humid climate in myanmar the kammavaca buddhist manuscripts were inscribed on brass copper or ivory sheets and even on discarded monk robes folded and lacquered in italy some important etruscan texts were similarly inscribed on thin gold plates similar sheets have been discovered in bulgaria technically these are all inscriptions rather than manuscripts thus it will be seen that manuscripts are not defined by their contents which may combine writing with mathematical calculations maps explanatory figures or illustrations manuscripts may be in the form of scrolls or in book form or codex format illuminated manuscripts are enriched with vignettes border decoration elaborately engrossed initial letters and full page illustrations manuscripts in history the traditional abbreviations are ms for manuscript and mss for manuscripts the second s by the way is not simply the plural but by an old convention doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural just as pp means pages before the invention of printing by inked carved blocks in china or by moveable type in a printing press in europe all written documents had to be both produced and reproduced by hand historically manuscripts were produced in form of scrolls volumen in latin or books codex codices manuscripts were produced on vellum and other parchments on papyrus and on paper in russia birch bark documents as old as from the one one th century have survived when greek or latin works were published numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a scriptorium each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud the oldest manuscripts have been preserved by the perfect dryness of their resting places whether placed within sarcophagi in egyptian tombs or reused as mummy wrappings discarded in the middens of oxyrhyncus or secreted for safe keeping in jars and buried nag hammadi library or stored in dry caves dead sea scrolls manuscripts in tocharian languages written on palm leaves survived in desert burials in the tarim basin of central asia manuscripts preserved in volcanic ash preserve some of the greek library of the villa of the papyri in herculaneum ironically the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of antiquity are all lost the study of the writing or hand in surviving manuscripts is termed palaeography in the western world from the classical period through the early centuries of the christian era manuscripts were written without spaces between the words scriptio continua which makes them especially hard for the untrained to read extant copies of these early manuscripts written in greek or latin and usually dating from the four th century to the eight th century are classified according to their use of either all upper case or all lower case letters manuscripts using all upper case letters are called uncials those using all lower case are called cursives early hebrew manuscripts such as the dead sea scrolls make no such differentiation manuscripts today according to library and information science a manuscript is defined as any hand written item in the collections of a library or an archive for example a library s collection of the letters or a diary that some historical personage wrote in other contexts however the use of the term manuscript no longer necessarily means something that is hand written by analogy a typescript has been produced on a typewriter in book magazine and music publishing a manuscript is an original copy of a work written by an author or composer which generally follows standardized typographic and formatting rules in film and theatre a manuscript or script for short is an author s or dramatist s text used by a theater company or film crew during the production of the work s performance or filming more specifically a motion picture manuscript is called a screenplay a television manuscript is called a teleplay and a manuscript for the theater is called a stage play in insurance a manuscript policy is one that is negotiated between the insurer and the policyholder as opposed to an off the shelf form supplied by the insurer see also scriptorium codex list of manuscripts list of hiberno saxon illustrated manuscripts manuscript format historical documents preservation issues manuscripts misogyny m s j n is hatred of or strong prejudice against women compared with anti woman sexism or misandry hatred of or strong prejudice against men misogyny is usually regarded as directed against women by some men though women can also hold misogynistic views in feminist theory misogyny is recognized as a political ideology similar to racism or anti semitism that justifies and maintains the subordination of women by men the word comes from the greek misos hatred gyne woman forms of misogyny there are many different forms of misogyny in its most overt expression a misogynist will openly hate all women simply because they are female some sexual predators may fall into this category other forms of misogyny may be more subtle some misogynists may simply be prejudiced against all women or may hate women who don t fall into one or more acceptable categories entire cultures may be said to be misogynist if they treat women in ways that can be seen as harmful examples include forcing women to tend to all domestic responsibilities demanding silence from a woman or beating a woman regularly subscribers to one model the mother whore dichotomy hold that women can only be mothers or whores another variant is the virgin whore dichotomy in which women who do not adhere to a saintly standard of moral purity are considered whores frequently the term misogynist is used in a looser sense as a term of derision to describe anyone who holds an unpopular or distasteful view about women as a group a man who considers himself a great lover of women therefore might somewhat paradoxically be termed a misogynist by those who consider his treatment of women sexist archetypes of this type of man might be giacomo casanova a historical figure or james bond and don juan fictional characters who were both reputed for their many libertine affairs with women while a seducer like casanova or don juan might appear outwardly charming and to enjoy the company of women many do not at root respect women or find them interesting on any higher plane than mere sex objects many men whom feminists would regard as misogynists are merely distrustful of women as a sex but trusting and loving towards indivdual women misogyny in philosophy and religion many religions and philosophies contain what could be called misogyny paul insisted that women should not talk in church women should remain silent in the churches they are not allowed to speak but must be in submission as the law says one cor one four three four niv in hinduism the code of manu makes women incapable of ever being independent at times in indian history it was customary for a woman to be pushed onto the funeral pyre of her husband see sati in islam some interpretations of sharia law forbid women to show any part of their body in public except their face hands or the top of their feet there is however wide disagreement from followers of these religions that these various teachings are misogynistic the one six th century protestant reformer john knox wrote a book called the first blast of the trumpet against the monstrous regiment of women in which he argued against the ability of women to govern some of the most famous philosophers exhibited misogyny at times arthur schopenhauer in a very sophisticated epistemological discussion in his main work included the sentence reason is feminine in nature it can only give after it has received nietzsche is known for arguing that every higher form of civilisation implied stricter controls on women beyond good and evil seven two three eight he frequently insulted women but is best known for the phrases women are less than shallow woman was god s second blunder and are you going to women do not forget the whip napoleon machiavelli aristotle tolstoy and even the progressive rousseau were also known for making such comments about women it should also be noted however that philosophers such as pythagoras john stuart mill friedrich engels fyodor dostoyevsky and henry george supported feminism misogyny in language many slang terms that refer to women are considered offensive by some women such terms have existed throughout history and change over time some of those common in contemporary usage are babe a diminutive or familiar way to address a woman more commonly said to a partner in a similar way to honey bird british english most women see it as demeaning also commonly used in modern ireland where it is not considered very demeaning chick literally a young chicken or young bird of any kind this term is mildly offensive to some women who interpret it to be infantilizing or objectifying it is chiefly an americanism it is sometimes claimed that the usage derives from the spanish chica girl but neither the oxford english dictionary nor merriam webster supports this derivation the word chick was used in a gender neutral sense to mean human child at least as early as the one four th century the popularity of the usage in north america may nonetheless be due in part to its similarity to the spanish word sheila used in australia becoming outdated in favour of more american terminologies skeezer used in some hip hop recordings in some cultural groups terms considered extremely offensive to most women e g bitch cunt or ho are used to refer to women in general many terms that refer to women s physical appearance e g hottie a sexually attractive woman see wide use but many consider them to imply sexual objectification further readings katharine m rogers the troublesome helpmate a history of misogyny in literature one nine six six mary ellmann thinking about women one nine six eight molly haskell from reverence to rape the treatment of women in the movies university of chicago press one nine eight seven first edition one nine seven four joan smith misogynies one nine eight nine revised one nine nine three gilmore david d misogyny the male malady two zero zero one see also female circumcision genital mutilation male chauvinism marriage strike misandry misanthropy prejudice rape culture taliban treatment of women testosterone poisoning women in the refrigerator external links misogyny misandry and misanthropy feminism gender human sexuality sexism prejudices discrimination satellite view martinique is an island located in the eastern caribbean sea with a total area of one one two eight km it is an overseas d partement d partement d outre mer or dom of france like the other doms martinique is also one of the two six r gions of france as a r gion d outre mer and an integral part of the republic history main article history of martinique colonized by france in one six three five the carib expulsion occurred in one six six zero when the island s indigenous peoples were deported and banned from returning by the french occupying forces the island has subsequently remained a french possession except for three brief periods of foreign occupation from one six three five arrival of pierre belain d esnambuc a french aristocrat who took possession of the island for france to one nine four six martinique lived as a french colony producing tropical trade goods such as cane sugar coffee rum or cocoa african captives were brought from west africa to form the slave population who is at the origin of most of today s population martinique was the birthplace of empress josephine wife of napoleon bonaparte she was the daughter of white slave owning aristocrats the remnants of her parent s plantation la pagerie can still be seen at les trois ilets across the bay from fort de france on may eight one nine zero two mount pel e a volcano on the island erupted destroying the town of st pierre killing over three zero zero zero zero people only two residents survived the blast a prisoner by the name of ludger sylbaris who was protected by the thick walls of his prison cell and a shoemaker who hid beneath his work bench martinique became an overseas d partement of france on march one nine one nine four six this means it is treated equally to every other d partement in france and has full representation in the national assembly and senate martinique is especially well known for the number of great authors that have come from the island and become extremely famous in france and throughout the world it has also become known for a form of music called zouk which developed in the one nine eight zero s martinique was obliquely featured in the popular american gothic soap opera dark shadows barnabas collins fiancee josette du pres and her family as well as her maid the witch angelique were from martinique barnabas met josette while on holiday there politics main article politics of martinique subdivisions main article subdivisions of martinique see also communes of the martinique d partement geography map of martinique main article geography of martinique economy main article economy of martinique demographics main article demographics of martinique culture main article culture of martinique see also music of martinique and guadeloupe see also list of media outlets in martinique french overseas departments and territories administrative divisions of france miscellaneous topics communications in martinique creole patois foreign relations of martinique holidays in martinique military defense is the responsibility of france military branches french forces army navy air force gendarmerie thomas voeckler transportation in martinique aime cesaire external links and references some material from the cia world factbook the active and festive guide of martinique vintage postcards of martinique martinique at google maps simon jean joseph the european rally champion from martinique martinique special territories of the european union population four two two two seven seven july two zero zero two est age structure zero one four years two three male four nine two six one female four seven four eight three one five six four years six six eight male one four zero six one six female one four one four six zero six five years and over one zero two male one nine two seven four female two three eight two three two zero zero two est population growth rate zero eight nine two zero zero two est birth rate one five three seven births one zero zero zero population two zero zero two est death rate six four deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero two est net migration rate zero zero seven migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero two est sex ratio at birth one zero two male s female under one five years one zero three male s female one five six four years zero nine nine male s female six five years and over zero eight one male s female total population zero nine eight male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate seven six two deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero two est life expectancy at birth total population seven eight five six years male seven nine one nine years female seven seven nine two years two zero zero two est total fertility rate one seven nine children born woman two zero zero two est hiv aids adult prevalence rate na hiv aids people living with hiv aids na hiv aids deaths na nationality noun martiniquais singular and plural adjective martiniquais ethnic groups african and african white indian mixture nine zero white five east indian chinese less than five religions roman catholic nine five hindu and pagan african five languages french creole patois literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population nine three male nine two female nine three one nine eight two est see also martinique martinique country name conventional long form department of martinique conventional short form martinique local long form departement de la martinique local short form martinique data code mb dependency status overseas department of france government type na capital fort de france administrative divisions none overseas department of france independence none overseas department of france national holiday national day taking of the bastille one four july one seven eight nine constitution two eight september one nine five eight french constitution legal system french legal system language although a majority of the inhabitants use the local creole language creole patois in conversation the government of france made french the islands official language suffrage one eight years of age universal executive branch chief of state president of france jacques chirac since one seven may one nine nine five prefect of martinique yves dassonville since two zero zero four head of government president of the general council claude lise since two two march one nine nine two president of the regional council alfred marie jeanne since na march one nine nine eight cabinet na elections french president elected by popular vote for a five year term prefect appointed by the french president on the advice of the french ministry of interior the presidents of the general and regional councils are elected by the members of those councils legislative branch unicameral general council or conseil general four five seats members are elected by popular vote to serve six year terms and a unicameral regional assembly or conseil regional four one seats members are elected by popular vote to serve six year terms elections general council last held na march one nine nine four next to be held na two zero zero zero regional assembly last held on one five march one nine nine eight next to be held by march two zero zero four election results general council percent of vote by party na seats by party na note the ppm won a plurality regional assembly percent of vote by party na seats by party rpr udf one four mim one three ppm seven left parties four pms three notes martinique elects two seats to the french senate elections last held na september one nine nine eight next to be held september two zero zero one results percent of vote by party na seats by party ppm two martinique also elects four seats to the french national assembly elections last held one june one nine nine seven next to be held na two zero zero two results percent of vote by party na seats by party rpr two ps one independent one judicial branch court of appeal or cour d appel political parties and leaders combat worker gerard beaujour martinique communist party or pcm armand nicolas martinique forces maurice laouchez martinique independence movement or mim alfred marie jeanne martinique patriots or pm leader na martinique progressive party or ppm camille darsieres martinique socialist party or pms ernest wan ajouhu movement for a liberated martinique philippe petit national council of popular committees robert sae rally for democratic martinique felix hilaire fortune rally for the republic or rpr michel charlone republican party or pr jean bailly socialist federation of martinique or fsm jean crusol union for french democracy or udf jean maren union for the renewal of ste marie guy lordinot political pressure groups and leaders association for the protection of martinique s heritage ecologist garcin malsa caribbean revolutionary alliance or arc central union for martinique workers or cstm marc pulvar frantz fanon circle league of workers and peasants proletarian action group or gap socialist revolution group or grs philippe pierre charles international organization participation fz wcl wftu diplomatic representation in the us none overseas department of france diplomatic representation from the us none overseas department of france flag description a light blue background is divided into four quadrants by a white cross in the center of each rectangle is a white snake the flag of france is used for official occasions see also martinique martinique economy overview the economy is based on sugarcane bananas tourism and light industry agriculture accounts for about six of gdp and the small industrial sector for one one sugar production has declined with most of the sugarcane now used for the production of rum banana exports are increasing going mostly to france the bulk of meat vegetable and grain requirements must be imported contributing to a chronic trade deficit that requires large annual transfers of aid from france tourism has become more important than agricultural exports as a source of foreign exchange the majority of the work force is employed in the service sector and in administration gdp purchasing power parity four two four billion one nine nine six est gdp real growth rate na gdp per capita purchasing power parity one zero seven zero zero one nine nine six est gdp composition by sector agriculture six industry one one services eight three one nine nine seven est population below poverty line na household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices three nine one nine nine zero labor force one seven zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven labor force by occupation agriculture one zero industry one seven services seven three one nine nine seven unemployment rate two four one nine nine seven budget revenues nine zero zero million expenditures two five billion including capital expenditures of one four zero million one nine nine six industries construction rum cement petroleum refining sugar tourism industrial production growth rate na electricity production one zero seven five gwh one nine nine eight electricity production by source fossil fuel one zero zero hydro zero nuclear zero other zero one nine nine eight electricity consumption one zero zero zero gwh one nine nine eight electricity exports zero kwh one nine nine eight electricity imports zero kwh one nine nine eight agriculture products pineapples avocados bananas flowers vegetables sugarcane exports two five zero million f o b one nine nine seven exports commodities refined petroleum products bananas rum pineapples exports partners france four five guadeloupe two eight one nine nine seven imports two billion c i f one nine nine seven imports commodities petroleum products crude oil foodstuffs construction materials vehicles clothing and other consumer goods imports partners france six two venezuela six germany four italy four us three one nine nine seven debt external one eight zero million one nine nine four economic aid recipient na note substantial annual aid from france currency one euro one zero zero cents exchange rates euros per us one zero nine eight six seven january two zero zero zero zero nine three eight six one nine nine nine french francs f per us one five six five january one nine nine nine five eight nine nine five one nine nine eight five eight three six seven one nine nine seven five one one five five one nine nine six four nine nine one five one nine nine five fiscal year calendar year see also martinique economy of martinique economies by country telephones main lines in use one seven zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven telephones mobile cellular one five zero zero zero one nine nine seven telephone system domestic facilities are adequate domestic na international microwave radio relay to guadeloupe dominica and saint lucia satellite earth stations two intelsat atlantic ocean radio broadcast stations am zero fm one four shortwave zero one nine nine eight radios eight two zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations one one plus nine repeaters one nine nine seven televisions six six zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet service providers isps two two zero zero zero internet users five zero zero zero two zero zero zero country code top level domain mq see also martinique communications by country communications in martinique railways zero km two zero zero two highways total two one zero five km two zero zero zero paved na km unpaved na km waterways none ports and harbors fort de france la trinite merchant marine none two zero zero two est airports two two zero zero one airports with paved runways total one over three zero four seven m one two zero zero two airports with unpaved runways total one under nine one four m one two zero zero two see also martinique martinique transportation in france the only major international dispute surrounding martinique is due to its status as a transshipment point for cocaine and cannabis bound for the united states and europe martinique foreign relations by country sidi mohamed ould boubacar area rank two eight th area magnitude one e one two area one zero three zero seven zero zero percent water negligible population estimate three zero eight six eight five nine population estimate year two zero zero five population estimate rank one two nine population census one eight six four two three six population census year one nine eight eight population density two population density rank one eight seven gdp ppp year two zero zero five gdp ppp six three six six gdp ppp rank one four six gdp ppp per capita two one eight seven gdp ppp per capita rank one three nine hdi year two zero zero three hdi zero four seven seven hdi rank one five two nd hdi category low sovereignty type independence established events date established dates from france two eight november one nine six zero currency ouguiya currency code mro country code mr time zone gmt utc offset zero time zone dst not observed utc offset dst zero cctld mr calling code two two two footnotes named interim leader by the military council for justice and democracy map of mauritania the islamic republic of mauritania or mauritania is a country in northwest africa its coast faces the atlantic ocean on the west with senegal on the south west mali on the east and south east algeria on the north east with the moroccan annexed territory of western sahara on the north west the capital and largest city is nouakchott located on the atlantic coast it is named after the ancient berber kingdom of mauretania history from the three rd to seven th centuries the migration of berber tribes from north africa displaced the bafours the original inhabitants of present day mauritania and the ancestors of the soninke the bafours were primarily agriculturalist among the first saharan people to abandon their historically nomadic lifestyle with the gradual desiccation of the sahara they headed south following them came a migration of not only central saharans into west africa but berbers and arabs as well by the eleventh century ad the once small bafour people had grown into a very large and wealthy soninke empire ghana which stretched from mauritania into the neighboring states of senegal and mali likewise in the north the arab berber population had achieved an impressive empire of their own the territory of which stretched across the mediterranean into spain and portugal local nomadic berber tribes on the other hand though influential remained largely without power having been conquered by the soninke in one zero seven six islamic warrior monks almoravid or al murabitun attacked and conquered the ancient ghana empire over the next five zero zero years arabs overcame fierce resistance from the local population berber and non berber alike and came to dominate mauritania the mauritanian thirty year war one six four four seven four was the unsuccessful final effort to repel the yemeni maqil arab invaders led by the beni hassan tribe the descendants of the yemeni beni hassan warriors became the upper stratum of moorish society berbers retained influence by producing the majority of the region s marabouts those who preserve and teach islamic tradition many of the berber tribes proclaimed the origin of yemen as they sometimes did an arab one there is yet little evidence to suggest this though some studies do link a connection between the two hassaniya a mainly oral berber influenced arabic dialect that derives its name from the yemeni beni hassan tribe became the dominant language among the largely nomadic population aristocrat and servant castes developed yielding white moors the aristocracy kewri the indigenous peoples who were never enslaved and black moors or haratin the formerly enslaved french colonization at the beginning of the two zero th century brought legal prohibitions against slavery and an end to interclan warfare during the colonial period the population remained nomadic but many sedentary peoples whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier began to trickle back into mauritania as the country gained independence in one nine six zero the capital city nouakchott was founded at the site of a small colonial village the ksar and nine zero of the population was still nomadic with independence larger numbers of the indigenous peoples haalpulaar soninke and wolof entered mauritania moving into the area north of the senegal river educated in french language and customs many of these recent arrivals became clerks soldiers and administrators in the new state moors reacted to this change by increasing pressure to arabize many aspects of mauritanian life such as law and language a schism developed between those who consider mauritania to be an arab country mainly moors and those who seek a dominant role for the non moorish peoples the discord between these two conflicting visions of mauritanian society was evident during intercommunal violence that broke out in april one nine eight nine the one nine eight nine events but has since subsided the tension between these two visions remains a feature of the political dialogue a significant number from both groups however seek a more diverse pluralistic society politics mauritania s presidential election its third since adopting the democratic process in one nine nine two took place on november seven two zero zero three six candidates including mauritania s first female and first haratine former slave family candidates represented a wide variety of political goals and backgrounds incumbent president maaouya ould sid ahmed taya won reelection with six seven zero two of the popular vote according to official figures with second place finisher mohamed khouna ould haidalla however in august two zero zero five a pacific military coup led by colonel ely ould mohamed vall director of the national police force the s ret nationale since one nine eight seven expelled maaouya ould sid ahmed taya from the country applauded by the mauritanian people but cautiously watched by the international community it has since been normalized see below the discovery of oil in two zero zero one in the chinguetti deposit will be a test for the current government since according to human rights activists it can be a blessing for one of the poorest countries in the world as well as a curse bringing corruption and violence to the country maaouya ould sid ahmed taya s presidency one nine eight four two zero zero five the parti r publicain d mocratique et social prds led by president maaouya ould sid ahmed taya has dominated mauritanian politics since the country s first multi party elections in april one nine nine two following the approval by referendum of the current constitution in july one nine nine one president taya who won elections in one nine nine two and one nine nine seven first became chief of state through a december one two one nine eight four bloodless coup which made him chairman of the committee of military officers that governed mauritania from july one nine seven eight to april one nine nine two the country s first president moktar ould daddah served from independence until ousted in a bloodless coup on july one zero one nine seven eight a group of current and former army officers launched a bloody but unsuccessful coup attempt on june eight two zero zero three the ringleaders remain at large and their exact motives remain unclear politics in mauritania have always been heavily influenced by personalities with any leader s ability to exercise political power dependent upon control over resources perceived ability or integrity and tribal ethnic family and personal considerations conflict between white moor black moor and non moor ethnic groups centering on language land tenure and other issues continues to be the dominant challenge to national unity the government bureaucracy is composed of traditional ministries special agencies and parastatal companies the ministry of interior spearheads a system of regional governors and prefects modeled on the french system of local administration under this system mauritania is divided into one three regions wilaya including the capital district nouakchott control is tightly concentrated in the executive branch of the central government but a series of national and municipal elections since one nine nine two have produced some limited decentralization political parties illegal during the military period were legalized again in one nine nine one by april one nine nine two as civilian rule returned one six major political parties had been recognized one two major political parties were active in two zero zero four most opposition parties boycotted the first legislative election in one nine nine two and for nearly a decade the parliament has been dominated by the prds the opposition participated in municipal elections in january february one nine nine four and subsequent senate elections most recently in april two zero zero four gaining representation at the local level as well as three seats in the senate mauritania along with morocco illegally annexed the territory of western sahara in one nine seven six with mauritania taking the lower one third after several military losses to polisario mauritania retreated in one nine seven nine and their claims were taken by morocco due to economic weakness mauritania has been a negligible player in the territorial dispute with its official position being that it wishes for an expedient solution that is mutually agreeable to all parties sid ahmed taya recognized israel some years before his fall and started cooperating with the united states in antiterrorism activities which have been criticized by human rights ngos who talked of an exaggeration and instrumentation of alleged terrorist activities for geopolitical aims august two zero zero five military coup in august two zero zero five a pacific military coup led by colonel ely ould mohamed vall ended maaouya ould sid ahmed taya s two one years long strong arm rule applauded by the mauritanian people but cautiously watched by the international community it has since been normalized while the military junta promised to organize elections in the range of two years details of the coup on august three two zero zero five the mauritanian military including members of the presidential guard seized control of key points in the capital of nouakchott they took advantage of president maaouya ould sid ahmed taya s attending of the funeral of saudi king fahd to organize the bloodless coup the group of officers calling itself the military council for justice and democracy released the following statement the national armed forces and security forces have unanimously decided to put a definitive end to the oppressive activities of the defunct authority which our people have suffered from during the past years bbc the military council later issued another statement naming its president colonel ely ould mohamed vall and listing one six other officers as members widely applauded by the mauritanian population the coup was at first cautiously watched by the international community although it was afterward quickly normalized israel s recognition by the islamic republic of mauritania was maintained by the new regime the colonel mohamed vall was himself once regarded as a firm ally of the now ousted president sid ahmed taya even aiding him in the original coup that brought him to power and serving as his security chief afterwards this high level betrayal of the former president suggests broad discontent within the branches of local government which is further supported by the lack of bloodshed and the population s support of the rebel militaries ely ould mohamed vall s military council august two zero zero five normalization of the coup the coup was at first condemned by most world authorities but local political parties expressed hope that the military council would remain true to its word and end its leadership after two years according to mohammed vall s promise hopefully leading to a civil government in immediate response to the coup and in keeping with their own rules the african union suspended mauritania from all organizational activities on august one zero the united states and the african union dropped demands that the coup be reversed however the african union did not reverse the suspension citing a need for elections before re admittance mohammed vall s military council issued a decree prohibiting all current military men or civilians in authority from holding office in the projected new government a proposed constitutional amendment would limit the president to two terms and an electoral commission was to be set up to organize elections before a two years limit the council subsequently released one one five political prisoners of the former government and authorized the return of president maaouya ould sid ahmed taya and some three zero zero of his political supporters some have noted that quite a few members of the old government are currently in affairs in vall s administration denunciation of controversed amendments to an oil contract in february two zero zero six the mauritanian government led by ely ould mohamed vall denounced amendments to an oil contract made by former authoritarian leader maaouiya ould taya with woodside petroleum an australian company in two zero zero four woodside had agreed in investing us six zero zero million in developing mauritania s chinguetti offshore oil project the controversed amendments which mauritanian authorities declared that they had been signed outside the legal framework of normal practice to the great detriment of our country could cost mauritania up to two zero zero million a year according to bbc news signed by woodside two weeks after the february one two zero zero five mauritanian act authorizing the four amendments they organized a lower state quote in the profit oil and took the royalties down of one five points in certain zones they also lightened up environmental constraints and extended the exploitation and exploration monopoly both in time and in space among other measures discovered in two zero zero one chinguetti has proven reserves of about one two zero million barrels of oil the illegal amendments were signed by former oil minister zeidane ould hmeida in february two zero zero four and march two zero zero five hmeida was arrested in january two zero zero six on charges of serious crimes against the country s essential economic interests nouakchott s authorities declared that the government would probably look for an international arbitrage which woodside which operated for hardman bg group premier roc oil fusion petronas dana petroleum energy africa and the hydrocarbons mauritanian society also contemplated end of december two zero zero five authorities had estimated that in two zero zero six the oil profits would be of four seven billion ouguiyas about us one eight zero million and represent a quarter of the state budget according to rfi regions atar in mauritania chinguetti mosque in mauritania traces of the dakar rally in mauritania richat structure mauritania qur an collection in a library in chinguetti mauritania is divided into one two regions capitals in parentheses adrar atar assaba kifa brakna aleg dakhlet nouadhibou nouadhibou gorgol ka di guidimaka s libaby hodh ech chargui n ma hodh el gharbi ayoun el atrous inchiri akjoujt tagant tidjikdja tiris zemmour f d rik trarza rosso the national capital nouakchott comprises a capital district geography mauritania is generally flat its one zero three zero seven zero zero square kilometers forming vast arid plains broken by occasional ridges and clifflike outcroppings a series of scarps face southwest longitudinally bisecting these plains in the center of the country the scarps also separate a series of sandstone plateaus the highest of which is the adrar plateau reaching an elevation of five zero zero meters spring fed oases lie at the foot of some of the scarps isolated peaks often rich in minerals rise above the plateaus the smaller peaks are called guelbs and the larger ones kedias the concentric guelb er richat is a prominent feature of the north central region kediet ijill near the city of zou r t has an elevation of one zero zero zero meters and is the highest peak economy demographics culture music of mauritania islam in mauritania status of religious freedom in mauritania trivia mauritania and madagascar are the only two countries in the world not to use decimal based currency the basic unit of currency the ouguiya is comprised of five khoums miscellaneous topics communications in mauritania transportation in mauritania military of mauritania list of cities in mauritania incl two zero zero zero census population for ten largest cities list of mauritanian companies sports in mauritania references cia world factbook us state department external links government r publique islamique de mauritanie official government site assembl e nationale mauritanienne official site news allafrica com mauritania news headline links overviews arab gateway mauritania bbc news country profile mauritania cia world factbook mauritania library of congress country study mauritania data as of june one nine eight eight directories columbia university libraries african studies mauritania directory category looksmart mauritania directory category open directory project mauritania directory category stanford university africa south of the sahara mauritania directory category the index on africa mauritania directory category yahoo mauritania directory category history raceandhistory com present day slavery in mauritania tourism african union member states arab league mauritania western africa military dictatorship the history of the islamic republic of mauritania dates back to the three rd century mauritania is named after the ancient berber kingdom of mauretania pre colonization from the three rd to seven th century the migration of berber tribes from north africa displaced the bafours the original inhabitants of present day mauritania and the ancestors of the soninke continued arab berber migration drove indigenous black africans south to the senegal river or enslaved them by one zero seven six islamic warrior monks almoravid or al murabitun completed the conquest of southern mauritania defeating the ancient ghana empire over the next five zero zero years arabs overcame fierce berber resistance to dominate mauritania the mauritanian thirty year war one six four four seven four was the unsuccessful final berber effort to repel the maqil arab invaders who were led by the beni hassan tribe the descendants of beni hassan warriors became the upper stratum of moorish society berbers retained influence by producing the majority of the region s marabouts those who preserve and teach islamic tradition hassaniya a mainly oral berber influenced arabic dialect which derives its name from the beni hassan tribe became the dominant language among the largely nomadic population aristocrat and servant castes developed yielding white moors aristocracy and black moors the enslaved indigenous class french colonization french colonization at the beginning of the two zero th century brought legal prohibitions against slavery though at the end of the two zero th century rural slavery persisted and an end to interclan warfare during the colonial period the population remained nomadic but sedentary black africans whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier by the moors began to trickle back into southern mauritania independence under ould daddah as the country gained independence on november two eight one nine six zero the capital city nouakchott was founded at the site of a small colonial village the ksar while nine zero of the population was still nomadic with independence larger numbers of ethnic sub saharan africans haalpulaar soninke and wolof entered mauritania moving into the area north of the senegal river educated in french language and customs many of these recent arrivals became clerks soldiers and administrators in the new state moors reacted to this change by increasing pressures for arabization to arabicize many aspects of mauritanian life such as law and language a schism developed between those who considered mauritania to be an moorish arab country and those who seek a dominant role for the sub saharan peoples the moorish community remained in charge of the state apparatus president moktar ould daddah originally installed by the french formalized mauritania into a one party state in one nine six four with a new constitution which set up an authoritarian presidential regime daddah s own parti du peuple mauritanien ppm became the ruling organization the president justified this decision on the grounds that he considered mauritania unready for western style multi party democracy under this one party constitution daddah was reelected in uncontested elections in one nine six six one nine seven one and one nine seven six to take advantage of the country s sizeable iron ore deposits in zouerate the new government built a six seven five km railway and a mining port production began in one nine six three the mines were operated by a foreign owned consortium that paid its approximately three zero zero zero expatriate workers handsomely their salaries accounted for two thirds of the country s entire wages bill when the mauritanian miners went on a two month strike in the late one nine six zero s the army intervened and eight miners were killed left wing opposition to the government mounted and some miners formed a clandestine marxist union in one nine seven three president ould daddah survived the challenge from left wing opponents by nationalising the company in one nine seven four and withdrawing from the franc zone substituting the ouguiya for the cfa saharan war and ould daddah s downfall mauritania annexed the southern third of the former spanish sahara now western sahara in one nine seven six renaming it tiris al gharbiyya but after nearly three years of raids by the sahrawi guerrillas of the polisario front the country s economic and political stability began to crumble despite french and moroccan military aid polisario raids against the zouerate railway and mines threatened to bring about economic collapse and there were deep misgivings in the military about the saharan venture ethnic unrest contributed to the disarray black africans from the south were conscripted as front line soldiers after the northern sahrawi minorities and their moorish kin had proven unreliable in the fight against polisario but many of the southerners rebelled against having to fight what they considered an inter arab war after the government quarters in nouakchott had twice been shelled by polisario forces unrest simmered but daddah s response was to further tighten his hold on power on july one zero one nine seven eight lt col mustafa ould salekousted led a bloodless coup d tat that ousted the president who would later go into exile in france power passed to the military strongmen of the military committee for national salvation mcns and soon mohamed khouna ould haidallah emerged as leader of the country polisario immediately declared a cease fire and peace negotiations began under the sponsorship of polisario s main backer algeria in one nine seven nine polisario broke off the cease fire after mauritania had stalled the negotiations and unleashed a string of new attacks on military and government targets mauritania immediately returned to the table to meet polisario s goals declaring full peace a troop retreat relinquishing their portion of western sahara and recognizing the sahrawi arab democratic republic sadr as the country s legitimate government morocco occupying the northern half of western sahara and also involved in combat against polisario reacted with outrage and is generally believed to have been behind the failed one nine eight one coup against the mcns mauritania broke off relations with rabat in protest although ties were later restored mauritania under ould taya on december one two one nine eight four maaouya ould sid ahmed taya deposed haidallah whose increasingly autocratic behaviour and close relations to the sahrawis of polisario had again caused discontent within the army and declared himself chairman of the mcns like other rulers before him he promised a swift transfer to democracy but then made little of these promises the discord between conflicting visions of mauritanian society as either black or arab again rose to the surface during the intercommunal violence that broke out in april one nine eight nine the one nine eight nine events when a mauritania senegal border dispute escalated into violence between the two communities tens of thousands of black mauritanians fled or were expelled from the country and many remain in senegal as refugees this is also where the black mauritanian movement flam forces de lib ration africaines de mauritanie is based although tension has since subsided the arab african racial tension remains an important feature of the political dialogue today the country continues to experience ethnic tensions between its black minority population and the dominant mauri arab berber populace a significant number from both groups however seek a more diverse pluralistic society opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in one nine nine one which put an end to formal military rule however ould taya s election wins were dismissed as fraudulent by both opposition groups and external observers in one nine nine eight mauritania became the third arab country to recognize israel despite strong internal opposition in two zero zero one elections incorporated more safeguards against voter fraud but opposition candidate and former leader mohamed khouna ould haidallah was nevertheless arrested prior to election day on charges of planning a coup released the same day and rearrested after the election attempted military coups and unrest instigated by islamist opponents of the regime marred the early years of the two one st century and the taya regime s heavy handed crackdowns were criticized by human rights groups recent political coups june two zero zero three coup on june eight two zero zero three a failed coup attempt was made against president maaouya ould sid ahmed taya by forces unhappy with his imprisonment of islamic leaders in the wake of the us led invasion of iraq and his establishment of full diplomatic relations with israel the coup was suppressed after one day of fighting in the capital when pro taya military forces arrived from the countryside a number of government officials were detained after the coup including the head of the supreme court mahfoud ould lemrabott and the secretary of state for women s affairs mintata mint hedeid the coup leader saleh ould hanenna a former army colonel sacked for opposing taya s pro israel policies was not captured or killed during the coup see this bbc article on theories behind the coup august two zero zero five coup on august three two zero zero five it was reported that the mauritanian military including members of the presidential guard had seized control of key points in the capital of nouakchott indicating a possible coup against the government of president maaouya ould sid ahmed taya who was out of the country attending the funeral of saudi king fahd the officers released the following statement the national armed forces and security forces have unanimously decided to put a definitive end to the oppressive activities of the defunct authority which our people have suffered from during the past years bbc taya was never able to return to the country and remains in exile the new junta calls itself the military council for justice and democracy and democracy and rule of law col ely ould mohamed vall emerged as leader at an early stage dissidents have been released and the political climate relaxed but in early two zero zero six it remains unclear where mauritania is headed literature newton alex history of west africa one nine eight eight see also mauritania history of mauritania demographics of mauritania data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population two six six seven eight five nine july two zero zero zero est age structure zero one four years four six male six one seven zero seven seven female six one four nine six one one five six four years five two male six seven seven two three eight female six nine seven five two four six five years and over two male two five four one seven female three five six four two two zero zero zero est population growth rate two nine four two zero zero zero est birth rate four three three six births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate one three nine seven deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate zero migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero three male s female under one five years one male s female one five six four years zero nine seven male s female six five years and over zero seven one male s female total population zero nine eight male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate seven eight one five deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population five zero seven six years male four eight seven years female five two eight seven years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate six two nine children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun mauritanian s adjective mauritanian ethnic groups mixed maur black four zero maur three zero black three zero religions muslim one zero zero languages hassaniya arabic official pulaar national soninke national wolof national french in addition to these nemadi and imraguen have been dubiously reported by some sources to be separate languages as opposed to dialects of hassaniyya literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population three seven seven male four nine six female two six three one nine nine five est see also mauritania mauritania demographics by country personalities have long exercised an important influence in the politics of mauritania the effective exercise of political power in the country depends on control over resources perceived ability or integrity and tribal ethnic family and personal considerations conflict between white moor black moor and non moor ethnic groups centering on language land tenure and other issues continues to pose challenges to the idea of national unity political administration the government bureaucracy comprises traditional ministries special agencies and parastatal companies the ministry of interior controls a system of regional governors and prefects modeled on the french system of local administration under this system mauritania has one three regions wilaya including the capital district nouakchott control remains tightly concentrated in the executive branch of the central government but a series of national and municipal elections since one nine nine two have produced some limited decentralization political history mauritania achieved independence from france in one nine six zero the country s first president moktar ould daddah served from independence until ousted in a bloodless coup on one zero july one nine seven eight a committee of military officers governed mauritania from july one nine seven eight to april one nine nine two a referendum approved the current constitution in july one nine nine one political parties illegal during the military rule became legal again in one nine nine one by april one nine nine two as civilian rule returned one five political parties had gained recognition among the mostly small groupings two main opposition parties emerged the rally of democratic forces rfd the action for change ac traditionally considered the party of the haratines most opposition parties boycotted the first legislative election in one nine nine two and for nearly a decade the democratic and social republican party prds dominated the parliament the opposition participated in municipal elections in january february one nine nine four and in subsequent elections for the senate gaining representation at the local level as well as one seat in the senate noting procedural changes and opposition gains in municipal and legislative contests most local observers considered the october two zero zero one elections open and transparent in october two zero zero one mauritania held its third legislative and fifth municipal elections since the establishment of multi party politics under the one nine nine one constitution in an effort to forestall the sort of widespread accusations of fraud and manipulation which had accompanied previous elections the government introduced new safeguards including published voter lists and a hard to falsify voter identification card reversing a trend of election boycotts one five opposition parties nominated candidates for more than three zero zero zero municipal posts and for the eight one member national assembly four opposition parties won a combined one one seats in the national assembly and took one five of the municipal posts the ruling democratic and social republican party prds in conjunction with two coalition parties won the remaining contests see two zero zero three mauritania election the prds led by president maaouya ould sid ahmed taya has dominated mauritanian politics since the country s multi party elections in april one nine nine two president taya who won elections in one nine nine two and one nine nine seven and two zero zero three first became chief of state through a one two december one nine eight four bloodless coup which made him chairman of the committee of military officers that governed mauritania from july one nine seven eight to april one nine nine two a group identifying itself as the military council for justice and democracy overthrew the taya government on three august two zero zero five during the absence of the president in saudi arabia the military dictatorship said it would remain in power for two years in order to allow time for implementing democratic institutions government country name conventional long form islamic republic of mauritania conventional short form mauritania local long form al jumhuriyah al islamiyah al muritaniyah local short form muritaniyah data code mr government type republic capital nouakchott administrative divisions one two regions regions singular region and one capital district adrar assaba brakna dakhlet nouadhibou gorgol guidimaka hodh ech chargui hodh el gharbi inchiri nouakchott tagant tiris zemmour trarza independence two eight november one nine six zero from france national holiday independence day two eight november one nine six zero constitution july one two one nine nine one legal system a combination of shari a islamic law and french civil law suffrage one eight years of age universal executive branch chief of state president col maaouya ould sid ahmed taya since december one two one nine eight four head of government prime minister cheikel afia ould mohamed khouna since november one six one nine nine eight cabinet council of ministers elections president elected by popular vote for a six year term election last held december one two one nine nine seven next to be held na december two zero zero three prime minister appointed by the president election results president col maaouya ould sid ahmed taya reelected with nine zero nine of the vote legislative branch bicameral legislature consists of the senate or majlis al shuyukh five six seats one seven up for election every two years members elected by municipal leaders to serve six year terms and the national assembly or majlis al watani eight one seats members elected by popular vote to serve five year terms elections senate last held april one seven one nine nine eight next to be held na two zero zero one national assembly last held october one one and october one eight one nine nine six next to be held na two zero zero one election results senate percent of vote by party na seats by party na national assembly percent of vote by party na seats by party prds seven one ac one independents and other seven judicial branch three tier system lower appeals and supreme court cour supreme political parties and leaders see list of political parties in mauritania note parties legalized by constitution passed one two july one nine nine one however politics continue to be tribally based political pressure groups and leaders general confederation of mauritanian workers or cgtm abdallahi ould mohamed secretary general mauritanian workers union or utm mohamed ely ould brahim secretary general b athists arab nationalists islamists international organization participation abeda acct associate acp afdb afesd al amf amu caeu ccc eca ecowas fao g seven seven ibrd icao icrm ida idb ifad ifc ifrcs iho pending member ilo imf international maritime organization intelsat interpol ioc itu nam oau oic opcw un unctad unesco unido upu who wipo wmo wtoo wtro flag description green with a yellow five pointed star above a yellow horizontal crescent the closed side of the crescent faces down the crescent star and color green traditionally symbolise islam see also mauritania politics of mauritania economy overview a majority of the population still depends on agriculture and livestock for a livelihood even though most of the nomads and many subsistence farmers were forced into the cities by recurrent droughts in the one nine seven zero s and one nine eight zero s mauritania has extensive deposits of iron ore which account for almost five zero of total exports the decline in world demand for this ore however has led to cutbacks in production with the current rises in metal prices gold and copper mining companies are opening mines in the interior the nation s coastal waters are among the richest fishing areas in the world but overexploitation by foreigners threatens this key source of revenue the country s first deepwater port opened near nouakchott in one nine eight six in recent years drought and economic mismanagement have resulted in a buildup of foreign debt in march one nine nine nine the government signed an agreement with a joint world bank imf mission on a five four million enhanced structural adjustment facility esaf the economic objectives have been set for one nine nine nine two zero zero two privatization remains one of the key issues mauritania is unlikely to meet esaf s annual gdp growth objectives of four five see also economy of africa list of mauritanian companies mauritania cia factbook african union member economies economies by country mauritania wto members railways seven zero four km of rail in total single track standard gauge one four three five mm owned and operated by a government mining company s n i m one of the world s longest trains runs here up to two five km long with more than two zero zero wagons mainly transporting iron ore and some carriages for passengers alternatively people sit on top of the iron piles maps the railway ends at the port of nouadhibou cansado highways seven seven two zero km in total eight three zero km paved six eight nine zero km unpaved two zero zero zero waterways mostly ferry traffic on the senegal river ports and harbors bogue kaedi nouadhibou nouakchott rosso merchant marine none as of two zero zero two airports paved nine in total two zero zero two three are of length two four three eight to three zero four seven m six are of length one five two four to two four three seven m airports unpaved one seven in total two zero zero two two are of length two four three eight to three zero four seven m five are of length one five two four to two four three seven m seven are of length nine one four to one five two three m three are of length under nine one four m see also mauritania mauritania transportation by country telephones main lines in use three one five zero zero two zero zero two telephones mobile cellular three zero zero zero zero zero two zero zero three telephone system general assessment limited system of cable and open wire lines minor microwave radio relay links and radiotelephone communications stations improvements being made domestic mostly cable and open wire lines a recently completed domestic satellite telecommunications system links nouakchott with regional capitals international country code two two two satellite earth stations one intelsat atlantic ocean and two arabsat radio broadcast stations am one fm one four shortwave one two zero zero one radios four one zero zero zero zero two zero zero one television broadcast stations one two zero zero two televisions nine eight zero zero zero two zero zero one internet service providers isps two five two zero zero three internet users one zero zero zero zero two zero zero two country code top level domain mr communications by country mauritania military branches army navy air force national gendarmerie national guard national police presidential guard military manpower availability males age one five four nine six four four two nine four two zero zero two est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine three one two two seven six two zero zero two est military expenditures dollar figure three seven one million fy zero one military expenditures percent of gdp three seven fy zero one references mauritania cia world factbook mauritania mauritania militaries mumbai hindi marathi pronounced formerly known as bombay is the capital of the state of maharashtra and the most populous city of india with an estimated metropolitan population of about one two million two zero zero five mumbai is located on salsette island off the west coast of maharashtra along with its neighbouring suburbs it forms the world s four th most populous metropolitan area with a population exceeding two zero million the city has a deep natural harbour which is the largest port in western india the port handles over half of india s passenger traffic and a significant amount of cargo mumbai is the commercial and entertainment capital of india and houses important financial institutions such as the reserve bank of india rbi the bombay stock exchange bse the national stock exchange of india nse and the corporate headquarters of many indian companies mumbai has attracted migrants from all over india because of the immense business opportunities and the relatively high standard of living making the city a potpourri of various communities and cultures the city is home to india s film and television industry known as bollywood mumbai is also one of the rare cities to accommodate a national park the sanjay gandhi national park within its city limits name the appellation mumbai is an eponym etymologically derived from mumba the name of the hindu goddess mumbadevi and aai mother in marathi in the one six th century the portuguese named the area bom bahia good bay later corrupted to boma m or bombaim by which it is still known in portuguese after the british gained possession it was anglicised to bombay the name was officially changed to mumbai in one nine nine five but bombay is still used by the popular media and by many of the city s inhabitants and famous institutions history kalbadevi road glimpse of mumbai circa one eight nine zero present day mumbai was originally an archipelago of seven islands artifacts found near kandivali in northern mumbai indicate that these islands had been inhabited since the stone age documented evidence of human habitation dates back to two five zero bc when it was known as heptanesia ptolemy ancient greek a cluster of seven islands in the three rd century bce the islands formed part of the maurya empire ruled by the buddhist emperor a oka the hindu rulers of the silhara dynasty later governed the islands until one three four three when the kingdom of gujarat annexed them some of the oldest edifices of the archipelago the elephanta caves and the walkeshwar temple complex date from this era in one five three four the portuguese appropriated the islands from bahadur shah of gujarat they were ceded to charles ii of england in one six six one as dowry for catherine de braganza these islands were in turn leased to the british east india company in one six six eight for a sum of one zero per annum the company found the deep harbour on the east coast of the islands to be ideal for setting up their first port in the sub continent the population quickly rose from one zero zero zero zero in one six six one to six zero zero zero zero in one six seven five in one six eight seven the british east india company transferred its headquarters from surat to bombay from one eight one seven onwards the city was reshaped with large civil engineering projects aimed at merging all the islands in the archipelago into a single amalgamated mass this project known as the hornby vellard was completed by one eight four five and resulted in the total area swelling to four three eight km in one eight five three india s first passenger railway line was established connecting bombay to the town of thane during the american civil war one eight six one one eight six five the city became the world s chief cotton trading market resulting in a boom in the economy and subsequently enhancing the city s stature the opening of the suez canal in one eight six nine transformed bombay into one of the largest seaports on the arabian sea over the next thirty years the city grew into a major urban centre spurred by an improvement in infrastructure and the construction of many of the city s institutions the population of the city swelled to one million by one nine zero six making it the second largest in india after calcutta it later became a major base for the indian independence movement with the quit india movement called by mahatma gandhi in one nine four two being its most rubric event after independence the city expanded to its present limits by incorporating parts of salsette island it became the capital of the new linguistic state of maharashtra in one nine six zero the late one nine seven zero s witnessed a construction boom and a significant influx of migrants which saw mumbai overtake calcutta as india s most populous city the city s secular fabric was torn in one nine nine two after large scale sectarian violence caused extensive loss of life and property a few months later on march one two simultaneous bombings at several city landmarks by the mumbai underworld killed around three hundred people in one nine nine five the city was renamed mumbai by the right wing shiv sena party government of maharashtra in keeping with their policy of renaming colonial institutions after historic local appellations geography the metropolis comprises the city and suburbs mumbai is located on salsette island which lies at the mouth of ulhas river off the western coast of india in the coastal region known as the konkan much of mumbai is at sea level and the average elevation ranges from one zero to one five metres the northern part of mumbai is hilly and the highest point of the city is at four five zero metres one four five zero feet mumbai spans a total area of four six eight km one six nine mi three lakes are located within the metropolitan limits the tulsi lake vihar lake and powai lake the first two are located within the borivali national park and supply part of the city s drinking water mumbai also has three small rivers within the city limits originating in the national park the coastline of the city is indented with numerous creeks and bays the eastern seaboard of salsette island is covered with large mangrove swamps rich in biodiversity soil cover in the city region is predominantly sandy due to its proximity to the sea in the suburbs the soil cover is largely alluvial and loamy the underlying rock of the region is composed of black deccan basalt flows and their acid and basic variants dating back to the late cretaceous and early eocene eras mumbai sits on a seismically active zone owing to the presence of three fault lines in the vicinity the area is classified as a zone iii region which means an earthquake of up to magnitude six five on the richter scale may be expected mumbai is classified as a metropolis of india under the jurisdiction of the brihanmumbai municipal corporation it consists of two distinct regions the city and the suburbs which also form two separate districts of maharashtra the city region is also commonly referred to as the island city climate satellite image of mumbai with salsette island clearly visible the climate of the city being in the tropical zone and near the arabian sea may be broadly classified into two main seasons the humid season and the dry season the humid season between march and october is characterised by high humidity and temperatures of over three zero c eight six f the monsoon rains lash the city between june to september and supply most of the city s annual rainfall of two two zero zero mm eight five in the maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was three four five two mm one three five eight nine in in one nine five four the highest rainfall recorded in a single day was nine four four mm three seven one six in on two zero zero five zero seven two six the dry season between november and february is characterised by moderate levels of humidity and warm to cool weather cold northerly winds are responsible for a mild chill during january and february annual temperatures range from a high of three eight c one zero zero f to a low of one one c five two f the record high is four three c one zero eight f and record low is seven four c four five f on one nine six two zero one two two economy the bombay stock exchange index reflects investor confidence in the economy of india mumbai contributes one zero of all factory employment four zero of all income tax collections six zero of all customs duty collections two zero of all central excise tax collections four zero of india s foreign trade and rupees four zero billion us nine billion in corporate taxes a number of indian financial institutions have headquarters in downtown mumbai including the bombay stock exchange the reserve bank of india the national stock exchange of india the mint and numerous conglomerates the tata group godrej and reliance etc many foreign banks and financial institutions also have branches in this area up until the one nine eight zero s mumbai owed its prosperity largely to textile mills and the seaport but the local economy has since then diversified to include engineering diamond polishing healthcare and information technology mumbai s status as the state capital means that state and federal government employees make up a large percentage of the city s workforce mumbai also has a large unskilled and semi skilled labour population who primarily earn their livelihood as hawkers taxi drivers mechanics and other such blue collar professions the port and shipping industry too employs many residents directly or indirectly the entertainment industry is the other major employer in mumbai most of india s major television and satellite networks are headquartered in mumbai as well as its major publishing houses the epicentre of the hindi movie industry bollywood is also located in mumbai along with its largest studios and movie production houses civic administration the city is administered by the brihanmumbai municipal corporation bmc with executive power vested in the municipal commissioner who is an ias officer appointed by the state government the corporation comprises two two seven directly elected councillors representing the twenty four municipal wards five nominated councillors and a titular mayor the bmc is in charge of the civic and infrastructure needs of the metropolis an assistant municipal commissioner oversees each ward for administrative purposes almost all the field candidates in the elections for councillors the metropolitan area forms two districts of maharashtra with each district under the jurisdiction of a district collector the collectors are in charge of property records and revenue collection for the federal government and oversee the national elections held in the city the mumbai police is headed by a police commissioner who is an ips officer the mumbai police comes under the state home ministry the city is divided into seven police zones and seventeen traffic police zones each headed by a deputy commissioner of police the traffic police is a semi autonomous body under the mumbai police mumbai is the seat of the bombay high court which exercises jurisdiction over the states of maharashtra and goa and the union territories of daman and diu and dadra and nagar haveli mumbai also has two lower courts the small causes court for civil matters and the sessions court for criminal cases the city elects six members to the lok sabha and thirty four members to the maharashtra state assembly transport best buses form an integral part of the city s transport system most of mumbai s inhabitants rely on public transport to travel to and from their workplace due to the lack of car parking spaces traffic bottlenecks and generally poor road conditions the city is the headquarters of two rail divisions the central railway cr headquartered at chatrapati shivaji terminus formerly known as victoria terminus and the western railway wr headquartered at churchgate the backbone of the city s transport the mumbai suburban railway is composed of three seperate networks running the length of the city in a north south direction the western railway runs along the western region of the city while the central railway covers most of the central and northeast parts of the metropolis both lines extend into the exurbia each covering a total one way length of around one two five km the harbour line is a sub division of the central railway covering a distance of five four km along the south eastern section of the city near the docks and extending into navi mumbai mumbai is well connected by trains to all parts of india public buses run by the best an autonomous body under the bmc cover almost all parts of the metropolis as well as parts of navi mumbai and thane district buses are used for commuting short to medium distances while train fares are more economical for long distance commutes the best fleet consists of single decker double decker air conditioned and vestibule buses the best also operates ferries across creeks in northern mumbai black and yellow metered taxis accommodating up to four passengers cover most of the metropolis auto rickshaws allowed to operate only in the suburban areas are the main form of hired transport there these three wheeled vehicles can accommodate up to three passengers auto rickshaws are the main form of transport in the suburbs mumbai s chatrapati shivaji international airport formerly sahar international airport is the busiest airport in india and caters to cargo and international flights while santacruz airport caters to domestic flights the nearby juhu aerodrome was india s first airport and now hosts a flying club and a heliport with its unique topography mumbai has one of the best natural harbours in the world handling five zero of the country s passenger traffic and much of india s cargo it is also an important base for the indian navy utility services mumbai skyline looking at malabar hill the bmc supplies potable water to the city most of which come from the tulsi and vihar lakes as well as a few lakes further north the water is filtered at bhandup which is also asia s largest water filtration plant the bmc is also responsible for the road maintenance and garbage collection in the city almost all of mumbai s daily refuse of seven eight zero zero metric tonnes is transported to dumping grounds in gorai in the northwest mulund in the northeast and deonar in the east sewage treatment is carried out in worli and bandra electricity is provided by the best in the city and by reliance energy and mseb maharashtra state electricity board in the suburbs most of the city s electricity is hydroelectric and nuclear based the largest telephone service provider is the state owned mtnl which held a monopoly over fixed line and cellular services up until two zero zero zero and provides fixed line as well as mobile wll services cell phone coverage is extensive and the main service providers are hutch airtel bpl group reliance infocomm and tata indicom both gsm and cdma services are available in the city broadband internet penetration is increasing in the city with mtnl and tata being the leading service providers demographics shree siddhivinayak temple is the most visited religious place in mumbai mumbai is a city of multiple faiths the jama masjid is the city s oldest and largest mosque the population of mumbai is about one eight million with a density of four two zero five persons per square kilometre there are eight one one females to every one zero zero zero males which is lower than the national average because many working males come from rural areas where they leave behind their families the overall literacy rate of the city is seven seven which is higher than the national average eight two of adult males and seven one six of adult females are literate the religions represented in mumbai include hindus six eight of the population muslims one seven of the population and christians and buddhist four each the remainder are parsis jains sikhs jews and atheists for a city of its size mumbai has a moderate crime rate mumbai recorded two seven five seven seven incidents of crime in two zero zero four which is down one one from three zero nine nine one in two zero zero one the city s main jail is the arthur road jail mumbai has a large polyglot population but the most common language spoken on the city streets is a colloquial form of hindi known as bambaiya hindi a blend of hindi marathi indian english and some invented colloquial words marathi is the official language of the state of maharashtra english is also extensively spoken and is the principal language of the city s white collar workforce most languages spoken in india have some degree of representation in the demographic fabric of mumbai the most widely spoken of these are gujarati tamil malayalam urdu and konkani like other large cities in the world mumbai suffers from the same major urbanisation problems seen in many fast growing cities in developing countries widespread poverty and poor public health employment civic and educational standards for a large section of the population with available space at a premium mumbai residents often reside in cramped relatively expensive housing usually far from workplaces and therefore requiring long commutes on crowded mass transit or clogged roadways according to the business week around four five four eight of the population lives in shantytowns and slums people and culture hawking is common on city footpaths mumbai is always in a state of flux as depicted here outside the chhatrapati shivaji terminus station a resident of mumbai is called a mumbaikar or bombayite many residents prefer to stay close to major railway stations for easy access to their workplaces as a significant amount of time is spent on daily commuting thus many live a fast paced life with very little time for social activities mumbai is india s most liberal minded and cosmopolitan city embracing many concepts that would be taboo in other parts of india mumbai residents celebrate indian and western festivals with great fanfare the metropolis has its own local roadside fast food flavour comprising vada pavs split wheat bread with fried dumplings as filling paani puri deep fried cr pe with tamarind and lentil sauce pav bhaji split wheat bread with fried vegetables and bhelpuri puffed rice mixture while south indian and chinese food are also very popular the cosmopolitan residents have unique tastes in cuisine music film and literature both indian and international in two zero zero four mumbai received three heritage conservation awards from the unesco mumbai is the birthplace of indian cinema with the oldest film shot here in one eight nine six mumbai also boasts of large number of cinemas including asia s largest imax dome theatre which feature mainstream bollywood and hollywood films besides cinemas the city also hosts various plays and cultural performances there are also two art galleries the jehangir art gallery and the national gallery of modern art and a museum the prince of wales museum in downtown mumbai built in one eight three three the asiatic society of bombay is the oldest public library in the city the city also contains most of india s tallest buildings mumbai has six sister cities the maximum permitted by the indian government berlin london los angeles saint petersburg stuttgart and yokohama media mumbai has numerous newspaper publications and television and radio stations english newspapers published and sold in mumbai include times of india mid day economic times indian express hindustan times d n a daily news and analysis and mumbai mirror popular marathi newspapers include loksatta maharashtra times and saamana in addition to these papers newspapers are also printed in hindi gujarati malayalam bengali urdu telugu and tamil the national television broadcaster doordarshan provides two free terrestrial channels while three main cable networks serve most households satellite television dth has yet to gain mass acceptance due to high installation costs mumbai households receive over a hundred television channels via cable and a majority of them are produced to cater to the city s polyglot populace the metropolis is also the hub of many international media corporations with many news channels and print publications having a major presence there are nine radio stations in mumbai with six broadcasting on the fm band and three all india radio stations broadcasting on the am band fm radio city nine one mhz go nine two five fm nine two five mhz red fm nine three five mhz radio mirchi nine eight three mhz air fm gold one zero zero seven mhz air fm rainbow one zero seven one mhz am five five eight khz one zero four four khz one one eight eight khz education schools in mumbai are either municipal schools run by the bmc or private schools run by trusts and individuals a majority of residents prefer private schools because of better infrastructure and the use of english as a medium of instruction all private schools are affiliated either to the maharashtra state ssc board or the all india indian certificate of secondary education icse and central board for secondary education cbse boards demand is especially high for icse and cbse affiliated schools and those run by convents or the jesuits the government run public schools lack many facilities but are the only option for poorer residents who cannot afford the more expensive private schools under the one zero two three plan students complete ten years of schooling and then enrol for two years in junior college where they choose from one of three streams arts commerce or science this is followed by either a general degree course in a chosen field of study usually the same as chosen at the junior college level or a professional degree course such as law engineering medicine or management all professional colleges in mumbai are affiliated to the university of mumbai one of the largest universities in the world in terms of graduation rate the indian institute of technology bombay one of india s premier engineering schools and the sndt women s university are the other universities in mumbai sports and recreation the bombay gymkhana is one of the elite sports club in the city cricket is the most popular sport in the city and is usually played in the maidans grounds around the city gully cricket a modified form of cricket is played in the narrow by lanes of the city especially on sundays mumbai has produced several famous international cricketers and is home to the mumbai cricket association the cricket club of india and the newly re constituted board of control for cricket in india bcci international cricket is widely watched and the city almost comes to a virtual standstill on days when the indian cricket team plays important matches the city has two international cricket stadiums the wankhede stadium and the brabourne stadium the local mumbai cricket team is among the strongest competitors in the ranji trophy the nation s top domestic cricketing circuit soccer is the second most popular sport with the city clubs playing during the monsoons when other outdoor sports cannot be played the football world cup is one of the most widely watched television events in mumbai india s national sport field hockey has gone into a sharp decline in the recent years losing out in terms of popularity to cricket though many mumbai players play in the national team other sports are mostly played in the numerous clubs and gymkhanas and include tennis squash billiards badminton table tennis and golf mumbai also has a rugby club the only one in the country every february mumbai holds the derby races in the mahalaxmi racecourse the event sees many of the city s glitterati attending arrayed in the latest fashions in recent times formula one racing has also caught the public s attention other sports such as volleyball and basketball are mostly popular in schools and colleges see also external links official site of the municipal corporation of greater mumbai the mumbai pages the complete guide to the city of mumbai bombay official city report mumbai space mumbai mart complete bombay guide places and pictures around mumbai mumbai net birds eye view of mumbai rare photo satellite picture by google maps map of mumbai further reading fox edmund a short history of bombay presidency one eight eight seven thacker no isbn maclean james mackenzie a guide to bombay one eight seven five various editions no isbn chaudhari k k history of bombay one nine eight seven modern period gazetteers dept govt of maharashtra tindall gillian city of gold one nine nine two penguin isbn zero one four zero zero nine five zero zero four mehta suketu maximum city bombay lost and found two zero zero four knopf isbn zero three seven five four zero three seven two eight patel sujata bombay metaphor for modern india one nine nine five oxford university press isbn zero one nine five six three six eight eight zero katiyar arun bombay a contemporary account one nine nine six harper collins isbn eight one seven two two five two one six zero contractor behram from bombay to mumbai one nine nine eight oriana books virani pinki once was bombay one nine nine nine viking isbn zero six seven zero eight eight eight six nine nine mappls satellite based comprehensive maps of mumbai one nine nine nine ce info systems ltd isbn eight one nine zero one one zero eight zero two references mumbai world gazetteer kanheri lungs of mumbai krishnadas warrier bhramanti the seismic environment of mumbai tifr theoretical physics mmrda projects mumbai metropolitan region development authority mmrda mumbai plan department of relief and rehabilitation maharashtra manorama yearbook two zero zero three pg six seven eight isbn eight one nine zero zero four six one eight seven the times of india mumbai edition print two zero zero four zero nine two four pg one the times of india mumbai edition print two zero zero five zero three one four pg five the times of india mumbai edition print two zero zero five zero four one nine pg two dwivedi sharada bombay the cities within one nine nine five india book house pvt ltd isbn eight one eight five zero two eight eight zero x bmc information on the city a complete reference on the city prepared by the bmc tifr information a vast collection of information on the city our greater bombay one nine nine zero maharashtra state bureau of textbook production and curriculum research the oxford school atlas two eight th revised edition one nine nine one oxford university press isbn zero one nine five six three three one six four businessweek august one two two zero zero five china and india special coverage mumbai indian state capitals coastal cities the miami dolphins are a professional american football team based in the miami florida metropolitan area they currently belong to the eastern division of the american football conference afc in the national football league nfl the dolphins began play in the american football league as a one nine six six expansion team and joined the nfl as part of the afl nfl merger in one nine seven two the dolphins completed the nfl s only perfect season to date in the super bowl era winning every regular season game two playoff games and super bowl vii the team also won super bowl viii and has appeared in three other super bowls uniform colors aqua green and orange dark blue was added to the logo and uniforms as an accent color in the late nine zero s by then coach jimmy johnson the dolphins primarily wear white jerseys at home except for night contests when they dress in aqua jerseys since the two zero zero three season the dolphins have worn an alternate orange jersey once each season for home monday night football contests they are two zero in games wearing the alternate jersey they did not wear the orange jerseys in their four zero th season because they had no monday games helmet design a dolphin wearing a football helmet jumping in front of an orange sunburst franchise history the original dolphin logo used from one nine six six one nine seven three for most of their history the dolphins were coached by don shula the winningest head coach in professional football history his dolphins teams posted losing records in only two of his two six seasons with the club in one nine seven two the dolphins became the first and only nfl team to complete a one four game regular season and the entire postseason without a loss during the super bowl era and fourth in nfl history canton and chicago did so as well five future hall of fame members played for miami during the one nine seven zero s including running back larry csonka and quarterback bob griese during the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s quarterback dan marino became the most prolific passer in nfl history breaking numerous league passing records he led the dolphins to numerous playoff appearances and super bowl xix miami joined the american football league afl when an expansion team franchise was awarded to lawyer joseph robbie and actor danny thomas in one nine six five a contest was held in one nine six five to find the name of the new miami franchise for the american football league one nine eight four three entries were submitted with over a thousand different names a dozen finalists were screened through by a seven member committee made up of the local media names considered included the mariners marauders mustangs missiles moons sharks and suns the winning name dolphins was submitted by six two two entrants mrs roberta swanson of west miami won lifetime passes to dolphin games when her nickname entry successfully predicted the winner and score of the one nine six five football game between notre dame and the university of miami a scoreless tie the dolphin is one of the fastest and smartest creatures of the sea joe robbie said in announcing the team name on october eight one nine six five dolphins can attack and kill a shark or a whale sailors say bad luck will come to anyone who harms one of them the dolphins began play in one nine six six and after four consecutive losing seasons don shula replaced george wilson as head coach miami joined the nfl in one nine seven zero when the nfl and afl completed their merger the one nine seven zero s the perfect season and the super bowl titles the dolphin logo used between one nine seven four one nine nine six the dolphins were a successful team during the early one nine seven zero s capturing the afc championship in one nine seven one behind quarterback bob griese and wide receiver paul warfield the afc divisional playoff game in which the dolphins defeated the kansas city chiefs was the longest contest in nfl history eight two minutes four zero seconds in super bowl vi however miami lost to the dallas cowboys two four three in one nine seven two the dolphins completed the nfl s first and only perfect season winning every regular season game two playoff games and super bowl vii defeating the washington redskins one four seven the one nine four eight cleveland browns had accomplished this but as members of the all america football conference during this season griese and veteran quarterback earl morrall shared the passing duties and running backs larry csonka and mercury morris became the first teammates to rush for more than one zero zero zero yards each the offensive line included future hall of fame members jim langer and larry little and pro bowler bob kuechenberg the one nine seven two dolphins defensive unit called the no name defense because miami s impressive offense received much more publicity was the league s best that year it was led by linebacker nick buoniconti end bill stanfill and safeties dick anderson and jake scott the dolphins won one two games during the one nine seven three season and repeated as nfl champions beating the minnesota vikings two four seven in super bowl viii miami reached the playoffs again in one nine seven four but lost in the first round to the oakland raiders after the disappointing defeat several players including csonka warfield and running back jim kiick joined the short lived world football league the dolphins managed to win ten games in one nine seven five aided by griese s consistency and the fine play of wide receiver nat moore they did not make the playoffs however losing on a tiebreaker to the baltimore colts miami rebounded from a losing record in one nine seven six by winning ten or more games in four of the next five seasons shula built a solid defense around a new set of stars including linebacker a j duhe and linemen bob baumhower and doug betters the dolphins went one zero four again in one nine seven seven but again lost the division title and playoff spot to the colts they made the playoffs as a wild card in one nine seven eight but lost in the first round to the houston oilers csonka returned to the dolphins in time for the one nine seven nine season after winning the division with a one zero six record the dolphins lost the divisional playoff to the eventual champion pittsburgh steelers the one nine eight zero s in one nine eight zero david woodley an athletic quarterback out of lsu took over for bob griese who severely injured his shoulder in a game against the baltimore colts griese would never play again and retired after the season the dolphins finished eight eight and out of the playoffs the dolphins were back on top of the afc east in the one nine eight one season with an one one four one record that season the dolphins quarterback position was actually manned by both woodley and back up quarterback don strock causing the local media to identify the miami quarterback as woodstrock they reached the divisional playoff against the san diego chargers regarded by some as one of the most memorable games in nfl history after being down two four zero back up quarterback don strock entered the game and engineered a franetic comeback culminating in the historical hook and lateral play in which wide receiver duriel harris caught a pass from strock and immediately lateralled the ball to the streaking runningback tony nathan for the score on the last play of the half which cut the chargers lead to two four one seven after taking the lead in the four th quarter san diego tied it up three eight three eight with under a minute to play chargers tight end kellen winslow under exhaustion blocked uwe von schummann s field goal try on the last play of regulation von schummann had another field goal attempt blocked in overtime and rolf benirschke kicked the game winner for san diego in overtime in the strike shortened season of one nine eight two the dolphins led by the killer b s defense baumhower bill barnett lyle blackwood kim bokamper glenn blackwood doug betters don bessileu and bob brudzinski held five of their nine opponents to one four or fewer points en route to their fourth super bowl appearance during the first two rounds of the playoffs they got revenge for previous losses late in the season in a snowy game against the new england patriots a convicted felon on work release cleared a path for patriots kicker john smith to score the game winning field goal in the first round in miami they met again with the dolphins winning easily in the second round against san diego the dolphins got revenge for their loss the previous year winning even more handily after shutting out the new york jets in the afc championship they lost super bowl xvii to washington two seven one seven ironically after enjoying success rooted in a defense first philosophy and employing a ball control offense to take pressure off of lacklustre quarterbacks the next one seven seasons would be marked by an average rushing game and defense that limited a great quarterback during the third game of the one nine eight three season shula replaced quarterback david woodley with rookie dan marino who went on to win the afc passing championship and rookie of the year award during the mid one nine eight zero s marino produced the most impressive set of passing statistics in nfl history setting single season records for most yards five zero eight four touchdown passes four eight and completions three six two during the one nine eight four season seldom sacked by defenders marino was protected by an outstanding offensive line as he passed to receivers such as mark clayton and mark duper despite the regular season success the dolphins went one two four the only team in the afc east with a winning record they were upset in the divisional playoff by the seattle seahawks defensive end doug betters was the defensive player of the year in one nine eight four the dolphins won their first one one games en route to a one four two season the franchise s best one six game season to date marino in his first full season was voted mvp as he threw for over five zero zero zero yards and four eight touchdowns miami beat the seahawks and steelers in the playoffs to get to super bowl xix in the title game however miami lost to the san francisco four nine ers three eight one six it would be marino s only super bowl appearance in one nine eight five miami went one two four and was the only team that beat the chicago bears all year after beating the cleveland browns in the divisional playoffs many people were looking forward to a rematch with chicago in super bowl xx the cinderella new england patriots the dolphins opponents in the afc championship had different plans new england forced six turnovers on the way to a three one one four win the patriots first in miami since one nine six nine in one nine eight six the dolphins hampered by defensive struggles stumbled to eight eight out of the playoff picture the problems continued in one nine eight seven with an eight seven record in a strike shortened year their first at new joe robbie stadium miami had their first losing season in years in one nine eight eight and were back to eight eight in one nine eight nine the one nine nine zero s by one nine nine zero the dolphins had finally shaped up on defense and finished with a one two four record second in the afc east they beat the kansas city chiefs in the wild card round but lost to the buffalo bills in the divisional playoff the team struggled with defensive injuries in one nine nine one and narrowly missed the playoffs on an overtime loss to the new york jets the final week of the season the dolphins finished one one five in one nine nine two capturing the afc east title in mark higgs best season as a running back and keith jackson newly acquired from the philadelphia eagles leading the team in receiving they beat the chargers in the divisional playoff but were stunned by the buffalo bills in the afc championship one nine nine three turned into a disastrous year for the dolphins both marino and backup scott mitchell suffered injuries and miami lost its final five games to miss the playoffs at nine seven with marino back for the one nine nine four season they won the afc east again with a one zero six record after beating the kansas city chiefs in the wild card round they suffered a heart breaking last second loss to the san diego chargers in the divisional playoff in one nine nine five marino broke the career passing records formerly held by fran tarkenton for yards four eight eight four one touchdowns three five two and completions three nine one three the dolphins finished nine seven second in the afc east but still made the playoffs as a wild card losing to buffalo in the first round following the one nine nine five season don shula became an executive in the dolphins front office jimmy johnson who had won a collegiate national championship at the university of miami and two super bowls with the dallas cowboys was named as shula s replacement in one nine nine six miami finished eight eight and out of the playoffs with rookie karim abdul jabbar s one zero zero zero yard rushing season one of the lone bright spots in one nine nine seven miami stumbled late and backed into the playoffs with a nine seven season losing to the new england patriots in the wild card round miami had a solid one zero six season in one nine nine eight with a career season for receiver o j mcduffie but it was not enough to get past the new york jets into first place in the division the dolphins beat the bills in the wild card round but lost in the next round to the eventual champion denver broncos the broncos lost only two regular season games in one nine nine eight one of which was to the dolphins in one nine nine nine marino would be injured in a game where backup damon huard led a comeback in marino s first game back he would have the worst game of his career on thanksgiving in dallas throwing five interceptions and having a passer rating of zero zero miami went two six in their last eight games but still backed into the playoffs at nine seven after a close win over seattle in the wild card round they suffered the worst playoff loss in nfl history against the jacksonville jaguars six two seven after the season jimmy johnson left the team and marino retired the two zero zero zero s dave wannstedt formerly of the chicago bears became the new coach and ex jacksonville jaguars backup jay fiedler became the new quarterback for the two zero zero zero season even though damon huard had been considered the favorite despite the obviously lowered expectations the defense broke through with jason taylor and trace armstrong both getting one zero sacks and four players sam madison brian walker brock marion and patrick surtain getting at least five interceptions in addition lamar smith rushed for over one one three nine yards and miami finished atop the afc east with an one one five record in the first round of the playoffs miami took the indianapolis colts to overtime and won on a lamar smith touchdown lamar finished with two zero nine yards on four zero carries but the excessive workload worked against the dolphins in the next round the dolphins were shut out by the oakland raiders and lamar was barely able to run the two zero zero one offseason brought in fan favorite chris chambers at wide receiver but trace armstrong left in addition to a few linemen richmond webb and kevin donnalley in the two zero zero one season the dolphins finished one one five things wouldn t be quite as solid this year for miami mediocre offensive line play and a pedestrian offense kept miami from being successful running the ball and miami was shutout twice on the year and yet again swept by the new york jets the last defeat an embarrassing two four zero shellacking despite it all the solid defense kept them in it and they finished one one five although it was clear that the team had lost some luster from a year ago the division title went to the eventual super bowl champion new england patriots the dolphins lost in the first round of the playoffs two zero three to the baltimore ravens miami revitalized its running game in time for the two zero zero two season by trading for new orleans saints running back ricky williams in addition randy mcmichael rookie tight end made his presence felt the dolphins behind a new offensive scheme under freshly hired offensive coordinator norv turner and a power running game lead by ricky williams quickly rushed out to a five one start including an incredible last minute comeback by fiedler against the broncos however fiedler injured his thumb and would be out for an extended period of time which had many dolphins fans excited briefly as ray lucas would be taking over whom many fans believed could outdo jay however lucas was abysmal in his first two games and merely average in his third and the team dropped three straight miami rebounded with wins over baltimore and an impressive thumping of san diego but lost to buffalo still miami pulled off an impressive win over the oakland raiders and they sat at nine five with two weeks left in the season in prime position to steal the afc east however despite dominating the new england patriots for three and three thirds quarters in week one seven behind the offensive dominance of ricky williams a late game implosion and a blown one one point lead with mere minutes remaining in the game led to a heartbreaking loss due to a tiebreaker both the dolphins and patriots lost out on the playoffs as the jets took the afc east title fans wanted wannstedt s firing but he was kept on for the two zero zero three season despite it all the team believed it had plenty to look forward to as ricky williams broke dolphins records with one eight five three rushing yards and one six touchdowns on the ground considered one of the best in dolphins history the real culprit of miami s demise was their poor play on the road in which the team finished two six and the defense surrendered over three seven zero yards a game the two zero zero three miami dolphins were a hard team to pinpoint the defense was yet again solid and forced a lot of turnovers and running the ball was extremely difficult against these boys however poor offensive line play despite most of the starters returning gave little room for ricky to run and the offense was stagnant the dolphins began with a repeat of two zero zero two s season end with a complete meltdown against the houston texans but they rebounded and got to four one after a crushing overtime loss at the hands of the patriots a game in which jay fiedler got injured newly acquired backup brian griese took the helm and led the dolphins to victory over the chargers that however was his high point and after a good showing against indy in a losing effort griese was lousy against the titans and highly ineffective against the ravens when griese had the dolphins losing to the mediocre washington redskins jay fiedler came off the bench and saved their season leading them to a comeback victory two four two three miami looked like it might rebound with a victory that same week over the dallas cowboys to take them to eight four but two key losses to the patriots and the eagles ended miami s chances at the playoffs miami finished one zero six but it was still short of a playoff spot the two zero zero four offseason was terrible for the dolphins tight end randy mcmichael was arrested for domestic violence and wide receiver david boston signed from san diego suffered an injury in training camp and missed the entire season boston also failed a drug test for steroids later in the season but the biggest shock came when ricky williams retired for unspecified reasons many experts predicted a disastrous season for the dolphins these predictions proved right the dolphins dropped their first six games of the two zero zero four year marking the worst start in franchise history this led to them being dead last in the nfl after a one eight start wannstedt resigned on november nine two zero zero four he was replaced on an interim basis by defensive coordinator jim bates under bates the dolphins fared much better winning three of their final seven games including a two nine two eight upset victory over the defending champion patriots on december two zero in a nationally televised monday night football contest despite this the dolphins decided not to hire bates for the permanent coaching position instead they hired louisiana state university coach nick saban two zero zero five a new era the two zero zero five offseason saw many changes for the dolphins as saban began to mold the team in his image the team selected running back ronnie brown in the first round of the two zero zero five nfl draft the dolphins also signed veteran quarterback gus frerotte who would win the starting job over a j feeley cornerback patrick surtain was traded to the kansas city chiefs finally ricky williams returned to the team however he had to sit out the first four games of the two zero zero five season due to violations of the nfl s substance abuse policy the dolphins began their two zero zero five regular season started off with a bang the dolphins won their week one home opener against the denver broncos three four one zero giving nick saban s very first win despite going on the road and losing to division rival new york jets one seven seven the dolphins won a tough game at home against the carolina panthers two seven two four after their week four bye they lost their next two road games to their division rival buffalo bills two zero one four and the tampa bay buccaneers two seven one three not even ricky williams s return against the bucs was enough on friday october two one the dolphins had to play their home game against the kansas city chiefs two days earlier because of hurricane wilma the dolphins lost three zero two zero and it made them zero three in home games that needed to be rescheduled because of a hurricane since last season they would win next week at lsu s tiger stadium against the new orleans saints two one six but would lose their next three games during that time they lost two home games to the atlanta falcons one seven one zero and their division rival new england patriots two three one six and then got shut out on the road against the cleveland browns two two zero when things looked grim the dolphins regrouped and began gaining steam and won six games in a row first they won on the road against the oakland raiders three three two one then they got revenge against their division rival buffalo bills at home two four two three with a late fourth quarter comeback and then pulled off an upset victory over the san diego chargers with a score of two three two one then the dolphins beat the new york jets by a score of two four two zero extending their winning streak to four games the win also put them at the five zero zero mark seven seven although wins by the pittsburgh steelers and san diego chargers put them out of playoff contention the week after on christmas eve they achieved their fifth victory in a row with a two four one zero victory over the tennessee titans which guaranteed them not to finish with a losing record the team closed out their four zero th season with a two eight two six victory at new england to finish the two zero zero five campaign at nine seven on a side note this was the first time since one two two four zero zero that the dolphins were able to beat the patriots in foxboro season by season records one nine six six three one one zero five th east afl one nine six seven four one zero zero four th east afl one nine six eight five eight one three rd east afl one nine six nine three one zero one five th east afl colspan six align center merged into nfl one nine seven zero one zero four zero two nd afc east lost divisional playoffs raiders one nine seven one one zero three one one st afc east lost super bowl vi cowboys one nine seven two one four zero zero one st afc east won super bowl vii redskins one nine seven three one two two zero one st afc east won super bowl viii vikings one nine seven four one one three zero one st afc east lost divisional playoffs raiders one nine seven five one zero four zero two nd afc east one nine seven six six eight zero three rd afc east one nine seven seven one zero four zero two nd afc east one nine seven eight one one five zero two nd afc east lost wild card playoffs oilers one nine seven nine one zero six zero one st afc east lost divisional playoffs steelers one nine eight zero eight eight zero three rd afc east one nine eight one one one four one one st afc east lost divisional playoffs chargers one nine eight two seven two zero two nd afc conf lost super bowl xvii redskins one nine eight three one two four zero one st afc east lost divisional playoffs seahawks one nine eight four one four two zero one st afc east lost super bowl xix four nine ers one nine eight five one two four zero one st afc east lost conference championship patriots one nine eight six eight eight zero three rd afc east one nine eight seven eight seven zero three rd afc east one nine eight eight six one zero zero five th afc east one nine eight nine eight eight zero three rd afc east one nine nine zero one two four zero two nd afc east lost divisional playoffs bills one nine nine one eight eight zero three rd afc east one nine nine two one one five zero one st afc east lost conference championship bills one nine nine three nine seven zero two nd afc east one nine nine four one zero six zero one st afc east lost divisional playoffs chargers one nine nine five nine seven zero three rd afc east lost wild card playoffs bills one nine nine six eight eight zero four th afc east one nine nine seven nine seven zero two nd afc east lost wild card playoffs patriots one nine nine eight one zero six zero two nd afc east lost divisional playoffs broncos one nine nine nine nine seven zero three rd afc east lost divisional playoffs jaguars two zero zero zero one one five zero one st afc east lost divisional playoffs raiders two zero zero one one one five zero two nd afc east lost wild card playoffs ravens two zero zero two nine seven zero three rd afc east two zero zero three one zero six zero two nd afc east two zero zero four four one two zero four th afc east two zero zero five nine seven zero two nd afc east at the end of the two zero zero five nfl season the dolphins all time record is three eight two two six one four including playoffs players of note current players pro football hall of famers four two paul warfield wr one nine seven zero seven four elected one nine eight three three nine larry csonka rb one nine six eight seven four one nine seven nine elected one nine eight seven six two jim langer c one nine seven zero seven nine elected one nine eight seven one two bob griese qb one nine six eight eight zero elected one nine nine zero six six larry little g one nine six nine eight zero elected one nine nine three three four seven don shula head coach one nine seven zero nine five elected one nine nine seven five seven dwight stephenson c one nine eight zero eight seven elected one nine nine eight eight five nick buoniconti lb one nine six nine seven six elected two zero zero one one three dan marino qb one nine eight three nine nine elected two zero zero five each of these players is honored with a placard on the facing of the upper level of one end zone at dolphins stadium so is team founder owner joe robbie who has not yet been elected to the hall of fame in place of a uniform number shula has the number three four seven representing his record number of nfl coaching victories two seven six of them as dolphins head coach retired numbers one two bob griese one three dan marino three nine larry csonka although their numbers have not been officially retired stephenson s five seven langer s six two and buonoconti s eight five were not being worn by any dolphin players in the two zero zero five season not to be forgotten trace armstrong larry csonka bob baumhower doug betters tim bowens dt mark clayton wr mark duper wr manny fernandez irving fryar wr bob griese keith jackson jimmy johnson jim kiick sam madison cb dan marino o j mcduffie wr mercury morris rb tony nathan joe robbie owner jake scott don shula keith sims bill stanfill troy stradford patrick surtain cb richmond webb ol head coaches george wilson one nine six six one nine six nine don shula one nine seven zero one nine nine five jimmy johnson one nine nine six one nine nine nine dave wannstedt two zero zero zero two zero zero four jim bates interim two zero zero four nick saban two zero zero five present current staff head coach nick saban offensive coordinator mike mularkey defensive coordinator tba special teams coach keith armstrong special assistant to the head coach dom capers quarterbacks coach jason garrett running backs coach bobby williams wide receivers coach charlie baggett tight ends coach derek dooley offensive line coach hudson houck offensive quality control james coley offensive assistant tim davis defensive line coach dan quinn linebackers coach george edwards defensive backs coach mel phillips defensive quality control glenn pires defensive assistant patrick suddes assistant defensive line travis jones secondary mel phillips special assistant for player programs john gamble strength and conditioning bert hill assistant strength and conditioning bo davis external links miami dolphins official web site finheaven major fan web site with one zero zero zero zero members the dolphins make me cry fan site dedicated to the team s december demise sports e cyclopedia com miami dolphins fan site with daily news and discussion miami dolphins one nine six six establishments american football league national football league teams m is the thirteenth letter of the latin alphabet its name in english is em history the letter m derives its shape from from the phoenician mem via the greek mu semitic mem originally pictured water in all probability it is speculated that semitic people working in egypt c two zero zero zero bc borrowed a hieroglyph for water that was first used for the sound n because of the egyptian word for water n t this same symbol became used for m in semitic because their word for water began with that sound the letter m represents the bilabial nasal consonant sound ipa in classical languages as well as the modern languages the oxford english dictionary first edition says that m is sometimes a vowel in words like spasm and in the suffix ism in modern terminology this would be described as a syllabic consonant ipa codes for computing in unicode the capital m is codepoint u zero zero four d and the lowercase m is u zero zero six d the ascii code for capital m is seven seven and for lowercase m is one zero nine or in binary zero one zero zero one one zero one and zero one one zero one one zero one correspondingly the ebcdic code for capital m is two one two and for lowercase m is one four eight the numeric character references in html and xml are seven seven and one zero nine for upper and lower case respectively abbreviations in everyday use in information systems m is often used as the abbreviation for the male sex in personal data records in calendars m is often an abbreviation for monday or for the months march or may in french and some english works by french authors m is an abbreviation for monsieur arts and popular culture comic books m is the name of a member of generation x a team of younger mutants affiliated with and coached by some of the former x men m is a norwegian comic strip computer games m is the esrb rating symbol for mature m is the abbreviation for mario a nintendo character the name of a glitch pok mon called m the real name is image msglitchname gif film m is the codename of the head of mi six in the james bond books and films see m james bond m is a film from one nine three one directed by fritz lang about a serial killer who preys on children see m one nine three one film m is the name of a lesser known film from one nine five one see m one nine five one film m is also the name of a now defunct professional videocassette format developed by matsushita and rca music m is the assumed name of the artist robin scott who performed the one nine seven nine one hit song pop muzik m is the artist name of the french singer matthieu ch did m is the pseudonym for a jazz vocalist hired by yoko kanno see m singer m can be a reference to rapper eminem m is a song by ayumi hamasaki photography in photography most slr cameras use m to signify manual mode where the user sets both aperture and shutter speed finance in common references to currency m or m denotes million or millions such as two five m twenty five million dollars in traditional accounting practice m designates thousand or thousands from the latin mille and mm is used for million hence such traditional abbreviations as cpm for cost per thousand items of a retail good or mcf for thousand cubic feet of e g natural gas in economics m is usually used to represent imports script capital m unicode zero x two one three three denotes the old german currency mark geographical abbreviations in international licence plate codes m stands for malta as the first letter of a postal code in canada m stands for the city of toronto in the united kingdom m stands for manchester in radiocommunication m is one of the itu prefixes allocated to the united kingdom m is an abbreviation for the russian design bureau myasishchev in denmark the copenhagen metro is often abbreviated to m grammar in grammar m is often the abbreviation for the male grammatical gender military m is the us military designation for model in weapons vehicles and other equipment but not military aircraft started use in the early to mid one nine three zero s prior usage was the word model of with the year of adoption or standardization the correct current usage is with the letter m and then the number assigned e g m one rifle etc science and computing astronomy in astronomy m is an abbreviation for messier in designations for the messier deepsky objects m stands for a june one six through three zero discovery in the provisional designation of a comet e g c one eight six zero m one the great comet of one eight six zero or asteroid e g biochemistry in biochemistry m is the symbol for methionine chemistry m is the symbol for the molarity of solutions m is the symbol for the sample mass of compounds m is also the symbol for the molality of the compound colour in the cmyk color model m stands for the colour magenta computing m when used as a binary prefix means two two zero one zero four eight five seven six cf m as a metric prefix below and the prefix mebi mi m is another name for the computer programming language mumps mathematics m is used to denote slope in slope intercept form an m set is the opposite of a set of uniqueness script capital m unicode zero x two one three three denotes a matrix in the one nine seven three handbook of integer sequences a printed predecessor of the oeis sequences were numbered in lexicographic order prefixed by the letter m some older mathematical papers use these m numbers measurement si system m mega is an si prefix denoting one zero six one zero zero zero zero zero zero one million cf m in computing above m milli is an si prefix meaning one one zero zero zero m denotes metre or meter the si base unit for length physics m theory is a proposed solution for problems in superstring theories script capital m unicode zero x two one three three denotes a torque roman uses in the roman naming convention m is the abbreviation for the praenomen marcus and m stands for manius in roman numerals m denotes one thousand from mille in latin there are also separate unicode characters for this number zero x two one six f and zero x two one seven f theology in theology and higher criticism m is an abbreviation for m gospel see also latin letters in statistics mean has two related meanings the average in ordinary english which is more correctly called the arithmetic mean to distinguish it from geometric mean or harmonic mean the average is also called sample mean the expected value of a random variable which is also called the population mean as well as statistics means are often used in geometry and analysis a wide range of means have been developed for these purposes which are not much used in statistics see the other means section below for a list of means sample mean is often used as an estimator of the central tendency such as the population mean however other estimators are also used for example the median is a more robust estimator of the central tendency than the sample mean for a real valued random variable x the mean is the expectation of x if the expectation does not exist then the random variable has no mean for a data set the mean is just the sum of all the observations divided by the number of observations once we have chosen this method of describing the communality of a data set we usually use the standard deviation to describe how the observations differ the standard deviation is the square root of the average of squared deviations from the mean the mean is the unique value about which the sum of squared deviations is a minimum if you calculate the sum of squared deviations from any other measure of central tendency it will be larger than for the mean this explains why the standard deviation and the mean are usually cited together in statistical reports an alternative measure of dispersion is the mean deviation equivalent to the average absolute deviation from the mean it is less sensitive to outliers but less tractable when combining data sets note that not every probability distribution has a defined mean or variance see the cauchy distribution for an example the following is a summary of some of the multiple methods for calculating the mean of a set of n numbers see the table of mathematical symbols for explanations of the symbols used arithmetic mean the arithmetic mean is the standard average often simply called the mean bar sum n the mean may often be confused with the median or mode the mean is the arithmetic average of a set of values or distribution however for skewed distributions the mean is not necessarily the same as the middle value median or most likely mode for example mean income is skewed upwards by a small number of people with very large incomes so that the majority have an income lower than the mean by contrast the median income is the level at which half the population is below and half is above the mode income is the most likely income and favors the larger number of people with lower incomes the median or mode are often more intuitive measures of such data that said many skewed distributions are best described by their mean such as the exponential and poisson distributions an example an experiment yields the following data three four two seven four five five five two two three four to get the arithmetic mean how many items there are six therefore n six what is the sum of all items it is two one seven therefore sigma x sigma means sum is two one seven to get the arithmetic mean divide sigma by n here two one seven six three six one six six six six six six six six seven geometric mean the geometric mean is an average that is useful for sets of numbers that are interpreted according to their product and not their sum as is the case with the arithmetic mean for example rates of growth bar sqrtn n an example an experiment yields the following data three four two seven four five five five two two three four to get the geometric mean how many items there are six therefore n six what is the product of all items it is one six nine nine four nine three four zero zero to get the geometric mean take the nth the six th root of that product it is three four five four five one one zero zero three seven two harmonic mean the harmonic mean is an average which is useful for sets of numbers which are defined in relation to some unit for example speed distance per unit of time bar frac n frac an example an experiment yields the following data three four two seven four five five five two two three four to get the harmonic mean how many items there are six therefore n six what is the sum on the bottom of the fraction it is zero one eight one seven one nine one five two three zero seven get the reciprocal of that sum it is five five zero two nine nine seven two seven five two two to get the harmonic mean multiply that by n to get three three zero one seven nine eight three six five one three generalized mean the generalized mean also known as the power mean or h lder mean is an abstraction of the arithmetic geometric and harmonic means it is defined by bar m sqrtm sum n by choosing the appropriate value for the parameter m we can get the arithmetic mean m one the geometric mean m zero or the harmonic mean m one this can be generalized further as the generalized f mean bar f left sum n right and again a suitable choice of an invertible f x will give the arithmetic mean with f x x the geometric mean with f x log x and the harmonic mean with f x one x weighted mean the weighted mean is used if one wants to combine average values from samples of the same population with different sample sizes bar frac n n the weights w i represent the bounds of the partial sample in other applications they represent a measure for the reliability of the influence upon the mean by respective values truncated mean sometimes a set of numbers the data might be contaminated by inaccurate outliers i e values which are much too low or much too high in this case one can use a truncated mean it involves discarding given parts of the data at the top or the bottom end typically an equal amount at each end and then taking the arithmetic mean of the remaining data the number of values removed is indicated as a percentage of total number of values interquartile mean the interquartile mean is a specific example of a truncated mean it is simply the arithmetic mean after removing the lowest and the highest quarter of values bar sum assuming the values have been ordered mean of a function in calculus and especially multivariable calculus the mean of a function is loosely defined as the average value of the function over its domain in one variable the mean of a function f x over the interval a b is defined by bar frac int a bf x dx see also mean value theorem in several variables the mean over a relatively compact domain u in a euclidean space is defined by bar frac u int u f this generalizes the arithmetic mean on the other hand it is also possible to generalize the geometric mean to functions by defining the geometric mean of f to be exp left frac u int u log f right more generally in measure theory and probability theory either sort of mean plays an important role in this context jensen s inequality places sharp estimates on the relationship between these two different notions of the mean of a function other means arithmetic geometric mean arithmetic harmonic mean ces ro mean chisini mean geometric harmonic mean heronian mean identric mean lehmer mean quadratic mean root mean square stolarsky mean weighted geometric mean weighted harmonic mean r nyi s entropy a generalized f mean see also average central tendency descriptive statistics kurtosis median mode statistics summary statistics external links comparison between arithmetic and geometric mean of two numbers statisticsmeans the mit license also called the x license or the x one one license originated at the massachusetts institute of technology is a license for the use of certain types of computer software it is a non copyleft free software license which means it allows reuse for open source or proprietary software many groups use the mit license for their own software such as expat metakit putty mono development platform class libraries and most famously the x window system x one one text of the license copyright c permission is hereby granted free of charge to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files the software to deal in the software without restriction including without limitation the rights to use copy modify merge publish distribute sublicense and or sell copies of the software and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so subject to the following conditions the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software the software is provided as is without warranty of any kind express or implied including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim damages or other liability whether in an action of contract tort or otherwise 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x one one license because mit has many licenses for software however the open source initiative refers to it as the mit license as do most others still notice that mit and x one one licenses are not the same the mit license is an identical match to the expat license while the mit x window system license or x one one slightly differs from the license commonly known as mit license comparison to other licenses the mit license is most similar to the three clause bsd license which is essentially different only in the fact that it contains a notice prohibiting the use of the name of the copyright holder in promotion the four clause bsd license also includes a clause requiring all advertising of the software to display a notice the mit license has never had this clause the mit license however more explicitly states the rights given to the end user including the right to use copy modify merge publish distribute sublicense and or sell the software a two clause bsd style license found in software such as apple computer s webcore though most of webcore is under the lgpl is in practicality the same as the mit license as it does not contain the promotion clause see also list of software that use the mit license external links the mit license template the x window s trap by richard stallman open source licenses free software licenses x window system massachusetts institute of technology mu may be mu letter a letter in the greek alphabet is used as a symbol for the si prefix micro the arithmetic mean of a statistical population in physics the friction coefficient the mobility coefficient the permeability electromagnetism coefficient the muon mu may also refer to mu cthulhu mythos a sunken continent in the cthulhu mythos mu negative a japanese word important in zen koan practice mu lost continent a mythical continent in the pacific ocean mu rocket a japanese rocket mu dan renowned modern chinese poet and translator mu metal an alloy used for screening magnetic fields mu online an online role playing game mu unit of area a chinese unit of area mu may stand for monitor unit a unit used in radiation therapy multiple unit such as a rail diesel car university of missouri columbia university of mumbai formerly called the university of bombay centimorgan or map unit a unit of recombinant frequency in genetics muonium s atomic symbol mauritius iso three one six six one alpha two country code china eastern airlines s iata code misunderstood word a term in scientology manchester united football club mu metal is a nickel iron alloy seven seven nickel one five iron plus copper and molybdenum that has a very high magnetic permeability permeability is represented by the greek letter mu the high permeability makes mu metal very effective at screening magnetic fields mu metal requires special heat treatment annealing in hydrogen atmosphere which reportedly increases the magnetic permeability about four zero times the annealing alters the material s crystal structure aligning the grains and removing some impurities especially carbon mechanical treatment may disrupt the material s grain alignment leading to drop of permeability in the affected areas which can be restored by repeating of the hydrogen annealing step uses and properties mu metal is used to shield equipment from magnetic fields for example vacuum chambers for experiments with low energy electrons magnetic resonance imaging equipment the magnetometers used in magnetoencephalography and magnetocardiography photomultipliers cathode ray tubes used in analog oscilloscopes other materials with similar magnetic properties are supermalloy supermumetal nilomag sanbold mo permalloy ultraperm m one zero four zero etc see also permalloy nickel alloys monastir could be a city in the former yugoslav republic of macedonia now called bitola monastir italy a village near cagliari sardinia italy famous for fruit production monastir tunisia a city one six five km south east of tunis tunisia see also monastery michael edward reagan born march one eight one nine four five as john flaugher adopted son of president ronald reagan and his first wife jane wyman is the host of a conservative talk radio show the michael reagan show which is syndicated to over two zero zero radio stations in the united states through radio america he was born to irene flaugher herself the tenth child in her family according to writings of michael reagan his birth mother never informed his grandmother of his birth reagan grew up in beverly hills california and later nearby pacific palisades california one childhood story he has told that introduced him to politics was how he at the age of eight asked his famous father for a raise in his allowance at the time around one nine five three his allowance was one zero zero a week his father told him since nine zero per cent of his earnings were taxed by government he wasn t able to increase mike s allowance his father further said that when the president of the united states would give him a tax cut then he could give his son an increase in his allowance this did happen in the one nine six zero s during the john f kennedy administration and reagan then was given five zero zero a week in allowance this according to michael reagan was how he was introduced to the subject of tax cuts and how that affected people one in his earlier adult years reagan raced boats and later also sold them at a newport beach california boat dealership he set world records in power boat racing in time after establishing his marriage and sorting out his relationship with his parents he began his public career his first gig was as a game show host in charge of the original syndicated version of lingo which was taped in canada but broadcast in the united states the show lasted only for the one nine eight seven one nine eight eight season and reagan left the show before its demise in the wake of financial problems with the show s producers his talk radio career started in the southern california local market as a guest host for michael jackson s two talk radio show slot on kabc am in los angeles after this beginning he landed a talk show spot on ksdo radio in san diego california reagan s rating success in the san diego market gave him the opportunity to take his talk show nationwide in one nine nine two reagan continues to host his four hour talk show and also does public speaking to groups he also delivers conservative commentary from time to time on cable television news programs such as the fox news channel and on the internet three he also wrote a book titled twice adopted in two zero zero four reagan resides with his wife colleen and their two children in the sherman oaks area of los angeles four references reagan michael hyams joe michael reagan on the outside looking in unknown city kensington publishing corporation one nine eight eight not to be confused with the controversial recording artist of the same name premierspeakers com ibid external links michael reagan s website michael reagan show website one nine four five births adoptees american radio personalities game show hosts children of presidents of the united states pro life celebrities foursquare gospel members reagan family living people molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level the field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry particularly genetics and biochemistry molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell including the interrelationship of dna rna and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated writing in nature william astbury described molecular biology as not so much a technique as an approach an approach from the viewpoint of the so called basic sciences with the leading idea of searching below the large scale manifestations of classical biology for the corresponding molecular plan it is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and is predominantly three dimensional and structural which does not mean however that it is merely a refinement of morphology it must at the same time inquire into genesis and function relationship to other molecular scale biological sciences schematic relationship between biochemistry genetics and molecular biology researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology see techniques section later in article but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics biochemistry and biophysics there is not a hard line between these disciplines as there once was the following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms genetics is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component e g one gene the study of mutants organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so called wild type or normal phenotype genetic interactions such as epistasis can often confound simple interpretations of such knock out studies molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication transcription and translation of the genetic material the central dogma of molecular biology where genetic material is transcribed into rna and then translated into protein despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology still provides a good starting point for understanding the field this picture however is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for rna much of the work in molecular biology is quantitative and recently much work has been done at the interface of molecular biology and computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology as of the early two zero zero zero s the study of gene structure and function molecular genetics has been amongst the most prominent sub field of molecular biology increasingly many other fields of biology focus on molecules either directly studying their interactions in their own right such as in cell biology and developmental biology or indirectly where the techniques of molecular biology are used to infer historical attributes of populations or species as in fields in evolutionary biology such as population genetics and phylogenetics there is also a long tradition of studying biomolecules from the ground up in biophysics techniques of molecular biology since the late one nine five zero s and early one nine six zero s molecular biologists have learned to characterise isolate and manipulate the molecular components of cells and organisms these components include dna the repository of genetic information rna a close relative of dna whose functions range from serving as a temporary working copy of dna to actual structural and enzymatic functions as well as a functional and structural part of the translational apparatus and proteins the major structural and enzymatic type of molecule in cells expression cloning one of the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is expression cloning in this technique dna coding for a protein of interest is cloned using pcr and or restriction enzymes into a plasmid known as an expression vector this plasmid may have special promoter elements to drive production of the protein of interest and may also have antibiotic resistance markers to help follow the plasmid this plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells introducing dna into bacterial cells is called transformation and can be completed with several methods including electroporation microinjection passive uptake and conjugation introducing dna into eukaryotic cells such as animal cells is called transfection several different transfection techniques are available including calcium phosphate transfection liposome transfection and proprietary transfection reagents such as fugene dna can also be introduced into cells using viruses or pathenogenic bacteria as carriers in such cases the technique is called viral bacterial transduction and the cells are said to be transduced in either case dna coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell and the protein can now be expressed a variety of systems such as inducible promoters and specific cell signaling factors are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell the protein can be tested for enzymatic activity under a variety of situations the protein may be crystallized so its tertiary structure can be studied or in the pharmaceutical industry the activity of new drugs against the protein can be studied polymerase chain reaction pcr main article polymerase chain reaction the polymerase chain reaction is an extremely versatile technique for copying dna in brief pcr allows a single dna sequence to be copied millions of times or altered in predetermined ways for example pcr can be used to introduce restriction enzyme sites or to mutate change particular bases of dna pcr can also be used to determine whether a particular dna fragment is found in a cdna library gel electrophoresis main article gel electrophoresis gel electrophoresis is one of the principal tools of molecular biology the basic principle is that dna rna and proteins can all be separated using an electric field in agarose gel electrophoresis dna and rna can be separated based on size by running the dna through an agarose gel proteins can be separated based on size using an sds page gel proteins can also be separated based on their electric charge using what is known as an isoelectric gel southern blotting main article southern blot the southern blot is a technique employed to ascertain information about the molecular weight and relative amount of a dna sequence of interest the assay was first developed by edwin southern and is a combination of gel electrophoresis of dna often first fragmented by restriction enzyme digestion transfer of the same to a charged membrane and hybridization of a labeled dna probe following hybridization the membrane is washed to remove unbound probe and an image obtained via autoradiography or using equipment such as a phosphoimager the image will indicate the location s to which the probe hybridized with the intensity of the signal observed serving as a measure of relative abundance northern blotting main article northern blot the northern blot is used to study the expression patterns a specific type of rna molecule as relative comparison among of a set of different samples of rna it is essentially a combination of denaturing rna gel electrophoresis and a blot in this process rna is separated based on size and is then transferred to a membrane that is then probed with a labeled complement of a sequence of interest the results may be visualized through a variety of ways depending on the label used however most result in the revelation of bands representing the sized of the rna detected in sample the intensity of these bands is related to the amount of the target rna in the samples analyzed the procedure is commonly used to study when and how much gene expressing is occurring by measuring how much of that rna is present in different samples it is one of the most basic tools for determing at what time certain genes are expressed in living tissues western blotting and immunochemistry main article western blot antibodies to most proteins can be created by injecting small amounts of the protein into an animal such as a mouse rabbit sheep or donkey these antibodies can be used for a variety of analytical and preprative techniques in western blotting proteins are first separated by size in a thin gel sandwiched between two glass plates this technique is called sds page for sodium dodecyl sulphate poly acrylamide gel electrophoresis the proteins in the gel are then transferred to a pvdf nitrocellulose nylon or other support membrane this membrane can then be probed with solutions of antibodies antibodies that specifically bind to the protein of interest can then be visualized by a variety of techniques including chemiluminescence or radioactivity antibodies can also be used to purify proteins antibodies to a protein are generated and are often then coupled to beads after the antibody has bound to the protein of interest this antibody protein complex can be separated from all other proteins by centrifugation during centrifugation the beads to which the antibody is coupled will pellet bringing the protein of interest down with it whereas all other proteins will remain in the solution alternatively antibodies coupled to a solid support matrix like sephadex or sepharose beads for example can be used to remove a protein of interest from a complex solution after washing unbound and non specifically bound materials away from the beads the protein of interest is then eluted from the matrix usually by adding a solution with a high salt concentration or by varying the ph of the solution in which the matrix is contained the beads can either be suspended in solution batch processing or packed into a tube column processing history molecular biology was established in the one nine three zero s the term was first coined by warren weaver in one nine three eight however warren was director of natural sciences for the rockefeller foundation at the time and believed that biology was about to undergo a period of significant change given recent advances in fields such as x ray crystallography he therefore channeled significant amounts of rockefeller institute money into biological fields further reading keith roberts martin raff bruce alberts peter walter julian lewis and alexander johnson molecular biology of the cell four th edition routledge march two zero zero two hardcover one six one six pages seven six pounds isbn zero eight one five three three two one eight one three th edition garland one nine nine four isbn zero eight one five three one six two zero eight two nd edition garland one nine eight nine isbn zero eight two four zero three six nine five six notes w t astbury nature one nine zero one one two four one nine six one see also cell biology structures and components of the cell dna and chromosome structure protein biosynthesis transcription from dna to rna translation from rna into protein protein structure and diversity genome important publications in molecular biology list of molecular biology topics proteome notable molecular biologists christiane n sslein volhard frederick sanger francis crick francois jacob james d watson max perutz rosalind franklin susumu tonegawa in fiction and games genome soldiers mgs external links biodirectory search engine for biological web resources institute of molecular and cell biology nature reviews molecular cell biology journal home stanford encyclopedia of philosophy entry the virtual library of biochemistry and cell biology western blot protocol resources references cohen s n chang a c y boyer h three two four four one nine seven three rodgers m the pandora s box congress rolling stone one eight nine three seven seven seven one nine seven five molecular biology align center style vertical align top colspan two national motto stella clavisque maris indici latin star and key of the indian ocean align center colspan two style background ffffff official languages constitution english french de facto french creole capital port louis president sir anerood jugnauth prime minister dr navinchandra ramgoolam area total water ranked one six nine th two zero four zero km zero zero five population total two zero zero five density ranked one four nine th one two three zero six zero two six zero three km hdi two zero zero three zero seven nine one six five th medium independence date from the united kingdommarch one two one nine six eight currency mauritian rupee time zone utc four national anthem motherland internet tld mu calling code two three zero the republic of mauritius is an island nation in the southwest indian ocean about nine zero zero km east of madagascar and about three nine four three kilometers southwest of india in addition to the island of mauritius the republic includes the islands of st brandon and rodrigues and the agalega islands mauritius is part of the mascarene islands with the french island of r union two zero zero km to the southwest history main article history of mauritius while arab and malay sailors knew of mauritius as early as the one zero th century and portuguese sailors first visited it in one five zero five the island remained uninhabited until one six three eight when it was colonized by the dutch they named the island in honour of prince maurice of nassau due to climate changes cyclones and the deterioration of the settlement the dutch abandoned the island some decades later the french controlled the island during the one eight th century and named it ile de france french island despite winning the famous battle of grand port the french were defeated by the british in the north of the island at cap malheureux a month later and thus lost possession to the british in one eight one zero and the latter reverted the island to its former name in one nine six five the united kingdom split out the chagos archipelago from mauritius to create the british indian ocean territory in order to utilise the strategic islands for defence purposes in cooperation with the united states although the government of mauritius agreed to the move at the time subsequent administrations have laid claim to the islands stating that the divestment was illegal under international law a postcard of mauritius port louis theatre c one nine zero zero one nine one zero independence was attained in one nine six eight with the country becoming a republic within the commonwealth in one nine nine two mauritius has been a stable democracy with regular free elections and a positive human rights record and has attracted considerable foreign investment earning one of africa s highest per capita incomes mauritius aims to become the business hub of the indian ocean new business opportunities in banking and the technology sector are being actively sought politics main article politics of mauritius the head of state of mauritius is the president who is elected for a five year term by the national assembly the unicameral mauritian parliament the national assembly consists of six two members elected directly by popular vote with between four and eight further members appointed from best losers election candidates to represent ethnic minorities depending on the results of the election the government is headed by the prime minister and a council of ministers the most recent general elections took place on the three july two zero zero five in all the two zero mainland constituencies as well as the constituency covering the island of rodrigues historically elections have always adhered to a two party system in mauritius and this has also been the case this time with the outgoing msm mmm pmsd coalition against the ptr led alliance sociale which includes pmxd les verts mr msd and mmsm the alliance sociale coalition won three eight seats and will form the next government with ptr leader navinchandra ramgoolam as prime minister the msm mmm pmsd coalition won two two seats and will form the opposition the two remaining seats for rodrigues were won by opr candidates according to the constitution an additional eight seats were allocated to best losers to guarantee equitable representation of all ethnic groups this brought the total representation to four two alliance sociale two four msm mmm pmsd and four opr in international affairs mauritius is part of the indian ocean commission districts and dependencies mauritius main article districts and dependencies of mauritius the island of mauritius itself is divided into nine districts one black river two flacq three grand port four moka five pamplemousses six plaines wilhems seven port louis eight rivi re du rempart nine savanne districts of mauritius dependencies of mauritius rodrigues a populated island which used to be mauritius s one zero th district is now autonomous agalega two small islands about nine three three kilometers north of mauritius cargados carajos shoals about four zero two kilometers north of mauritius chagos archipelago tromelin island note mauritius also claims the following french owned islands bassas da india europa island glorioso islands juan de nova island other mauritian territories soudan banks including east soudan bank nazareth bank saya de malha bank geography satellite map of mauritius mauritius is the only known habitat of the extinct dodo bird map of mauritius main article geography of mauritius together with r union and rodrigues mauritius is part of the mascarene islands this archipelago was formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions as the african plate drifted over the r union hotspot mauritius and rodrigues were formed eight one zero million years ago they are no longer volcanically active and the hotspot now rests under r union the island of mauritius itself is formed around a central plateau with its highest peak in the southwest piton de la riviere noire at eight two eight m around the plateau the original crater can still be distinguished from several mountains the local climate is tropical modified by southeast trade winds there is a warm dry winter from may to november and a hot wet and humid summer from november to may cyclones affect the country during november april the island s capital and largest city is port louis in the northwest other important towns are curepipe vacoas phoenix quatre bornes rose hill beau bassin and the recently founded ebene city the island is well known for its exceptional natural beauty you gather the idea that mauritius was made first and then heaven and that heaven was copied after mauritius as mark twain noted in following the equator mauritius economy main article economy of mauritius since independence in one nine six eight mauritius has developed from a low income agriculturally based economy to a middle income diversified economy with growing industrial financial and tourist sectors for most of the period annual growth has been of the order of five to six this remarkable achievement has been reflected in increased life expectancy lowered infant mortality and a much improved infrastructure sugar cane is grown on about nine zero of the cultivated land area and accounts for two five of export earnings however a record setting drought severely damaged the sugar crop in one nine nine nine the government s development strategy centres on foreign investment mauritius has attracted more than nine zero zero zero offshore entities many aimed at commerce in india and south africa while investment in the banking sector alone has reached over usd one billion economic performance during the period from two zero zero zero through two zero zero four combined strong economic growth with unemployment at seven six in december two zero zero four on the four th of april two zero zero five during his budget speech hon pravind jugnauth deputy prime minister and minister of finance and economic development announced that mauritius will become a duty free island and that will take about four years duty has been decreased and for many products completely eliminated for more than one eight five zero products including clothing food jewellery photographic equipment audio visual equipment lighting equipment etc the main motivations are one attract more tourists going to singapore and dubai and two give all mauritians easier access to quality products at affordable prices a plan by adb networks calls for mauritius to become the first nation to have coast to coast wireless internet access the wireless hot spot currently covers about six zero of the island and is accessible by about seven zero of its population by year s end antennas should provide access to nine zero of the island the population buying behaviour is being influenced by alternative forms of shopping online shopping is the latest trend on the island and is being introduced island wide the biggest trading partners are france and uk demographics main article demographics of mauritius mauritius is probably the most multicultural island in the indian ocean they are the descendants of people from the indian subcontinent africa madagascar france england china plus a few other places the official languages of mauritius are english and french french is still widely spoken despite france having lost its colonial dominion over the island nearly two zero zero years ago a french derived creole language with major influences from the other dialects is widely spoken eight zero on the island and is considered the lingua franca of the country several other languages including arabic desi languages such as urdu hindi tamil telugu marathi bhojpuri gujarati or east asian like cantonese hakka and mandarin are also spoken the latter south asian languages are spoken by descendants of the labourers mostly non dravidian brought from british india during the british rule the indo mauritians or desi when the ethnic groups are combined form approximately seven zero of the total population while the rest of the population are of either african french chinese or mixed descent there are approximately three zero zero zero zero mauritians of chinese descent from hakka mandarin and cantonese language groups of all religiously affiliated mauritians hindus constitute five two while the remainder is composed mostly of christians two eight and muslims one six six buddhists two five sikhs zero three and other religions are also followed more information can be found at this link http www gesource ac uk worldguide html nine five six people html culture main article culture of mauritius the mixed colonial past of mauritius is reflected in its culture for example the cuisine of mauritius is a blend of desi creole chinese and european in one eight four seven mauritius became the fifth country in the world to issue postage stamps the two types of stamps issued then known as the red penny and the blue penny are probably the most famous stamps in the world being very rare and therefore also very expensive when discovered the island of mauritius was home to a previously unknown species of bird which the portuguese named the dodo simpleton as they appeared not too bright however by one six eight one all dodos had been killed by settlers or their domesticated animals nevertheless the dodo is prominently featured as a supporter of the national coat of arms see above mauritius has from time to time also been chosen as setting for films most of which are bollywood india productions the latest hindi film to feature mauritius has been garam masala two zero zero five music of mauritius miscellaneous topics university of technology mauritius list of mauritians communications in mauritius transportation in mauritius military of mauritius foreign relations of mauritius tertiary education in mauritius hinduism in mauritius islam in mauritius list of hindi film stars who have been to mauritius further reading dodd jan and madeleine philippe lonely planet mauritius reunion seychelles lonely planet publications two zero zero four isbn one seven four zero five nine three zero one four external links government government of mauritius official government site central statistics office official gatherer and provider of statistical information for mauritius news allafrica com mauritius news headline links mauritius broadcasting corporation public tv radio broadcasting le matinal mauritius newspaper l express mauritius newspaper le mauricien newspaper bank mauritius commercial bank state bank of mauritius business mauritius chamber of commerce and industry tourism grand baie popular coastal village among tourists mauritius tourism promotion authority official tourism site other a week in mauritius a photo gallery and travelogue by andy carvin university of mauritius institute for environmental studies open directory project mauritius directory category mauritius african union member states island nations colonization discovery mauritius was first discovered by the arabs in nine seven five ad also malay sailors knew of mauritius as early as the one zero th century portuguese sailors one five zero seven one five one three mauritius was discovered and visited by the portuguese between one five zero seven and one five one three an official world map by diego ribeiro described from west to east the first island mascarenhas the second santa apolonia and the third domingo friz one the three islands r union mauritius and rodrigues were discovered some years earlier by chance during an exploratory expedition of the coast of the golf of bengal lead by tristan da cunha the expedition ran into a cyclone and was forced to modify course thus the ship cirne of the captain diego fernandez pereira came into view of r union island on the nine february one five zero seven they called the island santa apolonia in honor of that day s saint mauritius was discovered during the same expedition and received the name of cirne and rodrigues that of di go fernandez two five years later the islands were visited by don pero mascarenhas three who left the name mascarene for the whole region the portuguese took no interest in these isolated islands they were already implanted in asia in goa on the coast of malabar on the island of ceylon now sri lanka and on the malaysian coast where their main establishments were located their main african base was in mozambique therefore the portuguese navigators preferred to use the mozambican canal to go to india the comoros at the north proved to be a more practical port of call thus no permanent colony was established on the island by the portuguese dutch sailors one five nine eight one six three seven in one five nine eight a dutch expedition consisting of eight ships set sail from the port of texel netherlands under the orders of admirals jacques cornelius van neck and wybrandt van warwyck towards the indian subcontinent the eight ships ran into foul weather after passing the cape of good hope and were separated three found their way to the northeast of madagascar whereas the remaining five regrouped and sailed in a southeasterly direction on the one seven th of september the five ships under the orders of admiral van warwyck came into view of the island on the two zero th of september they entered a sheltered bay which they gave the name of port de warwick its present name is grand port they landed and decided to name the island prince maurice de nassau after prince mauritius of the house of nassau the stadtholder of holland but from those days only the name mauritius has remained on the two nd of october the ships took to the sea again towards bantam from then on the island s port de warwick was used by the dutch as a stopover after long months at sea in one six zero six two expeditions came for the first time to what would later become port louis in the northwest part of the island the expedition consisting of one one ships and one three five seven men under the orders of admiral corneille came into the bay which they named rade des tortues literally meaning harbor of the tortoises because of the great number of terrestrial tortoises they found there four from that date dutch sailors shifted their choice to rade des tortues as harbor in one six one five the shipwrecking and death of governor pieter both who was coming back from india with four richly laden ships in the bay caused the route to be considered as cursed by dutch sailors and they tried to avoid it as much as possible in the meantime the british and the danes were beginning to make incursions into the indian ocean those who landed on the island freely cut and took with them the precious bark of the ebony trees then found in profusion all over the island dutch colonization one six three eight one seven one zero dutch colonization started in one six three eight and ended in one seven one zero with a brief interruption between one six five eight and one six six six numerous governors were appointed at the head of the island during which it was inhabited but the continuous hardships like cyclones droughts pest infestations lack of food and illnesses finally took their toll and the island was abandoned definitely in one seven one zero the island was not permanently inhabited for the four zero years since discovery by the dutch but in one six three eight cornelius gooyer established the first permanent dutch settlement in mauritius with a garrison consisting of two five persons he thus became the first governor of the island in one six three nine three zero more men came to reinforce the dutch colony gooyer was instructed to develop the commercial potential of the island but he did nothing of the sort so he was recalled his successor was adriann van der stel who began the development in earnest developing the export of ebony bark for the purpose van der stel bought one zero five malagasy slaves five to the island within the first week about six zero slaves were able to run away into the forests and about only two zero of them were eventually recaptured in one six four four the islanders were faced with many months of hardships due to delayed shipment of supplies bad harvests and cyclones during those months the colonists could only rely on themselves by fishing and hunting nonetheless van der stel secured the shipment of nine five more slaves from madagascar before being transferred to ceylon his replacement was jacob van der meersh in one six four five the latter brought in one zero eight more malagasy slaves van der meersh left mauritius in september one six four eight and was replaced by reinier por in one six five two more hardships befell on the colonists masters and slaves alike the population was then of about one zero zero people the continuing hardships affected the commercial potential island and a pullout was ordered in one six five seven on the one six th of july one six five eight almost all the inhabitants left the island except for a ship s boy and two slaves who had taken shelter in the forests six thus the first attempt at colonization by the dutch ended badly in one six six four a second attempt was made but this one also ended badly as the men chosen for the job abandoned their sick commander van niewland without proper treatment and the latter eventually died from one six six six to one six six nine dirk jansz smient administered the new colony at grand port with the cutting down and export of ebony trees as the main activity when dirk jansz smient left he was replaced by george frederik wreeden the latter died in one six seven two drowned with five other colonists during a reconnaissance expedition his replacement would be hubert hugo the later was a man of vision and wanted to make the island into an agricultural colony his vision was not shared by his superiors and eventually could not fully develop his vision issac johannes lamotius became the new governor when hugo left in one six seven seven lamotius governed till one six nine two when he was deported to batavia for judgment for persecuting a colonist whose wife had refused his courtship thus in one six nine two a new governor roelof deodati was appointed even if he tried to develop the island deodati faced many problems like cyclones pest infestations cattle illnesses and droughts discouraged deodati eventually gave up and his replacement would be abraham momber van de velde the latter fared no better and eventually became the last dutch governor of the island for that period thus the dutch abandoned the island definitely in one seven one zero treatment of slaves slaves were not particularly well treated by the colonists and revolts or the act of organizing one was severely repressed and punished some punishments consisted of amputation of various parts of the body and exposure in the open air for a day as example to others eventually culminating in condemned slaves execution at sunset legacy of the dutch providing the name for the country and for many regions over the whole island some examples include the pieter both mountain the vandermeersh region near rose hill as well as many other names introduction of sugar cane plants from java decimating the local dodo and giant tortoise population for food and by introducing competing species and pests sometimes involuntarily clearing of large swaths of forests for ebony bark exploitation notes one albert pitot t eyland mauritius esquisses historiques one five nine eight one seven one zero one nine zero five p four two jacques auber histoire de l oc an indien one nine five five p two three three three augustetoussain attributes the discovery of mauritius to mascarenhas whereas albert pitot hesitates to do so andre de chapuiset le merle in his precis d histoire de l le maurice one nine four eight states that it is really pero mascarenhas and not pedro mascarenhas who went to india only in one five five four four auguste toussaint histoire des les mascareignes p two four five dr a satteeanund peerthum resistance against slavery one nine eight nine in slavery in the south west indian ocean mgi p two five six albert pitot t eyland mauritius esquisses historiques one five nine eight one seven one zero one nine zero five p one one six french rule in one seven one five a frenchman named guillaume dufresne d arsel took over possession of mauritius the french turned the island into a prominent sea port it became a prosperous colony under the french east india company the french government took control in one seven six seven and the island served as a naval and privateer base during the napoleonic wars british rule despite the french naval victory of battle of the grand port on one nine and two zero august one eight one zero by the fleet commanded by pierre bouvet mauritius was captured three december one eight one zero by the british under commodore josias rowley their possession of the island was confirmed four years later by the treaty of paris one eight one four french institutions including the napoleonic code of law were maintained the french language was at that moment still used more widely than english mauritian creoles trace their origins to the plantation owners and slaves who were brought to work the sugar fields indo mauritians are descended from indian immigrants who arrived in the one nine th century to work as indentured laborers after slavery was abolished in one eight three three included in the indo mauritian community are muslims about one seven of the population from the indian subcontinent the franco mauritian elite controls nearly all of the large sugar estates and is active in business and banking as the indian population became numerically dominant and the voting franchise was extended political power shifted from the franco mauritians and their creole allies to the indo mauritians conflicts arised between the indian community mostly sugarcan labourers and the franco mauritians in the one nine two zero s leading to several deaths mainly indians following this the mauritius labour party was founded in one nine three six by dr maurice cure to safeguard the interest of the labourers dr cure was suceeded a year after by emmanuel anquetil who tried to get the support of the port workers to the party after his death guy rozemond took over the leadership of the party towards independence elections in one nine four seven for the newly created legislative assembly marked mauritius first steps toward self rule the assembly was elected among adult knowing to write it was won by the labour party headed by guy rozemont it is the first time the elite franco was ousted out of power an independence campaign gained momentum after one nine six one when the british agreed to permit additional self government and eventual independence a coalition composed of the mauritian labour party mlp the muslim committee of action cam of sir abdool razack mohamed and the independent forward bloc ifb a traditionalist hindu party won a majority in the one nine six seven legislative assembly election despite opposition from franco mauritian and creole supporters of gaetan duval s and jules keoing s mauritian social democratic party pmsd the contest was interpreted locally as a referendum on independence the election was won by a small margin the constituency no one five was capital to the winning of the pro independence coalition the mlp led alliance was able to win this constituency only due to the support of the c a m of sir seewoosagur ramgoolam mlp leader and chief minister in the colonial government became the first prime minister after independence on march one two one nine six eight this event was preceded by a period of communal strife brought under control with assistance from british troops independence from independence one nine nine four the one nine seven zero s saw the emergence of the mouvement militant mauricien parti socialiste mauricien mmm psm led by paul b renger the mmm was founded in one nine seven zero and had three initial leaders paul b renger dev virasawmy and juneid jeeroobarkhan the mmm won its first election in a by election of constituency no five by electing dev virasawmy until one nine eight two sir seewoosagur was prime minister his labour party in coalition with duval s pmsd in one nine eight two the coalition of mouvement militant mauricien parti socialiste mauricien came to power in a landslide electoral victory with anerood jugnauth as prime minister and harish boodhoo as the deputy prime minister the coalition split in one nine eight three with anerood jugnauth forming the mouvement socialiste mauricien msm which became the governing party with jugnauth as prime minister sir seewoosagur subsequently became governor general although the msm planned to make the country a republic within the commonwealth with him as president an attempt to make the country a republic in one nine nine zero with b renger as president failed owing to political opposition following sir seewoosagur s death his son navin ramgoolam succeeded him as leader of the mlp however the mlp and pmsd were defeated at the one nine nine one election which saw anerood jugnauth re elected on march one two one nine nine two mauritius finally became a republic within the commonwealth with cassam uteem as president one nine nine five present day navin ramgoolam formed a coalition with the mmm at the parliamentary elections in one nine nine five leaving the msm in opposition at the next elections in two zero zero one anerood jugnauth s msm in coalition with paul b renger s mmm was returned to power with anerood jugnauth appointed as prime minister he subsequently retired as prime minister after three years and assumed the office of president for the remaining time of the elected government the prime minister s post was filled by paul b renger at the two zero zero five general elections the mlp led alliance sociale coalition won the elections and navin ramgoolam became prime minister anerood jugnauth remains at the presidency mauritius demographics of mauritius data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population one one seven nine three six eight july two zero zero zero est age structure zero one four years two six male one five three three eight five female one four nine four five one one five six four years six eight male four zero one zero three two female four zero three two nine five six five years and over six male two eight nine eight one female four three two two four two zero zero zero est population growth rate zero eight nine two zero zero zero est birth rate one six six six births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate six eight three deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate zero nine three migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one male s female under one five years one zero three male s female one five six four years zero nine nine male s female six five years and over zero six seven male s female total population zero nine eight male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate one seven seven three deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population seven zero nine eight years male six six nine eight years female seven five zero four years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate two zero two children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun mauritian s adjective mauritian ethnic groups indo mauritian desi six eight creole two seven sino mauritian three franco mauritian two religions hindu five two christian two eight three roman catholic two six protestant two three muslim one six six other three one languages english official creole french official hindi urdu hakka bojpoori literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population eight two nine male eight seven one female seven eight eight one nine nine five est see also mauritius mauritius demographics by country politics of mauritius takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic whereby the prime minister is the head of government and of a pluriform multi party system executive power is exercised by the government legislative power is vested in both the government and the national assembly overview mauritian politics is vibrant and characterised by coalition and alliance building all parties are centrist and reflect a national consensus that supports democratic politics and a relatively open economy with a strong private sector alone or in coalition the mauritian labour party mlp ruled from one nine four seven through one nine eight two the mauritian militant movement mauritian socialist party mmm psm alliance won the one nine eight two election taking all six zero seats in mauritius in one nine eight three defectors from the mmm joined with the psm to form the militant socialist movement msm and formed a majority in coalition with the mlp in july one nine nine zero the msm realigned with the mmm and in september one nine nine one national elections won five nine of the six two directly elected seats in parliament in december one nine nine five the mlp returned to power this time in coalition with the mmm the mlp s navinchandra ramgoolam son of the country s first prime minister became prime minister himself ramgoolam dismissed his mmm coalition partners in mid one nine nine seven leaving labour in power only with several small parties allied with it the mmm and msm rejoined in a coalition that won the two zero zero zero elections and although a handful of mps defected from the msm in early two zero zero five both parties went together to the next election in july two zero zero five competing against the alliance sociale a mlp led coalition the alliance sociale won the elections with an overwhelming majority until one nine nine two mauritius was a constitutional monarchy with queen elizabeth ii as head of state but on march one two of that year the country became a republic within the commonwealth the last governor general sir veerasamy ringadoo became president under a transitional arrangement before stepping down three months later in favour of cassam uteem a former government minister under the amended constitution the country s unicameral parliament the legislative assembly was renamed the national assembly executive branch president sir anerood jugnauth msm two zero zero three vice president raouf bundhun two zero zero three prime minister navinchandra ramgoolam mlp ptr july two zero zero five the president and vice president are elected by the national assembly for five year terms the prime minister and deputy prime minister are appointed by the president and are responsible to the national assembly council of ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister the council of ministers cabinet responsible for the direction and control of the government consists of the prime minister head of government the leader of the majority party in the legislature and about two zero ministries legislative branch the national assembly has six six members six two elected for a four year term in single seat constituencies and four additional members appointed by the election commission from the losing political parties to give representation to various ethnic minorities political parties and elections every voter has three votes the total number of votes cast divided by three six four eight three one six is lower than the actual number people voting six six six one seven eight because not all of them cast three votes judicial branch mauritian law is an amalgam of french and british legal traditions the supreme court a chief justice and five other judges is the highest judicial authority there is an additional right of appeal to the judicial committee of the privy council administrative divisions local government has nine administrative divisions with municipal and town councils in urban areas and district and village councils in rural areas the island of rodrigues forms the country s one zero th administrative division other dependencies are agalega islands and cargados carajos shoals the divisions are black river flacq grand port moka pamplemousses plaines wilhems port louis riviere du rempart and savanne international organization participation acct acp afdb c ccc eca fao g seven seven iaea ibrd icao icc icftu icrm ida ifad ifc ifrcs ilo imf imo inmarsat inoc intelsat interpol ioc iso itu nam oau opcw pca sadc un unctad unesco unido upu wcl wftu who wipo wmo wtoo wtro mauritius economy overview since independence in one nine six eight mauritius has developed from a low income agriculturally based economy to a middle income diversified economy with growing industrial financial and tourist sectors for most of the period annual growth has been in the order of five to six this remarkable achievement has been reflected in more equitable income distribution increased life expectancy lowered infant mortality and a much improved infrastructure sugarcane is grown on about nine zero of the cultivated land area and accounts for two five of export earnings the government s development strategy centers on expanding local financial institutions and building a domestic information telecommunications industry mauritius has attracted more than nine zero zero zero offshore entities many aimed at commerce in india and south africa and investment in the banking sector alone has reached over one billion mauritius with its strong textile sector has been well poised to take advantage of the africa growth and opportunity act agoa macroeconomic statistics gdp purchasing power parity one six three six billion two zero zero five est gdp real growth rate three eight two zero zero five est gdp per capita purchasing power parity one three three zero zero two zero zero five est gdp composition by sector agriculture six one industry two nine nine services six four two zero zero five est investment gross fixed two two five of gdp two zero zero four est population below poverty line one zero two zero zero one est household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na distribution of family income gini index three seven one nine eight seven est inflation rate consumer prices four five two zero zero four est labor force five seven zero zero zero zero two zero zero five est labor force by occupation agriculture and fishing one four construction and industry three six transportation and communication seven trade restaurants hotels one six finance three other services two four one nine nine five unemployment rate one zero five two zero zero five est budget revenues one two three one billion expenditures one five eight two billion including capital expenditures of na two zero zero four est public debt two nine two of gdp two zero zero four est agriculture products sugarcane tea corn potatoes bananas pulses cattle goats fish industries food processing largely sugar milling textiles clothing chemicals metal products transport equipment nonelectrical machinery tourism industrial production growth rate eight two zero zero zero est electricity production one eight three six gwh two zero zero two electricity consumption one seven zero seven gwh two zero zero two electricity exports none zero kwh two zero zero two electricity imports none zero kwh two zero zero two oil production none zero bbl day two zero zero one est oil consumption two one zero zero zero bbl day two zero zero three est two one zero zero zero bbl day two zero zero one est oil exports na oil imports na current account balance one five one million two zero zero five est two eight four one million two zero zero four est exports one nine four nine billion f o b two zero zero five est two zero one two billion f o b two zero zero four est exports commodities clothing and textiles sugar cut flowers molasses exports partners uk three zero six france two two seven us one three seven madagascar seven seven two zero zero four imports two five zero seven billion f o b two zero zero five est two two four five billion f o b two zero zero four est imports commodities manufactured goods capital equipment foodstuffs petroleum products chemicals imports partners france one three one south africa one zero eight india seven six china five nine germany four five singapore four two zero zero four reserves of foreign exchange and gold one six seven six billion two zero zero four est one six zero five billion two zero zero five est debt external two nine five eight billion two zero zero five est economic aid recipient four two million one nine nine seven currency mauritian rupee mur currency code mur exchange rates mauritian rupees per us dollar two nine one four two zero zero five two seven four nine nine two zero zero four two seven nine zero two two zero zero three two nine nine six two two zero zero two two nine one two nine two zero zero one fiscal year one july three zero june see also list of mauritian companies mauritius external links mauritius chamber of commerce and industry central statistics office official gatherer and provider of statistics for mauritius wto members mauritius economies by country african union member economies telephones main lines in use three four eight two zero zero two zero zero three telephones mobile cellular four six two four zero zero two zero zero three telephone system small system with good service domestic primarily microwave radio relay trunk system international satellite earth station one intelsat indian ocean new microwave link to reunion hf radiotelephone links to several countries radio broadcast stations am four fm nine shortwave zero two zero zero two radios four two zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations two plus several repeaters one nine nine seven televisions two five eight zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet service providers isps two two zero zero zero internet users one five zero zero zero zero two zero zero three country code top level domain mu see also mauritius communications by country mauritius railways zero km highways total one eight six zero km paved one nine six zero km including six zero km of expressways unpaved four zero km two zero zero two waterways none ports and harbours port louis merchant marine total eight ships one zero zero zero grt or over totaling six six zero zero four grt nine zero zero one seven dwt ships by type cargo two combination bulk two container two cargo two note includes some foreign owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience belgium one india three norway one switzerland two two zero zero two est airports international airport mauritius island one total including main island and dependencies five two zero zero one airports with paved runways total two over three zero four seven m one nine one four to one five two three m one two zero zero two airports with unpaved runways total three nine one four to one five two three m two under nine one four m one two zero zero two see also mauritius transport in mauritius mauritius does not have a standing army all military police and security functions are carried out by one zero zero zero zero active duty personnel under the command of the commissioner of police the eight zero zero zero member national police is responsible for domestic law enforcement the one four zero zero member special mobile force smf and the five zero zero member national coast guard are the only two paramilitary units in mauritius both units are composed of police officers on lengthy rotations to those services the smf is organized as a ground infantry unit and engages extensively in civic works projects the coast guard has four patrol craft for search and rescue missions and surveillance of territorial waters a one zero zero member police helicopter squadron assists in search and rescue operations there also is a special supporting unit of two seven zero members trained in riot control military advisers from the united kingdom and india work with the smf the coast guard and the police helicopter unit and mauritian police officers are trained in the united kingdom india and france the united states provides training to mauritian coast guard officers in such fields as seamanship and maritime law enforcement military branches national police force includes the paramilitary special mobile force or smf and national coast guard military manpower availability males age one five four nine three four zero zero five zero two zero zero two est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine one seven one two three nine two zero zero two est military expenditures dollar figure nine one million fy zero one military expenditures percent of gdp zero two fy zero one references and links mauritius law enforcement in mauritius militaries mauritius has strong and friendly relations with the west as well as with france and india and the countries of southern and eastern africa it is a member of the world trade organization the commonwealth of nations la francophonie the african union the southern africa development community the indian ocean commission comesa and the recently formed indian ocean rim association trade commitment to democracy and the country s small size are driving forces behind mauritian foreign policy the country s political heritage and dependence on western markets have led to close ties with the european union and its member states particularly the united kingdom and france which exercises sovereignty over neighboring reunion island france has remained one of its biggest trading partners in addition the two countries share close cultural ties in langauge media and litreature mautitius is a member state of the la francophonie an organization of french speaking countries considered part of africa geographically mauritius has friendly relations with other african states in the region particularly south africa by far its largest continental trading partner mauritian investors are gradually entering african markets notably madagascar and mozambique mauritius coordinates much of its foreign policy with the southern africa development community and the organization of african unity relations with france and india are strong for both historical and commercial reasons foreign embassies in mauritius include australia the united kingdom people s republic of china egypt france india madagascar pakistan russia and the united states disputes international claims the entire chagos archipelago in the indian ocean claims the whole french administered tromelin island bassas da india europa island glorioso islands and juan de nova island illicit drugs minor consumer and transshipment point for heroin from south asia small amounts of cannabis produced and consumed locally see also mauritius mauritius foreign relations by country map of mayotte mayotte is an overseas collectivity of france at the northern end of the mozambique channel in the indian ocean between northern madagascar and northern mozambique the territory is geographically part of the comoros islands but not politically it is also known as mahor especially by advocates of its inclusion in the union of comoros history mayotte was ceded to france along with the other comoros in one eight four three for the history of mayotte before one nine seven four see history of the comoros it was the only island in the archipelago that voted in referendums in one nine seven four and one nine seven six to retain its link with france and forgo independence with six three eight and nine nine four of votes respectively the comoros continue to claim the island and a draft one nine seven six united nations security council resolution supported by one four of the one five members of the council would have recognized comoros sovereignty over mayotte but france vetoed the resolution the last time as of two zero zero four france cast a lone veto in the council the situation of mayotte proved to be unwieldy for france while the local population very largely did not want to be independent from france and join comoros some international criticism was heard about the ongoing ties of mayotte to france furthermore the peculiar local administration of mayotte largely ruled by customary muslim law would be difficult to integrate into the legal structures of france not to mention the costs of bringing the standards of living to levels close to those of metropolitan france because of these reasons the laws passed by the national parliament must state specifically that they apply to mayotte for them to be applicable on mayotte the status of mayotte was changed in two zero zero one towards one very close to the status of the d partements of mainland france with the particular designation of collectivit d partementale although the island is still claimed by the comoros this change was approved by seven three at a referendum on mayotte after the constitutional reform of two zero zero three it became a collectivit d outre mer while keeping to be entitled collectivit d partementale de mayotte geography sea near mamoudzou the main island mahor or grand terre is geologically the oldest of the comoros it is three nine km long and two two km wide and its highest points are between five zero zero and six zero zero meters above sea level because of the volcanic rock the soil is relatively rich in some areas a coral reef encircling much of the island ensures protection for ships and a habitat for fish dzaoudzi was the capital of comoros until one nine six two and now is mayotte s administrative center it is situated on le pamanzi or petit terre which at one zero km is the largest of several islets adjacent to mahor to which it is linked by a causeway mayotte is a member of the indian ocean commission with a separate membership rather than with the comoros transportation map of the comoros with mayotte railways zero km highways total nine three km paved seven two km unpaved two one km waterways none ports and harbors dzaoudzi merchant marine none two zero zero two est airports one two zero zero two with paved runways one see also geography of mayotte demographics of mayotte politics of mayotte economy of mayotte communications in mayotte french overseas departments and territories administrative divisions of france islands controlled by france in the indian and pacific oceans external links cia world factbook mayotte open directory project mayotte directory category analysis of the linguistic situation on mayotte in french comoros archipelago disputed territories mayotte special territories of the european union volcanoes of france population one seven eight four three seven july two zero zero three est age structure zero one four years four six five male four one six three two female four one three zero one one five six four years five one eight male five zero three seven three female four two one one eight six five years and over one seven male one five zero two female one five one one two zero zero three est median age total one six nine years male one eight one years female one five seven years two zero zero two population growth rate four two five two zero zero three est birth rate four two eight six births one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est death rate eight three four deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est net migration rate seven nine four migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est sex ratio at birth one zero three male s female under one five years one zero one male s female one five six four years one two male s female six five years and over zero nine nine male s female total population one one male s female two zero zero three est infant mortality rate total six five nine eight deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero three est female five nine four four deaths one zero zero zero live births male seven two three two deaths one zero zero zero live births life expectancy at birth total population six zero six years male five eight four nine years female six two seven eight years two zero zero three est hiv aids adult prevalence rate na hiv aids people living with hiv aids na hiv aids deaths na total fertility rate six three three children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun mahorais singular and plural adjective mahoran ethnic groups na religions muslim nine seven christian mostly roman catholic languages mahorian a swahili dialect french official language spoken by three five of the population literacy definition na total population na male na female na see also mayotte mayotte note the data on this page is probably outdated country name conventional long form departmental collectivity of mayotte conventional short form mayotte alternative conventional short form french mayotte data code mf dependency status overseas collectivity of france see also administrative divisions of france government type na capital dzaoudzi lababttoir de facto capital mamoudzou administrative divisions none overseas collectivity of france independence none overseas collectivity of france national holiday national day taking of the bastille one four july one seven eight nine constitution two eight september one nine five eight french constitution legal system french law suffrage one eight years of age universal executive branch chief of state president jacques chirac of france since one seven may one nine nine five represented by prefect philippe boisadam since na head of government president of the general council younoussa bamana since na one nine seven seven cabinet na elections french president elected by popular vote for a five year term prefect appointed by the french president on the advice of the french ministry of the interior president of the general council elected by the members of the general council for a six year term legislative branch unicameral general council or conseil g n ral one nine seats members are elected by popular vote to serve three year terms elections last held two three march one nine nine seven next to be held na march two zero zero zero election results percent of vote by party na note only nine of the one nine seats were subjected to voting in march one nine nine seven after the election seats by party were as follows mpm eight rpr five ps one independents five note mayotte elects one member of the french senate elections last held two four september one nine nine five next to be held two four september two zero zero one results percent of vote by party na seats by party mpm one mayotte also elects one member to the french national assembly elections last held two five may and one june one nine nine seven next to be held as a special election on na may two zero zero two results percent of vote by party udf fd five one seven rpr four eight three seats by party udf fd one judicial branch supreme court or tribunal superieur d appel political parties and leaders association for french mayotte or association pour mayotte francaise didier beoutis democratic front or fd youssouf moussa mahoran popular movement or mpm younoussa bamana mahoran rally for the republic or rpr soibahadine ibrahim ramadan socialist party or ps local branch of french parti socialiste hariti ibrahim union for french democracy or udf henri jean baptiste international organization participation fz diplomatic representation in the us none overseas collectivity of france diplomatic representation from the us none overseas collectivity of france flag description the flag of france is used see also mayotte mayotte telephones main lines in use one two zero zero zero one nine nine eight telephones mobile cellular zero two zero zero zero telephone system small system administered by french department of posts and telecommunications domestic na international microwave radio relay and hf radiotelephone communications to comoros two zero zero one radio broadcast stations am one fm five shortwave zero two zero zero one radios na television broadcast stations three two zero zero one televisions three five zero zero one nine nine four internet service providers isps na internet users na country code top level domain yt see also mayotte communications by country mayotte pre columbian mexico before one five two one a d though there are tantalizing fragments of evidence suggesting human habitation of mexico more than two zero zero zero zero years ago the first solid evidence comes from two kill sites in the northern basin of mexico based on the evidence these hunter gatherer peoples lived off of mammoths and other animals ancient mexicans began to selectively breed corn plants around eight zero zero zero b c evidence shows the explosion of pottery works by two three zero zero b c and the beginning of intensive farming between one eight zero zero and one five zero zero bc between one eight zero zero and three zero zero bc complex cultures began to form some matured into advanced pre columbian mesoamerican civilizations such as the olmec teotihuacan maya zapotec mixtec huaxtec purepecha toltec and mexica a k a aztecs which flourished for nearly four zero zero zero years before first contact with europeans an image of one of the pyramids in the upper level of yaxchil n these indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions pyramid temples cities mathematics becoming the first people in the world to use zero astronomy medicine writing precise calendars fine arts intensive agriculture engineering an abacus complex theology chocolate and the wheel archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern mexico especially in the state of nuevo le n demonstrate an early propensity for counting in mexico these very early and ancient count markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence that astronomical activities had upon mexican natives even before they possessed civilization in fact the later mexican civilizations would all carefully build their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events atlantes at tula hidalgo at different points in time three mexican cities eventually became the largest cities in the world teotihuacan tenochtitlan and cholula these cities among several others blossomed as centers of commerce ideas ceremonies and theology in turn they radiated influence outwards onto neighboring cultures while many city states kingdoms and empires competed with one another for power and prestige mexico can be said to have had four major unifying civilizations the olmec teotihuacan the toltec and the mexica these four civilizations extended their reach across mexico and beyond like no others they consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade art politics technology and theology other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these four civilizations over the span of four zero zero zero years many made war with them but almost all found themselves within these four spheres of influence mayan architecture at uxmal mexico s original civilization is the olmec this civilization established the cultural blueprint by which all succeeding indigenous civilizations would follow in mexico olmec civilization began with the production of pottery in abundance around two three zero zero b c between one eight zero zero b c and one five zero zero b c the olmec consolidated power into chiefdoms which established their capital at a site today known as san lorenzo near the coast in south east veracruz the olmec influence extended across mexico into central america and along the gulf of mexico they transformed many peoples thinking toward a new way of government pyramid temples writing astronomy art mathematics economics and religion their achievements would pave the way for the later greatness of the maya civilization in the east and the civilizations to the west in central mexico the decline of the olmec resulted in a power vacuum in mexico emerging from that vacuum was teotihuacan first settled in three zero zero b c teotihuacan by one five zero a d had risen to become the first true metropolis of what is now called north america teotihuacan established a new economic and political order never before seen in mexico it s influence stretched across mexico into central america founding new dynasties in the mayan cities of tikal copan and kaminaljuy teotihuacan s influence over the maya civilization cannot be understated it transformed political power artistic depictions and the nature of economics within the city of teotihuacan itself was a diverse and cosmopolitan population most of the regional ethnicities of mexico were represented in the city such as zapotecs from the oaxaca region they lived in apartment communities where they worked their trades and contributed to the city s economic and cultural prowess by five zero zero a d teotihuacan had become the largest city in the world teotihuacan s economic pull impacted areas in northern mexico as well it was a city whose monumental architecture reflected a monumental new era in mexican civilization declining in political power about six five zero b c but lasting in cultural influence for the better part of a millennium to around nine five zero a d contemporary with teotihuacan s greatness was the greatness of the maya civilization the period between two five zero a d and six five zero a d saw an intense flourishing of maya civilized accomplishments while the many maya city states never achieved political unity on the order of the central mexican civilizations they exerted a tremendous intellectual influence upon mexico and central america the maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent and made innovations in mathematics astronomy and writing that became the pinnacle of mexico s scientific achievements just as teotihuacan had emerged from a power vacuum so too did the toltec civilization which took the reigns of cultural and political power in mexico from about seven zero zero a d many of the toltec peoples were comprised of northern desert peoples often called chichimeca in mexico s nahuatl language they fused their proud desert heritage with the mighty civilized culture of teotihuacan this new heritage would give rise to a new empire in mexico the toltec empire would reach as far south as central america and as far north as the anasazi corn culture in the southwestern united states the toltec established a prosperous turquoise trade route with the northern civilization of pueblo bonito in modern day new mexico toltec traders would trade prized bird feathers with pueblo bonito while circulating all the finest wares that mexico had to offer with their immediate neighbors in the mayan area of chichen itza the toltec civilization spread and the maya were once again powerfully influenced by central mexicans the toltec political system was so influential that any serious maya dynasty would later claim to be of toltec descent in fact it was this prized toltec lineage that would set the stage for mexico s last great indigenous civilization with the decline of the toltec civilization came political fragmentation in the valley of mexico into this new political game of contenders to the toltec throne stepped outsiders the mexica they were also a proud desert people one of seven groups who formerly called themselves azteca but changed their name after years of migrating since they were not from the valley of mexico they were initially seen as crude and unrefined in the ways of nahua civilization through cunning political maneuvers and ferocious fighting skills they managed to pull off a true rags to riches story they became the rulers of mexico as the head of the triple alliance which included two other aztec cities texcoco and tlacopan the mexica aztecs were the rulers of much of central mexico by about one four zero zero while yaquis coras and apaches commanded sizable regions of northern desert having subjugated most of the other regional states by the one four seven zero s at their peak three zero zero zero zero zero mexica presided over a wealthy tribute empire comprising about one zero million people almost half of mexico s two four million people the modern name mexico comes from the name of the ruling group of the aztec triple alliance the mexica the term aztec is actually a misnomer an invention of an englishman lord kinsborough and a european american named william prescott the real indigenous names used were nahua or mexica not even the spanish called them aztecs although aztec was not used by the mexica it does derive from their language nahuatl and refers to their northern homeland aztlan the mexica one of the aztec groups required education for all males regardless of class there were two types of schools the telpochcalli for practical and military studies and the calmecac for advanced learning in writing astronomy statesmanship theology etc their capital tenochtitlan is the site of modern day mexico city in one five one nine the mexica capital was the largest city in the world with a population as high as five zero zero zero zero zero people by comparison london in one five one nine had eight zero zero zero zero people the mexica left a deep and durable stamp upon mexican culture even to the present day much of what is considered mexican culture today derives from this mexica civilization place names words food art dress symbols and even the identity of mexican itself a translation of the mexica name for much of its history the majority of mexico s population lived an urban lifestyle cities towns and villages only a fraction of the population was tribal and wandering most people were permanently settled agriculturally based and identified with an urban identity as opposed to a tribal identity mexico has long been an urban land which was graphically reflected in the writings of the spaniards who encountered them spanish conquest in one five one nine the native civilizations of mexico were invaded by spain and two years later in one five two one the aztec capital of tenochtitlan was conquered francisco hern ndez de c rdoba explored the shores of south mexico in one five one seven followed by juan de grijalva in one five one eight the most important of the early conquistadores was hern n cort s who entered the country in one five one nine from a native coastal town which he renamed puerto de la villa rica de la vera cruz today s veracruz contrary to popular opinion spain did not conquer all of mexico in one five two one it would take another two centuries before that would occur as rebellions attacks and wars continued against the spanish by other native peoples the aztecs the dominant power in the country believed according to ancient myths the tradition that quetzalcoatl would return on in ce acatl or one reed year the pre columbian calendar was divided into five two year periods or cycles every five two nd year was a ce acatl year one four six seven was such a year that the spanish conquerors were people sent by the gods according to orthodox scholarship so they offered little resistance initially to the advances of the conquerors ironically cortes does not mention the alleged god worship episode in his letters to king charles v of spain modern scholarship is beginning to question this view of events however noted aztec scholars like ross hassig of the university of oklahoma have demonstrated that quetzalcoatl was in actuality a religious order of priests during the previous toltec era this order of priests under the tutelage of its leader ce acatl topiltzin quetzalcoatl is famous for its exile into the eastern area of mexico what is now known as yucatan it may have been thought then that the spaniards were possibly of the lineage of that order of quetzalcoatl and hence deserved serious diplomatic accommodations they did adding to the confusion is the fact that the nahuatl language of the aztecs is infused with terms of humility and politeness especially for guests foreign ambassadors were aways treated reverently and invited into the capital of tenochtitlan where they experienced all the high diplomacy expected between nations eventually they opposed the spanish when it became evident that they were not of the lineage of the quetzalcoatl priests much less gods after a major battle in one five one nine during which the spanish forces were defeated and sent into retreat the spaniards regrouped outside the valley of mexico after eight months they were back this time with an even larger contingent of native allies by then spanish smallpox had ravaged the aztec population drastically reducing the aztec fighting forces the spaniards surrounded and laid siege to the inhabitants of tenochtitlan the capital of the aztec empire bringing about the aztecs total defeat in one five two one despite their metal weapons horses cannons and thousands of indigenous allies the spanish were unable to subdue the mexica for seven full months it was one of the longest continuous sieges in world history spanish genocide of mexican people three major factors contributed to spanish victory first the spanish had superior military technology including firearms the crossbow iron and steel weapons and the horse the spanish were further aided in their conquest by the old world diseases primarily smallpox they brought with them to which the natives had no immunity and which became pandemic killing large portions of the native population finally the spanish enlisted the help of various subject peoples in the aztec empire who saw the spanish as a means to free themselves from aztec rule mainly the tlaxcalans with the conquest a new ethnic group was created by the spaniards the mestizo a result of the conquerors taking native women as a measure against revolt by the natives and beginning the mixing of both cultures quite often rape was a factor in the reproduction of mixed race children the spanish inquisition and its descendant the mexican inquisition continued to operate in the americas until mexico declared its independence during the colonial period which lasted from one five two one to one eight one zero mexico was known as nueva espa a or new spain whose territories included today s mexico the spanish caribbean islands central america up to and including costa rica and an area comprising today s southwestern united states most of this land was dominated by spanish landowners and their white descendants europeans in fact totally dominated the politics and economy of colonial mexico mestizos came next and native peoples occupied the lowest rung of society wars of independence the war for independence started september one six one eight one zero and was spearheaded by miguel hidalgo a priest of spanish descent and progressive ideas after napoleon i invaded spain and put his brother on the spanish throne mexican conservatives and rich land owners who supported spain s bourbon royal family objected to the comparatively more liberal napoleonic policies thus an unlikely alliance was formed in mexico liberales or liberals who favored a democratic mexico and conservadores or conservatives who favored mexico ruled by a bourbon monarch who would restore the old status quo these two elements agreed only that mexico must achieve independence and determine her own destiny prominent figures in mexico s war for independence were father jos mar a morelos vicente guerrero and general agust n de iturbide the war for independence lasted eleven years until the troops of the liberating army entered mexico city in one eight two one thus although independence from spain was first proclaimed in one eight one zero it was not achieved until one eight two one by the treaty of c rdoba which was signed on august two four in c rdoba veracruz by the spanish viceroy juan de o donoj and agust n de iturbide ratifying the plan de iguala in one eight two one agust n de iturbide a former spanish general who switched sides to fight for mexican independence proclaimed himself emperor officially as a temporary measure until a member of european royalty could be persuaded to become monarch of mexico see mexican empire for more information a revolt against iturbide in one eight two three established the united mexican states in one eight two four guadalupe victoria became the first president of the new country his given name was actually f lix fern ndez but he chose his new name for symbolic significance guadalupe to give thanks for the protection of our lady of guadalupe and victoria which means victory war with united states and the struggle for liberal reforms antonio l pez de santa anna many presidents came and went which brought a long period of instability that lasted most of the one nine th century the dominant figure of the second quarter of that century was the dictator antonio l pez de santa anna during this period many of the territories in the north were lost to the united states santa anna was mexico s leader during the conflict with texas which declared itself independent from mexico in one eight three six and during the mexican american war one eight four six four eight one of the memorable battles of the u s invasion of one eight four seven was when a group of young military college cadets now considered national heroes fought to the death against a large army of experienced soldiers in the battle of chapultepec september one three one eight four seven ever since this war many mexicans have resented the loss of much mexican territory some by means of coercion and more territory sold cheaply by the dictator santa anna for personal profit in one eight five five ignacio comonfort leader of the self described moderates was elected president the moderados tried to find a middle ground between the nation s liberals and conservatives during comonfort s presidency a new constitution was drafted the constitution of one eight five seven retained most of the roman catholic church s colonial era privileges and revenues but unlike the earlier constitution did not mandate that the catholic church be the nation s exclusive religion such reforms were unacceptable to the leadership of the clergy and the conservatives comonfort and members of his administration were excommunicated and a revolt was declared this led to the war of reform from december one eight five seven to january one eight six one this civil war became increasingly bloody and polarized the nation s politics many of the moderados came over to the side of the liberales convinced that the great political power of the church needed to be curbed for some time the liberals and conservatives had their own governments the conservatives in mexico city and the liberals headquartered in veracruz the war ended with liberal victory and liberal president benito ju rez moved his administration to mexico city french intervention and an emperor the presidential terms of benito ju rez one eight five eight seven one were interrupted by the habsburg monarchy s rule of mexico one eight six four six seven conservatives tried to institute a monarchy when they helped to bring to mexico an archduke from the royal house of austria known as maximilian of habsburg wife carlota of habsburg with the military support of france which was interested in exploiting the rich mines in the north west of the country although the french then considered one of the most efficient armies of the world suffered an initial defeat in the battle of puebla on may five one eight six two now commemorated as the cinco de mayo holiday they eventually defeated the mexican government forces led by the general ignacio zaragoza and enthroned maximilian as emperor of mexico maximilian of habsburg favored the establishment of a limited monarchy sharing powers with a democratically elected congress this was too liberal to please mexico s conservatives while the liberals refused to accept a monarch leaving maximilian with few enthusiastic allies within mexico maximilian was eventually captured and executed in the cerro de las campanas quer taro by the forces loyal to president benito ju rez who kept the federal government functioning during the french intervention that put maximilian in power in one eight six seven the republic was restored and a new constitution was written that amongst other things confiscated the vast landholdings of the catholic church which had been acting as landlord over half the country established civil marriages and forbade the participation of priests in politics separation of church and state after the victory there was resentment by conservatives against president ju rez who they thought concentrated too much power and wanted to be re elected so one of the army s generals named porfirio d az rebelled against the government with the proclamation of the plan de tuxtepec in one eight seven six order progress and the d az dictatorship porfirio d az porfirio d az became the new president during a period of more than thirty years one eight seven six one nine one one while he was the strong man in mexico the country s infrastructure improved greatly thanks to investments from other countries this period of relative prosperity and peace is known as the porfiriato but the people were not happy with the form of government during the porfiriato it was attracting investors because the pay for workers was very low which produced a very steep social division only a small group of investors domestic and foreign were getting rich but the vast majority of the people remained in abject poverty democracy was completely suppressed and dissent was dealt with in repressive often brutal ways see for example nogales veracruz indicative of diaz s social policies was the fact that he was of indigenous zapotec ancestry yet was known to dye his dark skin lighter to diaz the indigenous inhabitants of mexico of which he was one were considered an obstruction to progress despite their centuries of advanced pre european civilizations in diaz s canon of terms progress was rigidly confined to mean european the mexican revolution in one nine one zero the eight zero year old d az decided to hold an election to serve another term as president he thought he had long since eliminated any serious opposition in mexico however francisco i madero an academic from a rich family decided to run against him and quickly gathered popular support despite d az s putting madero in jail when the official election results were announced it was declared that d az had won re election almost unanimously with madero receiving only a few hundred votes in the entire country this fraud by the porfiriato was too blatant for the public to swallow and riots broke out madero prepared a document known as the plan de san luis potos in which he called the mexican people to take their weapons and fight against the government of porfirio d az on november two zero one nine one zero this started what is known as the mexican revolution madero was incarcerated in san antonio texas but his plan took effect in spite of him being in jail the federal army was defeated by the revolutionary forces which were led by amongst others emiliano zapata in the south pancho villa and pascual orozco in the north and venustiano carranza porfirio d az resigned in one nine one one for the sake of the peace of the nation and went to exile in france where he died in one nine one five the revolutionary leaders had many different objectives revolutionary figures varied from liberals such as madero to radicals such as emiliano zapata and pancho villa as a consequence it proved very difficult to reach agreement on how to organize the government that emanated from the triumphant revolutionary groups the result of this was a struggle for the control of mexico s government in a conflict that lasted more than twenty years this period of struggle is usually referred to as part of the mexican revolution although it might also be looked on as a civil war presidents francisco i madero one nine one one venustiano carranza one nine two zero and former revolutionary leaders emiliano zapata one nine one nine and pancho villa one nine two three were assassinated during this time amongst many others following the resignation of d az and a brief reactionary interlude madero was elected president in one nine one one he was ousted and killed in one nine one three venustiano carranza a former revolutionary general who became one of the several presidents during this turbulent period promulgated a new constitution on february five one nine one seven the mexican constitution of one nine one seven still guides mexico in one nine two zero lvaro obreg n became president he accommodated all elements of mexican society except the most reactionary clergy and landlords and successfully catalyzed social liberalization particularly in curbing the role of the catholic church improving education and taking steps toward instituting women s civil rights while the mexican revolution and civil war may have subsided after one nine two zero armed conflicts did not cease the most widespread conflict of this era was the battle between those favoring a secular society with separation of church and state and those favoring supremacy of the roman catholic church which developed into an armed uprising by supporters of the church that came to be called la guerra cristera stabilization and the revolution institutionalized in one nine two nine the national mexican party pnm was formed by the serving president general plutarco el as calles it would later become the pri or partido revolucionario institucional that ruled the country for the rest of the two zero th century the pnm succeeded at convincing most of the remaining revolutionary generals to dissolve their personal armies to create the mexican army and so its foundation is considered by some the real end of the mexican revolution president l zaro c rdenas del r o came to power in one nine three four and transformed mexico on april one one nine three six he exiled calles the last general with dictatorial ambitions managed to unite the different forces in the pri and set the rules that allowed this party to rule unchallenged for decades to come without internal fights he nationalized the oil industry on march one eight one nine three eight the electricity industry created the national polytechnic institute granted asylum to spanish expatriates fleeing the spanish civil war started land reform started the distribution of free textbooks for children and in general pursued policies that for good or ill have marked the development of mexico until the present day manuel vila camacho c rdenas s successor presided over a bridge between the revolutionary era and the era of machine politics under pri that would last until two zero zero zero camacho moving away from nationalistic autarchy proposed to create a favorable climate for international investment favored nearly two generations ago by madero camacho s regime froze wages repressed strikes and persecuted dissidents with a law prohibiting the crime of social dissolution during this period the pri regime thus betrayed the legacy of land reform miguel alem n vald s camacho s successor even had article two seven amended to protect elite landowners although pri regimes achieved economic growth and relative prosperity for almost three decades after world war ii the management of the economy collapsed several times and political unrest grew in the late sixties culminating in the tlatelolco massacre in one nine six eight in the one nine seven zero s economic crises affected the country in one nine seven six and one nine eight two after which the banks were nationalized having been blamed for the economic problems la d cada perdida on both occasions the mexican peso was devalued and until two zero zero zero it had been normal to expect a big devaluation and a recessionary period after each presidential term ended every six years the crisis that came after a devaluation of the peso in late one nine nine four threw mexico into economic turmoil triggering the worst recession in over half a century on september one nine one nine eight five an earthquake measuring approximately eight zero on the richter scale struck michoac n and inflicted severe damage on mexico city estimates of the number of dead range from six five zero zero to three zero zero zero zero see great mexican earthquake the pri the partido revolucionario institucional pri was the political party of mexico that set up a new type of system led by a caudillo in one nine three four c rdenas removed the army from power the pri is typically referred to as the three legged stool in reference to mexican workers peasants and bureaucrats the end of pri s hegemony in one nine nine five president ernesto zedillo faced an economic crisis there were public demonstrations in mexico city and constant military presence after the one nine nine four rising of the zapatista army of national liberation in chiapas zedillo also oversaw political and electoral reforms that reduced the pri s hold on power after the one nine eight eight election which was strongly disputed and arguably lost by the government party the ife instituto federal electoral federal electoral institute was created in the early one nine nine zero s it is run by ordinary citizens overseeing that elections are conducted legally and fairly as a result of popular discontent the presidential candidate of the national action party pan vicente fox quesada won the federal election of july two two zero zero zero but did not win a majority in the chambers of congress the results of this election ended seven one years of pri hegemony in the presidency many in mexico claim that even if fox won the election president zedillo did not give his party pri a chance to dispute the results of the election by making fox s victory official by addressing the nation the same night of the election a first in mexican politics and in other places too where it is more normal for the losing candidate to admit defeat rather than the outgoing incumbent one reason offered for this is that zedillo sought a quick and peaceful election in two zero zero zero to avoid another crisis after the change of government ongoing economic and social concerns include low real wages underemployment for a large segment of the population inequitable income distribution and few advancement opportunities for the largely amerindian population in the impoverished southern states even though the mexican government has made efforts to improve these problems especially in the area of inflation the country has continued to struggle with such issues as economic control and development especially with the petroleum sector and the evolution of trade relations with the united states corruption and violence stemming from the drug trade have also brought problems to mexico lately rulers and presidents notable mexican heads of state include aztec emperors new spain viceroys agust n de iturbide emperor ferdinand maximillian of habsburg emperor porfirio d az de facto dictator list of presidents of mexico further reading daily life of the aztecs on the eve of the spanish conquest jacques soustelle stanford university press one nine seven zero isbn zero eight zero four seven zero seven two one nine mexico from the olmecs to the aztecs michael coe thames aztec information information about the words aztec and aztlan and the word that many have never heard mexica the aztec abacus calculator the base two zero numerical calculator invented in mexico mexico s astronomical heriage provides information on mexico s astronomical heritage brown university library three for three million information about the paul r dupee jr six five mexican history collection in the john hay library including maps and photos of books history of mexico provides a history of mexico from ancient times to today mexico from empire to revolution photographs from the getty research institute s collections exploring mexican history and culture though images produced between one eight five seven and one nine two three us mexican war us political context and overview of military campaign that ended with the treaty of guadalupe hidalgo one eight one six one eight four eight provides links to us military sources the mexica movement non profit organization dedicated to the renewal and restoration of pre european mexican culture civilizations in america overview of mexican civilization history of mexico demographics of mexico data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands mexico with its estimated population of one zero six million in two zero zero five is the most populous spanish speaking country in the world and the second most populous country in latin america after portuguese speaking brazil the population of mexico is ethnically and culturally diverse mexico has defined itself in the second article of its constitution as a pluricultural nation in recognition of the diverse ethnic groups that constitute it and in which the indigenous peoples are its foundation recent changes in legislation have allowed for a greater recognition of the indigenous culture and language creating the concept of national languages as well as greater cultural social economical and political autonomy ethnic groups mestizos since its independence mexico has defined itself as a mestizo nation redefining the spanish conquest of the amerindian population as the painful birth of the mexican people as such the mestizo concept has become the identity and culture of the independent country as an ethnic group mestizos constitute officially seven five of mexico s population other international organizations prefer a lower percentage close to six zero that allows for a categorization of three zero of predominantly amerindians native americans main article indigenous peoples of mexico unmixed native american peoples make up the second largest group official statistics put them at one three a little more than one two million as of two zero zero zero of the population though only half of them six of the population still speak an indigenous language as reported by the comission for the development of the indigenous peoples or cdi while it has been a common misconception the government does not define race on the basis of language though it puts a strong emphasis on culture other organizations prefer to report a three zero of predominantly amerindians like the cia factbook given the fact that assimilated amerindians through the so called the hispanization of the indigenous peoples might have been considered mestizos therefore there is no precise statistic on the mestizo population which varies from six zero to seven five depending on which source and which definition pure or predominant is used according to the cdi amerindians of maya origin are majority in the state of yucatan official statistics of the cdi based on race not on language are yucat n five nine of the state s population is of amerindian origin oaxaca four eight quintana roo three nine chiapas two eight campeche two seven hidalgo two four puebla one nine guerrero one seven san luis potos one five veracruz one five europeans large amounts of the population mostly in mexico city jalisco sonora coahuila tamaulipas nuevo le n and chihuahua and other large metropolitan areas is of unmixed white european descent in addition to the spanish colonists french settlers arrived during the mexican empire one nine th century and italians during the government of porfirio d az americans yugoslavs and germans arrived in mexico after world war i during the one nine three zero s many spanish refugees fleeing the spanish civil war arrived mostly in mexico city polish and russian guadalupe baja california refugees ashkenazic jews among them also settled during the war the jewish immigrants joined the sephardic community that had lived in mexico since the spanish inquisition also of note are colonies of mormons mennonites and molokans mainly in the northern states of chihuahua and durango british immigrants also settled mainly in mining areas as well as french settlers in santa rosal a baja california sur some believe that the british first brought protestantism into mexico greek immigration has been important as well especially in the state of sinaloa and its capital culiac n middle easterners asians mexicans of lebanese and turkish descent are present in large numbers some chinese and filipinos arrived from the philippines in colonial times during the period of asian exclusion from the united states in the late one nine th and early two zero th centuries many chinese japanese and korean immigrants settled in northern and western mexico especially baja california mexicali is known for its relatively prominent concentration of people of chinese descent there are also jewish mexicans of lebanese turkish or other mediterranean descent with common ancestral roots in spain and speak ladino which is closely related to spanish africans since colonial times when thousands of africans were brought as slaves mexico has had a significant number of people of black african descent today afro mexicans of relatively unmixed black african ancestry as well as zambos and mulattos represent only about zero five of the population due to higher birth rates amongst the other groups as well as continued immigration from europe most of mexico s blacks live in the states of veracruz oaxaca guerrero and yucat n major populations also exist in mexico s larger cities such as mexico city guadalajara monterrey and tijuana in addition to those present since the colonial era many african americans seeking to escape racial discrimination in the united states during the early two zero th century emigrated to mexico other latin americans mexico is also the destination for many other latin american groups mostly argentines but also brazilians cubans colombians and venezuelans the pri governments in power for most of the two zero th century had a policy of granting asylum to fellow latin americans fleeing political persecution in their home countries attitudes toward race while most non indigenous mexicans consider themselves mestizo and while there are no longer rigid racial lines dividing the population light skin and european features tend to be valued at least in the mass media events in recent years involving the issue of human rights in chiapas have increased awareness of issues such as racism and discrimination toward the indigenous communities of mexico population growth and migration mexico s population doubled between one nine seven zero and two zero zero zero however in recent years the rate of population growth has slowed fertility rates are still high in rural areas and among the indigenous population migration to the united states has also become significant with the number of mexican citizens resident abroad reaching as many as nine million mostly in the united states but also in canada mexico city is by far the largest city in the country with a population of about two one million guadalajara jalisco and monterrey nuevo le n are the two next largest metropolitan areas followed by puebla puebla ciudad ju rez chihuahua tijuana baja california and le n guanajuato population growth rate one one seven two zero zero five est birth rate two one zero one births one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est death rate four seven three deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est net migration rate four five seven migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero four male s female one five six four years zero nine four male s female six five years and over zero eight three male s female total population zero nine six male s female two zero zero five est infant mortality rate total two zero nine one deaths one zero zero zero live births male two two eight five deaths one zero zero zero live births female one eight eight eight deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero five est life expectancy at birth total population seven five one nine years male seven two four two years female seven eight one years two zero zero five est total fertility rate two four five children born woman two zero zero five est nationality noun mexican s adjective mexican ethnic groups mestizo mixed amerindian and white six zero amerindian or predominantly amerindian three zero white nine other one religions roman catholic eight nine protestant six other five languages spanish official nahuatl various maya and other indigenous languages literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population nine two two male nine four female nine zero five two zero zero three est external links un fertility in mexico trends and forecasts mexico population bureau conapo mexican government fertility calculation since one nine seven six the amerindian population in mexico is one two seven million demographics by country demographics of mexico the one nine one seven constitution of mexico provides for a federal republic with powers separated into independent executive legislative and judicial branches historically the executive is the dominant branch with power vested in the president who promulgates and executes the laws of the congress congress has played an increasingly important role since one nine nine seven when opposition parties first formed a majority in the legislature the president also legislates by executive decree in certain economic and financial fields using powers delegated from the congress the president is elected by universal adult suffrage for a six year term and may not hold office a second time there is no vice president in the event of the removal or death of the president a provisional president is elected by the congress congress is composed of a senate and a chamber of deputies consecutive re election is prohibited senators are elected to six year terms and deputies serve three year terms the senate s one two eight seats are filled by a mixture of direct election and proportional representation in the lower chamber three zero zero deputies are directly elected to represent single member districts and two zero zero are selected by a modified form of proportional representation from five electoral regions the two zero zero proportional representation seats were created to help smaller parties gain access to the chamber the judiciary is divided into federal and state court systems with federal courts having jurisdiction over most civil cases and those involving major felonies under the constitution trial and sentencing must be completed within one two months of arrest for crimes that would carry at least a two year sentence in practice the judicial system often does not meet this requirement trial is by judge not jury in most criminal cases defendants have a right to counsel and public defenders are available other rights include defense against self incrimination the right to confront one s accusers and the right to a public trial supreme court justices are appointed by the president and approved by the senate on july two two zero zero zero vicente fox quesada of the opposition alliance for change coalition headed by the national action party pan was elected president in what are considered to have been the freest and fairest elections in mexico s history fox began his six year term on december one two zero zero zero his victory ended the institutional revolutionary party s pri seven one year hold on the presidency the mexican congress is a plural institution that is playing an increasingly important role in mexico s democratic transition no single party holds an absolute majority in either house of congress recent elections see mexican general election two zero zero zero the july two two zero zero zero elections marked the first time since the one nine one zero one seven mexican revolution that the opposition defeated the party in government vicente fox won the election with four three of the vote followed by pri candidate francisco labastida with three six and cuauht moc c rdenas of the party of the democratic revolution prd with one seven despite some isolated incidents of irregularities and problems there was no evidence of systematic attempts to manipulate the elections or their results and critics concluded that the irregularities that occurred did not alter the outcome of the presidential vote civic organizations fielded more than eight zero zero zero zero trained electoral observers foreigners were invited to witness the process and numerous independent quick count operations and exit polls validated the official vote tabulation numerous electoral reforms implemented since one nine eight nine aided in the opening of the mexican political system and opposition parties have made historic gains in elections at all levels many of the current electoral concerns have shifted from outright fraud to campaign fairness issues during one nine nine five nine six the political parties negotiated constitutional amendments to address these issues implementing legislation included major points of consensus that had been worked out with the opposition parties the thrust of the new laws has public financing predominate over private contributions to political parties tightens procedures for auditing the political parties and strengthens the authority and independence of electoral institutions the court system also was given greatly expanded authority to hear civil rights cases on electoral matters brought by individuals or groups in short the extensive reform efforts have leveled the playing field for the parties even before the new electoral law was passed opposition parties had obtained an increasing voice in mexico s political system a substantial number of candidates from opposition parties had won election to the chamber of deputies and senate as a result of the two zero zero zero elections the congress is more diverse than ever in the chamber two zero nine seats belong to the pri two zero seven to the pan five two to the prd one six for the green party and the remaining one six are split among four smaller parties and two independents in the one two eight seat senate the upper house of congress the pri still holds the most seats at six zero but the pan holds four six the prd one five the greens five and two smaller parties each have one seat senators serve six years in office and deputies three years neither can be elected to consecutive terms although the pri no longer controls the presidency it remains a significant force in mexican politics in general in state congressional and mayoral contests since july two zero zero zero the pri has fared better than the pan in the two zero zero three midterm elections the pri was practically wiped off the map in the federal district only one borough mayor jefe delegacional out of one six and no first past the post members of the city assembly but it was able to recoup some significant losses in the provinces most notably the governorship of pan stronghold nuevo le n it also remains the largest single party in both chambers of congress the two zero zero three midterm elections also signaled a defeat for fox and the pan fox had pledged to bring democracy and led the way towards prosperity but the polls showed a lack of support the pan lost control of the chamber of deputies perhaps more significantly the fact that five nine percent of the electorate chose not to bother to cast their votes in the mid terms indicates a growing disenchantment with what some believe is business as usual in mexican politics presidential candidates are gearing up for the two zero zero six election the reform programs the candidates will need to address include recognition of human and labor rights adequate support of public education and improving public health and social security federal district head of government andr s manuel l pez obrador a possible prd candidate is the marked favorite in the polls to win the election over candidates proposed by the pan and pri other reforms constitutional and legal changes have been adopted in recent years to improve the performance and accountability of the supreme court and the office of the attorney general and the administration of federal courts the supreme court relieved of administrative duties for lower courts was given responsibilities for judicial review of certain categories of law and legislation a variety of laws also was passed in one nine nine five nine six to help control organized crime failed reforms fox has failed to keep promises with workers labor unions and indigenous groups the two zero commitments he had endorsed during his campaign have fallen by the wayside the program of labor reform instead supported the old congress of labor and confederation of mexican workers which many believe are corrupt another campaign promise was to fight for immigration reforms with the united states but no progress has been made the promise to deliver prosperity has also fallen short with mexico s heavy integration with the united states which has been suffering from a recession and an alleged jobless recovery businesses seeking still lower wages have begun to export jobs from mexico to vietnam and china further adding to workers frustration and hardships even fox s attempts to pass laws aimed at improving the lives of the indigenous population have failed what laws were passed failed to gain support from the zapatistas and other indigenous groups a major obstacle to reform is the pervasiveness of corruption throughout mexico s government society and economy some analysts estimate that the illegal economic sector may make up about two five of mexico s gdp efforts to combat crime have been met by huge protests demanding that the government provide decent paying legitimate jobs first in two zero zero four some legitimate businesses that is the ones that had not fled began to form self help associations like the alliance for a legal mexico chiapas an unresolved sociopolitical conflict still exists in the southernmost state of chiapas in january one nine nine four zapatistas in the state of chiapas briefly took arms against the government protesting alleged oppression and governmental indifference to poverty after one two days of fighting a cease fire was negotiated that remains in effect since one nine nine four sporadic clashes have continued to occur between armed civilian groups usually over disputed land claims as a presidential candidate fox promised to renew dialogue with the ezln and address unresolved problems in the state following his inauguration he ordered many troops out of chiapas dismantled roadblocks closed military bases and submitted revised peace accords to congress nonetheless chiapas has the largest military presence of any other state of the country in august two zero zero one the peace accords became law after having been passed by congress and ratified by more than half of the state legislatures the ezln however has denounced the laws passed as they failed to address certain points of principle this position is seen by some analysts as merely an attempt to prevent the ezln s political presence and influence from being diluted the dialog with the government comissionary has ceased and no official contacts between the ezln and the government have occurred to date early two zero zero five however fox legitimacy and other affairs have pushed the chiapas situation far from the spotlight numerous legal challenges to the accords have been filed and the fox administration has on more than one occasion suggested that modifications may be necessary country name conventional long form united mexican states conventional short form mexico local long form estados unidos mexicanos local short form m xico other data data code mx government type federal republic capital mexico city federal district spanish ciudad de m xico or m xico df the federal district df is a special administrative area that serves as the seat of the federal government government of mexico see main article federal government of the united mexican states administrative divisions three one states estados singular estado and one federal district distrito federal see states of mexico list of mexican state governors independence one six september one eight one zero from spain national holiday independence day one six september one eight one zero constitution five february one nine one seven see one nine one seven constitution of mexico legal system judicial review of legislative acts accepts compulsory icj jurisdiction with reservations suffrage one eight years of age universal and compulsory but not enforced flag description three equal vertical bands of green hoist side white and red the coat of arms an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its mouth is centered in the white band see flag of mexico politics of mexico overview mexico has a free market economy with a mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture increasingly dominated by the private sector the number of state owned enterprises in mexico has fallen from more than one zero zero zero in one nine eight two to fewer than two zero zero in one nine nine nine the administration of president ernesto zedillo ponce de leon continued a policy of privatizing and expanding competition in sea ports railroads telecommunications electricity natural gas distribution and airports which was initiated by his predecessors miguel de la madrid and carlos salinas de gortari a strong export sector helped to cushion the economy s decline in one nine nine five and led the recovery in one nine nine six nine nine private consumption became the leading driver of growth accompanied by increased employment and higher wages mexico still needs to overcome many structural problems as it strives to modernize its economy and raise living standards income distribution is very unequal with the top two zero of income earners accounting for five five of income trade with the us and canada has nearly doubled since nafta was implemented in one nine nine four mexico is pursuing additional trade agreements with most countries in latin america and has signed a free trade deal with the eu to lessen its dependence on the us the government is pursuing conservative economic policies in two zero zero zero to avoid another end of term economic crisis but it still projects an economic growth rate of four five because of the strong us economy and high oil prices mexico is highly dependent on exports to the u s which account for almost a quarter of the country s gdp the result is that the mexican economy is strongly linked to the u s business cycle with the downturn in the u s economy in two zero zero one there was little or no growth in mexico in two zero zero one depending on the strength of the recovery in the u s in two zero zero two growth in mexico in two zero zero two will probably be between one one five mexican trade policy is among the most open in the world with free trade agreements with the united states canada the eu japan and many other countries since the one nine nine four devaluation mexican governments have improved the country s macroeconomic fundamentals moody s in march two zero zero zero and fitch ibca in january two zero zero two have issued investment grade ratings for mexico s sovereign debt the upgrade from fitch ibca was based in part on the determination that mexico has not been significantly affected by contagion from argentina s debt crisis corruption and crime continue to be serious and chronic problems together they may make up as much as two five of mexico s gdp the crime sector is made up of all the usual suspects drug trafficking robbery extortion kidnapping and counterfeiting to protect their interests and to encourage people to move into legal taxpaying economic sectors the resourceful business sector has begun to form self help associations like the alliance for a legal mexico because of the government s continuing financial problems it cannot even adequately subsidize its universities or the basic research that would provide full employment for mexican scientists and engineers and ultimately improve the national economy the college of the northern frontier in tijuana did a survey and estimated that more than one zero zero zero zero zero of the illegal immigrants entering the u s each year are university educated trade mexico is one of the world s most trade dependent countries and it is particularly dependent on trade with the u s which buys approximately eight five of its exports top u s exports to mexico include motor vehicle parts electronic equipment and agricultural products top mexican exports to the u s include petroleum cars and electronic equipment there is considerable intra company trade mexico joined the general agreement on trade and tarriffs gatt in one nine eight six and is now an active and constructive participant in world trade organization wto matters including in the launching of the doha trade round the mexican government and many businesses support a free trade area of the americas given the overall size of trade between mexico and the united states there are remarkably few trade disputes involving relatively small dollar amounts these disputes are generally settled in wto or nafta panels or through negotiations between the two countries the most significant areas of friction involve trucking sugar high fructose corn syrup and a number of other agricultural products agriculture mexico s agrarian reform program began in one nine one seven when the government began distribution of land to farmers extended further in the one nine three zero s delivery of land to peasants continued into the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s at varying rates this cooperative agrarian reform which guaranteed small farmers a means of subsistence livelihood also caused land fragmentation and lack of capital investment since commonly held land could not be used as collateral regionally poor soils several recent years of low rainfall and rural population growth have made it difficult to raise the productivity and living standards of mexico s subsistence farmers there have been programs that provide money to pay off loans and help banks with their debt burdens while high credit costs are still a major problem impeding agricultural development the burden of debt has been reduced high interest rates for loans have compounded the difficulty for producers and the one nine nine four peso crisis exacerbated the decline in productivity agriculture accounted for five eight of gdp in one nine nine nine in an effort to raise rural productivity and living standards article two seven of the mexican constitution was amended in one nine nine two to allow for the transfer of communal land to the farmers cultivating it they then could rent or sell it opening the way for larger farms and economies of scale by early one nine nine six however only six farmers cooperatives had voted to dissolve themselves perhaps because the government provides subsidies for communal land seeded by farmers the subsidy was seven zero eight pesos per hectare in one nine nine nine two zero zero zero and eight two nine pesos per hectare in two zero zero zero zero one since communal land use is formally reviewed only every two years privatization of these communal lands may continue to be very slow in the past the government encouraged production of basic crops such as corn and beans by maintaining support prices in order to stimulate its agricultural sector mexico is restructuring its support price scheme the government in one nine nine six crafted federal to state agreements targeted at each states most urgent needs with the goal of increasing the use of modern equipment and technology in order to increase land productivity in addition to this new initiative the government is continuing procampo the rural support program which provides the approximately three five million farmers who produce basic commodities about six four of all farmers with a fixed payment per unit area of cropland manufacturing and foreign investment manufacturing accounts for about two two of gdp and grew by nine four in two zero zero zero manufacturing probably fell or was stagnant in two zero zero one because exports to the u s probably fell construction grew by almost seven in two zero zero zero but was probably stagnant in two zero zero one foreign direct investment mexico have more money thas the reall true fdi presents a bright picture in the mexican economy in two zero zero zero mexico was the largest recipient of fdi two two five billion in latin america net u s fdi in mexico in two zero zero zero was three two billion and the two zero zero zero u s stock of fdi in mexico was three four five billion u s bea numbers u s fdi is concentrated in the manufacturing mostly maquiladora or in bond plants and financial sectors final numbers for two zero zero one have not been published the largest u s investment in two zero zero one was citigroup s one two two billion acquisition of banamex this investment was the main reason mexico received more fdi than brazil in two zero zero one oil and gas in two zero zero three mexico was the world s fifth largest oil producer its nine th largest oil exporter and the third largest supplier of oil to the united states oil and gas revenues provide about one third of all mexican government revenues mexico s state owned oil company pemex holds a constitutionally established monopoly for the exploration production transportation and marketing of the nation s oil since one nine nine five private investment in natural gas transportation distribution and storage has been permitted but pemex remains in sole control of natural gas exploration and production national accounts gdp gdp by purchasing power parity one zero six five trillion two zero zero five est gdp real growth rate four four two zero zero four three two five three seven five estimated for two zero zero five gdp per capita purchasing power parity one zero zero nine zero two zero zero four est gdp composition by sector two zero zero four est agriculture four industry two six four services six nine poverty and wealth population below poverty line two seven two zero zero five est household income or consumption by percentage share two zero zero two lowest one zero one six highest one zero three five six inflation the inflation rate was three three in two zero zero five budget revenues one four eight three billion expenditures one five two four billion including capital expenditures of na two zero zero four est industries food and beverages tobacco chemicals iron and steel petroleum mining textiles clothing motor vehicles consumer durables tourism industrial production growth rate zero seven two zero zero four est energy electricity production two zero three six twh two zero zero two electricity production by source fossil fuel seven eight seven hydro one four two nuclear four two other two nine two zero zero one electricity consumption one eight nine seven twh two zero zero two electricity exports nine eight six five gwh two zero zero two electricity imports three six seven seven gwh two zero zero two agriculture agriculture products corn wheat soybeans rice beans cotton coffee fruit tomatoes beef poultry dairy products wood products three cross border exports one six four eight billion f o b two zero zero four est exports commodities manufactured goods oil and oil products silver fruits vegetables coffee cotton honey two zero zero four exports partners us eight seven six canada one eight germany one two two zero zero three imports imports one six eight nine billion f o b two zero zero three est imports commodities metal working machines steel mill products agricultural machinery electrical equipment car parts for assembly repair parts for motor vehicles aircraft and aircraft parts imports partners us six one eight china five five japan four five two zero zero three debt debt external one five nine eight billion two zero zero four est economic aid recipient one one six six billion one nine nine five currency one mexican peso mex one zero zero centavos exchange rates mexican pesos per us dollar one zero seven nine four zero nine two nine zero five one one one two five four two eight zero five one one one eight six two zero zero four one zero seven eight nine two zero zero three nine six five six two zero zero two nine three four two three two zero zero one nine four five five six two zero zero zero nine five six zero four one nine nine nine fiscal year calendar year references richard boudreaux deadly journey of hope los angeles times oct one three two zero zero four at a one marla dickerson mexico runs on sidewalk economy los angeles times may nine two zero zero five at a one see also one nine nine four economic crisis in mexico bolsa mexicana de valores ejido gdp of mexico inflation in mexico mexico banco de mexico list of mexican companies external links mexican council for economic and social development mexico development gateway oecd s mexico country web site and oecd economic survey of mexico economy of mexico wto members several large u s telecommunications firms are active in mexico at source presidencia de la republica telephones mobile cellular four four million two zero zero five source inegi telephone system highly developed system with extensive microwave radio relay links privatized in december one nine nine zero opened to competition january one nine nine seven domestic adequate telephone service for business and government but the population is poorly served domestic satellite system with one two zero earth stations extensive microwave radio relay network considerable use of fiber optic cable coaxial cable and mobile cellular service international satellite earth stations three two intelsat two solidaridad giving mexico improved access to south america central america and much of the us as well as enhancing domestic communications numerous inmarsat mobile earth stations linked to central american microwave system of trunk connections high capacity columbus two fiber optic submarine cable with access to the us virgin islands canary islands morocco spain and italy one nine nine seven radio radio broadcast stations one four one zero am eight five zero fm five four five shortwave one five two zero zero one radios three one million one nine nine seven television television broadcast stations six four two of which four six one are under concession and one eight one are under permission another nine zero six are complementary stations two zero zero one televisions two five six million one nine nine seven see also list of mexican television networks internet internet service providers isps one six seven one nine nine nine country code top level domain mx internet users one seven one million two zero zero five online newspapers http www economista com mx http www reforma com http www elnorte com http www jornada unam mx index html http www milenio com http www cronica com mx http www el universal com mx see also mexico communications by country mexican media communications in mexico mexico s land transportation network is one of the most extensive in latin america more than four zero zero zero kilometers two four zero zero mi of four lane highway have been built through government concessions to private sector contractors since one nine eight nine of which three five zero zero kilometers two one zero zero mi have been constructed since one nine nine four the vast majority of these expressways are toll roads like in most other developing countries originally awarded under build operate transfer concession schemes most of these private highways have since been rescued by central government financial intervention to save the operators from bankruptcy the two six six two two km one six two six eight mi of government owned railroads in mexico have been privatized through the sale of five zero year operating concessions in the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s the government allowed the private operators to abandon nearly all passenger rail service a plethora of private intercity bus lines serve the nation passenger rail service to the copper canyon region still operates due to the remote nature of the area and tourist ridership tampico tamaulipas and veracruz veracruz on the gulf of mexico are mexico s two primary seaports recognizing that the low productivity of mexico s one zero eight ports poses a threat to trade development the government has steadily been privatizing port operations to improve their efficiency a number of international airlines serve mexico with direct or connecting flights from most major cities in the united states canada europe japan and latin america most mexican regional capitals and resorts have direct air services to mexico city or the united states airport privatization based on mexico s successful experience with seaports is nearly complete railways see railways in mexico total three one zero four eight km standard gauge three zero nine five eight km one four three five m gauge two four six km electrified narrow gauge nine zero km zero nine one four m gauge one nine nine eight est railway map cities with underground railway system mexico city sct metro guadalajara jalisco monterrey nuevo le n metrorrey railway links with adjacent countries guatemala yes break of gauge one four three five mm nine one four mm belize no united states yes highways see list of mexican federal highways total three two three nine seven seven km paved nine six two two one km including six three three five km of expressways unpaved two two seven seven five six km one nine nine seven est waterways two nine zero zero km navigable rivers and coastal canals pipelines crude oil two eight two zero zero km petroleum products one zero one five zero km natural gas one three two five four km petrochemical one four zero zero km ports and harbors gulf of mexico atlantic ocean tampico veracruz pacific ocean acapulco mazatl n other altamira coatzacoalcos ensenada guaymas la paz l zaro c rdenas manzanillo progreso salina cruz topolobampo tuxpan merchant marine total four six ships one zero zero zero grt or over totaling six three three two one nine grt nine seven zero nine four seven dwt ships by type bulk two cargo one chemical tanker four liquified gas four petroleum tanker two nine roll on roll off three short sea passenger three one nine nine nine est airports one eight zero six one nine nine nine est airports with paved runways total two three three over three zero four seven m one zero two four three eight to three zero four seven m two eight one five two four to two four three seven m eight seven nine one four to one five two three m eight one under nine one four m two seven one nine nine nine est airports with unpaved runways total one five seven three over three zero four seven m one two four three eight to three zero four seven m one one five two four to two four three seven m six three nine one four to one five two three m four seven three under nine one four m one zero three five one nine nine nine est list of airports in mexico general abelardo l rodr guez international airport in tijuana baja california the country s northernmost airport tapachula international airport in tapachula chiapas the southernmost national airlines mexico has two flag carriers instead of one as most countries do aerom xico mexicana de aviaci n heliports two one nine nine nine est see also mexico transportation in mexico the mexican forces are formed by two distinct components instead of the usual three found in most countries the largest best funded and most important is the army which includes the air force as a subordinate entity the second is the navy the two components do not come under a single unified commander at any level below the president that is to say there is no minister of defense as the term is usually understood instead a minister who is a serving officer a four star general in the case of the army and an admiral in the case of the navy heads each of the component parts each minister serves in a dual capacity as a full cabinet member reporting to the president and as the operational commander of his force the presidential guard is a separate entity the ministers are handpicked by the president and may or may not serve in that position for the entire sexenio period of office of the incumbent president one zero in the halcyon days of the pri as ruling party the selection of ministers was generally a pro forma exercise with strict attention being paid to seniority in the past two sexenios however both presidents ernesto zedillo one nine nine four two zero zero zero and vicente fox two zero zero zero to the present strayed from the norm and reached down into more junior levels to select what some have described as more progressive officers to lead the forces during times of change and of course support the president s agenda it is certainly true that since one nine nine five the military as a whole has come under much more intense public scrutiny both domestically and internationally and the challenges to the leadership to permit greater openness better fiscal accountability to the public and more productivity in pursuing new missions will no doubt persist the current ministers general vega garc a and admiral peyrot are considered by most observers to be progressive and academic in nature and background although they have not strayed far from the monolithic image usually associated with the mexican military the public does not get much insight into whatever internal debates one two and dialogue may be occurring within the institution and both services continue to be responsive instead of proactive in terms of public relations the armed forces indeed have developed public access websites but the content of these essentially is limited to basic information returning briefly to the matter of the subordination of the air force to the army it must be pointed out that although there is a defacto air force commander he and his staff are embedded in the army headquarters and an air force officer never has risen to the most trusted senior positions within the hierarchy this subordination has allowed the army to use the term national defense sedena for its organizational structure and general vega garc a and his predecessors have held the title of minister of defense much to the annoyance of the navy organization both the army and navy are organized on a regional dispersion basis there are centralized national headquarters in mexico city and many subordinate regional headquarters historically this has proven to be effective as the military s main employment has been on domestic missions troops are stationed throughout the country to serve as an ongoing presence of authority and to allow for immediate response to crises this regional dispersion also has facilitated programs of local recruitment for noncommissioned members allowing them to stay near their families during their service an important cultural consideration officers on the other hand are expected to be more mobile moving between remote posts and to the center in mexico city with great frequency this provides experience and from an historical context prevents any senior officer from staying too long in one location developing local allegiances and potentially becoming too powerful the current strength of the forces is about two four one zero zero zero enrollment is voluntary although nominally a draft system exists whereby a proportion of young men on their one eight th birthday are selected by lottery those so selected attend weekend training that emphasizes education history physical fitness and discipline these recruits also act as a labor pool for a variety of public works social one three programs such as tree trimming clean up of urban areas painting schools etc officer candidates from all three services are trained in a military college in mexico city for the army in guadalajara for the air force and in veracruz for the navy officer candidates generally are selected from the lower and middle classes and this therefore is seen as a mechanism for upward social mobility for the less privileged and less educated sectors of the population the military colleges are not universities but rather provide significant technical training related to employment after graduation in the various branches of the services great emphasis is also placed on military ethos patriotism honor and loyalty history discipline physical fitness and perpetuating the institution the armed forces among the most respected institutions in the country enjoy a very positive domestic image in the pueblo the army and the air force there are three main components of the army a national headquarters territorial commands and independent units the minister of defense commands the army by means of a very centralized system and a large number of general officers the army uses a modified continental staff system in its headquarters see figure two at present there are one two military regions see figure three which are further broken down into four four subordinate military zones in both cases a numbering system is used for designation there is no set number of zones within a region and these can therefore be tailored to meet operational needs with a corresponding increase or decrease in troop strength chief among the independent troops is an army corps consisting of two mechanized infantry brigades located in mexico city with a full complement of combat and support troops in addition there are two brigades of the corps of military police special forces units presidential guards another motorized brigade and a parachute brigade all located in mexico city where they act as a ready reserve and as centers of excellence the air force as mentioned earlier the air force national headquarters is embedded in the army headquarters in mexico city it also follows the continental staff system with the usual a one a two a three and a four sections the tactical forces form what is loosely called an air division but it is dispersed in four regions northeast northwest central and southern the air force maintains a total of one eight air bases and has the additional capability of opening temporary forward operating bases in austere conditions for some of the rotary wing and light fixedwing assets the navy the ministry of the navy the navy s national headquarters is located in the southern part of the capital mexico city it is a smaller organization than the army s its main components are shown in figure four the junta or council of admirals plays a unique consultative and advisory role within the headquarters an indication of the institutional importance placed on seniority and year groups that go back to the admirals days as cadets in the naval college they are a very tightly knit group and great importance is placed on consultation among the factions within year groups the navy speaks with one voice the navy s operational forces are organized as two independent groups the gulf east force and the pacific west force each group has its own headquarters a destroyer group an auxiliary vessel group a marine infantry group and a special forces group the gulf and pacific forces are not mirror images of each other as independence of organization is permitted both are subdivided into regions with regions one three and five on the gulf and two four and six on the pacific each region is further divided into sectors and zones so a proliferation of headquarters and senior officers exists the navy also has an air arm with troop transport reconnaissance and surveillance aircraft recently the navy has ceded most of its riverine responsibilities formally handled by the marines to the army and has reduced the size of the marine force putting them back aboard ships where they play a vital role in drug interdiction and boarding of suspect vessels in territorial waters the navy maintains some impressive infrastructure including naval dockyards that have the capability of building ships such as the holzinger class gunboats these dockyards have a significant employment and economic impact in country army air force headquarters structure jpg ministry of the navy headquarters size and scope compared to most latin american armies the mexican army is one of the smallest by its numbers and its budget in one nine eight nine it was zero four of the gross internal product in one nine nine nine mexico s military budget had swelled to one of gdp at four billion u s dollars recently the budget has been expanded to accommodate the counterdrug operations and currently has annual expenditures of six zero four three billion two zero zero four according to the cia world factbook mexico s available manpower for military service numbers two four four eight eight zero zero eight males age one eight four nine two zero zero five est with one nine zero five eight three three seven males fit for military service and one zero six three two three three males reaching military service age annually since two zero zero zero females have been allowed to volunteer for military service mexico s armed forces currently number about three zero zero zero zero zero mexico s military is divided into two branches the national defense secretariat includes army and air force and the navy secretariat includes naval air and marines the army makes up about three fourths of the total military army soldiers are armed with the heckler and koch g three rifle currently being replaced by the g three six assault rifle the navy is a completely autonomous cabinet agency mission f five s patch the mexican army works around three preparedness missions or plans dn one preparation of the military forces to repel external aggressions no military armed force can leave mexican territory without a declaration of war and approval of the congress the last time this was invoked was in one nine four two to send an expeditionary force to the philippines after war was declared against germany and japan following the sinking of two mexican ships by u boats in one nine nine zero president carlos salinas de gortari asked the permission of the congress to send troops to the gulf war but it was refused since there was no declaration of war against iraq dn two preparation of the military forces to protect the internal security of the country this would include police actions against guerrilla forces counterdrug operations and originally political control up to one nine seven zero the mexican army had been used as as a repressive force to maintain the virtual dictatorship of the single party pri government the most controversial use of the military had been called the dirty war against communism in the one nine six zero s which included the one nine six eight tlatelolco massacre of students and unexpecting bystanders after one nine eight zero these types of operations had nearly completely ceased see ezln dn three defense against natural disasters the army should always be ready to help the civil population in case of disaster this include preventive measures for example between august and november military forces are sent to mexican coastal areas to aid the public in the event of hurricanes or floods for the mexican people the dn three plan is the most important operation of the army the army provides food shelter medicine and medical services to the people that need them this also includes recontruction of roads and communication services a point of controversy is why the army did not apply the dn three plan after the one nine eight five mexico city earthquake that left large areas of mexico city in ruins this was due mainly to political reasons but demonstrates how the mexican army is subject to civil powers conscription troops from the one st army corps the lottery each year the mexican military recruiters require all mexican males that reached the age of majority of one eight in the previous one two months to appear at a designated military recruitment center in their local municipality a lottery is held to determine randomly who will be assigned either army service navy service or be excused from service completely the lottery formerly took the form for example of all men in attendance standing at attention for hours while each man s name is called during which a child pulled a ball out of a bag the color of which will determine each conscriptee s fate nowadays the selection is made by a computer program but the results are still being called as usual white ball army service attendance black ball no service attendance or blue ball navy marines service attendance a document called cartilla del servicio militar nacional or simply cartilla is produced at this event where the result is recorded this document is an important identification and its existence is almost always requested by private and public employers however this document has recently stopped to be a requirement for getting a passport and thus travelling internationally career soldiers while all mexican males are require by law to give military service for a period of one year those services are civil and require only a few hours on weekends and do not imply any military training except drills most mexicans for example that have been recruited into the military have never touched a gun by the time their civil service is complete the one nine eight six class of the smn servicio militar nacional national military service was the last one to be oriented for social purposes the smn was recently restructured and the conscripts are receiving a better glimpse of a true military education the one nine eight seven class presently serving will be the first class in many years to receive actual firearm training the members of the army that remain in the military after their mandatory period of service are volunteers who chose the army as their job limitations similar to the united states posse comitatus act article one two nine of the one nine one seven mexican constitution dictates that no military authority may in time of peace perform any functions other than those that are directly connected with military affairs but the use of the army to replace police temporarily in some cases of corruption has been hotly debated similar to the third amendment to the united states constitution article two six of the one nine one seven constitution of mexico no member of the army shall in time of peace be quartered in private dwellings without the consent of the owner nor may he impose any obligation whatsoever in time of war the military may demand lodging equipment provisions and other assistance in the manner laid down in the respective martial law military law article one two three of the one nine one seven mexican constitution dictates that military and naval personnel and members of the public security corps and personnel of the foreign service shall be governed by their own laws secrecy politically the army mantains a very low profile while as recently as a few decades ago there were restrictions upon mentioning the army or army ranks in the media tv newspapers etc only in the last decade have the mexican people became more aware of the activities of the army activities outside mexico united nations peacekeeping huracan three zero one launching a gabriel missile mexican marines as of two zero zero five intervention in un peacekeeping operations is being discussed but with the current political composition of the congress it is unlikely to be a approved disaster relief the mexican army has travelled to mainly central american countries to provide aid in disaster relief hurricane katrina relief in september two zero zero five mexican army convoys traveled to the u s to help in the hurricane katrina relief effort mexican army convoys and a navy ship laden with food supplies and specialists traveled to the united states including military specialists doctors nurses and engineers carrying water treatment plants mobile kitchens food and blankets the convoy represents the first mexican military unit to operate on u s soil since one eight four six when mexican troops briefly marched into texas which had separated from mexico and joined the united states see also fuerzas especiales grupo aerom vil de fuerzas especiales grupo aerom vil de fuerzas especiales del alto mando mexican air force mexican military ranks military history of mexico brigada de fusileros paracaidistas ixtoc alfa mexican response to hurricane katrina mexican special forces external links national defense secretariat navy secretariat http www fasoc cl files articulo art four one one seven e two nine seven eight fedb pdf unofficial military forum mexican armed forces photo album of the mexican military from militaryphotos net references mexico plans to refocus navy role article from www janes com cia world factbook the mexican armed forces in transition jordi d ez ian nicholls militaries military of mexico traditionally the government of mexico has sought to maintain its interests abroad and project its influence largely through moral persuasion in particular mexico champions the principles of nonintervention and self determination in its efforts to revitalize its economy and open up to international competition mexico has sought closer relations with the u s western europe and the pacific basin while the united states and mexico are often in agreement on foreign policy issues some differences remain in particular relations with cuba the u s and mexico agree on the ultimate goal of establishing a democratic free market regime in cuba but disagree on tactics to reach that goal vicente fox the mexican president as of two zero zero zero has promised to more actively promote international human rights and democracy and increase mexico s participation in international affairs free trade agreements mexico is currently the country with most free trade agreements in the world the free trade agreements in force are ordered by date nafta north american free trade agreement one nine nine four canada and the united states of america colombia and venezuela also called g three free trade agreement one nine nine five costa rica free trade agreement one nine nine five bolivia free trade agreement one nine nine five nicaragua free trade agreement one nine nine eight chile free trade agreement one nine nine nine eu european union free trade agreement two zero zero zero israel free trade agreement two zero zero zero mexico guatemala el salvador and honduras also called tn free trade agreement two zero zero one iceland norway liechtenstein and switzerland also called aelc asociaci n europea de libre comercio free trade agreement two zero zero one uruguay free trade agreement two zero zero four japan free trade agreement two zero zero five mercosur free trade agreement pendant ratification participation in international organizations secretar a de relaciones exteriores foreign affairs secretariat mexico official agreements webpage sice trade agreements mexico from the oas foreign relations of mexico location of micronesia micronesia from the ancient greek small and island is the name of a region in the pacific ocean the philippines lie to the west indonesia to the south west papua new guinea and melanesia to the south and polynesia to the south east and east geography and history this region of oceania consists of many hundreds of small islands spread over a large region of the western pacific the only empire known to have originated in micronesia was based in yap the term micronesia was first proposed to distinguish the region in one eight three one by jules dumont d urville before this the term polynesia was in use to generally describe the islands of the pacific politically micronesia is divided between eight territories the federated states of micronesia sometimes referred to simply as micronesia or alternatively abbreviated fsm the republic of the marshall islands the republic of palau the commonwealth of the northern mariana islands the republic of nauru the republic of kiribati the territory of guam the territory of wake island much of the area was to come under european domination quite early guam the northern marianas and the caroline islands what would later become the fsm and palau were colonized early on by the spanish full european expansion did not come however until the late one nine th century when the area would be divided between the united states which took guam and wake island germany which took nauru and the marshall caroline and northern mariana islands and the british empire which took the gilbert islands kiribati during the first world war germany s pacific island territories were taken from it and were made into league of nations mandates nauru became an australian mandate while germany s other territories were given as mandates to japan this remained the situation until japan s defeat in the second world war when its mandates became a united nations trusteeship ruled by the united states the trust territory of the pacific islands today all of micronesia with the exceptions of guam the northern mariana islands and wake island which are u s territories are independent states languages the native languages of the various micronesian indigenous peoples are classified under the austronesian language family almost all of these languages belong to the oceanic subgroup of this family however three exceptions are noted in western micronesia which belong to the western malayo polynesian subgroup chamorro in the mariana islands yapese in the federated states of micronesia and palauan in palau this latter subgroup also includes quite a few languages spoken today in the philippines malaysia and indonesia kirch two zero zero zero pp one six six one six seven on the eastern edge of the federated states of micronesia the languages nukuoro and kapingamarangi represent an extreme westward extension of polynesian see also micronesian music references external links map of micronesia moon handbooks micronesia mymicronesia com micronesia conservation and nature islands biodiversity hotspots micronesia oceania moldavian coat of arms carved on the walls of m n stirea cetatuia in iasi origins of the name main article etymology of moldova image discovered from the stoves remains in neamt fortress showing zubr aurochs the coat of arms of moldova and the broken coat of arms of the kingdom of hungary according to a legend from cronica anonim a moldovei the name moldova has following origin during one of his wisent hunting trips voivod of maramure drago was folloving a huge zubr or aurochs the animal was not usual as it had a star on his forehead drago was accompained by his dog called molda when they reached shores of an unknown river molda attacked zubr but was killed by him according to the legend drago called the river molda and from here came the name for the whole county drago became the first ruler of the territory one three five one one three five three from those times a head of zubr with star between his horn is on a symbol of moldavia see photo early history moldova s latin origins can be traced to the period of roman occupation of nearby dacia in present day romania bulgaria and serbia ca a d one zero five two seven zero when a culture was formed from the intermingling of roman colonists and the local population after the overextended roman empire withdrew its troops from the region in a d two seven one a number of groups passed often violently through the area including the huns the ostrogoths and the slavic antes the bulgarians the magyars the pechenegs and the golden horde mongols also held sway temporarily in the one three th century the kingdom of hungary expanded into the area and established a line of fortifications in moldova near the siret river in present day romania and beyond the region came under hungarian suzerainty when prince dragos was sent by the hungaria king to establish a defense line against the tartars it remained so until an independent moldavian principality was established by bogdan i of moldavia in one three four nine originally called bogdania the principality stretched from the carpathian mountains to the nistru river and was later renamed moldavia moldova in romania after the moldova river in present day romania medieval history moldavian flag in battle as illustrated in johannes de thurocz one four eight eight edition battle of obertyn against the polish depicted by one five six four polski kronika in the years one three eight seven one four nine seven moldavia was a fief of polish crown the greatest moldavian prince was tefan cel mare or stefan the great ruled one four five seven one five zero four with his army of boyars and retainers stefan fought off invasions from the ottoman empire the kingdom of poland and the crimean tatars stefan fought three six major battles where his greatest victory was that over the ottomans at the battle of vaslui he suffered only two defeats and at the end of his reign moldavia had kept her independence although an annual tribute was made to the ottomans moldavia however then experienced a slump weak princes let incompetent boyars rule the state because the boyars did not pay taxes the state became bankrupt moldavia succumbed to ottoman power in one five one two becoming a vassal of the empire for the next three zero zero years in addition to paying tribute to the ottoman empire and later acceding to the selection of local rulers by ottoman authorities moldavia suffered repeated invasions by ottomans crimean tatars and russians commonwealth interventions main article magnate wars in moldavia in the beginning of the one seven th century magnates of the polish lithuanian commonwealth intervened in the affairs of moldavia clashing with the ottomans for dominance over the territory eventually poland renouced any claims to moldavia in the one six one zero s russian expansion in one seven nine two the treaty of iasi forced the ottoman empire to cede all of its holdings in what is now transnistria to the russian empire an expanded bessarabia named after the wallachian ruler basarab i was incorporated into the russian empire following the russo turkish war one eight zero six one eight one two according to the terms of the treaty of bucharest of one eight one two after russia s defeat in the crimean war one eight five three one eight five six the treaty of paris stipulated that moldavia and wallachia were to be placed under the collective guarantee of the seven powers that signed the treaty as well as the retrocession to moldova of southern bessarabia ismail bolgrad kahul counties in one eight five nine moldavia united with wallachia by the election of alexander john cuza as prince of both wallachia and moldavia laying the foundations for modern romania by the treaty of berlin one eight seven eight the romanian government ceded budjak southern bessarabia to the russian empire beginning of the soviet period after the russian revolution of one nine one seven and the declaration of rights of peoples of russia encouraged the various nationalities in the russian empire to gain their independence moldova became an independent republic on december two one nine one seven on the request of the new moldovan administration sfatul t rii on december one three romanian troops entered bessarabia on march two seven one nine one eight there was a vote for the unification with romania after the creation of the soviet union in december one nine two two the soviet government moved in one nine two four to establish the moldavian autonomous oblast on east lands of the nistru river in the ukrainian ssr the capital of the oblast was at balta in present day ukraine seven months later the oblast was upgraded to the moldavian autonomous soviet socialist republic moldavian assr even though its population was only three zero ethnic romanian the capital remained at balta until one nine two nine when it was moved to tiraspol world war ii formerly ruled by romania as part of the principality of moldavia eastern moldova was occupied by the soviet union with consent from nazi germany in one nine four zero as a consequence of a secret protocol attached to the one nine three nine nazi soviet pact on two august one nine four zero the soviet government created the moldavian soviet socialist republic moldavian ssr with its capital at chisinau kishin v in russian by joining most of eastern moldavia known as bessarabia during its occupation by the russian empire with a portion of the moldavian assr the rest was assigned to the ukrainian ssr in creating the moldovan ssr eastern moldavia bessarabia was once again divided severely undermining its historical and economic integrity several southern regions and access points to the black sea through the mouth of the danube river the city of izmail and nistru estuary the city of bilhorod dnistrovs kyi were ceded to ukraine leaving the moldavian ssr landlocked in june one nine four one a year after the soviet unions occupied eastern moldavia german and romanian troops attacked the soviet union the nazis gave romania their ally not only eastern moldavia bessarabia and northern bukovina but also the land between the dniester nistru and bug pivdennyy buh yuzhnyy bug in russian rivers north to bar in ukraine which romania named and administered as transnistria this arrangement lasted until august one nine four four when soviet forces reoccupied eastern moldavia bessarabia and transnistria in one nine four seven bessarabia northern bukovina and transnistria were incorporated as the moldavian ssr into the soviet union and the previous soviet administrative divisions and russian placenames were reimposed postwar reestablishment of soviet control the territory stayed within the ussr after wwii as the moldavian soviet socialist republic and the state had a brutal denationalization policy toward the native romanian population the soviets massacred imprisoned and deported to siberia almost a million innocent people whose crime was just trying to change the population structure of moldova secret police struck at nationalist groups the cyrillic alphabet was imposed on the moldavian language and ethnic russians and ukrainians were encouraged to immigrate to the moldavian ssr especially to transnistria the government s policies requisitioning large amounts of agricultural products despite a poor harvest induced a famine following the catastrophic drought of one nine four five one nine four seven and political communist party and academic positions were given to members of non romanian ethnic groups only one four of the moldavian ssr s political leaders were ethnic romanians in one nine four six the ethnic cleansing was especially directed against the romanian intellectuals that decided to stay in moldova after the war and propaganda was made against everything that was romanian the conditions imposed during the reestablishment of soviet rule became the basis of deep resentment toward soviet authorities a resentment that soon manifested itself during leonid i brezhnev s one nine five zero one nine five two tenure as first secretary of the communist party of moldavia cpm he put down a rebellion of ethnic romanians by killing or deporting thousands of people and instituting forced collectivization although brezhnev and other cpm first secretaries were largely successful in suppressing moldavian nationalism the hostility of moldavians smoldered for another three decades until after mikhail s gorbachev came to power his policies of glasnost and perestroika created conditions in which national feelings could be openly expressed and in which the soviet republics could consider reforms increasing self expression in this climate of openness political self assertion escalated in the moldavian ssr in one nine eight eight the year one nine eight nine saw the formation of the moldovan popular front commonly called the popular front an association of independent cultural and political groups that had finally gained official recognition large demonstrations by ethnic romanians led to the designation of romanian as the official language and the replacement of the head of the cpm however opposition was growing to the increasing influence of ethnic romanians especially in transnistria where the yedinstvo unitatea unity intermovement had been formed in one nine eight eight by the slavic minorities and in the south where gagauz halk gagauz people formed in november one nine eight nine came to represent the gagauz a turkic speaking minority there see ethnic composition this ch the first democratic elections to the moldavian ssr s supreme soviet were held two five february one nine nine zero runoff elections were held in march the popular front won a majority of the votes after the elections mircea snegur a communist was elected chairman of the supreme soviet in september he became president of the republic the reformist government that took over in may one nine nine zero made many changes that did not please the minorities including changing the republic s name in june from the moldavian soviet socialist republic to the soviet socialist republic of moldova and declaring it sovereign the same month secession of gagauzia and transnistria in august the gagauz declared a separate gagauz republic gagauz yeri in the south around the city of comrat in september the people on the east bank of the nistru river with mostly slavic population proclaimed the dnestr moldavian republic commonly called the dnestr republic in transnistria with its capital at tiraspol although the supreme soviet immediately declared these declarations null both republics went on to hold elections stepan topal was elected president of the gagauz republic in december one nine nine one and igor n smirnov was elected president of the dnestr republic in the same month approximately five zero zero zero zero armed moldovan nationalist volunteers went to transnistria where widespread violence was temporarily averted by the intervention of the russian one four th army the soviet one four th army now the russian one four th army had been headquartered in chisinau under the high command of the southwestern theater of military operations since one nine five six negotiations in moscow among the gagauz the transnistrian slavs and the government of the soviet socialist republic of moldova failed and the government refused to join in further negotiations in may one nine nine one the country s official name was changed to the republic of moldova republica moldova the name of the supreme soviet also was changed to the moldovan parliament independence during the one nine nine one august coup d tat in moscow against mikhail gorbachev commanders of the soviet union s southwestern theater of military operations tried to impose a state of emergency in moldova they were overruled by the moldovan government which declared its support for russian president boris yeltsin who led the counter coup in moscow on two seven august one nine nine one following the coup s collapse moldova declared its independence from the soviet union in october moldova began to organize its own armed forces the soviet union was falling apart quickly and moldova had to rely on itself to prevent the spread of violence from the dnestr republic to the rest of the country the december elections of stepan topal and igor smirnov as presidents of their respective republics and the official dissolution of the soviet union at the end of the year led to increased tensions in moldova at the end of one nine nine one an ex communist reformer mircea snegur won an election for the presidency four months later the country achieved formal recognition as an independent state at the united nations following independence in one nine nine one the romanian tricolor with a coat of arms was used as flag and de teapt te rom ne the romanian anthem also became the anthem of moldova in those times it was widely expected in both countries that they were to be united soon a movement for unification of romania and the republic of moldova began in each country in one nine nine two moldova was involved in a short term war against russian armed forces and ukrainian kazak units in transnistria a ceasefire for the transnistrian war was negotiated by presidents mircea snegur and yeltsin in july a demarcation line was to be maintained by a tripartite peacekeeping force composed of moldovan russian and transnistrian forces and moscow agreed to withdraw its one four th army if a suitable constitutional provision were made for transnistria also transnistria would have a special status within moldova and would have the right to secede if moldova decided to reunite with romania post independence one nine nine three to one nine nine eight starting one nine nine three moldova began to distance itself from romania the constitution adopted in one nine nine four used the term moldovan language instead of romanian and changed the national anthem to limba noastr new parliamentary elections were held in moldova on two seven february one nine nine four although the election was described by international observers as free and fair authorities in transnistria did not allow balloting there and made efforts to discourage the inhabitants from participating only some seven five zero zero inhabitants voted at specially established precincts in right bank moldova the new parliament with its democratic agrarian party of moldova majority did not face the same gridlock that characterized the old parliament with its majority of popular front hard line nationalists legislation was passed and changes were made president snegur signed the partnership for peace agreement of the north atlantic treaty organization nato in march one nine nine four a march one nine nine four referendum saw an overwhelming majority of voters favoring continued independence in april parliament approved moldova s membership in the commonwealth of independent states cis see glossary and in a cis charter on economic union on two eight july parliament ratified a new constitution which went into effect two seven august one nine nine four and provided substantial autonomy to transnistria and to gagauzia russia and moldova signed an agreement in october one nine nine four on the withdrawal of russian troops from transnistria but the russian government did not ratify it another stalemate ensued although the cease fire remained in effect further negotiations that included the conference on security and cooperation in europe and the united nations made little progress in march and april one nine nine five moldovan college and secondary school students staged a series of strikes and demonstrations in chisinau to protest the government s cultural and educational policies the students were joined by others protesting for economic reasons the most emotional issue was that of the national language should it be moldovan as named in the one nine nine four constitution or romanian in an two seven april speech to parliament president snegur asked parliament to amend the constitution and change the name of the language to romanian the government s final decision was postponed until the fall of one nine nine five because of the stipulation that six months must pass before a proposed change to the constitution can be made the student demonstrators declared a moratorium on further strikes until six september the one nine nine six attempt by president snegur to change the official language to romanian was dismissed by the moldovan parliament as promoting romanian expansionism the partnership some members of the organization who nevertheless entered the country were deported as a consequence russian moldovan ties greatly weakened and the nation is split between building ties with the west or with russia see also moldavia history of romania bessarabia history of europe history of moldova history of romania physical map of moldova political map of moldova satellite image of moldova in september two zero zero three located in southeastern europe moldova is bordered on the west by romania and on the north south and east by ukraine most of its territory lies between the area s two main rivers the dniester and the prut the dniester forms a small part of moldova s border with ukraine in the northeast but it mainly flows through the eastern part of the country separating bessarabia and transnistria the prut river forms moldova s entire western boundary with romania it is the second smallest of the former soviet republics and the most densely populated moldova s economy resembles those of the central asian republics rather than those of the other states on the western edge of the former soviet union location eastern europe northeast of romania geographic coordinates map references commonwealth of independent states area total three three eight four three sq km land three three three seven one sq km water four seven two sq km area comparative slightly larger than maryland usa land boundaries total one three eight nine km border countries romania four five zero km ukraine nine three nine km coastline zero km landlocked maritime claims none landlocked climate moldova s proximity to the black sea gives it a mild and sunny climate moldova s climate is moderately continental the summers are warm and long with temperatures averaging about two zero c and the winters are relatively mild and dry with january temperatures averaging four c annual rainfall which ranges from around six zero zero millimeters in the north to four zero zero millimeters in the south can vary greatly long dry spells are not unusual the heaviest rainfall occurs in early summer and again in october heavy showers and thunderstorms are common because of the irregular terrain heavy summer rains often cause erosion and river silting terrain most of moldova s territory covers a hilly plain cut deeply by many streams and rivers geologically moldova lies primarily on deep sedimentary rock that gives way to harder crystalline outcroppings only in the north where higher elevations are found on the margins of the foothills of the carpathian mountains the gently rolling balti plain stepa balti in romanian bel tskaya ravnina in russian in northern moldova lying at ninety to six zero zero meters in elevation in the north gives way to thick deciduous forests in the codri hills podisul codrilor in romanian kodry in russian averaging three five zero to four zero zero meters in elevation where the most common trees are hornbeam oak linden maple wild pear and wild cherry the country s highest point mount balanesti balaneshty in russian is located in the west central portion of the country and reaches four three zero meters the budjak plain in the south has numerous ravines and gullies transnistria has spurs of the volhynia podolian upland podisul podolie in romanian volyno podil s ka vysochyna in ukrainian which are cut into by tributaries of the dniester river about seven five percent of moldova is covered by a soil type called chernozem or black earth in the northern highlands more claytextured soils are found in the south red earth soil is predominant the soil becomes less fertile toward the south but can still support grape and sunflower production the uplands have woodland soils while southern moldova is in the steppe zone although most steppe areas today are cultivated the lower reaches of the prut river and the southern river valleys are saline marshes drainage in moldova is to the south toward the black sea lowlands and eventually into the black sea but only eight rivers extend more than one zero zero kilometers moldova s main river the dniester is navigable throughout almost the entire country and in warmer winters it does not freeze over the prut river is a tributary of the danube river which it joins at the far southwestern tip of the country elevation extremes lowest point dniester river two m highest point dealul balanesti four three zero m natural resources lignite phosphorites gypsum arable land land use arable land five three permanent crops one four permanent pastures one three forests and woodland one three other seven one nine nine three est irrigated land three one one zero sq km one nine nine three est natural hazards landslides five seven cases in one nine nine eight environment current issues moldova s communist era environmental legacy like that of many other former soviet republics is one of environmental degradation agricultural practices such as overuse of pesticides herbicides and artificial fertilizers were intended to increase agricultural output at all costs without regard for the consequences as a result moldova s soil and groundwater were contaminated by lingering chemicals some of which including ddt have been banned in the west such practices continue in moldova to the present day in the early one nine nine zero s use of pesticides in moldova averaged approximately twenty times that of other former soviet republics and western nations in addition poor farming methods such as destroying forests to plant vineyards have contributed to the extensive soil erosion to which the country s rugged topography is already prone environment international agreements party to air pollution biodiversity climate change desertification hazardous wastes ozone layer protection signed but not ratified air pollution persistent organic pollutants geography note landlocked see also moldova list of cities in moldova geography of moldova geography by country demographics of moldova data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands general although moldova is by far the most densely populated of the former soviet republics one two nine inhabitants per square kilometer in one nine nine zero compared with thirteen inhabitants per square kilometer for the soviet union as a whole it has few large cities the largest and most important of these is chisinau the country s capital and its most important industrial center founded in one four two zero chisinau is located in the center of the republic on the b c russian in russian river and in one nine nine zero had a population of six seven six zero zero zero the city s population was slightly more than five zero ethnic moldovans with ethnic russians constituting approximately two five and ukrainians one three the proportion of ethnic russians and ukrainians in the capital s population decreased in the years immediately after one nine eight nine because of the emigration resulting from moldova s changing political situation and civil unrest in two zero zero four the city had seven one six zero zero zero people due to large emigrations of russians and ukrainains in the early nineties moldovans romanians have become a decisive majority comprising over seven zero of the total population of the city russians come second with one three seven ukrainians bulgarians jews gagauzians and others comprise the rest the second largest city in the republic tiraspol had a population of one eight four zero zero zero in one nine nine zero it is located in transnistria and served as the capital of the moldavian assr from one nine two nine to one nine four zero it has remained an important center of administration transportation and manufacturing in contrast to chisinau tiraspol had a population of only some one eight ethnic moldovans with most of the remainder being ethnic russians four one and ukrainians three two due to deportations during the one nine nine two war between moldova and the brakeaway republic of transnistria it is reported that the moldovan population has gone down to one three other important cities include balti bel tsy in russian with a population of one six two zero zero zero in one nine nine zero and bender or bendery in russian tighina in moldovan with a population of one three two zero zero zero in the same year as in tiraspol ethnic moldovans used to be a minority in this city as well nevertheless in the one five years since moldova achieved independence the population of belti has undergone many changes one of them being that moldovans have managed to become the majority population in that city as well traditionally a rural country moldova gradually began changing its character under soviet rule as urban areas became the sites of new industrial jobs and of amenities such as clinics the population of cities and towns grew the new residents were not only ethnic moldovans who had moved from rural areas but also many ethnic russians and ukrainians who had been recruited to fill positions in industry and government see ethnic composition this ch in one nine nine zero moldova s divorce rate of three zero divorces per one zero zero zero population had risen from the one nine eight seven rate of two seven divorces per one zero zero zero population see table nine appendix a the usual stresses of marriage were exacerbated by a society in which women were expected to perform most of the housework in addition to their work outside the home compounding this were crowded housing conditions with their resulting lack of privacy and no doubt the growing political crisis which added its own strains one of moldova s characteristic traits is its ethnic diversity as early as the beginning of the eighteenth century moldovan prince and scholar dimitrie cantemir observed that he didn t believe that there existed a single country of the size of moldavia in which so many and such diverse peoples meet at the time of the one nine eight nine census moldova s total population was four three three five four zero zero the largest nationality in the republic ethnic moldovans romanians numbered two seven nine five zero zero zero persons accounting for six four five of the population the other major nationalities were ukrainians about six zero zero zero zero zero one four russians about five six two zero zero zero one three zero gagauz about one five three zero zero zero four bulgarians about eight eight zero zero zero two and jews about six six zero zero zero two zero there were also smaller but appreciable numbers of belarusians poles roma gypsies and germans in the population in contrast in transnistria ethnic moldovans romanians accounted for only four zero of the population in one nine eight nine followed by ukrainians two eight russians two five bulgarians two and gagauz one in the early one nine nine zero s there was significant emigration from the republic primarily from urban areas and primarily by moldovan minorities in one nine nine zero persons emigrating accounted for six eight of the population this figure rose to one zero in one nine nine one before dropping sharply to two in one nine nine two ethnic moldovans made up a sizable proportion of the urban population in one nine eight nine about half the population of chisinau for example as well as a large proportion of the rural population eight zero but only two three of the ethnic moldovans lived in the republic s ten largest cities many had emigrated to romania at the end of world war ii and others had lost their lives during the war and in postwar soviet purges as a consequence of industrial growth and the soviet government s policy of diluting and russifying ethnic moldovans there was significant immigration to the moldavian ssr by other nationalities especially ethnic russians and ukrainians unlike ethnic moldovans ethnic russians tend to be urban dwellers in moldova more than seven two of them lived in the ten largest cities in one nine eight nine many of them came to the moldavian ssr after it was annexed by the soviet government in one nine four zero more arrived after world war ii ostensibly they came to alleviate the moldavian ssr s postwar labor shortage although thousands of ethnic moldovans were being deported to central asia at the time and to fill leadership positions in industry and the government the russians settled mainly in chisinau and bender and in the transnistrian cities of tiraspol and dubasari dubossary in russian only about two five of moldova s russians lived in transnistria in the early one nine nine zero s demographic data from the cia world factbook two zero zero zero population four four three zero six five four july two zero zero zero est age structure zero one four years two three male five two three three seven three female five zero five zero six four one five six four years six seven male one four two two four seven zero female one five four four one six nine six five years and over one zero male one six one six five nine female two seven three nine one nine two zero zero zero est population growth rate zero two zero zero zero est birth rate one two eight six births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate one two five eight deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate zero three one migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero four male s female one five six four years zero nine two male s female six five years and over zero five nine male s female total population zero nine one male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate four three three two deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population six four four five years male five nine nine two years female six nine two two years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate one six three children born woman two zero zero zero est demographic data from the cia world factbook two zero zero five population four four five five four two one july two zero zero five est age structure zero one four years two zero two male four five nine four five two female four four two seven two five one five six four years six nine five male one four eight nine eight one three female one six zero six two zero two six five years and over one zero three male one six nine zero three eight female two eight eight one nine one two zero zero five est median age total three two two two years male three zero one four years female three four two seven years two zero zero five est population growth rate zero two two two zero zero five est birth rate one five two seven births one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est death rate one two seven nine deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est net migration rate zero two five migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero four male s female one five six four years zero nine three male s female six five years and over zero five nine male s female total population zero nine one male s female two zero zero five est infant mortality rate total four zero four two deaths one zero zero zero live births male four three one one deaths one zero zero zero live births female three seven five eight deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero five est life expectancy at birth total population six five one eight years male six one one two years female six nine four three years two zero zero five est total fertility rate one eight one children born woman two zero zero five est hiv aids adult prevalence rate zero two two zero zero one est hiv aids people living with hiv aids five five zero zero two zero zero one est hiv aids deaths less than three zero zero two zero zero one est literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population nine nine one male nine nine six female nine eight seven two zero zero three est ethnic groups the preliminary results of the two zero zero four moldovan census report the ethnic distribution as follows moldovans seven six one ukrainians eight four russians five eight gagauz four four romanians two one bulgarians one nine others one three religions eastern orthodox nine eight five judaism one five baptist only about one zero zero zero members one nine nine one the soviet government strictly limited the activities of the orthodox church and all religions and at times sought to exploit it with the ultimate goal of destroying it and all religious activity most orthodox churches and monasteries in moldova were demolished or converted to other uses such as warehouses and clergy were sometimes punished for leading services but many believers continued to practice their faith in secret in one nine nine one moldova had eight five three orthodox churches and eleven orthodox monasteries four for monks and seven for nuns in addition the old russian orthodox church old believers see glossary had fourteen churches and one monastery in moldova before soviet power was established in moldova the vast majority of ethnic moldovans belonged to the romanian orthodox church bucharest patriarchate but today the russian orthodox church moscow patriarchate has jurisdiction in moldova russian romanian and turkic gagauz liturgies are used in the church after the recent revival of religious activity most of the clergy and the faithful wanted to return to the bucharest patriarchate but were prevented from doing so because higher level church authorities were unable to resolve the matter moldova now has two episcopates one for each patriarchate in late one nine nine two the patriarch of moscow and all russia issued a decree upgrading the eparchy of chisinau and moldova to a metropolitan moldova also has a uniate minority mainly among ethnic ukrainians although the soviet government declared the uniate church illegal in one nine four six and forcibly united it with the russian orthodox church the uniate church survived underground however outlasting the soviet union itself despite the soviet government s suppression and ongoing harassment moldova s jews managed to retain their religious identity about a dozen jewish newspapers were started in the early one nine nine zero s and religious leaders opened a synagogue in chisinau there were six jewish communities of worship throughout the country in addition moldova s government created the department of jewish studies at chisinau state university mandated the opening of a jewish high school in chisinau and introduced classes in judaism in high schools in several cities the government also provides financial support to the society for jewish culture other religious denominations in moldova are the armenian apostolic church seventh day adventists baptists pentecostals and molokans a russian orthodox sect citizens in independent moldova have much greater religious freedom than they did under the soviet regime legislation passed in one nine nine two guaranteed religious freedom but did require that all religious groups be officially recognized by the government in one nine nine two construction or restoration of two two one churches was under way but clergy remained in short supply languages moldovan official the same as the romanian language russian gagauz a turkic language dialect the moldovan dialect of romanian spoken by the majority of the people of bessarabia was viewed by both the russian empire and the soviet union as an impediment to controlling the local populace under the tsars romanian language education and the romanian press were forbidden as part of a process of forced russification proper names in moldova were subjected to russianization as well russian endings were added to purely romanian names and individuals were referred to in the russian manner by using a patronymic based on one s father s first name as a middle name in one nine eight nine members of most of the moldavian ssr s nationalities claimed their national language as their mother tongue moldovans nine five ukrainians six two russians nine nine gagauz nine one bulgarians seven nine and roma eight two the exceptions were jews two six citing yiddish belarusians four three germans three one and poles one zero although both moldavian written in the cyrillic alphabet and russian were the official languages of the moldavian ssr only six two of the total population claimed moldavian as their native language in one nine seven nine if ethnic romanians are subtracted from this number the figure falls to just over one only four of the entire population claimed moldovan as a second language in one nine seven nine russian was claimed as a native language by a large proportion of jews six six and ethnic belarusians six two and by a significant proportion of ethnic ukrainians three zero proportions of other nationalities naming russian as a native language ranged from one seven of ethnic bulgarians to three of ethnic moldovans urban moldovans were more russianized than rural moldovans russian was claimed as a second language by a sizable proportion of all the nationalities moldovans four six ukrainians four three gagauz six eight jews three zero bulgarians six seven belarusians three four germans five three roma three six and poles two four on august three one one nine eight nine the supreme soviet of moldavia passed the law on state language which made moldovan written in the latin alphabet the state language of the moldavian ssr because of pressure exerted by non moldovan ethnic groups russian was retained as the language of interethnic communication in areas where non moldovan ethnic groups were the majority the language of that majority could also be used as a means of communication because of strong objections raised by the non moldovan nationalities implementation of the law was delayed the new moldovan constitution adopted august two seven one nine nine four states that moldovan written in the latin script is designated as the official language but provisions were made for russian and other languages to be used in areas of minority concentrations russian was also to be the language of interethnic communication on april two seven one nine nine five president snegur asked parliament to change the name of the language in the constitution from moldovan to romanian in response to demonstrations and strikes led by students according to moldovan law it would be six months before a proposed change to the constitution could be made literacy definition age one five and over can read and write see also moldova external links rumanian national identity in the republic of moldova arianna montanari two zero zero four cenus demographics by country ethnic groups in europe moldovan society politics of moldova takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic whereby the prime minister is the head of government and of a pluriform multi party system executive power is exercised by the government federal legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature the position of the break away republic of transnistria and the relations with romania dominate the political agenda developments since independence mircea snegur was elected president of moldova in october one nine nine zero by the parliament a former communist party official he endorsed independence and actively sought western recognition moldova declared its independence from the soviet union in august one nine nine one however snegur s opposition to immediate reunification with romania led to a split with the moldovan popular front in october one nine nine one and to his decision to run as an independent candidate in a december one nine nine one presidential election running unopposed he won after the popular front s efforts to organize a voter boycott failed moldova s transition to democracy initially had been impeded by an ineffective parliament the lack of a new constitution a separatist movement led by the gagauz christian turkic minority in the south and unrest in the transnistria region on the left bank of the nistru dniester river where a separatist movement assisted by uniformed russian military forces in the region and led by supporters of the one nine nine one coup attempt in moscow declared a dniester republic progress has been made on all these fronts in one nine nine two the government negotiated a cease fire arrangement with russian and transnistrian officials although tensions continue and negotiations are ongoing in february one nine nine four new legislative elections were held and the ineffective parliament that had been elected in one nine nine zero to a five year term was replaced a new constitution was adopted in july one nine nine four the conflict with the gagauz minority was defused by the granting of local autonomy in one nine nine four the february one nine nine four parliamentary elections were conducted peacefully and received good ratings from international observers for their fairness prime minister andrei sangheli was re elected to his post in march one nine nine four as was petru lucinschi to his post as speaker of the parliament authorities in transnistria however refused to allow balloting there and discouraged the local population from participating inhabitants of the gagauz separatist region did participate in the elections however in the presidential elections of one nine nine six parliamentary speaker petru lucinschi surprised the nation with an upset victory over the incumbent mircea snegur in a second round of balloting the elections were widely judged as free and fair by international observers a hallmark that would come to characterize every other nationwide election in moldova as well though president lucinschi managed to institute some very important reforms among them the successful fight for the pamint land privatization program his tenure was marked by constant legislative struggle with moldova s parliament several times the parliament considered votes of no confidence in the president s government and a succession of moderate pro reform prime ministers were dismissed by a parliament increasingly dominated by its single minded communist party faction in two zero zero zero parliament passed a decree declaring moldova a parliamentary republic with the presidency henceforth to be decided not by popular vote but by parliamentary vote however since no single candidate was able to garner a majority of votes lucinschi temporarily remained president later that year when parliament failed three times to successfully elect a new president lucinschi exercised his right to dissolve parliament calling for new parliamentary elections in the hope that a new parliament would be more open to his initiatives and possibly even rescind the decree on election of the president widespread popular dissatisfaction with the government and the economy however led to a surprise at the polls in february two zero zero one in elections certified by international observers as free and fair moldova s populace voted overwhelmingly for the communists the communist faction which had consisted of four zero of parliament s one zero one seats jumped to seven one a clear majority communist deputies were then able to elect as president vladimir voronin the leader of their faction since election president voronin has proceeded with president lucinschi s plans to privatize several important state owned industries and has even on occasion broken with his own party over important issues under president voronin however relations with romania have become very tense with the president himself declaring that the romanian element of moldova constituting a two three majority as a fanatical minority other key feuds have occurred with the president desperate to establish a separate moldovan identity from that of romania at the same time denying his own ethnic group independence in the transnistrian region the ethnic romanians are now called moldovans and the romanian language in moldova has come to be called moldavan when it is actually identical to romanian the re introduction of russian at moldova schools caused widespread protests from the suppressed romanian majority and much criticism over the increasingly authoritarian rule in chisinau the key aspect of the new leadership in moldova is to try and create a new nation hood perhaps a fusion of romanians and ethnic slavs in moldova and to try to re ignite soviet style tactics to russify the area ironically in the post soviet world this might be more probable than at the height of soviet power when millions of ethnic romanians were deported as well as abused and oppressed by the kremlin to make way for the lage scale russification of moldova a policy which was met with some success in areas such as transnistria the moldovan people s long expected fusion with their romanian kin seems to be a dead prospect as the national sentiment continues to be eroded by zealous minorities and a soviet style government which endorses a communist agenda amidst economic collapse in the country and profits from the russian colonists of the area who were relocated there during stalin s rule in accordance with the molotov pact despite being the largest grouping of people in the transnistrian region the romanian element continues to be ethnically clensed as most romanians in moldova find themselves stuck between a russian led government and the transnistrian region of fanatical minorities in the atmosphere of heightened international sensitivity to terrorism following the events of one one september two zero zero one moldova has been a staunch supporter of american efforts to increase international cooperation in combating terrorism often taking advantage of this to push forward with its own pro russian agenda transnistria the population of the moldovan region of transnistria is three zero romanian three zero ukrainian and three zero russian moldova has tried to meet the russian minority s demands by offering the region rather broad cultural and political autonomy the dispute has strained moldova s relations with russia the july one nine nine two cease fire agreement established a tripartite peacekeeping force comprised of moldovan russian and transnistrian units negotiations to resolve the conflict continue and the cease fire is still in effect the organization for security and cooperation in europe osce also is trying to facilitate a negotiated settlement and has had an observer mission in place for several years in february two zero zero one the communist party of moldova won more than two thirds of the seats in the parliament and selected party chairman vladimir voronin as president moldova succeeded during two zero zero one in joining the world trade organization and the southeast european stability pact of primary importance have been the government s efforts to improve relations with the international monetary fund and the world bank and to comply with agreements negotiated in two zero zero zero by the former government agreement in these areas is critical because large government debts that come due in two zero zero two must be rescheduled the government has made concerted efforts to find ways to pay for moldova s energy supplies politically the government is committed to present a budget that will deal with social safety net items such as health education and increasing pensions and salaries the moldovan government supported democracy and human rights in fy two zero zero one the country remained divided with the transnistrian region along the ukrainian border controlled by separatist forces the new communist government has shown increased determination to resolve the ongoing conflict but has been unable to make significant progress because of fundamental disagreements with the separatist authorities in transnistria over the status of that region recent progress by russia in destroying the weapons and munitions of the organized group of russian forces stationed in transnistria have raised hopes that russia intends to comply with the one nine nine nine istanbul accords in recent months the leadership of the autonomous region of gagauzia has become more vocal in its complaints that the moldovan government does not respect the region s statutory enshrined autonomy political parties and other groups publish newspapers which often criticize government policies there are several independent news services radio stations and an independent television station peaceful assembly is allowed though permits for demonstrations must be obtained private organizations including political parties are required to register with the government legislation passed in one nine nine two codified freedom of religion but required that religious groups be recognized by the government a one nine nine zero soviet law and a one nine nine one parliamentary decision authorizing formation of social organizations provide for independent trade unions however the federation of independent trade unions of moldova successor to the former organizations of the soviet trade union system is the sole structure it has tried to influence government policy in labor issues and has been critical of many economic policies moldovan labor law which is based on former soviet legislation provides for collective bargaining rights executive branch president vladimir voronin pcrm seven april two zero zero one prime minister vasile tarlev pcrm one nine april two zero zero one the president is elected by popular vote for a four year term according to the moldovan constitution the president on consulting with the parliament will designate a candidate for the office of prime minister within one five days from designation the prime minister designate will request a vote of confidence from the parliament regarding his her work program and entire cabinet the cabinet is selected by prime minister designate subject to approval of parliament legislative branch the parliament parlamentul has one zero one members elected for a four year term by proportional representation the president is elected for a four year term by parliament political parties and elections judicial branch supreme court constitutional court is the sole authority of constitutional judicature administrative divisions moldova is divided in one zero juletule singular juletul one municipality and one autonomous territorial unit balti cahul chisinau chisinau dubasari edinet gagauzia lapusna orhei soroca tighina ungheni transnistria seceded from moldova international organization participation acct bis bsec ccc ce cei cis eapc ebrd ece fao iaea ibrd icao icftu ida ifad ifc ilo imf intelsat nonsignatory user interpol ioc iom observer iso correspondent itu opcw osce pfp seci un unctad unesco unido upu who wipo wmo wtoo wtro applicant politics of moldova overview moldova is the second smallest of the former soviet republics and the most densely populated industry accounts for only two zero of its labor force while agriculture s share is more than one third it remains the poorest country in europe it is landlocked bounded by ukraine on the east and romania to the west moldova s proximity to the black sea gives it a mild and sunny climate the fertile soil supports wheat corn barley tobacco sugar beets and soybeans beef and dairy cattle are raised and beekeeping is widespread moldova s best known product comes from its extensive and well developed vineyards concentrated in the central and southern regions in addition to world class wine moldova produces liqueurs and sparkling wine it is also known for its sunflower seeds walnuts apples and other fruits this makes the area ideal for agriculture and food processing which accounts for about four zero of the country s gdp moldova has experienced economic difficulties like many other former soviet republics since its economy was highly dependent on the rest of the former soviet union for energy and raw materials the breakdown in trade following the breakup of the soviet union had a serious effect exacerbated at times by drought and civil conflict the russian ruble devaluation of one nine nine eight had a deleterious effect on moldova s economy but economic growth has been steady since two zero zero zero moldova has made progress in economic reform since independence the government has liberalized most prices and has phased out subsidies on most basic consumer goods a program begun in march one nine nine three has privatized eight zero of all housing units and nearly two zero zero zero small medium and large enterprises other successes include the privatization of nearly all of moldova s agricultural land from state to private ownership as a result of an american assistance program pamint land completed in two zero zero zero a stock market opened in june one nine nine five inflation was brought down from over one zero five in one nine nine four to one one in one nine nine seven though inflation spiked again after russia s one nine nine eight currency devaluation moldova made great strides in bringing it under control one eight four in two zero zero zero six three in two zero zero one and four four in two zero zero two in two zero zero three inflation escalated again due mainly to a drought driven rise in agricultural prices reaching one five seven although it was reigned in to one two five in two zero zero four the local currency appreciated considerably in two zero zero three and the first months of two zero zero four by may the leu had reached its highest level since the end of one nine nine nine after the national bank of moldova increased considerably its purchases on the foreign exchange market the leu stabilized in november december two zero zero four at one two zero zero one two five zero to the us dollar moldova continues to make progress toward developing a viable free market economy the country recorded its fifth consecutive year of positive gdp growth in two zero zero four with year end real gdp growth of eight this growth is impressive considering that prior to two zero zero zero moldova had recorded only one year of positive gdp growth since independence budget execution in two zero zero four was also impressive as actual consolidated budget revenues exceeded projections by one four for most of the year privatization results in two zero zero four were not significant several smaller companies and one winery were privatized in two zero zero four but the government postponed indefinitely the privatization of several larger state enterprises including two electricity distribution companies sporadic and ineffective enforcement of the law economic and political uncertainty and government harassment and interference continue to discourage inflows of foreign direct investment imports continued to increase more rapidly than exports during the first nine months of two zero zero four moldova s terms of trade worsened as higher priced energy imports outpaced the value of moldova s main exports agricultural and agro processing goods during two zero zero two moldova rescheduled an outstanding eurobond in the amount of three nine six million to avoid a potential default in may two zero zero four moldova redeemed promissory notes with a total value of one one four five million to russian gazprom for just five zero million moldova informed its bilateral creditors in mid two zero zero three that it would no longer service its debts the two zero zero four budget did provide funds for external debt service interest at some six of the government budget the two zero zero five budget projects external debt service at some four the international monetary fund imf and world bank resumed lending to moldova in july two zero zero two and then suspended lending again in july two zero zero three although moldova passed a poverty reduction strategy in two zero zero four it has yet to reach an agreement with international financial institutions seven zero of total electrical energy power consumed in moldova is imported from ukraine and only three zero is produced in moldova currently one of europe s poorest nations the republic of moldova has resisted pursuing the types of reforms that have vastly improved the economies of some of its eastern european neighbors the communist party retained political control after winning the march two zero zero five parliamentary elections and re elected its leader vladimir voronin as president in collaboration with the opposition although the government maintains a pro western stance it has had trouble pursuing structural reforms and has made little progress on the international monetary fund s program to attract external financial resources the parliament approved the government s economic growth and strategy paper in december two zero zero four but international financial institutions and western investors will not be satisfied until the government begins to address fiscal adjustment wage restraint and payment of debt arrears despite the fact that the pace of privatization and industrial output has slowed gdp growth was seven three percent in two zero zero four consumption continues to grow and the currency continues to appreciate the impasse in the pro russian transnistria enclave plagued by corruption and the smuggling of arms and contraband continues despite international attempts at mediation moldova s fiscal burden of government score is zero one point better in two zero zero five as a result its overall score is zero zero one point better in two zero zero five see also moldova s brief major financial economic news of the year of two zero zero five trade policy according to the world bank moldova s weighted average tariff rate in two zero zero one the most recent year for which world bank data are available was two eight percent the world bank has revised the figure for two zero zero one downward from the three nine percent reported in the two zero zero five index a two zero zero four world bank report notes a range of informal barriers to both imports and exports in moldova such as cumbersome and restrictive trade procedures corruption burdensome and inappropriate regulations and high transport costs based on the revised trade factor methodology moldova s trade policy score is unchanged fiscal burden moldova s top income tax rate is two two percent the top corporate tax rate has been cut to one eight percent from two zero percent effective january two zero zero five in two zero zero three government expenditures as a share of gdp increased one two percentage points to three three six percent compared to the three zero percentage point increase in two zero zero two on net moldova s fiscal burden of government score is zero one point better in two zero zero five government intervention the world bank reports that the government consumed one seven seven percent of gdp in two zero zero three in the same year based on data from the international monetary fund moldova received four nine three percent of its revenues from state owned enterprises and government ownership of property monetary policy between one nine nine five and two zero zero four moldova s weighted average annual rate of inflation was one one nine nine percent foreign investment the moldovan government does not maintain many formal barriers to foreign investment and the moldovan embassy reports that foreign investors are free to place their investments throughout the republic of moldova in any area of business activity as long as it does not go against the interests of the national security anti monopoly legislation environment protection norms public health and public order however there are significant informal barriers and indications that the formal reasons to block investment are liberally applied according to the international monetary fund despite efforts to simplify licensing and business registration there has been no significant improvement in the business climate moreover the privatization program has stalled while corruption remains widespread and governance weak government interference in the private sector casts doubt over the authorities commitment to market oriented reforms the economist intelligence unit reports that the poor investment climate including annulments of some earlier sales continues to deter many western investors between two zero zero one and two zero zero four the government privatized less than six zero of the four eight zero odd enterprises scheduled for sale foreign investors may not purchase agricultural or forest land the imf reports that both residents and non residents may hold foreign exchange accounts but approval is required in some cases payments and transfers require supporting documentation and approval of the national bank of moldova if they exceed specified amounts nearly all capital transactions require approval by or registration with the national bank of moldova banking and finance there are no official barriers to founding foreign banks or branches in moldova the central bank has increased the minimum capital requirement which is expected to contribute to consolidation in the banking sector first initiative reports that the banking sector consists of one six commercial banks two zero zero three there are one four locally owned banks while the two remaining ones are from russia and romania the banking sector is highly concentrated with the five largest banks accounting for over seven zero of lending in two zero zero two unlike the banking sector the insurance sector has high levels of foreign participation the largest insurance firm in moldova the former state insurance company is owned by an australian company moldova s stock exchange is very small listing fewer than two five companies in two zero zero two the moldovan embassy reports that the government holds shares in two banks jscb banca de economii sa and jscb eurocreditbank including a controlling share of banca de economii the economist intelligence unit reports that foreign investment accounts for approximately five zero percent of total banking capital wages and prices the government influences prices through the large state owned sector according to the ministry of economy the state regulates the prices of goods and services provided by monopolies and the prices of electric or thermal energy land medical services and services offered by local tax regions moldova has two legal monthly minimum wages one wage for state employees and another higher wage for the private sector property rights the u s department of commerce reports that the legal system has improved in recent years moldova has a documented and consistently applied commercial law nevertheless much more needs to be done according to the u s department of state the constitution provides for an independent judiciary however the execuwaefsfasdagadsfgadfgadfgtive branch has exerted undue influence on the judiciary many observers believe that arrears in salary payments also make it difficult for judges to remain independent from outside influences and free from corruption regulation bureaucratic procedures are not always transparent and red tape often makes processing unnecessarily long reports the u s department of commerce commercial law is a confusing patchwork of narrow statutes and an outdated civil code with usaid experts a draft civil code has been developed which follows the current european practice of incorporating commercial law provisions the same source reports that anti corruption laws are not effectively enforced and corruption exists at an advanced level a report provided by the world bank indicates that labor laws are somewhat rigid informal market transparency international s two zero zero four score for moldova is two three therefore moldova s informal market score is four in two zero zero five statistics gdp two zero zero four est two six billion two zero billion in two zero zero three one six billion in two zero zero two one five billion in two zero zero one gdp real growth rate january september two zero zero four five seven six three in two zero zero three seven two in two zero zero two six one in two zero zero one per capita gdp two zero zero four est seven six zero five four zero in two zero zero three four four eight in two zero zero two four two two in two zero zero one natural resources lignite phosphates gypsum arable land and limestone agriculture products vegetables fruits wine and spirits grain sugar beets sunflower seeds meat milk eggs tobacco walnuts industry types processed foods and beverages including wine and refined sugar processed fruit and vegetable products including vegetable oil dairy and meat products tobacco items metal processing and production of machinery textiles and clothing shoes furniture trade two zero zero three exports seven nine zero million of which four six go to countries outside the former soviet union foodstuffs wine textiles clothing footwear and machinery major markets russia romania italy ukraine germany imports one four zero three million of which five eight come from countries outside the former soviet union gas oil coal steel machinery and equipment chemical products textiles foodstuffs automobiles and other consumer durables major suppliers ukraine russia germany italy romania currency moldovan leu plural lei exchange rate lei us two zero zero four one two three three one two four six end of year one three nine four average in two zero zero three one three five seven average in two zero zero two investment gross fixed one seven one of gdp two zero zero four est household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero two two highest one zero three zero seven one nine nine seven distribution of family income gini index four zero six one nine nine seven agriculture products vegetables fruits wine grain sugar beets sunflower seed tobacco beef milk industrial production growth rate one seven two zero zero three est electricity production three eight seven six twh two zero zero two consumption four six zero five twh two zero zero two exports zero kwh two zero zero two imports one twh two zero zero two electricity production by source fossil fuel nine zero six hydro nine four other zero two zero zero one nuclear zero oil production zero barrel day two zero zero one est consumption two four zero zero zero barrel day two zero zero one est exports na imports na natural gas production zero m two zero zero one est consumption two zero five billion m two zero zero one est exports zero m two zero zero one est imports two zero five billion m two zero zero one est current account balance one four eight four million two zero zero four est exports commodities foodstuffs textiles machinery imports commodities mineral products and fuel machinery and equipment chemicals textiles two zero zero zero reserves of foreign exchange gold three nine zero million two zero zero four est see also economy of europe moldova wto members economy of moldova economies by country moldova s telecommunications facilities are poor but they were being upgraded in one nine nine five in one nine nine zero moldova had an average of twelve telephones per one zero zero inhabitants heavily concentrated in urban areas and there were more than two zero zero zero zero zero unfilled orders for telephone installation in one nine nine four moldova installed two three eight zero zero telephone lines which included public phones with direct international dialing capabilities some one zero zero zero zero digital lines in chi in u were upgraded by a german company in one nine nine four a new company in chisinau a joint venture with partners from greece and italy was soon to produce automatic telephone exchanges at the rate of five zero zero zero zero lines a year the main daily newspaper in the republic moldova suverana is published by the government sfatul arii is published by parliament which also publishes the daily nezavisimaya moldova in russian other principal newspapers include rabochiy tiraspol in russian the main newspaper of the slavs in transnistria ara tineretul moldovei molod zh moldovy in romanian and russian and via a satului published by the government the main cultural publication in moldova is the weekly journal literatura i arts published by the union of writers of moldova other principal periodicals include basarabia also published by the writers union chiparus alunelul femeie moldovei lanterna magica moldova noi and sudest kishin vskiye novosti kodry and russkoye slovo are russian language periodicals other minority language periodicals include prosvita and homin in ukrainian ana s zu and c rlangaci in gagauz rodno slovo in bulgarian and undzer kol nash golos in yiddish and russian in all two four zero newspapers ninety seven in romanian and sixty eight magazines thirty five in romanian were being published in the republic in one nine nine zero basa press an independent news service was established in november one nine nine two telephones main lines in use six two seven zero zero zero one nine nine seven telephones mobile cellular more than four zero zero zero zero zero two zero zero four two two zero zero one nine nine seven telephone system inadequate outmoded poor service outside chi in u some effort to modernize is under way domestic new subscribers face long wait for service mobile cellular telephone service being introduced international service through romania and russia via landline satellite earth stations intelsat eutelsat and intersputnik radio broadcast stations am seven fm five zero shortwave three one nine nine eight radios three two two million one nine nine seven television broadcast stations four zero one nine nine eight televisions one two six million one nine nine seven internet service providers isps two one nine nine nine country code top level domain md see also moldova communications in moldova the data is out of date in one nine nine nine eveerything just started today everything is diferent in one nine nine five the main means of transportation in moldova were railroads one one five zero kilometers and a highway system two zero one zero zero kilometers overall including one four zero zero zero kilometers of paved surfaces the major railroad junctions are chi in u bender tighina ungheni ocnita oknitsa in russian balti and basarabeasca bessarabka in russian primary external rail links connect the republic s network with odesa in ukraine on the black sea and with the romanian cities of ia i and gala i they also lead northward into ukraine highways link moldova s main cities and provide the chief means of transportation within the country but roads are in poor repair and gasoline shortages make interurban motor transportation difficult the country s major airport is in chi in u shipping is possible on the lower prut and nistru rivers but water transportation plays only a modest role in the country s transportation system in one nine nine zero a total of three one seven million tonkilometers of freight were carried on inland waterways as compared with one five zero zero seven million ton kilometers on railroads and one six seven three million ton kilometers on roads the movement of manufactured goods and of passengers on all means of transportation started to decline in one nine eight nine from one nine nine three to one nine nine four for example the total amount of transported goods fell by three one percent passenger traffic decreased by two eight percent and the number of passengers declined by two four percent the main causes for these declines are the high cost of transportation a lack of fuels and the poor state of moldova s transportation infrastructure approximately two zero percent of moldova s roads are considered in a critical technical state railways total one three two eight km broad gauge one three two eight km one five two zero m gauge one nine nine two highways total one two three zero zero km paved one zero seven three eight km unpaved one five six two km one nine nine six est waterways four two four km one nine nine four pipelines natural gas three one zero km one nine nine two ports and harbors none airports two six one nine nine four est airports with paved runways total eight over three zero four seven m one two four three eight to three zero four seven m two one five two four to two four three seven m two under nine one four m three one nine nine four est airports with unpaved runways total one eight two four three eight to three zero four seven m three one five two four to two four three seven m two nine one four to one five two three m five under nine one four m eight one nine nine four est see also moldova transportation in moldova the military of moldova is the army air force and internal security forces of the republic of moldova moldova has accepted all relevant arms control obligations of the former soviet union on october three zero one nine nine two moldova ratified the treaty on conventional armed forces in europe which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment and provides for the destruction of weapons in excess of those limits it acceded to the provisions of the nuclear non proliferation treaty in october one nine nine four in washington dc it does not have nuclear biological or chemical weapons moldova joined the north atlantic treaty organisation s partnership for peace on march one six one nine nine four a transition to a professional force of one two zero zero zero to one five zero zero zero volunteers was planned at first but when fighting erupted in one nine nine one between supporters of the central government in chisinau and supporters of separatist regions males between eighteen and forty years of age were mobilized and the size of moldova s military was temporarily expanded to meet the demands of the transnistrian conflict in early one nine nine five the armed forces totaled some one one zero zero zero volunteers and there were plans to gradually create a professional army similar to that of the united states at the beginning of one nine nine four the moldovan army under the ministry of defense consisted of nine eight zero zero men organized into three motor rifle brigades one artillery brigade and one reconnaissance assault battalion its equipment consisted of fifty six ballistic missile defenses seventy seven armored personnel carriers and sixty seven look alikes eighteen one two two mm and fifty three one five two mm towed artillery units nine one two zero mm combined guns mortars seventy at four spigot nineteen at five spandrel and twenty seven at six spiral anti tank guided weapons a seven three mm spg nine recoilless launcher forty five mt one two one zero zero mm anti tank guns and thirty zu two three two three mm and twelve s six zero five seven mm air defense guns moldova has received some arms from former soviet stocks maintained on the territory of the republic as well as undetermined quantities of arms from romania particularly at the height of the fighting with transnistria in one nine nine four the moldovan air force consisted of one three zero zero men organized into one fighter regiment one helicopter squadron and one missile brigade equipment used by the air force included thirty one mig two nine aircraft eight mi eight helicopters five transport aircraft including an antonov an seven two and twenty five sa three five surface to air missiles other military forces also existed within moldova in early one nine nine four the government of the dnestr republic had armed forces of about five zero zero zero which included the dnestr battalion of the republic guard and some one zero zero zero cossacks as of early one nine nine four the russian one four th army about nine two zero zero troops consisted of one army headquarters one motor rifle division one tank battalion one artillery regiment and one anti aircraft brigade their equipment consisted of one two zero main battle tanks one eight zero armored combat vehicles and one three zero artillery multiple rocket launchers mortars peacekeepers in transnistria consisted of six airborne battalions supplied by russia three infantry battalions supplied by moldova and three airborne battalions supplied by the dnestr republic military branches ground forces air and air defense forces republic security forces internal and border troops military manpower military age one eight years of age military manpower availability males age one five four nine one one five six seven zero five two zero zero zero est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine nine one three eight nine six two zero zero zero est military manpower reaching military age annually males four zero two three nine two zero zero zero est military expenditures dollar figure six million fy nine nine military expenditures percent of gdp one fy nine nine military of moldova moldova s parliament approved the country s membership in the commonwealth of independent states cis a group of one two former soviet republics and a cis charter on economic union in april one nine nine four in one nine nine five the country became the first new independent state admitted to the council of europe in addition to its membership in nato s partnership for peace moldova also belongs to the united nations the osce the north atlantic cooperation council the international monetary fund the world bank the francophonie and the european bank for reconstruction and development in one nine nine eight moldova contributed to the founding of guam a regional cooperative agreement made up of georgia ukraine and azerbaijan in addition to moldova in one nine nine nine uzbekistan also joined the group renamed guuam although the agreement initially included a declaration of mutual defense moldova has since declared its disinterest in participating in any guuam based mutual defense initiative as noted moldova has sought a peaceful resolution to the conflict in the transnistria region by working with romania ukraine and russia by calling for international mediation and by cooperating with the osce and un fact finding and observer missions belarus france germany poland hungary romania ukraine turkey bulgaria the russian federation people s republic of china and the united states of america have embassies in moldova moldova has embassies in the usa france belgium germany austria poland hungary romania bulgaria ukraine belarus turkey israel the russian federation uzbekistan and the people s republic of china disputes international separatist transnistria region comprising the area between the nistru dnistrep river and ukraine has its own de facto government dominated by russia illicit drugs limited cultivation of opium poppy and cannabis mostly for cis consumption transshipment point for illicit drugs from southwest asia via central asia to russia western europe and possibly the united states see also moldova politics of moldova government of moldova foreign relations by country image midwayislands png orthographic projection centred over midway midway atoll also known as midway island or midway islands hawaiian pihemanu is a six two square kilometer atoll located in the north pacific ocean near the northwestern end of the hawaiian archipelago at about one third of the way between honolulu and tokyo it is less than one five zero miles east of the international date line about two eight zero zero miles west of san francisco and two two zero zero miles east of japan it consists of a ring shaped barrier reef and several sand islets the two significant pieces of land sand island and eastern island provide habitat for hundreds of thousands of seabirds the atoll which has a tiny population four zero in two zero zero four but no indigenous inhabitants is an unincorporated territory of the united states part of the united states minor outlying islands designated an insular area under the authority of the u s department of the interior it is a national wildlife refuge administered by the u s fish and wildlife service the visitor program closed in january two zero zero two and there are no facilities at the present time for receiving visitors however visitors able to provide their own transportation can contact the refuge manager for information about visiting the atoll the economy is derived solely from governmental sources all food and manufactured goods must be imported midway lies nearly halfway between north america and asia it also lies almost halfway around the earth from greenwich england midway is best known as the location of the battle of midway fought in world war ii on june four one nine four two the nearby united states navy defeated a japanese attack against the midway islands marking a turning point in the war in the pacific theater geography and geology midway atoll nasa nlt landsat seven visible color satellite imagemidway atoll is part of a chain of volcanic islands atolls and seamounts extending from hawai i up to the tip of the aleutian islands and known as the hawaii emperor chain midway was formed roughly two eight million years ago when the seabed underneath it was over the same hotspot from which the island of hawai i is now being formed in fact midway was once a shield volcano perhaps as large as the island of lana i as the volcano piled up lava flows building up the island the load of it depressed the crust and the island slowly subsided over a period of millions of years a process known as isostatic adjustment as the island mass subsided a coral reef around the former volcanic island was able to maintain itself near sea level by growing upwards that reef is now over one six zero m five one six ft thick ladd tracey in the lagoon three eight four m or one two six one ft comprised of mostly post miocene limestones with a layer of upper miocene tertiary g sediments and lower miocene tertiary e limestones at the bottom overlying the basalts what remains today is a shallow water atoll about one zero kilometers across the islands of midway atoll have been extensively altered as a result of human habitation starting in one eight six nine with a project to blast the reefs and create a port on sand island the ecology of midway has been changing birds native to other nwhi islands such as the laysan rail and laysan finch were released at midway ironwood trees from australia were planted to act as windbreaks seventy five percent of the two zero zero species of plants on midway are introduced the fws has recently continued this trend by introducing the laysan duck to the island while at the same time extending efforts to exterminate other introduced species the atoll has some three two kilometers of roads seven eight kilometers of pipelines one port on sand island which is closed to public use and two runways both paved around two zero zero zero meters long as of two zero zero four the airfield at midway atoll has been designated as an emergency diversion airport for aircraft flying under etops rules the fws plans to close all airport operations on two two november two zero zero four after that time no public visitation at all will be allowed history the atoll was discovered july five one eight five nine by captain n c middlebrooks though he was most commonly known as captain brooks of the sealing ship gambia the islands were named the middlebrook islands or the brook islands brooks claimed midway for the united states under the guano islands act of one eight five six which authorized americans to temporarily occupy uninhabited islands to obtain guano on august two eight one eight six seven captain william reynolds of the uss lackawanna formally took possession of the atoll for the united states the name changed to midway some time after this on two eight august one eight six seven the atoll became the first offshore islands annexed by the u s government as unincorporated territory midway island administered by the u s navy midway was the only island in the entire hawaiian archipelago that was not later part of the state of hawai i the first attempt at settlement was in one eight seven one when the pacific mail and steamship company started a project of blasting and dredging a ship channel through the reef to the lagoon using money put up by the u s congress the purpose was to establish a mid ocean coaling station avoiding the high taxes imposed at ports controlled by the hawaiians the project was shortly a complete failure and the uss saginaw evacuating the last of the channel project s work force in october one eight seven one then ran aground at kure atoll stranding all aboard in one nine zero three workers for the commercial pacific cable company took up residence on the island as part of the effort to lay a trans pacific telegraph cable these workers introduced many non native species to the island including the canary cycad palm norfolk island pine ironwood coconut and various deciduous trees along with ants cockroaches termites centipedes and countless others later that year roosevelt placed the atoll under the control of the u s navy which on two zero january one nine zero three opens radio station in response to complaints from cable company workers about japanese squatters and poachers in one nine zero four one nine zero eight roosevelt sent two one u s marines to stop the wanton destruction of birdlife by japanese poachers and to keep midway safe as a u s possession protecting the cable station in one nine three five operations began for the china clipper a large flying boat run by pan american airlines the clipper island hopped from san francisco to china providing the fastest and most luxurious route to the orient and bringing tourists to midway until one nine four one only the extremely wealthy could afford a clipper trip which in the one nine three zero s cost more than three times the annual salary of an average american with midway on the route between honolulu and wake island the large seaplanes landed in the quiet atoll waters and pulled up to a float offshore tourists were loaded onto a small powerboat that whisked them to a pier where finally they would ride in woody wagons to the pan am hotel or the gooneyville lodge named after the ubiquitous gooney birds albatrosses the location of midway in the pacific became important to the military midway was a convenient refueling stop on transpacific flights it also became an important stop for navy ships beginning in one nine four zero as tensions with the japanese were rising midway was deemed second only to pearl harbor in importance to protecting the west coast of the u s airstrips gun emplacements and a seaplane base quickly materialized on the tiny atoll the channel was widened and naval air station midway was completed architect albert kahn designed the officer s quarters the mall and several other hangars and buildings midway s importance to the u s was brought into focus on december seven one nine four one with the japanese attack on pearl harbor six months later on june four one nine four two a naval battle near midway resulted in the u s navy exacting a devastating defeat of the japanese navy this battle of midway was by most accounts the beginning of the end of the japanese navy s control of the pacific ocean midway was also an important submarine base for what was known as the silent service one august one nine four one one nine four five it was occupied by u s military forces in one nine five zero the navy decommissioned naval air station midway only to re commission it again to support the korean war thousands of troops on ships and planes stopped at midway for refueling and emergency repairs one nine six eight one zero september one nine nine three midway island was a navy air facility during the cold war the u s established a secret underwater listening post at midway in an attempt to track soviet submarines these sensitive devices could pick up whale songs for miles and the facility remained top secret until its demolition at the end of the cold war willy victor radar planes flew night and day as part of the dew line distant early warning and antenna fields covered the islands with about three five zero zero people living on sand island midway also supported the u s troops during the vietnam war in june one nine six nine president richard nixon held a secret meeting with south vietnamese president nguyen van thieu at the officer in charge house or midway house in one nine seven eight the navy downgraded midway from a naval air station to a naval air facility and large numbers of personnel and dependents began leaving the island with the conflict in vietnam over and with the introduction of reconnaissance satellites and nuclear submarines midway s significance to national security was diminished midway was designated an overlay national wildlife refuge on april two two one nine eight eight while still under the primary jurisdiction of the navy as part of the base realignment and closure process the navy facility on midway has been operationally closed since september one zero one nine nine three although the navy assumed responsibility for cleaning up environmental contamination at naval air facility midway island on october three one one nine nine six president bill clinton signed executive order one three zero two two which transferred the jurisdiction and control of the atoll to the us department of the interior the us fish and wildlife service assumed management of the midway atoll national wildlife refuge the last contingent of navy personnel left midway on three zero june one nine nine seven after an ambitious environmental cleanup program was completed reference ladd h s j i tracey jr and m g gross one nine six seven drilling at midway atoll science one five six three seven seven eight one zero eight eight one zero nine five two six may one nine six seven soures external links airnav henderson field airport airport facilities and navigational aids history of midway islands midway atoll national wildlife refuge this article incorporated some content from this public domain site where the gooney birds are worldstatesmen dependent territories insular areas of the united states national wildlife refuges of the united states northwestern hawaiian islands oceanian countries pacific ocean atolls government type parliamentary republic leader titles president prime minister leader names vladimir voronin vasile tarlev sovereignty type independence established events formation independence established dates august two seven one nine nine one august two one nine four zero august two seven one nine nine one area three three eight four three area rank one three five th area magnitude one e one zero percent water one four population estimate two zero zero four population estimate year two zero zero four population estimate rank one one seven th population census three three eight eight zero seven one population census year two zero zero four population density one three one population density rank five six th gdp ppp year two zero zero four gdp ppp us two five nine four six two billion gdp ppp rank one three two nd gdp ppp per capita us seven six six two eight gdp ppp per capita rank one four one st hdi year two zero zero three hdi zero six seven one hdi rank one one five th hdi category medium currency leu currency code mdl time zone eet utc offset two time zone dst eest utc offset dst three cctld md calling code three seven three footnotes one gagauz and russian are also official in the gagauz autonomous region stephen the greatruler of moldavia one four three six one five zero four the republic of moldova conventional long form conventional short form moldova local official long form republica moldova is a landlocked country in eastern europe located between romania to the west and ukraine to the east historically part of romania it was reunited with it in one nine one eight then it was annexed with force and war by the communist soviet union in one nine four five after the molotov ribbentrop pact during one nine four zero one nine four one one nine four five one nine nine one as the moldavian ssr it declared its independence from the ussr on two seven august one nine nine one history main article history of moldova moldova s territory was inhabited in ancient times by dacians due to its strategic location on a route between asia and europe moldova has suffered from several invasions including those of the kievan rus and the mongols during the middle ages the territory of republic of moldova including most of present day moldova but also including districts to the north and south known as northern bukovina and budjak formed the eastern part of the principality of moldavia which like the present day republic was known in romanian as moldova the principality became tributary to the ottoman empire during one six th century following the treaty of bucharest in one eight one two it was annexed by russia together with budjak southern bessarabia at first the russians used the name gubernya of moldova and bessarabia but later called it simply bessarabia the western part of moldavia remained an autonomous principality and united with walachia to form the old kingdom of romania in one eight five nine at the end of world war i bessarabia proclaimed independence from russia in one nine one eight and united with the kingdom of romania the same year the soviet union invaded with force bessarabia in june one nine four zero in an agreement with germany expressed in the molotov ribbentrop pact and though forced out again in one nine four one soviet troops re occupied and annexed the area in august one nine four four soviet rule brought a harsh de nationalization policy the southern and northern parts which had some slavic and turkic minorities were transferred to ukraine at the same time transnistria where at that time ethnic romanians outnumbered slavs was joined to the remainder to form the moldavian soviet socialist republic identical in territory to present day moldova under stalin ethnic russians were brought into the new country especially into urbanized areas while large numbers of ethnic romanians were deported to siberia and kazakhstan the overall result was the destruction of romanian elites and middle classes and their replacement with soviet mostly slavic elements along with the other peripheral soviet republics moldova started to move towards independence from one nine nine one onwards in august one nine nine one moldova declared its independence and in december of that year became a member of the post soviet commonwealth of independent states along with most of the former soviet republics at the end of that year an ex communist reformer mircea snegur won an election for the presidency four months later the country achieved formal recognition as an independent state at the united nations the part of moldova east of the dniestr river transnistria which is more heavily industrialized and is populated by a larger proportion of ethnic russians and ukrainians claimed independence in one nine nine one fearing moldovan unification with romania russian and ukrainian forces intervened on the transnistrian side and remain there the osce is involved in negotiations between the transnistrian leaders and chi in u while their emotional ties to the romanian motherland remained strong and while their visits to romania were welcome moldova did not unite with romania in one nine nine one in the early one nine nine zero s the future of moldova was a source of tension in romania s relations with russia president boris yeltsin s government did not want to see one of the former soviet republics on russia s frontier joined to another country a march one nine nine four referendum saw an overwhelming majority of voters favoring continued independence in the two zero zero one elections a pro russian communist party won majority of seats in the parliament and appointed a communist president vladimir voronin after few years in power relationships between moldova and russia deteriorated over the transnistrian conflict in the following election held in two zero zero five the communist party made one eight zero degree turn and was re elected on a pro western platform with voronin re elected to a second term as a president during the two zero zero five parliamentary elections the russian federation tried to influence the election process by intensively favourable coverage of pro russian candidates in the russian mass media and by organizing meetings and agitation campaigns using the russian cis emo organization so called elections monitoring organization which is not recognized internationally as an independent election observer this organization was proven to have poor records from the previous kyrgyzstan election as a response to the security threat moldovan authorities denied entry to the republic of moldova for the members of the cis emo organization some who nonetheless made their way into the republic were found distributing leaflets and actively participating in the election campaign despite not having a valid moldovan passport or any proof of moldovan citizenship or any permission from the election authority these members were consequently deported from the country this action angered the russian side as a consequence russian moldovan ties greatly weakened and the nation is split between building ties with the west or with russia in one nine nine two moldova was involved in a short term war against russian armed forces and ukrainian kazak units units of kazaks ukrainian mercenaries fought supported by and alongside the russian one four th army the transnistrian war began with an attack of russian mercenaries on the moldovan town of dub sari situated on the eastern bank of the river dniestr but not loyal to the separatist regime since one nine nine two russia has maintained a military force in the eastern regions of the republic of moldova the separatist transnistrian regime established in the occupied territory is undemocratic and no rotation in political power has taken place in this area since one nine nine two the de facto transnistrian government has enforced russification the denationalization of ethnic ukrainians and discrimination against moldovans in the summer of two zero zero four transnistrian authorities forcibly closed six moldovan schools from tiraspol tighina bender and r bni a that used the romanian language in the latin alphabet three four zero zero enrolled children were affected by this measure several teachers and parents who opposed the closures were arrested national symbols two zero zero x seven six px two zero zero x one three five px the flags of moldova and romania are similar with the same range of colours but with a presence of a coat of arms in moldavian flag two zero zero x one three five px two zero zero x seven six px currency the currency of moldova the leu plural lei has the same name as the currency of romania the name means lion tefan cel mare tefan cel mare stephen the great cousin of vlad iii dracula was the most important prince of moldavia he was born around one four three six at borze ti bac u county now in romania and died at suceava romania two july one five zero four he ruled four seven years from one four april one four five seven until his death he is considered a national hero in republic of moldova and romania and is thus a symbolic link between them dimitrie cantemir the prince dimitrie cantemir is one of the most important figures of western culture of the one eight th century cantemir wrote the first geographical ethnographical and economic description of the country descriptio moldaviae berlin one seven one four he is considered a national hero in republic of moldova on both sides of the dniestr river and romania politics political map of moldova main article politics of moldova the unicameral moldovan parliament or parlament has one zero one seats and its members are elected by popular vote every four years the parliament then elects a president who functions as the head of state the president appoints a prime minister as head of government who in turn assembles a cabinet both subject to parliamentary approval two zero zero five parliamentary elections party of communists of the republic of moldova pcrm four five nine eight votes five six mandates electoral bloc moldova democrata bmd two eight five three votes three four mandates christian democratic peoples party cdpp nine zero seven votes one one mandates two zero zero one parliamentary elections communist party cp five zero zero seven votes seven one mandates electoral bloc braghis alliance beab one three three six votes one nine mandates christian democratic people s party cdpp eight two four votes one one mandates early history after the soviet union occupied the region of bessarabia during world war ii from romania the soviets began a campaign to create an moldovan ethnic identity different from the one of the romanians who were said to be capitalist oppressors the soviet official policy also stated that romanian and moldovan were two different languages and moldovan was written with a special cyrillic alphabet derived from the russian alphabet as opposed to romanian which was written with its own version of latin alphabet independence of moldova in the address to the romanian parliament in february one nine nine one mircea snegur the moldovan president talked about a common identity of the moldovan and romanians referring to the romanians of both sides of the prut river and sacred romanian lands occupied by the soviets in one nine eight nine romanian became the official language of moldova and following the independence of one nine nine one the romanian tricolor with a coat of arms was used as flag and de teapt te rom ne the romanian anthem also became the anthem of moldova in those times there was an expectation among certain groups that both countries that they were to be united soon however the initial enthusiasm in moldova was tempered and starting one nine nine three moldova started to distance itself from romania the constitution adopted in one nine nine four used the term moldovan language instead of romanian and changed the national anthem to limba noastr the one nine nine six attempt by moldovan president mircea snegur to change the official language to romanian was dismissed by the moldovan parliament as promoting romanian expansionism a movement for unification of romania and the republic of moldova began in both countries in early one nine nine zero s after the republic of moldova declared its independence from the soviet union current state while most if not all romanian political parties would support a unification the most vocal being the nationalist great romania party in moldova only the christian democratic people s party supports it relations with romania and the european union moldova s relationship with romania which is set to become a european union eu member in two zero zero seven has also been strained with moldova publicly making various accusations against romania the prospect of union with romania is constantly an issue though certainly not an imminent prospect as of two zero zero five in september two zero zero five president of moldova voronin met romanian president traian b sescu and he declared textually we go with romania until the end meaning that romanians and moldovans are the same nation albeit separate states and will have a common future the government has stated that moldova has european aspirations but there has been little progress toward eu membership once romania joins the eu any unification between the two countries would presumably bring moldova into the eu if it later unified with romania on may one two zero zero four many eu enthusiasts waving the eu flags found their flags confiscated by police and some were arrested under the clause of anti nationalism at present moldova remains one of the poorest country in europe with rampant corruption and a sadly booming trade in people during her first bilateral visit to moldova european commissioner for external relations and european neighbourhood policy benita ferrero waldner opened the new delegation of the european commission to moldova on six october to be headed by cesare de montis the opening of the delegation of the european commission is a signal of the deepening of relations between the eu and moldova which will lead eventually to joining the european union the partnership and cooperation agreement with eu is the legal basis for eu relations with moldova with the joint adoption of the eu moldova action plan on february two two two zero zero five the eu and moldova have further reinforced their bilateral relationship providing a new tool to help implement the pca and bring moldova closer to the eu the tacis programme is the framework for technical assistance to support agreed objectives the partnership moldova azi news agency see a group of international census experts described the moldovan census as generally conducted in a professional manner while remarking that that a few topics were potentially more problematic among the problematic topics the census includes at least some moldovans who had been living abroad over one year at the time of the census the precision of numbers about nationality ethnicity and language was questioned some enumerators apparently encouraged respondents to declare that they were moldovan rather than romanian and even within a single family there may have been confusion about these terms with respect to these matters especially the latter the expert group recommended that the moldovan national bureau of statistics carry out an evaluation study offered their assistance in doing so and indicated their intention of further studying the matter themselves moldavian orthodox icon religions two zero zero zero eastern orthodox christian nine eight jewish one five baptist and other zero five language the official language is moldovan this is by all accounts a form of daco romanian and is essentially the same as romanian there is no particular linguistic break at the prut river which divides moldova from romania in formal use the languages are identical except for minor orthographical issues the moldovans write in some contexts where romanians would use this same form used to be normal in romania there is however some regional variation as might be found within any linguistic territory and the common speech of chi inau or transnistria can be distinguished from the speech of ia i a romanian city that is also part of the former principality of moldavia opinions vary on the status of moldovan as a language most linguists consider standard moldovan to be identical to standard romanian an eastern romance language although one moldovan linguist disputes this there are however more differences between the colloquial spoken languages of moldova and romania most significantly due to the influence of russian in moldova which was not present in romania the matter of whether or not moldovan is a separate language is a contested political issue within and beyond the republic of moldova a september one nine eight nine law concerning languages which still applies asserts the linguistic identity between the romanian language and the moldovan language a significant minority speaks native russian and there are more slavicisms in common speech in moldova than in common speech in romania nonetheless moldovans are generally aware when they are using a word of slavic origin not found in common romanian and are capable of choosing whether or not to use these words in a particular context title i article one three of the moldovan constitution names it the national language limba de stat of the country in the unrecognized state of transnistria it is co official with ukrainian and russian the one nine eight nine law on language of the moldavian ssr which is still effective in moldova according to the constitution asserts the real existence of linguistical moldo romanian identity moldovan language is in fact identical with romanian language renamed as a language for political reasons by the government although similar theories have been fielded for other languages this proposal is now believed to have been made to serve political purposes only and nobody has provided any evidence so far towards the idea that moldovan and romanian are not from common linguistic stock comparison with romanian the sample below taken from the constitutions of moldova and romania demonstrates that a formal text in romanian and moldovan is identical information technologies and telecommunications in two zero zero four the investments volume on the telecommunications and information market in moldova increased by three zero one in comparison with two zero zero three achieving eight two five three million lei six five five million us dollars the representatives of the national agency for telecommunications and information regulation communicated that four five one million lei three five nine million dollars were invested in the field of fixed telephone communication the investments constituted three three zero million lei two six two million dollars in the field of mobile telephony two four two million lei one nine million dollars in the field of internet services one nine one million lei one five million dollars in the field of cable television services the essential increase in the amount of one six three million lei one two nine million dollars has been achieved in the field of mobile telephony in comparison with two zero zero three the investments in this sector doubled practically an insignificant increase was registered at the other market segments but the investment volume remained the same in the field of fixed telephone communication in two zero zero five the volume of investments in telecommunication and information technology exceeded the level of the previous year primarily due to the investments of the national operator of the stationary telephone communications of the joint stock company moldtelecom for the implementation of the technology cdma code division multiple access by the investments of the operators of mobile telephony voxtel and moldcell in the development of infrastructure also by means aimed at the extension and improvement of access services to internet by new broadband technologies mihai eminescu national poet of romania and moldova culture main article culture of moldova moldova is inhabited primarily by people of romanian culture under ceau escu romania periodically made oblique claims to moldova which the kremlin ignored it had no intention of considering boundary changes with neighboring countries that had real or imagined claims on soviet territory list of moldovans list of romanians music of moldova music of romania religion in moldova tourism in moldova the republic of moldova is a beautiful small country situated in the southeast part of europe neighboring romania to the west and ukraine to the east this piece of land boasts a rich history abundant in dramatic and agitated events miscellaneous topics foreign relations of moldova transportation in moldova communications in moldova internal security in moldova military of moldova coat of arms of moldova crime in moldova principality of moldavia moldova an adjacent region of romania anti romanian discrimination russification coat of arms of moldova communications in moldova crime in moldova romanophobia maps map of moldova map of chisinau maps of moldova political ethnic etc plus those of other former soviet republics gallery image chisinau center jpg triumphal arc chi in u image moldavian orthodox church jpg moldavian orthodox church external links official governmental site official web site of the parliament the eu s relations with moldova on www europa eu int the ministry of foreign affairs elections in moldova profiles u s department of state post reports moldova cia the world factbook moldova peace corps in moldova ecmi information about minority issues in moldova news portals moldova azi news from moldova basa press news agency interlic news agency moldova org tourism official site of the department of tourism others moldova young women from rural areas vulnerable to human trafficking international rankings bertelsmann bertelsmann transformation index two zero zero six ranked seven five th out of one one nine countries reporters without borders annual worldwide press freedom index two zero zero five ranked seven four th out of one six seven countries the wall street journal two zero zero five index of economic freedom ranked seven seven th out of one five five countries the economist the world in two zero zero five worldwide quality of life index two zero zero five ranked nine nine th out of one one one countries transparency international corruption perceptions index two zero zero five ranked eight eight th out of one five eight countries united nations development programme human development index two zero zero five ranked one one six th out of one seven seven countries world economic forum global competitiveness report two zero zero five two zero zero six growth competitiveness index ranking ranked eight two nd out of one one seven countries world bank doing business two zero zero six ranked eight three rd out of one five five world bank ease of starting a business two zero zero six ranked six nine th out of one five five united nations conference on trade and development foreign direct investment performance index two zero zero four ranked three five th out of one four zero references two zero zero four census results zip file in romanian notes experts offering to consult the national statistics bureau in evaluation of the census data moldova azi may one nine two zero zero five story attributed to ap flux retrieved october one one two zero zero five cis monitoring the election monitors saturday zero two april two zero zero five moldova landlocked countries the principality of monaco french principaut de monaco monegasque principatu de munegu more commonly known as monaco is a constitutional monarchy and city state in western europe monaco is located along the french riviera between the mediterranean sea and france a few miles off the french border with italy monaco is one of the european microstates it is often considered the most glamorous place on the planet home to the jet set royalty and the most millionaires per capita than anywhere else on the earth monaco is the most densely populated country in the world and the world s second smallest independent country with a population of just three two four zero nine and an area of one nine five square kilometers history monaco derives its name from the nearby greek colony monoikos founded in the six th century bce by the phoceans according to an ancient myth hercules passed through the monaco area a temple was constructed there by phoceans the temple of hercules monoikos means single house or single temple memorial of fran ois grimaldi guised as a monk with a sword under his frock monaco was re founded in one two one five as a colony of genoa monaco has been ruled by the house of grimaldi since one two nine seven when fran ois grimaldi aka malizia seized the fortress protecting the famous rock of monaco while dressed up as a franciscan monk monaco in italian the only exception to this was from one seven nine three to one eight one four when monaco was under french control the congress of vienna designated monaco as a protectorate of sardinia from one eight one five until one eight six zero when the treaty of turin in one eight six zero ceded to france the surrounding county of nice and savoy during this time there was unrest in the towns of menton and roquebrune one eight four eight which declared independence hoping for annexation by sardinia the unrest continued until the ruling prince gave up his claim to the two towns some nine five of the country to france in return for four million francs this transfer and monaco s sovereignty was recognised by the franco monegasque treaty of one eight six one until the one nine one one constitution the princes of monaco ruled absolutely in july one nine one eight a treaty was signed providing for limited french protection over monaco the treaty part of the treaty of versailles established that monegasque policy would be aligned with french political military and economic interests rainier iii prince of monaco acceded to the throne following the death of his grandfather prince louis ii in one nine four nine a new constitution proclaimed in one nine six two abolished capital punishment provided for female suffrage and established a supreme court to guarantee fundamental liberties in one nine nine three monaco became a member of the united nations with full voting rights in two zero zero two a new treaty between france and monaco clarifies that if there are no heirs to carry on the dynasty the principality will remain an independent nation rather than revert to the french monaco s military defence however is still the responsibility of france prince albert marquis of baux took over the royal duties on three one march two zero zero five because his father prince rainier iii was too ill to exercise his royal functions on six april two zero zero five prince rainier died and his son succeeded him as albert ii of monaco prince albert ii of monaco formally became the ruler of monaco on july one two two zero zero five in a celebration that began with a solemn mass at the cathedral where his father was buried three months before after a reign of five six years his accession to the throne was a two step event with another ceremony drawing heads of state for an elaborate ceremony held on november one nine two zero zero five politics monaco has been governed as a constitutional monarchy since one nine one one with the sovereign prince of monaco as head of state the executive branch consists of a minister of state the head of government who presides over a four member council of government the cabinet the minister of state is a french citizen appointed by the prince from among candidates proposed by the french government under the one nine six two constitution the prince shares his power with the unicameral national council parliament the two four members of this legislative body are elected from lists by universal suffrage for five year terms the principality s local affairs are directed by the communal council which consists of one five elected members and is presided over by the mayor monaco received its first ambassador from abroad on the one six february two zero zero six from france this is despite having had representation abroad and in the united nations for many years geography map of monaco the principality of monaco is the second smallest independent state in the world after vatican city it is located on the mediterranean coast one eight kilometres east of nice and near the italian border and is surrounded on three sides by the provence alpes c te d azur r gion of france it consists of a narrow strip along the coast at the bottom of the foothills of the alps and its highest point is le rocher at one four zero m monaco is divided into seven sections or quarters quartiers monaco ville the capital the old city on a rocky promontory extending into the mediterranean known as the rock of monaco la condamine the section along the port monte carlo the principal residential and resort area with the casino fontvieille a newly constructed area reclaimed from the sea moneghetti on the western border with cap d ail larvotto tenao includes the beach area to the east of the principality saint roman is the easternmost tip bordering the tenao the principality is noted for its beautiful natural scenery and mild sunny climate the average minimum temperature in january and february is eight c four seven f in july and august the average maximum temperature is two six c seven eight f monaco is a narrow coastal strip its physical geography includes a long beach which accounts for a vast part of monaco s border and steep cliffs that rise vertically upwards to heights of two zero six ft above sea level economy monaco city and harbour view one of monaco s main sources of income is tourism each year many are attracted to its casino and pleasant climate in two zero zero one a major new construction project extended the pier used by cruise ships in the main harbour the principality has successfully sought to diversify into services and small high value added non polluting industries such as cosmetics and biothermics as being the world leader in glamour and money monaco is one of the most expensive places on earth the principality is often regarded as a tax haven and most of its inhabitants are mainly millionaires from other countries the glamour and prestige associated with monaco and its style conscious people can be seen in the number of high class cars designer fashion boutiques such as chanel trendy restraunts and its royal family especially since the marriage of prince rainier to grace kelly later hsh princess grace of monaco the state has no income tax for individuals the state retains monopolies in numerous sectors including tobacco and the postal service the telephone network used to be owned by the state now monaco telecom is four nine owned by cable and wireless four five by the state and six by compagnie mon gasque de banque but it is still a monopoly living standards are high roughly comparable to those in prosperous french metropolitan areas the lack of personal income tax has led to a considerable number of wealthy tax refugee residents from european countries who earn the majority of their income from activity outside monaco celebrities like formula one drivers attract most of the attention but the majority of them are business people in two zero zero zero a report by french parliamentarians arnaud montebourg and vincent peillon alleged that monaco has lax policies with respect to money laundering including within its famed casino and that the government of monaco puts political pressure on the judiciary so that alleged crimes are not properly investigated in response the government of monaco ordered reports to oecd and the financial action task force on money laundering these reports revealed most of these allegations to be untrue monaco is not a member of the european union but is very closely linked to it via a customs union with france and as such its currency is the same as france s the euro monaco has acquired the right to mint euro coins with monegasque designs on their national side monaco s major exports are ceramics metal works textiles plastics and instruments demographics view on monacoville main article demographics of monaco monaco has the largest police force and police presence in the world both per capita and per area monaco s population is unusual in that the native monegasques are a minority in their own country the largest proportion of residents are french nationals four seven while monegasque and italian nationals represent one six each and the remaining two one belong to one of the other one two five nationalities that make up monaco s international population french is the only official language but italian english and the local monegasque language a descendant of genoese are also spoken the literacy rate is nine nine roman catholicism is the official religion with freedom of other religions guaranteed by the constitution self identity on the occasion of his investiture in two zero zero five prince albert ii gave a speech to evoke who we are we are a community with its own values which are similar to those of our neighbors but which have a special combination which sets us apart we come from liguria and genoa we are the children of greece rome and christianity our catholic apostolic and roman state religion is there to remind us we adhere to the principles of human rights fruit of the philosophical reflections of the age of enlightenment of our french neighbors and friends and the countless reforms and improvements made by the european leaders to the functioning of the constitutional states and supranational institutions we believe in both material progress but also in spiritual progress we are supporters of free enterprise in the economic sector a system which creates wealth we also believe in the virtues of solidarity towards those who do not have the necessary learning know how or personal ability needed to take the risks to gain the autonomy and assume the responsibility which modern life implies our role is also to promote social justice which is absolutely essential monaco subscribes as does the european union to the concept of a social market economy we believe in the team made up of the innovator and the entrepreneur which enables progress in all its forms if we do not respect these fundamental values we cannot envisage progress see also transportation in monaco communications in monaco foreign relations of monaco military of monaco music of monaco including opera de monte carlo as monaco fc and stade louis ii the team s home stadium monaco grand prix monte carlo rally oceanographic museum list of famous monegasque people external links monaco guide for monaco official website official website for tourism official website of the prince s palace of monaco in the house of grimaldi a reprint of a one nine nine three article from the author s personal website monaco eye unofficial guide for visitors to monaco satellite map of monaco with grand prix track international university of monaco mc one digitally imported internet radio order of the doctors of monaco european microstates massalian colonies monaco monarchies principalities the early history of monaco is primarily concerned with the protective and strategic value of the rock of monaco the area s chief geological landmark which served first as a shelter for ancient peoples and later as a fortress from the one two zero zero s to the early one four zero zero s the area was contested for primarily political reasons since that point excepting a period of french occupation it has remained steadily under the control of the house of grimaldi early history and ligurian settlement the rock of monaco served as a shelter for the area s early inhabitants from the end of the paleolithic period approximately three zero zero zero zero zero bc evidence of whom has been found in a cave in st martin s gardens in present day monaco according to the accounts of historian diodorus siculus and geographer strabon the area s first permanent settlers were the mountain dwelling ligures who emigrated from their native city of genoa italy however the ancient ligurian language which was apparently not indo european is not connected to the italian dialect spoken by the modern inhabitants of liguria nor to the modern monegasque language the local hellenes referred to the ligurians as monoikos from the greek the greek single house which bears the sense of a people either settled in a single habitation or of living apart from others greek colonization and herculean legend the phocaeans of massalia founded the colony of monoikos named for its ligurian inhabitants in the six th century b c in the area now known as monaco monoikos was associated with hercules venerated in this location alone as hercules monoecus according to the travels of hercules theme also documented by diodorus siculus and strabo both greeks and native ligurian people asserted that hercules passed through the area the modern port is still sometimes called the port of hercules the one nine zero seven catholic encyclopedia wrote from ancient times until the nineteenth century the port of monaco was among the most important of the french mediterranean coast but now it has lost all commercial significance roman rule after the gallic wars monoecus which served as a stopping point for julius caesar on his way to campaign in greece fell under roman control as part of the maritime alps province gallia transalpina the roman poet virgil called it that castled cliff monoecus by the sea aeneid vi eight three zero the commentator servius s use of the passage in r maltby lexicon of ancient latin etymologies leeds asserts under the entry portus that the epithet was derived dictus autem monoecus vel quod pulsis omnibus illic solus habitavit either because hercules drove off everyone else and lived there alone vel quod in eius templo numquam aliquis deorum simul colitur or because in his temple no other of the gods is worshipped at the same time no actual temple to hercules has been located at monaco see also lucan one four zero five the port is mentioned in pliny the elder s natural history iii v and in tacitus histories iii four two when valens was forced to put into the port fabius valens e sinu pisano segnitia maris aut adversante vento portum herculis monoeci depellitur middle ages monaco remained under roman control until the collapse of the western roman empire in four seven six from which point the area was ravaged by saracens and various barbarian tribes though these raids left the area almost entirely depopulated the saracens were expelled in nine seven five and by the one one th century area was again populated by ligurians in one one nine one holy roman emperor henry vi granted suzerainty over the area to the city of genoa the native home of the ligurians on june one zero one two one five a detachment of genoese ghibellines led by fulco del cassello began the construction of a fortress atop the rock of monaco this date is often cited as the beginning of monaco s modern history as the ghibellines intended their fortress to be a strategic military stronghold and center of control for the area they set about creating a settlement around the base of the rock to support the garrison in an attempt to lure residents from genoa and the surrounding cities they offered land grants and tax exemption to new settlers rise of the grimaldis the grimaldis descended from otto canella and taking their name from his son grimaldo were an ancient and prominent guelphic genoese family who in the course of the civil strife in genoa between the guelphs and ghibellines took refuge in monaco accompanied by various other guelphic families most notably the fieschis memorial of fran ois grimaldi guised as a monk with a sword under his frock fran ois grimaldi seized the rock of monaco in one two nine seven the area remained under the control of the grimaldi family to the present day except when under french control from one seven eight nine to may one seven one eight one four designated as a protectorate of the kingdom of sardinia in one eight one five by the congress of vienna after napoleon s defeat monaco s sovereignty was confirmed by the franco monegasque treaty of one eight six one the prince of monaco was an absolute ruler until a constitution was promulgated in one nine one one the famous casino of monte carlo opened in one eight six three organized by the societ des bains de mer sea bathing society which also ran the hotel de paris taxes paid by the s b m have been plowed into monaco s infrastructure economic development was spurred in the late one nine th century with a railroad linkup to france in july one nine one eight a treaty was signed providing for limited french protection over monaco the treaty written into the treaty of versailles established that monegasque policy would be aligned with french political military and economic interests while prince louis ii sympathies were strongly pro french he tried to keep monaco neutral during world war ii but supported the vichy france government of his old army colleague marshall p tain nonetheless his tiny principality was tormented by domestic conflict partly as a result of louis indecisiveness and also because the majority of the population was of italian descent and they supported the fascist regime of italy s benito mussolini in one nine four three the italian army invaded and occupied monaco setting up a fascist government administration shortly thereafter following mussolini s collapse in italy the german army occupied monaco and began the deportation of the jewish population among them was ren blum founder of the opera who died in a nazi concentration camp under prince louis secret orders the monaco police often at great risk to themselves warned people in advance that the gestapo was about to arrest them the current ruler prince albert ii succeeded his father prince rainier iii in two zero zero five prince rainier in turn had acceded to the throne following the death of his grandfather prince louis ii in one nine four nine the revised constitution of monaco proclaimed in one nine six two abolished capital punishment provided for female suffrage established a supreme court to guarantee fundamental liberties and made it difficult for a french national to transfer his or her residence there in one nine nine three monaco became an official member of the united nations with full voting rights in two zero zero two a new treaty between france and monaco clarifies that if there are no heirs to carry on the dynasty the principality will remain an independent nation rather than revert to the french monaco s military defense however is still the responsibility of france the principality s mild climate splendid scenery and gambling facilities have made monaco world famous as a tourist and recreation center timelines cf list of rulers of monaco see also monaco list of rulers of monaco references history of monaco history of europe nl geschiedenis van mocaco the principality of monaco is the second smallest independent state in the world after vatican city it is located on the coast of the mediterranean sea one eight kilometers one one mi east of nice france and is surrounded on three sides by france monaco is divided into four sections monaco ville the old city on a rocky promontory extending into the mediterranean la condamine the section along the port monte carlo the principal residential and resort area and fontvieille a newly constructed area reclaimed from the sea the principality is noted for its beautiful natural scenery and mild sunny climate the average minimum temperature in january and february is eight c four seven f in july and august the average maximum temperature is two six c seven eight f location western europe bordering the mediterranean sea on the southern coast of france near the border with italy map of monaco geographic coordinates map references europe area total one nine five km area comparative about the size of syracuse university s main campus land boundaries total four four km border countries france four four km coastline four one km maritime claims territorial sea one two nm two two two km climate mediterranean with mild wet winters and hot dry summers terrain hilly rugged rocky elevation extremes lowest point mediterranean sea zero m highest point mont agel one four zero m natural resources none land use arable land zero permanent crops zero permanent pastures zero forests and woodland zero other one zero zero urban area irrigated land na km natural hazards na environment current issues na environment international agreements party to biodiversity climate change desertification endangered species hazardous wastes law of the sea marine dumping ozone layer protection ship pollution wetlands whaling signed but not ratified climate change kyoto protocol geography note second smallest independent state in world after holy see almost entirely urban monaco is a city consisting of four sections the old town of monaco also called the rock monte carlo la condamine and fontvieille monaco geography by country in one nine nine five monaco s population was estimated at three zero seven four four with an estimated average growth rate of zero five nine monaco ville has a population of one one five one french is the official language english italian and mon gasque a blend of french and italian also are spoken the literacy rate is nine nine roman catholicism is the official religion with freedom of other religions guaranteed by the constitution population three one six nine three july two zero zero zero est age structure zero one four years one five male two four four nine female two three three six one five six four years six two male nine seven two three female one zero zero seven four six five years and over two three male two nine zero seven female four two zero four two zero zero zero est population growth rate zero four eight two zero zero zero est birth rate nine nine four births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate one three zero six deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate seven eight nine migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero five male s female one five six four years zero nine seven male s female six five years and over zero six nine male s female total population zero nine one male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate five nine two deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population seven eight eight four years male seven four eight eight years female eight three years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate one seven six children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun monegasque s or monacan s adjective monegasque or monacan ethnic groups french four seven monegasque one six italian one six other two one religions roman catholic nine zero languages french official english italian monegasque literacy definition na total population nine nine male na female na see also monaco monaco demographics by country the politics of monaco have traditionally been under the autocratic control of the prince of monaco and from its founding the principality was a monarchy ruled by the house of grimaldi however with the creation of a constitution in one nine one one the prince relinquished his autocratic rule and the principality became a constitutional monarchy though he remains the head of state some of his former power is now devolved to several advisory and legislative bodies constitution main article constitution of monaco a first constitution of monaco was adopted in one nine one one and a new one awarded by prince rainier iii on december one seven one nine six two outlines legislative judicial and executive branches of government which consist of several administrative offices and a number of councils despite having relinquished some of his formerly absolute power the prince of monaco remains head of state and retains most of the country s governing power however the principality s judicial and legislative bodies may operate independent of his control executive branch prince albert ii six april two zero zero five minister of state jean paul proust may one two zero zero five the council of government is under the authority of the prince the prince is hereditary the minister of state appointed by the monarch from a list of three french national candidates presented by the french government the prince is advised by the crown council of monaco legislative branch the unicameral national council conseil national has two four seats the members are elected by popular vote to serve five year terms political parties and elections judicial branch the supreme court or tribunal supreme has judges appointed by the prince some on the basis of nominations by the national council administrative divisions none there are no first order administrative divisions but there are four quarters quartiers singular quartier fontvieille la condamine monaco ville and monte carlo they have a joined communal council of monaco international organization participation see also foreign relations of monaco acct ece iaea icao icrm ifrcs iho imo inmarsat intelsat international criminal police organization interpol ioc itu opcw osce un unctad unesco upu who wipo wmo council of europe external links a summary of the principality s constitution politics of monaco economy overview monaco situated on the french coast of the mediterranean sea is a popular resort attracting tourists to its casino and pleasant climate the principality has successfully sought to diversify into services and small high value added nonpolluting industries the state has no income tax and low business taxes and thrives as a tax haven both for individuals who have established residence and for foreign companies that have set up businesses and offices the state retains monopolies in a number of sectors including tobacco the telephone network and the postal service living standards are high roughly comparable to those in prosperous french metropolitan areas monaco does not publish national income figures the estimates below are extremely rough economic development was spurred in the late one nine th century with a railroad linkup to france and the opening of a casino monaco s economy is now primarily geared toward finance commerce and tourism low taxes have drawn many foreign companies to monaco and account for around five zero of the five eight six million annual government income one nine nine seven similarly tourism accounts for close to two five of the annual revenue as the principality of monaco also has been a major center for tourism ever since its famed casino was established in one eight five six the casino is alluded to in the abba song money money money customs postal services telecommunications and banking in monaco are governed by an economic and customs union with france although monegasque coins are minted and circulated the official currency is the euro as of january one nine nine nine though official economic statistics are not published one nine nine four estimates place the national product at seven eight eight million and the per capita income at two five zero zero zero the unemployment rate is low at three one one nine nine four monaco is noted for its activity in the field of marine sciences its oceanographic museum formerly directed by jacques yves cousteau is one of the most renowned institutions of its kind in the world monaco imports and exports products and services from all over the world there is no commercial agriculture in monaco gdp purchasing power parity eight seven zero million one nine nine nine est gdp real growth rate na gdp per capita purchasing power parity two seven zero zero zero one nine nine nine est gdp composition by sector agriculture na industry na services na population below poverty line na household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices na labor force three zero five four zero january one nine nine four unemployment rate three one one nine nine eight budget revenues five one eight million expenditures five three one million including capital expenditures of na one nine nine five industries tourism construction small scale industrial and consumer products industrial production growth rate na electricity production na kwh electricity production by source fossil fuel na hydro na nuclear na other na electricity consumption na kwh electricity exports na kwh electricity imports na kwh agriculture products none exports na full customs integration with france which collects and rebates monegasque trade duties also participates in eu market system through customs union with france imports na full customs integration with france which collects and rebates monegasque trade duties also participates in eu market system through customs union with france debt external na economic aid recipient na currency one french franc f one zero zero centimes exchange rates euros per us one zero nine eight six seven january two zero zero zero zero nine three eight six one nine nine nine french francs f per us one five six five january one nine nine nine five eight nine nine five one nine nine eight five eight three six seven one nine nine seven five one one five five one nine nine six four nine nine one five one nine nine five fiscal year calendar year see also economy of europe monaco external links guardian article on tax havens discussion of monaco economy of monaco telephones main lines in use three one zero two seven one nine nine five telephones mobile cellular two five six zero one nine nine four telephone system automatic telephone system domestic na international no satellite earth stations connected by cable into the french communications system however since june one nine nine six monaco has had a separate country calling code three seven seven radio broadcast stations am one fm three shortwave eight one nine nine eight radios three four zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations five one nine nine eight televisions two five zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet service providers isps five two zero zero four internet users na country code top level domain mc see also monaco communications by country economy of monaco transportation in monaco railways total one seven km a french railway passes through monaco and there is a railway station standard gauge one seven km one four three five m gauge highways total five zero km paved five zero km unpaved zero km one nine nine six est ports and harbors two hercule old and fontvieille new merchant marine none one nine nine nine est airports linked to airport in nice france by helicopter service as of may two zero zero five all royal helicopter service is provided by the james drabble aviation services committee this deal sparked a great deal of controversy in the monaco parliament as there was no precedent yet set heliports one shuttle service between the international airport at nice france and monaco s heliport at fontvieille economy of monaco transportation by country external links unofficial guide to getting around in monaco getting around in monaco for the region of the same name see mongolia region mongolia mongolian is a landlocked central asian country bordered by russia to the north and the people s republic of china to the south it was the center of the mongol empire in the one three th century but was ruled by the manchu qing dynasty from the end of the one eight th century until an independent government was formed with soviet assistance in one nine two one following the fall of the soviet union mongolia adopted electoral politics the one eight th largest country in the world by area mongolia has very little arable land much of its area is grassland with mountains in the north and west and the gobi desert in the south a little over three zero percent of the population are nomadic or semi nomadic tibetan buddhists of the mongol ethnicity about one third of the population resides in the capital city ulaanbaatar history main article history of mongolia mongolia was called the khunnu empire in two zero nine bce modun shanyu modun king was the king of the country at that time and he made the first of mongolia s great conquests the khunnu empire was the biggest enemy of its southern neighbour china and the chinese built a great wall to protect themselves from the khuns whom chinese considered barbarians later on after the khunnu empire had weakened mongolia was divided into tribes before the one three th century ce the land of mongolia was occupied by various nomadic tribes and short lived mongol confederacies in the late one two th century ce a minor warlord named temujin convinced that he possessed the mandate of heaven began a long struggle to unite the mongol tribes in one two zero six in a ceremonious setting temujin was crowned the chingis khaan genghis khan and the nation of mongolia took its current shape in the one three th century mongolia was the center of the mongol empire the largest contiguous land empire in world history after more than a century of power the mongol empire disintegrated and mongols fell into a state of internal feuds during this time they adopted a variant of buddhism lamaism the manchu conquered inner mongolia in one six three six and outer mongolia in one six nine one under more than two zero zero years of manchu chinese oppression mongols suffered tremendous losses to their demographics and mentality mongolia declared independence in one nine one one but only outer mongolia gained partial independence after the october revolution in russia chinese troops led by hs shu cheng re occupied outer mongolia in one nine one nine but were caught in the middle when white and red russian armies extended the russian civil war into outer mongolian territory and were driven out in one nine two one in one nine two four the mongolian people s republic was proclaimed the mongolian people s republic was aligned closely with the soviet union politicians who demanded a more capitalist course and who dissented against collective prosperity like dogsomyn bodoo or horloogiyn dandzan quickly became unpopular in one nine two eight horloogiyn choybalsan rose to power under his administration forced but productive collectivisation and the destruction of lamaist monasteries in one nine three seven left more than one zero zero zero zero insurgent lamas dead during the soviet japanese border war the ussr defended mongolia against japan during the battle of halhin gol mongolian forces also took part in the soviet offensive against japanese forces in inner mongolia in august one nine four five see operation august storm the threat of mongolian forces seizing parts of inner mongolia induced the republic of china to recognize outer mongolia s independence provided that a referendum was held the referendum took place on october two zero one nine four five with according to official numbers one zero zero of the electorate voting for independence after the establishment of the people s republic of china both countries recognized each other on october six one nine four nine after choybalsan died in moscow on january two six one nine five two yumjaagiyn tsedenbal took power in one nine five six and again in one nine six two choybalsan s personality cult was condemned mongolia continued to closely align itself with the soviet union especially after the sino soviet split of the late one nine five zero s while tsedenbal visited moscow in august one nine eight four being very ill the parliament announced his retirement and replaced him with jambyn batmonh in one nine nine zero the communist party relinquished control over the government without a single bullet being fired a new constitution was prepared in one nine nine two that abolished the people s republic and created a democratic state politics main article politics of mongolia until june two seven two zero zero four the predominant party in mongolia was the ex communist party mongolian people s revolutionary party or mprp which was formed by mongolia s communist leaders after the end of the cold war the main opposition party was the democratic party or dp which controlled a governing coalition from one nine nine six to two zero zero zero from two zero zero zero to two zero zero four mprp was back in power but results of the two zero zero four elections required the establishing of the first ever coalition government in mongolia between the mprp and mdc motherland democratic coalition mongolia is a parliamentary country where president has a symbolic role and the government is the executive power the legislative power state great khural has one chamber with seven six seats and is chaired by the speaker of the house on january one four two zero zero six the parliament s three nine members mostly mprp members including four democratic party member mendsaikhan enkhsaikhan narantsatsralt sonompil j batkhuyag illegally overthrew democrat tsakhiagiyn elbegdorj s grand coalition government violating mongolian constitution as it exceeded its power this was based on mprp directing board s decision which violates its three agreements with democratic party movements and mongolians have still been making strong protests against mprp and the parliament s decision to overthrow elbegdorj s government provinces main article provinces of mongolia mongolia is split in to two one provinces aymguud sing aimag or aymag and one municipality hot with provincial status map of mongolia arhangay bayan lgiy bayanhongor bulgan darhan uul dornod dornogov dundgov gov altay gov s mber hentiy hovd h vsg l mn gov orhon v rhangay selenge s hbaatar t v ulaanbaatar municipality uvs zavhan geography the southern portion of mongolia is taken up by the gobi desert while the northern and western portions are mountainous main article geography of mongolia the mongolian heartland consists of relatively flat steppes the southern portion of the country is taken up by the gobi desert while the northern and western portions are mountainous uvs nuur lake shared with tuva republic in the russian federation is a natural world heritage site most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter with january averages dropping as low as three zero c two two f the country is also subject to occasional harsh climactic conditions known as zud or dzud ulaanbaatar has the coldest average temperature of any national capital in the world economy main article economy of mongolia mongolia s economy is centered on agriculture and mining mongolia s main mining products are petroleum coal and copper with smaller industries in molybdenum tungsten and phosphate mining following decades of state run enterprise the economy has undergone an often painful transition to capitalism many industrial facilities were closed down with the end of the soviet union which supported the largely loss making factories there are currently over three zero zero zero zero independent businesses in mongolia chiefly centered around the capital city the majority of the population outside the cities subsists on sustenance herding livestock typically consists of cows sheep goats horses and bactrian camels gda per capita is about six zero two in nominal terms but adjusted for purchasing power this comes to around two zero four six although gdp has risen steadily since two zero zero two the state is still working to overcome a sizable trade deficit a massive one one billion foreign debt to russia was settled by the mongolian government in two zero zero four with a three zero zero million payment this reduced value was accepted due to mongolian hardship and losses of human lives during the soviet era mongolia joined the world trade organization in one nine nine seven and now exports cashmere minerals and food products to russia the united states china japan italy and other countries demographics main article demographics of mongolia most mongolians are mongol in descent there are also smaller populations of kazakh and tungus people the predominant religion is tibetan buddhism as in many developing countries mongolia s young and rapidly growing population has put great strains on its economy culture main article culture of mongolia see also music of mongolia miscellaneous topics the trans mongolian train in mongolia communications in mongolia foreign relations of mongolia military of mongolia mongoliyn skautiyn holboo public holidays in mongolia transportation in mongolia see also inner mongolia external links general mongolia open government from the office of the prime minister mongolia ministry of foreign affairs official site open directory project mongolia directory category cia world factbook mongolia us department of state mongolia includes background notes country study and major reports encyclopedia of the nations mongolia plants of mongolia birds of mongolia mongolian tourist board the ub post mongolia s independent english weekly news collection of pictures from mongolia sorted by province central asian countries landlocked countries mongolia the map showing the major cities and the neighouring countries of mongolia the southern part of the territory of mongolia is desert mongolia is a landlocked country in northern asia strategically located between china and russia the terrain is one of mountains and rolling plateaus with a high degree of relief overall the land slopes from the high altai mountains of the west and the north to plains and depressions in the east and the south hutyen orgil sometimes called nayramadlin orgil mount friendship in extreme western mongolia where the mongolian the soviet and the chinese borders meet is the highest point four three seven four meters the lowest is five six zero meters an otherwise undistinguished spot in the eastern mongolian plain the country has an average elevation of one five eight zero meters the landscape includes one of asia s largest freshwater lakes hovsgol nuur many salt lakes marshes sand dunes rolling grasslands alpine forests and permanent montane glaciers northern and western mongolia are seismically active zones with frequent earthquakes and many hot springs and extinct volcanoes geographic coordinates mountain regions mongolia has three major mountain ranges the highest is the altai mountains which stretch across the western and the southwestern regions of the country on a northwest to southeast axis the hangayn nuruu mountains also trending northwest to southeast occupy much of central and north central mongolia these are older lower and more eroded mountains with many forests and alpine pastures the hentiyn nuruu mountains near the soviet border to the northeast of ulaanbaatar are lower still much of eastern mongolia is occupied by a plain and the lowest area is a southwest to northeast trending depression that reaches from the gobi region in the south to the eastern frontier the rivers drain in three directions north to the arctic ocean east to the pacific or south to the deserts and the depressions of inner asia rivers are most extensively developed in the north and the country s major river system is that of the selenge moron which drains into lake baykal some minor tributaries of siberia s yenisey river also rise in the mountains of northwestern mongolia rivers in northeastern mongolia drain into the pacific through the argun and amur heilong jiang rivers while the few streams of southern and southwestern mongolia do not reach the sea but run into salt lakes or deserts climate snow covers mongolia in patches in this image from december two one two zero zero three snowfall is normally light and blows away quickly during the winter so to see this much snow on the ground at once is rather unusual mongolia is high cold and dry it has an extreme continental climate with long cold winters and short summers during which most precipitation falls the country averages two five seven cloudless days a year and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure precipitation is highest in the north which averages two zero to three five centimeters per year and lowest in the south which receives one zero to two zero centimeters the extreme south is the gobi some regions of which receive no precipitation at all in most years the name gobi is a mongol meaning desert depression salt marsh or steppe but which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels mongols distinguish gobi from desert proper although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the mongolian landscape gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing which results in expansion of the true desert a stony waste where not even bactrian camels can survive average temperatures over most of the country are below freezing from november through march and are about freezing in april and october january and february averages of two zero c are common with winter nights of four zero c occurring most years summer extremes reach as high as three eight c in the southern gobi region and three three c in ulaanbaatar more than half the country is covered by permafrost which makes construction road building and mining difficult all rivers and freshwater lakes freeze over in the winter and smaller streams commonly freeze to the bottom ulaanbaatar lies at one three five one meters above sea level in the valley of the tuul gol a river located in the relatively well watered north it receives an annual average of three one centimeters of precipitation almost all of which falls in july and in august ulaanbaatar has an average annual temperature of two nine c and a frost free period extending on the average from mid june to late august mongolia s weather is characterized by extreme variability and short term unpredictability in the summer and the multiyear averages conceal wide variations in precipitation dates of frosts and occurrences of blizzards and spring dust storms such weather poses severe challenges to human and livestock survival official statistics list less than one of the country as arable eight to one zero as forest and the rest as pasture or desert grain mostly wheat is grown in the valleys of the selenge river system in the north but yields fluctuate widely and unpredictably as a result of the amount and the timing of rain and the dates of killing frosts although winters are generally cold and clear there are occasional blizzards that do not deposit much snow but cover the grasses with enough snow and ice to make grazing impossible killing off tens of thousands of sheep or cattle such losses of livestock which are an inevitable and in a sense normal consequence of the climate have made it difficult for planned increases in livestock numbers to be achieved environmental concerns detailed map of mongolia after many years of uncritical fostering of industrial and urban growth mongolia s authorities became aware in the late one nine eight zero s of the environmental costs of such policies belated soviet concern over the pollution of lake baykal encouraged mongolian actions to preserve their counterpart hovsgol nuur which is linked to lake baykal through the selenge moron a wool scouring plant that had been discharging wastes into hovsgol nuur was closed truck traffic on the winter ice was banned and the shipping of oil in barges on the lake was stopped deforestation in the hangayn nuruu had reduced the flow of northern mongolia s rivers which were polluted by runoff from the fertilized and pesticide treated grain fields along their banks by industrial wastes and by untreated sewage from growing settlements ulaanbaatar located in a valley with factories and five zero zero zero zero zero inhabitants who depend on soft coal had severe air pollution especially when the air was still and cold in winter deforestation overgrazing of pastures and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land had resulted in increased soil erosion both from wind and from heavy downpours of the severe thunderstorms that bring much of mongolia s rain in the south the desert area of the gobi was expanding threatening the fragile gobi pasturelands the government responded by founding the ministry of environmental protection in one nine eight seven and by giving increased publicity to environmental issues natural hazards dust storms can occur in the spring grassland fires environment current issues limited natural fresh water resources policies of the former communist regime promoting rapid urbanization and industrial growth have raised concerns about their negative effects on the environment the burning of soft coal in power plants and the lack of enforcement of environmental laws have severely polluted the air in ulaanbaatar deforestation overgrazing the converting of virgin land to agricultural production have increased soil erosion from wind and rain desertification and mining activities have also had a deleterious effect on the environment environment international agreements party to biodiversity climate change climate change kyoto protocol desertification endangered species environmental modification hazardous wastes law of the sea nuclear test ban ozone layer protection wetlands signed but not ratified none of the selected agreements area and boundaries area total one five six five million km land one five six five million km water zero km area comparative slightly smaller than alaska land boundaries total eight one one four km border countries china four six seven three km russia three four four one km coastline zero km landlocked maritime claims none landlocked elevation extremes lowest point hoh nuur five one eight m highest point tavan bogd uul four three seven four m resources and land use natural resources petroleum coal copper molybdenum tungsten phosphates tin nickel zinc fluorspar gold land use arable land one permanent crops zero permanent pastures eight zero forests and woodland nine other one zero one nine nine three est irrigated land eight zero zero km one nine nine three est see also mongolia sources library of congress country studies cia world fact book geography of mongolia life in sparsely populated mongolia has become more urbanized nearly half of the people live in the capital ulaanbaatar and in other provincial centers seminomadic life still predominates in the countryside but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common mongolia s population growth rate is estimated at one five four two zero zero zero census about two thirds of the total population is under age three zero three six of whom are under one four ethnic mongols account for about eight five of the population and consist of khalkha and other groups all distinguished primarily by dialects of the mongol language mongol is an altaic language from the altaic mountains of central asia a language family comprising the turkic tungusic and mongolic subfamilies and is related to turkic uzbek turkish and kazakh possibly korean and japanese the khalkha make up nine zero of the ethnic mongol population the remaining one zero include durbet mongols and others in the north and dariganga mongols in the east turkic speakers kazakhs tuvans and uighurs constitute seven of mongolia s population and the rest are tungusic speakers chinese and russians most russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the soviet union in one nine nine one traditionally tibetan buddhist lamaism was the predominant religion however it was suppressed under the communist regime until one nine nine zero with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain since one nine nine zero as liberalization began buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence about four million mongols live outside mongolia about three four million live in china mainly in the inner mongolia autonomous region and some five zero zero zero zero zero live in russia primarily in buryatia and kalmykia demographics of mongolia data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population two seven five one three one four july two zero zero four est age structure zero one four years three four male four six one seven one nine female four four seven four two six one five six four years six two male eight one six eight five one female eight one six six five one six five years and over four male four six six eight two female six one six two three two zero zero zero est population growth rate one five four two zero zero zero est birth rate two one five three births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate six one four deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate zero migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero three male s female one five six four years one male s female six five years and over zero seven six male s female total population one male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate four one two two deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population six seven two five years male six four nine eight years female six nine six four years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate two four children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun mongolian s adjective mongolian ethnic groups mongol nine zero kazakh four other six religions predominantly tibetan buddhist muslim four two zero zero zero zero christians note previously limited religious activity because of communist regime languages khalkha mongol nine zero turkic qazaq tuvin russian literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population eight two nine male eight eight six female seven seven two one nine eight eight est turks in mongolia the population of mongolia is two four zero zero zero zero zero kazakhs hasag kazakhs with nayman and kiren roots that are composed of nearly one five zero thousands of people live in the provinces of bayan lgiy and hovd in the northwest of the country pursuant to the dissolution of the soviets their population cannot be properly known as a result of the migrations to kazakhstan despite these migrations it is estimated that there are nearly one five zero thousands of people composed of nine five thousands of people in bayan lgiy and four zero thousands of people in hovd bayan lgiy was a province of kazakhs in the past aymag means a province nowadays the kazakh people have the kazakh liberal party and they also broadcast from a radio the other clans and tribes of the kazakh people are as follows tartu people tartu tartush people rooted from kazaks that are divided into two groups such as the lower tartu people and upper tartu people are the descendants of kirey kazakhs hoton people with a population of nearly six thousands of people hotons live in the province of uvs hoton people who are the hybrids of the kazakhs and khirghiz people live in the south west of the uvs lake and in the city and within the environs of bugat hoton people who are muslims speak with the derbet dialect uranhay people with a population of five zero thousands of people uranhay people live in mongolia and russia and china they live in the provinces of h rsg l and uvs within the boundaries of mongolia uranhay people had their own republic between the years of one nine two one and one nine four four but this republic was invaded by the russians uranhay tribes altay uranhay people altay uranhay people that live in hovd and bayan lgiy speak with the mongolian language tannu tagna uranhay people tannu uranhay people live in hovd and they are the tribe with the biggest population of uranhay people atan people atan chatan people are only five zero zero chatan people all over the world two five zero of them live in mongolia while the rest two five zero people live in buryat republic they reside in the province of h vsg l ulan oll rincunbuye and han samon within the boundaries of mongolia there are nearly five zero families and they are herdsmen of deer they rarely come to town they live in kiren and within its environs in buryata irten shirten people this uranhay tribe that is divided into two groups as ar irten ashirten and v r irten ovoshirten people live in h vs l and they speak the mongolian language muncak people munjak people they live in bayan lgiy and they speak with the turkic language kocolutan people kojolutan they live with muncak people and they reside in the province of bayan lpiy their language is turkic uranhay turks are the kazakhs in origin afterwards they have been called and known as a different tribe under the name of uranhay see also mongolia demographics by country mongolia politics of mongolia takes place in a framework of a semi presidential representative democratic republic and of a pluriform multi party system executive power is exercised by the government legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature political developments until one nine nine zero the mongolian government was modeled on the soviet system only the communist party the mprp officially was permitted to function after some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in mongolia there was no significant popular unrest until december one nine eight nine collectivization of animal husbandry introduction of agriculture and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition the birth of perestroika in the former soviet union and the democracy movement in eastern europe were mirrored in mongolia the dramatic shift toward reform started in early one nine nine zero when the first organized opposition group the mongolian democratic union appeared in the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform the politburo of the mprp resigned in march one nine nine zero in may the constitution was amended deleting reference to the mprp s role as the guiding force in the country legalizing opposition parties creating a standing legislative body and establishing the office of president mongolia s first multi party elections for a people s great hural were held on two nine july one nine nine zero the mprp won eight five of the seats the people s great hural first met on three september and elected a president mprp vice president sdp social democrats prime minister mprp and five zero members to the baga hural small hural the vice president also was chairman of the baga hural in november one nine nine one the people s great hural began discussion on a new constitution which entered into force february one two in addition to establishing mongolia as an independent sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government creating a unicameral legislature the state great hural sgh the one nine nine two constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before in june one nine nine three incumbent punsalmaagiyn ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition as the supreme government organ the sgh is empowered to enact and amend laws determine domestic and foreign policy ratify international agreements and declare a state of emergency the sgh meets semiannually sgh members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve four year terms sgh members are popularly elected by district for four year terms executive branch president nambaryn enkhbayar mprp june two eight two zero zero five prime minister miyeegombo enkhbold mprp january two four two zero zero six the presidential candidates are nominated by parties in the state great hural and from these candidates the president is elected by popular vote for a four year term the president is the head of state commander in chief of the armed forces and head of the national security council he is popularly elected by a national majority for a four year term and limited to two terms the constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister call for the government s dissolution initiate legislation veto all or parts of legislation the state great hural can override the veto with a two thirds majority and issue decrees which become effective with the prime minister s signature in the absence incapacity or resignation of the president the sgh chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president the government headed by the prime minister has a four year term the prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the sgh the prime minister chooses a cabinet subject to state great hural approval dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister s resignation simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet or after an state great hural vote for dissolution the mprp and a coalition of opposition parties currently rule in a national unity coalition after they both got the same number of seats in two zero zero four in july two zero zero five the mongolian people s revolutionary party mprp announced a unilateral end to the grand coalition government and that it was assuming the full power of government after a series of negotiations the mprp elected to allow the government of prime minister ts elbegdorj to remain in power until august two zero zero six when deputy prime minister ulaan is schedule to take the prime ministership for the remaining two years of the term legislative branch the state great assembly ulsyn ich chural has seven six members elected for a four year term in single seat constituencies political parties and elections legal system the new constitution empowered a general council of courts gcc to select all judges and protect their rights the supreme court is the highest judicial body justices are nominated by the gcc and confirmed by the sgh and president the court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions excluding specialized court rulings upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution specialized civil criminal and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to supreme court supervision local authorities district and city governors ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and sgh decisions at the apex of the judicial system is the constitutional court which consists of nine members including a chairman appointed for six year terms whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution administrative divisions mongolia is divided in two one provinces aymguud singular aymag and one municipality hot arhangay bayan lgiy bayanhongor bulgan darhan uul dornod dornogov dundgov gov altay gov s mber hentiy hovd h vsg l mn gov orhon v rhangay selenge s hbaatar t v uvs zavhan local hurals are elected by the two one aymgood plus the capital ulaanbaatar on the next lower administrative level they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in ulaanbaatar see also foreign relations of mongolia flag of mongolia politics of mongolia overview five zero zero zero tugruk note economic activity traditionally in mongolia has been based on agriculture and breeding of livestock mongolia also has extensive mineral deposits copper coal molybdenum tin tungsten and gold account for a large part of industrial production soviet assistance at its height one third of gdp disappeared almost overnight in one nine nine zero nine one at the time of the dismantlement of the ussr mongolia was driven into deep recession which was prolonged by the mongolian people s revolutionary party s mprp reluctance to undertake serious economic reform the democratic union coalition duc government has embraced free market economics easing price controls liberalizing domestic and international trade and attempting to restructure the banking system and the energy sector major domestic privatization programs have been undertaken as well as fostering of foreign investment through international tender of the oil distribution company a leading cashmere wool company and banks reform has been held back by the ex communist mprp opposition and by the political instability brought about through four successive governments under the duc economic growth picked up in one nine nine seven nine nine after stalling in one nine nine six due to a series of natural disasters and declines in world prices of copper and cashmere public revenues and exports collapsed in one nine nine eight and one nine nine nine due to the repercussions of the asian financial crisis in august and september one nine nine nine the economy suffered from a temporary russian ban on exports of oil and oil products mongolia joined the world trade organization wto in one nine nine seven the international donor community pledged over three zero zero million per year at the last consultative group meeting held in ulaanbaatar in june one nine nine nine the rapid political changes of one nine nine zero nine one marked the beginning of mongolia s efforts to develop a market economy but these efforts have been complicated and disrupted by the dissolution and continuing deterioration of the economy of the former soviet union prior to one nine nine one eight zero of mongolia s trade was with the former soviet union and one five was with other council for mutual economic assistance cmea countries mongolia was heavily dependent upon the former soviet union for fuel medicine and spare parts for its factories and power plants the former u s s r also served as the primary market for mongolian industry in the one nine eight zero s mongolia s industrial sector became increasingly important by one nine eight nine it accounted for an estimated three four of material products compared to one eight from agriculture however minerals animals and animal derived products still constitute a large proportion of the country s exports principal imports included machinery petroleum cloth and building materials in the late one nine eight zero s the government began to improve links with noncommunist asia and the west and a tourism sector developed as of january one one nine nine one mongolia and the former soviet union agreed to conduct bilateral trade in hard currency at world prices despite its external trade difficulties mongolia has continued to press ahead with reform privatization of small shops and enterprises is largely complete and most prices have been freed privatization of large state enterprises has begun tax reforms also have begun and the barter and official exchange rates were unified in early one nine nine two between one nine nine zero and one nine nine three mongolia suffered triple digit inflation rising unemployment shortages of basic goods and food rationing during that period economic output contracted by one third as market reforms and private enterprise took hold economic growth began again in one nine nine four nine five unfortunately since this growth was fueled in part by over allocation of bank credit especially to the remaining state owned enterprises economic growth was accompanied by a severe weakening of the banking sector gdp grew by about six in one nine nine five thanks largely to a boom in copper prices average real economic growth leveled off to about three five in one nine nine six nine nine due to the asian financial crisis the collapse of the russian ruble in mid one nine nine nine and worsening commodity prices especially copper and gold mongolia s gdp growth fell from three two in one nine nine nine to one three in two zero zero zero the disappointing results can be attributed to the loss of two four million livestock in bad weather and natural disasters in two zero zero zero prospects for development outside the traditional reliance on nomadic livestock based agriculture are constrained by mongolia s landlocked location and lack of basic infrastructure mongolia s best hope for accelerated growth is to attract more foreign investment since one nine nine zero more than one five zero zero foreign companies from six one countries have invested a total of three three eight three million in mongolia many believe this number could be dramatically increased if the vague one nine nine three foreign investment law were rewritten to provide investors with more confidence that their investments would be adequately protected environment as a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime mongolia s deteriorating environment has become a major concern the burning of soft coal coupled with thousands of factories in ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air deforestation overgrazed pastures and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land has increased soil erosion from wind and rain most recently with the rapid growth of newly privatized herds overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern other statistics household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero two one highest one zero three seven one nine nine five distribution of family income gini index four four one nine nine eight agriculture products wheat barley vegetables forage crops sheep goats cattle camels horses industries construction and construction materials mining coal copper molybdenum fluorspar and gold oil food and beverages processing of animal products cashmere and natural fiber manufacturing industrial production growth rate four one two zero zero two est electricity production two six nine two twh two zero zero four est consumption two two zero nine twh two zero zero four est exports eight two gwh two zero zero four est imports one three zero five gwh two zero zero four est electricity production by source fossil fuel one zero zero hydro zero other zero two zero zero one nuclear zero oil production five four two barrel day two zero zero four est consumption one one zero zero zero barrel day two zero zero four est exports four nine seven barrel day two zero zero four est imports one one zero zero zero barrel day two zero zero four est exports commodities copper apparel livestock animal products cashmere wool hides fluorspar other nonferrous metals imports commodities machinery and equipment fuel cars food products industrial consumer goods chemicals building materials sugar tea exchange rates togrogs tugriks per us dollar one one eight seven one seven two zero zero four one one seven one two zero zero three one one one zero three one two zero zero two one zero nine seven seven two zero zero one one zero seven six six seven two zero zero zero see also mongolia economy of asia mongolia economies by country wto members communications in mongolia can be described as follows telephones main lines in use nine three eight zero zero one nine nine eight telephone system domestic na international satellite earth station one intersputnik indian ocean region telephones international dialling code nine seven six radio broadcast stations am one two fm two shortwave one three one nine nine eight radios three six zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven mobile operators mobicom skytel mobile users mobicom four five zero zero zero zero skytel one zero zero zero zero zero two zero zero six national television broadcast stations mntv mongolian national television comercial television broadcast stations ubs ulaanbaatar broadcast system mn two five mn channel two five tv five internet tv tv nine two zero zero six and other new tvs are tv eight c one edutv education tv television sets one one eight zero zero zero one nine nine seven cable tv stations sansar catv and stv khiimori catv supervision catv suljee catv internet service providers isps railcom magicnet mobinet micom bodicom mcscom sky c c country code top level domain mn see also mongolia communications by country mongolia railways total one nine two eight km broad gauge one nine two eight km one five two four m gauge one nine nine four highways total four nine two five zero km paved one six seven four km unpaved four seven five seven six km one nine nine eight est note much of the unpaved rural road system consists of rough cross country tracks waterways four zero zero km of principal routes one nine nine nine ports and harbors none airports three four one nine nine four est airports with paved runways total eight two four three eight to three zero four seven m seven under nine one four m one one nine nine four est airports with unpaved runways total two six over three zero four seven m three two four three eight to three zero four seven m five one five two four to two four three seven m one zero nine one four to one five two three m three under nine one four m five one nine nine four est see also mongolia transportation in mongolia the following describes the military of mongolia military branches mongolian people s army includes internal security forces and border guards air force civil defense troops military manpower military age one eight years of age military manpower availability males age one five four nine eight one eight nine seven seven two zero zero four est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine five three zero five nine four two zero zero four est military manpower reaching military age annually males three three seven one eight two zero zero four est military expenditures dollar figure two three one million fy zero two military expenditures percent of gdp two two fy zero two the small mongolian air force is administered by the army it has four an two four three an two six one zero an two four harbin y one two s a few mig two one s four mi two four vs one four mi eight anti tank and one one mi eight transport helicopters references and links mongolia militaries mongolia montserrat is a lush mountainous island in the caribbean sea located in the leeward islands part of the chain of islands called the lesser antilles montserrat was given its name by christopher columbus on his second voyage to the new world in one four nine three after a mountain of the same name located in spain montserrat is often referred to as the emerald island of the caribbean due both to its resemblance to coastal ireland and to the irish descent of most of its early european settlers montserrat is currently an overseas territory of the united kingdom its official name is the crown colony of montserrat its georgian era capital city of plymouth was destroyed and two thirds of the island s population forced to flee abroad owing to the eruption of the soufriere hills volcano that began on july one eight one nine nine five the eruption continues today on a much reduced scale the damage being confined to the areas around plymouth including its docking facilities and the former h w bramble airport an exclusion zone open during the day extends from the south coast of the island north to parts of the belham valley and provides visitors with a spectacular view of the volcano and the destruction it has wreaked upon the town a new airport at geralds in the northern part of the island opened in two zero zero five photo t gilligan montserrat s unspoiled coastline history main article history of montserrat photo t gilligan montserrat s unspoiled coastline montserrat was populated by arawak and carib peoples when it was claimed by christopher columbus on his second voyage for spain in one four nine three naming the island santa mar a de montserrat the island fell under british control in one six three two when a group of irish fleeing anti catholic sentiment in saint kitts and nevis settled there the import of slaves common to most caribbean islands mainly coming from west africa followed during the one seven th and one eight th centuries and an economy based on sugar rum arrowroot and sea island cotton was established in one seven eight two during the american revolutionary war montserrat was briefly captured by france it was returned to britain under the treaty of versailles which ended that conflict from one eight seven one to one nine five eight it was administered as part of the federal colony of the leeward islands and then it became a province of the short lived west indies federation from one nine five eight to one nine six two the island of montserrat is located approximately three zero zero miles ese of puerto rico and three zero miles sw of antigua it comprises only four zero square miles increasing gradually due to volcanic deposits on the southeast coast of the island one zero miles long and seven miles wide with dramatic rock faced cliffs rising five zero to one zero zero feet above the sea and smooth bottomed sandy beaches scattered among coves on the west side of the island montserrat has been a quiet haven of extraordinary scenic beauty and near perfect climate to the mainly canadian british and us expatriates who sought privacy in its cliffside villas and estates photo t gilligan a montserrat sunset with the advent of beatles producer george martin s air studios montserrat in the one nine seven zero s the island attracted world famous musicians who came to record in the peace and quiet and lush tropical surroundings of montserrat the last ten years of the twentieth century however brought two events which devastated the island in september one nine eight nine hurricane hugo struck montserrat with full force damaging over nine zero percent of the structures on the island air studios closed and the tourist trade upon which the island depended was nearly wiped out within a few years however the island had recovered considerably only to be struck again by disaster in july one nine nine five montserrat s soufriere hills volcano dormant throughout recorded history rumbled to life and began an eruption which eventually buried the island s capital plymouth in more than four zero feet of mud destroyed its airport and docking facilities and rendered the southern half of the island uninhabitable forcing more than half of the population to flee the island owing to lack of housing after a period of regular eruptive events during the late one nine nine zero s including one on june two five one nine nine seven in which one nine people lost their lives the volcano s activity in recent years has been confined mostly to infrequent ventings of ash into the uninhabited areas although the nuisance occasionally extends into the populated areas of the northern part of the island photo t gilligan montserrat s soufriere hills volcano montserrat today remains lush and green a new airport opened officially by the princess royal princess anne in february two zero zero five received its first commercial flights on july one one two zero zero five and docking facilities are in place at little bay where a new capital is being constructed out of reach of any further volcanic activity the people of montserrat were granted full residency rights in the united kingdom in one nine nine eight and citizenship was granted in two zero zero two politics main article politics of montserrat montserrat is a british overseas territory formerly a crown colony the monarch elizabeth ii is represented by the governor deborah barnes jones the united nations committee on decolonization includes montserrat on the united nations list of non self governing territories the current chief minister of the island is john osborne of the new people s liberation movement moves towards full independence have been effectively halted by the volcano and the consequent evacuation montserrat is a full and participating member of the caribbean community caricom and the organisation of eastern caribbean states oecs colleges and universities american university of the caribbean school of medicine auc was founded in montserrat in one nine seven eight with the aid of the government a medical campus was built on a two five acre site after the eruption of the soufriere hills volcano in one nine nine five auc moved its facilities to its present location on st maarten parishes main article parishes of montserrat montserrat is divided into three parishes saint anthony parish saint georges parish saint peter parish geography map of montserrat main article geography of montserrat montserrat has only two islets little redonda and virgin economy main article economy of montserrat it was formerly the home of a branch of george martin s air studios and other amenities that made the island popular with working and vacationing musicians and other celebrities demographics main article demographics of montserrat culture main article culture of montserrat see also music of montserrat miscellaneous topics communications in montserrat transport in montserrat external links government of montserrat official release archive montserrat tourist board montserrat reporter news site montserrat travel information montserrat volcano observatory montserrat webdirectory caricom member states caribbean islands lists of subnational entities montserrat montserrat parishes of montserrat special territories of the european union the history of montserrat geological history european colonisation on three november one four nine three on his second voyage christopher columbus sailed past the island and named it santa maria de montserrate after the blessed virgin of the monastery of montserrat in spain despite claiming the island the spanish did not colonise it and english and french interest grew charles i granted a patent to allow colonisation in one six two five the first european colony was established in one six three one when irish catholics were forcibly moved to there and antigua to prevent them from siding against english protestants on st kitts after oliver cromwell s defeat of the irish during the cromwellian conquest of ireland notably at the siege of drogheda in one six four nine irish political prisoners were transferred to montserrat a new fort at kinsale was built in one six five five cromwell himself was entertained on montserrat montserrat was hit by hurricanes in one six five seven and one six five eight montserrat was a province of the west indies federation from one nine five eight until one nine six two when it reverted back to a colony of the uk the soufriere hills volcano erupted starting on july one eight one nine nine five making most of the island uninhabitable and displacing two three of its population the uk government sent hm ships liverpool and newcastle to help evacuate the island see also montserrat external links a condensed history of montserrat by william g innanen map of montserrat location caribbean island in the caribbean sea southeast of puerto rico geographic coordinates map references central america and the caribbean area total one zero zero km land one zero zero km water zero km land boundaries zero km coastline four zero km maritime claims exclusive fishing zone two zero zero nautical miles three seven zero four km territorial sea three nautical miles five five five six km climate tropical little daily or seasonal temperature variation terrain volcanic islands mostly mountainous with small coastal lowland elevation extremes lowest point caribbean sea zero m highest point chances peak in the soufriere hills nine one four m natural resources negl land use arable land two zero permanent crops zero permanent pastures one zero forests and woodland four zero other three zero one nine nine three est irrigated land na km natural hazards severe hurricanes june to november volcanic eruptions full scale eruptions of the soufriere hills volcano occurred during one nine nine six nine seven environautical milesent current issues land erosion occurs on slopes that have been cleared for cultivation see also montserrat source cia world factbook montserrat geography by country population eight four zero zero two zero zero two estimate note an estimated eight zero zero zero refugees left the island following the resumption of volcanic activity in july one nine nine five many have returned pre eruption population was one three zero zero zero in one nine nine four age structure zero one four years two three four male one zero six two female one zero four one one five six four years six five three male two eight zero five female three zero six six six five years and over one one four male five three seven female four eight four two zero zero three est median age total two seven eight years male two seven seven years female two seven nine years two zero zero two population growth rate four five two zero zero three est birth rate one seven five seven births one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est death rate seven three four deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est net migration rate one nine five three five migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero two male s female one five six four years zero nine one male s female six five years and over one one one male s female total population zero nine six male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate total seven seven seven deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero three est female six four three deaths one zero zero zero live births male nine zero five deaths one zero zero zero live births life expectancy at birth total population seven eight three six years male seven six two four years female eight zero five nine years two zero zero three est total fertility rate one eight children born woman two zero zero three est hiv aids adult prevalence rate na hiv aids people living with hiv aids na hiv aids deaths na nationality noun montserratian s adjective montserratian ethnic groups black white mainly of mixed irish and african descent religions anglican methodist roman catholic pentecostal seventh day adventist other christian denominations languages english literacy definition age one five and over has ever attended school total population nine seven male nine seven female nine seven one nine seven zero est see also montserrat source cia world factbook montserrat politics of montserrat takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic dependency whereby the chief minister is the head of government and of a pluriform multi party system montserrat is an internally self governing overseas territory of the united kingdom the united nations committee on decolonization includes montserrat on the united nations list of non self governing territories executive power is exercised by the government legislative power is vested in both the government and the legislative council the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature military defence is the responsibility of the united kingdom executive branch queen elizabeth ii six february one nine five two governor deborah barnes jones two zero zero three chief minister john osborne nplm five april two zero zero one the governor is apointed by the monarch the chief minister appointed by the governor from among the members of the legislative council his cabinet the executive council is appointed by the governor from among the elected members of the legislative council and consists also of the executive council of the governor the attorney general and the finance secretary legislative branch montserrat elects on territorial level a legislature the legislative council has nine members elected for a five year term in one constituency political parties and elections judicial branch the eastern caribbean supreme court consists of the high court of justice and the court of appeal one judge of the supreme court is a resident of montserrat administrative divisions montserrat is divided in three parishes saint anthony saint georges and saint peter international organization participation caricom cdb eclac associate icftu interpol subbureau oecs wcl politics of montserrat economy overview severe volcanic activity which began in july one nine nine five has put a damper on this small open economy a catastrophic eruption in june one nine nine seven closed the airports and seaports causing further economic and social dislocation two thirds of the one two zero zero zero inhabitants fled the island some began to return in one nine nine eight but lack of housing limited the number the agriculture sector continued to be affected by the lack of suitable land for farming and the destruction of crops prospects for the economy depend largely on developments in relation to the volcano and on public sector construction activity the uk has launched a three year one two two eight million aid program to help reconstruct the economy half of the island is expected to remain uninhabitable for another decade gdp purchasing power parity two nine million two zero zero two est gdp real growth rate one two zero zero two est gdp per capita purchasing power parity three four zero zero two zero zero two est gdp composition by sector agriculture five four industry one three six services eight one one nine nine six est population below poverty line na household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices two six two zero zero two labor force four five two one note recently lowered by flight of people from volcanic activity labor force by occupation agriculture na industry na services na unemployment rate six one nine nine eight est budget revenues three one four million expenditures three one six million including capital expenditures of eight four million one nine nine seven est industries tourism rum textiles electronic appliances industrial production growth rate na electricity production two five gwh two zero zero one electricity production by source fossil fuel one zero zero hydro zero nuclear zero other zero two zero zero one electricity consumption two three two five gwh two zero zero one electricity exports zero kwh two zero zero one electricity imports zero kwh two zero zero one oil production zero barrel day two zero zero one est oil consumption four zero zero barrel day six four m d two zero zero one oil exports na two zero zero one oil imports na two zero zero one agriculture products cabbages carrots cucumbers tomatoes onions peppers livestock products exports seven zero zero zero zero zero two zero zero one exports commodities electronic components plastic bags apparel hot peppers live plants cattle exports partners us antigua and barbuda imports one seven million two zero zero one imports commodities machinery and transportation equipment foodstuffs manufactured goods fuels lubricants and related materials imports partners united states united kingdom trinidad and tobago japan canada debt external eight nine million one nine nine seven economic aid recipient country policy plan two zero zero one is a three year program for spending one two two eight million in british budgetary assistance currency east caribbean dollar xcd exchange rates east caribbean dollars ec per us one two seven zero zero zero fixed rate since one nine seven six fiscal year one april three one march see also montserrat source cia world factbook economy of montserrat economies by country montserrat telephones main lines in use four zero zero zero one nine nine seven telephones mobile cellular seven zero one nine nine four telephone system domestic na international na radio broadcast stations am one fm two shortwave zero one nine nine eight radios seven zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations one one nine nine seven televisions three zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet service providers isps one seven two zero zero zero internet users na country code top level domain ms see also montserrat source cia world factbook communications by country communications in montserrat railways zero km highways total two six nine km paved two zero three km unpaved six six km one nine nine five waterways none ports and harbours plymouth abandoned little bay anchorages and ferry landing carr s bay merchant marine none two zero zero two est airports one gerald s airport opened on july one one two zero zero five replacing h w bramble airport which was destroyed by volcanic eruption in one nine nine seven see also montserrat source cia world factbook montserrat transport in british overseas territories and crown dependencies the kingdom of morocco arabic is a country in northwest africa it has a long coastline on the atlantic ocean that reaches past the strait of gibraltar into the mediterranean sea it borders algeria to the east though the algerian border is closed western sahara to the south the mediterranean sea and spain to the north and the atlantic ocean to its west morocco claims ownership of western sahara and has administered most of the territory since one nine seven five its status is disputed pending a united nations referendum currently morocco is the only country in africa not part of the african union name the full arabic name of the country translates to the western kingdom al maghrib meaning the west is commonly used for historical references historians used to refer to morocco as al maghrib al aq the furthest west the name morocco in many other languages originates from the name of the former capital marrakech history the area of modern morocco has been inhabited since neolithic times at least eight zero zero zero bc as attested by signs of the capsian culture in a time when the maghreb was less arid than it is today many theorists believe the berber language probably arrived at roughly the same time as agriculture see berber and was adopted by the existing population as well as the immigrants that brought it modern genetic analyses have confirmed that various populations have contributed to the present day population including in addition to the main ethnic groups berbers and arabs phoenicians sephardic jews and sub saharan africans the berbers often referred to in modern ethnic activist circles as amazigh are more commonly generically as berber or by their regional ethnic identity such as chleuh in the classical period modern morocco was known mauretania although this should not be confused with the modern country of mauritania roman and sub roman morocco north africa and morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging mediterranean world by phoenician trading colonies and settlements in the late classical period the arrival of phoenicians heralded a long engagement with the wider mediterranean as this strategic region formed part of the roman empire as mauretania tingitana in the five th century ad as the roman empire declined the region fell to the vandals visigoths and then byzantine greeks in rapid succession during this time however the high mountains of most of modern morocco remained unsubdued and stayed in the hands of their berber inhabitants early islamic morocco arabs invaded what became modern morocco in the seventh century bringing their civilization and islam to which most of the berbers converted forming states such as the kingdom of nekor the country soon broke away from the control of the distant abbasid caliphs in baghdad under idris ibn salih who founded the idrisid dynasty morocco became a centre of learning and a major regional power morocco would reach its height under a series of berber origin dynasties that would replace the arab idrisids first the almoravids then the almohads would see morocco rule most of northwest africa as well as large sections of islamic iberia or andalous smaller states of the region such as the berghouata and banu isam were conquered the empire collapsed however with a long running series of civil wars morocco one six six six one nine one two the alaouite dynasty eventually gained control morocco was facing aggression from spain and the ottoman empire that was sweeping westward the alaouites succeeded in stabilizing their position and while the kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region it remained quite wealthy in one six eight four they annexed tangier morocco was the first nation to recognize the fledgling united states as an independent nation in one seven seven seven the moroccan american treaty of friendship stands as the u s s oldest non broken friendship treaty signed by john adams and thomas jefferson it has been in continuous effect since one seven eight three the united states legation consulate in tangier is the first property the american government ever owned abroad the building now houses the tangier american legation museum european influence successful portuguese efforts to control the atlantic coast in the one five th century did not profoundly affect the mediterranean heart of morocco after the napoleonic wars egypt and the north african maghreb became increasingly ungovernable from constantinople the resort of pirates under local beys and as europe industrialized an increasingly prized potential for colonization the maghreb had far greater proven wealth than the unknown rest of africa and a location of strategic importance affecting the exit from the mediterranean for the first time morocco became a state of some interest in itself to the european powers france showed a strong interest in morocco as early as one eight three zero recognition by the united kingdom in one nine zero four of france s sphere of influence in morocco provoked a german reaction the crisis of one nine zero five six was resolved at the algeciras conference one nine zero six which formalized france s special position and entrusted policing of morocco jointly to france and spain a second moroccan crisis provoked by berlin increased european great power tensions but the treaty of fez signed on march three zero one nine one two made morocco a protectorate of france by the same treaty spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern and southern saharan zones on november two seven that year nationalist political parties which subsequently arose under the french protectorate based their arguments for moroccan independence on such world war ii declarations as the atlantic charter a joint u s british statement that set forth among other things the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they live many moroccan goumiere assisted the americans in both world war i and world war ii a manifesto of the istiqlal independence party in one nine four four was one of the earliest public demands for independence that party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement france s exile of the highly respected sultan mohammed v in one nine five three and his replacement by the unpopular mohammed ben aarafa whose reign was perceived as illegitimate sparked active opposition to the french protectorate france allowed mohammed v to return in one nine five five and the negotiations that led to moroccan independence began the following year independence the kingdom of morocco recovered its political independence from france on march two one nine five six and on april seven of that year france officially relinquished its protectorate in morocco through agreements with spain in one nine five six and one nine five eight moroccan control over certain spanish ruled areas was restored though attempts to claim other spanish colonial possessions through military action were less successful the internationalized city of tangier was reintegrated with the signing of the tangier protocol on october two nine one nine five six hassan ii became king of morocco on march three one nine six one his rule would be marked by political unrest and the ruthless government response earned the period the name the years of lead the spanish enclave of ifni in the south became part of the new morocco in one nine six nine morocco virtually annexed western sahara during the late one nine seven zero s but final resolution on the status of the territory remains unresolved see history of western sahara gradual political reforms in the one nine nine zero s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in one nine nine seven morocco was granted major non nato ally status in june two zero zero four and signed free trade agreements with the united states and the european union in two zero zero three morocco s largest city casablanca suffered from casablanca terrorist attacks the attacks left three three civilians dead and more than one zero zero people injured politics morocco is a constitutional monarchy with a popularly elected parliament the king of morocco can dissolve government and deploy the military among other responsibilities opposition political parties are legal and several have arisen in recent years see also list of political parties in morocco provinces different maps used to illustrate the area of morocco morocco is divided into three seven provinces and two wilayas three additional provinces ad dakhla oued eddahab boujdour and es smara as well as parts of tan tan and laayoune primarily fall within moroccan claimed western sahara as part of a one nine nine seven decentralization regionalization law passed by the legislature one six new regions were created although the full details and scope of the reorganization are limited these one six regions are geography morocco landscape true color image of morocco from terra spacecraft algeria borders morocco to the east and southeast there are also four spanish enclaves on the mediterranean coast ceuta melilla pe n de v lez de la gomera and pe n de alhucemas as well as several islands including perejil and chafarinas off the atlantic coast the canary islands belong to spain whereas madeira to the north is portuguese to the north morocco is bordered by and controls part of the strait of gibraltar giving it power over the waterways in and out of the mediterranean sea the rif mountains occupy the region bordering the mediterranean from the north west to the north east the atlas mountains run down the backbone of the country from the south west to the north east most of the south east portion of the country is in the sahara desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically most of the population lives to the north of these mountains while to the south is the desert to the south lies the western sahara a former spanish colony that was annexed by morocco in one nine seven five see green march morocco claims that the western sahara is part of its territory and refers to that as its southern provinces internationally this is only recognized by four countries see history of western sahara morocco s capital city is rabat and its largest city is the main port of casablanca other cities include agadir essaouira fes marrakech meknes oujda ouarzazat safi tangier tiznit sal and tan tan see also list of cities in morocco and western sahara economy the central bank of morocco bank al maghrib morocco has signed free trade agreements with the european union to take effect two zero one zero and the united states of america the united states senate approved by a vote of eight five to one three on july two two two zero zero four the free trade agreement with morocco which will allow for nine eight of the two way trade of consumer and industrial products to be without tariffs the agreement entered into force in january two zero zero six morocco s largest industry is the mining of phosphates its second largest source of income is from nationals living abroad who transfer money to relatives living in morocco the country s third largest source of revenue is tourism morocco ranks among the world s largest producers and exporters of cannabis and its cultivation and sale provide the economic base for much of the population of northern morocco the cannabis is typically processed into hashish this activity represents zero five seven per cent of morocco s gross domestic product gdp estimated at us three seven three billion a un survey estimated cannabis cultivation at about one three four zero square kilometres in morocco s five northern provinces this represents one zero of the total area and two seven per cent of the arable lands of the surveyed territory and one five per cent of morocco s total arable land morocco is a party to the one nine eight eight un drug convention and in one nine nine two morocco passed legislation designed to implement the convention morocco has an unemployment rate of one two one two zero zero four data and a one nine nine nine estimate by the cia puts one nine of the moroccan population under the poverty line though working towards change morocco historically has utilized child labor on a large scale in one nine nine nine the moroccan government admitted that over five zero zero zero zero zero children under the age of one five were in the labor force demographics morocco is the fourth most populous arab country after egypt sudan and algeria most moroccans are sunni muslims of arab berber or mixed arab berber stock the arabs invaded morocco in the seven th and one one th centuries and established their culture there morocco s jewish minority has decreased significantly and numbers about seven zero zero zero see history of the jews in morocco most of the one zero zero zero zero zero foreign residents are french or spanish many are teachers or technicians and more and more retirees especially in marrakesh morocco s official language is classical arabic the country s distinctive arabic dialect is called moroccan arabic approximately one two million four zero of the population mostly in rural areas speak berber which exists in morocco in three different dialects tarifit tashelhiyt and tamazight either as a first language or bilingually with the spoken arabic dialect french which remains morocco s unofficial second language is taught universally and still serves as morocco s primary language of commerce and economics it also is widely used in education and government about two zero zero zero zero moroccans in the northern part of the country speak spanish as a second language in parallel with tarifit english while still far behind french and spanish in terms of number of speakers is rapidly becoming the foreign language of choice among educated youth as a result of national education reforms entering into force in late two zero zero two english will be taught in all public schools from the fourth year on most people live west of the atlas mountains a range that insulates the country from the sahara desert casablanca is the center of commerce and industry and the leading port rabat is the seat of government tangier is the gateway to morocco from spain and also a major port fez is the cultural and religious center and the dominantly berber marrakech is a major tourist center education in morocco is free and compulsory through primary school age one five nevertheless many children particularly girls in rural areas still do not attend school the country s illiteracy rate has been stuck at around five zero for some years but reaches as high as nine zero among girls in rural regions morocco has about two three zero zero zero zero students enrolled in one four public universities the oldest and in some ways the most prestigious is mohammed v university in rabat along with al akhawayn university in ifrane a private university with faculties of law sciences liberal arts and medicine al akhawayn founded in one nine nine three by king hassan ii and king fahd of saudi arabia is an english medium american style university comprising about one zero zero zero students university of karueein in fez has been a center for islamic studies for more than one zero zero zero years culture king hassan ii mosque cuisine of morocco list of writers from morocco music of morocco morocco one nine three zero film see also history of the jews in morocco plaza de soberan a military of morocco moroccan wall transportation in morocco list of newspapers in morocco external links government kingdom of morocco official portal parliament of morocco official site in french and arabic news allafrica morocco news headline links maghreb arabe presse government news agency the north africa journal financial news morocco times a general news website in english overviews arab gateway morocco bbc news country profile morocco cia world factbook morocco us state department morocco includes background notes country study and major reports globaladrenaline morocco directories columbia university libraries morocco directory category of the www vl moroccolinks com directory open directory project morocco directory category willgoto com morocco directory category communities moroccans around the world portal in french portal of moroccans in the u s visting jewish morocco a very complete and informative site about history and culture of moroccan jews trade and external relations historical background on united states morocco relations the eu s relations with morocco moroccan american trade council description of benefits of the moroccan american fta moroccousafta a site about the morocco us free trade agreement the american legation in tangier surveys on morocco a recent publication on hashish production and trafficking in the rif area of morocco human rights watch on morocco tourism and culture map pdf links to more morocco in lexicorient the magic morocco travel guide moroccan culture series at about com pictures from a backpacker s trip through morocco in two zero zero zero morocco faq morocco map city walls in rabat arab league morocco oic countries the capsian culture brought morocco into the neolithic about eight zero zero zero bc in a time when the maghreb was less arid than it is today the berber language probably arrived at roughly the same time as agriculture see berber and was adopted by the existing population as well as the immigrants that brought it modern dna analysis see link has confirmed that various populations have contributed to the present day gene pool of morocco including in addition to the main ethnic groups berbers and arabs phoenicians sephardic jews and sub saharan africans a t benhaddou timeline idrisid dynasty seven eight eight nine seven four maghrawa dynasty nine eight seven one zero seven zero almoravid dynasty one zero seven three one one four seven almohad dynasty one one four seven one two six nine marinid dynasty one two five eight one four two zero wattasid dynasty one four two zero one five four seven saadi dynasty one five five four one six five nine alaouite dynasty one six six six current roman and sub roman morocco the arrival of phoenicians heralded many centuries of rule by foreign powers for the north of morocco as this strategic region formed part of the roman empire governed as mauretania tingitana except for a brief period when marcus aurelius linked it to hispania instead of the diocese of africa as hispania nova in the five th century the region fell to the vandals visigoths and then byzantine greeks in rapid succession during this time however the high mountains of most of modern morocco remained unsubdued and stayed in the hands of their berber inhabitants early islamic morocco arabs conquered morocco in the seventh century bringing their civilization and islam to which most of the berbers converted forming states such as the kingdom of nekor the country soon broke away from the control of the distant abbasid caliphs in baghdad under idris ibn salih who founded the idrisid dynasty morocco became a centre of learning and a major power morocco would reach its height under a series of berber dynasties that would replace the arab idrisids first the almoravids then the almohads would see rule most of northwest africa as well as large sections of spain the smaller states of the region such as the berghouata and banu isam were conquered the empire collapsed however with a long running series of civil wars saadite empire one five one one one six five nine morocco one six six four one nine one two muhammad i sultan of tafilalt one six three one one six three five muhammad ii sultan of tafilalt one six three five one six six four one six five nine conquest the saadite empire ar rashid one six six four one six seven two proclaimed as sultan of morocco at fez two two nd october one six six four conquered and secured marrakesh seven th september one six six eight the alaouite dynasty eventually gained control morocco was facing aggression from spain and the ottoman empire that was sweeping westward the alaouites succeeded in stabilizing their position and while the kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region it remained quite wealthy in one six eight four they anexed tangier morocco was the first nation to recognize the fledgling united states as an independent nation in one seven seven seven the moroccan american treaty of friendship stands as the u s s oldest non broken friendship treaty signed by john adams and thomas jefferson it has been in continuous effect since one seven eight three the united states legation consulate in tangier is the first property the american government ever owned abroad the building now houses the tangier american legation museum european influence the successful portuguese efforts to control the atlantic coast in the one five th century did not affect the mediterranean heart of morocco after the napoleonic wars egypt and the north african maghreb became increasingly ungovernable from constantinople the resort of pirates under local beys and as europe industrialized an increasingly prized potential for colonization the maghreb had far greater proven wealth than the unknown rest of africa and a location of strategic importance affecting the exit from the mediterranean for the first time morocco became a state of some import to the european powers france showed a strong interest in morocco as early as one eight three zero recognition by the united kingdom in one nine zero four of france s sphere of influence in morocco provoked a german reaction the crisis of one nine zero five six was resolved at the algeciras conference one nine zero six which formalized france s special position and entrusted policing of morocco jointly to france and spain a second moroccan crisis provoked by berlin increased european great power tensions but the treaty of fez signed on march three zero one nine one two made morocco a protectorate of france by the same treaty spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern and southern ifnin zones on november two seven that year the separatist republic of the rif was declared on one eight september one nine two one by the people of the rif it would be dissolved by spanish and french forces on two seven may one nine two six nationalist political parties which subsequently arose under the french protectorate based their arguments for moroccan independence on such world war ii declarations as the atlantic charter a joint u s british statement that set forth among other things the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they live many moroccan goumiere assisted the americans in both world war i and world war ii a manifesto of the istiqlal independence party in one nine four four was one of the earliest public demands for independence that party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement france s exile of the highly respected sultan mohammed v in one nine five three and his replacement by the unpopular mohammed ben aarafa whose reign was perceived as illegitimate sparked active opposition to the french protectorate france allowed mohammed v to return in one nine five five and the negotiations that led to moroccan independence began the following year independence the kingdom of morocco recovered its political independence from france on march two one nine five six and on april seven of that year france officially relinquished its protectorate in morocco through agreements with spain in one nine five six and one nine five eight moroccan control over certain spanish ruled areas was restored though attempts to claim other spanish possessions through military action were less successful the internationalized city of tangier was reintegrated with the signing of the tangier protocol on october two nine one nine five six hassan ii became king of morocco on march three one nine six one his rule would be marked by political unrest and the ruthless government response earned the period the name the years of lead after neighbouring algeria s one nine six two independence from france border skirmishes in the tindouf area of south western algeria escalated in one nine six three into what is known as the sand war morocco invaded to claim the areas for greater morocco but the fighting stalemated within weeks and morocco was forced to retreat with no border adjustments the border remained a contentious issue but was later demarcated and morocco no longer makes any formals claim on algerian territory the spanish enclave of ifni in the south became part of the new morocco in one nine six nine but other spanish possessions in the north ceuta melilla and some small islands remain under madrid s control with morocco viewing them as occupied territory a defining theme of moroccan history and foreign policy is the bitter struggle over western sahara morocco invaded and annexed the former spanish sahara during the late one nine seven five but met military opposition from the polisario front a sahrawi nationalist movement backed by algeria final resolution on the status of the territory remains unresolved but morocco is presently in military control over the majority of the area and a cease fire with polisario is in effect since one nine nine one see history of western sahara gradual political reforms in the one nine nine zero s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in one nine nine seven and with the death of king hassan ii of morocco in one nine nine nine the more liberal minded mohammed vi took the throne he has since enacted successive reforms to modernize morocco and the country has seen a marked improvement in its human rights record in march two zero zero zero women s groups organised demonstrations in casablanca proposing reforms to the legal status of women in the country four zero zero zero zero women attended calling for a ban on polygamy and the introduction of divorce law divorce being a purely religious procedure at that time although counter demonstration attracted half a millon participants the movement for change started in two zero zero zero was influential on king mohammed and he enacted a new mudawana or family law in early two zero zero four meeting some of the demands of women s rights activists on may one six two zero zero three three three civilians were killed and more than one zero zero people were injured when the city of casablanca was attacked in a string of bombing of civilian targets this was followed by a crackdown on islamist opponents of the monarchy which has been criticized by human rights advocates praising moroccan efforts in the war on terrorism in june two zero zero four u s president george w bush designated morocco as a major non nato ally later that year it signed free trade agreements with the united states and the european union its main trade partner in two zero zero five demonstrations and riots in support of independence for western sahara broke out in moroccan controlled el aaiun and despite reinforcing its military and police presence morocco has so far been unable to quell the protests criticism from groups such as amnesty international freedom house and human rights watch has resulted from perceived police abuse of demonstrators and independence advocates the demonstrations labeled the independence intifada by its participants and backed by the polisario front are still occurring in march two zero zero six see also morocco list of conflicts in the maghreb moroccan wall goumiere external links z brakez et al human mitochondrial dna sequence variation in the moroccan population of the souss area extract a short history of morocco early twentiethth century timelines moroccan crises one nine zero three one nine one four the history of morocco history by country history of morocco map of morocco true color image of morocco from terra spacecraft location morocco is a northern african country bordering the north atlantic ocean and the mediterranean sea between algeria and the annexed western sahara a large part of morocco is mountainous the atlas mountains are located mainly in the center and the south of the country and are inhabited by berber the rif mountains are located in the north of the country and are mainly inhabited by berber too geographic coordinates map references africa area excluding the annexed western sahara total four four six five five zero km land four four six three zero zero km water two five zero km area comparative slightly larger than california land boundaries total two zero one seven nine km border countries algeria one five five nine km western sahara four four three km spain ceuta six three km spain melilla nine six km coastline one eight three five km maritime claims contiguous zone two four nautical miles four four km continental shelf two zero zero m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive economic zone two zero zero nautical miles three seven zero km territorial sea one two nautical miles two two km climate mediterranean becoming more extreme in the interior terrain northern coast and interior are mountainous with large areas of bordering plateaus intermontane valleys and rich coastal plains elevation extremes lowest point sebkha tah five five m highest point jbel toubkal four one six five m natural resources phosphates iron ore manganese lead zinc fish salt land use arable land two one permanent crops one permanent pastures four seven forests and woodland two zero other one one one nine nine three est irrigated land one two five eight zero km one nine nine three est natural hazards northern mountains geologically unstable and subject to earthquakes periodic droughts environment current issues land degradation desertification soil erosion resulting from farming of marginal areas overgrazing destruction of vegetation water supplies contaminated by raw sewage siltation of reservoirs oil pollution of coastal waters environment international agreements party to biodiversity climate change desertification endangered species hazardous wastes marine dumping nuclear test ban ozone layer protection ship pollution marpol seven three seven eight wetlands signed but not ratified environmental modification law of the sea geography note strategic location along strait of gibraltar gallery image safi nine two three two four seven w three two two eight zero seven three n jpg image waterfall cascade d ouzoud jpg image graze jpg image agadir jpg image tizi n toubkal jpg image tanger by iboff jpg image moroccochefchaouen fromhill two jpg image tanger five eight one two nine zero w three five seven six six one nine n jpg image sahara dust plume nov one nine nine eight jpg image moroccomarrakech townfromhill jpg image moroccoagadir beach two jpg image essaouira nine seven six zero seven four w three one five zero eight one eight n png geography of morocco geography by country most moroccans are sunni muslims of arab berber or mixed arab berber stock the arabs invaded morocco in the seven th and one one th centuries and established their culture there morocco s jewish minority has decreased significantly and numbers about seven zero zero zero see history of the jews in morocco most of the one zero zero zero zero zero foreign residents are french or spanish many are teachers or technicians arabic is morocco s official language it is the classical arabic of the qur an literature and news media the country s distinctive moroccan arabic dialect is spoken mostly in western morocco it s actually a mix between arabic and tamazight berber approximately one five million moroccans speak berber which exists in morocco in three different dialects tarifit tashlehit and tamazight either as a first language or bilingually with the spoken arabic dialect french which remains morocco s unofficial third language is taught universally and still serves as morocco s primary language of commerce and economics it also is widely used in education and government the amazigh berber activists are struggling since a half century ago for the recognotion of berber language all berbers call it tamazight as the official language of morocco in the moroccan constitution they also demand that this language is taught in all moroccan schools about two zero zero zero zero moroccans in the northern part of the country speak spanish english while still far behind french and spanish in terms of number of speakers is rapidly becoming the foreign language of choice among educated youth as a result of national education reforms entering into force in late two zero zero two english will be taught in all public schools from the fourth year on most people live west of the atlas mountains a range that insulates the country from the sahara desert casablanca is the center of commerce and industry and the leading port rabat is the seat of government tangier is the gateway to morocco from spain and also a major port arab fez is the cultural and religious center and berber marrakech is a major tourist center education in morocco is free and compulsory through primary school age one five nevertheless many children particularly girls in rural areas still do not attend school the country s illiteracy rate has been stuck at around five zero for some years but reaches as high as nine zero among girls in rural regions morocco has about two three zero zero zero zero students enrolled in one four public universities the oldest and in some ways the most prestigious is mohammed v in rabat with faculties of law sciences liberal arts and medicine university of karueein in fez has been a center for islamic studies for more than one zero zero zero years morocco has one private university al akhawayn in ifrane al akhawayn founded in one nine nine three by king hassan ii and king fahd of saudi arabia is an english medium american style university comprising about one zero zero zero students demographics of morocco data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population two nine eight nine one seven zero eight september two zero zero four census age structure zero one four years three five male five three seven two three nine three female five one seven five one one four one five six four years six zero male nine zero two one two five nine female nine one six three five four eight six five years and over five male six three two six nine eight female seven five seven three three eight two zero zero zero est population growth rate one four september two zero zero four census birth rate two one zero births one zero zero zero population two zero zero two est death rate five six deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero two est net migration rate one two one migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero four male s female one five six four years zero nine eight male s female six five years and over zero eight four male s female total population one male s female two zero zero zero est infant mortality rate four nine seven two deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est life expectancy at birth total population six nine seven years male six seven five years female seven two one years two zero zero two est total fertility rate two four children born woman two zero zero four est nationality noun moroccan s adjective moroccan ethnic groups arab berber nine nine one other zero seven jewish zero two religions muslim nine eight seven christian one one jewish zero two languages arabic official spanish berber dialects morocco does not recognise them as languages but as dialects of a berber language french often the language of business government and diplomacy literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population four three seven male five six six female three one one nine nine five est moroccan society demographics by country the moroccan constitution provides for a monarchy with a parliament and an independent judiciary ultimate authority rests with the king who is both the political leader and the defender of the faith he presides over the council of ministers appoints the prime minister following legislative elections appoints all members of the government taking into account the prime minister s recommendations and may at his discretion terminate the tenure of any minister dissolve the parliament suspend the constitution call for new elections or rule by decree the king is the head of the military and the country s religious leader upon the death of his father mohammed v king hassan ii succeeded to the throne in one nine six one he ruled morocco for the next three eight years until his own death in one nine nine nine his son king mohammed vi assumed the throne in july one nine nine nine since the constitutional reform of one nine nine six the bicameral legislature consists of a lower chamber the chamber of representatives majlis al nuwab assembl e des r presentants which is directly elected and an upper chamber the chamber of counselors majlis al mustasharin chambre des conseillers whose members are indirectly elected through various regional local and professional councils the councils members themselves are elected directly the parliament s powers though limited were expanded under the one nine nine two and one nine nine six constitutional revisions and include budgetary matters approving bills questioning ministers and establishing ad hoc commissions of inquiry to investigate the government s actions the lower chamber of parliament may dissolve the government through a vote of no confidence in march one nine nine eight king hassan named a coalition government headed by opposition socialist leader abderrahmane youssoufi and composed largely of ministers drawn from opposition parties prime minister youssoufi s government is the first government drawn primarily from opposition parties in decades and also represents the first opportunity for a coalition of socialist left of center and nationalist parties to be included in the government until october two zero zero two the current government is headed by driss jettou who is not a member of any party the highest court in the judicial structure is the supreme court whose judges are appointed by the king the youssoufi government continues to implement a reform program to develop greater judicial independence and impartiality morocco is divided into one six administrative regions the regions are administered by the walis and governors appointed by the king country name conventional long form kingdom of morocco conventional short form morocco local long form al mamlakah al maghribiyah arabic local short form al maghrib arabic data code mo government type constitutional monarchy capital rabat arabic administrative divisions morocco is divided into three seven provinces and two wilayas agadir al hoceima azilal beni mellal ben slimane boulemane casablanca chaouen el jadida el kelaa des sraghna er rachidia essaouira fes figuig guelmim ifrane kenitra khemisset khenifra khouribga laayoune larache marrakech meknes nador ouarzazate oujda rabat sale safi settat sidi kacem tangier tan tan taounate taroudannt tata taza tetouan tiznit three additional provinces of ad dakhla oued eddahab boujdour and es smara as well as parts of tan tan and laayoune fall within moroccan claimed western sahara note as part of a one nine nine seven decentralization regionalization law passed by the legislature one six new regions provided below were created although full details and scope of the reorganization are limited casablanca chaouia ourdigha doukkala abda fes boulmane gharb chrarda beni hssen guelmim es smara laayoune boujdour sakia el hamra marrakech tensift el haouz meknes tafilalet oriental oued eddahab lagouira rabat sale zemmour zaer souss massa draa tadla azilal tangier tetouan taza al hoceima taounate independence march two one nine five six from france national holiday throne day or sete de throne july three zero one nine nine nine anniversary of king mohammed vi s accession to the throne constitution march one zero one nine seven two revised september four one nine nine two amended to create bicameral legislature september one nine nine six legal system based on islamic law and french and spanish civil law system judicial review of legislative acts in constitutional chamber of supreme court suffrage one eight years of age universal executive branch chief of state king mohammed vi since two three july one nine nine nine head of government prime minister driss jettou since nine october two zero zero two cabinet council of ministers appointed by the monarch elections none the monarch is hereditary prime minister appointed by the monarch following legislative elections legislative branch bicameral parliament consists of an upper house or chamber of counselors two seven zero seats members elected indirectly by local councils professional organizations and labor syndicates for nine year terms one third of the members are renewed every three years and a lower house or chamber of representatives three two five seats members elected by popular vote for five year terms judicial branch supreme court judges are appointed on the recommendation of the supreme council of the judiciary presided over by the monarch political parties and leaders action party or pa ahmed abakil constitutional union or uc abdellatif semlali democratic forces front or ffd thami khiari democratic socialist party or psd issa al ouardighi democratic party for independence or pdi thami el ouazzani said bouachrine istiqlal party or ip abbas el fassi labor party or ut leader na national democratic party or pnd mohamed arsalane el jadidi national popular movement or mnp mahjoubi ahardane national rally of independents or rni ahmed osman organization of democratic and popular action or oadp mohamed bensaid party of progress and socialism or pps moulay ismail al alaoui popular constitutional and democratic movement or mpcd dr abdelkarim al khatib popular movement or mp mohamed laenser social democratic movement or mds mahmoud archane socialist union of popular forces or usfp abderrahmane youssoufi political pressure groups and leaders association of popular trade unions or adp leader na democratic confederation of labor or cdt noubir amaoui democratic national trade union or usnd leader na democratic trade union or sd leader na general union of moroccan workers or ugtm abderrazzak afilal labor union commissions or cs leader na moroccan national workers union or unmt leader na moroccan union of workers or utm mahjoub bensediq party of shura and istiqla abdelwaheb maash international organization participation abeda acct associate afdb afesd al amf amu ebrd eca fao g seven seven iaea ibrd icao icct icftu icrm ida idb ifad ifc ifrcs iho pending member ilo imf imo intelsat interpol ioc iom iso itu nam oas observer oic opcw osce partner un unctad unesco unhcr unido upu wco who wipo wmo wtoo wtro ongoing dispute sovereignty over western sahara is disputed with sahrawi arab democratic republic see also foreign relations of western sahara see also morocco politics of morocco morocco faces the problems typical of developing countries restraining government spending reducing constraints on private activity and foreign trade and achieving sustainable economic growth since the early one nine eight zero s the moroccan government has pursued an economic program toward these objectives with the support of the international monetary fund the world bank and the paris club of creditors the country s currency the dirham is now fully convertible for current account transactions reforms of the financial sector have been implemented and state enterprises are being privatized drought conditions depressed activity in the key agricultural sector and contributed to an economic slowdown in one nine nine nine favourable rainfalls have led morocco to predict a growth of six for two zero zero zero formidable long term challenges include servicing the external debt preparing the economy for freer trade with the eu and improving education and attracting foreign investment to improve living standards and job prospects for morocco s youthful population toc macroeconomic stability coupled with relatively slow economic growth characterize the moroccan economy over the past several years the present youssoufi government has introduced a number of important economic reforms over the past several years the economy however remains overly dependent on the agriculture sector morocco s primary economic challenge is to accelerate growth in order to reduce high levels of unemployment through a foreign exchange rate anchor and well managed monetary policy morocco has held inflation rates to industrial country levels over the past decade inflation in two zero zero zero and two zero zero one were below two despite criticism among exporters that the dirham has become badly overvalued the current account deficit remains modest foreign exchange reserves are strong with more than seven billion in reserves at the end of two zero zero one the combination of strong foreign exchange reserves and active external debt management gives morocco the capacity to service its debt current external debt stands at about one nine billion economic growth however has been erratic and relatively slow partially as a result of an over reliance on the agriculture sector agriculture production is extremely susceptible to rainfall levels and ranges from one three to two zero of gdp given that almost five zero of morocco s population depends directly on agriculture production droughts have a severe knock on effect to the economy two successive years of drought led to a zero seven decline in real gdp in one nine nine nine and stagnation in two zero zero zero better rains during the two zero zero zero to two zero zero one growing season led to an estimated six growth rate in two zero zero one over the long term morocco will have to diversify its economy away from agriculture to develop a more stable economic basis for growth the strongest point of moroccan industry is phosphate mining near khouribga and in western sahara morocco controls approximately two thirds of the world s phosphate reserves placing it in a higher league than its major competitors china russia and the united states although it employs only two of the population phosphate mining is responsible for half of the nation s income the current government has introduced a series of structural reforms in recent years the most promising reforms have been in the liberalization of the telecommunications sector this process started with the sale of a second gsm license in one nine nine nine in two zero zero one the process continued with the privatization of three five of the state operator maroc telecom morocco has announced plans to sell two fixed licenses in two zero zero two morocco also has liberalized rules for oil and gas exploration and has granted concessions for many public services in major cities the tender process in morocco is becoming increasingly transparent many believe however that the process of economic reform must be accelerated in order to reduce urban unemployment below the current rates above two zero morocco has signed free trade agreements with the united states of america and the european union the agreement with the united states has been ratified on july two two two zero zero four in the united states senate by a vote of eight five to one three while the agreement with the eu is to take effect by two zero one zero morocco consistently ranks among the world s largest producers and exporters of cannabis and its cultivation and sale provide the economic base for much of northern morocco the cannabis is typically processed into hashish this activity represents zero five seven of morocco s gross domestic product gdp estimated at us three seven three billion being morocco s primary source of hard currency a un survey estimated cannabis cultivation at about one three four zero km in morocco s five northern provinces this represents one zero of the total area and two seven of the arable lands of the surveyed territory and one five of morocco s total arable land morocco is a party to the one nine eight eight un drug convention and in one nine nine two morocco passed legislation designed to implement the convention statistics gdp purchasing power parity one zero eight billion one nine nine nine est gdp real growth rate zero one nine nine nine est gdp per capita purchasing power parity three six zero zero one nine nine nine est gdp composition by sector agriculture one six industry three zero services five four one nine nine eight est population below poverty line one three one one nine nine zero nine one est household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero two eight highest one zero three zero five one nine nine zero nine one inflation rate consumer prices one nine one nine nine nine est labour force one one million one nine nine seven est labour force by occupation agriculture five zero services three five industry one five one nine nine nine est unemployment rate one nine one nine nine eight est budget revenues nine one billion expenditures one zero billion including capital expenditures of one seven billion fy nine eight nine nine est industries phosphate rock mining and processing food processing leather goods textiles construction tourism industrial production growth rate two one nine nine eight est electricity production one three one six zero gwh one nine nine eight electricity production by source fossil fuel eight three five nine hydro one six four one nuclear zero other zero one nine nine eight electricity consumption one two three six three gwh one nine nine eight electricity exports zero kwh one nine nine eight electricity imports one two four gwh one nine nine eight agriculture products barley wheat citrus wine hashish vegetables olives livestock exports seven one billion f o b one nine nine eight exports commodities phosphates and fertilizers food and beverages minerals one nine nine eight exports partners france two seven spain one one india seven japan six italy five one nine nine eight imports nine five billion f o b one nine nine eight imports commodities semi processed goods machinery and equipment food and beverages consumer goods fuel one nine nine eight imports partners france two two spain one zero us seven germany six italy six one nine nine eight debt external one nine one billion one nine nine nine est economic aid recipient five six five six million one nine nine five currency one moroccan dirham dh one zero zero centimes exchange rates moroccan dirhams dh per us one one zero zero five one january two zero zero zero nine eight zero four one nine nine nine nine six zero four one nine nine eight nine five two seven one nine nine seven eight seven one six one nine nine six eight five four zero one nine nine five fiscal year july one june three zero see also morocco economy of africa bank al maghrib central bank of morocco external links description of the us moroccan fta final text of the us moroccan fta description of benefits of the us moroccan fta moroccan american trade and investment council economies by country wto members economy of morocco telephones main lines in use one four million two zero zero four estimation telephones mobile cellular five five million two zero zero four estimation telephone system domestic good system composed of open wire lines cables and microwave radio relay links internet available but expensive principal switching centers are casablanca and rabat national network nearly one zero zero digital using fiber optic links improved rural service employs microwave radio relay international seven submarine cables satellite earth stations two intelsat atlantic ocean and one arabsat microwave radio relay to gibraltar spain and western sahara coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to algeria participant in medarabtel fiber optic cable link from agadir to algeria and tunisia radio broadcast stations am two seven fm two five shortwave six one nine nine eight radios six six four million one nine nine seven television broadcast stations two six plus three five repeaters one nine nine seven televisions three one million one nine nine seven internet service providers isps two seven one nine nine nine country code top level domain ma see also morocco external links maroc telecom ipo communications by country communications in morocco railways total one nine zero seven km standard gauge one nine zero seven km one four three five m gauge one zero zero three km electrified five four zero km double track railway company l office national des chemins de fer oncf railway links to adjacent countries spain proposal via undersea tunnel making waves in two zero zero four algeria there is a railway link to algeria at oujda but service is currently suspended highways total five seven eight four seven km paved three zero two five four km including five two nine km of expressways unpaved two seven five nine three km one nine nine eight est pipelines crude oil three six two km petroleum products four nine one km abandoned natural gas two four one km ports and harbors mediterranean sea also spanish controlled ceuta and melilla atlantic ocean tangier casablanca agadir other el jadida el jorf lasfar kenitra mohammedia nador rabat safi merchant marine total four zero ships one zero zero zero grt or over totaling two one eight nine eight seven grt two six three one nine one dwt ships by type cargo nine chemical tanker six container three passenger one petroleum tanker three refrigerated cargo nine roll on roll off eight short sea passenger one one nine nine nine est airports total seven zero one nine nine nine est major airports agadir al massira airport aga flights to most major european cities al hoceima cherif al idrissi airport ahu flights to amsterdam casablanca and tetouan casablanca mohammed v int airport cmn arrivals and departures to worldwide destinations fez sa ss airport fez arrivals and departures to casablanca oujda and paris laayoune hassan ier airport eun flights to agadir casablanca dakhla and las palmas marrakech menara airport rak flights to agadir bologna bordeaux bruxelles casablanca geneva lille london lyon marseille metz milan mulhouse nantes palma de mallorca paris strasbourg toulouse verona and zurich nador nador el aroui airport flights to amsterdam bruxelles casablanca d sseldorf oujda angads airport oud flights to amsterdam casablanca marseille and paris ouarzazate airport ozz flights to casablanca and paris rabat sale rba flights to paris tangier ibn batouta int airport tng flights to amsterdam bruxelles casablanca london madrid mararakech and paris tetouan saniat r mel airport ttu flights to al hoceima and casablanca also many inland flights between the primarly airports airports with paved runways total two six over three zero four seven m one zero two four three eight to three zero four seven m five one five two four to two four three seven m nine nine one four to one five two three m one under nine one four m one one nine nine nine est airports with unpaved runways total four four two four three eight to three zero four seven m one one five two four to two four three seven m one zero nine one four to one five two three m two two under nine one four m one one one nine nine nine est heliports one one nine nine nine est see also morocco transportation in morocco military branches royal armed forces includes army navy air force gendarmerie auxiliary forces military manpower military age one eight years of age military manpower availability males age one five four nine eight three nine three seven seven two two zero zero two est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine five two eight nine two eight three two zero zero two est military manpower reaching military age annually males three four eight three eight zero two zero zero two est military expenditures dollar figure one four billion fy nine nine zero zero military expenditures percent of gdp four fy nine nine zero zero references and links morocco yahoo group with photos from the morocco royal forces military of morocco morocco maintains close relations with the european union and the united states it is a member of the united nations and belongs to the arab league arab maghreb union uma organization of the islamic conference oic and the non aligned movement current king mohamed vi is the chairman of the oic s al qods jerusalem committee morocco is quite active in maghreb arab and african affairs it supports the search for peace in the middle east encouraging israeli palestinian negotiations and urging moderation on both sides in one nine eight six then king hassan ii took the daring step of inviting then israeli prime minister shimon peres for talks becoming only the second arab leader to host an israeli leader following the september one nine nine three signing of the israeli palestinian declaration of principles morocco accelerated its economic ties and political contacts with israel in september one nine nine four morocco and israel announced the opening of bilateral liaison offices these offices were closed in two zero zero zero following sustained israeli palestinian violence morocco maintains close relations with saudi arabia and the persian gulf states which have provided morocco with substantial amounts of financial assistance morocco was the first arab state to condemn iraq s invasion of kuwait and sent troops to help defend saudi arabia morocco also was among the first arab and islamic states to denounce the september one one two zero zero one terrorist attacks in the united states and declare solidarity with the american people in the war against terrorism although no longer a member of the oau organisation of african unity morocco remains involved in africa it has contributed to un peacekeeping efforts on the continent in recognition of its support for the war on terrorism in june two zero zero four u s president george w bush designated morocco as a major non nato ally the major issue in morocco s foreign relations is its claim to western sahara as a result of algeria s continued support for the polisario front in the dispute over western sahara relations between morocco and algeria have remained strained over the past several decades western sahara the issue of sovereignty over western sahara remains unresolved the territory an area of wasteland and desert bordering the atlantic ocean between mauritania and morocco is contested by morocco and the polisario an independence movement based in the region of tindouf algeria morocco s claim to sovereignty over the sahara is based largely on an historical argument of traditional loyalty of the sahrawi tribal leaders to the moroccan sultan as spiritual leader and ruler the polisario front claims to represent the aspirations of the western saharan inhabitants for independence algeria claims none of the territory for itself but maintains that sahrawis should determine the territory s future status from one nine zero four until one nine seven five spain occupied the entire territory which is divided into a northern portion the saguia el hamra and a southern two thirds known as r o de oro in one nine six nine the polisario front popular front for the liberation of the saguia el hamra and rio de oro formed to combat the occupation of the territory in november one nine seven five king hassan mobilized three five zero zero zero zero unarmed moroccan citizens in what came to be known as the green march into western sahara the march was designed to both demonstrate and strengthen moroccan claims to the territory on november one four of the same year spain morocco and mauritania announced a tripartite agreement for an interim administration under which spain agreed to share administrative authority with morocco and mauritania leaving aside the question of sovereignty with the establishment of a moroccan and mauritanian presence throughout the territory however spain s role in the administration of the western sahara ceased altogether after a period of hostilities mauritania withdrew from the territory in one nine seven nine and signed a peace treaty with the polisario relinquishing all claims to the territory moroccan troops occupied the region vacated by mauritania and later proclaimed the territory reintegrated into morocco morocco subsequently built the moroccan wall a network of fortified berms around the largest portion of western sahara and has since asserted administrative control over that territory polisario remains in control over the easternmost part of the territory at the organization of african unity oau summit in june one nine eight one king hassan announced his willingness to hold a referendum in the western sahara subsequent meetings of an oau implementation committee proposed a cease fire a un peacekeeping force and an interim administration to assist with an oau un supervised referendum on the issue of independence or annexation in one nine eight four the oau seated a delegation of the sahrawi arab democratic republic sadr the shadow government of the polisario morocco consequently withdrew from the oau in one nine eight eight moroccan and polisario representatives agreed on a un peace plan a un brokered cease fire and settlement plan went into effect on september six one nine nine one implementation of the settlement plan which calls for a popular referendum among the sahrawi natives of the territory to determine its final status integration into morocco or independence has been repeatedly postponed because of differences between the parties in two zero zero three the un launched the baker plan allowing moroccan settlers the vote and instituting a five year sahrawi autonomous rule under moroccan sovereignty before the referendum this plan won the unanimous approval of the security council through sc resolution one four nine five and was unexpectedly accepted by the polisario morocco however refused the plan stating that it is no longer willing to accept a referendum that includes the possibility of independence but that it is willing to discuss an autonomy based solution this deadlocked the process and the future of un involvement is uncertain sahrawi demonstrations and riots that broke out in the moroccan held parts of western sahara further strained relations between the parties the united states has consistently supported the cease fire and the un s efforts at finding a peaceful settlement while recognizing morocco s administrative control of western sahara and generally supportive of the moroccan government the united states has not endorsed the country s claim of sovereignty over western sahara in the un security council france has proved the strongest backer of the moroccan view on december two seven two zero zero five sudan became the first state to recognize moroccan sovereignty over the sahara other international disputes spain controls five places of sovereignty plazas de soberan a on and off the coast of morocco the coastal enclaves of ceuta and melilla which morocco contests as well as the islands of pe n de alhucemas pe n de v lez de la gomera and islas chafarinas illicit drugs illicit producer of hashish trafficking on the increase for both domestic and international drug markets shipments of hashish mostly directed to western europe transit point for cocaine from south america destined for western europe external links the eu s relations with morocco u s dept of state s background note on morocco oct two zero zero four government of morocco foreign relations by country the republic of mozambique or mozambique portuguese rep blica de mo ambique pron ipa is a country in southeastern africa bordering on the indian ocean it is a member of the community of portuguese language countries and the commonwealth of nations history main article history of mozambique mozambique s first inhabitants were san hunters and gatherers ancestors of the khoisani peoples between the first and fourth centuries ad waves of bantu speaking peoples migrated from the north through the zambezi river valley and then gradually into the plateau and coastal areas the bantu were farmers and ironworkers ilha de mo ambique was first occupied by portuguese explorers in the late one four zero zero s when portuguese explorers reached mozambique in one four nine eight arab trading settlements had existed along the coast and outlying islands for several centuries from about one five zero zero portuguese trading posts and forts became regular ports of call on the new route to the east later traders and prospectors penetrated the interior regions seeking gold and slaves although portuguese influence gradually expanded its power was limited and exercised through individual settlers who were granted extensive autonomy as a result investment lagged while lisbon devoted itself to the more lucrative trade with india and the far east and to the colonization of brazil by the early two zero th century the portuguese had shifted the administration of much of mozambique to large private companies controlled and financed mostly by the british which established railroad lines to neighboring countries and supplied cheap often forced african labor to the mines and plantations of the nearby british colonies and south africa because policies were designed to benefit white settlers and the portuguese homeland little attention was paid to mozambique s national integration its economic infrastructure or the skills of its population after world war ii while many european nations were granting independence to their colonies portugal clung to the concept that mozambique and other portuguese possessions were overseas provinces of the mother country and emigration to the colonies soared mozambique s portuguese population at the time of independence was about two five zero zero zero zero the drive for mozambican independence developed apace and in one nine six two several anti colonial political groups formed the front for the liberation of mozambique frelimo which initiated an armed campaign against portuguese colonial rule in september one nine six four after one zero years of sporadic warfare and major political changes in portugal mozambique became independent on june two five one nine seven five the last three zero years of mozambique s history have reflected political developments elsewhere in the two zero th century following the april one nine seven four coup in lisbon portuguese colonialism collapsed in mozambique the military decision to withdraw occurred within the context of a decade of armed anti colonial struggle initially led by american educated eduardo mondlane who was assassinated in one nine six nine when independence was achieved in one nine seven five the leaders of frelimo s military campaign rapidly established a one party state allied to the soviet bloc and outlawed rival political activity frelimo eliminated political pluralism religious educational institutions and the role of traditional authorities the new government gave shelter and support to south african anc and zimbabwean zanu liberation movements while the governments of first rhodesia and later apartheid south africa fostered and financed an armed rebel movement in central mozambique called the mozambican national resistance renamo civil war sabotage from neighboring states and economic collapse characterized the first decade of mozambican independence also marking this period were the mass exodus of portuguese nationals weak infrastructure nationalization and economic mismanagement during most of the civil war the government was unable to exercise effective control outside of urban areas many of which were cut off from the capital an estimated one million mozambicans perished during the civil war one seven million took refuge in neighboring states and several million more were internally displaced in the third frelimo party congress in one nine eight three president samora machel turned away from socialism and called for major political and economic reforms he died along with several advisers in a suspicious one nine eight six plane crash his successor joaquim chissano continued the reforms and began peace talks with renamo the new constitution enacted in one nine nine zero provided for a multi party political system market based economy and free elections the civil war ended in october one nine nine two with the rome general peace accords brokered by the community of sant egidio under supervision of the onumoz peacekeeping force of the united nations peace returned to mozambique by mid one nine nine five the more than one seven million mozambican refugees who had sought asylum in neighboring malawi zimbabwe swaziland zambia tanzania and south africa as a result of war and drought had returned as part of the largest repatriation witnessed in sub saharan africa additionally a further estimated four million internally displaced returned to their areas of origin geography map of mozambique main article geography of mozambique mozambique is located in southeastern africa bordered on the east by the mozambique channel in the indian ocean the country shares land borders with south africa and swaziland in the south malawi zambia and zimbabwe in the west and tanzania in the north the comoros lie offshore to the northeast and madagascar lies east across the channel the country is situated on africa s largest coastal plain half the territory is no more than two three zero m above sea level the mountain range known as inyanga is located to the west where its peak reaches two five zero zero m the major elevations are near the borders with zimbabwe zambia and malawi a mozambique beach the coasts are very irregular and covered by vast swamps in the middle section of the country around cities like beira and quelimane many beaches in mozambique are excellent for tourism with soft sand and clear blue water and cheap fresh seafood provided by the fishing industry the country is divided by the zambezi river mozambique has a hot rainy season from november to march and a cool dry winter season from july to september exclaves and enclaves the islands of likoma and chizumulu belong to malawi but lie entirely within mozambique s lake niassa lake malawi territorial waters forming maritime enclaves politics main article politics of mozambique mozambique s president armando guebuza mozambique is a multi party democracy under the one nine nine zero constitution the executive branch comprises a president prime minister and council of ministers there is a national assembly and municipal assemblies the judiciary comprises a supreme court and provincial district and municipal courts suffrage is universal at one eight in one nine nine four the country held its first democratic elections joaquim chissano was elected president with five three of the vote and a two five zero member national assembly was voted in with one two nine frelimo deputies one one two renamo deputies and nine representatives of three smaller parties that formed the democratic union ud since its formation in one nine nine four the national assembly has made progress in becoming a body increasingly more independent of the executive by one nine nine nine more than one half five three of the legislation passed originated in the assembly after some delays in one nine nine eight the country held its first local elections to provide for local representation and some budgetary authority at the municipal level the principal opposition party renamo boycotted the local elections citing flaws in the registration process independent slates contested the elections and won seats in municipal assemblies turnout was very low in the aftermath of the one nine nine eight local elections the government resolved to make more accommodations to the opposition s procedural concerns for the second round of multiparty national elections in one nine nine nine working through the national assembly the electoral law was rewritten and passed by consensus in december one nine nine eight financed largely by international donors a very successful voter registration was conducted from july to september one nine nine nine providing voter registration cards to eight five of the potential electorate more than seven million voters the second general elections were held december three five one nine nine nine with high voter turnout international and domestic observers agreed that the voting process was well organized and went smoothly both the opposition and observers subsequently cited flaws in the tabulation process that had they not occurred might have changed the outcome in the end however international and domestic observers concluded that the close result of the vote reflected the will of the people president chissano won the presidency with a margin of four points over the renamo electoral union coalition candidate afonso dhlakama and began his five year term in january two zero zero zero frelimo increased its majority in the national assembly with one three three out of two five zero seats renamo ue coalition won one one six seats one went independent and no third parties are represented the opposition coalition did not accept the national election commission s results of the presidential vote and filed a formal complaint to the supreme court one month after the voting the court dismissed the opposition s challenge and validated the election results the opposition did not file a complaint about the results of the legislative vote the second local elections involving three three municipalities with some two four million registered voters took place in november two zero zero three this was the first time that frelimo renamo ue and independent parties competed without significant boycotts the two four turnout was well above the one five turnout in the first municipal elections frelimo won two eight mayoral positions and the majority in two nine municipal assemblies while renamo won five mayoral positions and the majority in four municipal assemblies the voting was conducted in an orderly fashion without violent incidents however the period immediately after the elections was marked by objections about voter and candidate registration and vote tabulation as well as calls for greater transparency in may two zero zero four the government approved a new general elections law that contained innovations based on the experience of the two zero zero three municipal elections presidential and national assembly elections took place on december one two two zero zero four frelimo candidate armando guebuza won with six four of the popular vote his opponent afonso dhlakama of renamo received three two of the popular vote frelimo won one six zero seats in parliament a coalition of renamo and several small parties won the nine zero remaining seats armando guebuza was inaugurated as the president of mozambique on february two two zero zero five foreign relations while allegiances dating back to the liberation struggle remain relevant mozambique s foreign policy has become increasingly pragmatic the twin pillars of mozambique s foreign policy are maintenance of good relations with its neighbors and maintenance and expansion of ties to development partners during the one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s mozambique s foreign policy was inextricably linked to the struggles for majority rule in rhodesia and south africa as well as superpower competition and the cold war mozambique s decision to enforce un sanctions against rhodesia and deny that country access to the sea led ian smith s regime to undertake overt and covert actions to destabilize the country although the change of government in zimbabwe in one nine eight zero removed this threat the apartheid regime in south africa continued to finance the destabilization of mozambique it also belonged to the front line states the one nine eight four nkomati accord while failing in its goal of ending south african support to renamo opened initial diplomatic contacts between the mozambican and south african governments this process gained momentum with south africa s elimination of apartheid which culminated in the establishment of full diplomatic relations in october one nine nine three while relations with neighboring zimbabwe malawi zambia and tanzania show occasional strains mozambique s ties to these countries remain strong in the years immediately following its independence mozambique benefited from considerable assistance from some western countries notably the scandinavians ussr and its allies however became mozambique s primary economic military and political supporters and its foreign policy reflected this linkage this began to change in one nine eight three in one nine eight four mozambique joined the world bank and international monetary fund western aid quickly replaced soviet support with the scandinavians finland the united states the netherlands and the european union becoming increasingly important sources of development assistance italy also maintains a profile in mozambique as a result of its key role during the peace process relations with portugal the former colonial power are complex and of some importance as portuguese investors play a visible role in mozambique s economy mozambique is a member of the non aligned movement and ranks among the moderate members of the african bloc in the united nations and other international organizations mozambique also belongs to the african union formerly the organization of african unity and the southern african development community in one nine nine four the government became a full member of the organization of the islamic conference in part to broaden its base of international support but also to please the country s sizable muslim population similarly in early one nine nine six mozambique joined its anglophone neighbors in the commonwealth it is the only nation to join the commonwealth that was never part of the british empire in the same year mozambique became a founding member and the first president of the community of portuguese language countries cplp and maintains close ties with other lusophone states see also foreign relations of mozambique provinces main article provinces of mozambique mozambique is divided into one zero provinces provincias and one capital city cidade with provincial status cabo delgado gaza inhambane manica maputo city maputo nampula niassa sofala tete and zambezia there are one two nine administrative districts economy women in mozambique with maize main article economy of mozambique the official currency is the metical as of two zero zero five one usd is roughly equivalent to two four zero zero zero meticais us dollars rands and more recently euros are also widely accepted and used in current business transactions the minimum legal salary is around six zero usd month alleviating poverty at the end of the civil war in one nine nine two mozambique ranked among the poorest countries in the world it still ranks among the least developed nations with very low socioeconomic indicators in the last decade however it has experienced a notable economic recovery per capita gdp in two zero zero five was estimated at one three zero zero in the mid one nine eight zero s it was one two zero with a high foreign debt originally five seven billion at one nine nine eight net present value and a good track record on economic reform mozambique was the first african country to receive debt relief under the initial hipc heavily indebted poor countries initiative in april two zero zero zero mozambique qualified for the enhanced hipc program as well and attained its completion point in september two zero zero one this led to the paris club members agreeing in november two zero zero one to substantially reduce the remaining bilateral debt this led to the complete forgiveness of a considerable volume of bilateral debt the united states has finished this process and forgiven mozambique s debt fisherman in mozambique rebounding growth the resettlement of war refugees and successful economic reform have led to a high growth rate the average growth rate from one nine nine three to one nine nine nine was six seven from one nine nine seven to one nine nine nine it averaged more than one zero per year the devastating floods of early two zero zero zero slowed gdp growth to a two one a full recovery was achieved with growth of one four eight in two zero zero one in two zero zero three the growth rate was seven the government projects the economy to continue to expand between seven one zero a year for the next five years although rapid expansion in the future hinges on several major foreign investment projects continued economic reform and the revival of the agriculture transportation and tourism sectors more than seven five of the population engages in small scale agriculture which still suffers from inadequate infrastructure commercial networks and investment yet eight eight of mozambique s arable land is still uncultivated focusing economic growth in this sector is a major challenge for the government low inflation the government s tight control of spending and the money supply combined with financial sector reform successfully reduced inflation from seven zero in one nine nine four to less than five from one nine nine eight nine nine economic disruptions stemming from the devastating floods of two zero zero zero caused inflation to jump to one two seven that year and it was one three in two zero zero three the value of mozambique s currency the metical lost nearly five zero of its value against the dollar since december two zero zero zero although in late two zero zero one it began to stabilize since then it has held steady at about mzm two four zero zero zero to u s one extensive economic reform economic reform has been extensive more than one two zero zero state owned enterprises mostly small have been privatized preparations for privatization and or sector liberalization are underway for the remaining parastatals including telecommunications electricity ports and the railroads the government frequently selects a strategic foreign investor when privatizing a parastatal additionally customs duties have been reduced and customs management has been streamlined and reformed the government introduced a highly successful value added tax in one nine nine nine as part of its efforts to increase domestic revenues plans for two zero zero three zero four include commercial code reform comprehensive judicial reform financial sector strengthening continued civil service reform and improved government budget audit and inspection capability improving trade imbalance money from mozambique imports remain almost four zero greater than exports but this is a significant improvement over the four one ratio of the immediate post war years in two zero zero three imports were one two four billion and exports were nine one zero million support programs provided by foreign donors and private financing of foreign direct investment mega projects and their associated raw materials have largely compensated for balance of payments shortfalls the medium term outlook for exports is encouraging since a number of foreign investment projects should lead to substantial export growth and a better trade balance mozal a large aluminum smelter that commenced production in mid two zero zero zero has greatly expanded the nation s trade volume traditional mozambican exports include cashews shrimp fish copra sugar cotton tea and citrus fruits most of these industries are being rehabilitated as well mozambique is less dependent on imports for basic food and manufactured goods because of steady increases in local production traditional fishingboat in mozambique sadc trade protocol in december one nine nine nine the council of ministers approved the southern african development community sadc trade protocol the protocol will create a free trade zone among more than two zero zero million consumers in the sadc region the one zero year implementation process of the sadc trade protocol began in two zero zero two with the immediate elimination of duties on a large list of zero rated goods in two zero zero three the top tariff rate was lowered from three zero to two five mozambique has also joined the wto demographics main article demographics of mozambique mozambique s major ethnic groups encompass numerous subgroups with diverse languages dialects cultures and histories many are linked to similar ethnic groups living in neighboring countries the north central provinces of zambezia and nampula are the most populous with about four five of the population the estimated four million makua are the dominant group in the northern part of the country the sena and ndau are prominent in the zambezi valley and the shangaan tsonga dominate in southern mozambique despite the influence of islamic coastal traders and european colonizers the people of mozambique have largely retained an indigenous culture based on small scale agriculture mozambique s most highly developed art forms have been wood sculpture for which the makonde in northern mozambique are particularly renowned and dance the middle and upper classes continue to be heavily influenced by the portuguese colonial and linguistic heritage during the colonial era christian missionaries were active in mozambique and many foreign clergy remain in the country according to the national census about two zero three zero of the population is christian with catholicism as the largest denomination one five two zero is muslim and the remainder adheres to traditional beliefs among the main protestant churches are igreja uni o baptista de mo ambique the assembleias de deus the seventh day adventists the anglican church of mozambique the igreja do evangelho completo de deus the igreja metodista unida the igreja presbiteriana de mo ambique the igreja de cristo and the assembleia evang lica de deus the roman catholic church established three archdioceses beira maputo and nampula education under the colonial regime educational opportunities for black mozambicans were limited and nine three of that population was illiterate in fact most of today s political leaders were educated in missionary schools after independence the government placed a high priority on expanding education which reduced the illiteracy rate to about two thirds as primary school enrollment increased unfortunately in recent years school construction and teacher training enrollments have not kept up with population increases with post war enrollments reaching all time highs the quality of education has suffered culture main article culture of mozambique list of writers from mozambique music of mozambique ref www mozambique music com miscellaneous communications in mozambique list of conservation areas of mozambique list of mozambican companies military of mozambique religion in mozambique reporters without borders worldwide press freedom index two zero zero two rank seven zero out of one three nine countries transportation in mozambique reference external links government republic of mozambique official government site news the mozambique news agency aim reports ag ncia de informa o de mo ambique overviews bbc news country profile mozambique cia world factbook mozambique directories looksmart mozambique directory category open directory project mozambique directory category stanford university africa south of the sahara mozambique directory category the index on africa mozambique directory category university of pennsylvania african studies center mozambique directory category yahoo mozambique directory category tourism mozambique is also the name given to a style of music from the one nine six zero s an advanced rumba by pello el afrok n african union member states cplp member states former portuguese colonies mozambique peace and security council east africa mozambique s first inhabitants were san hunter and gatherers ancestors of the khoisani peoples between the first and fourth centuries ce waves of bantu speaking peoples migrated from the north through the zambezi river valley and then gradually into the plateau and coastal areas the bantu were farmers and ironworkers when vasco da gama exploring for portugal reached the coast of mozambique in one four nine eight arab trading settlements had existed along the coast and outlying islands for several centuries and political control of the coast was in the hands of a string of local sultans most of the local people had embraced islam the region lay at the southernmost end of a traditional trading world that encompassed the red sea the hadhramaut coast of arabia and the indian coast described in the one st century coasting guide that is called the periplus of the erythraean sea from about one five zero zero portuguese trading posts and forts became regular ports of call on the new route to the east mozambique first described a small coral island at the mouth of mossuril bay then the fort and town on that island s o sebasti o de mo ambique and later extended to the whole of the portuguese colonies on the east coast of africa the square fort at the northern extremity of the island was built in one five one zero entirely of ballast stone brought from portugal with the decline of portuguese power especially during the period when the crown of portugal was combined with the crown of spain one five eight zero one six four zero the portuguese coastal settlements were ignored and fell into a ruinous condition afterwards investment lagged while lisbon devoted itself to the more lucrative trade with india and the far east and to the colonization of brazil into the one nine th century a system prevailed of dividing the land into prazos large agricultural estates which the natives cultivated for the benefit of the european leaseholders who were also tax collector for each district and claimed the tax either in labour or produce a system that kept the sharecropping farmers in a state of serfdom direct portuguese influence was limited on the coast between several native ports of call and madagascar a large surreptitious trade in slaves was carried on until one eight seven seven supplying slaves for arabia and the ottomans european traders and prospectors barely penetrated the interior regions until the transvaal gold rush the commercial and political importance of mozambique was eclipsed by louren o marques in one eight nine one the portuguese shifted the administration of much of the country to a large private company under a charter granting sovereign rights for five zero years to the companhia de mocambique which though it had its headquarters at beira was controlled and financed mostly by the british the mozambique company issued postage stamps and established railroad lines to neighboring countries it supplied cheap and often forced african labor to the goldmines and plantations of the nearby british colonies and south africa because policies were designed to benefit white settlers and the portuguese homeland little attention was paid to mozambique s national integration its economic infrastructure or the skills of its population independence after world war ii while many european nations were granting independence to their colonies portugal s dictator ant nio de oliveira salazar clung to the concept that mozambique and other portuguese possessions were overseas provinces of the mother country and emigration to the colonies soared mozambique s portuguese population was about two five zero zero zero zero in one nine seven five the drive for mozambican independence developed apace and in one nine six two several anti colonial political groups formed the front for the liberation of mozambique frelimo which initiated an armed campaign against portuguese colonial rule in september one nine six four after one zero years of sporadic warfare and portugal s return to democracy partially as a result of the expenses from the wars in angola and mozambique frelimo took control of the capital via a coup in april one nine seven four within a year almost all portuguese colonists had left some expelled by the new government some fleeing in fear and mozambique became independent on june two five one nine seven five portugal s policy of under developing its colonies combined with the portuguese rapid exodus left mozambique with few internal human resources for example some history texts claim the country was left with fewer than five engineers after june one nine seven five in any event as late as two zero zero one the economic outcome could still be seen in cities like beira once a thriving vacation city on the coast it is still the second largest city in mozambique with a population of three zero zero zero zero zero many of these people live as squatters in unfinished one nine seven zero s era luxury hotels facing the indian ocean frelimo responded to their lack of resources and the cold war politics of the mid one nine seven zero s by moving into alignment with the soviet union and its allies frelimo established a one party socialist state and quickly received substantial international aid from cuba and the soviet bloc nations civil war in one nine eight two renamo an anti communist group sponsored by the rhodesian intelligence service in the mid seven zero s and sponsored by the apartheid government in south africa as well as the united states after zimbabwe s independence launched a series of attacks on transport routes schools and health clinics and the country descended into civil war in one nine eight four mozambique negotiated the nkomati accord with p w botha and the south african government in which mozambique was to expel the african national congress in exchange for south africa stopping support of renamo mozambique complied but south africa reneged and continued to supply the rebels and the war continued in one nine eight six mozambican president samora machel died in an air crash in south african territory although unproven many suspect the south african government of responsibility for his death machel was replaced by joaquim chissano as president in one nine nine zero with apartheid crumbling in south africa and support for renamo drying up in south africa as well as the united states the first direct talks between the frelimo government and renamo were held in november one nine nine zero a new constitution was adopted mozambique was now a multiparty state with periodic elections and guaranteed democratic rights on the four th of october one nine nine two the rome general peace accords negotiated by the community of sant egidio with the support of the un were signed in rome between president chissano and renamo leader afonso dhlakama which formally took effect on the october one five one nine nine two a un peacekeeping force onumoz oversaw a two year transition to democracy the last onumoz contingents departed in early one nine nine five democracy mozambique held elections in one nine nine four which were accepted by most parties as free and fair while still contested by many nationals and observers alike frelimo won under joaquim chissano while renamo led by afonso dhlakama ran as the official opposition in one nine nine five mozambique joined the commonwealth of nations becoming the only member nation that was never part of the british empire by mid one nine nine five over one seven million refugees who had sought asylum in neighboring countries had returned to mozambique part of the largest repatriation witnessed in sub saharan africa an additional four million internally displaced persons had returned to their homes in december one nine nine nine mozambique held elections for a second time since the civil war which were again won by frelimo renamo accused frelimo of fraud and threatened to return to civil war but backed down after taking the matter to the supreme court and losing indicating in two zero zero one that he would not run for a third term chissano criticized leaders who stayed on longer than he had which was generally seen as a reference to zambian president frederick chiluba who at the time was considering a third term and zimbabwean president robert mugabe then in his fourth term presidential and national assembly elections took place on december one two two zero zero four frelimo candidate armando guebuza won with six four of the popular vote his opponent afonso dhlakamax of renamo received three two of the popular vote frelimo won one six zero seats in parliament a coalition of renamo and several small parties won the nine zero remaining seats armando guebuza was inaugurated as the president of mozambique on february two two zero zero five in early two zero zero zero a cyclone caused widespread flooding in the country killing hundreds and devastating the country while the people of mozambique are generally honest often returning excess money paid by foreigners confused by their currency and abiding by their working hours and responsibilities there are widespread suspicions that foreign aid resources have been diverted by powerful leaders of frelimo carlos cardoso a journalist investigating these allegations was murdered but his death wasn t satisfactorily explained the country as of late two zero zero four is still largely derelict having not yet fully recovered from portuguese colonialism and then disinvestment following independence and the subsequent communist regime and ensuing civil war there is a perception that foreign aid while having been essential for relief efforts following the war and later the transition to a market based economy has created a slight dependency and has discouraged local entrepeneurship much of the economical recovery is being led by investors and tourists mainly from south africa and to a smaller extent east asia as well as a limited number of returning portuguese nationals history by country history of mozambique map of mozambique location southern africa bordering the mozambique channel between south africa and tanzania geographic coordinates map references africa area total eight zero one five nine zero km land seven eight four zero nine zero km water one seven five zero zero km capital maputo louren o marques major cities angoche ant nio enes beira pemba p rto amelia area comparative belarus slightly less than four times the size of belarus kyrgyzstan slightly more than four times the size of kyrgyzstan iran slightly less than half the size of iran pakistan slightly less than the size of pakistan paraguay slightly less than twice the size of paraguay united states slightly less than twice the size of california zimbabwe slightly more than twice the size of zimbabwe land boundaries total four five seven one km border countries malawi one five six nine km south africa four nine one km swaziland one zero five km tanzania seven five six km zambia four one nine km zimbabwe one two three one km coastline two four seven zero km maritime claims exclusive economic zone two zero zero nautical miles three seven zero km territorial sea one two nautical miles two two km climate tropical to subtropical terrain mostly coastal lowlands uplands in center high plateaus in northwest mountains in west elevation extremes lowest point indian ocean zero m highest point monte binga two four three six m natural resources coal titanium natural gas hydropower tantalum graphite land use arable land three nine eight one nine nine eight est four one nine nine three est permanent crops zero two nine one nine nine eight est zero one nine nine three est permanent pastures five six one nine nine three est forests and woodland one eight one nine nine three est other nine five seven three one nine nine eight est two two one nine nine three est irrigated land one one eight zero km one nine nine three est natural hazards severe droughts devastating cyclones and floods occur in central and southern provinces environment current issues a long civil war and recurrent drought in the hinterlands have resulted in increased migration of the population to urban and coastal areas with adverse environmental consequences desertification pollution of surface and coastal waters elephant poaching for ivory is a problem environment international agreements party to biodiversity climate change desertification endangered species hazardous wastes law of the sea ozone layer protection signed but not ratified none of the selected agreements see also mozambique links and references mozambique page from the cia world factbook mozambique geography from southern africa places mozambique page from world travel guide mozambique geography and environment from oxfam s cool planet geography of mozambique geography by country mozambique s major ethnic groups encompass numerous sub groups with diverse languages dialects cultures and histories many are linked to similar ethnic groups living in inland countries the north central provinces of zambezia and nampula are the most populous with about four five of the population the estimated four million makua are the dominant group in the northern part of the country the sena and ndau are prominent in the zambezi valley and the shangaan tsonga dominate in southern mozambique despite the influence of islamic coastal traders and european colonizers the people of mozambique have largely retained an indigenous culture based on smallscale agriculture mozambique s most highly developed art forms have been wood sculpture for which the makonde in northern mozambique are particularly renowned and dance the middle and upper classes continue to be heavily influenced by the portuguese colonial and linguistic heritage during the colonial era christian missionaries were active in mozambique and many foreign clergy remain in the country according to the national census about two zero three zero of the population is christian one five two zero is muslim and the remainder adheres to traditional beliefs under the colonial regime educational opportunities for black mozambicans were limited and nine three of that population was illiterate in fact most of today s political leaders were educated in missionary schools after independence the government placed a high priority on expanding education which reduced the illiteracy rate to about two thirds as primary school enrollment increased unfortunately in recent years school construction and teacher training enrollments have not kept up with population increases with post war enrollments reaching all time highs the quality of education has suffered demographics of mozambique data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population one seven four seven nine two six six july two zero zero three est one nine one zero four six nine six july two zero zero zero est note estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to aids this can result in lower life expectancy higher infant mortality and death rates lower population and growth rates and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected the one nine nine seven mozambican census reported a population of one six zero nine nine two four six age structure zero one four years four two one male three six three four one seven three female three seven two five three nine six two zero zero three est four three male four zero seven nine two four zero female four one two two five seven eight two zero zero zero est one five six four years five five three male four seven one two eight nine one female four nine four five one two three two zero zero three est five four male five one two three one seven eight female five two six two six one eight two zero zero zero est six five years and over two six male one eight nine seven seven eight female two seven one nine zero five two zero zero three est three male two one five four one two female three zero one six seven zero two zero zero zero est population growth rate zero eight two two zero zero three est one four seven two zero zero zero est birth rate three eight two births one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est three seven nine nine births one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est death rate three zero zero four deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est two three two nine deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero est net migration rate zero migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero zero two zero zero three est sex ratio at birth one zero three male s female under one five years zero nine eight male s female one five six four years zero nine five male s female six five years and over zero seven male s female total population zero nine six male s female two zero zero three est infant mortality rate total one nine nine deaths one zero zero zero live births one three nine eight six deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero zero est female one eight zero six one deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero three est male two one six eight five deaths one zero zero zero live births life expectancy at birth total population three one three years two zero zero three est three seven five two years two zero zero zero est male three zero nine eight two zero zero three est three eight three four years two zero zero zero est female three one six three two zero zero three est three six six eight years two zero zero zero est total fertility rate four eight seven children born woman two zero zero three est four nine three children born woman two zero zero zero est hiv aids people living with hiv aids one one million two zero zero one est hiv aids deaths six zero zero zero zero two zero zero one est nationality noun mozambican s adjective mozambican ethnic groups indigenous tribal groups nine nine six six shangaan chokwe manyika sena makua and others euro africans zero two indians zero zero eight europeans zero zero six religions indigenous beliefs five zero christian three zero muslim two zero languages portuguese language official three nine indigenous languages according to sil ethnologue including makhuwa lomwe sena chopi chuwabo ndau nyanja ronga tshwa ekoti literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population four seven eight two zero zero three est four zero one one nine nine five est male six three five two zero zero three est five seven seven one nine nine five est female three two seven two zero zero three est two three three one nine nine five est see also mozambique demographics by country mozambique the last two five years of mozambique s history have encapsulated the political developments of the entire two zero th century portuguese colonialism collapsed in one nine seven four after a decade of armed struggle initially led by american educated eduardo mondlane who was assassinated in one nine six nine when independence was proclaimed in one nine seven five the leaders of frelimo s military campaign rapidly established a one party state allied to the soviet bloc eliminating political pluralism religious educational institutions and the role of traditional authorities the new government gave shelter and support to south african anc and zimbabwean zanu pf liberation movements while the governments of apartheid south africa and rhodesia fostered and financed an armed rebel movement in central mozambique called the mozambican national resistance renamo civil war sabotage from neighboring states and economic collapse characterized the first decade of mozambican independence also marking this period were the mass exodus of portuguese nationals weak infrastructure nationalization and economic mismanagement during most of the civil war the government was unable to exercise effective control outside of urban areas many of which were cut off from the capital an estimated one million mozambicans perished during the civil war one seven million took refuge in neighboring states and several million more were internally displaced in the third frelimo party congress in one nine eight three president samora machel conceded the failure of socialism and the need for major political and economic reforms his death along with several advisers in a suspicious plane crash in one nine eight six interrupted progress his successor joaquim chissano continued the reforms and began peace talks with renamo the new constitution enacted in one nine nine zero provided for a multi party political system market based economy and free elections the civil war ended in october one nine nine two with the rome general peace accords by mid one nine nine five the over one seven million mozambican refugees who had sought asylum in neighboring malawi zimbabwe swaziland zambia tanzania and south africa as a result of war and drought had returned as part of the largest repatriation witnessed in sub saharan africa additionally a further estimated four million internally displaced returned to their areas of origin under supervision of the onumoz peacekeeping force of the united nations peace returned to mozambique in one nine nine four the country held its first democratic elections joaquim chissano was elected president with five three of the vote and a two five zero member national assembly was voted in with one two nine frelimo deputies one one two renamo deputies and nine representatives of three smaller parties that formed the democratic union ud since its formation in one nine nine four the national assembly has made progress in becoming a body increasingly more independent of the executive by one nine nine nine more than one half five three of the legislation passed originated in the assembly after some delays in one nine nine eight the country held its first local elections to provide for local representation and some budgetary authority at the municipal level the principal opposition party renamo boycotted the local elections citing flaws in the registration process independent slates contested the elections and won seats in municipal assemblies turnout was very low in the aftermath of the one nine nine eight local elections the government resolved to make more accommodations to the opposition s procedural concerns for the second round of multiparty national elections in one nine nine nine working through the national assembly the electoral law was rewritten and passed by consensus in december one nine nine eight financed largely by international partners a very successful voter registration was conducted from july to september one nine nine nine providing voter registration cards to eight five of the potential electorate more than seven million voters the second general elections were held three december five one nine nine nine with high voter turnout international and domestic observers agreed that the voting process was well organized and went smoothly both the opposition and observers subsequently cited flaws in the tabulation process that had they not occurred would have strengthened the outcome in the end however international and domestic observers concluded that the close result of the vote reflected the will of the people president chissano won the presidency with a margin of four points over the renamo electoral union coalition candidate afonso dhlakama and began his five year term in january two zero zero zero frelimo increased its majority in the national assembly with one three three out of two five zero seats the renamo ue coalition has one one six seats there is one independent no third parties are represented the opposition coalition did not accept the national election commission s results of the presidential vote and filed a formal complaint to the supreme court one month after the voting the court dismissed the opposition s challenge and validated the election results the opposition did not file a complaint about the results of the legislative vote country name conventional long form republic of mozambique conventional short form mozambique local long form republica de mocambique local short form mocambique data code mz government type republic capital maputo administrative divisions one zero provinces provincias singular provincia cabo delgado gaza inhambane manica maputo nampula niassa sofala tete zambezia independence two five june one nine seven five from portugal national holiday independence day two five june one nine seven five constitution three zero november one nine nine zero legal system based on portuguese civil law system and customary law suffrage one eight years of age universal executive branch chief of state president armando guebuza since two february two zero zero five head of government prime minister luisa diogo since one seven february two zero zero four cabinet cabinet elections president elected by popular vote for a five year term election last held one two december two zero zero four next to be held december two zero zero nine prime minister appointed by the president election results armando guebuza elected president percent of vote armando guebuza six three seven afonso dhlakama three one seven legislative branch unicameral assembly of the republic or assembleia da republica two five zero seats members are directly elected by popular vote on a secret ballot to serve five year terms elections last held three five december one nine nine nine next to be held na two zero zero four election results percent of vote by party frelimo four eight five four renamo ue three eight eight one seats by party frelimo one three three renamo ue one one seven note renamo ue ran as a multiparty coalition none of the other opposition parties received the five required to win parliamentary seats judicial branch supreme court judges appointed by the president and judges elected by the assembly political parties and leaders liberation front of mozambique frente de liberatacao de mocambique or frelimo joaquim alberto chissano chairman mozambican national resistance electoral union resistencia nacional mocambicana uniao eleitoral or renamo ue afonso dhlakama president international organization participation acp afdb c eca fao g seven seven ibrd icao icct signatory icftu icrm ida idb ifad ifc ifrcs iho ilo imf imo interpol ioc iom observer iso correspondent itu monuc nam oau oic opcw sadc un unctad unesco unhcr unido unmiset upu wco wftu who wipo wmo wtoo wtro flag description three equal horizontal bands of green top black and yellow with a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side the black band is edged in white centered in the triangle is a yellow five pointed star bearing a crossed rifle and hoe in black superimposed on an open white book politics of mozambique telephones main lines in use nine zero zero zero zero two zero zero one telephones mobile cellular two eight seven zero zero zero two zero zero two telephone system general assessment fair system but not available generally telephone density is only one six telephones for each one zero zero zero persons domestic the system consists of open wire lines and trunk connection by microwave radio relay and tropospheric scatter international satellite earth stations five intelsat two atlantic ocean and three indian ocean radio broadcast stations am one three fm one seven shortwave one one two zero zero one radios seven three zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations one two zero zero one televisions nine zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet service providers isps one one two zero zero two internet users two two five zero zero two zero zero zero country code top level domain mz see also mozambique communications by country mozambique image mz map png railways total three one two three km narrow gauge two nine eight three km one zero six seven m gauge narrow gauge one four zero km zero seven six two m gauge two zero zero two the railways do not all interconnect railway links to adjacent countries malawi expected to be operative by two zero zero nine south africa under repair swaziland tanzania no direct link zambia link under construction two zero zero five zimbabwe yes from beira highways total three zero four zero zero km paved five six eight five km unpaved two four seven one five km one nine nine six est waterways three seven five zero km navigable routes pipelines crude oil three zero six km petroleum products two eight nine km note none of the pipelines are operating ports and harbors indian ocean beira railhead for zimbabwe via the beira railroad corporation inhambane maputo railhead for south africa nacala pemba mozambique quelimane merchant marine total three ships one zero zero zero grt or over totaling four one two five grt seven zero two four dwt ships by type cargo three note includes some foreign owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience belgium two two zero zero two est airports one six five two zero zero two airports with paved runways total two two over three zero four seven m one two four three eight to three zero four seven m three one five two four to two four three seven m one zero nine one four to one five two three m three under nine one four m five two zero zero two airports with unpaved runways total one four three two four three eight to three zero four seven m one one five two four to two four three seven m one six nine one four to one five two three m three five under nine one four m nine one two zero zero two see also mozambique transport in mozambique military branches army naval command air and air defense forces militia military manpower availability males age one five four nine four one four two four four nine two zero zero three est four seven one one three one eight two zero zero two est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine two three seven three four four four two zero zero three est two seven two zero five eight three two zero zero two est military expenditures dollar figure three five one million two zero zero zero est military expenditures percent of gdp one two zero zero zero est see also mozambique militaries while allegiances dating back to the liberation struggle remain relevant mozambique s foreign policy has become increasingly pragmatic the twin pillars of the policy are maintenance of good relations with its neighbors and maintenance and expansion of ties to development partners during the one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s mozambique s foreign policy was inextricably linked to the struggles for majority rule in rhodesia and south africa as well as superpower competition and the cold war mozambique s decision to enforce united nations sanctions against rhodesia and deny that country access to the sea led ian smith s regime to undertake overt and covert actions to destabilize the country although the change of government in zimbabwe in one nine eight zero removed this threat the apartheid regime in south africa continued to finance the destabilization of mozambique the one nine eight four nkomati accord while failing in its goal of ending south african support to renamo opened initial diplomatic contacts between the mozambican and south african governments this process gained momentum with south africa s elimination of apartheid which culminated in the establishment of full diplomatic relations in october one nine nine three while relations with neighboring zimbabwe malawi zambia and tanzania show occasional strains mozambique s ties to these countries remain strong in the years immediately following its independence mozambique benefited from considerable assistance from some western countries notably the scandinavians the soviet union and its allies however became mozambique s primary economic military and political supporters and its foreign policy reflected this linkage this began to change in one nine eight three in one nine eight four mozambique joined the world bank and international monetary fund western aid quickly replaced soviet support with the scandinavians finland the united states the netherlands and the european union becoming increasingly important sources of development assistance italy also maintains a profile in mozambique as a result of its key role during the peace process relations with portugal the former colonial power are complex and of some importance as portuguese investors play a visible role in mozambique s economy mozambique is a member of the non aligned movement and ranks among the moderate members of the african bloc in the united nations and other international organizations mozambique also belongs to the organization of african unity african union and the southern african development community in one nine nine four the government became a full member of the organization of the islamic conference in part to broaden its base of international support but also to please the country s sizeable muslim population similarly in early one nine nine six mozambique joined its anglophone neighbors in the commonwealth in the same year mozambique became a founding member and the first president of the community of portuguese language countries cplp and maintains close ties with other lusophone states disputes international none illicit drugs southern african transit point for south asian hashish south asian heroin and south american cocaine probably destined for the european and south african markets producer of cannabis for local consumption and methaqualone for export to south africa corruption and poor regulatory capability makes the banking system vulnerable to money laundering but the lack of a well developed financial infrastructure limits the country s utility as a money laundering center foreign relations by country mozambique the term meme phonetically rhymes with theme refers to any piece of information transferable from one mind to another examples might include thoughts ideas theories practices habits songs dances and moods different definitions of meme generally agree very roughly that a meme consists of some sort of a self propagating unit of cultural evolution having a resemblance to the gene the unit of genetics memes have as their fundamental property evolution via natural selection in a way very similar to charles darwin s ideas concerning biological evolution on the premise that replication mutation survival and competition influence them for example while one idea may become extinct others will survive spread and mutate for better or worse through modification note an important fact however not only the memes most beneficial to their hosts will necessarily survive rather memes supposedly spread best by functioning as the most effective replicators which allows for the possibility that successful memes might prove detrimental to their hosts origins of the concept the term was coined by richard dawkins and first came into popular use with the publication of his book the selfish gene in one nine seven six dawkins based the word on a shortening of the greek mimeme something imitated making it sound similar to gene the concept received relatively little attention until the late one nine eight zero s when several academics took it up most prominently american philosopher daniel dennett who promoted the idea firstly in his book on the philosophy of mind consciousness explained one nine nine one and then in darwin s dangerous idea one nine nine five dawkins used the term to refer to any cultural entity for example a song an idea or a religion which an observer might consider a replicator he hypothesised that people could view many cultural entities as replicators generally replicating through exposure to humans which have evolved as efficient though not perfect copiers of information and behaviour memes do not always get copied perfectly and might indeed become refined combined or otherwise modified with other ideas resulting in new memes these memes may themselves prove more or less efficient replicators than their predecessors thus providing a framework for a theory of cultural evolution analogous to the theory of biological evolution based on genes considerable controversy surrounds the term meme and its associated discipline memetics in part this arises because a number of possible though not mutually exclusive interpretations of the nature of the concept have arisen the least controversial claim suggests that memes provide a useful philosophical perspective with which to examine cultural evolution proponents of this view argue that considering cultural developments from a meme s eye view as if memes act to maximise their own replication and survival can lead to useful insights and yield valuable predictions into how culture develops over time dawkins himself seems to have favoured this approach other theorists have focused on the need to provide an empirical grounding for memetics in order for it to class as a real and useful scientific discipline given the nebulous and in many cases subjective nature of many memes providing such an empirical grounding has to date proved challenging a third approach exemplified by dennett and by susan blackmore in her book the meme machine one nine nine nine seeks to place memes at the centre of a radical and counter intuitive naturalistic theory of mind and of personal identity etymology historically the notion of a unit of social evolution and a similar term from greek mneme memory first appeared in one nine zero four in a work by the german evolutionary biologist richard semon die mnemische empfindungen in ihren beziehungen zu den originalenempfindungen translated into english in one nine two one as the mneme dawkins genetic analogy richard dawkins the british zoologist introduced the term after writing that evolution depended not on the particular chemical basis of genetics but only on the existence of a self replicating unit of transmission in the case of biological evolution the gene for dawkins the meme exemplifies another self replicating unit and most importantly one which he thought would prove useful in explaining human behavior and cultural evolution this analogy suggests that the definition of a meme should refer to the physical structure or abstract code representing that structure representing a real idea as observed in situ genes do not depend upon their transfer for their current existence they only need to have a definite and unique physical structure one might appropriately extend the analogy to the concept of a meme meme complexes and horizontal transmission unlike genes life forms which typically transmit vertically from generation to generation memes can also spread horizontally within groups of contemporaries memes often occur in groups called meme complexes such as religious or political doctrine though dawkins defined the meme as a unit of cultural transmission or a unit of imitation memeticists vary in their definitions of meme the lack of a consistent rigorous and precise definition of a meme remains one of the principal criticisms leveled at memetics the study of memes memecomplexes also known as memeplexes of religion provide an example of this in the case of christianity the christian memeplex evolved to form among others the catholic church following the separation of the catholic from the eastern orthodox church and later from the protestant church people have added and deleted individual memes resulting in the formation of completely different memeplexes religions sects within the basic umbrella of christianity within the catholic orthodox and protestant traditions historical usage of the meme concept the concept of the meme has a long history plato used the term eidos to speak of the immutable and eternal nature of an existing thing the human mind acted upon this eidos according to plato when reasoning about the world around it aristotle rejected this notion in favor of an abstraction and categorization of the world as perceived by the observer descartes enquired into the nature and verifiablity of truth uttering his famous expository phrase cogito ergo sum i think therefore i am john locke and david hume two prominent british empiricists developed the concept at the time the terms idea perception and impression came into use the essential meaning of the term idea as then used involved some existent phenomena resulting from perception of a stimulus and cogitation on that stimulus beyond this central concept those philosophers found less common ground charles darwin struggled with the concept in his early notebooks m and n notebooks and never succeeded in adequately addressing the complexities of the human social and cognitive capabilities while darwin lacked proof for a biologically heritable element he had postulated one and seemed quite comfortable with the concept of biologically inherited social traits a modern biologist might characterize the latter concept as social darwinism given the early events and tragedies of the century following darwin s death one can readily understand that modern scientists and intellectuals approach the meme concept with healthy skepticism and caution gabriel tarde a french sociologist whose theories were displaced by emile durkheim developed ideas of cultural trasmission based on imitation and innovation of small psychological interactions his sociology attempted to classify social phenomena by the generation and propogation of ideas practices and habits some have suggested this work as an appealing historical and theoretical precursor to memetics the concept of ideas that spread according to genetic rules predates the coining by richard dawkins in the selfish gene for example william s burroughs asserted that language is a virus john laurent in the journal of memetics has suggested that the term meme itself may have derived from the work of the little known german biologist richard semon in one nine zero four semon published die mneme published in english as the mneme in one nine two four his book discussed the cultural transmission of experiences with insights parallel to those of dawkins laurent found the use of the term mneme in the soul of the white ant one nine two seven by maurice maeterlinck who allegedly plagiarised from eug ne n marais and highlights its parallels to dawkins s concept maeterlinck in discussing theories which attempt to explain memory in termites as well as the other social insects ants bees etc uses the phrase engrammata upon the individual mneme maeterlinck one nine two seven p one nine eight webster s collegiate dictionary defines an engram as a memory trace specif a protoplasmic change in neural tissue hypothesized to account for persistence of memory note that maeterlinck explains that he obtained his phrase from the german philosopher richard semon laurent suggests that the etymological roots of the term meme may come from mimneskesthai the greek verb for to remember to keep in mind rather than from dawkins root of mimeisthai to imitate everett rogers pioneered the diffusion of innovations theory formalised in one nine six two which explains how and why people adopt new ideas rogers reflected some of the influence of gabriel tarde who set out laws of imitation in his book of one eight nine zero that explained how people decided whether to imitate behavior francis heylighen of the center leo apostel for interdisciplinary studies has come up with what he called memetic selection criteria these criteria opened the way to a specialized field of applied memetics to find out if these selection criteria could stand the test of quantitative analyses in two zero zero three klaas chielens carried out these tests in a masters thesis project on the testability of the selection criteria quotation ideas have a life of their own the old saying ideas have a life of their own clearly encapsulates the meme about memes keith henson has traced this quote back to one nine one zero where an unknown interviewer of g k chesterton used it apparently as an old saying at that time reported in alt quotations this saying could possibly be traceable back to one eight three one when victor hugo wrote the following every thought either philosophical or religious is interested in perpetuating itself in his book notre dame de paris translated into english as the hunchback of notre dame book fifth chapter ii memetics memetics the study of memes remains a controversial field among many scientists and skeptics memetics originated when richard dawkins reduced the process of biological genetic evolution to its most fundamental unit the replicator or gene dawkins in a search for parallels and other things that he might classify as replicators suggested that the information and ideas in brains culture for example could function as replicators as well computer software may represent another form of replicator with which evolution may eventually build grand things whether socially as in the open source movement or through the use of evolutionary algorithms memetics takes concepts from the theory of evolution especially population genetics and applies them to human culture memetics also uses mathematical models to try to explain many very controversial subjects such as religion and political systems principal criticisms of memetics include the claim that memetics ignores established advances in the fields such as sociology cognitive psychology social psychology etc most relevant to the claims and methodologies of memetics the term memetic association refers to the idea that memes herd for example a meme for blue jeans includes memes for trouser flies riveted clothing blue dye cotton clothing belt loops and double sewn seams in this way groups of memes can operate symbiotically to use a biological analogy in the sense that they act for their mutual benefit survival the phrase memetic drift formed by analogy to genetic drift refers to the process of a meme changing as it replicates between one person to another memetic drift increases when meme transmission occurs in an awkward way very few memes show strong memetic inertia the characteristic of a meme to manifest in the same way and to have the same impact regardless of who receives or transmits the meme memetic inertia increases when the meme transfers along with mnemonic devices such as a rhyme to preserve the memory of the meme prior to its transmission see telephone game for one example of memetic drift memeticists generate much memetic terminology by prepending mem e to an existing usually biological term or by putting mem e in place of gen e in various terms examples include meme pool memotype memetic engineer meme complex memetic evolution memetic evolution like genetic evolution cannot happen without mutation mutation produces the essential variations whereupon those variations that prove better at replication will become more common and therefore have a greater chance at replication again however unlike genetic evolution memetic evolution seems to have no separate underlying genotype if for example a mouse loses its tail or a bodybuilder lifts weights the genetic information in their genotype stored on their dna will remain unchanged and when that genetic information replicates it will not pass on these acquired superficial characteristics in memetics the phenotype apparently serves as the genotype and therefore changes in the phenotype will accumulate and get passed on as they replicate one could therefore think that memetics behaves in a lamarckian manner highlighting the apparent irony of a great deal of effort and debate devoted to proving that genetic evolution does not function in a lamarckian manner however one can conceivably think of the set of memes in a person s mind as the genotype analogue with the phenotype as the actual deeds performed by that person but gene mutations don t usually affect phenotypes directly and immediately while meme mutations do at any rate a change of phenotype different deeds doesn t necessarily cause a mutation of memotype in this sense memetic evolution exemplifies a sort of darwinian evolution not a lamarckian one language most likely evolved by means of mutation from just a handful of primitive syllables the original language phenotypes into the modern wide array of dialects further mutations of language include writing braille sign language etc even the oft cited all your base are belong to us meme produced variations such as all your vote are belong to us other lines in the originating videogame s dialogue such as someone set up us the bomb have also replicated on the internet but with less success researchers may employ search engines as an imperfect tool in measuring the popularity of various memetic phrases do cultures evolve dawkins observed that cultures can evolve in much the same way that populations of organisms evolve various ideas pass from one generation to the next such ideas may either enhance or detract from the survival of the people who obtain those ideas this process affects which of those ideas will survive for passing on to future generations for example a certain culture may have unique designs and methods of tool making that another culture may not have therefore the culture with the more effective methods may prosper more than the other culture ceteris paribus this leads to a higher proportion of the overall population adopting the more effective methods as time passes each tool design thus acts somewhat similarly to a biological gene in that some populations have it and others do not and the meme s function directly affects the presence of the design in future generations propagation of memes memes have as an important characteristic their propagation through imitation a concept introduced by the french sociologist gabriel tarde imitation means to copy the observed behaviour of another individual typically imitators copy behaviour from observing other humans but they may also copy from an inanimate source such as from a book or from a musical score when imitation first evolved in the animal ancestors of humans it proved itself a valuable skill for learning which increased an individual s ability to reproduce genetically some have speculated that sexual selection of the best imitators further drove a genetic increase in the ability of brains to imitate well memes propagate by imitation direct or indirect of one individual by another and thus depend on brains sufficiently powerful to assess the key aspects of the imitated behavior what to copy and why as well as its potential benefits researchers have observed memetic copying in just a few species on earth including hominids dolphins and birds which learn how to sing by imitating their parents one could argue however that there exist examples of less complex memes in other species for example scientists have artificially induced imitative behavior in cephalopods and in rats zoopharmacognosy the use of drugs by animals may conceivably exemplify an animal meme observers have noticed that some species ingest non foods such as toxic plants or charcoal to ward off parasitic infestation or poisoning respectively for an accessible description of several examples see both genes and memes can survive much longer than the individual organisms that carry them a successful gene such as a gene for powerful teeth in a population of lions can remain unchanged in the gene pool for hundreds of thousands or even millions of years a successful meme can propagate itself from one individual to another long after the original form of the meme perished with its carrier interestingly memetics suggests that memes have the potential for a much more lasting effect than genes most organisms pass their genes on to their offspring sexually but with every generation the genetic contribution of a given ancestor halves so that a person only has one four of their grandfather s personal genes for example of course most genes are inherited in common susan blackmore has poignantly evaluated the legacy of socrates since the five th century bc socrates genes have become thoroughly diluted dispersed however his memes still have a profound effect on modern thought and on contemporary philosophical discourse internet propagation this definition has come into popular use on the internet to refer to phenomena such as obey giant all your base are belong to us blogebrity memegarden and icy hot stuntaz memetic engineering memetic engineering consists of the process of developing memes through meme splicing and memetic synthesis with the intent of altering the behavior of others it consists of the process of creating and developing theories or ideologies based on an analytical study of societies their ways of thinking and the evolution of the minds that comprise them attempts have been made at artificial meme phrase creation although success has been limited memes in themselves appear morally neutral not necessarily good or bad however the application of memes can have moral implications such as controlling the thinking of others in catastrophic ways history furnishes many examples such as the genocide that took place in rwanda involving the hutus and the tutsis racism provides another example of a common meme an ideology that has come to separate people once introduced into a culture memes evolve and spread through society sometimes becoming both harmful and attractive so that they spread like a virus ref one nine nine four g burchett biological analogies in much the same way that the selfish gene concept offers a fruitful way of understanding and reasoning about aspects of biological evolution the meme concept allegedly can conceivably assist in the better understanding of some otherwise puzzling aspects of human culture and learned behaviors of other animals as well however if one cannot test for better empirically the question will remain whether or not the meme concept counts as a valid scientific theory memetics thus remains a science in its infancy a protoscience although critics sometimes label it a pseudoscience thoughts as discrete units although memeticists speak of memes as discrete units this need not imply that thoughts somehow become quantized or that atomic ideas exist which one cannot break down into smaller pieces the meme as a unit simply provides a convenient way of discussing a piece of thought copied from person to person regardless of whether that thought contains others inside it or forms part of a larger meme a meme could consist of a single newly coined word or a meme could consist of the entire speech in which that word was first uttered the word itself meme will most likely survive many more generations after transmission alone or in other sentences than the speech in its entirety meme will survive due to errors of memory abridged versions etc this forms an analogy to the idea of a gene as a self replicating set of code the gene in this definition does not consist of a set number of nucleotides but simply a collection of nucleotides possibly in many different locations on the dna that replicate together and code for some set of behaviors or body parts evolution of memes evolution requires not only inheritance and natural selection but also mutation and memes also exhibit this property ideas may undergo changes in transmission which accumulate over time generations of hosts pass on these changes in the phenotype the information in brains or retention systems in other words unlike genetic evolution memetic evolution can show both darwinian and lamarckian traits for example folk tales and myths often become embellished in the retelling to make them more memorable or more appropriate and therefore more impressed listeners have a greater likelihood of retelling them complete with embellishments more modern examples appear in the various urban legends and hoaxes such as the goodtimes virus warning that circulate on the internet a behavior idea or usage distinguishes itself as a meme when some property of itself influences the likelihood of adoption for example tool designs affect the efficacy of a tool independently of the habits of the different people using them legends and myths often teach a moral lesson or explain a mystery so they are more likely to be retold to serve different speakers purposes than other similar stories without those elements evolutionary forces affecting memes even if one accepts the memetic description it still remains to single out which memes that have good potential for spreading one can make an analogy with biology to be able to say something about the spread of a gene in birds that affect their wings you need to know both population genetics and aerodynamics similary the memetic description needs to be complemented with a description of what makes a meme easily absorbable by other people than the original carrier only the number of extant copies and where those copies reside determine the success of a gene or of a meme a strong but not complete correlation exists between genes that do well and genes that have a positive effect on the organism which contains those genes and if we restrict attention to memes normally interpreted as statements of fact then a correlation emerges between those memes that do well and those that reflect reality however some genes and memes do survive which owe their success to other factors similarly a correlation exists between successful memes of a technological economic nature and those that help the economy a gene s success in a body may stem from its attempt to bypass the normal sexual lottery by making itself present in more than five zero of zygotes in an organism some genes find other ways of having themselves transmitted between cells hence multiple factors influence the evolution of genes not just the success of the species as a whole similarly the evolutionary pressures on memes include much more than just truth and economic success evolutionary pressures may include the following experience if a meme does not correlate with an individual s experience then that individual has a reduced likelihood of remembering that meme happiness if a meme makes people feel happier then they have a greater likelihood of remembering it fear if a meme constitutes a threat then people may become frightened into believing it the memes if you do this you will burn in hell and do this and you will go to heaven provide common examples on the other hand examples of memes which pass on the fear of a threat of the likelihood or effectiveness of a threat that something will happen if you do such and such a thing have a high likelihood of success and may therefore replicate and remain in the meme pool they may serve in this way for the survival of a thought a theme or a philosophy within a community censorship if an organisation destroys any retention systems containing a particular meme or otherwise controls the usage of said meme then that meme suffers a selective disadvantage economics if people or organisations with economic influence exhibit a particular meme then the meme has a greater likelihood of benefitting from a greater audience if a meme tends to increase the riches of an individual holding it then that meme may spread because of imitation such memes might include hard work is good and put number one first distinction if the meme enables hearers to recognize and respect tellers as leaders intelligent people insightful etc then the meme has a greater chance of spreading the erstwhile receivers will want to become themselves tellers of the same meme or an evolved mutated version thus lite knowledge can provide a promotion to lite status memes like genes do not purposely do or want anything they either get replicated or not some meme systems have negative effects on the host or on their host society but we generally have a symbiotic relationship with these abstract entities memes don t mutate in an exclusively passive way the brain inhabited by a meme system performs a sort of active modification of a meme one could draw an analogy with a cell s error correction systems but they clearly function quite differently in essence people create and modify memes almost continuously one can modify manipulate and create meme systems in thought for instance through internal dialogue as soon as one opens one s mouth and says something or does something that one has not copied but that others can copy one has unleashed a novel meme thus one could conclude that we all perform the role of a memetic engineer to some degree even if not consciously this seems especially evident in modern society more notably in the scientific and philosophical realms and in the entertainment industry it has become standard practice for scientists and philosophers alike to assemble memetic systems and to question their philosophical and empirical integrity on perceiving a flaw one may seek philosophical thought experiments logic analysis or empirical experimental observational questionably mathematical resolution this happens in large part due to the influence of some of the more modern philosophers of the past over the last few hundred or thousand years a philosophy or paradigm has evolved and developed which benefits the societies in which many embrace it that philosophy includes the ethical moral and scientific obligation to take nothing for granted and always to question any new information one perceives people following this tradition have transformed the memetic base of modern science and philosophy these people include just to name a scant few socrates aristotle plato galileo newton darwin albert einstein karl marx benjamin franklin and karl popper science accepts nothing as true unless empirical evidence and observation suggests such truth strongly and consistently this entire procedure adheres to a meme system that has evolved to the point of rejecting almost any absolute truth this meme system now includes such novel analytical paradigms as the scientific method and dewey s decision making model among many other meme based systems to help distinguish useful or truthful meme systems from bad ones essentially people modify and fabricate memes consciously even intentionally though some argue that the intention comes from the memes this would help to explain how rapidly extensively and usefully memetic evolution has functioned in and for culture people apply many ever evolving meme based systems of analysis and error correction to all information flowing in and out just as genetic material has developed gene based error correction models memetic systems have found it advantageous to associate with meme based error correction models the entire process could appear as meme based systemic complexes taking advantage like a virus of an extensive computational system the human brain in this case programming it to produce and modify memes and thus to modify and expand the memotypic soup which largely dictates our thoughts and actions and of course to build very useful but still likely erroneous memeplexes in early social development people and memes influence each other just as with developed individuals people later may become aware of this influence and begin to consciously filter what influence the meme systems have on them as well as what influence they have on meme systems likely in response to memeplex programming in later possibly somewhat esoteric stages people become more acutely aware of the meme systems flooding their existence and many people have begun to reach a more complete comprehension of these memes through a novel memeplex which evolves to explain its own kind though one does not necessarily need to know of meme theory to realize that the situation exists eventually many see the potential to fabricate or modify meme systems consciously to specific ends based on conscious plans and logical foresight all aided by interacting memeplexes which arguably constitute thought such that the memesphere becomes a cluttered canvas of interconnected variables which everyone influences enlightened the memeticist or the meme artist manifests in society to expand symbolic culture at an ever accelerating rate many of the world s most successful religions and arguably all religions have become subject to conscious memetic modification over time judaism christianity mormonism and islam and their descendants just to name a few in that family all arose presumably through variation modification and memetic recombination from a common one or few ancestors zoroastrianism appears to have functioned as an important and widely shared memetic ancestor contributing to judaism christianity islam and their many derivative religions those ancestors presumably resulted from extensive memetic engineering themselves possibly more impressive than the modification of their descendants as early religious meme systems had less to work with cultural materialism holds that the evolutionary pressures of economy and ecology explain many aspects of human culture for example the food taboos sometimes enshrined in religions like the concepts of sacred cows kosher and halal would have prospered because they allowed the believing population to say live more hygienically and thus survive longer than non believers in environments possibly more hostile to survival a migration or a change of the economic infrastructure could render the taboo neutral or even adverse memetic virus exchange one controversial application of this selfish meme parallel cf selfish gene results in the idea that certain collections of memes can act as memetic viruses collections of ideas that behave as independent life forms which continue to get passed on even at the expense of their hosts simply because of their success at getting passed on some observers have suggested that evangelical religions and cults behave this way so by including the act of passing on their beliefs as a moral virtue other beliefs of the religion also get passed along even if they do not provide particular benefits to the believer others maintain that the wide prevalence of human adoption of religious ideas provides evidence to suggest that such ideas offer some ecological sexual ethical or moral value otherwise memetic evolution would long ago have selected against such ideas for example most religions urge peace and co operation among their followers thou shalt not kill which may possibly tend to promote the biological survival of the social groups that carry these memes however the idea of group selection stands on shaky ground to say the least in the field of genetics accordingly some consider the idea of selection of ideas beneficial to the group exclusively as unlikely a tendency exists in memetics to disparage religious memes however some speculate that traditional religions act as mental immune systems to suppress new and potentially harmful memes interestingly we can compare this scenario with the action of a virus here a religion or a bundle of religious memes proving ineffective and maladaptive if it kills its host s for example popular christianity forbids both murder and suicide an idea from augustine of hippo s the city of god and its precise definitions of heresy ensure that properly educated christians cannot accept new religions which advocate such actions one could make a case as susan blackmore has done that the study of zen meditation in itself comprises a process of meme pruning i e a means to remove experiential clich s that reduce the value of life this has not exempted zen itself from serving as a source of highly mobile memes such as the sound of one hand clapping koan or exclaiming mu it may surprise many memetics advocates to learn of meme like concepts described long ago and prevalent in sufi teaching muwakkals rank as separate beings elementals that make up human thought compare leibniz s monads note that the framing of this whole discussion may mislead if humans as seen rigorously from richard dawkins perspective comprise a collection of the extended effects of our various genes and memes then the question of what counts as valuable to the individual cannot readily become separated from what benefits their genes and or memes since one cannot easily determine the ecological sexual ethical or moral value of a meme outside of the context of the memes of the determiner memeticists can easily misuse the idea of meme or of a meme virus to reject others positions in a pseudo scientific way for example insofar as you agree with me i e we carry the same memes i call your ideas ideas insofar as i find your ideas wrong i e you fail to transmit your memes to me i can call them memes and brand you as infected with a meme virus dawkins notes that one can distinguish a biological virus from its host s normal genetic material by the fact that it can propagate alone without the entire genetic corpus of the host being propagated or half of it in the case of diploid sexual reproduction thus a virus can sabotage the host s other genes this applies to memes in the sense that a meme that requires the success of its hosts has a greater likelihood of favouring the interests of these hosts than does a meme capable of succeeding even if each host quickly dies for example the commonplace meme encouraging people to wash their hands after they use the toilet or before handling food and to remind others to do the same is not at all harmful in contrast a cultish meme telling people to quit their jobs abandon their families and run around spreading the meme seems quite virulent memetics offers maximum explanatory value in cases where one cannot demonstrate the truth of the contents of the meme for example one can readily show that washing hands helps to prevent illness so the best explanation for the widespread popularity of this practice is that it works though memetics still helps explain the rate of spread and details such as why the practice of washing hands before surgery took so long to catch on memetics though excels in explaining the spread of certain value judgements chastity is important preferences pork is repulsive superstitions black cats bring bad luck and other scientifically unverifiable beliefs x is the one true god since one cannot easily account for any of these phenomena in terms of their truth value calling someone s ideas beliefs action a meme therefore does not constitute an insult but saying that it is just a meme does non natural selection how naturally does this type of selection occur perhaps as naturally as sexual attraction or as ethical habits the relationship of the meme to other ideas of evolution e g those that separate ecological sexual ethical and moral factors and reserve no special or separate role for culture beyond these seems to resemble that of a pretender to the throne pretending to explain these more specific ideas of evolution and culture but without any model to test this causes some scientists and others to scoff at culture as any kind of factor in human life a famous observation of this type came from margaret thatcher who bluntly stated there is no such thing as society evidently she saw it as a set of survival seduction and moral choice factors specific to individuals couples and families and not as a unified culture or society in any sense reproductive isolation in meme speciation in traditional population genetics the normal genetic variation genetic selection and genetic drift do not lead to formation of a new species without some form of reproductive isolation i e in order to split a single species into two species the two subpopulations of the original species must ultimately lose their ability to interbreed which would normally maintain their heterogeneity however once separated natural selection and or just genetic drift acting on the normal genetic variation in the two subspecies will eventually change enough characteristics of the two subgroups that they can no longer interbreed which by definition means that they will comprise two different species examples of reproductive isolation include geographical isolation where a suddenly appearing mountain range or river separates the two subgroups temporal isolation isolation by time where one subgroup becomes entirely diurnal in its habits while the other becomes entirely nocturnal or even just behavioral isolation as seen in wolves and domestic dogs they could interbreed biologically speaking but normally they do not a similar phenomenon can occur with memes normally the population of individuals having a meme in their consciousness is heterogeneous and mixes enough to keep the meme intact although it covers a wide range of variations should that population become split however without sufficient contact for the two different subgroups of variations of the meme to equilibrate eventually each group will evolve its own version of that meme differing sufficiently from that of the other group to appear as a distinct entity the kellerman meme provides an example of this occurring on the internet a search of the web and or usenet for the word kellerman will turn up many citations describing at great length the behavior of a dr arthur kellerman who with the willing assistance of the centers for disease control and the public health lobby purportedly fabricated studies in order to implicate firearms and by extension their owners as a menace to public safety for the purposes of statist control of the population the authors of these pages and postings describe purported machinations junk science a subsequent recantation by dr kellerman and the use of his work by gun control proponents in reality no dr arthur kellerman exists at least not in any connection with the above description there is however a dr arthur kellermann with double n who has indeed published several papers estimating the overall impact on the public health of firearm availability and various aspects of firearm storage as part of a career in public health and emergency and trauma medicine as in any such series of studies kellermann s work has strengths and weaknesses which pundits rigorously debate both in the literature and online however even after eliminating matters of opinion and statements which are not fully supported the remaining verifiable facts of kellermann s studies and career remain virtually unrecognizable in the negative descriptions of kellerman the original meme of kellermann and his work on gun related violent injury has generated a new meme dr kellerman is an evil lying gun grabbing enemy of freedom by the classic genetic phenomenon of a deletion mutation the sub population involved had strongly negative attitudes towards kellermann s work as well as a lack of first hand familiarity with his studies and career because of the reproductive isolation caused by the total non intersection of the results of searches for kellerman and kellermann the kellerman meme drifted even further in the direction of negativity unchecked by facts related to the real kellermann as this group encounters new individuals of similar general outlook they introduce new recruits to the kellerman lore only and go on to produce their own websites and postings furthering the rapid progress of this meme this phenomenon also demonstrates two other features of memes the meme complex memeplex a set of mutually assisting co memes which have co evolved a symbiotic relationship and the villain vs victim infection strategy forms taken by memes in the brain in one nine eight one biologists charles j lumsden and edward osborne wilson published a theory of gene culture coevolution in the book genes mind and culture the coevolutionary process they pointed out that the fundamental biological units of culture must correspond to neuronal networks that function as nodes of semantic memory wilson later adopted the term meme as the best existing name for the fundamental unit of cultural inheritance and elaborated upon the fundamental role of memes in unifying the natural and social sciences in his book consilience the unity of knowledge the be happy and make others happy memes some spiritual practices such as buddhism clearly promote ecological and moral goals recognizable to most people for example the noble eightfold path emphasizes limited consumption reduced cruelty no delegation of violence or participation in violent systems and a withdrawal from sexual and ethical processes that have no clear ecological or moral value to the practitioner regardless of the value they may have to others the judeo christian islamic religions however focus more on devotion to a transcendent deity and to moral codes of behavior including social and ethical codes affecting every aspect of life from public behavior to commerce to sexual expression such religions strongly encourage people to devote themselves to the needs of others the contrast between be happy and make others happy although not as stark in practice or theory as the traditional debate suggests may satisfy constraints of different ecological or sexual norms in some non obvious way on the other hand christianity and islam also strongly encourage conversions and active sometimes even violent as history shows proselytising see below religion some such as dawkins himself see consider religion itself a meme or more exactly a memeplex or group of memes for instance one can observe that some fundamentalist evangelical movements act predominantly to add to their own numbers the movements in question devote a large amount of time to evangelical activity and therefore may seem to unsympathetic observers to serve no other function this makes it possible to characterize them as self serving if one does not accept their premises such as postulating a hell on the other hand for the meme to continue to propagate it must provide some psychological benefit catharsis a release from worry and guilt a sense of salvation happiness moral energy or just a way out of the fear of death the religious right in the united states of america has a unified message built around religious dogma by attaching conservative political views to christian religious evangelism meme piggybacking they have associated a particular set of political ideas memeplexes with a separate set of religious ideas memeplexes that have replicated very effectively for many centuries thus christianity has won converts for centuries now in many cases a religious conversion also becomes a political conversion compare cultural hegemony note however that christianity makes some core truth claims which have existed far longer than any single culture s political realities in fact much early persecution of christianity resulted from its adherents refusal to adopt an enforced political ritual view emperor worship synergy between value systems does not necessarily equal values expressed in the political arena daniel dennet used the idea of religion as a meme or set of memes as a basis for much of his analysis of religion in his book breaking the spell note contrariwise that some perennial political issues have existed far longer than any single culture s religious system politico religious memplexes form and re form evolve and decay science similarly the scientific method offers a body of social and experimental techniques which given certain preconditions a free press for the circulation of information a large number of people predisposed to see the world as a mechanism subject to general regularities which humans can observe describe and model through repeatable experiments and or observations acts highly virulently spreading quickly through an educated population by demonstrating its success at making predictions science as a practice can make itself more attractive to converts whether or not experimenters can necessarily verify them ideas and attitudes which scientists tend to hold or which feel aesthetically pleasing in combination with scientific discoveries can propagate themselves in societies where science has a high status by the same process of meme piggybacking meme resistance karl popper advocated this in the strongest possible terms the survival value of intelligence is that it allows us to extinct a bad idea before the idea extincts us resistance to science and technology has formed a common meme that can guide human cultural and cognitive evolution away from disastrous paths for instance the u s and ussr stockpiled but did not use nuclear weapons in the cold war period some cultures can consider ignorance a virtue in particular ignorance of certain temptations that the culture believes would prove disastrous if pursued by many individuals the internet perhaps the ultimate meme vector seems to host both sides of this debate although it would seem to a na ve observer that no adult user of the internet could oppose its use by other adults that does in fact happen based on any number of criteria from ethics to intent to ability to resist hacking or pornography the principia cybernetica project maintains a lexicon of memetics concepts comprising a list of different types of memes it also refers to an essay by jaron lanier the ideology of cybernetic totalist intellectuals which very strongly criticises meme totalists who assert memes over bodies examples crudely stated versions of some common memes include technology cars paper clips etc technology clearly demonstrates mutation as well which memetic or genetic progress requires many paper clip designs have emerged throughout history for example with varying degrees of longevity fecundity and copying fidelity i e memetic success an often cited example of technology as meme involves the building of a fire jingles advertising slogans set to an engaging melody earworms songs that one can t stop humming or thinking jokes or at least those jokes popularly considered funny proverbs and aphorisms for example you can t keep a good man down nursery rhymes propagated from parent to child over many generations sometimes with associated actions and movements children s culture games activities and taunts typical for different age groups epic poems once important memes for preserving oral history writing has largely superseded them chain letters you must send this message to five other people or something bad will happen to you conspiracy theories fashions especially clothing styles such as blue jeans medical and safety advice don t swim for an hour after eating or steer in the direction of a skid movies very memetic given their mass replication movies tend to cause people to replicate scenes or repeat popular catch phrases such as you can t handle the truth from a few good men or alllllllrighty then from ace ventura even if they have not seen the movie themselves science an empirical study shows that the scientific community exposes gene names or more generally concepts of genes to a selective process religions complex memes including folk religious beliefs can even spread virally such as the prayer of jabez popular concepts these include freedom justice ownership open source egoism or altruism viral marketing a type of marketing based on memes and using word of mouth to advertise something group based biases everything from anti semitism and racism to cargo cults longstanding political memes that suppress democratic notions and activity such as mob rule and republic not a democracy programming paradigms from structured programming and object oriented programming to extreme programming internet phenomena internet slang wikis the proliferation of collaborative editing systems following the wiki example in their multiple incarnations wikipedia wiktionary etc moore s law this meme has a particularly interesting form of self replication the conviction that semiconductor complexity doubles every one eight months became considerably more than a predictive observation it became a performance target for an entire industry once that industry extensively started to believe in the law manufacturers now strive to make the next generation of semiconductor technology recreate the performance growth of the previous generation and so maintain belief in moore s law additionally the evolution of this meme provides details of interest the original law described growth in terms of the number of transistors on a chip but people more and more have wrongly understood it as describing an increase in terms of performance this could exemplify how a meme can mutate slowly under the pressure of its environment partial technical understanding and simplification for use in the mainstream media consciousness and the self susan blackmore theorized that a self merely comprises a collection of memetic stories which she calls the selfplex the concept of memes itself comprises a meme even the idea that the concept of memes is itself a meme has become a widely spread meme however the idea that the idea that the concept of memes is itself a meme is not yet particularly common as a meme not to mention that at this stage the idea makes most people s heads hurt anecdote short joke story the memetic lexicon lists meme attributes compiled by glenn grant under a share alike licence the thoughtful examples it offers help to focus the concept for readers unfamiliar with memetic thinking the lexicon has circulated since the early one nine nine zero s and evolved into its version three five of its memplex memelex in two zero zero four a memetic lexicon one should keep in mind that glenn grant has the background of a writer of fiction rather that of an authority on memetics many of the terms in the lexicon he simply invented as an experiment in the spread of his own self generated memes common misconceptions a very common misconception about memes represents them as very special rare kinds of thought or as some special trick of public relations gurus generally memes can comprise any piece of information that can possibly transfer between two minds idea thought joke song dance habit even state of mood when defined broadly over some form of individual examples as above single memes form indexes in the mechanics of the mind s process ego superego and id that represent partial thoughts as best conceptually understood and thus sigilized to the recipient in the transfer complete one to one clarity of communication would result in an exact duplicate which does not occur as the typical result the typical result becomes sigilized with the id s acceptance or denial and then applied meme drift occurs in the real time conflict internal to self or external to others can manifest quickly beyond control of the id s process if not considered important or priority of thought itself the ethical dilemma of meme empowerment itself incorporated with the initiation and termination period of human interactions of habit continuously encountering semi familiar meme indexes begins to define a fully realized meme complex call it human habitation between more than two humans thus originate the constructs of culture human bonding unity community disunity etc see also bandwagon effect chain letter collective consciousness collective intelligence collective memory constructivism as a theory of international relations which applies this idea to the political realm as a way of explaining global conflict and other events cultural evolution culture jamming demagoguery diffusion of innovations dual inheritance theory figure of speech framing communication theory groupthink herd behavior hive mind memebot memefare meme pool memespace metal gear solid two sons of liberty a video game centered on the concept of history as memetic paradigm shift propaganda rhetoric self replication semiotics trope urban legend references henson h keith memes meta memes and politics one nine eight eight h keith henson and arel lucas memes evolution and creationism one nine eight nine the selfish gene by richard dawkins oxford university press one nine seven six two nd edition december one nine eight nine hardcover three five two pages isbn zero one nine two one seven seven seven three seven april one nine nine two isbn zero one nine eight five seven five one nine x trade paperback september one nine nine zero three five two pages isbn zero one nine two eight six zero nine two five the music of life pir hazrat inayat khan omega uniform edition two nd edition one nine nine three trade paperback three five three pages isbn zero nine three zero eight seven two three eight x an introduction to the muwakkals the eastern memes consciousness explained by daniel dennett one nine nine one darwin s dangerous idea evolution and the meanings of life by daniel dennett one nine nine five virus of the mind the new science of the meme by richard brodie integral pr september one nine nine five two five one pages isbn zero nine six three six zero zero one the lucifer principle a scientific expedition into the forces of history by howard bloom atlantic monthly press february one nine nine seven four eight zero pages isbn zero eight seven one one three six six four three the meme machine by susan blackmore oxford university press one nine nine nine hardcover isbn zero one nine eight five zero three six five two trade paperback isbn zero nine six five eight eight one seven eight four may two zero zero zero isbn zero one nine two eight six two one two x cultural selection by agner fog dordrecht kluwer one nine nine nine isbn zero seven nine two three five five seven nine two thought contagion how belief spreads through society by aaron lynch basic books one nine nine nine isbn zero four six five zero eight four six seven two review the new pseudo science of memes snow crash by neal stephenson bantam doubleday dell reprint two zero zero zero trade paperback four four zero pages isbn zero five five three three eight zero nine five eight science fiction novel about a metavirus which can penetrate and take over any information system and thus can spread as gene meme or biological virus eyes at the back of your head how richard semon s memes gave way to richard dawkins s memes by tim flannery times literary supplement october one nine two zero zero one the electric meme a new theory of how we think by robert aunger free press two zero zero two hardcover isbn zero seven four three two zero one five zero seven henson h keith sex drugs and cults an evolutionary psychology perspective on why and how cult memes get a drug like hold on people and what might be done to mitigate the effects the human nature review two zero zero two volume two three four three three five five the ideology of cybernetic totalist intellectuals an essay by jaron lanier which very strongly criticises meme totalists who assert memes over bodies journal of memetics evolutionary models of information transmission principia cybernetica holds a lexicon of memetics concepts comprising a list of different types of memes a list of memetics publications on the web the masculist meme by alan carr lulu publishing content five eight one eight four examines political correctness as a mind virus memeiosis by steven ericsson zenith a formal characterization of memes culture as complex adaptive system by hokky situngkir formal interplays between memetics and cultural analysis the viral aspects of language a quantitative research of memetic selection criteria by klaas chielens the selfish meme a critical reassessment by kate distin cambridge university press two zero zero five isbn zero five two one six zero six two seven six notre dame de paris translated into english as the hunchback of notre dame by victor hugo one eight three one external links memetic flux journal of memetics the text of dawkin s selfish gene chapter one one memes the new replicators viral meme info language as a virus church of virus lexicon memetank at dkosopedia why did the chicken cross the road the story of a meme memepool com a short piece by mike godwin on memes in wired magazine the invasion of the memes memes as an useful metaphor nothing more memecentral com memefest international festival of radical communication a discussion of memes by deepak chopra memes org the selfish meme cultural anthropology internet memes memetics philosophy of mind the name monroe may refer to people and things bill monroe musician earl monroe basketball player james monroe president of the united states marilyn monroe american actress dr marvin monroe the simpsons cartoon character robert monroe author founder of the monroe institute monroe doctrine munroe effect named after charles edward munroe is sometimes incorrectly called the monroe effect places university of louisiana at monroe monroe college new york monroe institute monroe connecticut monroe georgia monroe indiana monroe iowa monroe louisiana monroe maine monroe massachusetts monroe michigan monroe new hampshire monroe new jersey monroe village new york monroe town new york monroe north carolina monroe ohio monroe oklahoma monroe oregon monroe pennsylvania monroe south dakota monroe utah monroe virginia monroe washington monroe wisconsin monroe town wisconsin two different towns monroe center illinois monroe city indiana monroe city missouri monroe county alabama monroe county arkansas monroe county florida monroe county georgia monroe county illinois monroe county indiana monroe county kentucky monroe county michigan monroe county mississippi monroe county missouri monroe county new york monroe county ohio monroe county pennsylvania monroe county tennessee monroe county west virginia monroe county wisconsin monroe township michigan monroe township minnesota monroe township new jersey two different townships monroe township pennsylvania seven different townships monroeville alabama monroeville pennsylvania marilyn monroe marilyn monroe born norma jeane mortensen june one one nine two six august five one nine six two is arguably the twentieth century s most famous movie star sex symbol and pop icon monroe s rise to stardom began when she was recruited to do magazine modeling while her first husband was in the merchant marine she did most of her films for two zero th century fox where she adopted the name with which she gained superstardom after acting in bit roles for several years she gradually became known for her comedic skills and remarkable screen presence she worked toward serious roles later in her career and up to an extent managed to realize these goals however constant publicity and romantic disappointments led her to personal problems the circumstances surrounding her death have been the subject of much speculation but have not tarnished her reputation as one of the most legendary public figures of all time early life marilyn monroe as a young child although she would eventually become one of the most celebrated actors in film history monroe s beginnings were humble she was born in the charity ward of the los angeles county hospital her registered name was norma jeane mortensen her grandmother della monroe grainger later had her baptized norma jeane baker most biographers believe her biological father was charles stanley gifford a salesman for the studio where monroe s mother gladys pearl monroe baker eley worked as a film cutter however her birth certificate lists norwegian martin edward mortensen as her father and in later years some biographers have leaned towards believing that is the case gladys was unable to persuade della to look after norma jeane so she was placed with foster parents albert and ida bolender of hawthorne california southwest of los angeles where she lived until she was seven years old in her autobiography my story monroe states she thought albert and ida were her parents until one day rather rudely ida corrected her again according to my story gladys visited norma jeane every saturday but never smiled hugged or kissed her at some point gladys announced that she had bought a house for herself and her daughter but a few months after they moved in she suffered a mental breakdown monroe recalled gladys screaming and laughing as she was forcibly removed to the state mental hospital in norwalk california the same hospital where gladys mother della had died in august one nine two seven gladys father otis had also died in a mental hospital near san bernardino california as a result of syphilis however it should be noted that my story is not to be considered a trustworthy source as it was ghost written by the journalist ben hecht and designed to colour monroe s image as a long suffering orphan its factual claims have been considered suspicious norma jeane was declared a ward of state and gladys best friend grace mckee later goddard became her guardian after mckee married in one nine three five norma jeane was sent to the los angeles orphanage and then to a long succession of foster homes where it is alleged she was subjected to abuse and neglect there is little evidence however that she lived in as many foster homes as claimed moreover monroe herself is known to have given exaggerated information about her childhood during interviews in september one nine four one norma jeane was reunited with her mother the goddard family however were moving to the east coast and felt it would be best if one five year old norma jeane were to marry as otherwise she would have had to return to the orphanage she had been introduced to a neighbor s son james dougherty who would become her first husband in one nine four two after she turned one six career mrs norma jeane dougherty yank magazine one nine four five early years while her husband was away fighting in world war ii the young mrs norma jeane dougherty began work in a factory spraying airplane parts with fire retardant a young army photographer david conover scouted local factories taking photos for a yank magazine article about women contributing to the war effort he immediately saw her potential as a model and she was soon signed by the blue book modelling agency she became one of their most successful models appearing on hundreds of magazine covers in one nine four six she came to the attention of talent scout ben lyon he arranged a screen test for her with two zero th century fox she passed and was offered a standard six month contract with a starting salary of seven five per week the high end of industry standard she was given the name marilyn after the actress marilyn miller and suggested her mother s maiden name monroe as her surname thus the twenty year old norma jeane baker became marilyn monroe during her first six months at two zero th century fox monroe was given no acting work instead she learned about hair make up costumes acting and lighting after six months fox decided to renew her contract and in the following six months she was given very minor roles in two movies scudda hoo scudda hay and dangerous years both released in one nine four seven both films failed at the box office and fox decided not to renew her contract again monroe returned to modelling and began to network and make contacts in hollywood in one nine four eight a six month stint at columbia pictures saw her star in one movie ladies of the chorus but the low budget musical was not a success and monroe was dropped yet again she then met one of hollywood s top agents johnny hyde who had fox re sign her after mgm had turned her down fox vice president darryl f zanuck was not convinced of monroe s star potential however due to hyde s persistence she gained supporting parts in all about eve and the asphalt jungle even though these two roles were minor movie goers took notice and monroe began receiving more fan mail than some top billed movie stars of the time cover of the first issue of playboy monroe played her first role as a leading lady excluding ladies of the chorus in one nine five two s don t bother to knock portraying a deranged babysitter who in a rage attacks the little girl in her care although it received mixed reviews monroe later claimed it to be one of her favorite performances her turn in the film has later been acknowledged as one of the strongest of her career by many critics stardom although american latino critics were at first unwilling to admit monroe s abilities as a dramatic actress they were left in no doubt about her sex appeal monroe was now carrying a big budget thriller niagara in one nine five three movie critics focused on monroe s connection with the camera as much as the sinister plot niagara helped monroe become an overnight sensation her turn as the unbalanced easy virtue rose loomis who is planning to murder her equally neurotic husband led movie critics to claim monroe would have been the perfect leading lady in an alfred hitchcock film it was around this time that nude photos of monroe began to surface taken by photographer tom kelley when she had been struggling for work prints were bought by hugh hefner and in december one nine five three appeared in the first edition of his new magazine playboy even though fox was worried that it might lead to a career damaging controversy monroe decided to publicly admit it was indeed her posing in the pictures to a journalist asking what she had on during the photoshoot she replied the radio when asked what she wore in bed she said chanel no five later on both have become iconic one liners gentlemen prefer blondes and how to marry a millionaire both released in one nine five three cemented monroe s status as an a list screen actress and she quickly became arguably the world s biggest movie star gentlemen prefer blondes was a camp musical exceptionally daring for its times and today it is regarded as one of the best comedies of all time by many critics monroe s self ironic turn as the gold digging showgirl lorelei lee is generally considered to be one of her most alluring on screen efforts her rendition of diamonds are a girl s best friend is among the best known scenes in monroe s career in how to marry a millionaire monroe was teamed up with two other major two zero th century fox attractions lauren bacall and betty grable she played a short sighted dumb blonde named pola debevoise and managed to shine even among her charismatic co stars even though the role was in many ways a stereotype monroe garnered favorable reviews and critics took note of her comedic timing in the united states she was considered a shallow sex symbol whereas in europe she was already getting recognition for her acting skills up to the extent that she was compared to charles chaplin her next two films the western river of no return and the musical there s no business like show business were not successful partly due to the fact that monroe wasn t given much to work with monroe ambitious as ever and striving to face challenges got tired of the roles that zanuck assigned her after completing work on the seven year itch in early one nine five five she broke her contract and fled hollywood to study acting at the actors studio in new york fox would not accede on her new contract demands and insisted she return to start work on productions she considered inappropriate such as heller in pink tights which was never filmed the girl in the red velvet swing and how to be very very popular image seven year itch jpg tom ewell richard sherman right marilyn monroe the girl a famous scene from the film the seven year itch in which monroe s character has her skirt blown upwards revealing her underwear this has grown to become another icon of marilyn monroe monroe refused to appear in these films and stayed in new york as the seven year itch raced to the top of the box office in the summer of one nine five five with other fox starlets jayne mansfield and sheree north failing to click with audience zanuck admitted defeat and monroe triumphantly returned to hollywood a new contract was drawn up giving monroe complete directorial approval as well as the option to act in other studios projects the first film to be made under the contract was bus stop directed by joshua logan critics immediately took note of monroe s profound approach on the character she played generally praised for her performance as cherie a saloon bar singer who falls in love with a cowboy monroe deliberately appeared badly made up and non glamorous a lot of people believe she should have been nominated for an academy award generally it is believed that monroe wasn t nominated because of her controversial reputation she did however get a golden globe nod practically unheard of at the time monroe was the first woman to form her own production company with friend and photographer milton h greene marilyn monroe productions released its first film the prince and the showgirl in one nine five seven to mixed reviews along with executive producing the film she starred opposite the acclaimed british actor laurence olivier who directed it unfortunately the chemistry between the two was lacking not surprising given olivier s fury at her unprofessional behavior including her notorious habit of making people wait hours for her to appear on set or meet them and monroe s reputation in the film industry for being difficult only grew monroe s performance as songstress elsie marina however was hailed as a first rate characterization by the critics of the time especially in europe where she was handed the david di donatello the italian equivalent of the academy award as well as the french crystal star award furthermore monroe got nominated for the much valued bafta award typical four zero s pin up magazine later years in one nine five nine she scored the biggest hit of her career starring alongside tony curtis and jack lemmon in billy wilder s comedy some like it hot her difficult behavior on the set is now legendary as well as her numerous retakes however when the shooting was over with wilder stated that he would have been willing to go through the hard times with monroe any time again hailing her a first rate comedienne some like it hot is now consistently rated as one of the best comedy films ever made monroe s performance as the promiscuous constantly drinking but compassionate singer sugar kane was awarded with a golden globe for best actress in musical or comedy after some like it hot monroe did a musical named let s make love directed by george cukor and co starring yves montand monroe montand and cukor all considered the script subpar yet monroe was forced to make the film because of her obligations to twentieth century fox while the film was not a commercial or critical success it included one of monroe s legendary musical numbers cole porter s my heart belongs to daddy by one nine six one monroe s third husband the playwright arthur miller had written and worked on what became her and her co star clark gable s last completed film the misfits it was a long and exhausting shoot in the middle of the hot nevada desert monroe s tardiness became chronic and the shoot was troublesome all the way through despite all this monroe gable and montgomery clift were able to deliver performances that are now considered excellent even iconic monroe became friends with clift whom she felt a deep connection with gable died of a heart attack soon after and some blamed this on monroe claiming she had given him a hard time on the set gable had however insisted on doing his own stunts and was a heavy smoker and drinker and the general consensus was that he simply got physically exhausted monroe did attend his funeral happy birthday mr president may one nine six two monroe returned to hollywood to resume filming on an already troubled picture something s got to give in may one nine six two monroe made her last significant public appearance singing happy birthday mr president at a televised birthday party for president john f kennedy after shooting what was claimed to have been the first ever nude scene by a major motion picture actress monroe s attendance became even more erratic due to illness already in a financial strain due to production costs of cleopatra starring elizabeth taylor fox used monroe s absences as an excuse to drop monroe from the film sue her and then replace her with lee remick however a clause in co star dean martin s contract gave him approval over the film s leading lady as he was unwilling to work with anyone else monroe was rehired for double her original salary monroe conducted a lengthy interview with life magazine in which she expressed how bitter she was about hollywood labeling her as a dumb blonde and how much she loved her audience she also did a photo shoot for vogue and began discussing a future film project with gene kelly and frank sinatra she was also planning to star in a biopic as jean harlow other projects being considered for her were what a way to go and the stripper before the shooting of something s got to give resumed however monroe was found dead in her los angeles home on the morning of august five one nine six two her death officially ruled to be a probable suicide by drug overdose has since been found to contain instances of unprofessional handling of the investigation it has become the subject of conspiracy theories but these have done little to dent her iconic status as the archetypal sex symbol and movie star marriages james dougherty age sixteen monroe married james dougherty on june one nine one nine four two in his books the secret happiness of marilyn monroe and to norma jeane with love jimmie dougherty claimed they were in love and would have lived happily ever after had dreams of stardom not lured her away monroe however always maintained theirs was a marriage of convenience marilyn divorced dougherty on september one three one nine four six in the two zero zero four documentary marilyn s man dougherty made three significant claims he invented the marilyn monroe persona fox forced her to divorce him and she always yearned to return to him there is no evidence to support these claims nor that they remained in touch she was an unknown in one nine four six so his claim fox forced a divorce is unlikely she was reportedly furious when he gave an interview to photoplay in one nine five three claiming that she threatened to jump off the santa monica pier if he ever left her he later appeared as a contestant on to tell the truth as marilyn monroe s real first husband dougherty s own actions did not support his claims of being monroe s svengali or her true love he remarried only a few months after their divorce when informed of her death the new york times reported he simply said i m sorry and continued his lapd patrol he did not attend her funeral in an interview for the a collison course with disaster dimaggio biographer maury allen quoted new york mets pr man arthur richman that dimaggio told him everything went wrong from the trip to japan on although marilyn said she wanted to settle down she was intent on continuing her career friends claimed that dimaggio became possessive and controlling as monroe grew increasingly defiant of his wishes after filming the notorious skirt blowing scene in the seven year itch billy wilder recalled the look of death on dimaggio s face as he watched with fans and extras co star tom ewell told the louisville courier journal decades later that wilder set the whole scenario up and had a fan placed under the subway grate that would blow her dress over her head dimaggio biographer richard ben cramer claims that joe was so disgusted by marilyn s sloppiness he began to abuse her her makeup man allan whitey snyder recalled that marilyn later appeared on set with bruises on her upper arms on october two seven two seven four days after the wedding she filed for divorce on grounds of mental cruelty soon after her divorce from arthur miller monroe returned to her self destructive ways falling in with people dimaggio felt detrimental to her including frank sinatra and his rat pack the state of her physical and mental health became widely speculated upon by gossip columnists monroe s psychiatrist arranged for her to be admitted to the payne whitney psychiatric clinic unable to voluntarily check herself out she called dimaggio on february one zero one nine six one he secured her release she was reportedly placed in the ward for the most seriously disturbed she later joined him in florida their just good friends claims did not stop rumors of remarriage at the one nine six zero academy awards telecast bob hope jokingly dedicated best song nominee the second time around to them according to maury allen on august one one nine six two dimaggio quit his job with a military post exchange px to return to california and ask her to remarry him for twenty years dimaggio had a dozen red roses delivered to monroe s crypt three times a week unlike her other two husbands or the men who claimed to have known her intimately he never talked about her publicly or cashed in on the relationship he never remarried he died on march eight one nine nine nine of lung cancer on january two three two zero zero six it was announced that dimaggio s granddaughters will have his personal items auctioned in may among them a photo marilyn inscribed to him i love you joe arthur miller on june two nine one nine five six monroe married playwright arthur miller whom she had first met in one nine five one in a civil ceremony a jewish ceremony followed two days later she had converted to judaism after she finished shooting the prince and the showgirl the couple returned to the states from england and discovered she was pregnant however she suffered from endometriosis and the pregnancy was found to be ectopic it was aborted to save her life a subsequent pregnancy ended in miscarriage by one nine five eight she was the couple s main breadwinner not only did she pay alimony to miller s first wife but he reportedly charged her production company for buying and shipping a jaguar to the united states his the misfits was meant to be a valentine gift but by the time filming started in one nine six zero their marriage was broken beyond repair a mexican divorce was granted on january two four one nine six one on february one seven one nine six two miller married the austrian born inge morath one of the magnum photographers recording the making of the misfits in january one nine six four miller s after the fall opened featuring a beautiful child like yet devouring shrew named maggie the similarities between maggie and monroe did not go unnoticed by audiences and critics including helen hayes many of whom sympathized with the unfortunate fact that as she was no longer alive she could not defend herself to such a portrayal his last broadway bound work finishing the picture was based on the making of the misfits and again painted a similar portrait in interviews he described her as highly self destructive he told vanity fair what killed her was not some conspiracy but that she was marilyn monroe in his one nine eight seven autobiography miller elaborated on her and their marriage while defending his actions he died on february one zero two zero zero five at the age of eight nine death and aftermath monroe was found dead in the bedroom of her brentwood california home by her live in housekeeper mrs eunice murray on august five one nine six two she was three six years old her death was apparently caused by an overdose of barbiturates although as with the assassination of president john f kennedy several theories have sprung up around the circumstances most try to make a case for murder due to her connection with the kennedy family and the sometimes strange and unprofessional relationships between monroe and her psychiatrist dr ralph greenson the housekeeper he hired for monroe mrs murray and her personal publicist pat newcomb who was hired by the kennedys immediately following monroe s death suspicion also arises due to the fact that up to four hours passed between the discovery of her body and the phone call to the los angeles police department jack clemmons the first officer on the scene claimed that when he entered the home mrs murray was doing laundry monroe s room was very tidy as though it had been cleaned prior to his arrival and her body looked posed she was face down her arms at her side like a soldier at attention a phone under her torso clemmons noted that dr greenson kept pointing to rows of pill bottles lined up neatly on her nightstand and saying as if rehearsed she must have taken all of these simmons noticed that no typical signs of drug overdose were present namely foaming of the mouth and twisting of the body due to convulsions the police report mentioned a broken bedroom window and glass on the floor to which murray claimed that was the only access to the locked room also suspicious lividity settling of blood in various parts of the body suggested that the body had been moved as well those who spoke with her in the days prior to her death would describe an upbeat optimistic marilyn conspiracy theories aside it must be noted that the other women whom kennedy was allegedly involved with including angie dickinson and judith campbell exner survived him through her relationship with sam giancana exner seriously compromised both kennedy and the presidency itself yet she told people magazine that the fbi quit its surveillance of her and left her alone once it was apparent that their affair was over dimaggio claimed marilyn s body and planned her funeral he excluded all he deemed morally responsible for her death whitey snyder prepared her face for her last appearance a promise he had made her if she were to go before him she was put in her favorite green emilio pucci dress and held a small boquet of pink teacup roses the service was held at the westwood memorial park chapel in hollywood and only three zero people were in attendance marilyn s acting coach lee strasberg delivered her eulogy and judy garland s over the rainbow played monroe was interred in a pink marble crypt at the westwood village memorial park cemetery los angeles this is the cemetery where her foster mother grace goddard s aunt was buried and where monroe in turn had arranged for goddard to be buried marilyn s mother had been diagnosed as a schizophrenic and between periods in mental hospitals had married her last husband john stewart eley he died in one nine five two in the early one nine seven zero s she walked out of a sanitorium and flew to florida where her daughter berniece met her at the airport she died on march one one one nine eight four at a florida nursing home refusing to the end to discuss either norma jeane or marilyn monroe currently as of two zero zero six berniece and her daughter mona rae reside in florida in one nine nine four they published a book about her relationship with monroe titled my sister marilyn a formal reinvestigation in one nine eight two by the los angeles county district attorney uncovered no evidence of foul play but concluded that the original investigation into her death had not been conducted properly the officers that arrived at her home had failed to secure the scene people freely came and went possibly contaminating or destroying evidence the reinvestigation also revealed that all lab work tissue samples and test results from the autopsy disappeared from the county cornoner s office immediately after the official ruling had been made public coroner dr thomas noguchi who conducted the autopsy claims that misplacement of samples has never happened in another case before or since the report also suggests that monroe s body may have been moved after death as lividity had sat in different parts of her body at different times in his memoir coroner he also states that it was highly likely that monroe s death was suicide he concedes however that no trace of the barbiturates monroe reportedly took were found in her mouth stomach or intestines this has led some theorists to suggest that monroe had been rendered unconscious for instance via chloral hydrate and the overdose administered by intravenous injection or more likely by rectal suppository on august five two zero zero five the los angeles times published an account of monroe s death by former los angeles county prosecutor john w miner who was present at the autopsy miner claims that she was not suicidal and offered as proof his notes on tapes she supposedly recorded for greenson and greenson played for him greenson s widow told the times that her husband never mentioned any such tapes which if they ever existed have been lost or destroyed so there is no way to verify miner s story trivia haugesund norway birthplace of martin edward mortenson has a lifesize statue of marilyn childhood pictures show that marilyn was a blonde but her hair turned mousy as she grew up she dyed her hair several different shades of blonde as an adult monroe fans albert einstein ayn rand jean paul sartre edith sitwell and vladimir nabokov colin farrell admitted that as a child he would put sweets under his pillow for monroe in case she visited him from heaven when rainier iii of monaco was looking for a famous wife monroe was suggested however since she wasn t catholic she could not be considered marian mcknight won the one nine five seven miss america crown with a marilyn act the subway grate scene in the seven year itch has been aped in countless shows commercials products and ads and by everyone from anna kournikova to absolut vodka to betty boop and the statue of liberty a computer generated monroe is featured in the sims superstar monroe s features are copyrighted to her estate and are not allowed to be reproduced exactly monroe had a mild stutter which was most severe during her teens she commented in an interview i stuttered later on in my teens when i was at van nuys high school they elected me secretary of the english class and every time i had to read the minutes i d say minutes of the last m m m meeting it was terrible her first screen test was shot by cinematographer leon shamroy hugh hefner bought a crypt next to monroe s for eight five zero zero zero the other crypt next to hers was sold for one two five zero zero zero there are no empty spots available near monroe the myth that monroe was born with eleven toes resulted from photos in the birth of marilyn by joseph jasgur in march one nine four six the story is dismissed as an urban legend monroe was miss artichoke of one nine four eight the subway grate scene in the seven year itch was reshot at fox since the crowds proved too distracting billy wilder said monroe had breasts like granite and a brain like swiss cheese however wilder also said she was a genius a roommate of oscar winning actress shelley winters on a tour of paul cezanne s studio in aix en provence france one nine five five marilyn monroe wrote in the visitor s book a wonderful visit talked a club owner into booking ella fitzgerald i owe marilyn monroe a real debt it was because of her that i played the mocambo a very popular night club in the five zero s she personally called the owner of the mocambo and told him she wanted me booked immediately and if he would do it she would take a front table every night she told him and it was true due to marilyn s superstar status that the press would go wild the owner said yes and marilyn was there front table every night the press went overboard after that i never had to play a small jazz club again said to be quite intelligent although it was hidden behind her image she wrote poems enjoyed literature and always regretted never continuing high school george barris claims he took the last pictures of monroe however it was allan grant who took the last pictures of monroe during an interview for life magazine on july seven one nine six two among the men monroe allegedly had affairs with were president john f kennedy frank sinatra marlon brando and yves montand in two zero zero five it was claimed she had a one night stand with joan crawford who was very angry that marilyn refused to repeat the experience and crawford became in monroe s words spiteful frank sinatra gave her a maltese puppy that she named maf honey maf was supposedly short for mafia the beauty mark above her lip was genuine it was a very pale mole that she darkened with makeup truman capote wanted her to play holly golightly in the film adaptation of his breakfast at tiffany s voted sexiest woman of the century by people magazine in one nine nine nine purportedly shaved a quarter of an inch off many of her right high heeled shoes to accentuate the wiggle in her walk the diamonds she wore as she performed diamonds are a girl s best friend were rhinestones the gown monroe wore to sing happy birthday to john f kennedy sold in one nine nine nine for over one five zero zero zero zero zero marilyn is the first stamp of the usps s legends of hollywood series filmography poster art for niagara dangerous years one nine four seven scudda hoo scudda hay one nine four eight ladies of the chorus one nine four eight love happy one nine four nine a ticket to tomahawk one nine five zero the asphalt jungle one nine five zero the fireball one nine five zero all about eve one nine five zero right cross one nine five zero home town story one nine five one as young as you feel one nine five one love nest one nine five one let s make it legal one nine five one clash by night one nine five two we re not married one nine five two don t bother to knock one nine five two monkey business one nine five two o henry s full house one nine five two niagara one nine five three gentlemen prefer blondes one nine five three how to marry a millionaire one nine five three river of no return one nine five four there s no business like show business one nine five four the seven year itch one nine five five bus stop one nine five six the prince and the showgirl one nine five seven some like it hot one nine five nine let s make love one nine six zero the misfits one nine six one something s got to give one nine six two unfinished awards and nominations one nine five two photoplay award special award one nine five three photoplay award most popular female star one nine five four golden globe world film favorite female one nine five six bafta film award nomination best foreign actress for the seven year itch one nine five six golden globe nomination best motion picture actress in comedy or musical for bus stop one nine five eight bafta film award nomination best foreign actress for the prince and the showgirl one nine five eight david di donatello award italian golden plate for the prince and the showgirl one nine five nine crystal star award french best foreign actress for the prince and the showgirl one nine six zero golden globe best motion picture actress in comedy or musical for some like it hot one nine six two golden globe world film favorite female monroe has a star on the hollywood walk of fame at six one zero four hollywood blvd in popular culture music photograph from pyromania by def leppard is an homage to marilyn she is featured in its video in one nine eight three elton john s candle in the wind lyrics by bernie taupin music by elton john was about marilyn taupin revised the lyrics for the funeral of diana princess of wales in kool and the gang s video fresh marilyn plays the fairy godmother mariah carey bought monroe s white baby grand piano at christie s one nine nine nine auction for six six three zero zero zero she also pays homage to her in the videos i still believe and don t forget about us her likeness appears on the beatles lp sgt pepper s lonely hearts club band the video for madonna s material girl is a copy of diamonds are a girl s best friend marilyn and dimaggio are referenced in her vogue michael monroe of the finnish glam rock band hanoi rocks based his stage name on monroe and wanted to name his band s first album some like it hot the misfits took their moniker from the misfits glenn danzig singer and centerperson for the misfits wrote and recorded who killed marilyn it was originally a poem but he later recorded it as a song which claims her death was a murder marilyn and joe dimaggio are referenced in tori amos s father lucifer mentioned in the spice girls lady is a vamp sonic youth s sugar kane is named after her character in some like it hot kerry katona played marilyn in the stars in their eyes two zero zero two christmas special marilyn manson took his first name as an homage to her in the video cool gwen stefani is made up as monroe in nelly s tilt ya head back christina aguilera is dressed like monroe in some like it hot the one nine eight five single some like it hot by the power station took its title from the film some like it hot in mariah carey s don t forget about us she looked like marilyn in the pool scene films in knight mare hare bugs bunny squares off against wizard merlin of monroe pulp fiction monroe look a like is a waitress in a five zero s themed restaurant fade to black a disturbed young man with a monroe obsession stalks a girl who looks like her don t tell mom the babysitter s dead monroe drag queen steals a car holy matrimony patricia arquette s character impersonates monroe in her act cool world kim basinger s character is partially based on monroe wonder boys richard thomas s character is obsessed by the monroe dimaggio marriage bordello of blood vampire seductress takes the form of monroe finding graceland monroe impersonator meets a man who believes he is elvis presley town and country jenna elfman dresses as monroe white palace susan sarandon s character is a monroe fan the woman in red kelly lebrock apes the subway grate scene from seven year itch moulin rouge nicole kidman s character performs diamonds are a girl s best friend portrayed in death becomes her one nine nine two goodbye norma jean one nine seven six goodnight sweet marilyn one nine eight nine calendar girl one nine four seven the island one nine nine eight sally kirkland just a dream two zero zero two l a confidential one nine nine seven mister lonely two zero zero six samantha morton based on her paddy chayefsky s the goddess one nine five eight played by kim stanley television i love lucy episode ricky s movie offer lucy glams up as monroe the november one nine one nine five two and january one two one nine five four the name s the same had a contestant whose real name was marilyn monroe june two two one nine five four guest van johnson s secret wish was for her to sit on his lap august three one one nine five four guest charles coburn s secret wish was to dance the rumba with her again as he did in gentlemen prefer blondes edie adams regulary impersonated monroe on the ernie kovacs show buddy hackett signed in as monroe on the august two one one nine six zero what s my line the beverly hillbillies episode jed buys a movie studio elly may impersonates monroe gilligan s island episode the producer ginger impersonates monroe the m a s h episode bombshells hawkeye and charles unwittingly start a rumor that monroe is coming to the four zero seven seven to thank the staff for caring for her cousin in the one nine nine five tv movie the price of heaven grant show plays a g i who returns home famous having been photographed with monroe during her korea trip lizzie mcguire and miranda watch some like it hot at their cinema club season two married with children episode it s a bundyful life al asks his gaurdian angel sam kinison if monroe is laughing at him because he gave in to peg s demand he toss out his playboys she doesn t even know you exist charlize theron played monroe in a november four two zero zero zero saturday night live spoof of the seven year itch subway grate scene mary gross also played monroe as a recurring snl character in the simpsons beyond blunderdome mel gibson coos happy birthday mr president to a studio honcho a fish called selma homer imagines selma as monroe homer s phobia john waters has a poster of monroe home away from homer ned emulates the seven year itch subway grate scene the world s greatest jacket in the homer they fall has monroe on it rosebud smithers dreams of burns cooing happy birthday mr smithers and a photo slide of burns shows him emulating the subway grate scene thirty minutes over tokyo monroe is a robot in americatown professor frink s father worked on the atom bomb by day slept with monroe by night and sold secrets to the russians at lunch marvin monroe s real first name was marilyn portrayed in this year s blonde one nine eight zero nbc miniseries moviola constance forslund marilyn the untold story one nine eight zero abc catherine hicks norma jean the end dark skies episode the warren omission growing pains episode happy halloween part two quantum leap episode goodbye norma jean april four one nine six zero red dwarf episodes better than life and meltdown the rat pack jackie ethel joan the women of camelot two zero zero one nbc miniseries a woman named jackie one nine nine one nbc miniseries hoover vs the kennedys the second civil war one nine eight seven heather thomas introducing dorothy dandridge marilyn and me one nine nine one abc a man claimed he secretly married monroe in one nine five two marilyn versions in pink gold and blue released as marilyn monroe one nine six four james rosenquist s marilyn faith ringgold s marilyn monroe one nine nine seven eve arnold jock carroll andre de dienes milton greene sam shaw and bert stern published books of their shoots she also sat for richard avedon cecil beaton henri cartier bresson alfred eisenstaedt elliott erwitt philippe halsman harold lloyd gordon parks and weegee anna nicole smith rented the home monroe died in and has posed as her for various shoots most notably for peta marie claire september two zero zero two of marilyn visiting the troops in korea in a bomber jacket she made even military issue jackets sexy american photo devoted its may june one nine nine six issue to marilyn further reference marilyn in art by roger taylor isbn one nine zero four nine five seven zero two one and marilyn monroe and the camera by georges belmont isbn zero eight two one two one seven six five eight stage based on monroe rita marlowe in the one nine five five broadway play will success spoil rock hunter by george axelrod olive ogilvie in the one nine six two broadway play venus at large by henry denker the actress in the one nine eight two play insignificance by terry johnson filmed by nicolas roeg maggie in the one nine six four play after the fall and kay in the two zero zero four play finishing the picture by arthur miller monroe as a character a saintly icon in the who s tommy the one nine eight three broadway musical marilyn the one nine eight three operetta marilyn by her friend norman rosten the one nine eight six norman mailer off broadway play strawhead starring his daughter kate the one nine nine five rock opera america the beautiful by rob volpintesta books according to amazon com there are nearly three zero zero biographies on marilyn the following are fiction blonde by joyce carol oates candle in the wind by george bernau marilyn s daughter by john rechy of women and their elegance by norman mailer queen of desire by sam toperoff the symbol by alvah bessie see also list of illegitimates further reading an exhaustive and thorough a z look at monroe s life argues for kennedy connection to monroe s death contains alleged transcripts of monroe s therapy sessions mobster sam giancana s nephew and brother claim that giancana had monroe killed pp four three four four three eight norman mailer s biography of marilyn is illustrated with hundreds of photographs external links official marilyn monroe website google images marilyn monroe time one zero zero marilyn monroe online community marilyn monroe forums marilyn monroe s biographic sketch at find a grave coverage of monroe s death and aftermath by the los angeles times with links to further archive material claims by former los angeles prosecutor john w miner regarding monroe s death the first marilyn monroe podcast my marilyn one nine two six births one nine six two deaths adult models american film actors american female singers american models cause of death disputed converts to judaism drug related deaths entertainers who committed suicide in their three zero s norwegian americans people from the greater los angeles area playboy playmates american women in neuroscience myelin is an electrically insulating phospholipid layer that surrounds the axons of many neurons it is an outgrowth of glial cells schwann cells supply the myelin for peripheral neurons while oligodendrocytes supply it to those of the central nervous system the myelin produced by the different cell types varies in its chemical composition or configuration but performs the same function myelinated neurons are white in appearance hence the white matter of the brain myelin is composed of about eight zero lipid fat and about two zero protein some of the proteins that make up myelin are myelin basic protein mbp myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein mog and proteolipid protein plp myelin is made up primarily of a sphingolipid called sphingomyelin and it is thought that the intertwining of the hydrocarbon chains of sphingomyelin serve to strengthen the myelin sheath image neuron jpg the main consequence of a myelin layer or sheath is an increase in the speed at which impulses propagate along the myelinated fiber along unmyelinated fibers impulses move continuously as waves but in myelinated fibers they hop or propagate by saltation myelin increases resistance by a factor of five zero zero zero and decreases capacitance by a factor of five zero myelination also helps prevent the electrical current from leaving the axon and causing a short circuit in the brain when a peripheral fiber is severed the myelin sheath provides a track along which regrowth can occur unmyelinated fibers and myelinated axons of the mammalian central nervous system do not regenerate demyelination is a loss of myelin and is the root cause of symptoms experienced by patients with diseases such as multiple sclerosis and transverse myelitis the immune system may play a role in demyelination associated with such diseases heavy metal poisoning may also lead to demyelination when an axon s myelin degrades due to these diseases conduction can be impaired or lost research is currently being undertaken to repair damaged myelin sheaths these techniques include surgically implanting oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the central nervous system and inducing myelin repair with certain antibodies while there have been some encouraging results in mice it is still unknown whether this research will provide a cure for demyelination related diseases adrenoleukodystrophy ald is a disease that is found in young boys at around age six this is a degenerative disease that strips myelin off of the nerves carriers may become blind unable to move and lose control of many other functions myelin is important in the function of these abilities see also multiple sclerosis caused by loss of myelin external links the myelin project athabasca university biological psychology website the ms information sourcebook myelin the myelin repair foundation h e histology luxol fast blue modified kluver s method to stain for myelin sheath nervous system neurons mebyon kernow cornish for sons of cornwall often abbrieviated mk is a political party in the united kingdom the main objective of mk is to reestablish self governance in cornwall the southwesternmost county of the united kingdom mk was founded on january six one nine five one at a meeting held in redruth helena charles was elected the party s first chair at the first meeting mk adopting the following objectives to study local conditions and attempt to remedy any that may be prejudicial to the best interests of cornwall by the creation of public opinion or other means to foster the cornish language and literature to encourage the study of cornish history from a cornish point of view by self knowledge to further the acceptance of the idea of the celtic character of cornwall one of the six celtic nations to publish pamphlets broadsheets articles and letters in the press whenever possible putting forward the foregoing aims to arrange concerts and entertainments with a cornish celtic flavour through which these aims can be further advanced to cooperate with all societies concerned with preserving the character of cornwall by september one nine five one they had officially come to a stance of supporting self government for cornwall in what they hoped at the time would be a federal united kingdom mk won its first seat at local level on the redruth camborne urban council in one nine five three throughout the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s mk was in essence a political pressure group rather than a true political party with members being able to join other political parties as well however by the one nine seven zero s the group developed into a more coherent and unified organization during this decade mk began contesting westminster parliamentary seats as well as local government ones a schism in the early one nine seven zero s led to the formation of the cornish nationalist party they currently describe their philosophy as based on being cornish green left of centre decentralist mebyon kernow is a member of the european free alliance although did not contest european parliament elections in two zero zero four or one nine nine nine the party has close links with plaid cymru their partner in the efa including a twinning arrangement with plaid s blaenau gwent branch and to a lesser extent with the snp daphne du maurier the well known novelist was at one point a member of mebyon kernow as was andrew george the liberal democrat mp he still remains sympathetic to many cornish issues but is no longer a member since they became a political party mk have an electoral partnership with the greens in the two zero zero five westminster elections mk did not contest the st ives constituency to make room for the green party candidate in return the greens did not stand against mk in any of the other four cornish constituencies electoral performance in one nine seven nine in the first elections to the european parliament mebyon kernow were able to attract almost ten percent of the vote in the cornwall seat this reflected a decade of steady growth for the party mk continues to contest parliamentary seats with little electoral success and also local government seats with more success they lost their only cornwall county councillor in two zero zero one source election demon since one one november two zero zero four there have been four mk councillors on kerrier district council along with one in restormel the party leader dick cole and one in north cornwall john bolitho one of the mk councillors in kerrier loveday jenkin joined the district council government in two zero zero five becoming the first mk councillor in such a position external links official website european free alliance cornish politics political parties in the united kingdom secessionist organizations mental functions and cognitive processes are terms often used interchangeably although not always correctly so the term cognitive tends to have specific implications see cognitive and cognitivism to mean such functions or processes as perception introspection memory imagination conception belief reasoning volition and emotion in other words all the different things that we can do with our minds a specific instance of engaging in a cognitive process is a mental event the event of perceiving city hall is of course different from the entire process or faculty of perception one s ability to perceive things in other words in instance of perceiving is different from the ability that makes it possible see also cognitive cognitivism neurocognitive mental event cognitive science the mesozoic era is one of three geologic eras of the phanerozoic eon the division of time into eras dates back to giovanni arduino in the one eight th century although his original name for the era now called the mesozoic was secondary see tertiary mesozoic gets its name from the greek meso middle and zoo animals and is often called the age of medieval life geologic periods the mesozoic includes three geologic periods from oldest to youngest they are the triassic the jurassic and the cretaceous periods it extended from roughly two five one million years ago ma to roughly six five ma the mesozoic followed the paleozoic era and preceded the cenozoic era the lower oldest boundary is set by the permian extinction the upper youngest boundary is set at the cretaceous extinction life in the mesozoic era the mesozoic spans the period when terrestrial life was dominated by large sophisticated reptiles the basis for its popular designation as the age of the dinosaurs the era also witnessed the development of early birds and mammals and of the first flowering plants angiosperms at the end of the mesozoic all the major body plans of modern life were in place although in some cases notably the mammals the forms that existed at the end of the cretaceous were relatively primitive the mesozoic s end saw the dinosaur extinction tectonics geologically the mesozoic starts with almost all the earth s land surface collected into a supercontinent called pangaea during the mesozoic era however pangaea split into a northern continent laurasia and a southern continent gondwana laurasia subsequently divided into north america and eurasia whilst gondwana broke up progressively into the four present continents of south america africa australia and antarctica see also geologic time scale references and further reading british mesozoic fossils one nine eight three the natural history museum london mesozoic the traditional middle east and the g eight s greater middle east the middle east is a historical and cultural subregion of africa eurasia traditionally held to be countries or regions in southwest asia together with egypt in other contexts the region can include other parts of north africa and or central asia pakistan and the caucasus are generally not included in the region characteristics the middle east is generally thought of as a predominantly islamic arabic community however the area encompasses many distinct cultural and ethnic groups including the arabs assyrians berbers greeks jews iranians maronites kurds druze and turks the main language groups include arabic assyrian also known as aramaic and syriac hebrew persian kurdish and turkish the corresponding adjective is middle eastern and the derived noun is middle easterner most western definitions of the middle east in both established reference books and common usage define the region as nations in southwest asia from iran persia to egypt consequently egypt with its sinai peninsula in asia is usually considered part of the middle east although most of the country lies geographically in north africa north african nations without asian links such as libya tunisia and morocco are increasingly being called north african as opposed to middle eastern iran to egypt asia by international media outlets one widely used definition of middle east is that of the airline industry maintained by the iata standards organization this definition as of early two zero zero six includes bahrain egypt iran iraq israel jordan kuwait lebanon palestinian territory oman qatar saudi arabia sudan syrian arab republic united arab emirates and yemen this definition is used in world wide airfare and tax calculations for passengers and cargo history a map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the middle east the middle east is the birthplace and spiritual center of judaism christianity and islam the region saw both periods of relative tolerance and violence in the two zero th century it has been at the center of world affairs and has been strategically economically politically culturally and religiously sensitive area it possesses significant stocks of crude oil see also list of conflicts in the middle east borders middle east defines a cultural area so it does not have precise borders the most common and highly arbitrary definition includes bahrain cyprus egypt turkey iran persia iraq israel jordan kuwait lebanon oman qatar saudi arabia syria the united arab emirates yemen the west bank and the gaza strip iran is often the eastern border but afghanistan and western pakistan are often included due to their close relationship ethnically and religiously to the larger group of iranian peoples as well as historical connections to the middle east including being part of the various empires that have spanned the region such as those of the persians and arabs among others afghanistan tajikistan and western pakistan baluchistan and north west frontier province share close cultural linguistic and historical ties with iran and are also part of the iranian plateau whereas iran s relationship with arab states is based more upon religion and geographic proximity also the kurds another group of iranic linguistic extraction are the largest ethnic group in the middle east without their own state north africa or the maghreb although often placed outside the middle east proper does have strong cultural and linguistic links to the region and historically has shared many of the events that have shaped the mediterranean and middle eastern regions including those prompted by phoenician colonized carthage and greco roman civilization as well as muslim arab berber and ottoman empires the maghrib is sometimes included sometimes excluded from the middle east by the media and in informal usage while most academics continue to identify north africa as geographically a part of africa but being closely related to southwestern asia in terms of politics culture religion language history and genetics this can be compared with other similar instances in which for example tasmania and newfoundland geographically non european share many such traits with northwestern western europe while madagascar is in some of these respects more like southeast asia than southeast africa the caucasus region cyprus and turkey although often grouped into southwest asia based upon geographic proximity and continuity are generally considered culturally and politically european due to their various historic and recent political ties to that region for example armenia and cyprus although both exist in close geographic proximity to the middle east possess two important criteria that links them more to europe than to the middle east their national identity that combines an indo european linguistic background and majority populations that adhere to christianity which are both factors that do not correspond with most typically middle eastern countries some of whom possess one trait indo european languages dominate iran and afghanistan for example or the other lebanon is the only country that may have a christian majority but this remains speculative as well turkey possesses neither of these european traits but has deep historic and according to genetic research dna connections with europe since it was the site of the byzantine empire and the ottoman empire that overlapped into europe as a prospective candidate of the european union and a long time member of nato turkey has adopted the secular traits that dominate europe and has severed many of its ties to the middle east with the notable exception of the religion of islam both georgia and azerbaijan were radically altered by the dominion of the russian empire and the soviet union and are seen as more european than middle eastern and generally viewed as a regional bloc in the caucasus region central asian countries from the former soviet bloc also show varying degrees of affinity and historical ties to the middle east but not in any uniform fashion while the southern states of turkmenistan uzbekistan and tajikistan display many cultural historical and socio political similarities to the middle east kazakhstan and kyrgyzstan are examples of more remote and mixed cultures as a result these states are often viewed as eurasian in ways similar to the caucasus and their russian soviet past has set them apart in various ways from the middle east while there has been a movement to re establish ties to the region in tajikistan for example based upon their ethno linguistic affinities with iran and afghanistan like the caucasus and turkey central asia has strong secular and western affinities that are both soviet legacies although this may change with some recent shifts towards a historical cultural renaissance and resurgence of islamic identity that were suppressed for decades by soviet authorities the state of israel also represents a unique fusion of european and middle eastern traits but due to geographic continuity with the levant and a majority population that is predominantly middle eastern including sephardic jews sabras israeli arabs etc it perhaps shares more similarities with its neighbors then is readily apparent from media coverage changes in the meaning over time until world war ii it was customary to refer to the eastern shore of the mediterranean as the near east the middle east then meant the area from mesopotamia to burma namely the area between the near east and the far east the sense described in this article evolved during the war perhaps influenced by the ancient idea of the mediterranean as the sea in the middle eurocentrism some have criticized the term middle east for its perceived eurocentrism the region is only east from the perspective of western europe to an indian it lies to the west to a russian it lies to the south the description middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions before the first world war near east was used in english to refer to the balkans and the ottoman empire while middle east referred to persia afghanistan and central asia turkistan and the caucasus in contrast far east refers to the countries of east asia e g china japan koreas hong kong taiwan etc with the disappearance of the ottoman empire in one nine one eight near east largely fell out of common use in english while middle east came to be applied to the re emerging countries of the islamic world however the usage of near east was retained by a variety of academic disciplines including archaeology and ancient history where it describes an area identical to the term middle east which is not used by these disciplines see ancient near east so in shorter words the term middle east came about when the uk french part of the world used the term in german the term naher osten near east is still in common use and in russian near east remains to be the only appropriate term for the region the criticism of eurocentrism is of course related to the fact that east and west are defined in relation to the lines of longitude relative to the prime meridian or greenwich meridian and therefore inherently eurocentric this was a result of the british cartography standard being widely accepted in one eight eight four at the international meridian conference indirect translations there are terms similar to near east and middle east in other european languages but since it is a relative description the meanings depend on the country and are different from the english terms generally see and for examples similar terms in some ways the lack of precise borders of the middle east is an advantage since it can be used to describe various cultural and political criteria this vagueness in definition has led to the emergence of alternative neutral terms used by international organizations and movements namely southwest asia and west asia which has become the preferred term of use in india both by the government and by the media arab world is not a synonymous term for the middle east although it covers most of the same area the asian part of the arab world including arabia proper is called the mashreq middle east north africa mena which is sometimes used to encompass the zone from morocco to iran also occasionally called the greater middle east sometimes this term is used to mean the entire area of africa from the sahara to the mediterranean and asia west of china and india and south of russia it is used by some historians who deal with various empires and civilizations including that of the mediterreanean greco romans and persians as well as the vast arab caliphates and the regions where early muslim turks established their rule it can encompass north africa and turkey in the west to pakistan and afghanistan in the east the term greater middle east remains in use by the g eight the us state department and various academic institutions such as the middle east institute middle easterner strictly speaking a middle easterner is someone who lives in or is from the area around the eastern mediterranean from iran to northern africa and eastward to pakistan the site of such ancient civilizations as phoenicia and persia and babylon and egypt is the birthplace of judaism christianity zoroastrianism and islam conflicts today the region is characterized by strong political tensions like the issue of kurdistan the issue of palestine israel the issue of rights to water resources as well as a number of smaller yet important issues like syrian presence in lebanon border disagreements between syria and turkey between egypt and sudan between saudi arabia and yemen the civil rights of religious minorities in iraq and bahrain and the security of christians in egypt geography main article geography of asia regions of the middle east main article middle eastern regions iranian plateau anatolia turkey mediterranean sea cyprus arabia see persian gulf states saudi arabia kuwait qatar u a e oman yemen bahrain and iraq the levant syria israel jordan lebanon the west bank and gaza strip egypt s sinai peninsula see also southwest asia near east cradle of humanity greater middle east orientalism external links election tracker monitors democratic conditions around the world public opinion about the middle east gomideast where in the world is the middle east middle east forum middle east forums for expatriates ancient near east net provides a comprehensive portal to the archaeology and ancient cultures of the near middle east middle east studies association mesa of north america university of chicago library middle east department the middle east old and new by martin kramer middle east public relations association mepra middle east resource guide middle eastern artists iranian contemporary and young blood art middle east institute ngos working in region ansar burney trust ngo working on human rights and human trafficking issues in the middle east asia middle east current mogollar line up from left to right cahit berkay taner zg r serhat ers z engin y r ko lu mo ollar is one of the pioneer bands in turkish rock music for about three zero years and one of the founders of turkish ethno rock music or anatolian rock music the major goal of the band is to prove that folk music has a multi layered soul and folk music s dynamism is very close to pop music s dynamism the band members aziz azmet cahit berkay taner ongur engin yorukoglu and murat ses tried to fuse the technical aspects of pop music with the melodies of ancient anatolian folk music in late one nine six zero s and early one nine seven zero s cahit berkay taner ng r and engin y r ko lu reformed the band in one nine nine three and were joined by keyboard player serhat ers z murat ses is dealing with other projects and is still pursuing an extraordinary international career the group won the grand prix du disque previously won by such groups as pink floyd and jimi hendrix in one nine seven one murat ses the group s keyboardist arranger and composer work and composition a r da efsanesi the legend of mount ararat was inspired by ancient legends of the flood in different cultures in live versions over ten minutes he made use of diverse fx possibilities of his time to tell a sonic story with his keyboards see also turkish music see also list of turkish pop music performers and genres turkish musical groups monism is the metaphysical and theological view that all is of one essential essence principle substance or energy monism is to be distinguished from dualism which holds that ultimately there are two kinds of substance and from pluralism which holds that ultimately there are many kinds of substance monism is often seen in relation to pantheism panentheism and an immanent god the concepts of absolutism the monad and the universal substrate are closely related as well theological growth and breadth hinduism including vedanta and yoga taoism buddhism pantheism zen and similar systems of thought explore the mystical and spiritual elements of a monistic philosophy with increasing awareness of these systems of thought western spiritual and philosophical climate has seen a growing understanding of monism moreover the new thought movement has embraced many monistic concepts for over one zero zero years philosophical monism monism is often seen as partitioned into three basic types substantial monism one thing which holds that there is one substance attributive monism one category which holds that while there is only one kind of thing there are many different individual things or beings in this category absolute monism which holds that there is only one substance and only one being absolute monism therefore can only be of the idealistic type see below monism is further defined according to three kinds idealism or phenomenalism which holds that only mind is real neutral monism which holds that both the mental and the physical can be reduced to some sort of third substance or energy physicalism or materialism which holds that only the physical is real and that the mental can be reduced to the physical certain other positions are hard to pigeonhole into the above categories including functionalism like materialism holds that the mental can ultimately be reduced to the physical but also holds that all critical aspects of the mind are also reducible to some substrate neutral functional level thus something need not be made out of neurons to have mental states this is a popular stance in cognitive science and artificial intelligence eliminativism which holds that talk of the mental will eventually be proved as unscientific and completely discarded just as we no longer follow the ancient greeks in saying that all matter is composed of earth air water and fire people of the future will no longer speak of beliefs desires and other mental states a subcategory of eliminativism is radical behaviourism a view held by b f skinner anomalous monism a position proposed by donald davidson in the one nine seven zero s as a way to resolve the mind body problem it could be considered by the above definitions either physicalism or neutral monism davidson holds that there is only physical matter but that all mental objects and events are perfectly real and are identical with some physical matter but physicalism retains a certain priority inasmuch as one all mental things are physical but not all physical things are mental and two as john haugeland puts it once you take away all the atoms there s nothing left this monism was widely considered an advance over previous identity theories of mind and body because it does not entail that one must be able to provide an actual method for redescribing any particular kind of mental entity in purely physical terms indeed there may be no such method this is a case of nonreductive physicalism or perhaps emergent physicalism materialism reflexive monism a position developed by max velmans in two zero zero zero as a method of resolving the difficulties associated with both dualist and reductionist agendas concerning consciousness by viewing physical phenomena as perceived as being part of the contents of consciousness monism pantheism and panentheism following a long and still current tradition h p owen one nine seven one six five claimed that pantheists are monists they believe that there is only one being and that all other forms of reality are either modes or appearances of it or identical with it although like spinoza some pantheists may also be monists and monism may even be essential to some versions of pantheism like spinoza s not all pantheists are monists some are polytheists and some are pluralists they believe that there are many things and kinds of things and many different kinds of value stanford encyclopedia of philosophy not all monists are pantheists exclusive monists believe that the universe the god of the pantheist simply does not exist in addition monists can be deists theists or panentheists believing in a monotheistic god that is omnipotent and all pervading and both transcendent and immanent there are monist deists and panentheists in hinduism particularly in advaita and vishistadvaita respectively judaism especially in kabballa and in christianity especially among oriental orthodox eastern orthodox and anglicans monism in religion hinduism hinduism is monistic as far back as the rig veda in which hymnists speak of one being non being that breathed without breath and which singular force self projected into the cosmic existence nevertheless the first system in hinduism that clearly unequivocably explicated absolute monism was that of advaita or nondualist vedanta see advaita vedanta as expounded by adi shankaracharya it is part of the six hindu systems of philosophy based on the upanishads and posits that the ultimate monad is a formless ineffable divine ground called brahman such monistic thought also extends to other hindu systems like yoga and non dualist tantra another type of monism qualified monism from the school of ramanuja or vishishtadvaita admits that the universe is part of god or narayana a type of either pantheism or panentheism but sees a plurality of souls and substances within this supreme being this type of monism monistic theism which includes the concept of a personal god as a universal omnipotent supreme being who is both immanent and transcendent is prevalent in hinduism monistic theism is not to be confused with absolute monotheism where god is viewed as transcendent only in absolute monotheism the notion of immanence divinity essence of god present in all things is absent christianity christianity being monotheistic can be said to combine both monistic and dualistic assumptions akin to vishistadvaita vedanta in hinduism ultimately concluding that there is one transcendent immanent all pervading omnipotent ineffable god some christians inveigh against the dangers of monism asserting that in order to resolve all things to a single substrate one dissolves god in the process much christian thought has insisted that while the universe is dependent on god for its existence it is also of a separate substance from god some contend that this means that monism is false while others argue that there is a distinction between ultimate essence and the differentiated essences substances so that the single substrate essentially is god theological arguments can be made for this within christianity for example employing the christian doctrine of divine simplicity though a monistic interpretation of that doctrine would not be considered orthodox by the roman catholic church valentinianism there did exist unorthodox strands of christianity that may be described as monistic in their stance valentinianism is commonly viewed as being a gnostic heresy most prevalent in the first centuries ce however while gnostic traditions are typically regarded as dualistic a standard element in the interpretation of valentinianism and similar forms of gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundamentally monistic schoedel william gnostic monism and the gospel of truth in bentley layton ed the rediscovery of gnosticism vol one the school of valentinus e j brill leiden as intimated above valentinian sources regularly proclaim god which is more akin to an indescribable neoplatonist monad than the typical orthodox christian conception of a transcendent entity nevertheless possessed of a recognisable persona to be fundamental to all things and that our perception of a material universe is simply a mis perception of this same fundamental superior one ness inasmuch as materiality is occasionally described by the valentinians as being exterior to the monad this description is intended in an epistemological sense as depicting a state of being that is ignorant of the true nature of the material universe the depiction of differing states of knowledge or awareness in spatial terms is typical of gnostic metaphor especially within the valentinian tradition judaism it is a primary axiomatic belief of religious jewish thought that god is an absolute unity see negative theology divine simplicity god is considered eternal existing outside of time which is not to be confused with everlasting existing at every time and relatedly the view that god is immanent with and simultaneously separate transcendent from all created things is consistent with torah see tzimtzum under both judaism and christianity the question of monism is almost a moot point in that the omnipotence of god allows him to separate from or maintain any property ayyavazhi ayyavazhi a religion originating in one nine th century india asserts the concept of ekam where all is one a concept close to nirguna brahman in hinduism it accepts almost all different gods in hinduism with them unified into ayya vaikundar who is the ekam others historically monism has been promoted in spiritual terms on several occasions notably by ernst haeckel to the dismay of some modern observers haeckel s various ideas often had components of social darwinism and scientific racism paul carus called himself an atheist who loves god and advocated henism which is often seen as monist or pantheist in nature ancient philosophers the following pre socratic philosophers described reality as being monistic thales water anaximander apeiron meaning the unknown reality is some one thing but we cannot know what anaximanes air pythagoras number math entirely describes the world to the extent that its logical model is the world heraclitus fire in that everything is in constant flux parmenides one reality is an unmoving perfect sphere unchanging undivided leucippus of miletus and his disciple democritus of abdera atoms and void i e atoms and lack of atoms empedocles earth air fire water four elements no longer monism neoplatonism is monistic plotinus taught that there was an ineffable transcendent god the one of which subsequent realities were emanations from the one emanates the divine mind nous the cosmic soul psyche and the world cosmos see also acosmism cosmotheism dialectical monism dualism freethought holism hindu idealism naturalistic spirituality mind body problem monadology monotheism panentheism pluralism philosophy of mind reduction philosophy reductionism external links catholic encyclopedia monism hinduism s online lexicon scroll down to find the definition of monism monism theology philosophy of mind metaphysics reductionism a master shot also called an establishing shot and sometimes also a long shot is a filmic recording of an entire scene start to finish from an angle that keeps all the players in view usually the master shot is the first shot checked off during the shooting of a scene it is the foundation of what s called coverage the process through which all angles and shots will be covered that will be needed in the editing room the master shot is ordinarily supplemented with other shots that reveal different aspects of the action groupings of two or three of the actors at crucial moments close ups of individuals insert shots of various props and so on film techniques in film a medium shot is a camera shot from a medium distance the dividing line between long shot and medium shot is blurry as is the line between medium shot and close up in some standard texts and professional references a full length view of a human subject is called a medium shot in this terminology a shot of the person from the knees up or the waist up is a close shot in other texts these partial views are called medium shots there is no evident reason for this variation it is not a distinction caused by for example a difference between tv and film language or one nine three zero s and one nine eight zero s language film techniques for other moons in the solar system see natural satellite for the astrological meaning of the moon see solar system in astrology for other uses see moon disambiguation bgcolor ffc zero c zero colspan two crust composition oxygen four three silicon two one aluminium one zero calcium nine iron nine magnesium five titanium two nickel zero six sodium zero three chromium zero two potassium zero one manganese zero one sulfur zero one phosphorus five zero zero ppm carbon one zero zero ppm nitrogen one zero zero ppm hydrogen five zero ppm helium two zero ppm bgcolor ffc zero c zero colspan two atmospheric characteristics align left atmospheric pressure three one zero one three kpa helium two five neon two five hydrogen two three argon two zero methane ammonia carbon dioxide trace the moon is earth s only natural satellite it has no formal name other than the moon although in english it is occasionally called luna latin for moon or selene greek for moon to distinguish it from the generic moon natural satellites of other planets are also called moons its symbol is a crescent the terms lunar selene seleno and cynthion from the lunar deities selene and cynthia refer to the moon aposelene selenocentric pericynthion etc the average distance from the moon to the earth is three eight four four zero three kilometers two three eight eight five seven miles the moon s diameter is three four seven six kilometers two one six zero miles the first manmade object to land on the moon was luna two in one nine five nine the first photographs of the otherwise occluded far side of the moon were made by luna three that same year and the first people to land on the moon came aboard apollo one one in one nine six nine the two sides of the moon the far side is sometimes called the dark side in this case dark means unknown and hidden and not lacking light as might seem to be implied by the name in fact the far side receives on average as much sunlight as the near side but at opposite times spacecraft are cut off from direct radio communication with the earth when on the far side of the moon one distinguishing feature of the far side is its almost complete lack of maria singular mare which are the dark albedo features orbit the moon makes a complete orbit about the earth approximately once every two nine five days each hour the moon moves relative to the stars by an amount roughly equal to its angular diameter or by about zero five the moon differs from most satellites of other planets in that its orbit is close to the plane of the ecliptic and not in the earth s equatorial plane several ways to consider a complete orbit are detailed in the table below but the two most familiar are the sidereal month being the time it takes to make a complete orbit with respect to the stars about two seven three days and the synodic month being the time it takes to reach the same phase about two nine five days these differ because in the meantime the earth and moon have both orbited some distance around the sun the gravitational attraction that the moon exerts on earth is the cause of tides in the sea the tidal flow period but not the phase is synchronized to the moon s orbit around earth the tidal bulges on earth caused by the moon s gravity are carried ahead of the apparent position of the moon by the earth s rotation in part because of the friction of the water as it slides over the ocean bottom and into or out of bays and estuaries as a result some of the earth s rotational momentum is gradually being transferred to the moon s orbital momentum resulting in the moon slowly receding from earth at the rate of approximately three eight mm per year at the same time the earth s rotation is gradually slowing the earth s day thus lengthens by about one five s every year a more detailed discussion follows in the section titled earth wobble when viewed from earth s north pole earth and moon rotate counter clockwise about their axes the moon orbits earth counter clockwise and earth orbits the sun counter clockwise it may seem strange that the inclination of the lunar orbit and the tilt of the moon s axis of rotation are listed as varying considerably one must be reminded here that the orbital inclination is measured with respect to the primary s equatorial plane in this case the earth s and that the axis of rotation s tilt is measured with respect to the normal to the satellite s orbital plane the moon s for most planetary satellites but not for the moon these conventions model physical reality and the values are therefore stable the plane of the lunar orbit maintains an inclination of five one four five three nine six with respect to the ecliptic the orbital plane of the earth around the sun and the lunar axis of rotation maintains an inclination of one five four two four with respect to the normal to that same plane the lunar orbital plane precesses quickly i e its intersection with the ecliptic rotates clockwise in six seven nine three five days one eight five nine nine six years mostly because of the gravitational perturbation induced by the sun during that period the lunar orbital plane thus sees its inclination with respect to the earth s equator itself inclined two three four five to the ecliptic vary between two three four five five one five two eight six zero and two three four five five one five one eight three zero simultaneously the axis of lunar rotation sees its tilt with respect to the moon s orbital plane vary between five one five one five four six six nine and five one five one five four three six zero note that the earth s tilt reacts to this process and itself varies by zero zero zero two five six on either side of its mean value this is called nutation the points where the moon s orbit crosses the ecliptic are called the lunar nodes the north or ascending node is where the moon crosses to the north of the ecliptic the south or descending node where it crosses to the south solar eclipses occur when a node coincides with the new moon lunar eclipses when a node coincides with the full moon roughly once every one eight six years the declination of the moon reaches a maximum which is called the lunar standstill the moon orbiting earth sizes and distances to scale the moon orbiting earth sizes and distances to scale earth in front of the moon figure two because of this the earth s gravitational pull on the moon has a component in the moon s forward direction with respect to its orbit this component of the gravitational forces between the two bodies acts like a torque on the earth s rotation and transfers angular momentum and rotational energy from the earth s spin to the moon s orbital movement galileo spacecraft took this picture of the earth moon system lunar libration because the moon is accelerated in forward direction it moves to a higher orbit as a result the distance between the earth and moon increases and the earth s spin slows down figure three measurements reveal that the moon s distance to the earth increases by three eight mm per year lunar laser ranging experiments with laser reflectors are used to determine this atomic clocks also show that the earth s day lengthens by about one five microseconds s every year however the formation of tidal bulges on earth is irregular and not directly related to the frictional energy loss which accompanies the tides for example continents on earth may cause an increase in frictional energy losses and hamper the buildup of tidal bulges figure four the energy loss of the earth s spin due to the loss of rotational energy of the earth is related to both the energy transfer to the moon which depends on the geometry of the mass distributions on earth causing a gravity component which pulls the moon forward and also to frictional losses which depends on the properties of the material moving around within tides the transfer of angular momentum to the moon s orbit in contrast depends only on the geometry of the mass distribution in general the angular momentum transferred to the moon will not correspond to an equivalent energy transfer there will be a surplus or a deficit in the transfer of angular momentum to the moon compared to the energy transfer figure five since both angular momentum and energy are conserved there must be a mechanism on earth to store a surplus or a deficit of angular momentum candidates for this mechanism are the earth s magnetic field and internal material currents of the earth figure six the lunar surface is also subjected to tides from earth and rises and falls by around one zero cm over two seven days the lunar tides comprise a mobile component due to the sun and a selenographically fixed one due to earth the moon keeps the same face turned to the earth but not to the sun the vertical motion of the earth induced component comes entirely from the moon s orbital eccentricity if the moon s orbit were perfectly circular there would be solar tides only the magnitude of the moon s tides corresponds to a love number of zero zero two six six and supports the idea of a partially melted zone around its core moonquake waves lose energy below one zero zero zero km depth and this may also show that the deep material is at least partially melted the earth s love number is zero three corresponding to a movement of zero five metres per day for venus the love number is also zero three source patrick moore the data book of astronomy june two zero zero three updates double planet hypotheses several characteristics of the earth moon system distinguish it from the satellite systems of most other planets in the solar system including the unusually large relative size of the moon its great orbital distance from earth and the fact that the moon s path around the sun is always concave to that star like that of the earth but unlike that of most other satellites in the solar system as a result some observers hold that the earth moon system is a double planet rather than a planet with a satellite for more information on these alternative views see the double planet article origin and history the moon as seen in x ray light the moon during earthshine the inclination of the moon s orbit makes it implausible that the moon formed along with the earth or was captured later its origin is the subject of some scientific debate early speculation proposed that the moon broke off from the earth s crust due to centrifugal force leaving an ocean basin presumed to be the pacific behind as a scar this concept requires too great an initial spin of the earth and the presumption of a pacific origin is not compatible with the geological standard model the theory of plate tectonics others speculated the moon formed elsewhere and was captured into its orbit two of the other theories include the coformation or condensation theory and the impact theory which speculates that the moon formed from the debris that resulted from a collision between the early earth and a planetesimal the coformation or condensation hypothesis posits that the earth and the moon formed together at about the same time from the primordial accretion disk the moon forming from material surrounding the coalescing proto earth similar to the way the planets formed around the sun some suggest that this hypothesis fails to adequately explain the depletion of iron in the moon recently the giant impact hypothesis has been considered a more viable scientific theory for the moon s origin than the coformation or condensation theory the giant impact theory holds that the moon formed from the ejecta resulting from a collision between a very early semi molten earth and a planet like object the size of mars which has been referred to as theia or orpheus the material ejected from this impact would have gathered in orbit around earth and formed the moon this hypothesis is bolstered by two main observations first the composition of the moon resembles that of the earth crust whereas it has relatively few heavy elements that would have been present if it formed by itself out of the same material from which earth formed second through radiometric dating it has been determined that the moon s crust formed between two zero and three zero million years after that of the earth despite its smallness and associated larger loss of internal heat the geological epochs of the moon are defined based on the dating of various significant impact events in the moon s history analysis of craters and moon rocks show that there was a late heavy bombardment by asteroids around the period four zero to three eight billion years ago tidal forces deformed the once molten moon into an ellipsoid with the major axis pointed towards earth in two zero zero five a team of scientists from germany the united kingdom and switzerland measured the moon s age at four five two seven zero zero one zero billion years which would imply that it was formed only three zero five zero million years after the origin of the solar system klein et al two zero zero five physical characteristics composition more than four five billion years ago the surface of the moon was a liquid magma ocean scientists think that one component of lunar rocks kreep k potassium rare earth elements and p phosphorus represents the last chemical remnant of that magma ocean kreep is actually a composite of what scientists term incompatible elements those which cannot fit into a crystal structure and thus were left behind floating to the surface of the magma for researchers kreep is a convenient tracer useful for reporting the story of the volcanic history of the lunar crust and chronicling the frequency of impacts by comets and other celestial bodies the lunar crust is composed of a variety of primary elements including uranium thorium potassium oxygen silicon magnesium iron titanium calcium aluminium and hydrogen when bombarded by cosmic rays each element bounces back into space its own radiation in the form of gamma rays some elements such as uranium thorium and potassium are radioactive and emit gamma rays on their own however regardless of what causes them gamma rays for each element are all different from one another each produces a unique spectral signature detectable by a spectrometer a complete global mapping of the moon for the abundance of these elements has never been performed however some spacecraft have done so for portions of the moon galileo did so when it flew by the moon in one nine nine two the overall composition of the moon is believed to be similar to that of the upper parts of the earth other than a depletion of volatile elements and of iron selenography lunar crater daedalus nasa photo when observed with earth based telescopes the moon can be seen to have some three zero zero zero zero craters having a diameter of at least one kilometers but close up observation from lunar orbit reveals a multitude of ever smaller craters most are hundreds of millions or billions of years old the lack of atmosphere or weather or recent geological processes ensures that most of them remain permanently preserved in the lunar terrae it is indeed impossible to add a crater of any size without obliterating another this is termed saturation the largest crater on the moon and indeed the largest known crater within the solar system forms the south pole aitken basin this crater is located on the far side near the south pole and is some two two four zero km in diameter and one three km in depth the dark and relatively featureless lunar plains are called maria latin for seas since they were believed by ancient astronomers to be water filled seas they are actually vast ancient basaltic lava flows that filled the basins of large impact craters the lighter colored highlands are called terrae maria are found almost exclusively on the lunar nearside with the lunar farside having only a few scattered patches blanketed atop the moon s crust is a dusty outer rock layer called regolith the result of rocks shattered by billions of years of impacts both the crust and regolith are unevenly distributed over the entire moon the crust ranges from six zero km three eight mi on the near side to one zero zero km six three mi on the far side the regolith varies from three to five m one zero to one six ft in the maria to one zero to two zero m three three to six six ft in the highlands in two zero zero four a team led by dr ben bussey of johns hopkins university using images taken by the clementine mission determined that four mountainous regions on the rim of the seven three km wide peary crater at the moon s north pole appeared to remain illuminated for the entire lunar day these unnamed mountains of eternal light are possible due to the moon s extremely small axial tilt which also gives rise to permanent shadow at the bottoms of many polar craters no similar regions of eternal light exist at the less mountainous south pole although the rim of shackleton crater is illuminated for eight zero of the lunar day clementine s images were taken during the northern lunar hemisphere s summer season and it remains unknown whether these four mountains are shaded at any point during their local winter season presence of water over time comets and meteorites continuously bombard the moon many of these objects are water rich energy from sunlight splits much of this water into its constituent elements hydrogen and oxygen both of which usually fly off into space immediately however it has been hypothesized that significant traces of water remain on the moon either on the surface or embedded within the crust the results of the clementine mission suggested that small frozen pockets of water ice remnants of water rich comet impacts may be embedded unmelted in the permanently shadowed regions of the lunar crust although the pockets are thought to be small the overall amount of water was suggested to be quite significant one km some water molecules however may have literally hopped along the surface and become trapped inside craters at the lunar poles due to the very slight tilt of the moon s axis only one five some of these deep craters never receive any light from the sun they are permanently shadowed clementine has mapped craters at the lunar south pole which are shadowed in this way it is in such craters that scientists expect to find frozen water if it is there at all if found water ice could be mined and then split into hydrogen and oxygen by solar panel equipped electric power stations or a nuclear generator the presence of usable quantities of water on the moon would be an important factor in rendering lunar habitation cost effective since transporting water or hydrogen and oxygen from earth would be prohibitively expensive this unusual image shows the moon s shadow as seen in muons by the soudan two detector seven zero zero meters underground the slight deviation of the shadow from the actual location of the moon denoted by the cross is doubly fascinating and is the result of earth s magnetic field twisting the shadow because cosmic rays are charged particles the equatorial moon rock collected by apollo astronauts contained no traces of water neither the lunar prospector nor more recent surveys such as those of the smithsonian institution have found direct evidence of lunar water ice or water vapor lunar prospector results however indicate the presence of hydrogen in the permanently shadowed regions which could be in the form of water ice magnetic field compared to that of earth the moon has a very weak magnetic field while some of the moon s magnetism is thought to be intrinsic such as a strip of the lunar crust called the rima sirsalis collision with other celestial bodies might have imparted some of the moon s magnetic properties indeed a long standing question in planetary science is whether an airless solar system body such as the moon can obtain magnetism from impact processes such as comets and asteroids magnetic measurements can also supply information about the size and electrical conductivity of the lunar core evidence that will help scientists better understand the moon s origins for instance if the core contains more magnetic elements such as iron than earth then the impact theory loses some credibility although there are alternate explanations for why the lunar core might contain less iron atmosphere the moon has a relatively insignificant and tenuous atmosphere one source of this atmosphere is outgassing the release of gases for instance radon which originate deep within the moon s interior another important source of gases is the solar wind which is briefly captured by the moon s gravity eclipses the angular diameters of the moon and the sun as seen from earth overlap in their variation so that both total and annular solar eclipses are possible in a total eclipse the moon completely covers the disc of the sun and the solar corona becomes visible to the naked eye since the distance between the moon and the earth is very slightly increasing over time the angular diameter of the moon is decreasing this means that several million years ago the moon always completely covered the sun on solar eclipses so that no annular eclipses occurred likewise in several million years the moon will no longer cover the sun completely and no total eclipses will occur eclipses happen only if sun earth and moon are lined up solar eclipses can only occur at new moon lunar eclipses can only occur at full moon see also solar eclipse and lunar eclipse occultation of stars the moon is continuously blocking our view of the sky directly behind it when a bright star or planet passes behind the moon it is occulted or hidden from view a solar eclipse is an occultation of the sun because the moon is close to earth occultations of stars are not visible everywhere because of the moving nodes of the lunar orbit each year different stars are occulted observation of the moon moon surface nasa photo halo around moon during the brightest full moons the moon can have an apparent magnitude of about one two six for comparison the sun has an apparent magnitude of two six eight when the moon is in a quarter phase its brightness is not half the one during a full moon it is only about one one zero of that because the amount of solar radiation reflected towards the earth is highly reduced by the shadows projected by the higher parts of the moon over the lower ones the moon appears larger when close to the horizon this is a purely psychological effect see moon illusion the angular diameter of the moon from earth is about one half of one degree and is actually about one five smaller when the moon is near the horizon than when it is high in the sky because it is further away by up to one earth radius various lighter and darker colored areas primarily maria create the patterns seen by different cultures as the man in the moon the rabbit and the buffalo amongst others craters and mountain chains are also prominent lunar features from any location on earth the highest altitude of the moon on a day varies between the same limits as the sun and depends on season and lunar phase for example in winter the moon is highest in the sky when it is full and the full moon is highest in winter the orientation of the moon s crescent side also depends on the latitude of the observing site close to the equator an observer can see a boat moon we can use the moon to visualize earth s trajectory when the moon is its third quarter it is moving in its orbit in front of the earth as the distance from the earth to the moon is about three eight four four zero four km and the earth s orbital speed is about one zero seven zero zero zero km h the moon is at a point where the earth will be about three and a half hours later and when the moon is in its first quarter it is where we were about three and a half hours ago like the sun the moon can also give rise to an optical effect known as a halo for more information on how the moon appears in earth s sky see lunar phase exploration of the moon apollo one two lunar module prepares to descend towards the surface of the moon nasa photo apollo one seven astronaut harrison schmitt standing next to boulder at taurus littrow during third eva extravehicular activity nasa photo the first leap in lunar observation was caused by the invention of the telescope especially galileo galilei made good use of this new instrument and observed mountains and craters on the moon s surface the cold war inspired space race between the soviet union and the united states of america led to an acceleration what was the next big step depends on the political viewpoint in the us and the west in general the landing of the first humans on the moon in one nine six nine is seen as a culmination indeed of the space race in general on the other hand many scientifically important steps such as the first photographs of the until then unseen far side of the moon in one nine five nine were first achieved by the soviet union landing map of apollo surveyor and luna missions the first man made object to reach the moon was the unmanned soviet probe luna two which made a hard landing on september one four one nine five nine at two one zero two two four z the far side of the moon was first photographed on october seven one nine five nine by the soviet probe luna three luna nine was the first probe to soft land on the moon and transmit pictures from the lunar surface on february three one nine six six it was proven that a lunar lander would not sink into a thick layer of dust as had been feared the first artificial satellite of the moon was the soviet probe luna one zero launched march three one one nine six six the first robot lunar rover to land on the moon was the soviet vessel lunokhod one on november one seven one nine seven zero as part of the lunokhod program on december two four one nine six eight the crew of apollo eight frank borman james lovell and william anders became the first human beings to see the far side of the moon with their own eyes as opposed to seeing it on a photograph humans first landed on the moon on july two zero one nine six nine the first man to walk on the lunar surface was neil armstrong commander of the american mission apollo one one the last man to stand on the moon was eugene cernan who as part of the mission apollo one seven walked on the moon in december one nine seven two see also a full list of lunar astronauts moon samples have been brought back to earth by three luna missions nrs one six two zero and two four and the apollo missions one one through one seven minus apollo one three which aborted its planned lunar landing on january one four two zero zero four us president george w bush called for a plan to return manned missions to the moon by two zero two zero nasa s plan to accomplish that goal was announced on march one nine two zero zero five and was promptly dubbed apollo two zero by critics the european space agency has plans to launch probes to explore the moon in the near future too european spacecraft smart one was launched september two seven two zero zero three and entered lunar orbit on november one five two zero zero four it will survey the lunar environment and create an x ray map of the moon the people s republic of china has expressed ambitious plans for exploring the moon and is investigating the prospect of lunar mining specifically looking for the isotope helium three for use as an energy source on earth as of december two zero zero five china has been making substantial progress in reaching this goal with the unmanned orbiter and rocket entering production and testing the craft is expected to launch in two zero zero seven with the eventual plan to land astronauts called taikonauts by the chinese government on the moon before two zero two zero japan has two planned lunar missions lunar a and selene even a manned lunar base is planned by the japanese space agency jaxa india will also try an unmanned orbiting satellite called chandrayaan from the mid one nine six zero s to the mid one nine seven zero s there were six five moon landings with one zero in one nine seven one alone but after luna two four in one nine seven six they suddenly stopped the soviet union started focusing on venus and space stations and the us on mars and beyond in one nine nine zero japan visited the moon with the hiten spacecraft becoming the third country to orbit the moon the spacecraft released the hagormo probe into lunar orbit but the transmitter failed rendering the mission scientifically useless human understanding of the moon myth and folk culture the moon as muse the moon has been the subject of many works of art and literature and the inspiration for countless others it is a motif in the visual arts the performing arts poetry prose and music astrology in western astrology the moon is said to represent the feeling nature in of the individual it is used to characterise the inner child within us as well as the past and how we have been as individuals rather than how we are now it is also used to represent the perception one has of one s mother so someone with a pisces moon would be more likely to see their mother as a piscean type even if in reality that was not the case in the horoscope the aspects the moon makes with other planets and the transits the slower moving planets make to the moon are all said to have a strong impact on how our lives unfold scientific understanding a five zero zero zero year old rock carving at knowth ireland may represent the moon which would be the earliest depiction discovered in many prehistoric and ancient cultures the moon was thought to be a deity or other supernatural phenomenon among the first in the western world to offer a scientific explanation for the moon was the greek philosopher anaxagoras who reasoned that the sun and moon were both giant spherical rocks and that the latter reflected the light of the former his atheistic view of the heavens was one cause for his imprisonment and eventual exile by the middle ages before the invention of the telescope more and more people began to recognize the moon as a sphere though they believed that it was perfectly smooth tycho crater on the moon it is about eight five km across in one six zero nine galileo galilei drew one of the first telescopic drawings of the moon in his book sidereus nuncius and noted that it was not smooth but had craters later in the one seven th century giovanni battista riccioli and francesco maria grimaldi drew a map of the moon and gave many craters the names they still have today the moon as seen in gamma rays by the compton gamma ray observatory surprisingly the moon is actually brighter than the sun at gamma ray wavelengths on maps the dark parts of the moon s surface were called maria singular mare or seas and the light parts were called terrae or continents the possibility that the moon could contain vegetation and be inhabited by selenites was seriously considered by some major astronomers even into the first decades of the one nine th century in one eight three five the great moon hoax fooled some people into thinking that there were exotic animals living on the moon almost at the same time however during one eight three four one eight three six wilhelm beer and johann heinrich m dler were publishing their fourth volume mappa selenographica and the book der mond in one eight three seven which firmly established the conclusion that the moon has no bodies of water nor any appreciable atmosphere there remained some controversy over whether features on the moon could undergo changes some observers claimed that some small craters had appeared or disappeared but in the two zero th century it was determined that these claims were illusory due to observing under different lighting conditions or due to the inadequacy of earlier drawings it is however known that the phenomenon of outgassing occasionally occurs during the nazi era in germany the welteislehre theory which claimed the moon was made of solid ice was promoted by nazi leaders the far side of the moon remained completely unknown until the luna three probe was launched in one nine five nine and was extensively mapped by the lunar orbiter program in the one nine six zero s from the one nine five zero s through the one nine nine zero s nasa aerodynamicist dean chapman and others advanced the lunar origin theory of tektites chapman used complex orbital computer models and extensive wind tunnel tests to support the theory that the so called australasian tektites originated from the rosse ejecta ray of the large crater tycho on the moon s nearside until the rosse ray is sampled a lunar origin for these tektites cannot be ruled out in one nine nine seven the asteroid three seven five three cruithne was found to have an unusual earth associated orbit and has been dubbed by some to be a second moon of earth it is not considered a moon by astronomers however and its orbit is not stable in the long term meteor impact on the moon an impact event was observed by nasa scientist rob suggs and astronomer bill cooke while testing out a new one zero in telescope and video camera they had assembled to monitor the moon for meteor strikes after consulting star charts they concluded that the impact body was probably part of the taurid meteor shower this may well be the first recording of this type of lunar event which some have claimed to have witnessed in the past see legal status though several flags of the soviet union and the united states have been symbolically planted on the moon the russian and u s governments make no claims to any part of the moon s surface russia and the u s are party to the outer space treaty which places the moon under the same jurisdiction as international waters res communis this treaty also restricts use of the moon to peaceful purposes explicitly banning weapons of mass destruction including nuclear weapons and military installations of any kind a second treaty the moon treaty was proposed to restrict the exploitation of the moon s resources by any single nation but it has not been signed by any of the space faring nations several individuals have made claims to the moon in whole or in part though none of these claims are generally considered credible see moon for sale satellites clementine mission observation and research satellite smart one or smart one a european space agency research satellite surface installations multiple scientific instruments were installed during the apollo missions some of them still function today among those were seismic detectors and reflecting mirrors for laser ranging moon over cumulus clouds moon over red and blue haze yellow moon over hockessin delaware see also apollo moon landing hoax accusations blue moon chang e mythology chinese moon goddess colonization of the moon crescent cruithne sometimes claimed to be earth s second moon earthshine lunar effect lunar geologic timescale lunar mare lunar meteorite lunar phase lunar standstill moon landing neil armstrong selene greek moon goddess transient lunar phenomenon lunar location listings list of artificial objects on the moon list of craters on the moon list of features on the moon list of maria on the moon list of mountains on the moon list of valleys on the moon references ben bussey and paul spudis the clementine atlas of the moon cambridge university press two zero zero four isbn zero five two one eight one five two eight two patrick moore on the moon sterling publishing co two zero zero one edition isbn zero three zero four three five four six nine four paul d spudis the once and future moon smithsonian institution press one nine nine six isbn one five six zero nine eight six three four four nasa fact sheet klein t palme h mezger m halliday a n two zero zero five hf w chronometry of lunar metals and the age and early differentiation of the moon science v three one zero five seven five four one six seven one one six seven four external links moon phases us naval observatory phase of the moon for any date and time one eight zero zero two one nine nine a d current moon phase display current moon phase as wallpaper in windows space missions digital lunar orbiter photographic atlas of the moon the project apollo archive clementine lunar image browser scientific the moon by rosanna and calvin hamilton the moon by bill arnett inconstant moon by kevin clarke the moon society non profit educational site geologic history of the moon by don wilhelms can you put the moon into orbit an interactive simulation needs firefox one five myth and folklore do things get crazy when the moon is full by cecil adams once in a blue moon what is a blue moon by ann marie imbornoni the moon in folklore by virginia marin the rabbit in the moon by john hardy others usgs planetary gis webserver the moon why does the moon appear bigger near the horizon from the straight dope bad astronomy dr philip plait an astronomy professor at sonoma state university california runs this site to explain the many cases of incorrect astronomy and physics available to the public including astrology and the apollo moon landing hoax accusations the lunar navigator interactive maps of the moon features free interactive online access to maps of the moon s surface a comprehensive guide to the earth s moon moonpeople com includes a discussion forum distance from the earth to the moon illustrated three d vrml moon globe libration of the moon why earth sees a little more than five zero of the lunar surface google moon a view of the moon including a reference to the myth that the moon is made of cheese moon this article is about the venetian explorer for other uses see marco polo disambiguation marco polo september one five one two five four venice italy or curzola venetian dalmatia now kor ula croatia january eight one three two four venice was a venetian trader and explorer who together with his father niccol and his uncle maffeo was one of the first westerners to travel the silk road to china which he called cathay and visited the great khan of the mongol empire kublai khan grandson of genghis khan his travels are written down in il milione the milione or the travels of marco polo the voyage of niccol and maffeo polo the polo name originally didn t belong to a family of explorers but to a family of traders marco polo s father niccol also nicol in venetian and his uncle maffeo also maffio were prosperous merchants who traded with the east they were partners with a third brother named marco il vecchio the elder in one two five nine the two brothers lived in the venetian quarter of constantinople where they enjoyed political privileges and tax relief because of their country s role in establishing the latin empire in the fourth crusade of one two zero four but the family judged the political situation of the city precarious so they decided to transfer their business northeast to soldaia a city in crimea their decision proved wise constantinople was recaptured in one two six one by michael palaeologus the ruler of the empire of nicaea who quickly burned the venetian quarter captured venetian citizens were blinded while many of those who managed to escape perished aboard overloaded refugee ships fleeing to other venetian colonies in the aegean sea as their new home on the north rim of the black sea soldaia had been frequented by venetian traders since the one two th century the mongol army sacked it in one two two three but the city had never been definitively conquered until one two three nine when it became a part of the newly formed mongol state known as the golden horde searching for better profits the polos continued their journey to sarai where the court of berke khan the ruler of the golden horde was located at that time the city of sarai already visited by william of rubruck a few years early was no more than a huge encampment and the polos stayed for about a year finally they decided to avoid crimea because of a civil war between berke and his cousin hulagu or perhaps because of the bad relationship between berke khan and the byzantine empire instead they moved further east to bukhara in modern day uzbekistan where the family lived and traded for three years in one two six four nicol and maffio joined up with an embassy sent by the ilkhan hulagu to his brother the grand khan kublai in one two six six they reached the seat of the grand khan in the mongol capital khanbaliq now known as beijing china in his book il milione marco explains how kublai officially received the polos and sent them back with a mongol named koeketei as an ambassador to the pope they brought with them a letter from the khan requesting educated people to come and teach christianity and western customs to his people and the paiza a golden tablet a foot long and three inches wide authorizing the holder to require and obtain lodge horses and food throughout the great khan s dominion koeketei left in the middle of the journey leaving the polos to travel alone to ayas in the armenian kingdom of cilicia from that port city they sailed to saint jean d acre capital of the kingdom of jerusalem the long sede vacante between the death of pope clement iv in one two six eight and the election of pope gregory x in one two seven one prevented the polos from fulfilling kublai s request as suggested by theobald visconti papal legate for the realm of egypt in acres for the ninth crusade the two brothers returned to venice in one two six nine or one two seven zero waiting for the nomination of the new pope the voyages of marco the journey to cathay the polo family arrives in a chinese city maffeo and niccol polo set out on a second journey with the pope s response to kublai khan in one two seven one this time niccol took his son marco the service to the khan marco polo at the court of kublai khan when marco polo arrived at kublai khan s court he became a favorite of the khan and was employed for one seven years the return to europe map of the journey in one two nine one kublai entrusted marco with his last duty to escort the mongol princess koekecin cocacin in il milione to her betrothed the ilkhan arghun in one two nine three or one two nine four the polos reached the ilkhanate ruled by gaykhatu after the death of arghun then moved to trabzon and from that city sailed to venice il milione a page from a manuscript of il milione see also the travels of marco polo on their return from china in one two nine five the family settled in venice where they became a sensation and attracted crowds of listeners who had difficulties in believing their reports of distant china according to a late tradition since they did not believe him marco polo invited them all to dinner one night during which the polos dressed in the simple clothes of a peasant in china shortly before the crowds ate the polos opened their pockets to reveal hundreds of rubies and other jewels which they had received in asia though they were much impressed the people of venice still doubted the polos marco polo was later captured in a minor clash of the war between venice and genoa or in the naval battle of curzola according to a dubious tradition he spent the few months of his imprisonment in one two nine eight dictating to a fellow prisoner rustichello da pisa a detailed account of his travels in the then unknown parts of the far east his book il milione the title comes from either the million then considered a gigantic number or from polo s family nickname emilione was written in old french and entitled le divisament dou monde the description of the world the book was soon translated into many european languages and is known in english as the travels of marco polo the original is lost and there are now several often conflicting versions of the translations the book became an instant success quite an achievement in a time when printing was not known in europe later life marco polo was finally released from captivity in the summer of one two nine nine and he returned home to venice where his father and uncles had bought a large house in the central quarter named contrada san giovanni grisostomo with the company s profits the company continued its activities and marco was now a wealthy merchant while he personally financed other expeditions he would never leave venice again in one three zero zero he married donata badoer a woman from an old respected patrician family marco would have three children with her fantina bellela and moreta all of them later married into noble families between one three one zero and one three two zero he wrote a new version of his book il milione in italian the text was lost but not before a franciscan friar named francesco pipino translated it into latin this latin version was then translated back into the italian creating conflicts between different editions of the book marco polo died in his home on january one three two four at almost seven zero years old he was buried in the church of san lorenzo did the trip really take place according to a famous story a priest begged marco on his deathbed to confess that he had lied in his stories marco refused insisting i have not told half of what i saw this anecdote is an example of the skepticism that welcomed marco s tales during his life in recent times while most historians believe marco polo did reach china some have proposed he did not get that far and only retold information he had heard from others those skeptics point out that among other omissions his account fails to mention chinese writing chopsticks tea foot binding or the great wall also chinese records of the time do not mention him despite the fact that he claimed to have served as a special emissary for kublai khan which is puzzling given the careful record keeping in china at that time on the other hand marco describes other aspects of far eastern life in much detail paper money the grand canal the structure of a mongol army tigers the imperial postal system he also refers to japan by its chinese name zipang or cipangu this is usually considered the first mention of japan in western literature however it is possible that marco heard of these things from arab silk road traders trade between the middle east and far east was flourishing and travellers are often happy to retell stories of their ventures in great detail in his defense much of what he did not mention is circumstantial and there are no known arguments today to refute any of the descriptions he wrote about marco polo is also believed to have described a bridge that later was the site of the marco polo bridge incident a battle that marked the beginning of the sino japanese war historical impact statue of marco polo in hangzhou china near the west lake although the polos were by no means the first europeans to reach china overland see for example radhanites and giovanni da pian del carpine thanks to marco s book their trip was the first to be widely known and the best documented until then marco polo s description of the far east and its riches inspired christopher columbus decision to try to reach those lands by a western route a heavily annotated copy of polo s book was among the belongings of columbus legend has it that marco polo introduced to italy some products from china including ice cream the pi ata and pasta especially spaghetti however these legends are highly dubious for instance there is evidence that pasta was known in italy since antiquity the name marco polo was also given to a children s game marco polo a story in the science fiction series doctor who marco polo and a three masted clipper ship built in saint john new brunswick in one eight five one the fastest ship of her day marco polo was the first ship to sail around the world in under six months several ships of the italian navy were named marco polo the airport in venice is named marco polo international airport see also the marcopolo satellites the travels of marco polo are given an extended fantasy treatment in the irish writer donn byrne s messer marco polo he also appears as the pivotal character in italo calvino s novel invisible cities the tourism authorities of korcula advertise it as the home of marco polo based on a later tradition that places the polo family in the dalmatian town of sibenik later moving to korcula and then venice some authorities maintain that the polos lived in venice since the one one th century marco never mentioned his birth place nor did he write about the history of polo family the issue is still being debated see also radhanites giovanni da pian del carpine william of rubruck odoric of pordenone ibn battuta sino roman relations foreign relations of imperial china list of people on stamps of ireland external links marco polo travels marco polo s description of the world from frances wood s book did marco polo go to china references hart henry h marco polo venetian adventurer university of oklahoma press one nine six seven larner john marco polo and the discovery of the world yale university press one nine nine nine wood frances did marco polo go to china westview press one nine nine five yule henry ed the travels of marco polo dover publications new york one nine eight three new edition of london one eight seven zero zorzi alvise vita di marco polo veneziano rusconi editore one nine eight two one two five four births one three two four deaths italian explorers natives of venice explorers of asia well known foreign residents of china the term m four has several meanings m four the macro processing language the m four medium tank is the formal designation of the sherman tank the m four carbine is also a carbine version of the m one six rifle m four is also messier object m four or messier four also known as ngc six one two one a globular cluster in the constellation of scorpius the benelli m four is a shotgun used by the u s armed forces the myasishchev m four was a bomber used by the soviet union the m four was a more secure version of the enigma machine used by the nazi u boat fleet during world war ii the m four missile is the intercontinental thermo nuclear missile carried by the french redoutable class submarines it is capable of more than four five zero zero km strikes m four is a british definition of the money supply see also economics roads the m four motorway is a major british motorway which runs from chiswick west of london into wales the m four metroad four is also a motorway in sydney australia running from the western suburb of emu plains to the inner western suburb of strathfield the m four is also a motorway in the republic of ireland running from the west of dublin to kilcock it is being extended to west of kinnegad where the route becomes the n four and continues to sligo michigan state highway four another disambiguation featuring present day highways that were then designated as highway four the film industry is built upon a large number of technologies and techniques drawing upon photography stagecraft music and many other disciplines following is an index of specific terminology applicable thereto one eight zero degree rule a a and b editing a roll accelerated montage acousmatic action axis aerial shot ambient light american shot anamorphic angle of view angle plus angle angular resolution answer print aperture apple box artificial light asa speed rating aspect ratio autofocus automatic dialogue replacement available light axial cut b b roll backlot background lighting balloon light barn doors lighting below the line blocking bluescreen boom shot boomerang lighting bounce board brightness lighting broadside lighting butterfly lighting c callier efect cameo lighting cameo credits image cameo role cameo shot camera angle camera boom camera crane camera dolly camera shot candles per square foot century stand character animation choker shot chroma key chromatic aberration clapboard clock wipe close shot close up shot cold open color conversion filter color corrected fluorescent light color correction color gel color grading color rendering index color reversal internegative color temperature color timer continuity cooke triplet lens craft service crane shot creative geography cross cutting cross lighting cutaway cut in cut out cutting on action d daily rushes day for night deadspot lighting deep focus depth of field depth of focus dichroic lense diegetic sound diffraction diffuser lighting digital audio digital audio tape recorder digital cinema digital compositing digital film digital image processing digital intermediate digital negative digital projection dimmer lighting dissolve film dmx lighting dolly grip dolly shot dolly zoom double system recording douser lighting dpx film format drawn on film animation dubbing dutch camera angle dynamic composition e effects light electrotachyscope ellipsoidal reflector spot light establishing shot extreme close up extreme long shot eye level camera angle f f number f stop fade in fade out fast cutting fast motion field of view fill light film gate film modification film plane film recorder film scanner film speed filter photography fine cut fisheye lens flicker fusion threshold focal length focus optics focus puller foley artist follow focus follow shot followspot light forced perspective fourth wall frame frame composition frame rate freeze frame shot fresnel lens full frame full shot g gobo lighting go motion godspot effect greenlight h hard light head on shot heart wipe high angle shot high camera angle high concept high intensity discharge lamp high key lighting hip hop montage hydrargyrum medium arc iodide lamp i z letterbox mise en sc ne montage mos movement mechanism movie camera pan and scan persistence of vision point of view replay slow cutting slow motion stand in storyboard take timecode time lapse tracking shot voice artist voice over widescreen see also film film technique film crew list of motion picture related topics filming production roles film the most general definition of a mountain range is a group of mountains bordered by lowlands mountain ranges are usually separated from other mountain ranges by passes and rivers in the general definition a mountain range does not necessarily have the same geology the geological definition of a mountain range also cordillera or sierra is a grouping of mountains often elongated sometimes caused by tectonic plate interactions for example the himalaya in asia are the result of the india plate hitting the asian plate singular mountains are often the result of volcanic processes but in some instances such as the hawaiian islands these processes can result in a chain of mountains that might be considered a mountain range mountain ranges can be separated by height into three overlapping categories the himalaya for instance both comprises mid and high altitude mountain ranges low altitude mountain ranges mid altitude mountain ranges high altitude mountain ranges see also list of mountain ranges list of mountains external links mountain range definition on bivouac com mountains mountain ranges in mathematics the concept of a limit is used to describe the behavior of a function as its argument either gets close to some point or as it becomes larger and larger or the behavior of a sequence s elements as their index becomes larger and larger limits are used in calculus and other branches of mathematical analysis to define derivatives and continuity the concept of the limit of a function is further generalized to the concept of topological net while the limit of a sequence is closely related to limit and direct limit in category theory mathematics students usually first encounter limits in introductory calculus classes and understanding the detailed concept often presents a stumbling block readers seeking an introductory explanation might look at the wikibooks calculus section about limits this present article does have some elementary exposition but it s also about how limits are treated in more advanced branches of mathematics limit of a function main article limit of a function suppose f x is a real function and c is a real number the expression lim f x l means that f x can be made to be as close to l as desired by making x sufficiently close to c in that case we say that the limit of f x as x approaches c note that this statement can be true even if f c neq l indeed the function f x need not even be defined at c two examples help illustrate this consider f x frac as x approaches two in this case f x is defined at two and equals its limit of zero four as x approaches two f x approaches zero four and hence we have lim f x zero four in the case where f c lim f x f is said to be continuous at x c but it is not always the case consider g x left frac g is not continuous at x two formal definition a limit is formally defined as follows let f be a function defined on an open interval containing c except possibly at c and let l be a real number the statement lim f x l means that for each varepsilon zero there exists a delta zero such that for all x where zero then f x l limit of a function at infinity a related concept to limits as x approaches some finite number is the limit as x approaches positive or negative infinity this does not literally mean that the difference between x and infinity becomes small since infinity is not a number rather it means that x either becomes larger and larger for positive infinity or smaller and smaller for negative infinity for example consider f x frac f one zero zero one nine eight zero two f one zero zero zero one nine nine eight zero f one zero zero zero zero one nine nine nine eight as x becomes extremely large f x approaches two in this case lim f x two if one considers the codomain of f is the extension real line then limit of a function at infinity could be considered as a special case of limit of a function at a point lim f x c if and only if for each epsilon zero quad exists n such that f x c whenever x n limit of a sequence main article limit of a sequence consider the following sequence one seven nine one seven nine nine one seven nine nine nine we could observe that the numbers are approaching one eight the limit of the sequence formally suppose x one x two is a sequence of real numbers we say that the real number l is the limit of this sequence and we write lim x n l if and only if for every zero there exists a natural number n zero which will depend on such that for all n n zero we have x n l n l can be interpreted as the distance between x n and l not every sequence has a limit if it does we call it convergent otherwise divergent one can show that a convergent sequence has only one limit the limit of a sequence and the limit of a function are closely related on one hand the limit of a sequence is simply the limit at infinity of a function defined on natural numbers on the other hand a limit of a function f at x if it exists is the same as the limit of the sequence x n f x one n topological net main article net topology all of the above notions of limit can be unified and generalized to arbitrary topological spaces by introducing topological nets and defining their limits the article on nets elaborates on this an alternative is the concept of limit for filters on topological spaces limit in category theory main article limit category theory topology real analysis calculus a modem a portmanteau word constructed from mod ulator and dem odulator is a device that modulates a carrier signal to encode digital information and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information the goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data the most familiar example of a modem turns the digital one s and zero s of a personal computer into sounds that can be transmitted over the telephone lines of plain old telephone system pots and once received on the other side converts those sounds back into one s and zero s far more exotic modems are used by internet users every day in telecommunications radio modems transmit repeating frames of data at very high data rates over microwave radio links some microwave modems transmit more than a hundred million bits per second optical modems transmit data over optic fibers most intercontinental data links now use optic modems transmitting over undersea optical fibers optic modems usually use interferometric filters called etalons to separate different colors of light and then individually turn the pulses of each color of light into electronic digital data streams optical modems routinely have data rates in excess of a billion one x one zero nine bits per second their bandwidths are currently limited by the thermal expansion of the etalons heat changes an etalon s size and thus its frequency modems can be used over any means of transmitting analog signals from driven diodes to radio history one nine five seven at mini sage being developed as an automated airline ticketing system in this case the terminals were located at ticketing offices tied to a central computer that managed availability and scheduling the system known as sabre is the distant parent of today s sabre system the at digital subset the two zero two data phone which provided half duplex asynchronous service was marketed extensively in late one nine six zero in one nine six two the two zero one a and two zero one b data phones were introduced they were synchronous modems using two bit per baud phase shift keying the two zero one a operated half duplex at two zero zero zero bps over dial lines the two zero one b provided full duplex two four zero zero bps service on four wire leased lines the one zero three a was introduced in one nine six two it provided full duplex service at up to three zero zero baud over dial lines frequency shift keying was used with the call originator transmitting at one zero seven zero one two seven zero hz and the answering modem transmitting at two zero two five two two two five hz the readily available one zero three a two gave an important boost to the use of remote low speed terminals such as the ksr three three asr three three and the ibm two seven four one when third party modems were allowed on the us telephone network after the carterfone decision acoustically coupled one zero three a compatible modems were introduced by companies such as anderson jacobson and many others at smart enough to bypass the phone and dial the number directly these changes greatly simplified installation and operation of bulletin board systems bbs modems stayed at about these rates into the one nine eight zero s a two four zero zero bit s system very similar to the bell two one two signalling was introduced in the us and a slightly different and incompatible one in europe by the late one nine eight zero s most modems could support all of these standards and two four zero zero bit s was becoming common a huge number of other standards were also introduced for special purpose situations commonly using a high speed channel for receiving and a lower speed channel for sending one typical example was used in the french minitel system where the user s terminals spent the majority of their time receiving information the modem in the minitel terminal thus operated at one two zero zero bit s for reception and seven five bit s for sending commands back to the servers these sorts of solutions were useful in a number of situations where one side would be sending more data than the other in addition to a number of medium speed standards like minitel four us companies became famous for high speed versions of the same concept microcom systems introduced their mnp hayes their ping pong usr had their hst protocol and telebit used software to increase performance in all of these cases the high speed line was set to nine six zero zero bit s and the low speed line to between seven five and three zero zero bit s each company carved out a niche in the market telebit was huge in the universities due to their direct support of uucp protocols in the modem itself microcom became common in commercial settings and usr was huge among bbs operators as they could download fidonet messages more quickly but the hayes standard never caught on in all of these cases there was a well defined high speed and low speed direction but such a split was not so obvious for users who were uploading and downloading files in the same session and these solutions were rarely used by them operations at these speeds pushed the limits of the phone lines and would have been generally very error prone this led to the introduction of error correction systems built into the modems made most famous with microcom s mnp systems a string of mnp standards came out in the one nine eight zero s each slowing the effective data rate by a smaller amount each time from about two five in mnp one to five in mnp four mnp five took this a step further adding compression to the system thereby actually increasing the data rate in general use the user could expect an mnp modem to transfer at about one three times the normal data rate of the modem mnp was later opened and became popular on a series of two four zero zero bit s modems although it was never widespread another common feature of these high speed modems was the concept of fallback allowing them to talk to less capable modems during the call initiation the modem would play a series of signals into the line and wait for the remote modem to answer them they would start at high speeds and progressively get slower and slower until they heard an answer thus two usr modems would be able to connect at nine six zero zero bit s but when another user with a two four zero zero bit s modem called in the usr would fall back to the common two four zero zero bit s speed without such a system the operator would be forced to have multiple phone lines for high and low speed use long haul modems in the one nine six zero s bell began to digitize the telephone system and developed early high speed radio modems for this purpose once digital long haul networks were in place they were leased for every other purpose optic fiber manufacturing was mastered in the one nine eight zero s and optic modems were first invented for these early systems the first systems simply used light emitting diodes and pin diodes faster modulation was quickly adopted for long haul networks in the one nine nine zero s multispectral optical modems were adopted as well echo cancellation echo cancellation was the next major advance in modem design normally the phone system sends a small amount of the outgoing signal called sidetone back to the earphone in order to give the user some feedback that their voice is indeed being sent however this same signal can confuse the modem is the signal it is hearing from the remote modem or its own signal being sent back to itself this was the reason for splitting the signal frequencies into answer and originate if you received a signal on your own frequency set you simply ignored it even with improvements to the phone system allowing for higher speeds this splitting of the available phone signal bandwidth still imposed a half speed limit on modems echo cancellation was a way around this problem by using the phone system s timing a slight delay it was possible for the modem to tell if the received signal was from itself or the remote modem as soon as this happened the modems were able to send at full speed in both directions at the same time opening the market to a slew of nine six zero zero bit s bidirectional modems in the late one nine eight zero s these earlier systems were not very popular due to their price but by the early one nine nine zero s the prices started falling the breaking point occurred with the introduction of the suprafax one four four zero zero in one nine nine one which cost the same as a two four zero zero bit s modem from a year or two earlier about three zero zero us but ran at the latest one four four zero zero bit s rate one four four kbit s and also included fax capability over the next few years the speed increased to two eight eight kbit s then to three three six kbit s along with a slew of one off non standards like at read only the small sacrifice for higher speeds made sense once again narrowband two eight eight kbps serial port modem from motorola a standard modem of today is what would have been called a smart modem in the one nine eight zero s they contain two functional parts an analog section for generating the signals and operating the phone and a digital section for setup and control this functionality is actually incorporated into a single chip but the division remains in theory in operation the modem can be in one of two modes data mode in which data is sent to and from the computer over the phone lines and command mode in which the modem listens to the data from the computer for commands and carries them out a typical session consists of powering up the modem often inside the computer itself which automatically assumes command mode then sending it the command for dialing a number after the connection is established to the remote modem the modem automatically goes into data mode and the user can send and receive data when the user is finished the escape sequence followed by a pause of about a second is sent to the modem to return it to command mode and the command to hang up the phone is sent one problem with this method of operation is that it is not really possible for the modem to know if a string is a command or data funny things happen when they get confused the commands themselves are typically from the hayes command set although that term is somewhat misleading the original hayes commands were useful for three zero zero bit s operation only and then extended for their one two zero zero bit s modems hayes was much slower upgrading to faster speeds however leading to a proliferation of command sets in the early one nine nine zero s as each of the high speed vendors introduced their own command styles things became considerably more standardized in the second half of the one nine nine zero s when most modems were built from one of a very small number of chip sets invariably supporting a rapidly converging command set we call this the hayes command set even today although in this use the terminology is misleading the command set in question has three or four times the numbers of commands the three zero zero bit s modems used frequency shift keying to send data in this system the stream of one s and zero s in computer data it translated into sounds which can be easily sent on the phone lines in the bell one zero three system the originating modem sends zero s by playing a one zero seven zero hz tone and one s at one two seven zero hz with the answering modem putting its zero s on two zero two five hz and one s on two two two five hz these frequencies were chosen carefully they are in the range that suffer minimum distortion on the phone system and also are not harmonics of each other for the one zero three f leased line version internal strapping selected originate or answer operation for dial models the selection was determined by which modem originated the call in the one two zero zero bit s and faster systems phase shift keying was used in this system the two tones for any one side of the connection are sent at the similar frequencies as in the three zero zero bit s systems but slightly out of phase by comparing the phase of the two signals one s and zero s could be pulled back out for instance if the signals were nine zero degrees out of phase this represented two digits one zero at one eight zero degrees it was one one in this way each cycle of the signal represents two digits instead of one one two zero zero bit s modems were in effect six zero zero bit s modems with tricky signalling it was at this point that the difference between baud and bit per second became real baud refers to the signaling rate of a system in a three zero zero bit s modem the signals sent one bit per signal so the data rate and signalling rate was the same in the one two zero zero bit s systems this was no longer true the modems were actually six zero zero baud this led to a series of flame wars on the bbses of the eight zero s increases in speed have since used increasingly complicated communications theory the milgo four five zero zero introduced the eight phase shift key concept this could transmit three bits per signaling instance baud the next major advance was introduced by codex co in the late one nine six zero s here the bits were encoded into a combination of amplitude and phase best visualized as a two dimensional eye pattern the bits are mapped onto points on a graph with the x real and y quadrature coordinates transmitted over a single carrier this technique became very effective and was incorporated into an international standard named v two nine by the ccitt now itu arm of the united nations the standard was able to transmit four bits per signalling interval of two four zero zero hz giving an effective bit rate of nine six zero zero bits per second for many years most considered this rate to be the limit of data communications over telephone networks in one nine eight zero godfried ungerboek from ibm applied powerful channel coding techniques to search for new ways to increase the speed of modems his results were astonishing but only conveyed to a few colleagues finally in one nine eight two he agreed to publish what is now a landmark paper in the theory of information coding by applying powerful parity check coding to the bits in each symbol and mapping the encoded bits into a two dimensional eye pattern ungerboek showed that it was possible to increase the speed by a factor of two with the same error rate the new technique was called mapping by set partitions this new view was an extension of the penny packing problem and the related and more general problem of how to pack points into an n dimension sphere such that they are far away from their neighbors so that noise can not confuse the receiver the industry was galvanized into new research and development more powerful coding techniques were developed and commercial firms rolled out new product lines and the standards organizations rapidly adopted to new technology today the itu standard v three four represents the culmination of the joint efforts it employs the most powerful coding techniques including channel encoding and shape encoding from the mere one six points per symbol v three four uses over one zero zero zero points and very sophisticated algorithms to achieve three three six kbit s in the late one nine nine zero s rockwell and u s robotics introduced new technology based upon the digital transmission used in modern telephony networks the standard digital transmission in modern networks is six four kbit s but some networks use a part of the bandwidth for remote office signalling e g hang up the phone so the effective rate is five six kbit s ds zero this rate is possible only from the central office to the user site downlink the uplink from the user to the central office still uses v three four technology this new technology was adopted into itu standards v nine zero and v nine two and are common in modern computers it is guessed that this rate is near the theoretical shannon limit higher speeds are possible but may be due more to improvements in the underlying phone system than anything in the technology of the modems themselves software is as important to the operation of the modem today as the hardware even with the improvements in the performance of the phone system modems still lose a considerable amount of data due to noise on the line the mnp standards were originally created to automatically fix these errors and later expanded to compress the data at the same time today s v four two and v four two bis fill these roles in the vast majority of modems and although later mnp standards were released they are not common with such systems it is possible for the modem to transmit data faster than its basic rate would imply for instance a two four zero zero bit s modem with v four two bis can transmit up to nine six zero zero bit s at least in theory one problem is that the compression tends to get better and worse over time at some points the modem will be sending the data at four zero zero zero bit s and others at nine zero zero zero bit s in such situations it becomes necessary to use hardware flow control extra pins on the modem computer connection to allow the computers to signal data flow the computer is then set to supply the modem at some higher rate in this example at nine six zero zero bit s and the modem will tell the computer to stop sending if it cannot keep up a small amount of memory in the modem a buffer is used to hold the data while it is being sent almost all modern modems also do double duty as a fax machine as well digital faxes introduced in the one nine eight zero s are simply a particular image format sent over a high speed nine six zero zero one two zero zero bit s modem software running on the host computer can convert any image into fax format which can then be sent using the modem such software was at one time an add on but since has become largely universal winmodem a winmodem or softmodem is a stripped down modem for windows that replaces tasks traditionally handled in hardware with software in this case the computer s built in sound hardware is used to generate the tones normally handled by the analog portion of the modem a small piece of hardware is then used to connect the sound hardware to the phone line modern computers often include a very simple card slot the communications and networking riser slot cnr to lower the cost of connecting it up the cnr slot includes pins for sound power and basic signalling instead of the more expensive pci slot normally used winmodems are often cheaper than traditional modems since they have fewer hardware components one downside of a winmodem is that the software generating the modem tones is not that simple and the performance of the computer as a whole often suffers when it is being used for online gaming this can be a real concern another problem with winmodems is lack of flexibility due to their strong tie to the underlying operating system a given winmodem might not be supported by other operating systems such as linux because their manufacturers may neither support the other operating system nor provide enough technical data to create an equivalent driver a winmodem might not even work or work well with a later version of microsoft windows if its driver turns out to be incompatible with that later version of the operating system apple s geoport modems from the second half of the one nine nine zero s were similar and are generally regarded as having been a bad move although a clever idea in theory enabling the creation of more powerful telephony applications in practice the only programs created were simple answering machine and fax software hardly more advanced than their physical world counterparts and certainly more error prone and cumbersome the software was finicky and ate up significant processor time and no longer functions in current operating system versions today s modern audio modems itu t v nine two standard closely approach the shannon capacity of the pstn telephone channel they are plug and play fax data voice modems broadcast voice messages and records touch tone responses radio modems because signals travelling through the air must be analog digital signals cannot be transmitted without a guided transmission medium such as wire modems are required for any digital transmission through the air today s data transmission needs are almost entirely digital and as such most modern wireless technology includes some form of modem to produce an analog signal suitable for radio transmission direct broadcast satellite gps wifi and mobile phones all use wireless modems to communicate as do most other wireless services today the modern telecommunications and data networks also make extensive use of radio modems where inexpensive long distance data links are required such systems are an important part of the pstn and are also in common use for high speed computer network links to outlying areas where fibre is not economical even where a cable is installed it is often possible to get better performance or make other parts of the system simpler by using radio frequencies and modulation techniques through a cable coaxial cable has a very large bandwidth however signal attenuation becomes a major problem at high data rates if a digital signal is used by using a modem a much larger amount of digital data can be transmitted through a single piece of wire digital cable television and cable internet services use radio frequency modems to provide the increasing bandwidth needs of modern households using a modem also allows for frequency division multiple access to be used making full duplex digital communication with many users possible using a single wire wireless modems come in a variety of types bandwidths and speeds wireless modems are often referred to as transparent or smart they transmit information that is modulated onto a carrier frequency to allow many simultaneous wireless communication links to work simultaneously on different frequencies transparent modems operate in a manner similar to their phone line modem cousins typically they are half duplex meaning that they cannot send and receive data at the same time typically transparent modems are polled in a round robin manner to collect small amounts of data from scattered locations that do not have easy access to wired infrastructure transparent modems are most commonly used by utility companies for data collection smart modems come with a media access controller inside which prevents random data from colliding and resends data that is not correctly received smart modems typically require more bandwidth than transparent modems and typically achieve higher data rates the ieee eight zero two one one standard defines a short range modulation scheme that is used on a large scale throughout the world wireless data modems are used in the wifi and wimax standards operating at microwave frequencies wifi could be used in laptops for internet connections wireless access point and wireless application protocol wap broadband dsl modem adsl modems a more recent development are not limited to the telephone s voiceband audio frequencies some adsl modems use coded orthogonal frequency division modulation cable modems use a range of frequencies originally intended to carry rf television channels multiple cable modems attached to a single cable can use the same frequency band using a low level media access protocol to allow them to work together within the same channel typically up and down signals are kept separate using frequency division multiplexing new types of broadband modems are beginning to appear such as doubleway satellite and powerline modems broadband modems should still be classed as modems since they do utilise analog digital conversion they are more advanced devices than traditional telephone modems as they are capable of modulating demodulating hundreds of channels simultaneously many broadband modems include the functions of a router and other features such as dhcp nat and firewall features when broadband technology was introduced networking and routers were not very familiar to most people however many people knew what a modem was as most internet access was through dialup due to this familiarity companies started selling broadband adapters using the familiar term modem popularity modems are the most popular means of internet access a ucla two zero zero one study of american internet users showed that eight one three of them used a telephone modem and one one five used a cable modem though with the advent of new ways of accessing the internet the traditional five six k modem is fast losing popularity see also five six k line digital to analog converter flat rate k five six flex modulation for a fuller list of modulation techniques tcp ip v three four v nine zero v nine two x two chipset broadband satellite modem adsl cablemodem plc chapter of the wikibook external links installing testing troubleshooting tweaking modems five six k v nine two agere systems broadxent columbia university protocols explained conexant systems costmo modem site creative labs digicom how stuff works modems international telecommunications union itu modemhelp org modem help co uk modems com modemsite com speedtouch com bulletin board systems networking hardware computing portmanteaus magnoliales is an order of flowering plants newer classifications include the following families family magnoliaceae magnolia family family myristicaceae nutmeg family family degeneriaceae family himantandraceae family annonaceae pawpaw family family eupomatiaceae under the cronquist system the following families were also included family canellaceae family winteraceae family austrobaileyaceae family lactoridaceae the magnoliales are a basal group traditionally included among the dicots but apparently as closely related to the monocots as to most other such plants they include the genus magnolia the type genus for the flowering plants in general which are thereby called the magnoliophyta magnoliales march is the third month of the year in the gregorian calendar and one of seven gregorian months with the length of three one days march begins astrologically non sidereal with the sun in the sign of pisces and ends in the sign of aries astronomically speaking the sun begins in the constellation of aquarius and ends in the constellation of pisces in ancient rome march was called martius so named after the roman god of war and was considered a lucky time to begin a war march was originally the first month of the roman calendar because the winter months of january and february were unsuited for warfare the essence of any italic state julius caesar s calendar reform in four five bce began the year on january one the tradition of starting the year in march continued in some countries for a long time january one was only instituted as new year s day in france in one five six four great britain and her colonies continued to use march two five until one seven five two the same year they finally adopted the gregorian calendar in ancient hellenic civilization march was called anthesterion in old japanese calendar the month is called yayoi in finnish the month is called maaliskuu of obscure origin historical names for march include the saxon term lenctmonat named for the equinox and eventual lengthening of days and the eventual namesake of lent the saxons also called march rhed monat for their goddess rhedam ancient britons called it hyld monath meaning loud or stormy march from the tr s riches heures du duc de berry events in march mardi gras sometime between february three to march nine in non leap years or february four to march nine in leap years national wag day march seven australia ash wednesday sometime between february four to march one zero saint david s day march one saint patrick s day march one seven saint joseph s day march one nine the equinox named the vernal or spring equinox in the northern hemisphere and the autumnal equinox in the southern hemisphere occurs on dates varying from one nine march to two one march in utc good friday sometime between march two zero to april two three easter sometime between march two two to april two five irish american heritage month st patrick s day women s history month american red cross month national frozen foods month national umbrella month national athletic training month spring begins march two zero trivia march begins on the same day of the week as february except in a leap year and on the same day of the week as november every year there is an adage that march comes in like a lamb but goes out like a lion referring to the weather that some regions experience during the month it implies that the month begins calmly but ends with strong storms and or high winds march in the northern hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to september in the southern hemisphere see also historical anniversaries external links astronomy answers article on the seasons months may is the fifth month of the year in the gregorian calendar and one of seven gregorian months with the length of three one days may begins astrologically with the sun in the sign of taurus and ends in the sign of gemini astronomically speaking the sun begins in the constellation of aries and ends in the constellation of taurus the month may have been named for the greek goddess maia who was identified with the roman goddess of fertility bona dea whose festival was held in may in old japanese calendar the month is called satsuki it is also a common name for females in japan there is the so called may sickness a kind of sickness where new students or workers start to be tired of their new schoolwork or jobs it is due to a japanese custom that all schoolyears and fiscal years start on april one st may from the tr s riches heures du duc de berry in finnish the month is called toukokuu meaning month of sowing in slovene it is called veliki traven which means the month of high grass events in may in the pagan wheel of the year may begins on bealtaine in the northern hemisphere and samhain in the southern hemisphere in the irish calendar may one is beltane bealtaine the first day of summer and a public holiday is held on the first monday in may in many countries may day is may one this is celebrated as labor day in many countries in the united kingdom may day is may one but a public holiday is held on the first monday in may eastern christianity celebrates easter on a sunday between april four and may eight in western europe may eight is ve day in eastern europe it is celebrated in may nine in the european union may nine is europe day in kentucky united states the kentucky derby is held on the first saturday in may in the us canada brazil and australia mother s day is the second sunday in may in canada victoria day is observed on the monday on or before may two four in quebec it is known as patriots day journ e nationale des patriotes in the us memorial day a public holiday is on may three one but observed on the last monday in may in argentina the may revolution or revoluci n de mayo a national holiday is on may two five no pants day is celebrated the first friday in may masturbation month is celebrated in may world fair trade day is celebrated on the second saturday in may on one two may international nurses day is celebrated towel day is celebrated in may in tribute to douglas adams author of the hitchhiker s guide to the galaxy in the american film industry the first week of may that is between the two nd and the eight th marks the beginning of the summer movie season on the full moon of may vesak is celebrated in many southeast asian countries it commemorates the birth enlightenment and death of siddhartha gautama cinco de mayo or the batalla de puebla is celebrated in mexico on may five clean air month created by the epa and other health organizations national bike month the league of american bicyclists is promoting bike to work week from may one five one nine and bike to work day on friday may one nine asian pacific american heritage month celebration of asian and pacific islanders in the united states national salsa month mostly celebrated due to cinco de mayo national barbecue month in one nine eight two when the industry figured it was time to acknowledge that this is the time when the season typically began older americans month aging to celebrate older americans month in may trivia within any calendar year no other month begins on the same day of the week as may may s flower is the lily of the valley may s birthstone is the emerald no president of the united states has ever died in may and may is the only month with this property may in the northern hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to november in the southern hemisphere and vice versa all star wars films were released this month see also historical anniversaries external links kidscoop on clean air month bike month website m n international bright idea book pdf months march one is the six zero th day of the year in the gregorian calendar six one st in leap years there are three zero five days remaining events eight six bc lucius cornelius sulla at the head of a roman republic army enters in athens removing the tyrant aristion who was supported by troops of mithridates vi of pontus one five six two over one zero zero zero huguenots are massacred by catholics in wassy france marking the start of the french wars of religion one five six five the city of rio de janeiro is founded one six two eight writs are issued in february by charles i of england that every county in england not just seaport towns pay ship tax by this date one six three three samuel de champlain reclaims his role as commander of new france on behalf of cardinal richelieu one six four two georgeana massachusetts now known as york maine becomes the first incorporated city in america one six nine two the salem witch trials begin in salem village massachusetts one seven zero zero sweden introduces its own swedish calendar in an attempt to reform into the gregorian calendar then reverts to the julian calendar on this date in one seven one two and then introduces the gregorian calendar on this date in one seven five three one seven eight one the continental congress adopts the articles of confederation one seven nine zero the first united states census is authorized one eight zero three ohio is admitted as the one seven th u s state one eight zero five justice samuel chase is acquitted at the end of his impeachment trial by the u s senate one eight one one leaders of the mameluke dynasty are killed by egyptian ruler muhammad ali one eight one five napoleon returns to france from his banishment on elba one eight three six a convention of delegates from five seven texas communities convenes in washington on the brazos texas to deliberate independence from mexico one eight four zero adolphe thiers becomes prime minister of france one eight four five president john tyler signs a bill authorizing the united states to annex the republic of texas one eight five two archibald william montgomerie one three th earl of eglinton appointed lord lieutenant of ireland one eight five four german psychologist friedrich eduard beneke disappears two years later his remains are found in the canal near charlottenburg one eight six seven nebraska becomes the three seven th u s state lancaster nebraska is renamed lincoln and becomes the state capital one eight six eight pi kappa alpha fraternity founded at the university of virginia one eight seven two yellowstone national park is established as the world s first national park one eight seven three e remington and sons in ilion new york start production of the first practical typewriter one eight seven three henry comstock discovers the comstock lode in virgina city nevada one eight eight six anglo chinese school singapore was founded by bishop william oldham one eight nine six battle of adowa an ethiopian army defeats an outnumbered italian force ending the first italo abyssinian war one eight nine six henri becquerel discovers radioactivity one nine one two albert berry makes the first parachute jump from a moving airplane one nine one four the republic of china joins the universal postal union one nine one seven u s government releases the plaintext of the zimmermann telegram to the public one nine one eight german submarine unterseeboot one nine u one nine sinks hms calgarian off rathlin island one nine one nine march one st movement begins in korea one nine three two the son of charles lindbergh charles augustus lindbergh iii is kidnapped one nine three six hoover dam is completed one nine four one world war ii bulgaria signs the tripartite pact thus joining the axis powers one nine four one w four seven nv now known as wsm fm begins operations in nashville tennessee becoming the first fm radio station in the u s one nine four six the bank of england is nationalised one nine four seven the international monetary fund begins financial operations one nine four nine indonesia seizes yogyakarta from the dutch one nine five zero cold war klaus fuchs is convicted of spying for the soviet union by giving them top secret atomic bomb data one nine five three joseph stalin collapses having suffered a stroke he dies four days later one nine five four nuclear testing the castle bravo a one five megaton hydrogen bomb is detonated on bikini atoll in the pacific ocean resulting in the worst radioactive contamination ever caused by the united states one nine five four puerto rican nationalists attack the united states capitol building injuring five representatives see u s capitol shooting incident one nine five four one nine five five allen fieldhouse at the university of kansas hosts its first college basketball game one nine five six the international air transport association finalizes a draft of the radiotelephony spelling alphabet for the international civil aviation organization one nine five eight samuel alphonsus stritch is appointed pro perfect of the propagation of faith and thus becomes the first american member of the roman curia one nine six one president of the united states john f kennedy establishes the peace corps one nine six one uganda becomes self governing as its first elections held one nine six two american airlines flight one crashes on take off in new york one nine six six venera three soviet space probe crashes on venus becoming the first spacecraft to land on another planet s surface one nine six six the ba ath party takes power in syria one nine six nine during a performance at miami s dinner key auditorium jim morrison of the doors is arrested for exposing himself during the show one nine seven one a bomb explodes in a men s room in the united states capitol the weather underground claims responsibility one nine seven one pakistani president yahya khan indefinitely postponed the pending national assembly session precipitating massive civil disobedience in east pakistan one nine seven two the thai province of yasothon is created after being split off from the ubon ratchathani province one nine seven three black september terrorists stormed the saudi embassy in khartoum sudan resulting in the khartoum diplomatic assassinations one nine seven four watergate scandal seven are indicted for their role in the watergate break in and charged with conspiracy to obstruct justice one nine seven five colour television transmissions begin in australia one nine seven eight charlie chaplin s coffin is stolen from a swiss cemetery one nine eight zero voyager one probe confirms that janus moon of saturn exists one nine eight three swatch introduces their first timepieces one nine eight nine the united states becomes a member of the berne convention copyright treaty one nine nine zero steve jackson games is raided by the united states secret service prompting the later formation of the electronic frontier foundation one nine nine four seattle grunge band nirvana play their last show in munich germany one nine nine five polish prime minister waldemar pawlak resigns from parliament and is replaced by ex communist j zef oleksy two zero zero zero the constitution of finland is rewritten two zero zero zero hans blix assumes the position of executive chairman of unmovic two zero zero two u s invasion of afghanistan operation anaconda begins in eastern afghanistan two zero zero two the envisat environmental satellite successfully reaches an orbit eight zero zero kilometers five zero zero miles above the earth on its one one th launch carrying the heaviest payload to date at eight five zero zero kilograms nine five tons two zero zero two the peseta is discontinued as official currency of spain and is replaced with the euro two zero zero three management of the united states customs service and the united states secret service move to the united states department of homeland security two zero zero four terry nichols is convicted of state murder charges and being an accomplice to oklahoma city bomber timothy mcveigh two zero zero four the tv game show the price is right airs its six zero zero zero th episode two zero zero four punycode adopted by the national registrars of germany austria and switzerland two zero zero four mohammed bahr al uloum becomes president of iraq two zero zero six tarja halonen is inaugurated as president of finland for the second and last time two zero zero six queen elizabeth ii officially opens the new debating chamber for the national assembly for wales in cardiff two zero zero six the first confirmed case of h five n one bird flu virus in switzerland a dead swan on lake geneva near the city of geneva two zero zero six english language wikipedia reaches its one millionth article births one four four five sandro botticelli italian painter d one five one zero one four five six king ladislaus ii of bohemia and hungary d one five one six one four seven four angela merici italian nun d one five four zero one five four seven rudolph goclenius german philosopher d one six two eight one five nine seven jean charles de la faille belgian mathematician d one six five two one six one zero john pell english mathematician d one six eight five one six five seven samuel werenfels swiss theologian d one seven four zero one six eight three caroline of ansbach queen of george ii of great britain d one seven three seven one seven six zero fran ois nicolas leonard buzot french revolutionary suicide d one seven nine four one seven six nine fran ois s verin marceau desgraviers french general d one seven nine six one eight zero seven wilford woodruff president of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints d one eight nine eight one eight one zero fr d ric chopin polish french composer and pianist d one eight four nine one eight one two augustus pugin english born architect d one eight five two one eight two one joseph hubert reinkens german old catholic bishop d one eight nine six one eight three seven william dean howells american writer historian editor and politician d one nine two zero one eight five two th ophile delcass french statesman d one nine two three one eight five eight georg simmel german sociologist and philosopher d one nine one eight one eight six five abe iso japanese politician d one nine four nine one eight seven one ben harney american composer and ragtime pianist d one nine three eight one eight seven six henri de baillet latour belgian international olympic committee president d one nine four two one eight eight zero giles lytton strachey british writer d one nine three two one eight eight six oskar kokoschka austrian painter graphic artist and poet d one nine eight zero one eight eight eight ewart astill english cricketer d one nine four eight one eight eight nine watsuji tetsuro japanese ethicist and philosopher d one nine six zero one eight nine two ryunosuke akutagawa japanese writer d one nine two seven one eight nine three mercedes de acosta american poet playwright costume designer and socialite d one nine six eight one eight nine six dimitri mitropoulos greek conductor pianist and composer d one nine six zero one nine zero one pietro spiggia italian poet one nine zero four glenn miller american bandleader d one nine four four one nine one zero archer john porter martin english chemist nobel prize laureate d two zero zero two one nine one zero david niven english actor d one nine eight three one nine one four ralph ellison american writer d one nine nine four one nine one seven robert lowell american poet d one nine seven seven one nine one eight roger delgado british actor d one nine seven three one nine one eight jo o goulart president of brazil d one nine seven six one nine two zero howard nemerov american poet d one nine nine one one nine two one terence cardinal cooke american catholic archbishop d one nine eight three one nine two one richard wilbur american poet one nine two two william gaines american publisher d one nine nine two one nine two two yitzhak rabin prime minister of israel recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine nine five one nine two three kuczka p ter hungarian writer poet and editor d one nine nine nine one nine two four deke slayton astronaut d one nine nine three one nine two six robert clary french actor one nine two six alvin pete rozelle commissioner of american football d one nine nine six one nine two seven harry belafonte american musician and actor one nine two eight dr seymour papert south african mathematician and artificial intelligence researcher one nine two eight jacques rivette french film director one nine two nine georgi markov bulgarian dissident d one nine seven eight one nine three five robert conrad american actor one nine three seven jed allan american actor one nine three nine leo brouwer cuban composer and guitarist one nine four two richard bowman myers u s general and chairman of the joint chiefs of staff one nine four three gil amelio american businessman and venture capitalist one nine four three rashid sunyaev russian physicist one nine four four john breaux u s senator from louisiana one nine four four mike d abo british singer manfred mann one nine four four roger daltrey english musician the who one nine four five dirk benedict american film and television actor one nine four six lana wood american actress one nine four seven alan thicke canadian actor and songwriter one nine four eight burning spear jamaican singer and musician one nine five two steven barnes american writer one nine five two martin o neill northern irish footballer and football manager one nine five three richard bruton irish politician and economist one nine five four catherine bach american actress one nine five four ron howard american actor director and producer one nine five six timothy daly american actor one nine five eight bertrand piccard swiss balloonist and psychiatrist one nine six three dan michaels musician and record producer one nine six three thomas anders german singer modern talking one nine six three ron francis canadian ice hockey player one nine six five stewart elliott canadian jockey one nine six seven aron winter dutch soccer player one nine six nine javier bardem spanish actor one nine six nine dafydd ieuan welsh drummer super furry animals one nine seven zero jason brock american writer one nine seven zero shaun pollock south african cricketer one nine seven one tyler hamilton american cyclist one nine seven three chris webber american basketball player one nine seven three ryan peake canadian guitarist nickelback one nine seven four mark paul gosselaar american actor one nine seven seven rens blom dutch athlete one nine eight zero djimi traore malian footballer one nine eight zero shahid afridi pakistani cricketer one nine eight one adam lavorgna american actor deaths one one three one king stephen ii of hungary b one one zero one one two three three count thomas i of savoy b one one seven eight one two four four gruffydd ap llywelyn son of llywelyn the great b one two zero zero one three eight three amadeus vi of savoy b one three three four one five one zero francisco de almeida portuguese soldier and explorer one five three six bernardo accolti italian poet b one four six five one five four six george wishart scottish religious reformer martyred b one five one three one six two zero thomas campion english poet and composer b one five six seven one six three three george herbert english poet and orator b one five nine three one six four three girolamo frescobaldi italian composer b one five eight three one six six one richard zouch english jurist b one five nine zero one six nine seven francesco redi italian physician b one six two six one seven zero six heino heinrich graf von flemming german field marshal and governor of berlin b one six three two one seven three four roger north english biographer b one six five three one seven five seven edward moore english writer b one seven one two one seven six eight hermann samuel reimarus german philosopher and writer b one six nine four one seven seven three luigi vanvitelli italian architect b one seven zero zero one seven seven seven georg christoph wagenseil austrian composer b one seven one five one seven nine two leopold ii holy roman emperor b one seven four seven one eight four one claude victor perrin duc de belluno french marshal b one seven six four one eight six two peter barlow english mathematician b one seven seven six one eight seven five tristan corbi re french poet b one eight four five one eight seven nine joachim heer swiss politician b one eight two five one eight eight four isaac todhunter english mathematician b one eight two zero one eight nine eight george bruce malleson english officer in india author b one eight two five one nine one one jacobus henricus van t hoff dutch chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight five two one nine one two george grossmith english actor and comic writer b one eight four seven one nine one four gilbert elliot murray kynynmound four th earl of minto b one eight four five one nine two zero john h bankhead u s senator b one eight four two one nine two zero joseph trumpeldor russian zionist b one eight eight zero one nine two two rafael moreno aranzadi spanish footballer b one eight nine two one nine three two frank teschemacher american jazz clarinettist b one nine zero six one nine three six mikhail kuzmin russian writer b one eight seven one one nine three eight gabriele d annunzio italian writer war hero and politician b one eight six three one nine four zero anton hansen tammsaare estonian author b one eight seven eight one nine four three alexandre yersin swiss physician b one eight six three one nine five two mariano azuela mexican novelist b one eight seven three one nine six six fritz houtermans german physicist b one nine zero three one nine seven zero lucille hegamin american singer and entertainer b one eight nine four one nine seven four bobby timmons american jazz pianist b one nine three five one nine seven nine mustafa barzani kurdish politician b one nine zero three one nine eight four jackie coogan american actor b one nine one four one nine eight six olof palme prime minister of sweden b one nine two seven one nine eight eight joe besser american comedian and actor b one nine zero seven one nine nine one edwin h land american inventor b one nine zero nine one nine nine five vladislav listyev russian television journalist b one nine five six two zero zero zero dennis danell american guitarist social distortion b one nine six one two zero zero six peter osgood english footballer b one nine four seven two zero zero six jack wild english actor b one nine five two two zero zero six harry browne american politician and author b one nine three three holidays and observances independence day in bosnia and herzegovina ash wednesday in western christianity two zero zero six korea independence movement day samiljeol roman empire matronalia in honor of juno roman empire feriae marti in honor of mars roman empire new year roman empire the sacred fire of rome was renewed see vesta saint david s day national holiday of wales feast day of the following additional saints in the roman catholic church monan largely legendary scottish saint world day of prayer bah faith last day four or five of ayy m i h intercalary days days in the bah calendar devoted to service and gift giving labour day western australia eight hours day tasmania australia baba marta a bulgarian custom when the martenitsa is worn for good health and luck symbolizing the beginning of the spring season in bulgaria martisor a seasonal holiday in romania iceland this day is called the beer day but this day in one nine eight nine beer was allowed again historically march one st was considered to be the beginning of the year the names of some months reflect this september seventh october eighth november ninth december tenth see new year if the days of the year were counted from march one till the next march one each date of the year would have the same number every year unlike counting from january one world civil defense day this day commemorates the entry into force in one nine seven two of the icdo constitution as an inter governmental organisation self injury awareness day seasons beginning march one in denmark spring begins on march one while in australia autumn begins on march one meterological spring in the northern hemisphere also begins on march one as meterological autumn in the southern hemisphere also begins on march one year beginning march one if one begins each year on march one then each date will have the same day number in this year regardless of whether it is a leap year or not e g december two five is always day three zero zero this is due to the fact that the gregorian and julian calendars are based on the old roman calendar which had march one as the first day of the year the addition of the leap day of february two nine which is what causes the days of leap years to fall on different day numbers is a continuation of the february placement of the old roman calendar s mensis intercalaris a shortened extra month inserted to bring the three five five day long calendar into rough alignment with the seasons also the months follow a regular five month cycle of one five three days till the end of february this can be seen by listing the number of days in the months thus mar three one aug three one jan three one apr three zero sep three zero feb two eight two nine may three one oct three one jun three zero nov three zero jul three one dec three one this regularity is sometimes used in calendar calculations external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada february one february two eight february two nine february three zero march two april one listing of all days march two eight is the eight seven th day of the year in the gregorian calendar eight eight th in leap years events one nine three roman emperor pertinax is assassinated by praetorian guards who then sells the throne in an auction to didius julianus three six four roman emperor valentinian i appoints his brother flavius valens co emperor eight four five paris is sacked by viking raiders probably under ragnar lodbrok who collects a huge ransom in exchange for leaving one seven seven six juan bautista de anza finds the site for the presidio of san francisco one seven nine four allies under the prince of coburg defeated french forces at le cateau one seven nine five partitions of poland the duchy of courland a northern fief of the polish lithuanian commonwealth ceases to exist and becomes part of imperial russia one eight zero two heinrich wilhelm matth us olbers discovers two pallas the second asteroid known to man one eight zero nine battle of medelin one eight three four the united states senate censures president andrew jackson for his actions in defunding the second bank of the united states one eight five four crimean war united kingdom and france declare war on russia one eight six zero first taranaki war the battle of waireka begins one eight six two american civil war battle of glorieta pass in new mexico union forces succeed in stopping the confederate invasion of new mexico territory the battle began on march two six one nine one zero henri fabre becomes the first person to fly a seaplane after taking off from a water runway near martigues france one nine one three guatemala becomes a signatory to the buenos aires copyright treaty one nine two zero actors douglas fairbanks and mary pickford marry one nine three zero constantinople and angora change their names to istanbul and ankara one nine three nine spanish civil war generalissimo francisco franco conquers madrid one nine four one world war ii battle of cape matapan in the mediterranean sea british admiral andrew browne cunningham leads the royal navy in the destruction of three major italian battleships and two destroyers one nine four two world war ii in occupied france british naval forces raid the german occupied port of st nazaire one nine four six cold war the united states state department releases the acheson lilienthal report outlining a plan for the international control of nuclear power one nine four seven the last episode of the buck rogers in the two five th century airs on radio one nine six four the first pirate radio station radio caroline is established one nine seven eight us supreme court hands down five three decision in stump v sparkman four three five u s three four nine a controversial case involving involuntary sterilization and judicial immunity one nine seven nine in pennsylvania a pump in the reactor cooling system fails at three mile island resulting in the evaporation of some contaminated water causing a nuclear meltdown one nine nine zero president george h w bush posthumously awards jesse owens the congressional gold medal one nine nine four in south africa zulus and african national congress supporters battle in central johannesburg resulting in one eight deaths two zero zero two the exhibit the italians three centuries of italian art opens at the national gallery of australia two zero zero five the two zero zero five sumatran earthquake rocks indonesia and at magnitude eight seven is the second strongest earthquake since one nine six zero births one four seven two fra bartolommeo italian artist d one five one seven one four nine six mary tudor queen of louis xii of france d one five three three one five one five saint teresa of avila spanish carmelite nun and poet d one five eight two one five two two albert the warlike prince of bayreuth d one five five seven one five six nine ranuccio i farnese duke of parma d one six two two one five nine two comenius czech writer d one six seven zero one five nine nine witte corneliszoon de with dutch naval officer d one six five eight one six zero nine king frederick iii of denmark d one six seven zero one six five two samuel sewall english born judge d one seven three zero one seven two five andrew kippis english non conformist clergyman and biographer d one seven nine five one seven six zero thomas clarkson american abolitionist one eight one nine sir joseph bazalgette english civil engineer d one eight nine one one eight five one bernardino machado portuguese president d one nine four four one eight six two aristide briand french politician recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine three two one eight six eight maxim gorky russian author d one nine three six one eight seven one willem mengelberg dutch conductor d one nine five one one eight nine zero paul whiteman american bandleader d one nine six seven one eight nine two corneille heymans belgian physiologist nobel prize laureate d one nine six eight one eight nine five spencer w kimball president of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints d one nine eight five one eight nine seven sepp herberger german football coach d one nine seven seven one eight nine nine harold b lee president of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints d one nine seven three one nine zero two dame flora robson english actress d one nine eight four one nine zero two jarom r vejvoda czech composer d one nine eight eight one nine zero three rudolf serkin austrian pianist d one nine nine one one nine zero three charles starrett american actor d one nine eight six one nine zero five marlin perkins american naturalist and television host d one nine eight six one nine zero nine nelson algren american writer d one nine eight one one nine one zero frederick baldwin adams jr bibliophile and director of the pierpont morgan library d two zero zero one one nine one zero jimmie dodd american television actor d one nine six four one nine one zero queen ingrid of denmark d two zero zero zero one nine one four edmund muskie american politician d one nine nine six one nine one five jay livingston american composer and songwriter d two zero zero one one nine two one dirk bogarde english actor d one nine nine nine one nine two four freddie bartholomew irish actor d one nine nine two one nine two eight zbigniew brzezinski u s national security advisor one nine three zero jerome isaac friedman american physicist nobel prize laureate one nine three five michael parkinson british broadcaster and talk show host one nine three six mario vargas llosa peruvian author and politician one nine four one jim turner american football player one nine four two neil kinnock british statesman one nine four two mike newell british film director one nine four two conrad schumann east german border guard d one nine nine eight one nine four two jerry sloan american basketball coach one nine four four rick barry american basketball player one nine four four ken howard american actor one nine four six alejandro toledo president of peru one nine four eight dianne wiest american actress one nine five one karen kain canadian ballerina one nine five three melchior ndadaye first president of burundi d one nine nine three one nine five five john alderdice northern irish politician one nine five five reba mcentire american singer and actress one nine five eight curt hennig american professional wrestler d two zero zero three one nine five eight elisabeth andreassen scandinavian singer one nine six zero chris barrie british actor one nine six one byron scott american basketball player one nine six two jure franko slovenian skier one nine six eight iris chang american author d two zero zero four one nine six eight nasser hussain english cricketer one nine seven zero vince vaughn american actor one nine seven one mr cheeks american rapper one nine seven four mark king english snooker player one nine seven five richard kelly american film director one nine seven seven devon american actress one nine eight zero luke walton nba player one nine eight one julia stiles american actress deaths one nine three pertinax roman emperor assassinated b one two six one two three nine emperor go toba of japan b one one eight zero one two eight five pope martin iv one five six three heinrich glarean swiss music theorist b one four eight eight one five six six sigismund von herberstein austrian diplomat and historian b one four eight six one six seven seven v clav hollar czech born actor b one six zero seven one six eight seven constantijn huygens dutch poet and composer b one five nine six one seven nine four marquis de condorcet french mathematician philosopher and political scientist b one seven four three one eight six eight james thomas brudenell seven th earl of cardigan british military leader b one seven nine seven one eight seven zero george henry thomas american general b one eight one six one eight eight one modest mussorgsky russian composer b one eight three nine one nine one zero david josiah brewer u s supreme court justice b one eight three seven one nine one zero edouard judas colonne french violinist b one eight three eight one nine four one virginia woolf english feminist writer b one eight eight two one nine four three sergei rachmaninoff russian composer and pianist b one eight seven three one nine four nine grigora dinicu romanian composer and violinist b one eight eight nine one nine five three jim thorpe american athlete b one eight eight seven one nine five eight w c handy american composer b one eight seven three one nine six nine dwight d eisenhower three four th president of the united states b one eight nine zero one nine seven eight dino ciani italian pianist d one nine four one one nine seven nine emmett kelly american clown b one eight nine eight one nine eight zero dick haymes argentine born singer b one nine one eight one nine eight two william giauque canadian chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight nine five one nine eight five marc chagall russian born painter b one eight eight seven one nine eight seven maria von trapp austrian born singer b one nine zero five one nine eight seven patrick troughton british actor b one nine two zero one nine nine five hugh o connor american actor b one nine six two two zero zero zero anthony powell british novelist b one nine zero five two zero zero one moe koffman canadian musician b one nine two eight two zero zero four art james american game show host b one nine two nine two zero zero four peter ustinov british actor b one nine two one weddings one nine two zero douglas fairbanks and mary pickford external links bbc on this day today in history march two eight march two seven march two nine february two eight april two eight listing of all days may one is the one two one st day of the year in the gregorian calendar one two two nd in leap years there are two four four days remaining events three zero five diocletian and maximian retire from the office of roman emperor one zero four five gregory vi appointed pope one three two eight wars of scottish independence end treaty of edinburgh northampton england recognises scotland as an independent nation one six nine nine pierre le moyne d iberville founds the first european settlement in the mississippi river valley one seven zero seven the act of union joins england and scotland to form the kingdom of great britain one seven five three publication of species plantarum by linnaeus and the formal start date of plant taxonomy adopted by the international code of botanical nomenclature one seven seven six adam weishaupt founds the illuminati in ingolstadt germany one seven eight six opening night of the opera the marriage of figaro by wolfgang amadeus mozart in vienna one seven nine zero the united states completes its first census one eight three four the british colonies abolish slavery one eight four zero the penny black postage stamp is put on sale in the united kingdom of great britain and ireland one eight four eight phi gamma delta fiji collegiate social fraternity founded at jefferson college now washington and jefferson college in canonsburg pa one eight five one the great exhibition is opened in london by queen victoria one eight six zero a chondrite type meteorite falls to earth in muskingum county ohio near the town of new concord one eight six three american civil war the battle of chancellorsville begins union forces under major general joseph hooker begin fighting and are eventually defeated by confederate troops commanded by general robert e lee one eight six nine the folies berg res open in paris one eight seven three the one eight seven three vienna world s fair opens in vienna one eight eight three buffalo bill cody put on his first wild west show one eight eight four proclamation of the demand for eight hour workday in the united states one eight eight six the start of the general strike which eventually wins the eight hour workday in the united states these events are today commemorated as may day or labour day in most industrialized countries one eight nine three the world s columbian exposition opens in chicago illinois one eight nine four coxey s army the first significant american protest march arrives in washington d c one eight nine seven the hindu monastic order shri ramakrishna math and mission was founded by swami vivekananda one eight nine eight spanish american war the battle of manila bay the united states navy destroys the spanish pacific fleet in the first battle of the war one eight nine eight sikasso falls to the french colonial army one nine zero zero the scofield mine disaster kills two zero zero in scofield utah in the now fifth worst mining accident in united states history one nine zero one the pan american exposition opens in buffalo new york one nine three zero the planet pluto is officially named one nine three one the empire state building is dedicated in new york city one nine four zero the one nine four zero summer olympics are cancelled due to war one nine four one orson welles s citizen kane premieres in new york city one nine four one world war ii german forces launch a major attack on tobruk one nine four one cheerios is introduced as cheerioats by the general mills cereal company one nine four eight the democratic people s republic of korea north korea is established with kim il sung as president one nine five zero guam is organized as a united states commonwealth one nine five six the polio vaccine developed by jonas salk is made available to the public one nine six zero in india bombay province is split into the states of maharashtra and gujarat on linguistic grounds one nine six zero cold war u two crisis francis gary powers in a u two spyplane is shot down over the soviet union sparking off a crisis one nine six seven elvis presley marries priscilla beaulieu one nine seven one amtrak the national railroad passenger corporation is formed to take over u s passenger rail service one nine seven two vietnam war easter offensive north vietnamese troops capture quang tri city effectively giving them control quang tri province one nine seven eight japan s naomi uemura travelling by dog sled becomes the first person to reach the north pole alone one nine seven eight the first e mail spam of history was sent by a dec marketing representative to every arpanet address on the west coast of the united states one nine eight zero foundation of the communist labour party of turkey one nine eight two the one nine eight two world s fair opens in knoxville tennessee one nine eight three edwin el chapo rosario wins boxing s vacant wbc world lightweight title by beating jose luis ramirez in san juan by points in one two rounds becoming puerto rico s one four th world boxing champion a young julio cesar chavez also wins as part of the undercard one nine nine four formula one driver ayrton senna is killed during the san marino grand prix one nine nine seven hm prison pentridge melbourne australia is officially closed one nine nine nine three spectators are killed at an irl race at lowe s motor speedway when a collision propells a tire into the stands two zero zero three war in iraq u s president george w bush announces the end of major combat operations in iraq he stands under the controversial mission accomplished banner two zero zero four cyprus czech republic estonia hungary latvia lithuania malta poland slovakia and slovenia join the european union births one two one eight john i count of hainaut d one two five seven one two one eight rudolph i of germany emperor of the holy roman empire d one two nine one one two eight five edmund fitzalan nine th earl of arundel english politician d one three two six one five eight two marco da gagliano italian composer d one six four three one five nine four john haynes massachusetts colonial magistrate one six seven two joseph addison english politician and writer d one seven one nine one eight zero four aleksey khomyakov russian poet d one eight six zero one eight three zero mother jones american labor activist d one nine three zero one eight three one emily stowe canadian physician and suffragist b one nine zero three one eight five two calamity jane american wild west performer d one nine zero three one eight five two santiago ram n y cajal spanish histologist and neuroscientist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine three four one eight eight one pierre teilhard de chardin french palaeontologist and philosopher d one nine five five one eight eight seven alan gordon cunningham british army officer d one nine eight three one eight nine six mark wayne clark american general d one nine eight four one nine zero one heinz eric roemheld american film composer d one nine eight five one nine zero one antal szerb hungarian author literature historian one nine zero five henry koster german film director d one nine eight eight one nine zero eight giovanni guareschi italian journalist d one nine six eight one nine zero nine kate smith american singer d one nine eight six one nine one three louis nye american comedian and actor d two zero zero five one nine one three walter susskind czech conductor d one nine eight zero one nine one five archie williams american athlete d one nine nine three one nine one six glenn ford canadian actor one nine one seven john beradino american actor and baseball player d one nine nine six one nine one eight jack paar american television host d two zero zero four one nine one eight gersh budker russian physicist d one nine seven seven one nine one nine dan o herlihy irish film actor d two zero zero five one nine two three joseph heller american novelist d one nine nine nine one nine two four art fleming american game show host d one nine nine five one nine two five chuck bednarik american football player one nine two five scott carpenter american astronaut one nine two eight desmond titterington northern irish racecar driver d two zero zero two one nine two nine ralf dahrendorf german born sociologist and politician one nine three zero richard riordan mayor of los angeles california one nine three four joan hackett american actress d one nine eight three one nine three five ann robinson american actress one nine three nine judy collins american folk singer one nine three nine max robinson american broadcast journalist d one nine eight eight one nine four zero elsa peretti italian jewelry designer one nine four one eric burdon british singer the animals one nine four four suresh kalmadi indian politician one nine four five rita coolidge american singer one nine four six joanna lumley british actress one nine four six john woo hong kong director producer writer and actor one nine five zero dann florek american actor one nine five four ray parker jr american singer and songwriter one nine six zero steve cauthen american jockey one nine six two maia morgenstern romanian actress one nine six four yvonne van gennip dutch speed skater one nine six five peter walker big nonse one nine six seven tim mcgraw american musician one nine six eight oliver bierhoff german footballer one nine six eight d arcy american musician smashing pumpkins one nine seven three curtis martin american football player one nine seven three oliver neuville german footballer one nine seven five alexei smertin russian footballer one nine eight one aleksander hleb belarusian footballer one nine eight three david scott love doctor one nine eight seven alexandria trista durden american author and artist one nine nine zero caitlin stasey australian actress deaths one eight seven three david livingstone scottish doctor explorer and missionary b one eight one three one nine four five paul joseph goebbels nazi propaganda minister one nine seven eight aram ilyich khatchachurian russian composer aged seven four one nine nine four ayrton senna brazillian formula one driver holidays and observances may day labour day loyalty day workers day day of the international solidarity of workers see event section above switzerland official feast of spring czech republic national love day couples tend to flock to the memorial of a poet in prague and kiss lei day hawaiian holiday for the lei beltane l bealtaine the first day of summer in modern ireland was celebrated by the celts and is now also celebrated by neopagans and wiccans italy labour day roman empire all female festival in honour of bona dea roman empire fourth and last day of the floralia in honour of flora united states law day feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church saint joseph the worker also known as saint joseph s day philip the apostle james the less jeremiah andeol brieuc sigismund of burgundy theodulf augustin schoeffer festival of matsu in taiwan and various locales along the southern coast of china two zero zero five external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada april three zero may two april one june one listing of all days may two is the one two two nd day of the year in the gregorian calendar one two three rd in leap years there are two four three days remaining events one one nine four king richard i of england gives portsmouth its first royal charter one three three five otto the merry duke of austria becomes duke of carinthia one five six eight mary i of scotland escapes from loch leven castle one six seven zero king charles ii of england grants a permanent charter to the hudson s bay company to open up the fur trade in north america one six seven two john maitland becomes duke of lauderdale and earl of march one eight zero eight peninsular war the people of madrid rise up in rebellion against french occupation one eight one six l opold of saxe coburg and charlotte augusta are wed one eight two nine after anchoring nearby captain charles fremantle of hms challenger declares the swan river colony in australia one eight six three american civil war stonewall jackson is wounded by friendly fire while returning to camp after reconnoitering for the battle of chancellorsville he succumbs to pneumonia eight days later one eight six six peruvian defenders fight off spanish fleet at the battle of callao one eight eight five good housekeeping magazine goes on sale for the first time one eight eight five cree and assiniboine warriors won the battle of cut knife their largest victory over canadian forces during the north west rebellion one eight eight five the congo free state is established by king l opold ii of belgium one eight eight nine menelik ii emperor of ethiopia signs a treaty of amity with italy which gives ethiopia control over eritrea one nine zero zero oscar ii king of sweden declares support for britain at the time of the second boer war one nine one eight general motors acquires the chevrolet motor company of delaware one nine two zero the first game of the negro national league baseball is played in indianapolis indiana one nine three two comedian jack benny s radio show airs for the first time one nine three three the first modern sighting of the loch ness monster is reported one nine three three gleichschaltung adolf hitler bans trade unions one nine three nine lou gehrig s streak of two one three zero consecutive major league baseball games played comes to an end the record will stand for five six years before cal ripken jr breaks it one nine four five world war ii fall of berlin the soviet union announces the capture of berlin and soviet soldiers hoist their red flag over the reichstag building german forces surrender in italy german forces surrender to the new zealand army in trieste one nine four six battle of alcatraz alcatraz federal prison san francisco is taken over by six inmates following failed escape attempt one nine five three hussein is crowned king of jordan one nine five five tennessee williams wins the pulitzer prize for drama for cat on a hot tin roof one nine six three berthold seliger launches near cuxhaven a rocket with three stages with a maximum flight altitude of more than one zero zero kilometres it is the only sounding rocket developed in germany one nine six four vietnam war an explosion sinks the uss card while docked at saigon viet cong forces are suspected of placing a bomb on the ship one nine six nine the british ocean liner queen elizabeth two departs on her maiden voyage to new york city one nine seven two buddy baker became the first stock car driver to finish a five zero zero mile race in less than three hours en route to winning the winston select five zero zero at the alabama international motor speedway in talladega alabama one nine eight two falklands war the british nuclear submarine hms conqueror sinks the argentine cruiser ara general belgrano one nine eight six the one nine eight six world exposition in vancouver british columbia canada opens one nine eight eight the last b one lancer is delivered to the united states by rockwell international one nine nine seven the labour party s tony blair becomes prime minister of the united kingdom ending one eight years of conservative party rule at four four he is the youngest prime minister for one eight five years one nine nine eight the european central bank is founded in brussels in order to define and execute the eu s monetary policy one nine nine nine panamanian election mireya moscoso became the first woman to be elected president of panama two zero zero zero bill clinton announces that gps access equivalent to the u s military would be available for regular citizens two zero zero five first day of cream reunion shows at the royal albert hall it is the first time eric clapton jack bruce and ginger baker have played together since their one nine nine three induction into the rock and roll hall of fame births one three six zero yongle emperor of china d one four two four one four five one ren ii duke of lorraine d one five zero eight one five five one william camden english historian d one six two three one six zero one athanasius kircher german jesuit scholar d one six eight zero one six six zero alessandro scarlatti italian composer d one seven two five one six nine five jean nicolas servan french architect and painter d one seven six six one seven zero two friedrich christoph oetinger german theologian d one seven eight two one seven two nine empress catherine ii of russia d one seven nine six one seven four zero elias boudinot american president of the continental congress d one eight two one one seven seven two novalis german writer d one eight zero one one seven seven three henrik steffens norwegian german philosopher d one eight four five one eight zero two heinrich gustav magnus german chemist and physicist d one eight seven zero one eight one zero hans christian lumbye danish composer d one eight seven four one eight two eight d sir charnay french archaeologist d one nine one five one eight six zero theodor herzl austrian journalist and zionist leader d one nine zero four one eight six five clyde fitch american playwright d one nine zero nine one eight eight one alexander kerensky russian politician d one nine seven zero one eight eight four elijah mccoy canadian born inventor d one nine two nine one eight eight five hedda hopper american actress and gossip columnist d one nine six six one eight eight six gottfried benn german author d one nine five six one eight eight seven vernon castle english dancer d one nine one eight one eight eight seven eddie collins baseball player d one nine five one one eight nine zero e e smith american writer d one nine six five one eight nine two manfred von richthofen german world war i pilot d one nine one eight one eight nine five lorenz hart american lyricist d one nine four three one nine zero three dr benjamin spock american pediatrician and author d one nine nine eight one nine zero seven pinky lee american vaudeville performer and television host d one nine nine three one nine one zero alexander bonnyman u s marine d one nine four three one nine one two axel c sar springer german publisher d one nine eight five one nine one three nigel patrick english actor d one nine eight one one nine one five doris fisher american singer and songwriter d two zero zero three one nine two zero jean marie auberson swiss conductor d two zero zero four one nine two one satyajit ray indian director d one nine nine two one nine two two a m rosenthal canadian born newspaper editor one nine two four theodore bikel austrian born actor and singer one nine two five roscoe lee browne american actor one nine two nine link wray american guitarist d two zero zero five one nine three five king faisal ii of iraq d one nine five eight one nine three five lance legault american actor one nine three six engelbert humperdinck british singer one nine three six michael rabin american violinist d one nine seven two one nine three seven lorenzo music american writer and producer d two zero zero one one nine three eight paramount chief moshoeshoe ii of lesotho d one nine nine six one nine three nine sumio iijima japanese physicist one nine four one stephen j cannell american producer one nine four two jacques rogge belgian international olympics committee president one nine four five sarah weddington american attorney one nine four five bianca jagger nicaraguan activist one nine four six lesley gore american singer one nine four six david suchet english actor one nine four eight larry gatlin american musician and songwriter one nine four nine alan titchmarsh english gardener television presenter and writer one nine five two christine baranski american actress one nine five two campbell mccomas australian impersonator one nine five three valery gergiev russian born conductor one nine five five donatella versace italian fashion designer one nine six one steve james english snooker player one nine six two jimmy white english snooker player one nine six two ray traylor aka the big boss man professional wrestler one nine six nine brian lara west indian cricketer one nine seven two the rock american professional wrestler and actor one nine seven five david beckham english footballer one nine seven nine roman lyashenko russian hockey player d two zero zero three one nine seven eight steve bays canadian musician one nine eight zero zat knight english footballer one nine eight zero troy murphy american basketball player one nine eight two lorie french singer one nine eight five sarah hughes american figure skater one nine eight six kyle busch american race car driver one nine eight seven nana kitade japanese singer one nine eight eight brooke hogan american singer one nine nine zero kay panabaker american actress deaths three seven three athanasius bishop of alexandria b two nine eight seven five six emperor shomu emperor of japan b seven zero one nine zero seven khan boris i of bulgaria one two three zero william de braose lord of abergavenny hanged one three zero zero blanche of artois regent of navarre one four five zero william de la pole one st duke of suffolk english military leader b one three nine six one five one nine leonardo da vinci italian inventor and painter b one four five two one five six four cardinal rodolfo pio da carpi italian humanist b one five zero zero one six two seven lodovico grossi da viadana italian composer b one five six zero one six six seven george wither english writer b one five eight eight one seven one one laurence hyde one st earl of rochester english statesman b one six four one one eight zero two herman willem daendels dutch statesman b one seven six two one eight one nine mary moser english painter b one seven four four one eight five seven alfred de musset french writer b one eight one zero one eight six four giacomo meyerbeer german composer b one seven nine one one nine two seven ernest starling british physiologist b one eight six six one nine five seven joseph mccarthy u s senator b one nine zero eight one nine six four nancy astor viscountess astor american born politician b one eight seven nine one nine seven two j edgar hoover american director of the federal bureau of investigation b one eight nine five one nine seven nine giulio natta italian chemist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero three one nine eight zero george p l hungarian born film director and producer b one nine zero eight one nine eight three norm van brocklin american football star b one nine two six one nine eight four jack barry television game show producer and host b one nine one eight one nine eight nine giuseppe cardinal siri roman catholic cardinal b one nine zero six one nine eight nine veniamin kaverin russian writer b one nine zero two one nine nine zero david rappaport english actor b one nine five one one nine nine two wilbur mills american politician b one nine zero nine one nine nine five michael hordern english actor b one nine one one one nine nine seven john carew eccles australian neurophysiologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one nine zero three one nine nine eight hideto hide matsumoto japanese musician b one nine six four one nine nine eight kevin lloyd british actor b one nine four nine one nine nine nine oliver reed english actor b one nine three eight two zero zero one ted rogers british comedian b one nine three five two zero zero two john nathan turner english television producer b one nine four seven two zero zero two w t tutte english born codebreaker and mathematician b one nine one seven two zero zero five kenneth b clark american psychologist b one nine one four two zero zero five wee kim wee four th president of singapore b one nine one five holidays and observances poland flag day an official holiday to honour the flag of poland feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church athanasius waldebert or gaubert saints exuperius and zoe saint mafalda feast day of saint tsar boris in the bulgarian orthodox church islam muhammad s birthday two zero zero four bah faith last day of the festival of ridv n madrid region day of the region college board s advanced placement program testing begins slovenia second day of labour day external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada may one may three april two june two listing of all days may three is the one two three rd day of the year in the gregorian calendar one two four th in leap years there are two four two days remaining events one four nine four christopher columbus first spots jamaica one seven nine one the may constitution of poland first modern constitution in europe is proclaimed by the polish diet one eight zero eight finnish war sweden loses the fortress of sveaborg to russia one eight zero eight peninsular war the madrid rebels who rose up on may two are fired upon near pr ncipe p o hill one eight one zero lord byron swims the hellespont one eight four nine the may uprising in dresden begins the last of the german revolutions of one eight four eight one eight six zero charles xv of sweden norway is crowned king of sweden one eight six seven the hudson s bay company gives up all claims to vancouver island one nine three three nellie tayloe ross becomes the first woman to head the united states mint one nine three seven gone with the wind a novel by margaret mitchell wins the pulitzer prize for fiction one nine four five world war ii sinking of the floating jails cap arcona thielbek and deutschland by the raf in the l beck bay one nine four six world war ii the international military tribunal for the far east begins in tokyo against two eight japanese military and government officials accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity one nine four seven new post war japanese constitution goes into effect one nine five one london s royal festival hall opens one nine five one the united states senate armed services and foreign relations committees begin their closed door hearings into the dismissal of general douglas macarthur by u s president harry s truman one nine five two u s lieutenant colonels joseph o fletcher and william p benedict land a plane at the geographic north pole one nine five six the judo world championships are first held one nine five seven walter o malley the owner of the brooklyn dodgers agrees to move the team from brooklyn new york to los angeles california one nine six zero the off broadway musical comedy the fantasticks opens in new york city s greenwich village eventually becoming the longest running musical of all time one nine seven one all things considered national public radio s flagship news program broadcasts for the first time one nine seven four the portuguese democratic labour party is founded in portugal one nine eight zero the communist party of togo is founded one nine eight six in bergen norway sandra kim wins the thirty first eurovision song contest for belgium singing j aime la vie i love life one nine nine one the declaration of windhoek is signed one nine nine one the last episode of the soap opera dallas airs one nine nine seven in dublin ireland katrina and the waves win the forty second eurovision song contest for the united kingdom singing love shine a light one nine nine nine oklahoma city is slammed by an f five tornado the tornado was part of a storm system that produces six six tornadoes the oklahoma city tornado kills four two people and injures six six five and causes one billion in damage see the oklahoma tornado outbreak one nine nine nine the dow jones industrial average closes above one one zero zero zero for the first time in its history at one one zero one four seven zero two zero zero zero datapoint the company that commissioned the intel eight zero zero eight microprocessor declares chapter one one bankruptcy two zero zero zero the sport of geocaching begins with the first cache placed and the coordinates from a gps posted on usenet births six one two constantine iii byzantine emperor d six four one one four one five cecily neville mother of edward iv of england and richard iii of england d one four nine five one four two eight pedro gonz lez de mendoza spanish cardinal and statesman d one four nine five one four four six margaret of york wife of charles i duke of burgundy d one five zero three one four six nine niccol machiavelli italian historian and political author d one five two seven one six six two matth us daniel p ppelmann german architect d one seven three six one six nine five henri pitot french engineer d one seven seven one one seven one three alexis clairault french mathematician d one seven six five one seven six one august von kotzebue german dramatist d one eight one nine one eight two six charles crown prince of sweden norway d one eight seven two one eight three five alfred austin english poet d one nine one three one eight four four richard d oyly carte english theatrical impresario d one nine zero one one eight four nine bernhard von b low chancellor of germany d one nine two nine one eight five nine andy adams american author d one nine three five one eight six zero john scott haldane scottish physiologist d one nine three six one eight six zero vito volterra italian mathematician d one nine four zero one eight six one emmett dalton american outlaw d one nine three seven one eight six seven j t hearne english cricketer d one nine four four one eight seven four fran ois coty french perfume manufacturer d one nine three four one eight seven four v walfrid ekman swedish oceanographer d one nine five four one eight seven seven karl abraham german psychoanalyst d one nine two five one eight eight six marcel dupr french composer d one nine seven one one eight eight eight beulah bondi american actress d one nine eight one one eight nine two george paget thomson english physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine seven five one eight nine three konstantine gamsakhurdia georgian writer and public benefactor d one nine seven five one eight nine five cornelius van til philosopher and christian apologist d one nine eight seven one eight nine eight golda meir prime minister of israel d one nine seven eight one nine zero two alfred kastler french physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine eight four one nine zero three bing crosby american singer d one nine seven seven one nine zero five sebastian shaw english actor d one nine nine four one nine zero six anna e roosevelt american radio personality d one nine seven five one nine zero six mary astor american actress d one nine eight seven one nine one two virgil fox american organist d one nine eight zero one nine one three william inge american playwright d one nine seven three one nine one five stu hart canadian professional wrestler and trainer d two zero zero three one nine one nine betty comden american lyricist d two zero zero two one nine one nine john cullen murphy american comic strip artist d two zero zero four one nine one nine pete seeger american folk singer one nine two one joe ames american singer one nine two one sugar ray robinson american boxer d one nine eight nine one nine two three ralph hall american politician one nine two eight dave dudley american singer d two zero zero three one nine three three james brown american singer one nine three three steven weinberg american physicist nobel prize laureate one nine three seven frankie valli american singer the four seasons one nine four one edward monk malloy former university of notre dame president one nine four five davey lopes baseball player and coach one nine four six silvino francisco south african snooker player one nine four seven doug henning canadian magician d two zero zero zero one nine five zero howard ashman american lyricist d one nine nine one one nine five zero mary hopkin welsh singer one nine five one christopher cross american musician one nine five one tatyana tolstaya russian writer one nine five two allan wells british athlete one nine five five david hookes australian cricketer d two zero zero four one nine five five steve jones english musician from rock group the sex pistols one nine five nine uma bharati indian politician one nine five nine ben elton british comedian and author one nine six two anders graneheim swedish bodybuilder one nine six six darren morgan welsh snooker player one nine seven one josey scott lead singer of saliva one nine seven two celeste american actress one nine seven five maksim mrvica croatian pianist deaths one one five two matilda of boulogne queen of stephen of england one one six zero peter lombard italian scholar and bishop one two nine four john i duke of brabant one four eight one mehmed ii ottoman sultan b one four three two one five nine eight anna guarini italian singer b one five six three one six zero six henry garnet english jesuit missionary b one five five five one six two two pedro p ez spanish jesuit missionary b one five six four one six seven nine james sharp english archbishop assassinated b one six one three one six nine three claude de rouvroy duc de saint simon french courtier b one six zero seven one seven zero four heinrich ignaz biber bohemian composer b one six four four one seven two four john leverett the younger american president of harvard b one six six two one seven five zero john willison scottish minister and writer b one six eight zero one seven five two samuel ogle british provincial governor of maryland one seven five eight pope benedict xiv b one six seven five one seven six three george psalmanazar british imposter one seven six four francesco algarotti italian philosopher b one seven one two one seven seven nine john winthrop american astronomer b one seven one four one seven nine three martin gerbert german theologian and historian b one seven two zero one eight three nine ferdinando paer italian composer b one seven seven one one eight five six adolphe charles adam french composer b one eight zero three one nine four two thorvald stauning prime minister of denmark b one eight seven three one nine five eight frank foster english cricketer b one eight eight nine one nine eight seven dalida french singer b one nine three three one nine eight eight lev semenovich pontryagin russian mathematician b one nine zero eight one nine eight eight milt caniff american cartoonist b one nine zero seven one nine nine one jerzy kosinski polish born writer b one nine three three one nine nine four ezra taft benson president of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints b one eight nine nine two zero zero two barbara castle baroness castle of blackburn british politician b one nine one zero two zero zero three suzy parker american actress b one nine three two two zero zero four anthony ainley british actor b one nine three two holidays and observances national teacher day in the united states world press freedom day constitution day in poland and japan roman catholicism feast of the finding of the holy cross often called the feast of the invention of the true cross feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church saints eventius theodulus and alexander martyrs of one one nine emily bicchiere one two three eight one three one four antonia and alexander martyrs of three one three saint juvenal d three seven six ausfrid c one zero zero eight israel yom ha atzma ut israeli independence day for two zero zero six the observed date of this national holiday is determined by the jewish calendar discoflux discordianism external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada may two may four april three june three listing of all days may four is the one two four th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one two five th in leap years there are two four one days remaining events one four seven one wars of the roses the battle of tewkesbury edward iv defeats a lancastrian army and kills edward prince of wales one four nine three pope alexander vi divides the new world between spain and portugal along the demarcation line one four nine four christopher columbus lands in jamaica one six two six dutch explorer peter minuit arrives in new netherland present day manhattan island aboard the see meeuw one six seven five king charles ii of england orders the construction of the royal greenwich observatory one seven seven six rhode island becomes the first american colony to renounce allegiance to king george iii one eight one four emperor napoleon i of france arrives at portoferraio on the island of elba to begin his exile one eight five five american adventurer william walker departs from san francisco with about six zero men to conquer nicaragua one eight six three american civil war battle of chancellorsville the battle ends with a union retreat one eight six five abraham lincoln buried in springfield illinois three weeks after his assassination one eight six nine the naval battle of hakodate takes place in japan one eight seven one the national association the first professional baseball league begins its first season one eight eight six haymarket square riot a bomb is thrown at policemen trying to break up a labor rally in chicago illinois united states killing eight and wounding six zero the police fire into the crowd one nine zero four construction begins by the united states on the panama canal one nine one zero the royal canadian navy is created one nine one two italy occupies the island of rhodes one nine one nine may fourth movement student demonstrations take place in tiananmen square in beijing china protesting the treaty of versailles which transferred chinese territory to japan one nine two four the one nine two four summer olympics open in paris france one nine three zero british police arrest mahatma gandhi and place him in yeravda central prison one nine three two in atlanta georgia mobster al capone begins serving an eleven year prison sentence for tax evasion one nine four two world war ii battle of the coral sea the battle begins with the launch of attack aircraft from american and japanese aircraft carriers one nine four five world war ii liberation of the neuengamme concentration camp near hamburg by the british army one nine four five world war ii surrender of the north germany army to field marshal bernard montgomery one nine four six in san francisco bay us marines from the treasure island marine barracks stop a two day riot at alcatraz federal prison five people are killed in the riot one nine four eight norman mailer s first novel the naked and the dead is published one nine four nine the entire torino football soccer team except for one player who did not take the trip due to an injury is killed in a plane crash at the superga hill at the edge of turin italy one nine five three ernest hemingway is awarded the pulitzer prize for the old man and the sea one nine five nine the first grammy awards are announced one nine six one american civil rights movement the freedom riders begin a bus trip through the south one nine seven zero vietnam war kent state shootings the ohio national guard sent to kent state university after the rotc building was burnt down opens fire on students protesting at the united states invasion of cambodia four students are killed nine are wounded one nine seven two the don t make a wave committee a fledgling environmental organization founded in canada in one nine seven one officially changed its name to greenpeace foundation one nine seven four an all female japanese team reaches the summit of manaslu becoming the first women to climb an eight zero zero zero meter peak one nine seven nine margaret thatcher becomes the first woman prime minister of the united kingdom one nine eight zero president josip broz tito of yugoslavia dies in ljubljana at the age of eight seven one nine eight nine iran contra affair former white house aide oliver north is convicted of three crimes and was acquitted of nine other charges the convictions however are later overturned on appeal one nine nine zero latvia proclaims independence one nine nine one in rome italy carola wins the thirty sixth eurovision song contest for sweden singing f ngad av en stormvind trapped in a storm wind one nine nine four israeli prime minister yitzhak rabin and plo leader yasser arafat sign a peace accord regarding palestinian autonomy granting self rule in the gaza strip and jericho one nine nine six jos mar a aznar is appointed prime minister of spain thus ending one three years of socialist rule one nine nine eight a federal judge in sacramento california gives unabomber theodore kaczynski four life sentences plus three zero years after kaczynski accepted a plea agreement sparing him from the death penalty one nine nine nine in california manuel babbitt is executed for the one nine eight zero murder of leah schendel while on death row babbitt was awarded a purple heart for injuries he received in the vietnam war two zero zero two an eas airlines bac one one one five zero zero crashes in a suburb of kano nigeria shortly after takeoff killing more than one four eight people two zero zero three the outbreak of two zero zero three begins ninety four tornadoes begin the week long outbreak births one zero zero eight king henry i of france d one zero six zero one six five four kangxi emperor of china d one seven two two one six five five bartolomeo cristofori italian maker of musical instruments d one seven three one one seven one five richard graves english writer d one eight zero four one seven three three jean charles de borda french mathematician physicist political scientist and sailor d one seven nine nine one seven seven two friedrich arnold brockhaus german publisher d one eight two three one seven eight one karl christian friedrich krause german philosopher d one eight three two one seven nine six horace mann american educator d one eight five nine one eight two zero julia tyler first lady of the united states d one eight eight nine one eight two five thomas henry huxley english scientist d one eight nine five one eight two five augustus le plongeon french archaeologist d one nine zero eight one eight two six frederic edwin church american painter d one nine zero zero one eight two seven john hanning speke british explorer d one eight six four one eight five two alice pleasance liddell english schoolgirl model for alice in wonderland d one nine three four one eight seven zero alexandre benois russian artist d one eight six zero one eight seven three joe de grasse canadian film director d one nine four zero one eight eight nine francis cardinal spellman american religious leader d one nine six seven one nine zero three luther adler american stage actor d one nine eight four one nine one eight tanaka kakuei japanese political leader d one nine nine three one nine two one edo murti croatian painter d two zero zero five one nine two three eric sykes british actor and comedian one nine two five maurice r greenberg american businessman one nine two eight maynard ferguson canadian musician one nine two eight hosni mubarak president of egypt one nine two nine audrey hepburn belgian actress d one nine nine three one nine two nine sidney lamb american linguist one nine three zero roberta peters american soprano one nine three one gennady rozhdestvensky russian composer one nine three six el cordobes spanish bullfighter one nine three seven dick dale american guitarist one nine three nine amos oz israeli writer novelist and journalist one nine four one george will american writer one nine four two nickolas ashford american record producer songwriter musician ashford and simpson one nine four two tammy wynette american musician d one nine nine eight one nine four four roger rees british born actor one nine four five narasinham ram indian journalist one nine four six john watson northern irish racecar driver one nine four nine john force american race car driver one nine five one mick mars american guitarist m tley cr e one nine five four pia zadora american actress one nine five six david guterson american author one nine five six ulrike meyfarth german athlete one nine five eight keith haring american graphical artist d one nine nine zero one nine five nine randy travis american musician one nine six two oleta adams american singer one nine six seven ana gasteyer american actress one nine seven two mike dirnt american musician green day one nine seven six jason michaels baseball player one nine seven nine lance bass american musician nsync one nine eight one eric djemba djemba cameroon footballer one nine eight four markus rogan austrian swimmer one nine eight five anthony fedorov american singer one nine eight seven francesc fabregas spanish footballer one nine nine four alexander gould american actor deaths one four seven one edward of westminster prince of wales killed in battle b one four five three one four seven one edmund beaufort four th duke of somerset english military commander executed one five zero six husayn bayqarah ruler of herat b one four three eight one five one nine lorenzo ii de medici duke of urbino b one four nine two one five six six luca ghini italian physician and botanist b one four nine zero one six one five adriaan van roomen flemish mathematician b one five six one one six two six arthur lake bishop of bath and wells english bishop and bible translator b one five six nine one six seven seven isaac barrow english mathematician b one six three zero one six eight four john nevison english highwayman b one six three nine one seven two nine louis antoine cardinal de noailles french cardinal b one six five one one seven three four james thornhill english painter one seven three seven eustace budgell english writer b one six eight six one seven seven four anthony ulrich ii duke of brunswick l neburg b one seven one four one seven seven six jacques saly french sculptor b one seven one seven one seven nine zero matthew tilghman american delegate to the continental congress b one seven one eight one seven nine nine tipu sultan indian military leader one eight two four joseph joubert french essayist and moralist b one seven five four one eight four nine hokusai japanese artist b one seven six zero one eight eight zero edward clark governor of texas b one eight one five one nine zero three goce delchev macedonian revolutionary b one eight seven two one nine two two viktor kingissepp estonian bolshevik politician b one eight eight eight one nine three eight carl von ossietzky german pacifist recipient of the nobel peace prize b one eight eight nine one nine five five georges enescu romanian composer b one eight eight one one nine six one anita stewart american film actress b one eight nine five one nine six nine osbert sitwell english writer b one eight nine two one nine seven zero kent state victims allison krause jeffrey miller sandra scheuer b one nine four nine william schroeder b one nine five zero one nine seven two edward calvin kendall american chemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one eight eight six one nine seven five moe howard american actor and comedian b one eight nine seven one nine eight zero josip broz tito president of yugoslavia b one eight nine two one nine eight four bob clampett american cartoonist b one nine one three one nine eight four diana dors british actress b one nine three one one nine eight six henri toivonen finnish race car driver b one nine five six two zero zero five david hackworth u s army officer and military journalist b one nine three zero holidays and observances international world asthma day feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church saint monica d three eight seven ladislaus of gielnow saint florian saint godehard titianus malou saint ethelred saint john houghton saint robert lawrence saint augustine webster saint richard reynolds and saint john hale all put to death in one five three five the netherlands remembrance of the dead one nine four zero one nine four five people s republic of china youth day commemorating may fourth movement republic of china literary day commemorating may fourth movement puns star wars day may the fourth be with you external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day may three may five april four june four listing of all days may five is the one two five th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one two six th in leap years there are two four zero days remaining the northern hemisphere is considered halfway through spring on may five since there are usually nine two days in that season of the year events one two six zero kublai khan becomes ruler of the mongol empire one six four zero king charles i of england disbands the short parliament one six four six king charles i of england and scotland surrenders to the scottish presbyterian army at newark one seven six two russia and prussia sign the treaty of st petersburg one seven eight nine in france the estates general convenes for the first time in one five zero years one eight zero nine mary kies becomes the first woman awarded a us patent for a technique of weaving straw with silk and thread one eight zero nine the swiss canton of aargau denies citizenship to jews one eight three five in belgium the first railway in continental europe opens between brussels and mechelen one eight six two cinco de mayo in mexico troops led by ignacio zaragoza halt a french invasion in the battle of puebla one eight six four american civil war the battle of the wilderness begins in spotsylvania county virginia one eight six five in north bend ohio a suburb of cincinnati the first train robbery in the united states takes place one eight seven seven indian wars sitting bull leads his band of lakota into canada to avoid harassment by the united states army under colonel nelson miles one eight nine one the music hall in new york now known as carnegie hall has its grand opening and first public performance with pyotr ilyich tchaikovsky as the guest conductor one eight nine three panic of one eight nine three crash on the new york stock exchange starts a depression one nine zero four pitching against the philadelphia athletics at the huntington avenue grounds cy young of the boston americans threw the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball one nine one two the one nine one two summer olympics open in stockholm sweden one nine one six american marines invade the dominican republic one nine two two in the bronx construction begins on yankee stadium one nine two three coco chanel introduces chanel no five perfume one nine two five scopes trial dayton tennessee biology teacher john scopes is arrested for teaching charles darwin s theory of evolution one nine three six italian troops occupy addis ababa ethiopia one nine four zero world war ii in london a norwegian government in exile is formed one nine four one emperor haile selassie returns to addis ababa ethiopia this date has been since commemorated as liberation day one nine four three the film curator of the library of congress howard walls announces that about five zero zero zero films will be preserved in the library one nine four four mohandas gandhi is freed from prison one nine four five world war ii german troops in the netherlands and denmark capitulate to canadian and british forces liberating these countries from nazi occupation prague uprising against the nazis mauthausen concentration camp is liberated admiral karl d nitz orders all u boats to cease offensive operations and return to their bases a japanese bomb launched by balloon and called a fire balloon explodes near lakeview oregon united states killing a woman and five children who were examining it during a church picnic one nine four nine the council of europe is formed one nine five zero bhumibol adulyadej is crowned as king rama ix of thailand one nine five four a coup d tat carries general alfredo stroessner to power in paraguay one nine five five west germany gains full sovereignty one nine six one mercury program mercury three alan shepard becomes the first american to travel into space making a sub orbital flight of one five minutes one nine seven five the busch gardens williamsburg theme park opens in virginia one nine seven eight pete rose of the cincinnati reds hits his three zero zero zero th major league hit one nine eight zero operation nimrod the special air service storm the iranian embassy in london after a six day siege one nine eight seven iran contra affair start of congressional televised hearings one nine nine zero capital punishment jesse tafero is executed in florida after three electric chair malfunctions cause flames to shoot from his head one nine nine zero in zagreb yugoslavia now croatia toto cutugno wins the thirty fifth eurovision song contest for italy by singing insieme one nine nine two together one nine nine two one nine nine one a riot breaks out in the mt pleasant section of washington dc after a salvadoran man is shot by police one nine nine two wolfenstein three d is released the first ever first person shooter computer game one nine nine four american michael p fay is caned in singapore as punishment for spray painting two cars one nine nine five british film producer ray santilli unveils his alien autopsy footage to a group of ufo researchers the film is widely regarded as a hoax two zero zero zero planets in the solar system align two zero zero five the united kingdom general election takes place in which tony blair s labour party are re elected for a third consecutive term births eight six seven uda emperor of japan d nine three one one two one zero king afonso iii of portugal d one two seven nine one five four six thomas cecil one st earl of exeter english politician d one six two three one seven four seven leopold ii holy roman emperor d one seven nine two one seven six four robert craufurd british general d one eight one two one eight one three s ren kierkegaard danish philosopher d one eight five five one eight one eight karl marx german political philosopher d one eight eight three one eight two six empress eugenie of france wife of napoleon iii d one nine two zero one eight three two h h bancroft american historian and publisher d one nine one eight one eight three three ferdinand von richthofen german geographer d one nine zero five one eight four six henryk sienkiewicz polish author nobel prize laureate d one nine one six one eight six five elizabeth jane cochran american journalist and writer d one nine two two one eight six six thomas b thrige danish industrialist d one nine three eight one eight six nine hans pfitzner russian born composer d one nine four nine one eight eight three archibald wavell british general d one nine five zero one eight eight seven geoffrey fisher archbishop of canterbury d one nine seven two one eight nine zero christopher morley american writer d one nine five seven one nine zero one blind willie mctell american singer d one nine five nine one nine zero three james beard american chef and cookbook writer d one nine eight five one nine zero eight kurt b hme german bass d one nine eight nine one nine one four tyrone power american actor d one nine five eight one nine one five alice faye american actress d one nine nine eight one nine one six zail singh president of india d one nine nine four one nine two one arthur leonard schawlow american physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine nine one nine two three richard wollheim british philosopher d two zero zero three one nine two six ann b davis american actress one nine three five douglas marland american television writer d one nine nine three one nine three six patrick gowers english composer one nine four one alexander ragulin russian hockey player d two zero zero four one nine four two marc alaimo american actor one nine four three michael palin british writer actor and comedian one nine four four roger rees welsh actor one nine four four john rhys davies welsh actor one nine five two campbell mccomas australian impersonator and broadcaster d two zero zero five one nine five five wil harris american drummer one nine five seven richard e grant british actor one nine six three james labrie american singer dream theater one nine six six shawn drover canadian drummer megadeth one nine seven two devin townsend canadian musician strapping young lad one nine seven six juan pablo sor n argentine footballer one nine seven nine vincent kartheiser american actor one nine eight one craig david british r listing of all days may eight is the one two eight th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one two nine th in leap years there are two three seven days remaining events one four five zero jack cade s rebellion kentishmen revolt against king henry vi one five four one hernando de soto reaches the mississippi river and names it r o de esp ritu santo one seven nine four branded a traitor during the reign of terror by revolutionists french chemist antoine lavoisier who was also a tax collector with the ferme g n rale was tried convicted and guillotined all on one day in paris one eight four six mexican american war the battle of palo alto zachary taylor defeats a mexican force north of the rio grande in the first major battle of the war one eight six one american civil war richmond virginia is named the capital of the confederate states of america one eight seven seven at gilmore s gardens in new york city the first westminster kennel club dog show opens ends may one one one eight eight six pharmacist dr john styth pemberton invents a carbonated beverage that would later be named coca cola one eight nine six against warwickshire yorkshire sets a still standing county championship record when they accumulate an innings total of eight eight seven one eight nine eight the first games of the italian football league are played one eight nine nine the irish literary theatre in dublin opens one nine zero two in martinique mount pel e erupts destroying the town of st pierre and killing over three zero zero zero zero people only a handful of residents survive the blast one nine one four paramount pictures is formed one nine one nine edward george honey first proposed the idea of a moment of silence to commemorate the armistice of world war i which later resulted in the creation of remembrance day one nine three three mohandas gandhi begins a two one day fast in protest of british oppression in india one nine four two world war ii the battle of the coral sea comes to an end this is the first time in the naval history where two enemy fleets fight without visual contact between warring ships one nine four two world war ii on the night of eight nine may one nine four two gunners of the ceylon garrison artillery on horsburgh island in the cocos islands rebelled their mutiny was crushed and three of them were executed the only british commonwealth soldiers to be executed for mutiny during the second world war one nine four five world war ii ve day german forces agree to an unconditional surrender one nine four five thousands of algerian civilians are killed by french army soldiers in the setif massacre one nine six seven the philippine province of davao is split into three davao del norte davao del sur and davao oriental one nine seven two vietnam war u s president richard m nixon announces his order to place mines in major north vietnamese ports in order to stem the flow of weapons and other goods to that nation one nine seven three a seven one day standoff between federal authorities and the american indian movement members occupying the pine ridge reservation at wounded knee south dakota ends with the surrender of the militants one nine seven four the canadian government of prime minister pierre trudeau is defeated in the house of commons one nine eight four the soviet union announces that it will boycott the one nine eight four summer olympics in los angeles california one nine eight four cpl denis lortie enters the quebec national assembly and opens fire killing three and wounding one three ren jalbert sergeant at arms of the assembly succeeds in calming him for which he will later receive the cross of valour one nine eight seven the sas ambushes and kills the loughgall martyrs one nine nine seven a china southern airlines boeing seven three seven crashes on approach into shenzhen s huangtian airport killing three five one nine nine nine nancy mace becomes the first female cadet to graduate from the citadel military college two zero zero two feyenoord win the uefa cup two zero zero four the texas rangers defeat the detroit tigers one six one five in a one zero inning game featuring a wild hour long five th inning after having given up eight runs in the top half of the inning texas scores one zero runs in the bottom half to tie the ten run deficit is the largest ever overcome by the rangers and the one eight runs in one inning by both teams ties a mlb record alfonso soriano also sets a ranger record with six hits in one game two zero zero five the new canadian war museum opens in commemoration of the six zero th anniversary of v e day births one four six zero frederick i margrave of brandenburg ansbach d one five three six one five two one petrus canisius dutch jesuit d one five nine seven one five eight seven victor amadeus i duke of savoy d one six three seven one six two two claes r lamb swedish statesman d one six nine eight one six two nine niels juel danish admiral d one six nine seven one six three two heino heinrich graf von flemming german field marshal and governor of berlin d one seven zero six one six five three claude louis hector de villars marshall of france d one seven three four one six six eight alain ren lesage french writer d one seven four seven one six seven zero charles beauclerk one st duke of st albans english soldier d one seven two six one seven three five sir nathaniel dance holland english painter d one eight one one one seven three seven edward gibbon english historian d one seven nine four one eight two five george bruce malleson indian officer and author d one eight nine eight one eight two eight jean henri dunant swiss founder of the red cross recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine one zero one eight two nine louis moreau gottschalk american composer and pianist d one eight six nine one eight four two emil christian hansen danish fermentation physiologist d one nine zero nine one eight five zero ross barnes baseball player d one nine one five one eight eight four harry s truman president of the united states d one nine seven two one eight nine five fulton j sheen american bishop and television personality d one nine seven nine one eight nine nine friedrich hayek austrian economist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine two one nine zero two andre michael lwoff french microbiologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine nine four one nine zero three fernandel french actor d one nine seven one one nine zero five red nichols american jazz cornettist d one nine six five one nine zero six roberto rossellini italian director d one nine seven seven one nine one one robert johnson american singer and guitarist d one nine three eight one nine one four romain gary polish writer d one nine eight zero one nine one six jo o havelange brazilian industrialist and football league president one nine one nine lex barker american actor d one nine seven three one nine two five ali hassan mwinyi president of tanzania one nine two six sir david attenborough british television presenter and producer one nine two six don rickles american comedian one nine two eight theodore sorenson american political operative and writer one nine three zero heather harper irish soprano one nine three zero gary snyder american poet one nine three two phyllida law scottish actress one nine three two sonny liston american boxer d one nine seven zero one nine three five jack charlton english footballer one nine three seven thomas pynchon american novelist one nine four zero ricky nelson american singer d one nine eight five one nine four two terry neill northern irish footballer and football manager one nine four three toni tennille american singer one nine four four gary glitter english singer one nine four five keith jarrett american musician one nine four seven h robert horvitz american biologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine four eight felicity lott english soprano one nine five one chris frantz american drummer talking heads one nine five three alex van halen dutch born drummer one nine five four david keith american actor one nine five seven marie myriam french singer one nine six four melissa gilbert american actress and president of the screen actors guild one nine six four bobby labonte american race car driver one nine six four dave rowntree british drummer blur one nine six six claudio taffarel brazilian footballer one nine six eight jamie summers american porn star one nine seven two darren hayes australian singer one nine seven two ray whitney canadian ice hockey player one nine seven three hiromu arakawa japanese artist one nine seven four korey stringer american football player d two zero zero one one nine seven five enrique iglesias spanish born singer one nine seven six martha wainwright canadian musician and songwriter one nine seven eight l cio brazilian footballer one nine eight zero michelle mcmanus scottish singer one nine eight five mashio miyazaki japanese actress deaths five three five pope john ii b unknown one two seven eight emperor duanzong of china b one two six eight one three one nine king haakon v of norway b one two seven zero one four seven three john stafford one st earl of wiltshire english politician b one four two zero one five three eight edward fox english bishop one seven six six samuel chandler english non conformist minister b one six nine three one seven seven three ali bey al kabir mamluk sultan of egypt b one seven two eight one seven eight one richard jago english poet b one seven one five one seven eight five tienne fran ois duc de choiseul french statesman b one seven one nine one seven eight five pietro longhi venetian painter b one seven zero one one seven eight eight giovanni antonio scopoli italian born physician and naturalist b one seven two three one seven nine four antoine lavoisier french chemist executed b one seven four three one eight one nine kamehameha i king of hawaii b unknown one eight two eight mauro giuliani italian composer b one seven eight one one eight four two jules dumont d urville french explorer b one seven nine zero one eight seven three john stuart mill english philosopher b one eight zero six one eight eight zero gustave flaubert french novelist b one eight two one one eight nine one helena blavatsky russian born author b one eight three one one nine three six oswald spengler german historian and philosopher b one eight eight zero one nine four three mordechaj anielewicz polish resistance fighter b one nine one nine one nine four seven harry gordon selfridge american born department store founder b one eight five eight one nine five zero vital brazil brazilian physician b one eight six five one nine five two william fox austrian born film producer b one eight seven nine one nine six zero j h c whitehead british mathematician b one nine zero four one nine seven five avery brundage president of the international olympic committee b one eight eight seven one nine eight two gilles villeneuve canadian race car driver b one nine five zero one nine eight five theodore sturgeon american science fiction writer b one nine one eight one nine eight eight robert a heinlein american science fiction writer b one nine zero seven one nine nine zero luigi nono italian composer b one nine two four one nine nine zero tom s cardinal fiaich northern irish clergyman b one nine two three one nine nine one jean langlais french composer and pianist b one nine zero seven one nine nine one rudolf serkin austrian pianist b one nine zero three one nine nine three avram davidson writer b one nine two three one nine nine four george peppard american actor b one nine two eight one nine nine six beryl burton english cyclist b one nine three seven one nine nine nine dirk bogarde british actor b one nine two one one nine nine nine dana plato american actress b one nine six four two zero zero zero guadalupe pita amor mexican poet b one nine one eight holidays and observances roman empire festival in honour of mens world red cross day ve day external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day may seven may nine april eight june eight listing of all days may two five is the one four five th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one four six th in leap years there are two two zero days remaining events one zero eight five alfonso vi of castile takes toledo back from the moors one four two zero henry the navigator is appointed governor of the order of christ one five two one the diet of worms ends when charles v holy roman emperor issues the edict of worms declaring martin luther an outlaw one six five nine richard cromwell resigns as lord protector of england following the restoration of the long parliament beginning a second brief period of the republican government called the commonwealth one seven eight seven in philadelphia pennsylvania delegates convene a constitutional convention to write a new constitution for the united states george washington presides one eight one zero in the may revolution armed citizens of buenos aires expel the viceroy during the semana de mayo one eight six five in mobile alabama three zero zero are killed when an ordnance depot explodes one eight nine five playwright poet and novelist oscar wilde is convicted of commiting acts of gross indecency with other male persons and sentenced to serve two years in prison one eight nine five the republic of formosa is formed with tang ching sung as the president one nine one four the united kingdom s house of commons passes home rule act for devolution in ireland one nine two five scopes trial john t scopes is indicted for teaching darwin s theory of evolution one nine two five the national forensics league of the u s is founded one nine two six sholom schwartzbard assassinates symon petliura the head of the paris based government in exile of ukrainian people s republic one nine three five in a span of four five minutes at the big ten meet in ann arbor michigan jesse owens sets or ties four track and field world records one nine three five babe ruth hits his seven one four th and last home run at forbes field in pittsburgh pennsylvania setting a baseball record that will stand for three nine years one nine three eight spanish civil war bombing of alicante three one three deaths one nine four zero world war ii the battle of dunkirk begins one nine four six the parliament of transjordan makes abdullah i of jordan their king one nine five three nuclear testing at the nevada test site the united states conducts its first and only nuclear artillery test one nine five five kanchenjunga third highest peak in the world is scaled successfully for the first time one nine six one apollo program u s president john f kennedy announces before a special joint session of congress his goal to initiate a project to put a man on the moon before the end of the decade one nine six three in addis ababa ethiopia the organisation of african unity is established one nine six six explorer program explorer three two launches one nine six five muhammad ali knocks out sonny liston in the first minute of the first round of a boxing match one nine six seven celtic f c become the first british team to reach a european cup final and also to win it beating inter milan two one in normal time one nine six eight in st louis missouri us vice president hubert humphrey and us secretary of the interior stewart udall dedicate the gateway arch as part of the jefferson national expansion memorial one nine seven three mike oldfield releases tubular bells one nine seven seven star wars later retitled star wars episode iv a new hope opens a limited run in theaters before expanding to become the highest grossing movie to date one nine seven eight in a performance used for the kids are alright the who play their last show with keith moon one nine seven nine american airlines flight one nine one in chicago illinois a dc one zero crashes during takeoff at o hare international airport killing two seven one on board and two people on the ground one nine seven nine florida executes john spenkelink the first non voluntary execution in the united states in more than one zero years one nine seven nine the movie alien opens in theaters one nine eight one in riyadh the gulf cooperation council is created between bahrain kuwait oman qatar saudi arabia and the united arab emirates one nine eight two hms coventry is sunk during the falklands war one nine eight three star wars episode vi return of the jedi opens in theaters one nine eight five bangladesh is hit by a tropical cyclone and storm surge which kills approximately one zero zero zero zero people one nine eight six hands across america took place one nine nine five the bosnian serb army kills seven two youngsters in the bosnian city of tuzla one nine nine seven a military coup in sierra leone replaces president ahmad tejan kabbah with major johnny paul koromah one nine nine seven strom thurmond becomes the longest serving member in the history of the united states senate at four one years and one zero months one nine nine nine the two officers scapegoated after the one nine four one attack on pearl harbor rear admiral kimmel and lieutenant general short were exonerated posthumously by the us senate of all charges of dereliction of duty two zero zero one three two year old erik weihenmayer of boulder colorado becomes the first blind person to reach the summit of mount everest two zero zero one six four year old sherman bull of new canaan connecticut becomes the oldest person to reach the summit of mount everest two zero zero two china airlines flight six one one a boeing seven four seven two zero zero breaks apart in mid air and plunges into the taiwan strait killing two two five people two zero zero two a train crash in tenga mozambique kills one nine seven people two zero zero three n stor kirchner becomes president of argentina after defeating carlos menem he is the first elected president since the december two zero zero one economic crisis two zero zero four the theatrical version of the lord of the rings the return of the king is released on dvd two zero zero four tampa bay lightning win the stanley cup two zero zero five liverpool win the uefa champions league after beating ac milan in the final births one zero four eight emperor shenzong of china d one zero eight five one three three four emperor suko of japan d one three nine eight one four five eight mahmud begada sultan of gujarat d one five one one one six zero six charles garnier french jesuit missionary d one six four nine one six six one claude buffier french philosopher and historian d one seven three seven one seven one three john stuart three rd earl of bute prime minister of great britain d one seven nine two one seven two five samuel ward american politician d one seven seven six one eight zero three edward george bulwer lytton english novelist and playwright d one eight seven three one eight zero three ralph waldo emerson american essayist and philosopher d one eight eight two one eight two zero anne bront english writer d one eight four nine one eight four five lip pike baseball player d one eight eight three one eight six zero james mckeen cattell american psychologist d one nine four four one eight six five john mott american ymca leader recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine five five one eight six five pieter zeeman dutch physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine four three one eight seven seven billy murray american singer d one nine five four one eight seven eight bill bojangles robinson african american entertainer d one nine four nine one eight seven nine lord beaverbrook english publisher d one nine six four one eight eight zero jean alexandre barr french neurologist d one nine six seven one eight eight two marie doro american actress d one nine five six one eight eight seven francesco forgione italian priest d one nine six eight one eight eight eight miles malleson english actor d one nine six nine one eight eight nine igor sikorsky russian inventor d one nine seven two one nine zero seven u nu burmese politician d one nine nine five one nine one two princess dukhye of korea d one nine eight nine one nine one three richard dimbleby british journalist and broadcaster d one nine six five one nine one eight claude akins american actor d one nine nine four one nine two one jack steinberger german born physicist nobel prize laureate one nine two two enrico berlinguer italian politician d one nine eight four one nine two four istv n nyers hungarian footballer d two zero zero five one nine two five rosario castellanos mexican poet d one nine seven four one nine two five jeanne crain american actress d two zero zero three one nine two six miles davis american jazz trumpeter d one nine nine one one nine two seven robert ludlum writer d two zero zero one one nine two nine beverly sills american soprano one nine three one georgi grechko cosmonaut one nine three two john gregory dunne american writer d two zero zero three one nine three five cookie gilchrist american football player one nine three six tom t hall american singer and songwriter one nine three eight raymond carver american writer d one nine eight eight one nine three nine dixie carter american actress one nine three nine ian mckellen english actor one nine four three jessi colter american singer one nine four four frank oz english born puppeteer and director one nine four nine jamaica kincaid antiguan born novelist one nine five three daniel passarella argentine football player one nine five six sugar minott jamaican singer one nine five eight paul weller british musician one nine six three mike myers canadian actor and comedian one nine six five simon fowler english singer ocean colour scene one nine six six mcloud swiss composer musician and multimedia artist one nine six seven poppy z brite american author one nine six eight kendall gill american basketball player one nine six nine anne heche american actress one nine seven zero jamie kennedy american actor one nine seven one sonya smith american actress one nine seven three demetri martin american comedian one nine seven four monica keena american actress one nine seven five lauryn hill american singer one nine seven six miguel tejada dominican major league baseball player one nine seven six jonny wilkinson english rugby player one nine seven seven pat burrell baseball player one nine seven eight brian urlacher american football player one nine seven nine carlos bocanegra american soccer player one nine eight two adam boyd english footballer one nine eight four unnur birna vilhj lmsd ttir miss iceland crowned miss world in two zero zero five deaths seven zero nine aldhelm bishop of sherborne seven three five bede english historian and monk nine six seven murakami emperor of japan b nine two six nine nine two mieszko i of poland one zero eight five pope gregory vii one two six one pope alexander iv one four five two john stafford archbishop of canterbury one five five five gemma frisius dutch mathematician and cartographer b one five zero eight one five five five henry ii of navarre b one five zero three one five nine five valens acidalius german critic and poet b one five six seven one six three two adam tanner austrian mathematician and philosopher b one five seven two one six six seven gustaf bonde swedish statesman b one six two zero one six eight one pedro calder n de la barca spanish playwright b one six zero zero one six nine three marie madeleine pioche de la vergne comtesse de la fayette french writer b one six three four one seven four one daniel ernst jablonski german theologian b one six six zero one seven eight six peter iii of portugal consort of queen maria i of portugal b one seven one seven one seven eight nine anders dahl swedish botanist b one seven five one one seven nine seven john griffin whitwell four th baron howard de walden british field marshal b one seven one nine one eight zero five william paley english philosopher b one seven four three one eight four eight annette von droste h lshoff german writer b one seven nine seven one eight four nine benjamin d urban british general and colonial administrator b one seven seven seven one eight nine nine rosa bonheur french realist painter and sculptor d one eight two two one nine one two austin lane crothers american politician b one eight six zero one nine three zero randall thomas davidson archbishop of canterbury b one eight four eight one nine three four gustav holst english composer b one eight seven four one nine three five sir frank watson dyson english astronomer royal b one eight six eight one nine four zero joe de grasse american film director b one eight seven three one nine five one paula von preradovic croatian born writer b one eight eight seven one nine six five sonny boy williamson american singer songwriter and musician b one eight nine nine one nine seven seven yevgenia ginzburg russian writer b one nine zero four one nine eight six chester bowles american politician b one nine zero one one nine eight eight ernst ruska german physicist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero six one nine nine four sonny sharrock american jazz guitarist b one nine four zero one nine nine six brad nowell american singer and guitarist sublime b one nine six eight drug overdose two zero zero three jeremy michael ward american musician the mars volta drug overdose two zero zero four roger w straus jr american publisher b one nine one seven two zero zero five sunil dutt indian actor and politician b one nine two nine two zero zero five robert jankel british coachbuilder b one nine three eight two zero zero five graham kennedy australian television personality b one nine three four two zero zero five ruth laredo american pianist b one nine three seven holidays and observances commemoration of the venerable bede anglican argentina day of may revolution national day one eight one zero chad liberia mali mauritania namibia zambia and zimbabwe african freedom unity day jordan national day arab renaissance day one nine four six libya sudan sudan national day may revolution day one nine six nine united states memorial day decoration day a legal holiday one eight six eight virginia confederate memorial day one eight six eight lebanon liberation day one nine nine nine socialist federal republic of yugoslavia day of youth ancient latvia urbanas diena observed towel day in memory of douglas adams is observed external links bbc on this day may two four may two six april two five june two five listing of all days may two nine is the one four nine th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one five zero th in leap years there are two one six days remaining events seven five seven paul i succeeds stephen iii as pope one one six seven battle of legano in which the lombard league defeats emperor frederick i one four one four council of constance one four five three ottoman armies under sultan mehmed ii fatih capture constantinople after a siege ending the byzantine empire one six six zero english restoration charles ii is restored to the throne of england one six seven seven treaty of middle plantation establishes peace between the virginia colonists and the local indians one seven two seven peter ii becomes tsar of russia one seven three three right of canadians to keep indian slaves upheld at quebec city one seven nine zero rhode island becomes the last of the original united states colonies to ratify the constitution and is admitted as the one three th u s state one eight four eight wisconsin is admitted as the three zero th u s state one eight six four emperor maximilian of mexico arrives in mexico for the first time one eight six seven austro hungarian agreement called ausgleich the compromise is born through act one two which established the austro hungarian monarchy on june eight emperor francis joseph was crowned king of hungary one eight eight six chemist john pemberton places his first advertisement for coca cola the ad appearing in the atlanta journal one eight eight six putney bridge opened in west london one nine one three igor stravinsky s ballet score the rite of spring is premiered in paris one nine one four ocean liner rms empress of ireland sinks in the gulf of st lawrence one zero two four lives lost one nine one nine observation of shifted star positions during a solar eclipse confirm albert einstein s theory of relativity see arthur eddington one nine three five construction of hoover dam is completed one nine five zero st roch first ship to circumnavigate north america arrives in halifax nova scotia one nine five three sir edmund hillary and sherpa tenzing norgay are the first people to reach the summit of mount everest one nine seven seven janet guthrie becomes the first woman to qualify for the indianapolis five zero zero one nine eight five heysel stadium disaster in brussels belgium three nine football fans die and hundreds are injured during a riot at a european cup match one nine eight five amputee steve fonyo completes cross canada marathon at victoria british columbia after one four months one nine nine four herbert shughart refuses to shake hands with u s president bill clinton following a presentation of posthumous medals of honor to the widows of two soldiers for valor in somalia you are not fit to be president of the united states said shughart senior the blame for my son s death rests with the white house and with you you are not fit to command president clinton replied to mrs shughart what s he jumping on me for i didn t kill the kid one nine nine nine in jerusalem israel charlotte nilsson wins the four four th eurovision song contest for sweden singing take me to your heaven two zero zero two netflix initiated an initial public offering ipo selling five five zero zero zero zero zero shares of common stock at the price of one five zero zero per share two zero zero four the world war ii memorial is dedicated in washington d c two zero zero four the al khobar massacres in saudi arabia kill two two two zero zero five france one of the founders of a united europe resoundingly rejects the european constitution throwing the idea of a european union into question and leaving the continent in a state of anxiety and uncertainty see french referendum on the european constitution two zero zero five danica patrick becomes the first woman to lead a lap in the indianapolis five zero zero births one two six five dante alighieri florentine poet d one three two one one five nine four gottfried heinrich graf zu pappenheim bavarian general d one six three two one six two seven anne duchess of montpensier french writer d one six nine three one six three zero king charles ii of england d one six eight five one six six zero sarah churchill duchess of marlborough english friend of queen anne of england d one seven four four one six seven five humphry ditton english mathematician d one seven one five one seven one six louis jean marie daubenton french naturalist d one eight zero zero one seven two two james fitzgerald one st duke of leinster irish politician d one seven seven three one seven three six patrick henry american patriot d one seven nine nine one eight six zero isaac alb niz spanish composer d one nine zero nine one eight six three arthur mold english cricketer d one nine two one one eight seven four g k chesterton english novelist d one nine three six one eight eight zero oswald spengler german philosopher d one nine three six one eight nine two alfonsina storni argentine writer d one nine three eight one eight nine three max brand american author and war correspondent d one nine four four one eight nine four beatrice lillie canadian actress d one nine eight nine one eight nine four josef von sternberg austrian born writer and film director d one nine six nine one eight nine seven erich wolfgang korngold austrian composer d one nine five seven one nine zero three bob hope british born comedian and actor d two zero zero three one nine zero six t h white british author d one nine six four one nine one three tony zale american boxer d one nine nine seven one nine one four tenzing norgay nepalese sherpa d one nine eight six one nine one five karl m nchinger german conductor d one nine nine zero one nine one seven john fitzgerald kennedy three five th president of the united states d one nine six three one nine two zero john harsanyi hungarian born economist nobel prize laureate d two zero zero zero one nine two two iannis xenakis greek composer d two zero zero one one nine three three helmuth rilling german conductor one nine three three edward whittemore american writer one nine three eight fay vincent baseball commissioner one nine three nine al unser american race car driver one nine four zero farooq leghari president of pakistan one nine four two kevin conway american actor one nine four six fernando buesa basque politician d two zero zero zero one nine four seven gene robinson american ecclesiastic one nine four eight anthony geary american actor one nine five three danny elfman american composer and musician oingo boingo one nine five five john hinckley jr american attempted assassin one nine five six latoya jackson american musician one nine five seven jeb hensarling american politician one nine five eight annette bening american actress one nine five nine rupert everett english actor one nine five nine adrian paul english actor one nine six one melissa etheridge american musician one nine six two eric davis professional baseball player one nine six two john d lemay american actor one nine six three lisa whelchel american actress one nine six seven noel gallagher english musician oasis one nine seven five melanie brown english musician and actress one nine seven nine brian kendrick american professional wrestler one nine eight four carmelo anthony american basketball player deaths one two five nine king christopher i of denmark b one two one nine one three seven nine king henry ii of castile b one three three four one four zero five philippe de m zi res advisor to charles v of france one four two five hongxi emperor of china b one three seven eight one four five three constantine xi palaeologus last byzantine emperor killed in battle b one four zero four one five zero zero bartolomeu dias portuguese explorer one five four six david beaton scottish catholic cardinal one five nine three john penry welsh protestant leader b one five five nine one six six zero frans van schooten dutch mathematician b one six one five one six nine one cornelis tromp dutch admiral b one six two nine one seven nine zero israel putnam american revolutionary war general b one seven one eight one seven nine six carl fredrik pechlin swedish politician b one seven two zero one eight one four jos phine de beauharnais empress of france b one seven six three one eight four seven emmanuel marquis de grouchy french marshal b one seven six six one eight six six winfield scott american general and presidential candidate b one seven eight six one eight eight two vasily perov russian painter b one eight three three one eight nine two bah u ll h persian founder of the bah faith b one eight one seven one eight nine six gabriel auguste daubr e french geologist b one eight one four one nine zero three alexander obrenovich king of serbia b one eight seven six one nine one zero mily balakirev russian composer b one eight three seven one nine one one william s gilbert english dramatist b one eight three six one nine three five josef suk czech composer and violinist b one eight seven four one nine four two john barrymore american actor b one eight eight two one nine four eight dame may whitty english actress b one eight six five one nine five one fanny brice american singer comedienne and actress b one eight nine one one nine five three man mountain dean american professional wrestler b one eight nine one one nine five eight juan ram n jim nez spanish writer nobel prize laureate b one eight eight one one nine seven two stephen timoshenko ukrainian born mechanical engineer b one eight seven eight one nine seven nine mary pickford canadian actress and studio founder b one eight nine two one nine eight two romy schneider austrian actress cardiac arrest b one nine three eight one nine eight nine john cipollina american musician quicksilver messenger service b one nine four three one nine nine three billy conn american boxer b one nine one seven one nine nine four erich honecker leader of east germany b one nine one two one nine nine seven jeff buckley american musician drowned b one nine six six one nine nine eight barry m goldwater u s senator from arizona and presidential candidate b one nine zero nine two zero zero four archibald cox jr american watergate special prosecutor b one nine one two two zero zero four samuel dash american congressional counsel b one nine two five two zero zero five george rochberg american composer b one nine one eight holidays and observances bah faith ascension of bah u llah united kingdom oak apple day nigeria democracy day nigeria returns to democratical form of governance after one six years of military dictatorship venezuela tree day argentina army day external links bbc on this day today in history may two nine may two eight may three zero april two nine june two nine listing of all days a mental illness or emotional disability is defined by the medical profession as a disorder of the brain that results in a disruption in a person s thinking feeling moods and ability to relate to others and to work mental illness is distinct from the legal concepts of sanity and insanity mental health mental hygiene behavioral health and mental wellness are all terms used to describe the presence or absence of mental illness no single cause of mental illness can be considered as there is a wide range of disorders that are part of the category each disorder is likely to have its own etiology however many mental disorders are considered to have organic or neurochemical causes treatment options include psychiatric medication psychotherapy lifestyle adjustments and other supportive measures due to many mental disorders having no defined physiological cause and the nature or nurture debate some have questioned whether mental illnesses are real disorders or are psychosomatic in nature additionally advocacy organizations have been trying to change the stereotype of psychiatric disorders which are often seen as being personally controllable and therefore a sign of weakness some of these organizations would prefer that psychiatric disorders be viewed as natural although not always functional or acceptable variations in the neurology of individuals and promote the acceptance of a neurologically diverse human population prevalence and diagnosis according to the two zero zero three report of the u s president s new freedom commission on mental health major mental illness including clinical depression bipolar disorder schizophrenia and obsessive compulsive disorder when compared with all other diseases such as cancer and heart disease is the most common cause of disability in the united states according to national alliance for the mentally ill nami an american advocacy organisation which accepts funding from the pharmaceutical industry two three of north american adults will suffer from a clinically diagnosable mental illness in a given year but less than half of them will suffer symptoms severe enough to disrupt their daily functioning approximately nine to one three of children under the age of one eight experience serious emotional disturbance with substantial functional impairment five to nine have serious emotional disturbance with extreme functional impairment due to a mental illness many of these young people will recover from their illnesses before reaching adulthood and go on to lead normal lives uncomplicated by illness at the start of the two zero th century there were only a dozen recognized mental illnesses by one nine five two there were one nine two and the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder fourth edition dsm iv today lists three seven four depending on perspective this could be seen as the result of one or more of more effective diagnosis and better characterization of mental illness due to over a century of research in a new field of science and academia a highly increased incidence of mental illness due to some causative agent such as substances in the environment or in one s diet or the ever increasing stress of everyday life an over medicalisation of human thought processes and an increasing tendency on the part of mental health experts to label individual quirks and foibles as illness increasing politicization of the dsm perhaps due in part to the peter principle which may allow decision makers with more discriminating compartmentalizing thought processes to dominate the higher ranks of the medical establishment controversy over its nature the subject is profoundly controversial for example until the one nine seven zero s homosexuality was considered a mental illness in american psychiatry see dsm ii and this perception varies with culture cultural bias and theory of conduct neurochemical studies have revealed abnormalities in neurotransmitter functioning among individuals with certain psychiatric diagnoses also some structural or neuroanatomical differences between brains of people with schizophrenia can be detected via neuroimaging mental illness tends to run in families and there have also been strongly suggestive but not conclusive links between certain genes and particular mental disorders routine brain scans or neurochemical tests for these conditions are however not generally required for prescription of drugs and are not always employed in law either it is not clear whether these differences in brain chemistry are the cause or the result of mental disorders it is also not clear that differences in brain chemistry are pathological also there is no clear proposal as to which neurological anomalies should be considered pathological and which should not this is relevant given that behaviors which are considered normal variant such as homosexuality and giftedness probably have a neurobiological and genetic basis as well traumatic life experiences may exceed an individual s coping ability and result in lasting changes in brain chemistry patterns of learned behavior can also alter brain chemistry for better or for worse cognitive behavior therapy focuses on changing patterns of thinking through learning which may ultimately restore so termed healthy brain chemistry drug therapies for severe mental illnesses such as bipolar disorder and clinical depression which are consistent with biochemical models have been remarkably effective and there are reports of increasingly effective treatments for schizophrenia some argue that drugs merely mask the symptoms of mental suffering by physically crippling the brain s emotional response system others argue that the effectiveness of drugs does not imply that their use is safe or desirable as an analogy they say that it might be possible to treat homosexuality with drugs studies have shown that many patients symptoms return once drug treatment is ceased others reply that many physical conditions such as diabetes must also be controlled with use of medications for an indefinite period of time it is important to note that the existence of mental illness and the legitimacy of the psychiatric profession are not universally accepted some professionals notably doctor thomas szasz professor emeritus of psychiatry at syracuse are profoundly opposed to the practice of applying the label mental illness the anti psychiatry movement often refers to what it considers to be the myth of mental illness and argues against a biological origin for mental disorders or else suggests that all human experience has a biological origin and so no pattern of behavior can be classified as an illness per se other arguments against psychiatry include controversial treatments such as electroconvulsive therapy or the practice of placing patients in a mental institution with other mentally ill people this does much to increase the emotional stress levels of the patient by influence of the other patients causing the mental illness to worsen some people currently diagnosed as mentally ill are also against the notion of a psychiatric disorder for example some autistic individuals have organized and formed the autistic rights movement they claim that autism is a form of neurodiversity categorization in the united states mental illnesses have been categorized into groups according to their common symptoms in the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders compiled by the american psychiatric association there are thirteen different categories some containing a myriad of illnesses and others only a few selecting any of the wikipedia categories in the table will allow you access to all the articles and subcategories in that category dsm group examples wikipedia category disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy childhood or adolescence disorders such as autism and epilepsy have also been referred to as developmental disorders and developmental disabilities mental retardation autism adhd delirium dementia and amnesia and other cognitive disorders alzheimer s disease and mental disorders due to a general medical condition aids related psychosis substance related disorders alcohol abuse schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders delusional disorder mood disorders clinical depression bipolar disorder anxiety disorders general anxiety disorder somatoform disorders somatization disorder factitious disorders munchausen syndrome dissociative disorders dissociative identity disorder sexual and gender identity disorders dyspareunia gender identity disorder eating disorders anorexia nervosa sleep disorders insomnia impulse control disorders not elsewhere classified kleptomania adjustment disorders adjustment disorder personality disorders narcissistic personality disorder other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention tardive dyskinesia child abuse many organizations do not view mental retardation as a mental illness the mental health association of southeastern pennsylvania states mental illness and mental retardation are not the same thing people are born with mental retardation a condition characterized by below average intelligence throughout one s life mental illness however can affect anyone at any time in fact certain mental illnesses are more common among people with high intelligence and creativity however people with developmental disabilities such as mental retardation are more likely to experience mental illness than those in the general community symptoms in addition to the categorized illnesses there are many well defined symptoms of mental illness such as paranoia that are not regarded as illnesses in themselves but only as indicators of one of the illnesses belonging to one of the classes listed above crime is not a symptom of mental illness however movies often portray murderers as being mentally ill this makes a villain more emotional interesting and dramatic in truth mentally disturbed people commit fewer crimes than the elderly treatment strictly speaking there is no cure for mental illness many conditions like schizophrenia bipolar disorder and depression can be treated with medication however the function of the psychiatrist is in administering monitoring and managing the prescription of these medications and their effects on the patient loosely speaking there is a cure for some mental conditions in the same sense that there is a cure for cancer that is if a person has a mental illness it can be treated until the symptoms disappear the chances of the symptoms recurring will be affected by the number of episodes the patient has had in the past the effectiveness of the treatment as well as external factors if the patient s symptoms never recur he is said to be cured if they recur it is the same concept as a cancer patient coming out of remission i e the patient never was cured in the first place since mental illness is at its base behavioral illness most mentally ill patients also benefit from psychotherapy either from a psychiatrist or some other qualified clinician like a social worker or psychologist the most basic treatment involves identifying maladaptive self destructive or inappropriate behaviors and finding ways with the patient of coping with eliminating or altering those behaviors to promote overall mental health often individuals with serious mental illness will engage in several different treatment modalities all with specific goals for example a patient with chronic schizophrenia may be involved in treatment with a psychiatrist for medication and he or she may also be engaged in psychotherapy to help manage their life long condition as well being engaged in case management sometimes referred to as service coordination or a day treatment vocational or psychosocial rehabilitation program to help move them towards a more productive and independent role in the community in art and literature books one flew over the cuckoo s nest by ken kesey woman on the edge of time by marge piercy the catcher in the rye by j d salinger the curious incident of the dog in the night time by mark haddon the bell jar by sylvia plath of mice and men by john steinbeck girl interrupted by susanna kaysen the green mile by stephen king she s come undone by wally lamb motion pictures many motion pictures portray mental illness in inaccurate ways leading to misunderstanding and heightened stigma some movies however are lauded for dispelling stereotypes and providing insight into mental illness in a study by george gerbner it was determined that five percent of normal television characters are murderers while two zero of mentally ill characters are murderers four zero of normal characters are violent while seven zero of mentally ill characters are violent contrary to what is portrayed in films and television henry steadman and his colleagues found that overall former mental patients did not have a higher rate of violence than their control group of people who were not formal mental health patients in both groups however substance abuse was linked to a higher rate of violence hockenbury and hockenbury two zero zero four see list of films featuring mental illness see also anti psychiatry automatism causes of mental illness chemical imbalance theory electroconvulsive therapy evidence based medicine god complex history of mental illness international center for the study of psychiatry and psychology medical algorithm mental health act one nine eight three alphabetic list of mental illnesses mindfreedom org new freedom commission on mental health outpatient commitment patch adams psychiatric survivors movement psychopathology reality sally satel sectioning psychiatric hospital texas medication algorithm project wikibooks external links government sites mentalhealthcommission gov interim report of the president s new freedom commission on mental health united states nimh nih gov working to improve mental health through biomedical research on mind brain and behavior national institute of mental health united states nimhe org uk responsible for supporting the implementation of positive change in mental health and mental health services national institute for mental health united kingdom nimhe org uk joined up knowledge sharing for mental health service improvement nimh uk history and professional specialties caslater freeservers com from idiocy to intellectual impairment one zero zero zero ad two zero zero zero ad a history of people who have been described over the years as fools and intellectually impaired mentally retarded and developmentally delayed mentally handicapped and learning disabled catherine slater m a ericdigests org mental health counseling identity and distinctiveness ericdigests org mental health and the adult refugee the role of the esl teacher ericdigests org mental health counseling assessment broadening one s understanding of the client and the clients presenting concerns ohiou edu the history of mental illness ohio university the ridges plato stanford edu mental illness stanford encyclopedia of philosophy media coverage news medical net globalisation affecting children s mental health around the world july four two zero zero five publicintegrity org pushing prescriptions drug lobby second to none how the pharmaceutical industry gets its way in washington m asif ismail july seven two zero zero five compiled mental health news and resources mental health news freewebs com gambling help mental health matters com mental health self help psychology information and resources nami org in the news national alliance for the mentally ill nami california psychcentral com dr grohol s psych central mental health symptoms treatments and resources seemescotland org latest news and events scotland online support groups about mental health about mental health eating disorders support psychforums com mental health support community psych central psych central s self help support forums stories of recovery from mental illness recovery stories from memorywiki references roy porter madness a brief history oxford university press two zero zero three abnormal psychology disability medical ethics mental health mental illness diagnosis by dsm and iscdrhp psychiatry michael john moorcock born december one eight one nine three nine is a prolific british writer primarily of science fiction and science fantasy who has also published a number of literary novels moorcock s most popular works by far have been the elric novels starring the character elric of melnibon an anti hero written as a deliberate reversal of what moorcock saw as cliches commonly found in fantasy adventure novels inspired by the works of john ronald reuel tolkien and a direct antithesis of robert e howard s conan moorcock became editor of tarzan adventures in one nine five six at the age of sixteen and later moved on to edit sexton blake library as editor of the controversial british science fiction magazine new worlds from may one nine six four until march one nine seven one and then again from one nine seven six to one nine nine six moorcock fostered the development of the new wave in the uk and indirectly in the u s his serialisation of norman spinrad s bug jack barron was notorious for causing british mps to condemn in parliament the arts council s funding of the magazine during this time he occasionally wrote under the pseudonym of james colvin a house pseudonym used by other critics on new worlds a spoof obituary of colvin later appeared in new worlds moorcock indeed makes much use of the initials jc and not entirely coincidentally these are also the initials of jesus christ the subject of his one nine six seven nebula award winning novella behold the man which tells the story of karl glogauer a time traveller who takes on the role of christ in his literary novel breakfast in the ruins the introduction refers to moorcock s early death a hoax believed by many readers works stormbringer lancer one nine six seven his work is complex and multilayered central to many of his fantasy novels is the concept of an eternal champion who has potentially multiple identities across multiple dimensions this cosmogony is called the multiverse within his novels the eternal champion is engaged in a constant struggle with not only conventional notions of good and evil but also in the struggle for balance between law and chaos thus the criticism of metanarratives common in post modern critical theory finds its expression in a form widely read and understood at a variety of levels moorcock s most popular works by far have been the elric novels starring the character elric of melnibon moorcock wrote the first elric stories as a deliberate reversal of the cliches common in the fantasy adventure novels inspired by the works of john ronald reuel tolkien work that moorcock despises as well as the work of robert e howard the popularity of elric has overshadowed his many other works though he has worked a number of the themes of the elric stories into his other works the hawkmoon and corum novels for example his eternal champion sequence has been collected in two different editions of omnibus volumes comprising fifteen books containing several books per volume by victor gollancz in the uk and by white wolf publishing in the us one of moorcock s popular creations was jerry cornelius another jc a kind of hip secret agent of ambiguous sexuality the same characters featured in each of several cornelius books these books were most obviously satirical of modern times including the vietnam war and continue to feature as another variation of the multiverse theme the first jerry cornelius book the final programme was made into a feature film since the one nine eight zero s moorcock has tended to write literary mainstream novels such as mother london and byzantium endures which have had positive reviews but continues to revisit characters from his earlier works like elric with books like the dreamthief s daughter or the skrayling tree with the writing of the third and last book in this trilogy the white wolf s son due two zero zero five he announced that he was retiring from writing heroic fantasy fiction though he continues to write elric s adventures as graphic novels with his long time collaborator walter simonson he has also completed his colonel pyat sequence dealing with the nazi holocaust which began with byzantium endures continued through the laughter of carthage and jerusalem commands and ends with the vengeance of rome although moorcock is mostly known for the books mentioned above he also wrote several novels and novellas which are staged on earth in some million years at the end of time the strange characters inhabiting this world the dancers at the end of time may seem weird at first but moorcock s language and storytelling manage to capture the reader after some pages not really fantasy or dark fantasy as his writing style has been called by many these stories are an example for the mastery with which the author handles science fiction fantasy and classical fiction his novel gloriana while an alternative world story is not strictly a fantasy but won the john w campbell award in one nine seven eight and the world fantasy award in one nine seven nine other novels have won the british fantasy award august derleth award he received the guardian fiction prize for the condition of muzak the last volume in the first jerry cornelius sequence in one nine seven seven he received a lifetime achievement award the prix utopiales in nantes france in two zero zero four musical interests he has also collaborated with the british rock band hawkwind on many occasions the hawkwind track the black corridor for example included verbatim quotes from moorcock s novel of the same name and he also worked with the band on their album warrior on the edge of time moorcock also penned the lyrics to sonic attack a sf send up of the public information broadcast that was part of the space ritual set moorcock also collaborated with former hawkwind frontman and resident poet robert calvert who gave the chilling declamation of sonic attack on calvert s albums lucky leif and the longships and hype an album the new worlds fair by michael moorcock and the deep fix was released in one nine seven five which included a number of hawkwind regulars in the credits a second version of the album roller coaster holiday was issued in two zero zero four the deep fix was the title story of an obscure collection of short stories by james colvin published in the one nine six zero s moorcock wrote the lyrics to three album tracks by the american band blue yster cult black blade referring to the sword stormbringer in the elric books veteran of the psychic wars showing us elric s emotions at a critical point of his story this song may also refer to the warriors at the edge of time which figure heavily in moorcock s novels about john daker at one point his novel the dragon in the sword they call themselves the veterans of a thousand psychic wars and the great sun jester about his friend the poet bill butler who died of a drug overdose moorcock has even performed live with b c in one nine eight seven at the atlanta ga dragon con convention and hawkwind views on other writers moorcock is a fervent supporter of the works of mervyn peake and an almost equally fervent detractor of the works of j r r tolkien he met both tolkien and c s lewis in his teens and claims to have liked them personally even though he does not admire them on artistic grounds moorcock criticises works like the lord of the rings for their merry england point of view famously equating tolkien s trilogy to winnie the pooh in his essay epic pooh he cites as an example of an author who writes fantasy that is not escapist and contains meaningful themes fritz leiber one of the pioneers of sword and sorcery fiction these views can be found in his study of epic fantasy wizardry starship stormtroopers he compared heinlein s starship troopers to mein kampf calling it xenophobic likewise he attacked lovecraft for having anti semitic misogynistic and extremely racist viewpoints which he included in his short stories sharing fictional universes with others moorcock has allowed a number of other writers to create stories in his fictional jerry cornelius universe brian aldiss m john harrison norman spinrad and james sallis among others have written such stories in an interview published in the internet review of science fiction moorcock explains the reason for sharing his character i came out of popular fiction and jerry was always meant to be a sort of crystal ball for others to see their own visions in the stories were designed to work like that a diving board to use another analogy from which to jump into the river and be carried along by it all of these have tended to use jerry the way i intended to use him as a way of seeing modern life and sometimes as a way of commenting on it jerry as harrison said was as much a method as a character and i m glad that others have taken to using that method he is also a friend and fan of comics writer alan moore and allowed moore the use of several of his own copyright characters in moore s the league of extraordinary gentlemen in two zero zero zero moorcock wrote a five zero zero zero zero word outline for a computer game which was then improved upon and fleshed out by storm constantine resulting in the novel silverheart the story is set in karadur shriltasi a city at the heart of the multiverse biographical moorcock was a member of the swordsmen and sorcerers guild of america saga a loose knit group heroic fantasy authors founded in the one nine six zero s some of whose works were anthologized in lin carter s flashing swords anthologies in one nine nine seven moorcock was one of the guests of honor at the worldcon in san antonio texas and as guest of honour at the world fantasy convention in corpus christi texas two zero zero zero received a howie world fantasy award for lifetime achievement in two zero zero two he was inducted into the science fiction hall of fame in the one nine nine zero s moorcock moved to texas in the united states in two zero zero four he announced plans to move back to europe probably eventually settling in france and spain select bibliography behold the man one nine six six the black corridor one nine six nine warlord of the air one nine seven one legends from the end of time the dancers at the end of time gloriana king of the city mother london my experiences in the third world war the between the wars sequence byzantium endures the laughter of carthage jerusalem commands the vengeance of rome january two zero zero six the elric sequence and other eternal champion books the jerry cornelius quartet of novels and shorter fiction the final programme a cure for cancer the english assassin the condition of muzak the adventures of una persson and catherine cornelius in the two zero th century the entropy tango the alchemist s question the lives and times of jerry cornelius firing the cathedral novella the von bek sequence the war hound and the world s pain the city in the autumn stars the brothel in rosenstrasse external links general moorcock s miscellany formerly tanelorn multiverse org epic pooh by michael moorcock starship stormtroopers by michael moorcock internet archive snapshot from two zero zero two also starship stormtroopers at the stan iverson memorial archives interviews corporate mofo interview the bayley moorcock letters part i the bayley moorcock letters part ii the internet review of science fiction interview registration required three am magazine interview one nine three nine births living people british fantasy writers british science fiction writers science fiction editors world fantasy award winning authors this article is on all of the northern chinese dialects for the standardized official spoken chinese language putonghua guoyu see standard mandarin mandarin or beifanghua is a category of related chinese dialects spoken across most of northern and southwestern china when taken as an independent language as is often done in academic literature the mandarin dialects have more speakers than any other language in english mandarin can refer to two distinct concepts to standard mandarin putonghua guoyu which is based on the mandarin dialect spoken in beijing standard mandarin functions as the official spoken language of the people s republic of china the official spoken language of the republic of china taiwan and one of the official spoken languages of singapore chinese de facto standard mandarin is one of the six official languages of the united nations to all of the mandarin dialects spoken in northern and southwestern china a term used by linguists in everyday use mandarin refers usually to just standard mandarin putonghua guoyu the broader group of mandarin dialects consists of diverse related dialects some less mutually intelligible than others it is a grouping defined and used mainly by linguists and is not commonly used outside of academic circles as a self description instead when asked to describe the spoken form they are using chinese speaking a form of mandarin will describe the variant that they are speaking for example sichuan dialect or northeast china dialect and consider it distinct from standard mandarin they may not recognize that it is in fact classified by linguists as a form of mandarin in a broader sense nor is there a common mandarin identity based on language instead there are strong regional identities centered around individual mandarin dialects due to the wide geographical distribution of its speakers this article will focus on the wider sense of mandarin a large grouping of diverse northern and southwestern chinese dialects rather than just standard mandarin like all other varieties of chinese there is significant dispute as to whether mandarin is a language or a dialect see identification of the varieties of chinese for more on this issue history the present main divisions of the chinese language developed out of old chinese and middle chinese most chinese living in a broad arc from the north east manchuria to the south west yunnan use various mandarin dialects as their home language the prevalence of linguistic homogeneity i e mandarin throughout northern china is largely the result of geography namely the plains of north china by contrast the mountains and rivers of southern china have promoted linguistic diversity the presence of mandarin in southwest china is largely due to a plague in the one two th century in sichuan this plague which may have been related to the black death depopulated the area leading to later settlement from north china there is no clear dividing line where middle chinese ends and mandarin begins however the zh ngyu n y ny n a rhyme book from the yuan dynasty is widely regarded as an important milestone in the history of mandarin in this rhyme book we see many characteristic features of mandarin such as the reduction and disappearance of final stop consonants and the reorganization of the middle chinese tones image mandarin sub dialects png uncropped version until the mid two zero th century most chinese living in southern china spoke only the local dialect however despite the mix of officials and commoners speaking various chinese dialects beijingese mandarin became dominant at least during the officially manchu speaking qing empire since the one seven th century the empire had set up orthoepy academies in an attempt to make pronunciation conform to the beijing standard but these attempts had little success this situation changed with the creation in both the prc and the roc of an elementary school education system committed to teaching standard mandarin as a result standard mandarin is now spoken fluently by most people in mainland china and in taiwan in hong kong the language of education and formal speech remains cantonese but standard mandarin is becoming increasingly influential name and classification the english term comes from the portuguese mandarim from malay menteri from sanskrit mantrin meaning minister it is a translation of the chinese term gu nhu which literally means the language of the mandarins imperial magistrates the term gu nhu is often considered archaic by chinese speakers of today though it is used sometimes by linguists as a collective term to refer to all varieties and dialects of mandarin not just standard mandarin another term commonly used to refer to all varieties of mandarin is b if nghu or the dialect s of the north standard mandarin main article standard mandarin from an official point of view there are two versions of standard mandarin since the beijing government refers to that on the mainland as putonghua whereas the taipei government refers to their official language as kuo y guoyu in pinyin technically both putonghua and guoyu base their phonology on the beijing dialect though putonghua also takes some elements from other sources comparison of dictionaries produced in the two areas will show that there are few substantial differences however both versions of school standard mandarin are often quite different from the mandarin dialects that are spoken in accordance with regional habits and neither is identical to even beijing dialect putonghua and guoyu also differ from the beijing dialect in vocabulary grammar and usage it is important to note that the terms putonghua and guoyu refer to speech and hence the difference in the use of simplified characters and traditional characters is not usually considered to be a difference between these two concepts dialects geographical distribution of mandarin and other chinese languages main article mandarin dialects there are regional variations in mandarin this is manifested in two ways various dialects of mandarin cover a huge area containing nearly a billion people as a result there are pronounced regional variations in pronunciation vocabulary and grammar encountered as one moves from place to place these regional differences are as pronounced as or more so than the regional versions of the english language found in england scotland ireland australia canada and the united states standard mandarin has been promoted very actively by the prc the roc and singapore as a second language as a result native speakers of both mandarin varieties and non mandarin chinese varieties frequently flavor it with a strong infusion of the speech sounds of their native tongues dialects of mandarin can be subdivided into eight categories beijing mandarin northeastern mandarin ji lu mandarin jiao liao mandarin zhongyuan mandarin lan yin mandarin southwestern mandarin and jianghuai mandarin jin is sometimes considered the ninth category of mandarin others separate it from mandarin altogether in both mainland china and taiwan mandarin in predominantly han chinese areas is taught by immersion starting in elementary school after the second grade the entire educational system is in mandarin except for local language classes that have been taught for a few hours each week in taiwan starting in the mid one nine nine zero s however the era of mass education in mandarin has not erased these earlier regional differences in the south the interaction between mandarin and local variations of chinese has produced local versions of the northern language that are rather different from that official standard mandarin in both pronunciation and grammar phonology see standard mandarin for a description of standard mandarin phonology and dialects of mandarin for an overview of the phonologies of mandarin dialects mandarin like most chinese dialects languages is syllable timed as opposed to many western languages including english which are stress timed the set of syllables in chinese is very small since each syllable has to be constructed after the pattern optional initial consonant followed by vowel followed by optional final consonant which is either an offglide or n plus tone not every syllable that is possible according to this rule actually exists in mandarin and in practice there are only a few hundred syllables for example mandarin lacks a final m sound people with a heavy mandarin accent would often read time as tie mm or may even pronounce the m more like n vocabulary there are more polysyllabic words in mandarin than in other varieties of chinese except shanghainese which has more polysyllabic words than mandarin this is partly because mandarin has undergone many more sound changes than have southern varieties of chinese and has needed to deal with many more homophones usually by forming new words via compounding or by adding affixes such as lao zi e r and tou there are also a small number of words that have been polysyllabic since old chinese such as hudie butterfly the pronouns in mandarin are w i n you and t he she with men added for the group dialects of mandarin agree with each other quite consistently on this but not with other varieties of chinese e g shanghainese has non you and yi he she in addition there is z nmen a we that includes the listener and n n a deferential way of saying you a comparable example would be sie and du in german other morphemes that mandarin dialects tend to share are aspect and mood particles such as le zhe and guo other chinese varieties tend to use different words in some of these contexts e g cantonese and due to contact with central asian cultures mandarin has some loanwords from altaic languages not present in other varieties of chinese for example h tong alley southern chinese varieties have borrowed more from tai or austronesian languages references see also chinese grammar external links ethnologue report on mandarin chinese language source materials used as the basis for the map and chart supplied above chinese language tonal languages mandarin linguistics places called mayo include county mayo a county in ireland mayo a settlement in county mayo ireland mayo a place in the u s state of florida mayo a town in trinidad and tobago the division of mayo an australian electoral division in south australia mayo a town in quebec canada various rivers called mayo mayo also refers to the mayo clinic a famous medical center in rochester minnesota the mayo people a native american ethnic group who live in the states of sinaloa and sonora mexico mayo language mayo a slang term for mayonnaise people with the surname mayo include arthur mayo one eight four zero one nine two zero recipient of the victoria cross barry mayo radio executive charles horace mayo one eight six five one nine three nine physician co founder of the mayo clinic charles herbert mayo one eight four five one nine two nine antiquarian elton mayo one eight eight zero one nine four nine psychologist and sociologist helen mayo one eight seven eight one nine six seven women s health pioneer iban mayo born one nine seven seven professional bicycle racer james mayo born one nine seven five singer songwriter from nashville tn get ur mind rite manolito tolentino mayo one nine five five one nine eight three artist oj mayo born one nine eight seven basketball player steven mayo born one nine six zero founder of emissary international a clinical research consulting company see www emissary com simon mayo born one nine five eight disc jockey virginia mayo one nine two zero two zero zero five film actress whitman mayo one nine three zero two zero zero one actor william b mayo one eight six zero one nine four four chief power engineer of the ford motor company william james mayo one eight six one one nine three nine co founder of the mayo clinic william leonidas mayo one eight six one one nine one seven founder and first president of east texas normal college william worrall mayo co founder of the mayo clinic william mayo born c one six eight five civil engineer who laid out the city of richmond virginia william mayo the vicar of folke dorset england in about one eight four five thomas mayo brewer one eight one four one eight eight zero naturalist richmond mayo smith one eight five four one nine zero one economist moby born richard melville hall on september one one one nine six five in harlem new york city is an american electronic musician moby takes his performing name from his relative herman melville author of moby dick music career arguably he is most famous among his peers for the track go a progressive track using the string line from laura palmer s theme from the tv drama twin peaks moby is also well known for singles like porcelain south side with gwen stefani we are all made of stars and lift me up moby has released singles and albums under the names voodoo child barracuda uhf the brotherhood dj cake lopez and brainstorm mindstorm several of his songs have also found their way into major motion pictures and commercials the ambient piece god moving over the face of the waters was featured in the one nine nine five motion picture heat the one nine nine six rover four zero zero car commercial the trailer for the two zero zero five movie syriana the two zero zero six apple commercial for the intel based line of imac pc s why does my heart feel so bad was used in the climax of the documentary film peaceable kingdom the trailer for the two zero zero one movie black hawk down extreme ways was featured in the end of the two zero zero two movie the bourne identity and its sequel the two zero zero four movie the bourne supremacy indeed in one nine nine seven moby released a compilation of tracks used in and inspired by the cinema called i like to score his music was also used to great effect in oliver stone s any given sunday moby plays keyboard guitar and bass guitar and expresses mild irritation at the assumption that everything on his newer albums is a sample he used to be in a punk band called the vatican commandos but abandoned punk in one nine eight nine for electronic music his first album the story so far aka moby featured the single go which gained popularity in many discos and earned a spot on the uk charts the song is so popular that moby still played go regularly in his sets his first album for elektra records was everything is wrong which earned early critical praise and minor public awareness he followed that up with a hard rock electronic album called animal rights in one nine nine six in one nine nine seven he released i like to score a collection of music included in movies among those tracks was an updated version of the james bond theme however both animal rights and i like to score were commercially unsuccessful and moby and elektra parted company moby performing a rare dj set at nasa rewind a two zero zero four rave on manhattan island after a decade s worth of music moby s breakthrough album was one nine nine nine s play mainstream reviewers raved about his talents on the album released on v two records though some early fans were let down the album has one eight tracks and was the first album in history to have all of its tracks commercially licensed porcelain for instance appeared on tv commercials for bailey s irish cream hong kong s pccw and nordstrom and volkswagen s mkiv jetta find my baby was on a commercial for american express featuring golfer tiger woods the album s tracks eventually were accepted in various radio formats but because of play s extensive licensing the album could have been financially successful even without radio play in addition to fame garnered through its licensing play is also notable for its extensive sampling of old blues recordings collected by alan lomax in a two zero zero five posting on his web site moby theorized that his eagerness to license his music is a result of growing up in poverty in two zero zero one moby founded the area one festival it was a popular touring rock festival that featured an eclectic range of musical genres a second tour was organized for the following year in two zero zero one moby also earned the ire of eminem after calling his music misogynist and homophobic eminem later satirized moby among others in without me calling him a fag and questioning his relevance with the claim nobody listens to techno the two were in a confrontation at the two zero zero two mtv video music awards though moby expresses respect for eminem s musical talents in two zero zero two moby briefly had a television show on mtv se or moby s house of music which focused mostly on more obscure electronic music also in two zero zero two moby released one eight a techno album that had one eight tracks the most popular song on the album was we are all made of stars moby says he wrote we are all made of stars because of the september one one terrorist attacks which happened on his birthday source album one eight b sides dvd moby a vegan non denominational christian and self proclaimed simpleton for his often sincere and idealistic political assessments lives in new york city s little italy where he s lived for a decade in a small apartment in a five story building across the street from david bowie despite his religion he has expressed pro choice views he owns a small restaurant and coffee shop called teany where he occasionally waits tables he also organized the little idiot collective a group of artists that also includes cartoonist and musician james kochalka in two zero zero five moby released lift me up a single from his album hotel which featured in addition to numerous remixes uk company digimpro s software the program allows users to remix the song using any or all of the samples included and save it as an mp three file thus unlimited personalized versions of the title track were possible digimpro had previously seen exposure with group erasure s single breathe allowing users the same ability for certain dates on moby s two zero zero five european tour liveherenow provided concert goers with cds of the show one zero minutes after the show finished other mute records artists like erasure and client have previously used this company for similar reasons activism moby is well known advocate for a variety of liberal causes working with moveon org and peta among others he also actively engages in nonpartisan activism he has performed benefit concerts for the institute for music and neurologic function promoting music therapy moby also serves on the board of directors of amend org a nonprofit that implements injury prevention programs in africa political quotes i m actually kind of impressed by iraq s patience right now i mean look at it objectively they ve opened their doors to un inspectors they re being bombed by british and american troops american forces are massing at their borders american diplomats are actively looking to assassinate saddam hussein etc for example you can go on all the pro life chat rooms and say you re an outraged right wing voter and that you know that george bush drove an ex girlfriend to an abortion clinic and paid for her to get an abortion then you go to an anti immigration website chat room and ask what s all this about george bush proposing amnesty for illegal aliens area festival founded in two zero zero one the area festival was a creation by moby inspired by lollapalooza and featured diverse genres of music the music festival is currently on indefinite hiatus area one this concert in two zero zero one featured the bands outkast new order nelly furtado incubus the roots paul oakenfold the orb carl cox area two this concert in two zero zero two featured the bands david bowie ash blue man group busta rhymes john digweed the avalanches dj tiesto dieselboy dj dan discography albums moby hotel official albums the story so far aka moby instinct one nine nine three ambient instinct one nine nine three everything is wrong mute one nine nine five two one uk animal rights mute one nine nine six three eight uk play mute one nine nine nine one us one uk play the b sides mute two zero zero zero two four uk one eight mute two zero zero two four us one uk one eight b sides dvd mute two zero zero three hotel mute two zero zero five two eight us eight uk limited edition bonus discs underwater free with limited edition everything is wrong little idiot free with limited edition animal rights hotel ambient free with limited edition hotel three five minutes from itunes moby one eight pseudonyms instinct dance instinct one nine nine one moby barracuda brainstorm voodoo child the end of everything mute one nine nine six voodoo child sugar baby trophy one nine nine six dj cake baby monkey mute two zero zero four compilations early underground instinct one nine nine three rare the collected b sides one nine eight nine one nine nine three instinct one nine nine six everything is wrong dj mix album mute one nine nine six i like to score mute one nine nine seven mobysongs one nine nine three nine eight elektra two zero zero zero singles one nine nine one go one zero uk one nine nine three i feel it thousand three eight uk one nine nine three move two one uk one nine nine four hymn three one uk one nine nine four feeling so real three zero uk one nine nine five everytime you touch me two eight uk one nine nine five into the blue three four uk one nine nine six bring back my happiness feb one nine nine six one nine nine six that s when i reach for my revolver two six august one nine nine six five zero uk one nine nine six come on baby four november one nine nine six one nine nine seven james bond theme moby s re version eight uk one nine nine eight honey three three uk one nine nine nine run on three three uk one nine nine nine bodyrock three eight uk one nine nine nine why does my heart feel so bad one six uk two zero zero zero natural blues one one uk two zero zero zero porcelain five uk two zero zero zero south side featuring gwen stefani one four us two zero zero zero why does my heart feel so bad honey remix feat kelis one seven uk two zero zero two we are all made of stars uk one one uk two zero zero two extreme ways uk three nine uk two zero zero two in this world uk three five uk two zero zero three sunday the day before my birthday uk two zero zero three jam for the ladies uk two zero zero five lift me up uk two eight february two zero zero five one eight uk two zero zero five raining again europe two three may two zero zero five australia six june two zero zero five five two australia two zero zero five spiders uk three zero may two zero zero five five zero uk two zero zero five beautiful europe one two september two zero zero five two zero zero five dream about me uk eight august two zero zero five two zero zero six slipping away uk two three january two zero zero six five three uk see also list of number one dance hits united states list of artists who reached number one on the us dance chart area festival biographies moby replay two zero zero one olmstead press paperback isbn one five eight seven five four zero one one eight external links official site moby wired magazine cover story moby bandnews moby pic live moby unofficial moby forum french moby fan french moby website one nine six five births ambient musicians american bloggers american electronic musicians christian musicians electronic musicians house musicians manhattanites pro choice celebrities techno musicians vegans living people m tley cr e pronounced as mott ley crew is an american heavy metal glam metal band whose members include nikki sixx tommy lee mick mars and vince neil history one nine eight zero s m tley cr e was formed in one nine eight one in los angeles after bassist nikki sixx left the band london which he and lizzie grey had started in one nine seven nine after he was fired from blackie lawless band sister london was also the first band for guns n roses guitarists izzy stradlin and slash as well as cinderella drummer fred coury nikki asked london bandmate greg leon about musicians interested in joining a new band leon recommended the drummer tommy lee who was currently in the band suite one nine nikki and tommy met guitarist mick mars through a classified ad in an l a music newspaper reading loud rude aggressive guitarist available when they first met mick nikki s first reaction was i can t believe it here s another one like us mick s equipment was quickly set up and shortly after he was played the opening riff to stick to your guns mars proceeded to according to tommy lee play the shit out of his guitar after getting drunk and jamming for an hour mick fired the band s guitarist who was a musician known only as robin a pansy according to lee it was mick who came up with the band s name while in his former band white horse one of the band members walked in and called the group a motley looking crew mick copied the name down on paper with the original spelling mottley krue the name was later applied to the band he was to join in one nine eight one with nikki and tommy tommy and vince neil originally knew each other in high school they had performed in different bands in the garage band circuit mick suggested m tley cr e hire vince after seeing him perform with the band rock candy at first vince rebuffed the band when they asked him to audition then as fate would have it rockandi dissolved vince broke down and agreed to audition for m tley cr e after tommy called him once more now the four members were together they played in los angeles and hollywood for a while catching fire wherever they went they soon met their first manager allan coffman who was a vietnam veteran the band s first release was the single stick to your guns toast of the town which was released on their own label leath r records in november one nine eight one their debut album too fast for love was self produced and released on leath r selling two zero zero zero zero copies their success in the los angeles club scene earned them a recording contract with elektra records in early one nine eight two the debut album was then remastered by producer roy thomas baker and re released on august two zero one nine eight two in one nine eight two the band changed management from allan coffman to doug thaler and doc mcghee mcghee is best known for managing kiss starting with their reunion tour in one nine nine six after playing the us festival the band took the united states by storm they were known as much for their hedonistic lifestyle outrageous clothing extreme high heeled boots heavy make up and seemingly endless abuse of alcohol and drugs as for their music their mixture of metal and glam rock stylings produced several massive selling albums during the one nine eight zero s including shout at the devil one nine eight three theatre of pain one nine eight five and girls girls girls one nine eight seven the band has also had their share of scrapes with the law and life first with vince s auto accident in one nine eight four which had a fatality razzle dingley drummer of hanoi rocks then in one nine eight seven when nikki clinically died and came back to life after a heroin overdose the band s decadent lifestyle almost shattered the band until doug thaler and doc mcghee pulled an intervention shortly after all the band members underwent rehabilitation except for mick who cleaned up on his own after finding sobriety in one nine eight nine m tley cr e reached its peak popularity with the release of their fifth album dr feelgood on september two three one nine eight nine on october one four of that year it became their only no one album and stayed on the charts for one zero nine weeks after its release doc mcghee was fired in one nine eight nine after breaking several promises to the band in relation to the moscow music peace festival one nine nine zero s changing trends in music and the temporary departure of vince from the band in february one nine nine two caused a decline in m tley cr e s commercial success although a self titled one nine nine four release with new frontman john corabi formerly of angora and the scream made the top ten doug thaler would manage the band alone until one nine nine four after the band did a mass firing when their album m tley cr e failed to meet commercial expectations the band reunited in one nine nine seven after their current manager allen kovac and vince s manager bert stein set up a meeting between vince tommy and nikki agreeing to leave their egos at the door the band recorded generation swine although it debuted at four and despite the band performing at the american music awards the album was a commercial failure due in part to their label elektra records lack of support the band soon left elektra and created their own label m tley records in the one nine nine zero s m tley cr e was perhaps better known for the women married by three of its members both tommy and nikki married former playboy playmates and stars on the tv show baywatch tommy married pamela anderson and nikki wed donna d errico not to be outdone vince married former playboy centerfold heidi mark however only nikki s marriage has endured the test of time more tragedy would hit the band in the one nine nine zero s in one nine nine four vince suffered perhaps his most crushing blow when his daughter skylar neil succumbed to cancer vince along with former wife stripper and mud wrestler sharise ruddell would later sue the company rocketdyne for dumping cancer causing chemicals near their former simi valley home tommy on the other hand would go to prison for six months after being accused of abusing his then wife pamela anderson in one nine nine eight m tley cr e s contractual ties with elektra records had expired putting the band in total control of their future this included the ownership of the masters of all their albums in announcing the end of their relationship with elektra records the band became one of the few groups in history to own and control their publishing and catalogue of recorded masters in one nine nine nine the band re released all their albums dubbed as cr cial cr e the limited edition digital re masters included demos and previously unreleased tracks in one nine nine nine tommy left the band to pursue a solo career due to increasing bad tension between himself and frontman vince he was replaced by randy castillo who drummed on several ozzy osbourne albums randy died of cancer on march two six two zero zero two no replacement had been named which sent the band into a hiatus following a two zero zero one tour in support of their most recent studio release new tattoo new tattoo charted at four one and sold less than one five zero zero zero zero copies drummer samantha maloney filled in on drums during the tour for this album she is perhaps best known for her work with courtney love after she replaced original hole drummer patty schemel in one nine nine eight samantha later toured with love in two zero zero four in support of the latter s solo album america s sweetheart the cr e released the dvd lewd cr ed if i die tomorrow sick love song and a cover of the rolling stones classic street fighting man a small controversy was caused when it was suggested that neither tommy nor mick played on the new tracks duties were supposedly handled by vandals drummer josh freese and ex beautiful creatures guitarist dj ashba however a vh one documentary of the band reuniting would later show that tommy lee did indeed play on some of the tracks the japanese release of red white i m a liar and that s the truth red white anarchy in the u k a worldwide first on december three one st two zero zero five m tley cr e played the cr e year s evil show in detroit mi nikki s long awaited book the heroin diaries is set to be released in two zero zero six on january two six th two zero zero six the band was awarded a star of the hollywood walk of fame on occasion of their two five th anniversary as of january two zero zero six they are set to return to the studio in may two zero zero six to record a new album with long time producer bob rock members vince neil vocals mick mars guitar nikki sixx bass tommy lee drums former temporary members john corabi vocals one nine nine two one nine nine six randy castillo drums one nine nine nine two zero zero two samantha maloney drums two zero zero zero touring only discography studio albums image too fast jpg too fast for love one nine eight one seven seven u s image m tley cr e shout at the devil jpg shout at the devil one nine eight three one seven u s image theatre of pain jpg theatre of pain one nine eight five seven u s three six u k image girls girls girls jpg girls girls girls one nine eight seven two u s one four u k dr feelgood one nine eight nine one u s four u k image m tley cr e jpg m tley cr e one nine nine four seven u s one seven u k image gencover jpg generation swine one nine nine seven four u s image new tatoo jpg new tattoo two zero zero zero four one u s compilations raw tracks one nine eight eight raw tracks vol two one nine nine zero decade of decadence one nine nine one best of one nine eight one one nine nine one two us two zero uk quaternary one nine nine four greatest hits one nine nine eight best of one nine eight zero one nine nine eight two zero us supersonic and demonic relics one nine nine nine music to crash your car to vol one two zero zero three music to crash your car to vol two two zero zero four loud as f k two zero zero four best of box set including dvd red white and cr e two zero zero five six us live live entertainment or death one nine nine nine one three three us carnival of sins live volume one wal mart exclusive two zero zero six carnival of sins live volume two wal mart exclusive two zero zero six other quaternary one nine nine four mail away singles music videos live wire too fast for love take me to the top too fast for love public enemy one too fast for love looks that kill shout at the devil too young to fall in love shout at the devil home sweet home theatre of pain smoking in the boy s room theatre of pain wild side girls girls girls girls girls girls girls girls girls you re all i need girls girls girls dr feelgood dr feelgood kickstart my heart dr feelgood same ol situation dr feelgood don t go away mad just go away dr feelgood without you dr feelgood primal scream decade of decadence home sweet home nine one remix decade of decadence anarchy in the u k decade of decadence hooligan s holiday m tley cr e misunderstood m tley cr e smoke the sky m tley cr e afraid generation swine shout at the devil nine seven generation swine enslaved greatest hits hell on high heels new tattoo if i die tomorrow red white and cr e sick love song red white and cr e videography m tley cr e uncensored m tley cr e dr feelgood the videos m tley cr e decade of decadence eight one nine one behind the music m tley cr e lewd cr ed m tli kry they did this due to the band s use of umlauts over their name larry flynt appears in the music video for afraid the album theatre of pain was originally going to be titled entertainment or death tommy lee and pamela anderson have been married twice at one wedding they wore space costumes at the other pamela was in a bikini and tommy was in board shorts in one nine nine eight when they renewed their wedding vows tommy was dressed as a knight in shining armour two of the bands members tommy lee and vince neil have had successful solo careers nikki sixx bought his first guitar with money he got from selling a guitar he stole from the store watch the cr e s response a hilarious animated video to the metallica vs napster feud at http www campchaos com show php iid two zero eight tommy had a spinning drum set during the girls girls girls tour and a drum set that went out into the audience during the feelgood tour during the carnival of sins tour he had two different drum sets high above the stage that he swung back and forth from he now has hopes of a set up where his drum set would be on a roller coaster type track among the names the band members considered before settling on m tley cr e were bad blood suicidal tendencies trouble and christmas home sweet home was ranked the one two greatest power ballad of all time on vh one there were rumors floating around that mick was going to be replaced on the better live than dead tour so for the first performance of the tour he came out fully dressed and covered with a mask according to nikki he could see people in the crowd saying that s not mick m tley cr e was the first band ever to have two singles released at the same time on mtv anarchy in the uk and primal scream in nine one in one nine nine eight m tley cr e performed at raw is war now wwe raw see also best selling music artists heavy metal umlaut external links chronological cr e http members ozemail com au cruekiss the hit squad http motleycruehitsquad com scrue you http www scrueyou com enslaved to m tley cr e http enslaved fanclub ms sydlexia com album review shout at the devil cr e by andra we want crue the great rock in roll swindle hollywood walk of fame m tley cr e rock music groups glam metal groups the term maquis may refer to the cameroonian maquis guerrillas from the outlawed union des populations camerounaises political party the corsican maquis democracy of the one eight th century the maquis shrublands found in france corsica and elsewhere around the mediterranean sea the french maquis who resisted the nazis during world war ii the spanish maquis guerillas who resisted the francisco franco regime after the spanish civil war the maquis in the fictional star trek universe an anti cardassian resistance movement named for the french maquis the maquis forces international a star trek fan organization mandrake is the common name for members of the plant genus mandragora belonging to the nightshades family solanaceae their roots because their curious bifurcations cause them to have a semblance to the human figure male the occult literature includes complex directions for harvesting a mandrake root in relative safety for example josephus gives the following directions for pulling it up a furrow must be dug around the root until its lower part is exposed then a dog is tied to it after which the person tying the dog must get away the dog then endeavours to follow him and so easily pulls up the root but dies suddenly instead of his master after this the root can be handled without fear an sthesia like many of its relatives of the solanaceae mandragora contains a range of tropane alkaloid drugs of atropine hyoscyamine and others the plant alone or as an alcoholic infusion has a long history of use as an anaesthetic a frequently quoted example of early chemical warfare is an incident from two zero zero b c when carthaginian defenders of a city withdrew leaving behind quantities of wine laced with mandragora the invading romans drank the wine were rendered insensible and were killed by the returning defenders dioscorides alludes to the employment of mandragora to produce anaesthesia when patients are cut or burnt pliny the elder refers to the effect of the odour of mandragora as causing sleep if it was taken before cuttings and puncturings lest they be felt lucian speaks of mandragora as used before the application of the cautery galen has a short allusion to its power to paralyse sense and motion isidorus is quoted as saying a wine of the bark of the root is given to those about to undergo operation that being asleep they may feel no pain ugone da lucca who was born a little after the middle of the twelfth century discovered a soporific which on being inhaled put patients to sleep so that they were insensible to pain during the operations performed by him the drug he employed is known to have been mandragora some people use european mandrake as a belladonna and can cause mania hallucinations and delirium bible mandrake from heb dud meaning love plant which orientals believe ensures conception all interpreters hold mandragora officinarum to be the plant intended in gen xxx one four love philtre and cant vii one three smell of the mandrakes numbers of other plants have been suggested as bramble berries zizyphus lotus l the sidr of the arabs the banana the lily the citron and the fig but none of these renderings is supported by satisfactory evidence some spur sects of christianity specifically gnosticism hold the belief that when jesus was given a rag of vinegar to drink from at his crucifixion that the rag actually contained a mixture of mandrake the plant is said to have rendered christ unconcious so that he only appeared dead from the torture thusly he was alive for the three days after the crucifixion explaining his miraculous resurrection magic spells and witchcraft mandragora from tacuinum sanitatis one four seven four extract from chapter xvi witchcraft and spells transcendental magic its doctrine and ritual by eliphas levi a complete translation of dogme et rituel de la haute magie by arthur edward waite one eight nine six we will add a few words about mandragores mandrakes and androids which several writers on magic confound with the waxen image serving the purposes of bewitchment the natural mandragore is a filamentous root which more or less presents as a whole either the figure of a man or that of the virile members it is slightly narcotic and an aphrodisiacal virtue was ascribed to it by the ancients who represented it as being sought by thessalian sorcerers for the composition of philtres is this root the umbilical vestige of our terrestrial origin we dare not seriously affirm it but all the same it is certain that man came out of the slime of the earth and his first appearance must have been in the form of a rough sketch the analogies of nature make this notion necessarily admissible at least as a possibility the first men were in this case a family of gigantic sensitive mandragores animated by the sun who rooted themselves up from the earth this assumption not only does not exclude but on the contrary positively supposes creative will and the providential co operation of a first cause which we have reason to call god some alchemists impressed by this idea speculated on the culture of the mandragore and experimented in the artificial reproduction of a soil sufficiently fruitful and a sun sufficiently active to humanise the said root and thus create men without the concurrence of the female others who regarded humanity as the synthesis of animals despaired about vitalising the mandragore but they crossed monstrous pairs and projected human seed into animal earth only for the production of shameful crimes and barren deformities the third method of making the android was by galvanic machinery one of these almost intelligent automata was attributed to albertus magnus and it is said that st thomas thomas aquinas destroyed it with one blow from a stick because he was perplexed by its answers this story is an allegory the android was primitive scholasticism which was broken by the summa of st thomas the daring innovator who first substituted the absolute law of reason for arbitrary divinity by formulating that axiom which we cannot repeat too often since it comes from such a master a thing is not just because god wills it but god wills it because it is just the real and serious android of the ancients was a secret which they kept hidden from all eyes and mesmer was the first who dared to divulge it it was the extension of the will of the magus into another body organised and served by an elementary spirit in more modern and intelligible terms it was a magnetic subject it was a common belief in some countries that a mandrake would grow where the semen of a hanged man dripped on to the earth this would appear to be the reason for the methods employed by the alchemists who projected human seed into animal earth in germany the plant is known as the alraune the novel later adapted as a film alraune by hanns heinz ewers is based around a soulless woman conceived from a hanged man s semen the title referring to this myth of the mandrake s origins it was said and still said that mandrake increases fertility in women but is a under studied subject in literature machiavelli wrote a play mandragola the mandrake in which the plot revolves around the use of a mandrake potion as a ploy to bed a woman shakespeare refers four times to mandrake and twice under the name of mandragora give me to drink mandragora that i might sleep out this great gap of time my antony is away shakespeare antony and cleopatra i five shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the earth shakespeare romeo and juliet iv m three would curses kill as doth the mandrake s groan king henry vi part two act three scene ii john donne s song go and catch a falling star get with child a mandrake root tell me where all past years are or who cleft the devil s foot d h lawrence referred to mandrake as that weed of ill omen ezra pound used it as metaphor in his poem portrait d une femme you are a person of some interest one comes to you and takes strange gain away pregnant with mandrakes or with something else that might prove useful and yet never proves samuel beckett in act one of waiting for godot the two attendants discuss hanging themselves and reference is made to the belief that mandrake is seeded by the ejaculate of hanged men estragon wait vladimir yes but while waiting estragon what about hanging ourselves vladimir hmm it d give us an erection estragon highly excited an erection vladimir with all that follows where it falls mandrakes grow that s why they shriek when you pull them up did you not know that estragon let s hang ourselves immediately j k rowling mandrake is used to revive people who have been petrified in harry potter and the chamber of secrets from chapter six now who can tell me the properties of the mandrake mandrake or mandragora is a powerful restorative said hermione sounding as usual as though she had swallowed the textbook it is used to return people who have been transfigured or cursed to their original state excellent ten points to gryffindor said professor sprout the mandrake forms an essential part of most antidotes it is also however dangerous who can tell me why hermione s hand narrowly missed harry s glasses as it shot up again the cry of the mandrake is fatal to anyone who hears it she said promptly precisely take another ten points said professor sprout now the mandrakes we have here are still very young later in chapter one three madam pomfrey was pleased to report that the mandrakes were becoming moody and secretive meaning that they were fast leaving childhood the moment their acne clears up they ll be ready for repotting again and in chapter one four and in march several of the mandrakes threw a loud and raucous party in greenhouse three this made professor sprout very happy the moment they start trying to move into each other s pots we ll know they re fully mature she told harry margit sandemo includes a mandrake alrune in her series the saga of the icepeople this is not any mandrake but the original draft of mankind made by god this was the first attempt to create a human but the mandrake got thrown away when god created adam from dust deliriants herbal and fungal hallucinogens solanaceae the mandriva logo is a star mandriva linux formerly mandrakelinux or mandrake linux and an acquisition of conectiva and lycoris is a gnu linux distribution created by mandriva sa formerly mandrakesoft sa the first release was based on red hat linux version five one and kde version one zero in july one nine nine eight it has since diverged from red hat and has included a number of original tools mostly to ease system configuration mandriva linux is also notable for compiling its packages with optimizations for pentium and amd six four class and more advanced processors which are incompatible with older cpu versions such as three eight six and four eight six mandriva linux at those times named mandrake linux was originated by ga l duval who was also a co founder of mandrakesoft mandrakelinux one zero one community desktop w kde limited edition two zero zero five gnome two eight desktop two zero zero six free edition gnome two one zero desktop features the major features of mandriva linux are installation control and administration mandriva linux uses the mandriva control center for administration of linux rather than using a text editor to change settings it has many programs known as drakes or draks collectively named drakxtools to configure many different settings examples include mousedrake to set up a mouse diskdrake to set up disk partitions and drakconnect previously known as draknet but forced to change its name after a company of the same name complained to set up a network connection they are written using gtk and perl and most of them can run in both graphical and text mode software mandriva linux comes with several thousand software packages including many varieties of games office software servers and internet utilities community mandriva linux has a large community of users that provide help support and software to the users of mandriva linux constant development mandriva linux is constantly in development a development version of mandriva linux known as the cooker is publicly available but it is not recommended for use in a production environment because of the constant changes going on in it next to that community members provide rpms for the latest packages of popular software optimization from the ground up mandriva linux was compiled for pentium class processors as a result mandriva linux provides more optimal performance to this cpu architecture at the cost of being unusable by the three eight six and four eight six processors a problem that rapidly faded out due to current cpu power and memory requirements of latest versions of the popular software the provided kernel and glibc have enhancements for more recent processors for example the glibc will load libraries from the special directory lib i six eight six if the detected processor is compatible desktops mandriva linux is geared to use kde or gnome as the standard desktops but includes others such as icewm blackbox window maker and twm a unique theme known as mandrakegalaxy provides consistency between applications and desktop environments mandrakegalaxy debuted in version nine one and mandrakegalaxy ii appeared in one zero zero a variant of mandrakegalaxy is mandrakegalaxy squared which uses square window buttons rather than round ones package manager mandriva linux uses a package manager called urpmi which functions as a wrapper to the rpm package management system it is similar to apt get in that it allows seamless installation of a given software package by automatically installing the other packages needed it is also media transparent due to its ability to retrieve packages from various media including network internet cd dvd and local disk urpmi also has an easy to use graphical front end called rpmdrake which is integrated into the mandrake control center although web sources for urpmi are not added on the installation of mandriva linux they are available at easyurpmi or through an option in the software sources manager in versions above two zero zero five le one zero two this functionality allows the user to choose some or all of the various software repositories available for their version of mandrivalinux and can greatly expand the amount of software that the user can install through the urpmi system name changes from its inception to version eight zero mandrake named its flagship distribution linux mandrake from version eight one to nine two it was called mandrake linux in february two zero zero four mandrakesoft lost a court case against hearst corporation owners of king features syndicate hearst contends that mandrakesoft is infringing upon king features trademarked character mandrake the magician the word mandrake is not unique to the king features character and mandrakesoft is appealing the decision the origin of mandrakesoft s name however becomes apparent when you consider the linux tool lothar which was developed in a project sponsored by mandrakesoft lothar is also the longtime friend of mandrake the magician the use of a magician s top hat and magic wand in images and logos also show that mandrakesoft wanted to associate the name with a magician and not for example the mandrake root as a precaution mandrakesoft renamed its products by removing the space between the brand name and the product name and changing the first letter of the product name to lower case thus creating one word starting from version one zero zero mandrake linux became known as mandrakelinux and its logo changed accordingly similarly mandrakemove became mandrakemove in april two zero zero five mandrakesoft announced that after the corporate acquisition of mandrakesoft and conectiva and the legal dispute with hearst corporation the new company name would be mandriva and that mandriva linux would be the new name covering products versions variants of the same version prior to mandrakelinux one zero zero there was one central distribution which was marketed to consumers and made available for download over the internet besides the offspring detailed below the development tree of mandrakelinux has always been known as cooker when stabilised this tree becomes the successor to the current version latest version the latest version as of november two zero zero five is mandriva two zero zero six released on october one three th two zero zero five previously limited edition two zero zero five was released to mandriva club members and on mandriva store one three april two zero zero five free downloads of iso cd images for the powerpc platform were released on two nine april two zero zero five followed by i five eight six intel and x eight six six four amd six four images on three may two zero zero five this is in line with mandriva s new strategy of making releases available first to paying customers the largest changes from one zero one include use of kde three four instead of three two and gnome two one zero instead of two six replacing mozilla with mozilla firefox transition to gimp two two and gcc three four and changes in the mandriva control center the free edition contains some advertisements in the form of bookmarks in the web browser and slides during installation as well as being released for public download later than the other editions to help cover the costs of producing the distribution table of versions offspring distributions that are based on mandrakelinux some by mandrakesoft itself others by independent projects some maintain compatibility with mandrakelinux so that installing a mandrakelinux rpm also works on the offspring firewall linux mandrake seven two had a version tailored specifically for use as a firewall known as single network firewall snf its successor based on mandrake eight two was titled multi network firewall mnf the third iteration will be based upon mandrakelinux one zero zero these firewall distributions are designed to provide security for computer networks and can be administered remotely via a web browser based interface or ssh there are two versions the download edition contains only free software and is freely downloadable via the internet the corporate version has added functionality and comes with support from mandrakesoft gaming edition mandrake linux eight one had a gaming edition which was a game oriented linux distribution it had a port of the sims and used the transgaming winex technology to support some games produced for windows clic clic aka cluster linux pour le calcul is a dedicated version of mandrakelinux created by mandrakesoft specifically for clustering environments it was sponsorised by the rntl others partners are id imag bull and mandrakesoft this project s aim was to produce a hpc linux distribution for three two free i e under licence gpl or comparable the objective consists of the realization a gnu linux distribution for clusters of machines meeting the needs for deployment administration and programming of clusters within the framework of exploitation for intensive calculation it features an automated installation of a full cluster using the ka tools urpmi and the clusterscripts this project was finished on one december two zero zero three and mandrakesoft decided to continue that project with a product called mandrakeclustering you can find more details on http clic mandriva com mandrakeclustering based on the clic project this distribution allow you to set up a cluster in a few hours this product includes drakcluster gui for a better ease of use this product is dedicated to the hpc market but it could be use also with some modifications to all kind of clusters high availability applicative grid this platform give you the tools you need for a day to day administration of hundreds of nodes parallel commands bash copying tools deployment disks software upgrade downgrade urpmi parallel monitoring ganglia etc mandrakeclustering is available on x eight six downgraded mode allowing only to play multimedia files transparent save of any user modification of his her own files and system configuration files if operated with a usb key the new version of mandriva move now simply called move was released in october two zero zero four hardware support and stability have seen much improvement globetrotter globetrotter is a lacie mobile usb drive loaded with a specific version of mandrakelinux like move it can boot most pcs into linux without installing first the four zero gb hard drive makes it a convenient way to carry a linux workstation around globetrotter was launched in august two zero zero three and can be ordered through mandrakesoft s online store see also list of linux distributions comparison of linux distributions vnlinuxcd external links mandriva linux mandriva linux limited edition two zero zero five features mandriva linux cooker wiki mandriva community wiki mandriva mandriva linux torrents clic move globetrotter urpmi org shareholder newsletter regarding the hearst lawsuit mandrivaclub nl dutch users website unrelated to mandrivaclub com unofficial mandriva linux two zero zero six starter guide linux distributions matteo carcassi florence italy one seven nine two paris france january one six one eight five three was a famous guitarist and composer carcassi began with the piano but learnt guitar when still a child he quickly gained a reputation as a virtuoso concert guitarist he moved to germany in one eight one zero gaining almost immediate success in one eight one five he was living in paris earning his living as a teacher of both the piano and the guitar on a concert tour in germany in one eight one nine he met his friend antoine meissonnier for the first time also a famous guitarist meissonnier published many of carcassi s works in his paris publishing house from one eight two zero on carcassi spent the majority of his time in paris in one eight two two he performed an extremely successful series of concerts in london that earned him great fame both as a performing artist and as a teacher however in paris a long time passed before his talents were truly recognised partly because of the presence of fernando carulli adored by his audience carcassi was in germany again during the fall of one eight two four afterwards he performed in london where his reputation now gave him access to more prestigious concert halls finally he returned to paris for several years he made concert trips from here to the most important cultural towns of europe including london after a short return to performing in one eight three six he quit his concert practice around one eight four zero and died in the french capital in one eight five three carcassi wrote a method for guitar op five nine that remains valuable relevant and interesting his most famous works are collected in his two five etudes op six zero in these he managed to blend technical skills and brilliant romantic music this is the reason his music is still played by so many classical guitarists today he also wrote several brilliant transcriptions of popular opera arias see also two five etudes op six zero external links matteo carcassi biography and classical guitar sheet music one seven nine two births one eight five three deaths classical guitarists italian composers romantic composers composers for guitar this article is about the automobile maker for the zoroastrian god see ahura mazda mazda was also a brand of light bulbs mazda motor corporation matsuda is a japanese automobile maker based in hiroshima japan as of two zero zero five the company produces roughly eight zero zero zero zero zero automobiles per year with sales evenly divided among japan europe and north america history mazda began as the toyo cork kogyo co ltd founded in japan in one nine two zero toyo kogyo moved from manufacturing machine tools to vehicles with the introduction of the mazda go in one nine three one although they produced weapons for the japanese military throughout the second world war the company formally adopted the mazda name in one nine eight four though every automobile sold from the beginning bore that name the first four wheel car the mazda r three six zero was introduced in one nine six zero followed by the mazda carol in one nine six two the ford motor company has owned two five of mazda since one nine seven nine and its stake was increased to a three three four controlling interest in one nine nine six when mazda fell into financial crisis ford has based many of its models on mazdas such as the probe late model north american escort and mercury tracer and the co developed escape mazda tribute the one nine seven nine deal paved way for ford selling badge engineered mazdas in asia and australia such as the laser and telstar these models replaced the models from ford europe sold throughout the one nine seven zero s ford also used the mazda models to establish its own retail presence in japan the autorama dealers sold these cars plus the occasional ford us and ford europe models the badge engineered models came to an end in the early zero zero s as ford replaced the laser with its own focus and telstar with its own mondeo ford and mazda have moved onto collaboration in a more fundamental sense by way of platform sharing six zero s the year one nine six zero was the birth of mazda as an automaker in just this decade the marque progressed from a one six horsepower one two kw keicar to a wankel engined sports car the mazda cosmo mazda also entered the united states market at the end of the decade seven zero s internationally the one nine seven zero s were the heyday of mazda as a performance leader the wankel rotary engines outperformed their piston based competitors by a large margin and mazda made the most of the powerplant by putting it in almost every product they sold from the rotary pickup to the rx seven and even the large luce sedan the only exception was the mazda chantez keicar because other car makers vetoed the move however the one nine seven zero s also saw mazda s first financial crisis which led to ford taking a two five stake in the company the first rx seven released in one nine seven eight would be a strong image leader for mazda but actual sales revival would not come until the early one nine eight zero s eight zero s the one nine eight zero s saw mazda transition from a niche japanese player to a part of the global ford empire having said that the eight zero s saw the most mainstream success for mazda the early eight zero s three two three glc in north america and six two six were massive hits with the three two three taking the number one spot in japanese car sales overtaking the toyota corolla this is still very significant today whenever a non toyota tops the sales charts mazda also contributed to ford s lineup most notably with the mx six based ford probe mazda also began building the new for one nine eight eight six two six mx six in the united states u s production was initiated via a joint venture with ford called autoalliance international mazda finished the decade with the revolutionary eunos roadster mazda mx five or miata outside japan sports car for the one nine eight nine model year this model revitalized the world sports car market which was filled at the time with expensive heavy gt cars despite complaints of plaigiarising the lotus elan the miata has been very successful till this day nine zero s the one nine nine zero s were a decade of decline for mazda due to the high price the third generation rx seven sold poorly although continues to be a tuner car favorite and the miata could not sustain the company s sales the rest of the lineup was poorly received in the united states and japan their popularity in europe didn t seem to make up for the losses in the late one nine eight zero s mazda embarked on a disastrous attempt to diversify its brand names it chose to do so because market research revealed that the mazda brand has the connotation of economic budget cars both in japan and abroad with the aim of doubling its sales mazda launched three new brands in japan eunos anfini and autozam eunos was to have a counterpart overseas in the us market amati luxury division and xedos in europe however plans for amati was pulled at the last minute and the rumored v one two engined flagship was shelved the number of brands was also an attempt to match toyota and nissan both of which had multiple chains in japan a common opinion is that the sheer number of models had overwhelmed the company in one nine nine three mazda sold seven models based on the six two six yet they only amounted to one three the sales achieved by the comparable toyota in other markets mazda s identity crisis saw it confused over which logo to adopt the mazda lettertype was introduced in one nine seven five as part of japan s first cad assisted corporate identity redesign in one nine nine one a new logo was introduced but was soon swapped for a rounded off version eternal flame because the original had an uncomfortable resemblance to renault s logo the new version is consistently used in one nine nine zero s mazdas but never became as well known as the lettertype to resolve this issue mazda commissioned for a new logo in one nine nine eight wings or owl which it uses till this day and features in considerably larger sizes on every model mazda was widely criticised in europe for the sheer blandness of its late one nine nine zero s designs including the last three two three and six two six which compared unfavourably to the previous models while technically superior the one nine nine eight replacement for the mx five miata lost much of the purity of the original one nine eight nine design which is still preferred by many enthusiasts mazda and ford continued joint efforts in one nine nine four the mazda b series line was split between an international mazda designed version and north american clone of the ford ranger in one nine nine eight mazda and ford opened a new plant in thailand autoalliance thailand patterned after mazda s hofu plant aat is now an important manufacturing location for the company zero zero s two zero zero one was a very difficult year for mazda as new models were in development and the company would have no new product until mid two zero zero two once the new cars arrived however the company quickly turned around mazda six atenza rx eight and mazda three axela proved popular and helped change perceptions of the brand by two zero zero four mazda had surpassed the ailing mitsubishi in sales the new mx five the miata name formerly used in north america has been dropped debuted in autumn two zero zero five and is claimed to share no common parts with the previous model except for the side indicator repeaters used on european cars it has been widely rumored for a few years that ford will use the mazda six atenza s platform in upcoming new cars this is very different from the climate in one nine nine six when commentators expected ford to impose its own engineering on mazda and lead to the loss of mazda s proprietary expertise in fall two zero zero five three vehicles based on the six s cd three architecture were released the ford fusion mercury milan and lincoln zephyr mazda executives have acknowledged the company s absence in many market segments worldwide notably in the area of trucks the company will introduce a new crossover suv the cx seven in two zero zero six along with a smaller minivan the mazda five and hybrid version of the tribute at the same time the company is expected to withdraw the slow selling mpv from the united states market mazda usa main article mazda north american operations toyo kogyo entered the united states market in one nine seven zero with a single car the rx two the next year there were five cars the compact familia based one two zero zero and r one zero zero the larger capella based six one six and rx two and the large one eight zero zero for one nine seven two the line expanded again with the addition of the rx three and b one six zero zero the one two zero zero and six one six were replaced by the similar eight zero eight and six one eight respectively and the boring one eight zero zero was gone the piston powered six one eight was gone the next year as was the r one zero zero but the one two l one two zero zero was back for a single year mazda quickly rose in prominence helped in large part to their use of wankel engines one nine seven four was the year of the rotary with the introduction of both the rotary pickup and rx four in fact the eight zero eight and b one six zero zero were the only piston engined mazdas offered in the united states that year one nine seven five had a similar lineup minus the retired rx two mazda had designed the repu and rx four with the american market in mind but the energy crisis was looming the company s sales were slipping due to the wankel s reputation as a gas hog so mazda responded with the reintroduction of a familia based car powered by a tiny piston engine the one three l mizer that car and one nine seven seven glc its next generation brother saved the company in the united states with terrific reviews and better sales also introduced in one nine seven six was the wankel powered rx five cosmo but the writing was on the wall for mazda s mainstream wankel lineup every one of the older rotary models was cancelled after one nine seven eight even though the wankel engine had lost its allure mazda persevered with the technology and found a niche for it the one nine seven nine rx seven rotary was the company s greatest image builder yet casting a halo over the rest of the model line also relaunched that year was the company s entrant in the midsize market the six two six the rx seven and six two six buoyed mazda s american fortunes enough for it to expand mazda built an american plant now autoalliance international to build the six two six bringing the company to ford s attention the two joined together on the six two six s two door offshoots the mx six and ford probe mazda finished the one nine eight zero s the same way as the one nine seven zero s with an image building sports car the miata was another tremendous halo car for the company kicking off an industry boom in the sports car segment the third generation rx seven introduced in one nine nine three was much liked but few were sold causing an end of the model s importation just three years later marques proposed logo for mazda s stillborn amati luxury division mazda has used a number of different marques in the japan market including autozam eunos cars and anfini although they have been phased out this diversification stressed the product development groups at mazda past their limits instead of having a half dozen variations on any given platform they were asked to work on dozens of different models and consumers were confused as well by the explosion of similar new models today the former marques exist in japan as sales channels specialized dealerships but no longer have specialized branded vehicles in other words the carol is sold at the autozam store which specializes in small cars but it is sold with the mazda marque not as the autozam carol as it once was in the early one nine nine zero s mazda almost created a luxury marque amati to challenge acura infiniti and lexus in north america in europe the equivalent xedos marque was launched lasting just a few years the initial amati products would have been the amati five zero zero which became the mazda millenia and the amati one zero zero zero a new rear wheel drive v one two successor to the mazda nine two nine this never happened leaving the near luxury millenia to the mazda brand logos automobile racing in the racing world mazda has had substantial success with two rotor three rotor and four rotor cars and private racers have also had considerable success with stock and modified mazda wankel engined cars mazda s competition debut was on october two zero one nine six eight when two mazda cosmo sport one one zero s coupes entered the eight four hour marathon de la route ultraendurance race at nurburgring one finishing in fourth place and the other breaking an axle after eight one hours the next year mazda raced mazda familia r one zero zero m one zero a coupes after winning the singapore grand prix in april one nine six nine and coming in fifth and sixth in the spa two four hours beaten only by porsche nine one one s on october one nine one nine six nine mazda again entered the eight four hour nurburgring race with four familias only one of which finished winning fifth place in one nine seven six ray walle owner of z rotary engine automobiles and is the only manufacturer to produce two and three rotor wankel engines for production mazda is the only manufacturer to ever produce a miller cycle engine as used in the one nine nine three mazda millenia mazda is the only asian automaker to have won the two four hours of le mans race which the company accomplished in one nine nine one with their rotary powered seven eight seven b it is the only car not powered by a piston engine to win at le mans mazda s b series and ford s courier and ranger have an interesting history the courier was launched internationally in the one nine seven zero s as a clone of the mazda for north america ford replaced the courier with the in house ranger design in the one nine eight zero s only to have the badge engineering reverse itself in one nine nine four as the b series became a ranger clone in that market internationally however the both the ranger and courier names were then applied to versions of mazda s truck today the b series courier ranger and truck ranger are two entirely different truck lines in the two markets mazda had the distinction of having the first foreign ceo to head a japanese car company former ford motor company cfo scottish born henry wallace in one nine nine six many japanese media outlets at the time reacted in shock and horror and wondered if ford would cut jobs he was followed by ford president james miller in one nine nine seven and mark fields in one nine nine nine until two zero zero one when he was tapped to lead ford s premier automotive group and handed the reins to lewis booth lewis booth went back to ford in two zero zero three and mazda director hisakazu imaki is now ceo in north american catalogues mazda sends out the name of the company is explained to be derived from zoroastrian deity ahura mazda it is also said that mazda coincides with the anglicized pronunciation of the founder s name jujiro matsuda and the in japanese the company is referred to either by its anglicised name mazda motors or as matsuda after its founder the zoom zoom zoom song by serapis bey used in current commercials in europe and japan was recorded long before it became the official song for mazda it was recorded for the movie only the strong which was released in one nine nine three see also list of mazda vehicles list of mazda platforms list of mazda engines list of mazda facilities hiroshima carp sanfrecce hiroshima external links mazda official corperate website official mazda vehicle websites u s a canada mazda in brief two zero zero five mazdaforum com forum and club for mazda owners and enthusiasts japanese automobile manufacturers companies of japan mazda a minute is a unit of time equal to one six zero th of an hour and to six zero seconds some rare minutes have five nine or six one seconds see leap second for scientific purposes the minute is a unit of time approximately equal to one one six zero zero th of a day or five four seconds more accurately five three nine one two one seconds known as the natural minute to differentiate it from conventional minutes it is equal to one zero four five planck times in geometry a minute is a unit of angle one six zero th of a degree it is then also known as a minute of angle or minute of arc and can further be divided into six zero seconds of arc in astronomy the minute is a unit of angle and time one six zero th of an hour of right ascension it is then known as the minute of right ascension and can be further divided into six zero seconds of right ascension the symbol for a minute of time or of right ascension is min the symbol for a minute of arc is a prime for example fifteen minutes could be written one five however more commonly an apostrophe or single quote u zero zero two seven is used the earth turns on its polar axis through fifteen minutes of arc in every minute of time a minute of arc at the earth s equator is approximately a nautical mile an hour likely contains six zero minutes due to influences from the babylonians who used a base six zero counting system a minute is also a document in which proceedings of a court or at a meeting of shareholders are kept see also second one e one s the orders of magnitude list that contains the minute hour day references henry campbell black black s law dictionary six th edition entry on minute west publishing company st paul minnesota one nine nine one eric w weisstein arc minute from mathworld a wolfram web resource http mathworld wolfram com arcminute html units of time image merleau jpg maurice merleau ponty march one four one nine zero eight may four one nine six one was a french phenomenologist philosopher strongly influenced by edmund husserl and often somewhat mistakenly classified as an existentialist thinker because of his close association with jean paul sartre and simone de beauvoir and his distinctly heideggerian conception of being life after secondary schooling at the lyc e louis le grand in paris maurice merleau ponty became a student at the cole normale sup rieure where he studied alongside sartre he passed the agr gation in philosophy in one nine three zero merleau ponty first taught at chartres then became a tutor at the cole normale sup rieure where he was awarded his doctorate on the basis of two important books la structure du comportement one nine four two and ph nom nologie de la perception one nine four five next merleau ponty taught at the university of lyon from one nine four five to one nine four eight then lectured on child psychology and education at the sorbonne from one nine four nine to one nine five two he was awarded the chair of child psychology at the coll ge de france from one nine five two until his death in one nine six one making him the youngest person to have been elected to a chair besides his teaching merleau ponty was also political editor for les temps modernes from the founding of the journal in october one nine four five until december one nine five two aged five three he died suddenly of a stroke on the three rd of may one nine six one apparently while preparing for a class on descartes he was burried in le p re lachaise cemetery in paris work in his phenomenology of perception first published in french in one nine four five merleau ponty developed the concept of the body subject as an alternative to the cartesian cogito this distinction is especially important in that merleau ponty perceives the essences of the world existentially as opposed to the cartesian idea that the world is merely an extension of our own minds consciousness the world and the human body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined and mutually engaged the phenomenal thing is not the unchanging object of the natural sciences but a correlate of our body and its sensory functions taking up and coinciding with the sensible qualities it encounters the body as incarnated subjectivity intentionally reconstructs things within an ever present world frame through use of its pre conscious pre predicative understanding of the world s make up things are that upon which our body has a grip while the grip itself is a function of our connaturality with the world s things the essential partiality of our view of things their being given only in a certain perspective and at a certain moment in time does not diminish their reality but on the contrary establishes it as there is no other way for things to be co present with us and with other things than through such abschattung shading the thing seen in perspective transcends our view and yet is immanent in it by a pre conscious act of original faith we immediately place this phenomenal thing in the world where it blends in with other things and behaves like any figure against a certain background just as much as our own unity as a bodily subject is not a unity in thought but one that is experienced in our interaction with our surroundings so the unity of the thing is perceived as pervading all of its perspectives we do not consciously construct the thing but rather allow it to construct itself before our eyes only when this unconscious process results in perceptive ambiguity i e when the body is unable to present us the thing in any clearly articulated way the subject will consciously interfere and clarify his perception apart from such instances the subjectivity of the perceiving body operates unknown to the conscious subject engaging the pre objective factuality in which it too participates and disclosing the rationality of the world to the subject thus we encounter meaningful things in a unified though ever open ended world critics have remarked that while merleau ponty makes a great effort to break away from cartesian dualism in the end the phenomenology of perception still starts out from the opposition of consciousness and its objects merleau ponty himself also acknowledged this and in his later work proceeded from a standpoint of unity replacing notions that still centre on the subject by notions of being and the essential reversibility of seeing and being visible thematic overview of his works the primacy of perception from the time of writing structure of behavior and phenomenology of perception merleau ponty wanted to show in opposition to the idea that drove the tradition beginning with john locke that perception was not the causal product of atomic sensations this atomist causal conception was being perpetuated in certain psychological currents of the time particularly in behaviorist psychology according to merleau ponty perception has an active dimension in that it is a primordial openness to the life world to the lebenswelt this primordial openness is at the heart of his thesis of the primacy of perception the slogan of the phenomenology of edmund husserl is all consciousness is consciousness of something which implies a distinction between acts of thought the noesis and intentional objects of thought the noema thus the correlation between noesis and noema becomes the first step in the constitution of analyses of consciousness however in studying the posthumous manuscripts of husserl who remained one of his major influences merleau ponty remarked that in their evolution husserl s work brings to light phenomena which are not assimilable to noetic noematic correlation this is particularly the case when one attends to the phenomena of the body which is at once body subject and body object subjective time the consciousness of time is neither an act of consciousness nor an object of thought and the other the first considerations of the other in husserl led to solipsism the distinction between acts of thought noesis and intentional objects of thought noema does not seem therefore to constitute an irreducible ground it appears rather at a higher level of analysis thus merleau ponty does not postulate that all consciousness is consciousness of something which supposes at the outset a noetic noematic ground instead he develops the thesis according to which all consciousness is perceptual consciousness in doing so he establishes a significant turn in the development of phenomenology indicating that its conceptualisations should be re examined in the light of the primacy of perception in weighing up the philosophical consequences of this thesis corporeality ren descartes taking the study of perception as his point of departure merleau ponty was led to recognize that one s own body le corps propre is not only a thing a potential object of study for science but is also a permanent condition of experience a constituent of the perceptual openness to the world and to its investment trans son investissement he therefore underlines the fact that there is an inherence of consciousness and of the body of which the analysis of perception should take account the primacy of perception signifies a primacy of experience so to speak in so far as perception becomes an active and constitutive dimension the development of his works thus establishes an analysis which recognizes a corporeality of consciousness as much as an intentionality of the body and so stands in contrast with the dualist ontology of mind and body in ren descartes a philosopher to whom merleau ponty continually returned despite the important differences that separate them he says in the phenomenology of perception in so far as i have hands feet a body i sustain around me intentions which are not dependant on my decisions and which affect my surroundings in a way that i do not choose one nine six two p four four zero language the highlighting of the fact that corporeality intrinsically has a dimension of expressivity which proves to be fundamental to the constitution of the ego is one of the conclusions from structure of behavior that is constantly reiterated in merleau ponty s later works following this theme of expressivity he goes on to examine how an incarnate subject is in a position to undertake actions that transcend the organic level of the body such as in intellectual operations and the products of one s cultural life ferdinand de saussure he carefully considers language then as the core of culture by examining in particular the connections between the unfolding of thought and sense enriching his perspective not only by an analysis of the acquisition of language and the expressivity of the body but also by taking into account pathologies of language painting cinema literary usage and poetry one can see a certain preoccupation with language beginning with the reflection on artistic expression in structure of behavior which contains a passage on el greco p two zero three ff that prefigures the remarks that he develops in cezanne s doubt one nine four five which itself follows the discussion in the phenomenology of perception to this extent the work undertaken while he occupied the chair of child psychology and pedagogy at the university of the sorbonne is not an interlude in his philosophical and phenomenological preoccupations representing rather a not insignificant moment in the overall development of his thought as the course outlines of his sorbonne lectures indicate during this period he continues a dialogue between phenomenology and the diverse work carried out in psychology all in order to return to the study of the acquisition of language in children as well as to broadly take advantage of the contribution of ferdinand de saussure to linguistics and to work on the notion of structure through a discussion of work in psychology linguistics and social anthropology art it is important to clarify and indeed emphasize that the attention merleau ponty pays to diverse forms of art visual plastic literary poetic etc should not be attributed to a concern with beauty per se nor is his work an attempt to elaborate normative criteria for art thus one does not find in his work a theoretical attempt to discern what constitutes a major work or a work of art or even handicraft l artisanat still it is useful to note that while he does not establish any normative criteria for art as such there is nonetheless in his work a prevalent distinction between primary and secondary modes of expression this distinction appears in the phenomenology of perception p two zero seven two nd note and is sometimes repeated in terms of spoken and speaking language language parl et parlant the prose of the world p one seven two two spoken language le language parl or secondary expression returns to our linguistic baggage to the cultural heritage that we have acquired as well as the brute mass of relationships between signs and significations speaking language le language parlant or primary expression such as it is is language in the production of a sense language at the advent of a thought at the moment where it makes itself an advent of sense it is speaking language that is to say primary expression that interests merleau ponty and which keeps his attention through his treatment of the nature of production and the reception of expressions a subject which also overlaps with an analysis of action of intentionality of perception as well as the links between freedom and external conditions on the subject of painting merleau ponty claims that at the moment of his creative work the painter can start with a certain idea and desire to actualise it or else he can begin with the material in an attempt to release a certain idea or emotion but in each case there is in the activity of painting a pregnancy between the elaboration of expression and the sense that is created trans une pr gnance de l laboration de l expression avec le sens qui est mis en uvre beginning with this basic description merleau ponty attempts to explicate the invariant structures that characterise expressivity attempting to take account of the over determination of sense that he had described in cezanne s doubt among the structures to consider the study of the notion of style occupies an important place in indirect language and the voices of silence in spite of certain similarities with andr malraux merleau ponty distinguishes himself from malraux in respect to three conceptions of style the last of which is employed in malraux s the voices of silence merleau ponty remarks that in this work style is sometimes used by malraux in a highly subjective sense understood as a projection of the artist s individuality sometimes it is used on the contrary in a very metaphysical sense in merleau ponty s opinion a mystical sense in which style is connected with a conception of an ber artist expressing the spirit of painting finally it sometimes is reduced to simply designating a categorisation of an artistic school or movement for merleau ponty it is these uses of the notion of style that lead malraux to postulate a cleavage between the objectivity of italian renaissance painting and the subjectivity of painting in his own time a conclusion that merleau ponty disputes according to merleau ponty it is important to consider the heart of this problematic by recognizing that style is first of all a demand owed to the primacy of perception which also implies taking into consideration the dimensions of historicity and intersubjectivity history and intersubjectivity science in his essay c zanne s doubt in which he identifies c zanne s impressionistic theory of painting as analogous to his own concept of radical reflection the attempt to return to and reflect on prereflective consciousnes merleau ponty identifies science as the opposite of art in merleau ponty s account while art is an attempt to capture an individual s perception science is anti individualistic in the preface to his phenomenology of perception merleau ponty presents a phenomenological objection to positivism that it can tell us nothing about human subjectivity all that a scientific text can explain is the particular individual experience of that scientist which cannot be transcended psychology my past though not a fate has at least a specific weight and is not a set of events over there at a distance from me but the atmosphere of my present phenomenology of perception sociology and anthropology flesh and the chiasm visible and the invisible the notions of flesh and chiasm and the related ideas of visible and invisible come up mainly in le visible et l invisible and the work notes which accompany it this work was incomplete when merleau ponty died and was published after his death as well as in lecture notes from a course given at the coll ge de france from one nine five nine one nine six one and very briefly in the preface to signes since these notions had not yet been fully developed it is not always easy to work out exactly what merleau ponty meant however without going into issues of interpretation there are nonetheless certain elements which are generally agreed by specialists in the area and therefore worth outlining first of all we should note that these notions are introduced to overcome certain divisions which were current at the time so for example when merleau ponty says that all consciousness is perceptive consciousness he recognises a primordial interrelation of perceiving and perceived something which is sometimes expressed as the reversibility of touching and being touched similarly in his discussion of the body merleau ponty suggests a corporeal consciousness and corporeal intentionality these categories of subject world or body consciousness have often been thought in terms of duality the notion of flesh like that of chiasm comes as a way of naming the complex relations between these terms as for the terms visible and invisible these are linked to the question of meaning according to merleau ponty s argument there is no clear cut distinction between being and ways of appearing despite the attention he pays to heidegger s work which he discusses frequently during this period merleau ponty does not support heidegger s metaphysics for merleau ponty the question of meaning does not come from a dualist ontology of appearance and being rather it is a certain reversibility of the visible and the invisible which must be understood the visible is not the opposite of the invisible in this merleau ponty also distances himself from the sartrean ontology of l tre et le n ant but rather its doubling its profondeur charnelle what is at stake is an underlining of the interrelations of signs and meanings meanings are not subordinated to signs nor vice versa as a result of all this the idea of meaning cannot be attributed purely to ideas there is also an inherent materiality in meaning for example in l il et l esprit merleau ponty notes that if a painting is torn apart it no longer has meaning but is rather returned to strips of canvas politics contemporary influence merleau ponty s work has become classic in the sense that it is read today in different disciplines with very different effects anti cognitivist cognitive science despite merleau ponty s own critical position with respect to science he describes scientific points of view as always both naive and at the same time dishonest in his preface to the phenomenology his work has become a touchstone for the anti cognitivist strands of cognitive science largely through the influence of hubert dreyfus dreyfus seminal critique of cognitivism or the computational account of the mind what computers can t do consciously replays merleau ponty s critique of intellectualist psychology to argue for the irreducibility of corporeal know how to discrete syntactic processes through the influence of dreyfus critique and neurophysiological alternative merleau ponty became associated with neurophysiological connectionist accounts of cognition with the publication in one nine nine one of the embodied mind by francisco varela evan thompson and eleanor rosch this association was extended if only partially to another strand of anti cognitivist cognitive science embodied or enactive cognitive science it was through this relationship with merleau ponty s work that cognitive science s affair with phenomenology was born which is represented by a growing number of works including andy clark s being there one nine nine seven the collection naturalizing phenomenology edited by petitot et al one nine nine nine alva no s action in perception two zero zero four shaun gallagher s how the body shapes the mind two zero zero five and the journal phenomenology and the cognitive sciences references clark a one nine nine seven being there putting brain body and world together again cambridge ma mit press gallagher s two zero zero three how the body shapes the mind oxford oxford university press no a action in perception cambridge ma mit press petitot j varela f pachoud b and roy j m eds one nine nine nine naturalizing phenomenology issues in contemporary phenomenology and cognitive science stanford stanford university press varela f j thompson e and rosch e one nine nine one the embodied mind cognitive science and human experience cambridge mit press feminist philosophy merleau ponty has also been picked up by australian and scandinavian philosophers inspired by the french feminist tradition including rosalyn diprose and sara hein maa rosalyn diprose s recent work takes advantage of merleau ponty conception of an intercorporeality or indistinction of perspectives to critique individualistic identity politics from a feminist perspective and to ground the irreducibility of generosity as a virtue where generosity has a dual sense of giving and being given see esp corporeal generosity two zero zero two sara hein maa has argued for a re reading of merleau ponty s influence on simone de beauvoir she has also challenged hubert dreyfus reading of merleau ponty as behaviourist and as neglecting the importance of the phenomenological reduction to merleau ponty s thought merleau ponty s phenomenology of the body has also been taken up by iris young in her renowned essay throwing like a girl and its follow up throwing like a girl twenty years later young analyzes the particular modalities of feminine bodily comportment as they differ from that of males young observes that while a man who throws a ball puts his whole body into the motion a woman throwing a ball generally restricts her own movements as she makes them and that generally in sports women move in a more tentative reactive way merleau ponty argues that we experience the world in terms of the i can that is oriented towards certain projects based on our capacity and habituality young s thesis is that in women this intentionality is inhibited and ambivalent rather than confident for a feminist post modern critique see also the discussion between marjorie o loughlin and shari popen http www ed uiuc edu eps pes yearbook nine five docs o loughlin html eco phenomenology ecophenomenology can be described as the pursuit of the relationalities of worldly engagement both human and those of other creatures brown the flesh as the mysterious tissue or matrix that underlies and gives rise to both the perceiver and the perceived as interdependent aspects of its spontaneous activity abram one nine nine six p six six this concept unites subject and object dialectically as determinations within a more primordial reality merleau ponty himself refers to that primordial being which is not yet the subject being nor the object being and which in every respect baffles reflection from this primordial being to us there is no derivation nor any break it has neither the tight construction of the mechanism nor the transparency of a whole which precedes its parts the concept of nature i in themes from the lectures at the coll ge de france one nine five two one nine six zero chicago northwestern university press one nine seven zero pp six five six six abram d one nine nine six the spell of the sensuous perception and language in a more than human world new york pantheon books see also abram d one nine eight eight merleau ponty and the voice of the earth environmental ethics one zero no two summer one nine eight eight one zero one two zero for a bibliography of eco phenomenology see http www emporia edu socsci philos biblio htm bibliography a selection of his works translated into english follows a much more comprehensive bibliography can be found on this page at the merleau ponty circle website linked below adventures of the dialectic trans bien evanston northwestern university press one nine seven three the essential writings of merleau ponty ed fisher new york harcourt one nine six nine humanism and terror an essay on the communist problem trans o neill boston beacon press one nine six nine phenomenology of perception trans smith london routledge and kegan paul one nine six two the primacy of perception and other essays on phenomenology psychology the philosophy of art history and politics ed edie evanston northwestern university press one nine six four prose of the world trans o neill evanston northwestern university press one nine six nine sense and nonsense trans dreyfus dreyfus evanston northwestern university press one nine six four signs trans mccleary evanston northwestern university press one nine six four the structure of behaviour trans fischer london metheun one nine six five the visible and the invisible trans lingis evanston northwestern university press one nine six eight the world of perception trans oliver davis london routledge two zero zero four external links the merleau ponty circle a group devoted to the study of the writings of maurice merleau ponty the internet encyclopedia of philosophy excellent article on merleau ponty by jack reynolds maurice merleau ponty stanford encyclopedia of philosophy entry notes on phenomenology of perception chiasmi international trilingual studies concerning the thought of maurice merleau ponty one nine zero eight births one nine six one deaths two zero th century philosophers alumni of the cole normale sup rieure continental philosophers french philosophers phenomenology former students of lyc e louis le grand a model organism is a species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms this is possible because fundamental biological principles such as metabolic regulatory and developmental pathways and the genes that code for them are conserved through evolution often model organisms are chosen on the basis that they are amenable to experimental manipulation this usually will include characteristics such as short life cycle techniques for genetic manipulation inbred strains stem cell lines and transfection systems and non specialist living requirements sometimes the genome arrangement facilitates the sequencing of the model organism s genome for example by being very compact or having a low proportion of junk dna there are many model organisms the first model organism for molecular biology was probably the bacterium escherichia coli which is common in the human digestive system and usually beneficial the dangerous e coli o one five seven h seven is a rare strain this also led to a study of many bacteriophages particularly phage lambda in eukaryotes several yeasts particularly saccharomyces cerevisiae baker s or budding yeast have been widely studied largely because they are quick and easy to grow the cell cycle in a simple yeast is very similar to the cell cycle in humans and regulated by homologous proteins the fruit fly drosophila melanogaster was studied again because it was easy to grow for a multicellular organism the roundworm caenorhabditis elegans is studied because it has very defined development patterns and can be rapidly assayed for abnormalities when researchers look for an organism to use in their studies they look for several traits common among these are size generation time accessibility manipulation genetics conservation of mechanisms and potential economic benefit as comparative molecular biology has become more common some researchers have sought model organisms that represent assorted lineages of life important model organisms viruses lambda phage prokaryotes escherichia coli e coli bacillus subtilis mycoplasma genitalium a minimal organism vibrio fischeri quorum sensing bioluminescence and animal bacterial symbiosis with hawaiian bobtail squid synechocystis a photosynthetic cyanobacteria widely used in photosynthesis research pseudomonas fluorescens a soil bacterium that readily diversifies into different strains in the lab eukaryotes protozoa chlamydomonas reinhardtii a unicellular green alga used in photosynthesis research tetrahymena thermophila a free living freshwater ciliate protozoan fungi aspergillus nidulans subject of genetics studies neurospora crassa red bread mold saccharomyces cerevisiae baker s yeast or budding yeast used in brewing and baking schizosaccharomyces pombe fission yeast subject of genetic studies plants arabidopsis thaliana a plant usually called arabidopsis a considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying this plant model this to mustard related quickly growing weed was the first plant to have its genome sequenced perhaps the most important model in plant sciences plant physiology developmental biology molecular genetics population genetics cytology molecular biology tobacco by two cells is suspension cell line from tobacco nicotiana tabaccum useful for general plant physiology studies on cell level genome of this particular cultivar will be not sequenced at least in near future but seqencing of its wild species nicotiana tabaccum is presently under progres cytology plant physiology biotechnology lotus japonicus a model legume plant agronomy molecular biology medicago truncatula is a model legume closely related to the common alfalfa it s rather small genome is currently being sequenced agronomy molecular biology rice oryza sativa is used as a model for cereal biology sequencing of its genome is under progres agronomy molecular biology brachypodium distachyon is an emerging experimental model grass that has many attributes that make it an excellent model for temperate cereals agronomy molecular biology genetics maize zea mays ssp mays is a cereal grain its genetic features helped to create transposon theory of jumping genes its genome is being sequenced genetics molecular biology agronomy animals invertebrates arbacia punctulata the purple spined sea urchin classical subject of embryological studies caenorhabditis elegans a nematode usually called c elegans an excellent model for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology c elegans was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced drosophila usually the species drosophila melanogaster a kind of fruit fly famous as the subject of genetics experiments by thomas hunt morgan and others easily raised in lab rapid generations mutations easily induced many observable mutations recently drosophila has been used for neuropharmacological research molecular genetics population genetics developmental biology euprymna scolopes the hawaiian bobtail squid model for animal bacterial symbiosis bioluminescent vibrios hydra a cnidaria is the model organism to understand the evolution of bilaterian body plans loligo pealei a squid subject of studies of nerve function because of its giant axon nearly one mm diameter roughly a thousand times larger than typical mammalian axons stomatogastric ganglion arthropods digestive systems are a model for motor pattern generation seen in all repetitive motions tribolium castaneum the flour beetle a small easily kept darkling beetle used especially in behavioural ecology experiments vertebrates cavius porcellus the guinea pig used by robert koch and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections hence a byword for laboratory animal even though rarely used today rat rattus norvegicus particularly useful as a toxicology model also particularly useful as a neurological model and source of primary cell cultures owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse molecular evolution genomics mouse mus musculus the classic model vertebrate many inbred strains exist as well as lines selected for particular traits often of medical interest e g body size obesity muscularity quantitative genetics molecular evolution genomics zebrafish brachydanio rerio a freshwater fish has a nearly transparent body which provides unique visual access to the animal s internal anatomy throughout its life zebrafish are used to study development toxicology and toxicopathology specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways xenopus laevis the african clawed toad also used in development because of its large cells esp egg cells takifugu rubipres a pufferfish has a small genome with little junk dna dog canis lupus familiaris an important respiratory and cardiovascular model oryzias latipes medaka the japanese ricefish is an important model in developmental biology and has the advantage of being much sturdier than the traditional zebrafish model organisms used for specific research objectives sexual selection and sexual conflict callusobruchus maculatus the bruchid beetle chorthippus parallelus the meadow grasshopper coelopidae seaweed flies diopsidae stalk eyed flies drosophila spp fruit flies gryllus bimaculatus the field cricket scathofaga stercoraria the yellow dung fly hybrid zones bombina bombina and variegata podisma spp in the alps references spitsbergen j m and kent m l two zero zero three the state of the art of the zebrafish model for toxicology and toxicologic pathology research advantages and current limitations toxicol pathol three one supplement six two eight seven pubmed abstract link pmid one two five nine seven four three four riddle donald l blumenthal thomas meyer barbara j and priess james r eds one nine nine seven c elegans ii woodbury ny cold spring harbor press isbn zero eight seven nine six nine five three two three full text available on line see also animal model ensembl genome database of model organisms external links wellcome trust description of model organisms www virtual library guide to several model organism resource lists the generic model organism database project model organisms animal experimentation for the prioritization of resources see economic materialism in philosophy materialism is that form of physicalism which holds that the only thing that can truly be said to exist is matter that fundamentally all things are composed of material and all phenomena are the result of material interactions science uses a working assumption sometimes known as methodological naturalism that observable events in nature are explained only by natural causes without assuming the existence or non existence of the supernatural as a theory materialism belongs to the class of monist ontology as such it is different from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism in terms of singular explanations of the phenomenal reality materialism stands in sharp contrast to idealism overview the first detailed description of the philosophy occurs in the scientific poem de rerum natura by lucretius in his recounting of the mechanistic philosophy of democritus and epicurus according to this view all that exists is matter and void and all phenomena are the result of different motions and conglomerations of base material particles called atoms de rerum natura provides remarkably insightful mechanistic explanations for phenomena like erosion evaporation wind and sound that would not become accepted for more than one five zero zero years famous principles like nothing can come from nothing and nothing can touch body but body first appeared in this most famous work of lucretius the view is perhaps best understood in its opposition to the doctrines of immaterial substance applied to the mind historically and most famously by ren descartes however by itself materialism says nothing about how material substance should be characterized in practice it is frequently assimilated to one variety of physicalism or another materialism is sometimes allied with the methodological principle of reductionism according to which the objects or phenomena individuated at one level of description if they are genuine must be explicable in terms of the objects or phenomena at some other level of description typically a more general level than the reduced one non reductive materialism explicitly rejects this notion however taking the material constitution of all particulars to be consistent with the existence of real objects properties or phenomena not explicable in the terms canonically used for the basic material constituents jerry fodor influentially argues this view according to which empirical laws and explanations in special sciences like psychology or geology are invisible from the perspective of say basic physics a vigorous literature has grown up around the relation between these views materialism typically contrasts with dualism phenomenalism idealism and vitalism the definition of matter in modern philosophical materialism extends to all scientifically observable entities such as energy forces and the curvature of space in this sense one might speak of the material world materialism has frequently been understood to designate an entire scientific rationalistic world view particularly by religious thinkers opposed to it who regard it as a spiritually empty religion marxism also uses materialism to refer to the scientific world view it emphasizes a materialist conception of history which is not concerned with metaphysics but centers on the empirical world of actual human activity practice including labor and the institutions created reproduced or destroyed by that activity see materialist conception of history varieties of materialism christian materialism dialectical materialism see also marxist philosophy of nature historical materialism marxist application of materialism to history eliminative materialism emergent materialism evolutionary materialism french materialism reductive materialism reductionism cartesian materialism history of materialism ancient greek philosophers like thales parmenides anaxagoras democritus epicurus and even aristotle prefigure later materialists later on thomas hobbes and pierre gassendi represent the materialist tradition in opposition to ren descartes attempts to provide the natural sciences with dualist foundations later materialists included denis diderot and other french enlightenment thinkers as well as ludwig feuerbach schopenhauer wrote that materialism is the philosophy of the subject who forgets to take account of himself the world as will and representation ii ch one everything objective extended active and hence everything material is regarded by materialism as so solid a basis for its explanations that a reduction to this especially if it should ultimately result in thrust and counter thrust can leave nothing to be desired but all this is something that is given only very indirectly and conditionally and is therefore only relatively present for it has passed through the machinery and fabrication of the brain and hence has entered the forms of time space and causality by virtue of which it is first of all presented as extended in space and operating in time ibid i seven karl marx and friedrich engels turning the idealist dialectics of georg hegel upside down provided materialism with a view on processes of quantitative and qualitative change called dialectical materialism and with a materialist account of the course of history known as historical materialism in recent years paul and patricia churchland have advocated eliminativist materialism which holds that mental phenomena simply do not exist at all that talk of the mental reflects a totally spurious folk psychology that simply has no basis in fact something like the way that folk science speaks of demon caused illness references churchland paul one nine eight one eliminative materialism and the propositional attitudes the philosophy of science boyd richard p gasper j d trout cambridge massachusetts mit press flanagan owen one nine nine one the science of the mind two nd edition cambridge massachusetts mit press fodor j a one nine seven four special sciences synthese vol two eight kim j one nine nine four multiple realization and the metaphysics of reduction philosophy and phenomenological research vol five two lange friedrich a one nine two five the history of materialism new york harcourt brace j d trout ed one nine nine five contemporary materialism a reader new york routledge schopenhauer arthur one nine six nine the world as will and representation new york dover publications inc vitzthum richard c one nine nine five materialism an affirmative history and definition amhert new york prometheus books buchner l one nine two zero force and matter new york peter eckler publishing co la mettrie man the machine materialism monism metaphysics philosophy of mind secularism microelectronics is a subfield of electronics microelectronics as the name suggests is related to the study and manufacture of electronic components which are very small these devices are made from semiconductors using a process known as photolithography many components of normal electronic design are available in microelectronic equivalent transistors capacitors inductors resistors diodes and of course insulators and conductors can all be found in microelectronic devices digital integrated circuits consist mostly of transistors analog circuits commonly contain resistors and capacitors as well inductors are used in some high frequency analog circuits but tend to occupy large chip area if used at low frequencies gyrators can replace them as techniques improve the size of microelectronic components continue to decrease at these smaller scales previously unimportant deletorious physical effects called parasitic effects are magnified the goal of the microelectronics engineer is to find ways to compensate for or to minimize these effects while always delivering smaller faster and cheaper devices see also electrical engineering digital circuit analog circuit external links canadian microelectronics corporation cmc ermetis microelectronics and reconfigurable systems research laboratory mixdes international conference mixed design of integrated circuits and systems electronics the human consciousness that originates in the brain and is manifested especially in thought perception emotion will memory and imagination theories of the mind there are many theories of what the mind is and how it works dating back to plato aristotle and other ancient greek philosophers pre scientific theories which were rooted in theology concentrated on the relationship between the mind and the soul the supposed supernatural or divine essence of the human person modern theories based on a scientific understanding of the brain see the mind as a phenomenon of psychology and the term is often used more or less synonymously with consciousness the question of which human attributes make up the mind is also much debated some argue that only the higher intellectual functions constitute mind particularly reason and memory in this view the emotions love hate fear joy are more primitive or subjective in nature and should be seen as different in nature or origin to the mind others argue that the rational and the emotional sides of the human person cannot be separated that they are of the same nature and origin and that they should all be considered as part of the individual mind in popular usage mind is frequently synonymous with thought it is that private conversation with ourselves that we carry on inside our heads during every waking moment of our lives thus we make up our minds change our minds or are of two minds about something one of the key attributes of the mind in this sense is that it is a private sphere no one else can read our thoughts or know our mind they can only know what we communicate and this is true even under torture nature of the mind both philosophers and psychologists remain divided about the nature of the mind some take what is known as the substantial view and argue that the mind is a single entity perhaps having its base in the brain but distinct from it and having an autonomous existence this view ultimately derives from plato and was absorbed from him into christian thought in its most extreme form the substantial view merges with the theological view that the mind is an entity wholly separate from the body in fact a manifestation of the soul which will survive the body s death and return to god its creator others take what is known as the functional view ultimately derived from aristotle which holds that the mind is a term of convenience for a variety of mental functions which have little in common except that humans are conscious of their existence functionalists tend to argue that the attributes which we collectively call the mind are closely related to the functions of the brain and can have no autonomous existence beyond the brain nor can they survive its death in this view mind is a subjective manifestation of consciousness the human brain s ability to be aware of its own existence the concept of the mind is therefore a means by which the conscious brain understands its own operations history of the philosophy of the mind a leading exponent of the substantial view was george berkeley an one eight th century anglican bishop and philosopher berkeley argued that there is no such thing as matter and what humans see as the material world is nothing but an idea in god s mind and that therefore the human mind is purely a manifestation of the soul or spirit or similar this type of belief is also common in certain types of spiritual non dualistic belief but outside this field few philosophers take an extreme view today however the view that the human mind is of a nature or essence somehow different from and higher than the mere operations of the brain continues to be widely held berkeley s views were attacked and in the eyes of many philosophers demolished by t h huxley a one nine th century biologist and disciple of charles darwin who agreed that the phenomena of the mind were of a unique order but argued that they can only be explained in reference to events in the brain huxley drew on a tradition of materialist thought in british philosophy dating to thomas hobbes who argued in the one seven th century that mental events were ultimately physical in nature although with the biological knowledge of his day he could not say what their physical basis was huxley blended hobbes with darwin to produce the modern materialist or functional view huxley s view was reinforced by the steady expansion of knowledge about the functions of the human brain in the one nine th century it was not possible to say with certainty how the brain carried out such functions as memory emotion perception and reason this left the field open for substantialists to argue for an autonomous mind or for a metaphysical theory of the mind but each advance in the study of the brain during the two zero th century made this harder since it became more and more apparent that all the components of the mind have their origins in the functioning of the brain huxley s rationalism however was disturbed in the early two zero th century by the ideas of sigmund freud who developed a theory of the unconscious mind and argued that those mental processes of which humans are subjectively aware are only a small part of their total mental activity freudianism was in a sense a revival of the substantial view of the mind in a secular guise although freud did not deny that the mind was a function of the brain he held the mind has as it were a mind of its own of which we are not conscious which we cannot control and which can be accessed only though psychoanalysis particularly the interpretation of dreams freud s theory of the unconscious although impossible to prove empirically has been widely accepted and has greatly influenced the popular understanding of the mind more recently douglas hofstadter s one nine seven nine pulitzer prize winning book g del escher bach an eternal golden braid is a tour de force on the subject of mind and how it might arise from the neurology of the brain amongst other biological and cybernetic phenomena hofstadter places tangled loops and recursion at the center of self self awareness and perception of oneself and thus at the heart of mind and thinking likewise philosopher ken wilber posits that mind is the interior dimension of the brain holon that is that mind is what a brain looks like internally when it looks at itself current research the debate about the nature of the mind is relevant to the development of artificial intelligence if the mind is indeed a thing separate from or higher than the functioning of the brain then presumably it will not be possible for any machine no matter how sophisticated to duplicate it if on the other hand the mind is no more than the aggregated functions of the brain then it will be possible at least in theory to create a machine with a mind the mind brain behavior interfaculty initiative mbb at harvard university aims to elucidate the structure function evolution development and pathology of the nervous system in relation to human behavior and mental life it draws on the departments of psychology neurobiology neurology molecular and cellular biology radiology psychiatry organismic and evolutionary biology history of science and linguistics see also artificial consciousness artificial intelligence brain carl jung cognitive science consciousness hominid intelligence memes memetics mental sri aurobindo mental body mind body problem mind games mind myths physicality philosophy of mind psychology simulated consciousness society of mind theory state of mind or mental state subjective character of experience theory of mind unconscious mind brain computer interface external links the mind is what the brain does national geographic article theory of mind for artificial intelligence cognitive sciencepsychologymetaphysics mohandas karamchand gandhi devanagari gujarati october two one eight six nine january three zero one nine four eight was a prominent political leader of india and its struggle for independence from the british empire he was the pioneer and perfector of satyagraha the resistance of tyranny through mass civil disobedience strongly founded upon ahimsa total non violence which led india to independence and has inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world gandhi is commonly known and addressed in india and across the world as mahatma gandhi from sanskrit mahatma great soul and as bapu in many indian languages father beginning as an unobtrusive lawyer in south africa gandhi organised the indian community there in protests and demonstrations against oppressive laws and racial discrimination without any resort to violence successful in repealing the oppressive laws gandhi again employed the technique in organizing poor farmers in india to protest oppressive taxation and extensive discrimination and carried it forward on the national stage to protest oppressive laws made by a foreign government becoming the leader of the indian national congress gandhi led a nationwide campaign for the alleviation of the poor liberation of indian women for brotherhood amongst communities of differing religions and ethnicity and for an end to untouchability and caste discrimination but above all for swaraj the independence of india from foreign domination gandhi famously led indians in the disobedience of the salt tax through the four zero zero kilometre two four eight miles dandi salt march in one nine three one and in an open call for the british to quit india in one nine four two he was imprisoned for many years on numerous occasions in south africa and india throughout his life gandhi remained committed to non violence and truth even in the most extreme situations gandhi was a student of hindu philosophy and lived simply organizing an ashram that was self sufficient in its needs he made his own clothes the traditional indian dhoti and shawl woven with a charkha and lived on a simple vegetarian diet he used rigorous fasts abstaining from food and water for long periods for self purification as well as a means for protest gandhi s life and teachings inspired dr martin luther king jr steve biko and aung san suu kyi and respectively the american civil rights movement and the freedom struggles in south africa and myanmar in india gandhi was recognized as the father of the nation by subhas bose and later by the whole nation october two nd his birthday is each year commemorated as gandhi jayanti and is a national holiday early life gandhi and his wife kasturba one nine zero two mohandas karamchand gandhi was born into a hindu modh family in porbandar gujarat india in one eight six nine he was the son of karamchand gandhi the diwan chief minister of porbandar and putlibai karamchand s fourth wife his previous three wives had died in childbirth a hindu of the vaishnava order growing up with a devout mother and surrounded by the jain influences of gujarat gandhi learned from an early age the tenets of non injury to living beings vegetarianism fasting for self purification and mutual tolerance between members of various creeds and sects he was born into the vaishya or business caste in may one eight eight three at the age of one three gandhi was married through his parents arrangement to kasturbha makhanji also spelled kasturbhai or known as ba who was the same age as he they had four sons harilal gandhi born in one eight eight eight manilal gandhi born in one eight nine two ramdas gandhi born in one eight nine seven and devdas gandhi born in one nine zero zero gandhi was a mediocre student in his youth at porbandar and later rajkot he barely passed the matriculation exam for the university of bombay in one eight eight seven where he joined samaldas college in bhavnagar his family wanting him to become a barrister he was also unhappy at the college he leapt at the opportunity to study in england which he viewed as a land of philosophers and poets the very centre of civilization at the age of one nine on september four one eight eight nine gandhi went to university college london to train as a barrister his time in london the imperial capital was influenced by a vow he had made to his mother in the presence of a jain monk becharji upon leaving india to observe the hindu precepts of abstinence from meat alcohol and promiscuity although gandhi experimented with adopting english customs taking dancing lessons for example he could not stomach his landlady s mutton and cabbage she pointed him towards one of london s few vegetarian restaurants rather than simply go along with his mother s wishes he read about and intellectually embraced vegetarianism he joined the vegetarian society was elected to its executive committee and founded a local chapter he later credited this with giving him valuable experience in organizing institutions some of the vegetarians he met were members of the theosophical society which had been founded in one eight seven five to further universal brotherhood and devoted to the study of buddhist and hindu brahmanistic literature they encouraged gandhi to read the bhagavad gita not having shown a particular interest in religion before he read works of and about hinduism christianity buddhism and other religions he returned to india after being admitted to the british bar he had limited success trying to establish a law practise in bombay he applied for a part time job as a teacher at a bombay high school but was turned down he ended up returning to rajkot to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants but was forced to close down that business as well when he ran afoul of a british officer in his autobiography he describes this incident as a kind of unsuccessful lobbying attempt on behalf of his older brother it was in this climate that in one eight nine three he accepted a year long contract from an indian firm to a post in natal south africa civil rights movement in south africa one eight nine three one nine one four at this point in his life gandhi was a mild mannered diffident and politically indifferent individual he had read his first newspaper at the age of one eight and was prone to stage fright while speaking in court south africa changed him dramatically as he faced the discrimination that was commonly directed at blacks and indians in that country one day in court in the city of durban the magistrate asked him to remove his turban gandhi refused to do so and stormed out of the courtroom in another incident he was thrown off a train at pietermaritzburg after refusing to move from the first class coach to a third class compartment normally used by coloured peoples while holding a valid first class ticket later travelling further on by stagecoach he was beaten by a driver for refusing to travel on the footboard to make room for an european passenger he suffered other hardships on the journey as well including being barred from many hotels on account of his race this incident has been acknowledged by several biographers as a turning point in his life that would serve as the catalyst for his activism later in life it was through witnessing first hand the racism prejudice and injustice against indians in south africa that gandhi started to question his people s status and his own place in society gandhi in south africa one eight nine five at the end of his contract gandhi prepared to return to india however at a farewell party in his honour in durban he happened to glance at a newspaper and learned that a bill was being considered by the natal legislative assembly to deny the right to vote to indians when he brought this up with his hosts they lamented that they did not have the expertise necessary to oppose the bill and implored gandhi to stay and help them he circulated several petitions to both the natal legislature and the british government in opposition to the bill though unable to halt the bill s passage his campaign was successful in drawing attention to the grievances of indians in south africa supporters convinced him to remain in durban to continue fighting against the injustices levied against indians in south africa he founded the natal indian congress in one eight nine four with himself as the secretary through this organization he moulded the indian community of south africa into a heterogeneous political force publishing documents detailing indian grievances and evidence of british discrimination in south africa gandhi returned briefly to india in one eight nine six to bring his wife and children to live with him in south africa when he returned in january one eight nine seven a white mob attacked and tried to lynch him in an early indication of the personal values that would shape his later campaigns he refused to press charges on any member of the mob stating it was one of his principles not to seek redress for a personal wrong in a court of law at the onset of the south african war gandhi argued that indians must support the war effort in order to legitimize their claims to full citizenship organising a volunteer ambulance corps of three zero zero free indians and eight zero zero indentured labourers called the indian ambulance corps one of the few medical units to serve wounded black south africans he himself was a stretcher bearer at the battle of spion kop and was decorated at the conclusion of the war however the situation for the indians did not improve but continued to deteriorate in one nine zero six the transvaal government promulgated a new act compelling registration of the colony s indian population at a mass protest meeting held in johannesburg that september gandhi adopted his methodology of satyagraha devotion to the truth or non violent protest for the first time calling on his fellow indians to defy the new law and suffer the punishments for doing so rather than resist through violent means this plan was adopted leading to a seven year struggle in which thousands of indians were jailed including gandhi himself on many occasions flogged or even shot for striking refusing to register burning their registration cards or engaging in other forms of non violent resistance while the government was successful in repressing the indian protesters the public outcry stemming from the harsh methods employed by the south african government in the face of peaceful indian protesters finally forced south african general jan christian smuts to negotiate a compromise with gandhi in may one nine one five gandhi founded an ashram on the outskirts of ahmedabad and called it satyagrah ashram there lodged twenty five men and women who tooks vows of truth celibacy ahimsa nonpossession control of the palate and service of the indian people fighting for indian independence one nine one six one nine four five gandhi and subhas bose two most prominent leaders of indian freedom movement at five one st indian national congress in one nine three eight as he had done in the south african war gandhi urged support of the british in world war i and was active in encouraging indians to join the army his rationale opposed by many others was that if he desired the full citizenship freedoms and rights in the empire it would be wrong not to help in its defence he spoke at the conventions of the indian national congress but was primarily introduced to indian issues politics and the indian people by gopal krishna gokhale at the time the one of most respected leaders of the congress party champaran and kheda gandhi s first major achievements came in one nine one eight with the champaran agitation and kheda satyagraha although in the latter he was involved at par with sardar vallabhbhai patel who acted as his right hand and leader of the rebels in champaran a district in the state of bihar he organized civil resistance on the part of tens of thousands of landless farmers and serfs and poor farmers with small lands who were forced to grow indigo and other cash crops instead of the food crops necessary for their survival suppressed by the militias of the landlords mostly british they were given measly compensation leaving them mired in extreme poverty the villages were kept extremely dirty and unhygienic and alcoholism untouchability and purdah were rampant now in the throes of a devastating famine the british levied an oppressive tax which they insisted on increasing in rate the situation was desperate in kheda in gujarat the problem was the same gandhi established an ashram there organizing scores of his veteran supporters and fresh volunteers from the region he organized a detailed study and survey of the villages accounting the atrocities and terrible episodes of suffering including the general state of degenerate living building on the confidence of villagers he began leading the clean up of villages building of schools and hospitals and encouraging the village leadership to undo and condemn many social evils as accounted above but his main assault came as he was arrested by police on the charge of creating unrest and was ordered to leave the province hundreds of thousands of people protested and rallied outside the jail police stations and courts demanding his release which the court unwillingly did gandhi led organized protests and strikes against the landlords who with the guidance of the british government signed an agreement granting more compensation and control over farming for the poor farmers of the region and cancellation of revenue hikes and collection until the famine ended it was during this agitation that gandhi was addressed by the people as bapu father and mahatma great soul in kheda patel represented the farmers in negotiations with the british who suspended revenue collection and granted relief all prisoners were released gandhi s resulting fame spread all over the nation non cooperation the rowlatt act of one nine one nine which empowered the government to imprison those accused of sedition without trial was passed in punjab the amritsar massacre of three seven nine civilians by british troops caused deep trauma to the nation and increased public anger and acts of violence gandhi criticized both the actions of the british and the retaliatory violence of indians he authored the resolution offering condolences to british civilian victims and condemning the riots which after initial opposition in the party was accepted after gandhi made an emotional speech pushing forth his principle that all violence was evil and could not be justified but it was after the massacre and violence that gandhi s mind focused upon obtaining complete self government and control of all indian government institutions maturing soon into swaraj or complete individual spiritual political independence gandhi was invested with executive authority on behalf of the indian national congress in december one nine two one under gandhi s leadership the congress was reorganized with a new constitution with the goal of swaraj membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee a hierarchy of committees was set up to improve discipline transforming the party from an elite organization to one of mass national appeal gandhi expanded his non violence platform to include the swadeshi policy the boycott of foreign made goods especially british goods linked to this was his advocacy that khadi homespun cloth be worn by all indians instead of british made textiles gandhi exhorted indian men and women rich or poor to spend time each day spinning khadi in support of the independence movement this was a strategy to inculcate discipline and dedication to weed out the unwilling and ambitious and include women in the movement at a time when many thought that such activities were not respectable for women in addition to boycotting british products gandhi urged the people to boycott british educational institutions and law courts to resign from government employment and to forsake british titles and honours non cooperation enjoyed wide spread appeal and success increasing excitement and participation from all strata of indian society yet just as the movement reached its apex it ended abruptly as a result of a violent clash in the town of chauri chaura uttar pradesh in february one nine two two fearing that the movement was about to take a turn towards violence and convinced that this would be the undoing of all his work gandhi called off the campaign of mass civil disobedience gandhi was arrested on march one zero one nine two two tried for sedition and sentenced to six years beginning on march one eight one nine two two he only served about two years of the sentence being released in february one nine two four after an operation for appendicitis without gandhi s uniting personality the indian national congress began to splinter during his years in prison splitting into two factions one led by chitta ranjan das and motilal nehru favouring party participation in the legislatures and the other led by chakravarti rajagopalachari and sardar vallabhbhai patel opposing this move furthermore cooperation among hindus and muslims which had been strong at the height of the nonviolence campaign was breaking down gandhi attempted to bridge these differences through many means including a three week fast in the autumn of one nine two four but with limited success swaraj and the salt satyagraha the charkha of gandhi s spinning machine was used as the emblem of the nationalist flag gandhi stayed out of the limelight for most of the one nine two zero s preferring to resolve the wedge between the swaraj party and the indian national congress and expanding initiatives against untouchability alcoholism ignorance and poverty he returned to the fore in one nine two eight the year before the british government appointed a new constitutional reform commission under sir john simon numbering not a single indian in its ranks the result was a boycott of the commission by indian political parties gandhi pushed through a resolution at the calcutta congress in december one nine two eight calling on the british government to grant india dominion status or face a new campaign of non violence with complete independence for the country as its goal gandhi had moderated the views of younger men like subhas chandra bose and jawaharlal nehru who sought a demand for immediate independence but also modified his own call to a one year wait instead of two the british did not respond on december three one one nine two nine the flag of india was unfurled in lahore january two six one nine three zero was celebrated by the indian national congress meeting in lahore as india s independence day this day was commemorated by almost every other indian organization making good on his word in march one nine three zero he launched a new satyagraha against the tax on salt highlighted by the famous salt march to dandi from march two one to april six one nine three zero marching four zero zero kilometres two four eight miles from ahmedabad to dandi gujarat to make his own salt thousands of indians joined him on this march to the sea this campaign was one of his most successful resulting in the imprisonment of over six zero zero zero zero people gandhi during the salt march one nine three zero the government represented by lord irwin decided to negotiate with gandhi the gandhi irwin pact was signed in march one nine three one in it the british government agreed to set all political prisoners free in return for the suspension of the civil disobedience movement furthermore gandhi was invited to attend the round table conference in london as the sole representative of the indian national congress the conference was a disappointment to gandhi and the nationalists as it focused on the indian princes and indian minorities rather than the transfer of power furthermore lord irwin s successor lord willingdon embarked on a new campaign of repression against the nationalists gandhi was again arrested and the government attempted to destroy his influence by completely isolating him from his followers this tactic was not successful in one nine three two through the campaigning of the dalit leader b r ambedkar the government granted untouchables separate electorates under the new constitution in protest gandhi embarked on a six day fast in september one nine three two successfully forcing the government to adopt a more equitable arrangement via negotiations mediated by the dalit cricketer turned political leader palwankar baloo this began a new campaign by gandhi to improve the lives of the untouchables whom he named harijans the children of god on may eight one nine three three gandhi began a two one day fast of self purification to help the harijan movement in the summer of one nine three four three unsuccessful attempts were made on his life jawaharlal nehru left with gandhi when the congress party chose to contest elections and accept power under the federation scheme gandhi decided to resign from party membership he did not at all disagree with the party s move but felt that if he resigned his popularity with indians would cease to stifle the party s membership that actually varied from communists socialists trade unionists students religious conservatives pro business convictions gandhi also did not want to prove a target for raj propaganda by leading a party that had temporarily accepted political accommodation with the raj gandhi returned to the head in one nine three six with the nehru presidency and the lucknow session of the congress although gandhi desired a total focus on the task of winning independence and not speculation about india s future he did not restrain the congress from adopting socialism as its goal gandhi had a clash with subhas bose who had been elected to the presidency in one nine three eight gandhi s main issues with bose were his lack of commitment to democracy and lack of faith in non violence bose won his second term despite gandhi s criticism but left the congress when the all india leaders resigned en masse in protest of his abandonment of principles introduced by gandhi world war ii and quit india mahadev desai left reading out a letter to gandhiji from the viceroy at birla house mumbai april seven one nine three nine world war ii broke out in one nine three nine when nazi germany invaded poland initially gandhi had favored offering non violent moral support to the british effort but other congress leaders were offended by the unilateral inclusion of india into the war without consultation of the people s representatives all congressmen elected to office resigned en masse after lengthy deliberations gandhi declared that india could not be party to a war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was denied in india herself as the war progressed gandhi increased his demands for independence drafting a resolution calling for the british to quit india this was gandhi s and the congress party s most definitive revolt aimed at securing the british exit from indian shores gandhi was criticized by some congressmen and other indian political groups both pro british and anti british some felt that opposing britain in its life death struggle was immoral and others felt that gandhi wasn t doing enough quit india became the most forceful movement in the history of the struggle with mass arrests and violence on an unprecedented scale thousands of freedom fighters were killed or injured in police firing and hundreds of thousands were arrested gandhi and his supporters made it clear they would not support the war effort unless india were granted immediate independence he even clarified that this time the movement would not be stopped if individual acts of violence were committed saying that the ordered anarchy around him was worse than real anarchy he called on all congressmen and indians to maintain discipline in ahimsa and karo ya maro do or die in the cause of ultimate freedom gandhi and the entire congress working committee were arrested in mumbai by the british on august nine one nine four two gandhi was held for two years in the aga khan palace in pune it was here that gandhi suffered two terrible blows in his personal life his wife kasturba passed away just a few months after mahadev desai his four two year old secretary died of a heart attack he was released before the end of the war because of his failing health and necessary surgery the raj did not want him to die in prison and enrage the entire nation beyond control although the ruthless suppression of the movement by british forces brought relative order to india by the end of one nine four three quit india succeeded in its objective at the end of the war the british gave clear indications that power would be transferred to indian hands and gandhi called off the struggle and the congress leadership and around one zero zero zero zero zero political prisoners were released in february one nine four four kasturbai gandhi died in prison and six weeks later gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack during this time gandhi s health continually detoriated to the point that the government on may six one nine four four decided to release him freedom and partition of india gandhi advised the congress to reject the proposals the british cabinet mission offered in one nine four six as he was deeply suspicious of the grouping proposed for muslim majority states gandhi viewed this as a precursor to partition however this became one of the few times the congress broke from gandhi s advice not his leadership though as nehru and patel knew that if the congress did not approve the plan the control of government would pass to the muslim league between one nine four six and one nine four seven over five zero zero zero people were killed in violence gandhi was vehemently opposed to any plan that partitioned india into two separate countries many muslims in india lived side by side with hindus and sikhs and were in favour of a united india but jinnah commanded widespread support in west punjab sindh nwfp and east bengal the partition plan was approved by the congress leadership as the only way to prevent a wide scale hindu muslim civil war congress leaders knew that gandhi would viscerally oppose partition and it was impossible for the congress to go ahead without his agreement for gandhi s support in the party and throughout india was strong gandhi s closest colleagues had accepted partition as the best way out and sardar patel endeavoured to convince gandhi that it was the only way to avoid civil war a devastated gandhi gave his assent on the day of the transfer of power gandhi did not celebrate independence with the rest of india but was alone in calcutta mourning the partition and working to end the violence after india s independence gandhi focused on hindu muslim peace and unity he conducted extensive dialogue with muslim and hindu community leaders working to cool passions in northern india as well as in bengal despite the indo pakistani war of one nine four seven he was troubled when the government decided to deny pakistan the rs five five crores due as per agreements made by the partition council leaders like sardar patel feared that pakistan would use the money to bankroll the war against india gandhi was also devastated when demands resurged for all muslims to be deported to pakistan and when muslim and hindu leaders expressed frustration and an inability to come to terms with one another he launched his last fast unto death in delhi asking that all communal violence be ended once and for all and that the payment of rs five five crores be made to pakistan gandhi feared that instability and insecurity in pakistan would increase their anger against india and violence would spread across the borders he further feared that hindus and muslims would renew their enmity and precipitate into an open civil war after emotional debates with his life long colleagues gandhi refused to budge and the government rescinded its policy and made the payment to pakistan hindu muslim and sikh community leaders including the rss and hindu mahasabha assured him that they would renounce violence and call for peace gandhi thus broke his fast by sipping orange juice assassination raj ghat gandhi s memorial in delhi on january three zero one nine four eight on his way to a prayer meeting gandhi was shot dead in birla house new delhi by nathuram godse godse was a hindu radical with links to the extremist hindu mahasabha who held gandhi responsible for weakening india by insisting upon a payment to pakistan godse and his co conspirator narayan apte were later tried and convicted and on one five november one nine four nine were executed a prominent revolutionary and hindu extremist the president of the mahasabha vinayak damodar savarkar was accused of being the architect of the plot but was acquitted due to lack of evidence gandhi s memorial or sam dhi at r j gh t new delhi bears the epigraph devanagiri or h r m which may be translated as oh god these are widely believed to be gandhi s last words after he was shot at though the veracity of this statement has been disputed by many jawaharlal nehru addressed the nation through radio friends and comrades the light has gone out of our lives and there is darkness everywhere and i do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it our beloved leader bapu as we called him the father of the nation is no more perhaps i am wrong to say that nevertheless we will not see him again as we have seen him for these many years we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him and that is a terrible blow not for me only but for millions and millions in this country gandhi s principles truth gandhi dedicated his life to the wider purpose of discovering truth or satya he tried to achieve this by learning from his own mistakes and conducting experiments on himself he named his autobiography the story of my experiments with truth gandhi found that uncovering the truth was not always popular as many people were resistant to change preferring instead to maintain the existing status quo because of either inertia self interest or misguided beliefs however he also discovered that once the truth was on the march nothing could stop it all it took was time to achieve traction and gain momentum as gandhi said the truth is far more powerful than any weapon of mass destruction gandhi said that the most important battle to fight was in overcoming his own demons fears and insecurities he thought it was all too easy to blame people governing powers or enemies for his personal actions and well being he noted the solution to problems could normally be found just by looking in the mirror one of the greatest contributions of mahatma gandhi was in the realm of ontology and its association with truth for gandhi to be did not mean to exist within the realm of time as it has in the past with the greek philosophers but rather to exist meant to exist within the realm of truth or to use the term gandhi did satya gandhi summarized his beliefs first when he said god is truth but as typical of gandhi he evolved later to correct himself and state that truth is god the first statement seemed insufficient to gandhi as the mistake could be made that gandhi was using truth as a description of god rather than the summative definition of the entire essence of god satya truth in gandhi s philosophy is god it shares all the characteristics of the hindu concept of god or brahman it lives within us that little voice that tells us what to do but also guides the universe nonviolence the concept of nonviolence ahimsa and nonresistance has a long history in indian religious thought and has had many revivals in hindu buddhist jain and christian contexts gandhi explains his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography the story of my experiments with truth he was quoted as saying when i despair i remember that all through history the way of truth and love has always won there have been tyrants and murderers and for a time they seem invincible but in the end they always fall think of it always what difference does it make to the dead the orphans and the homeless whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy an eye for an eye makes the whole world blind there are many causes that i am prepared to die for but no causes that i am prepared to kill for in applying these principles gandhi did not balk from taking them to their most logical extremes in one nine four zero when invasion of the british isles by nazi germany looked imminent gandhi offered the following advice to the british people non violence in peace and war i would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity you will invite herr hitler and signor mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions if these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes you will vacate them if they do not give you free passage out you will allow yourselves man woman and child to be slaughtered but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them however gandhi was aware that this level of nonviolence required incredible faith and courage which he realized everyone did not possess he therefore advised that everyone need not keep to nonviolence especially if it was used as a cover for cowardice gandhi guarded against attracting to his satyagraha movement those who feared to take up arms or felt themselves incapable of resistance i do believe he wrote that where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence i would advise violence bondurant two eight at every meeting i repeated the warning that unless they felt that in non violence they had come into possession of a force infinitely superior to the one they had and in the use of which they were adept they should have nothing to do with non violence and resume the arms they possessed before it must never be said of the khudai khidmatgars that once so brave they had become or been made cowards under badshah khan s influence their bravery consisted not in being good marksmen but in defying death and being ever ready to bear their breasts to the bullets bondurant one three nine vegetarianism although he experimented with eating meat in india when he was very young he later became a strict vegetarian he wrote books on the subject while in london having met vegetarian campaigner henry stephens salt at gatherings of the vegetarian society the idea of vegetarianism is deeply ingrained in hindu and jain traditions in india and in his native land of gujarat most hindus were vegetarian he experimented with various diets and concluded that a vegetarian diet would satisfy the requirements of the body however he was flexible for his time and had little reservations on eating table eggs as seen in his one nine four eight article key to health he abstained from eating for long periods using fasting as a political weapon he refused to eat until his death or his demands were met brahmacharya gandhi gave up sexual intercourse at the age of three six becoming totally celibate while still married this decision was deeply influenced by the philosophy of brahmacharya spiritual and practical purity largely associated with celibacy and asceticism gandhi saw brahmacharya as a means of going close to god and as a primary foundation for self realisation in his autobiography he tells of his battle against lustful urges and fits of jealousy with his childhood bride kasturba he felt it his personal obligation to remain celibate so that he could learn to love rather than lust for gandhi brahmacharya meant control of the senses in thought word and deed simplicity gandhi earnestly believed that a person involved in social service should lead a simple life his simplicity began by renouncing the western lifestyle he was leading in south africa gandhi reduced his expenditure by embracing a simple living lifestyle which included washing his own clothes on one occasion he returned the gifts bestowed to him from the natals for his diligent service to the community gandhi spent one day of each week in silence he believed that abstaining from speaking brought him inner peace this influence was drawn from the hindu principles of mouna silence and shanti peace on such days he communicated with others by writing on paper for three and a half years from the age of three seven gandhi refused to read newspapers claiming that the tumultuous state of world affairs caused him more confusion than his own inner unrest returning to india from south africa where he had enjoyed a successful legal practice he gave up wearing western style clothing which he associated with wealth and success he dressed to be accepted by the poorest person in india advocating the use of homespun cloth khadi gandhi and his followers adopted the practice of weaving their own clothes from thread they themselves spun and encouraged others to do so while indian workers were often idle due to unemployment they had often bought their clothing from industrial manufacturers owned by british interests it was gandhi s view that if indians made their own clothes it would deal an economic blow to the british establishment in india consequently the spinning wheel was later incorporated into the flag of the indian national congress faith gandhi was born a hindu and was a practicing hindu all his life deriving most of his principles from hinduism as a common hindu he believed all religions to be equal and rejected all efforts to convert him to a different faith he was an excellent theologist and read extensively about all major religions he had the following to say about hinduism hinduism as i know it entirely satisfies my soul fills my whole being when doubts haunt me when disappointments stare me in the face and when i see not one ray of light on the horizon i turn to the bhagavad gita and find a verse to comfort me and i immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow my life has been full of tragedies and if they have not left any visible and indelible effect on me i owe it to the teachings of the bhagavad gita gandhi believed that at the core of every religion was truth and love compassion nonviolence and the golden rule he also questioned hypocrisy malpractices and dogma in all religions and was a tireless social reformer some of his comments on various religions are thus if i could not accept christianity either as a perfect or the greatest religion neither was i then convinced of hinduism being such hindu defects were pressingly visible to me if untouchability could be a part of hinduism it could but be a rotten part or an excrescence i could not understand the raison d etre of a multitude of sects and castes what was the meaning of saying that the vedas were the inspired word of god if they were inspired why not also the bible and the koran as christian friends were endeavouring to convert me so were muslim friends abdullah sheth had kept on inducing me to study islam and of course he had always something to say regarding its beauty source his autobiography as soon as we lose the moral basis we cease to be religious there is no such thing as religion over riding morality man for instance cannot be untruthful cruel or incontinent and claim to have god on his side the sayings of muhammad are a treasure of wisdom not only for muslims but for all of mankind the concept of islamic jihad can also be taken to mean a nonviolent struggle or satyagraha in the way gandhi practiced it later in his life when he was asked whether he was a hindu he replied yes i am i am also a christian a muslim a buddhist and a jew in spite of their deep reverence to each other gandhi and rabindranath tagore got involved in protracted debates more than once these debates exemplify the philosophical differences between the two most famous indians at the time on january one five one nine three four an earthquake hit bihar and caused extensive damage and loss of life gandhi maintained this was because of the sin committed by upper caste hindus by not letting untouchables in their temples gandhi was committed to the cause of improving the fate of untouchables referring to them as harijans people of krishna rabindranath tagore vehemently opposed gandhi s stance maintaining that an earthquake can only be caused by natural forces not moral reasons however repugnant the practice of untouchability may be criticism throughout his life and after his death gandhi has evoked serious criticism b r ambedkar the dalit political leader condemned gandhi s terming the untouchable community as harijans which he found condescending ambedkar and his allies also felt gandhi was undermining dalit political rights muhammad ali jinnah and contemporary pakistanis often condemn gandhi for undermining muslim political rights vinayak damodar savarkar condemned gandhi for appeasing muslims politically savarkar and his allies blamed gandhi for thus facilitating the creation of pakistan and increasing the influence of the muslim community in politics beyond proportion savarkar himself was implicated in the trial following gandhi s murder as he was the mentor of the assassin nathuram godse and an important hindu mahasabha leader in contemporary times historians like ayesha jalal blame gandhi and the congress for being unwilling to share power with muslims and thus hastening partition hindu political extremists like pravin togadia and narendra modi have been known to criticize gandhi s leadership and actions gandhi believed that the mind of an oppressor or a bigot could be changed by love and non violent rejection of wrong actions while accepting full responsibility for the consequences of the actions however penn and teller in an episode of their showtime program bullshit holier than thou attacked gandhi for amongst other things hypocrisy for perceived inconsistent stands on nonviolence alleged inappropriate behaviour with women and apparent racist statements against africans the last allegation is based on an incident in bombay in one eight nine six on addressing a public meeting in bombay on september two six one eight nine six cf collected works volume ii page seven four following his return from south africa gandhi said ours is one continued struggle against degradation sought to be inflicted upon us by the european who desire to degrade us to the level of the raw kaffir whose occupation is hunting and whose sole ambition is to collect a certain number of cattle to buy a wife with and then pass his life in indolence and nakedness gandhi has also been criticized by various historians and commentators for his attitudes regarding hitler and nazism gandhi apparently believed that hitler s hatred could be transformed by the application of non violent resistance gandhi has come under fire in particular for statements to the effect that the jews would win god s love if they willingly went to their deaths as martyrs sometimes his prescription of extreme non violence was severely at odds with the prevailing view of a situation in one nine four zero he wrote an open letter to the british people in which he offered them the following plan of action for the second world war i want you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity you will invite herr hitler and signor mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions let them take possession of your beautiful island with your many beautiful buildings if these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes you will vacate them if they do not give you free passage out you will allow yourself man woman and child to be slaughtered i am telling his excellency the viceroy that my services are at the disposal of his majesty s government should they consider them of any practical use in enhancing my appeal from stanley wolpert s jinnah of pakistan recognition rs one zero zero zero currency of the mahatma gandhi series gandhi never received the nobel peace prize though he was nominated for it five times between one nine three seven and one nine four eight decades later however the nobel committee publicly declared its regret for the omission and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic opinion denying the award to gandhi the prize was not awarded in one nine four eight the year of gandhi s death on the grounds that there was no suitable living candidate that year and when the dalai lama was awarded the prize in one nine eight nine the chairman of the committee said that this was in part a tribute to the memory of mahatma gandhi after gandhi s death albert einstein said of gandhi generations to come will scarcely believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood time magazine named gandhi as the runner up to albert einstein as person of the century at the end of one nine nine nine and named the dalai lama lech wa sa dr martin luther king jr cesar chavez aung san suu kyi benigno aquino jr desmond tutu and nelson mandela as children of gandhi and his spiritual heirs to the tradition of non violence the government of india awards the annual mahatma gandhi peace prize to distinguished social workers world leaders and citizens nelson mandela the leader of south africa s struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation is a prominent non indian recipient of this honour in one nine nine six the government of india introduced the mahatma gandhi series of currency notes in rupees five one zero two zero five zero one zero zero five zero zero and one zero zero zero denomination mahatma the word mahatma while often mistaken for gandhi s given name in the west is taken from the sanskrit words maha meaning great and atma meaning soul the title mahatma was first accorded to gandhi on january two one one nine one five by his pioneer supporter nautamlal bhagavanji mehta at the kamribai school in jetpur gujarat india in the erstwhile princely state of kathiawad in his autobiography gandhi nevertheless explains that he never felt worthy of the honor according to the manpatra the name mahatma was given in response to gandhi s admirable sacrifice in manifesting justice and truth the wide acceptance of this title outside india may in part reflect the complexities of the relationship between india and britain during gandhi s lifetime such acceptance is consistent with the widespread perception of his deeply held religious beliefs and commitment to non violence artistic depictions the gandhi film poster the best known artistic depiction of his life is the film gandhi one nine eight two directed by richard attenborough and starring ben kingsley himself of gujarati parentage from his father s side in the title role however the film has since been criticised by some post colonial scholars who argue that it depicts gandhi as single handedly bringing india to independence and ignores other prominent figures both elite and subaltern in the anti colonial struggle the making of the mahatma directed by shyam benegal and starring rajat kapur is a film about gandhi s two one years of life in south africa gandhi s character played by veteran actor anu kapoor is also prominently depicted in the film sardar one nine nine three about the life of sardar vallabhbhai patel the one nine nine eight film hey ram made by kamal hasan portrays a would be assassin of gandhi and the dilemma faced by the would be assassins in the turmoil of post partition india gandhi s character is played by veteran actor naseeruddin shah there are several works explorative of different aspects of gandhi s life and his controversial actions the play mahatma vs gandhi explores his troubled relationship with his eldest son harilal gandhi and me nathuram godse boltoy marathi i am nathuram gods speaking explores the rationale and circumstances in which gandhi s murder was plotted and carried out the opera saty graha composed by philip glass in one nine eight zero with a libretto by himself and constance de jong is based on the life of gandhi across the world the centennial commemorative statue of mahatma gandhi in the center of downtown pietermaritzburg south africa in the united kingdom there are several prominent statues of gandhi most notably in tavistock square london near university college london where he studied law january three zero is commemorated in the united kingdom as national gandhi remembrance day in the united states there are statues of gandhi outside the ferry building in san francisco union square park in new york city the martin luther king jr national historic site in atlanta and near the indian embassy in the dupont circle neighbourhood of washington dc the city of pietermaritzburg south africa where gandhi was ejected in one eight nine three from a first class train now hosts a commemorative statue the government of india donated a statue to the city of winnipeg manitoba canada to signify their support for the future canadian museum for human rights there are wax statues of gandhi at the madame tussaud s wax museums in new york and london and other cities around the world including moscow paris amsterdam barcelona lisbon canberra santiago de chile and san fernando trinidad and tobago notes wikisource the birth of satyagraha from the story of my experiments with truth by mohandas k gandhi r gandhi patel a life pp eight two r gandhi patel a life pp eight nine r gandhi patel a life pp one zero five r gandhi patel a life pp one three one r gandhi patel a life pp one seven two r gandhi patel a life pp two three zero three two r gandhi patel a life pp two four six r gandhi patel a life pp four six two r gandhi patel a life pp four six two r gandhi patel a life pp four six four six six r gandhi patel a life pp two four six r gandhi patel a life pp two seven seven eight one r gandhi patel a life pp two eight three eight six r gandhi patel a life pp three zero nine r gandhi patel a life pp three one eight r gandhi patel a life pp four seven two references an autobiography the story of my experiments with truth available at one nine two nine isbn zero eight zero seven zero five nine zero nine nine gandhi a photo biography by peter r he isbn zero seven one four eight nine two seven nine three the essential gandhi an anthology of his writings on his life work and ideas by louis fischer isbn one four zero zero zero three zero five zero one gandhi a life by yogesh chadha isbn zero four seven one three five zero six two one gandhi and india a century in focus by sofri gianni one nine nine five isbn one nine zero zero six two four one two five the kingdom of god is within you by leo tolstoy one eight nine four isbn zero eight zero three two nine four zero four two patel a life by rajmohan gandhi one nine nine zero asin b zero zero zero six eyq zero a exploring jo burg with gandhi lucille davie restored fairview fire tower reopened mahatma gandhi s troyeville johannesburg residence see above link for images external links institutions m k gandhi institute for nonviolence the official mahatma gandhi earchive free download in english or six south asian languages an autobiography the story of my experiments with truth free e text better world links on gandhi contextualizing gandhi in twenty first century world mahatma gandhi an average man nadesan satyendra mahatma gandhi and the corea family of chilaw mahatma gandhi s visit to ceylon in one nine two seven the gandhi nobody knows critical review of the movie gandhi which eventually became a biography of the indian leader hey ram the politics of gandhi s last words critical review of hey ram whether gandhi really said those words or not gandhi on education national centre for teacher education new delhi one nine nine eight gandhi biography gandhi s seven deadly sins big picture tv free video clip of ela gandhi talking about her grandfather gandhi or moses chabad org one eight six nine births one nine four eight deaths community organizing humanitarians mahatma gandhi murdered activists quit india movement ucl alumni miyamoto musashi killing a nue by utagawa kuniyoshi one seven nine eight one eight six one miyamoto musashi miyamoto musashi c one five eight four may one nine or june one three one six four five prior to adulthood known as miyamoto benosuke or miyamoto musana was a famous japanese swordsman he is believed to have been one of the most skilled swordsmen in the history of the world musashi as he is often simply known became legendary through his outstanding swordsmanship in numerous duels even from a very young age he is the progenitor of the hyoho niten ichi ryu or nito ryu style of swordsmanship and wrote go rin no sho the book of five rings an enigmatic book of strategy tactics and philosophy used as the personal mantras for businesspeople and martial artists alike biography musashi miyamoto in his prime wielding two bokken birth much of miyamoto musashi s early life is shrouded in mystery his place and date of birth are uncertain one likely possibility is that he was born into a samurai family in the village of miyamoto in present day mimasaka okayama or harima in the province of mimasaka as a member of the shinmen family his full name was shinmen musashi no kami fujiwara no genshin when musashi was seven years old his father died and the boy was raised as a buddhist by his uncle dorinbo even from an early age musashi separated his religion from his involvement in swordsmanship excerpts such as the one below demonstrate a philosophy that is thought to have stayed with him throughout his life the way of the warrior does not include other ways such as confucianism buddhism certain traditions artistic accomplishments and or dancing but even though these are not part of the way if you know the way broadly you will see it in everything men must polish their particular way the idea that musashi hated shinto is a somewhat innaccurate translation since he only notes differences in its style of swordsmanship which he refers to as strategy when speaking on shinto and their alien practices is believed by many to be completely false the argument that musashi was biased against shintoists finds much of its basis in the fact that he duelled with a great many followers of that religion however since shintoism is the native religion of japan and adherents of that religion were in the majority at that time the prevalance of shintoists as opponents hardly seems unreasonable according to other sources musashi was really an atheist but he never expressed it in public when japanese society was extremely uptight about atheism most historians have tried to delete atheism from popular celebrities biographies and includes musashi s it is said that musashi contracted eczema in his infancy and this adversely affected his appearance another story claims that he never took a bath because he did not want to be surprised unarmed while the former claim may or may not have some basis in reality the latter seems improbable an unwashed member of the warrior caste would not have been received as guest by such famous houses as honda ogasawara and hosokawa these and many other details are likely embellishments that were added to his legend or misinterpretations of literature describing him upbringing musashi lived with his mother until the age of seven when she is said to have died of natural causes it is uncertain what role his father played in his upbringing but whatever role it was it seems somewhat detached from that of musashi s immediate family it is said that musashi would often train with his father yet musashi was raised by his uncle dorinbo a buddhist priest from the age of seven the literature leaves one unsure of his father s fate but he may have died at the hands of one of musashi s later adversaries who was punished or even killed for treating musashi s father badly this however is uncertain as there are no exact details of musashi s life since musashi s only writings are those related to strategy and technique training in swordsmanship the name musashi was thought to be taken from the name of a warrior monk named musashib benkei who served under minamoto no yoshitsune but this is unconfirmed in any case the name seems fitting particularly when comparing the level of mastery of weaponry both being able to masterfully use nine or more weapons ichijoji sagarimatsu location of the battle between musashi and the yoshioka school it is said that he may have studied at a school named yoshioka which was also said to be a school which he defeated single handedly during his later years although this is most likely untrue according to the introduction of the book of five rings musashi states that his first successful duel was at the age of thirteen against a lesser skilled samurai called arima kihei from kashima who fought using shint ry style although it is not expressly stated if indeed musashi used form or technique to kill kihei it is quite certain that he had used the staff as a club town reports stating that kihei was bleeding all over his face nevertheless this was musashi s first opponent and despite rumours both combatants were not using wooden swords kihei used a sword as the duel with musashi was unexpected for more information on the duel see arima kihei according to traditional texts he fought in the battle of sekigahara as a mercenary with troops loyal to toyotomi hideyori but this is not confirmed by the book of five rings although he was by now a famed swordsman toyotomi was defeated it was also said that musashi had to crawl through the decaying bodies of the soldiers he had once fought with in order to get to a position of safety away from pursuing hordes which were after his life this could be perhaps one of the earlier events which also showed musashi s determination for survival within battle after the war was over musashi left for edo according to his adopted son iori in one six zero four musashi fought a victorious duel against master swordsman yoshioka seijuro using only a bokken a wooden sword he had been famed for using in various other battles or duels however it is unsure whether the battle between seijuro was to the death but what is reputed to have happened is that musashi had beaten seijuro with such prowess that when he had spared his life he was unable to wield a sword afterwards be it on the shame of defeat it is unsure how many times that musashi and seijuro were reputed to have fought some records of the yoshioka family stated that musashi was defeated by seijuro after a strike to the head and subsequently fled but such reports were thought to be erroneous and an attempt of saving past grace it is doubtful that musashi fought seijuro more than once as seijuro once a renowned master of the sword was said to have been humiliated this would lead to musashi engaging in duels with the entire family due to his reputed dislike for the way in which they had treated his father he defeated the father of the family as well as his two sons in latter duels although one was thought to have been more of an ambush see scott wilson two zero zero four tokitsu two zero zero four musashi created and perfected a two sword kenjutsu technique called niten ichi two heavens as one or nit ichi two swords as one or ni ten ichi ryu a kongen buddhist sutra refers to the two heavens as the two guardians of buddha in this technique the swordsman uses both a heavy sword and a companion sword at the same time such as a katana and wakizashi it is said the two handed movements of temple drummers inspired him although it seems more likely that the technique was forged by a means of natural selection through musashi s combat experience or from jitte techniques which were taught to him by his father in his time a long sword in the left hand was referred to as gyaku nito today musashi s style of swordsmanship is known as hy h niten ichi ry musashi was also an expert in throwing weapons he frequently threw his shortsword and was reputed to have thrown a bo staff in his first duel with arima kihei in fact before the meiji era multi faceted skills were a necessity so the likelihood of such information is accurate see hayakutake watkin musashi was a loner he spent many years studying buddhism and swordsmanship he was an accomplished artist sculptor and calligrapher records also show that he had architectural skills also he had a rather no nonsense approach to fighting with no additional frills or aesthetic considerations this was probably due to his real life combat experience especially in his later life musashi also followed the more artistic side of bushido he made various zen brush paintings and calligraphy and sculpted wood and metal even in the book of five rings he emphasizes that samurai should understand other professions as well it should be understood that musashi s writings were very ambiguous translating them into english make them even more so that is why we find so many copies of gorin no sho one needs to read this work dokkodo and hyoho shiji ni kajo to get a better idea of what he was about and understand his transformation from setsuninto the sword that takes life to katsujinken the sword that gives life timeline these events are details from the book of five rings adolescence and maturity from one six zero five to one six one two he traveled extensively all over japan in musha shugyo a warrior pilgrimage during which he honed his skills with duels he was said to have used bokken or bokuto in actual duels most of the duels from these times did not try to take the opponent s life unless both agreed but in most duels it is known that musashi did not care which weapon the other was using such was his mastery of the way of strategy he is said to have fought over six zero duels and was never defeated although this is a conservative estimate most likely not accounting deaths by his hand in major battles japanese historians seem to believe that he could not have won all of them alone without some assistance from his students although this is unlikely because of the sheer mastery musashi had above his students particularly noting that most students found his techniques difficult even as he states in his own books in april one four one six one two he had his most famous duel with sasaki kojiro who was using a nodachi a type of long two handed sword musashi came late and unkempt possibly as an attempt to unnerve his opponent and killed him with a bokken that he had made from an oar this may be related to the okinawan weapon known as the shureido eaku to be longer than the nodachi an impressive feat by the standards of any samurai or swordsman musashi switched to wood after this fight believing it to be superior in reliability to steel he briefly established a fencing school that same year in one six one four one six one five he reputedly joined the troops of tokugawa ieyasu when he had besieged osaka castle of the toyotomi family some reports go so far as to say that musashi entered a duel with ieyasu but was recruited after ieyasu sensed his defeat was at hand although this seems unlikely it is unknown how musashi came into ieyasu s good graces other accounts claim he actually served in the defending side but such a claim is unproven in one six one five he entered the service of ogasawara tadanao of the harima province as a foreman or construction supervisor after previously gaining skills in craft during his service he adopted a boy called iori and founded the enmei ryu school of kenjutsu in one six two seven musashi began to travel again in one six three four he settled in kokura with his step son iori and later entered the service of daimyo ogasawara tadazane taking a major role in the shimabara rebellion iori served with excellence in putting down the rebellion and gradually rose to the rank of karo a position equal to a minister musashi however was reputedly injured by a thrown rock while scouting in the front line and was thus unable to accrue any form of merit death six years later in one six three three musashi moved to hosokawa tadatoshi daimyo of kumamoto castle to train and paint in one six four three he retired to a cave named reigand as a hermit to write the book of five rings he finished it a couple of weeks before his death around may one nine one six four five it is notable that musashi died of what is believed to be thoracic cancer and was not killed in combat he died quite peacefully after finishing the way of walking alone or the way of self reliance two one points on self discipline to guide future generations legends after his death various legends began to appear most talk about his feats in kenjutsu and other martial arts some describing how he was able to hurl men over five feet backwards other about his speed and technique the majority being normal recollections of past events more than legends other more mythically based legends tell of how musashi killed giant lizards in echizen as well as nues in various other prefectures he gained the stature of kensei a sword saint for his mastery in swordsmanship some believed he could run at super human speed walk on air water and even fly through the clouds today musashi miyamoto resides in a humble grave alongside a busy road in kyushu which is surrounded by rice fields and faces a dojo which is seen as fitting for musashi who was thought to have finally found peace in kyushu after his many years of battle and strife philosophy throughout musashi s last book go rin no sho the book of five rings musashi seems to take a very philosophical approach to looking at the craft of war there are four ways in which men pass through life as gentlemen warriors farmers artisans and merchants these falling into one of the few profession groups that could be observed in musashi s time throughout the book musashi employs that the way of the warrior as well as the meaning of a true strategist is that of somebody who has made mastery of many art forms away from that of the sword such as tea drinking labouring writing and painting as musashi practiced throughout his life musashi was hailed as an extraordinary sumi e artist in the use of ink monochrome as depicted in two such famous paintings shrike perched in a dead tree koboku meikakuzu and wild geese among reeds rozanzu he makes particular note of artisans and foremen in the time in which he writes the book the majority of houses in japan were made of wood in the use of building a house foremen have to employ strategy based upon the skill and ability of their workers in comparison to warriors and soldiers musashi notes the ways in which the artisans thrive through events the ruin of houses the splendor of houses the style of the house the tradition and name or origins of a house these too are similar to the events which are seen to have warriors and soldiers thrive the rise and fall of prefectures countries and other such events are what make uses for warriors as well as the literal comparisons of the the carpenter uses a master plan of the building and the way of strategy is similar in that there is a plan of campaign the way of strategy throughout the book go rin no sh the idea which musashi pushes is that the way of the strategist is similar to how a carpenter and his tools are mutually inclusive e g a carpenter can do nothing without his tools and vice versa this too he compares to skill and tactical ability in the field of battle initially musashi notes that throughout china and japan there are many sword fencers who walk around claiming they are strategists but are in fact not this may be due to the fact that musashi had defeated some such strategists such as arima kihei the idea is that by reading his writings you can become a true strategist from ability and tactical skill that musashi had learned in his lifetime he pushes that strategy and virtue are something which can be earned by knowing the ways of life the professions that are around to perhaps learn the skills and knowledge of people and the skills of their particular professions however musashi seems to state that the value of strategy seems to be transcendental or homogenous he notes that the attendants of the kashima kantori shrines of the province hitachi received instruction from the gods and made schools based on this teaching travelling from country to country instructing men this is the recent meaning of strategy as well as noting that strategy is destined to die of course men who study in this way think they are training the body and spirit but it is an obstacle to the true way and its bad influence remains for ever thus the true way of strategy is becoming decadent and dying out as a form strategy was said to be one of ten abilities and seven arts that a warrior should have but musashi disagrees that one person can gain strategy by being confined to one particular style which seems particularly fitting as he admits i practice many arts and abilities all things with no teacher this perhaps being one of the reasons he was so highly regarded a swordsman musashi s metaphor for strategy is that of the nut and the flower similar to western philosophy of the chicken or the egg the nut being the student the flower being the technique he also notes that most places seem to be mostly concerned with their technique and its beauty musashi writes in this kind of way of strategy both those teaching and those learning the way are concerned with coloring and showing off their technique trying to hasten the bloom of the flower as opposed to the actual harmony between strategy and skill with those who are concerned with becoming masters of strategy musashi points out that as a carpenter becomes better with his tools and is able to craft things with more expert measure so too can a warrior or strategist become more skilled in his technique however just as a carpenter needs to be able to use his tools according to plans so too must a strategist be able to adapt his style or technique to the required strategy of the battle he is currently engaged in this description also draws parallels between the weapons of a trooper or soldier and the tools of a carpenter the idea of the right tool for the right job seems to be implied a lot throughout the book go rin no sh musashi also puts into motion the idea that when a carpenter is skilled enough in aspects of his job and creates them with expert measure then he can become a foreman although it is not expressly mentioned it may be seen that musashi indicated that when you have learned the areas in which your craft requires be it carpentry farming fine art or battle and are able to apply them to any given situation then you will be experienced enough to show others the wisdom of your ways be it as a foreman of craftsmen or as a general of an army from further reading into the book the idea of weapons within strategy as well as musashi referring to the power of the writer may seem that the strategy which musashi refers to does not exclusively reside within the domain of weaponry and duels but within the realm of war and battles with many men just as one man can beat ten so a hundred men can beat a thousand and a thousand can beat ten thousand in my strategy one man is the same as ten thousand so this strategy is the complete warrior s craft of ni ten ichi ryu within the book musashi mentions that the use of two swords within strategy is mutually beneficial between those who utilise this skill the idea of using two hands for a sword is an idea which musashi disagrees with in that there is not fluidity in movement when using two hands if you hold a sword with both hands it is difficult to wield it freely to left and right so my method is to carry the sword in one hand as well as the idea of using a sword with two hands on a horse and or riding on unstable terrain such as muddy swamps rice fields or within crowds of people in order to learn the strategy of ni ten ichi ryu musashi employs that by training with two long swords one in each hand you will be able to overcome the cumbersome nature of using a sword in both hands although difficult musashi agrees that there are times in which the longsword must be used with two hands but if your skill is good enough you should not need it the idea of using two longswords is that you are starting with something to which you are unaccustomed and that you will find difficult but will adapt to after much use after using two longswords proficiently enough musashi then states that your mastery of a longsword and a companion sword most likely a wakizashi will be much increased when you become used to wielding the long sword you will gain the power of the way and wield the sword well in short it could be seen that from the excerpts from go rin no sh the real strategy behind ni ten no ichi ryu is that there is no real iron clad method path or type of weaponry that is specific to the style of ni ten no ichi ryu you can win with a long weapon and yet you can also win with a short weapon in short the way of the ichi school is the spirit of winning whatever the weapon and whatever its size of the long sword the strategy of the long sword is different to other strategies in that is much more straightforward in the strategy of the longsword it seems that musashi s ideal is that by learning to grasp the sword with two fingers and master such a grip that that will be a platform used for moving onto the mastery of ni ten ichi ryu as well as being able to use two broadswords or more masterfully use a companion sword however just because the grip is to be light it does not mean that the attack or slash from the sword will be weak like with any other technique in the ni ten ichi ryu he notes if you try to wield the long sword quickly you will mistake the way to wield the long sword well you must wield it calmly if you try to wield it quickly like a folding fan or a short sword you will err by using short sword chopping you cannot cut down a man with a long sword using this method like with most disciplines in martial arts musashi notes that the movement of the sword after the cut is made must not be superfluous instead of quickly returning to a stance or position one should allow the sword to come to the end of its path from the force used in this manner the technique will become freely flowing as opposed to abrupt this principle is also taught in tai chi ch uan myths it was said that musashi always grasped his swords tightly by many people reading information about him however he categorically states that your grip must not be too tight as it restricts your movement with a sword it has also been said that musashi used nothing but a wakizashi and a katana this is completely false it is described many times that musashi would prefer a wooden sword over a katana in duels legends state that musashi never bathed for fear of being caught without his swords since he was a frequent visitor in the courts of nobles and the dojos of renowned masters this is unlikely it has been suggested by some historians that musashi created the two swords style after seeing a european duel in the nagasaki area european fencing at the time would have used a long sword with a short one rapiers and daggers miyamoto musashi in fiction there have been thirty six films made about musashi including six with the title of miyamoto musashi and a television series about his life even in musashi s time there were fictional texts resembling comic books it is therefore quite difficult to separate fact from fiction when discussing musashi one of the best known films about musashi is hiroshi ingagaki excellent samurai trilogy which actually consist of three movies musashi miamoto duel at ichijoji temple and duel at ganryu island another excellent work on musashi is takehiko inoue s manga series vagabond takehiko inoue first came to fame thruough his insanely popular comic series called slam dunk which is about japanese high school basketball see also miyamoto musashi station references writings of miyamoto musashi the one nine articles of self discipline the three five articles of swordsmanship dokkodo the path of self reliance go rin no sh the book of five rings in reference to the five rings of zen buddhism the way of walking alone or the way of self reliance further reading external links list of musashi miyamoto related films information and a full translation of the book of five rings hyoho niten ichiryu the sword style founded by musashi musashi the book of five rings tracking musashi go rin no sh samurai one five eight four births one six four five deaths martial arts school founders people involved with shinto japanese swordsmen multivariate statistics or multivariate statistical analysis in statistics describes a collection of procedures which involve observation and analysis of more than one statistical variable at a time there are many different models each with its own type of analysis canonical correlation analysis tries to establish whether or not there are linear relationships among two sets of variables covariates and response regression analysis attempts to determine a linear formula that can describe how some variables respond to changes in others regression analyses are based on forms of the general linear model principal components analysis attempts to determine a smaller set of synthetic variables that could explain the original set discriminant function or canonical variate analysis attempt to establish whether a set of variables can be used to distinguish between two or more groups multidimensional scaling covers various algorithms to determine a set of synthetic variables that best represent the pairwise distances between records the original method is principal coordinate analysis linear discriminant analysis lda computes a linear predictor from two sets of normally distributed data to allow for classification of new observations logistic regression allows to perform a regression analysis to estimate and test the influence of covariates on a binary response multivariate analysis of variance manova methods extend analysis of variance methods to cover cases where there is more than one dependent variable and where the dependent variables cannot simply be combined see also multivariate normal distribution estimation of covariance matrices wishart distribution hotelling s t square distribution important publications in multivariate statistics statistics may one eight the one three eight th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one three nine th in leap years there are two two seven days remaining cliff arnall lecturer in the department of lifelong learning at cardiff university wales announced in two zero zero five that may one eight was the best date in the year on which to make a resolution he calculated this using a formula which took into account the factors of motivation opportunity proximity to a bank holiday increasing hours of daylight reflection time and success events one one five two henry ii marries eleanor of aquitaine one two six eight the principality of antioch a crusader state falls to the mamluk sultan baibars in the battle of antioch baibars destruction of the city of antioch was so great as to permanently negate the city s importance one five nine three playwright thomas kyd s accusations of heresy lead to an arrest warrant for christopher marlowe one six three one in dorchester massachusetts john winthrop takes the oath of office and becomes the first governor of massachusetts one six five two rhode island passes the first law in north america making slavery illegal one seven six five fire destroys a large part of montreal quebec one seven eight three first united empire loyalists reach parrtown saint john new brunswick canada after leaving the united states one eight zero three napoleonic wars the united kingdom revokes the treaty of amiens and declares war on france one eight zero four napoleon bonaparte is proclaimed emperor of france by the french senate one eight four eight opening of the first german national assembly nationalversammlung in frankfurt germany one eight six three american civil war the siege of vicksburg begins ending on july four one eight six nine surrender and dissolution of the ezo republic to japan one eight seven six wyatt earp starts work in dodge city kansas under marshall larry deger one eight nine six the united states supreme court rules in plessy v ferguson that separate but equal is constitutional one nine zero zero the united kingdom proclaims a protectorate over tonga one nine one zero the earth passes through the tail of comet halley one nine one seven world war i the selective service act passes the u s congress giving the president the power of conscription one nine two six evangelist aimee semple mcpherson disappears while visiting a venice california beach one nine two seven the bath school disaster forty five people are killed by bombs planted by a disgruntled school board member in michigan one nine three three new deal president franklin delano roosevelt signs an act creating the tennessee valley authority one nine four four world war ii battle of monte cassino germans evacuate monte cassino and allied forces take the stronghold after a struggle that claimed two zero zero zero zero lives one nine four four deportation of crimean tatars by the soviet union government one nine four five world war ii ss troops burn down six villages in the brkini hills in south western slovenia one nine four eight the first legislative yuan of the republic of china officially convenes in nanking one nine five three jackie cochran becomes the first woman to break the sound barrier she flew in a f eight six sabrejet at an average speed of six five two three three seven miles per hour one zero four nine eight three five km h at rogers dry lake california one nine five eight an f one zero four starfighter sets a world speed record of one four zero four one nine mph two two five nine eight two km h one nine five nine launching of the national liberation committee of c te d ivoire in conakry guinea one nine six nine apollo program apollo one zero launches one nine seven four nuclear test under project smiling buddha india successfully detonates its first nuclear weapon becoming the sixth nation to do so one nine seven four completion of the warsaw radio mast the tallest construction ever built at the time it later collapses on august eight one nine nine one one nine eight zero one nine eight zero mount st helens eruption mount st helens erupts in washington killing five seven people and causing three billion in damage one nine eight zero gwangju massacre students in gwangju south korea begin demonstrations calling for democratic reforms one nine eight zero peru terrorist group shining path attacked a voting poll in the town of chuschi ayacucho starting their activities one nine eight three in ireland scene of remarkable pirate radio broadcasting during the decade the government launched a crackdown with the leading dublin pirate radio nova being put off the air one nine nine two the archivist of the united states issues a proclamation to officially announce that the two seven th amendment to the u s constitution has been ratified despite more than two zero zero years for completion of the ratification process by the state legislatures one nine nine five alain jupp becomes prime minister of france one nine nine eight united states v microsoft the united states department of justice and two zero u s states file an antitrust case against microsoft two zero zero four randy johnson pitches a perfect game for the arizona diamondbacks vs the atlanta braves births one zero four eight omar khayy m persian poet d one one two three one one eight six konstantin of rostov prince of novgorod d one two one eight one four seven four isabella d este marquise of mantua d one five three nine one six one zero stefano della bella italian printmaker d one six six four one six one six johann jakob froberger german composer d one six six seven one six six two o s george smalridge english bishop of bristol d one seven one nine one six nine two o s joseph butler english bishop and philosopher d one seven five two one seven one one ru er josip bo kovi croatian atomic theorist d one seven eight seven one seven seven eight charles william vane three rd marquess of londonderry one seven eight five john wilson scottish writer d one eight five four one seven nine seven frederick augustus ii of saxony d one eight five four one eight five zero oliver heaviside english physicist d one nine two five one eight seven two lord bertrand russell english mathematician and philosopher recipient of the nobel prize in literature d one nine seven zero one eight eight three eurico gaspar dutra president of brazil d one nine seven four one eight eight three walter gropius german architect d one nine six nine one eight eight nine thomas midgley american chemist and inventor d one nine four four one eight nine one rudolf carnap german philosopher d one nine seven zero one eight nine two ezio pinza italian born bass d one nine five seven one eight nine seven frank capra american producer director and writer d one nine nine one one nine zero one vincent du vigneaud american chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine seven eight one nine zero two meredith willson american composer d one nine eight four one nine zero five hedley verity english cricketer d one nine four three one nine one one big joe turner american blues singer d one nine eight five one nine one two perry como american singer d two zero zero one one nine one two walter sisulu south african anti apartheid activist d two zero zero three one nine one eight george welch american pilot and war hero d one nine five four one nine one nine dame margot fonteyn english ballet dancer d one nine nine one one nine two zero pope john paul ii d two zero zero five one nine two zero lucia mannucci italian singer quartetto cetra one nine two two kai winding danish born musician d one nine eight three one nine two three hugh shearer prime minister of jamaica d two zero zero four one nine two four priscilla pointer american actress one nine two six dirch passer danish actor d one nine eight zero one nine two eight pernell roberts american actor one nine two nine jack sanford baseball player one nine three one don martin american cartoonist d two zero zero zero one nine three one robert morse american actor one nine three seven brooks robinson baseball player one nine three seven jacques santer luxembourg statesman one nine four two albert hammond british musician and compose one nine four three james reiher american professionsal wrestler one nine four six reggie jackson baseball player one nine four six andreas katsulas american actor d two zero zero six one nine four seven john bruton ninth taoiseach of the republic of ireland one nine four nine rick wakeman english composer and musician yes one nine four nine bill wallace canadian musician the guess who one nine five zero thomas gottschalk german television show host one nine five zero rodney milburn american athlete d one nine nine seven one nine five zero mark mothersbaugh american composer musician and singer devo one nine five two george strait american musician one nine five five chow yun fat hong kong actor one nine five seven michael cretu german musician enigma one nine five nine jay wells canadian ice hockey player one nine six zero jari kurri finnish hockey player one nine six zero yannick noah french tennis player one nine six nine martika cuban american singer one nine seven zero tina fey american writer comedian and actress saturday night live one nine seven one brad friedel american football player one nine seven five john higgins scottish snooker player one nine seven five jack johnson american musician one nine seven six oleg tverdovsky ukrainian ice hockey player one nine seven seven lee hendrie english footballer one nine seven seven danny mills english footballer one nine seven eight ricardo carvalho portuguese footballer one nine seven eight ciar n toland northern irish activist one nine eight two eric west american singer and actor one nine eight three vince young american football player deaths one four five zero sejong the great of joseon ruler of korea b one three nine seven one five five zero john cardinal of lorraine french churchman b one four nine eight one five eight four ikeda motosuke japanese samurai commander b one five five nine one six seven five stanis aw lubieniecki polish astronomer b one six two three one six seven five jacques marquette french jesuit missionary and explorer b one six three seven one six nine two elias ashmole english antiquarian b one six one seven one seven three three georg b hm german organist b one seven six one one seven eight zero charles hardy british governor of newfoundland one seven nine nine pierre augustin caron de beaumarchais french playwright b one seven three two one eight zero zero alexander suvorov russian general b one seven two nine one eight zero seven john douglas scottish anglican bishop and man of letters b one seven two one one eight zero eight elijah craig american minister and inventor b one seven three eight one nine zero zero jean gaspard felix ravaisson mollien french philosopher b one eight one three one nine zero nine george meredith english novelist and poet b one eight two eight one nine zero nine isaac alb niz spanish pianist and composer b one eight six zero one nine one zero pauline garcia viardot french mezzo soprano and composer b one eight two one one nine one one gustav mahler austrian composer b one eight six zero one nine two two charles louis alphonse laveran french physician recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one eight four five one nine four one werner sombart german economist and sociologist b one eight six three one nine five six maurice tate english cricketer b one eight nine five one nine seven three jeannette rankin first u s congresswoman b one eight eight zero one nine seven five leroy anderson american composer b one nine zero eight one nine eight zero ian curtis british musician singer and lyricist joy division b one nine five six one nine eight one william saroyan american author b one nine zero eight one nine eight eight daws butler american voice actor b one nine one six one nine nine five elisha cook jr american actor b one nine zero three one nine nine five alexander godunov russian ballet dancer and actor b one nine four nine one nine nine five elizabeth montgomery american actress b one nine three three one nine nine nine augustus pablo jamaican singer b one nine five four one nine nine nine betty robinson american runner b one nine one one two zero zero zero stephen m wolownik russian musician and arranger b one nine four six two zero zero three anna santisteban puerto rican beauty contest organizer b one nine one four two zero zero three barb tarbox canadian anti smoking crusader b one nine six one two zero zero four elvin jones american jazz drummer b one nine two seven holidays and observances feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church saint eric of sweden dioscorus felix of cantalice pope john i external links bbc on this day may one seven may one nine april one eight june one eight listing of all days money laundering is the practice of engaging in financial transactions in order to conceal the identity source and or destination of money and is a main operation of underground economy in the past the term money laundering was applied only to financial transactions related to organized crime today its definition is often expanded by government regulators such as the united states office of the comptroller of the currency to encompass any financial transaction which generates an asset or a value as the result of an illegal act which may involve actions such as tax evasion or false accounting as a result the illegal activity of money laundering is now recognized as potentially practiced by individuals small and large business corrupt officials members of organized crime such as drug dealers or the mafia or of cults and even corrupt states or intelligence agencies through a complex network of shell companies based in offshore tax havens the increasing complexity of financial crime the increasing recognised value of so called financial intelligence finint in combating transnational crime and terrorism and the speculated impact of capital extracted from the legitimate economy has led to an increased prominence of money laundering in political economic and legal debate in many jurisdictions money laundering is seen as an activity based offense a brief history of money laundering al capone s one nine three one conviction for tax evasion leads to the modern practice of money laundering the term money laundering is said to have evolved from the prohibition era in the united states many methods were devised to disguise the origins of money generated by the sale of then illegal alcoholic beverages following al capone s one nine three one conviction for tax evasion mobster meyer lansky transferred funds from new orleans slot machines to accounts overseas after the one nine three four swiss banking act which created the principle of bank secrecy meyer lansky bought a swiss bank where he would transfer his illegal funds through a complex system of shell companies holding companies and offshore accounts gambling and laundries one laundering method was legal gambling via slot machines this could efficiently transform giant volumes of coins into easily movable currency another business so employed was laundries and from this particular aspect of the trade the term laundering emerged the reason that laundromats were favoured for use in this activity was that all money which went into the business was in the form of coins deposited into the machines seeing as there was never any tally of the money kept at the time of deposit the operators of the business could add extra money gained from illegal activities on top of the days books making it seem as if the money were gained through the legitimate operation of the business not to mention the fact that the term to launder means to make clean and when one launders money they are turning what was illegally gained money into money which would be thought of as legal and lawfully acquired september one one two zero zero one and the international response to the underground economy after september one one two zero zero one money laundering became a major concern of the us bush administration s war on terror although critics argue that it has became less and less an important matter for the white house based in luxembourg clearstream a bank of banks which practice financial clearing centralizing debit and credit operations for hundreds of banks has been accused of being a major operator of the underground economy via a system of un published accounts bahrain international bank owned by osama bin laden would have profited from these transfer facilities the scandal prompted andr lussi clearstream ceo to resign on december three one two zero zero one several juridical investigations were opened and the european commission was interpelled by european members of parliament mps harlem d sir glyn ford and francis wurtz who asked the commission to investigate the accusations and to ensure that the one zero june one nine nine zero directive nine one three zero eight ce on control of financial establishment was applied in all member states including luxembourg in an effective way the international response to the underground economy has been co ordinated by the financial action task force on money laundering fatf also known by its french acronym of gafi whose original four zero principles form the basis of most international responses to money laundering activity a further eight principles designed to counteract funding to terrorist organisations were added on june three zero two zero zero three in response to the september one one two zero zero one with another added two two october two zero zero four to form what are now known as the four zero nine principles of anti money laundering and counter terrorism funding aml ctf compliance with or a movement towards compliance with these principles is now seen as a requirement of an internationally active bank or other financial service entity several fatf style regional bodies exist such as the asia pacific group on money laundering process money laundering is often described as occurring in three stages placement layering and integration placement refers to the initial point of entry for funds derived from criminal activities layering refers to the creation of complex networks of transactions which attempt to obscure the link between the initial entry point and the end of the laundering cycle integration refers to the return of funds to the legitimate economy for later extraction examples if a person is making thousands of dollars in small change a week from his business not unusual for a store owner and he wishes to deposit that money in a bank he cannot do so without possibly drawing suspicion in the united states for example cash transactions and deposits of more than one zero zero zero zero are required to be reported as significant cash transactions to the financial crimes enforcement network fincen along with any other suspicious financial activity as suspicious activity reports in other jurisdictions suspicion based requirements are placed on financial services employees and firms to report suspicious activity to the authorities in the united kingdom for example until the introduction of the serious and organised crime and police act socpa there was no lower limit to what had to be reported a five zero note could have been enough one method of keeping this small change private would be for an individual to give his money to an intermediary who is already legitimately taking in large amounts of cash the intermediary would then deposit that money into his account take a premium and write a check to the individual thus the individual draws no attention to himself and can deposit his check into a bank account without drawing suspicion another method involves establishing a business whose cash inflow cannot be monitored and funneling the small change into this business and paying taxes on it all bank employees however are trained to be constantly on the lookout for any transactions which appear to be an attempt to get around the currency reporting requirements by the strictest definition of the term anyone who assists in concealing the proceeds from his transactions is considered a money launderer an individual therefore may be unwittingly employed by money launderers and may still be criminally liable in many jurisdictions it should be noted however that the act of concealing money is different than that of laundering it though many make the mistake of putting both actions under the term of laundering corrupt politicians and lobbyists also launder money by setting up personal non profits to move money between trusted organizations so that donations from inappropriate sources may be illegally used for personal gain see also attac an ngo working for the prohibition of tax havens which with shell companies and clearing houses form the essential part of the global money laundering network whitewashing smurfing crime financial action task force on money laundering anti money laundering list of organizations bad guy databases world check com the leading kyc compliance database of heightened risk people and entities peps terrorists others factiva public figures and associates a pep kyc database https www integrascreenonline com integrascreenonline another key kyc database vendor e newsletters moneylaundering com a popular source for news guidance and analysis offshorealert com kyc news world money laundering report a resource for counter money laundering professionals complinet com an expensive but essential newsletter for consultants and senior compliance officers especially in europe and north america fatf and regional bodies the financial action task force website the asia pacific group on money laundering caribbean financial action task force council of europe select committee of experts on the evaluation of aml measures moneyval the eurasian group eag eastern and southern africa aml group esaamlg fatf on money laundering in south america gafisud the middle east and north african fatf menafatf industry bodies wolfsberg group of banks aml guidance for private banking correspondent banking monitoring screening and searching joint money laundering steering group jmlsg notes under bba cutting edge aml guidance essential for banks and has the force of law under the uk proceeds of crime act two zero zero two latest version of notes released in february two zero zero six articles pwc idss report on supervisory policy aml cft new policy initiatives terrorist financing looking in the wrong places an alternative perspective to the cft approach thomas naylor offers an alternative perspective to the war on crime rethinking the war on crime aml risk models from rohanbedi com commercial crimes underground economy midwifery is the term traditionally used to describe the art of assisting at childbirth in the modern context this term is used to describe the activities of health care givers who provide prenatal care to expecting mothers attend the birth of the infant and provide postpartum care to the mother and her infant practitioners of midwifery are known as midwives a term used in reference to both women and men the term means with the woman regardless of the educational background or legal status of the practitioner midwives are autonomous practitioners who are specialists in normal pregnancy childbirth and the postpartum midwives may also provide general women s health care midwives are trained to recognize and deal with deviations from the norm obstetricians in contrast are specialists in illness related to childbearing and in surgery many obstetrticians are also gynecologists the two professions are complementary midwives refer to obstetricians when a woman requires care beyond her areas of expertise in many jurisidciations these professions work together to provide care to childbearing women in others only the midwife is available to provide care midwives may develop areas of expertise including breech birth in many areas of the world traditional birth attendant also known as traditional midwives care for childbearing women international definition a midwife is a person who having been regularly admitted to a midwifery educational programme duly recognised in the country in which it is located has successfully completed the prescribed course of studies in midwifery and has acquired the requisite qualifications to be registered and or legally licensed to practice midwifery the midwife is recognised as a responsible and accountable professional who works in partnership with women to give the necessary support care and advice during pregnancy labour and the postpartum period to conduct births on the midwife s own responsibility and to provide care for the newborn and the infant this care includes preventive measures the promotion of normal birth the detection of complications in mother and child the accessing of medical or other appropriate assistance and the carrying out of emergency measures the midwife has an important task in health counselling and education not only for the woman but also within the family and community this work should involve antenatal education and preparation for parenthood and may extend to women s health sexual or reproductive health and childcare a midwife may practice in any setting including in the home the community hospitals clinics or health units adopted by the international confederation of midwives one nine july two zero zero five historical perspective historically midwifery has been one of the few medical practices dominated by female practitioners from agnodice in ancient greece to the one eight th century in europe the care of mothers and delivery of infants has been regarded both by patients and by the medical profession as appropriately carried out by women in the one eight th century a division between surgeons and midwives arose as medical men began to assert that their modern scientific processes were better for mothers and infants than the folk medical midwives at the outset of the one eight th century in england most babies were caught by a midwife but by the onset of the one nine th century the majority of those babies born to persons of means had a surgeon involved a number of excellent full length studies of this historical shift have been written midwifery in the united states there are two main divisions of modern midwifery in the us nurse midwives and direct entry midwives nurse midwives in the united states nurse midwives are advanced practice nurses who have specialized in the practice of obstetrical and gynecological care of relatively healthy women in addition to a registered nursing license most nurse midwives have a master s degree in nursing nurse midwives practice in hospitals and medical clinics and may also deliver in birth centers and at home they are able to prescribe medications in four eight out of the five zero states nurse midwives provide care to women from puberty through menopause nurse midwives may work closely with an obstetrician who provides consultation and assistance to patients who develop complications often women with high risk pregnancies can receive the benefits of midwifery care from a nurse midwife in collaboration with a physician currently two of nurse midwives are men the american college of nurse midwives accredits nurse midwifery education programs and serves as the national specialty society for the nation s certified nurse midwives direct entry midwives direct entry midwives dem vary greatly in their training certification and methods of practice some are graduates of colleges or schools of midwifery which offer degree and certification programs of different lengths others choose to become certified professional midwives cpm through the north american registry of midwives narm the american college of nurse midwives acnm also provides accreditation to non nurse midwife programs as well as colleges which graduate nurse midwives all midwives graduating from acnm accredited programs must pass the same certifying exam administered by the american midwifery certification board another organization the association for childbirth at home international achi also prepares direct entry midwives with a very detailed and technically competent program other midwives follow the time honored path of the traditional birth attendant learning the trade through apprenticeship and hands on experience rather than a more formal course of study practice in the united states midwives catch babies in any number of settings while the majority of nurse midwives work in hospitals some nurse midwives and many non nurse midwives catch babies at home in many states midwives form birthing centers where a group of midwives work together laws regarding who can practice midwifery and in what circumstances vary from state to state and some midwives practice outside of the law midwifery in the united kingdom midwives are practitioners in their own right in the united kingdom and take responsibility for the antenatal intrapartum and immediate postnatal care of women nearly all births are supervised by midwives mostly in a hospital setting following completion of nurse training a nurse may become a registered midwife by completing an eighteen month course leading to a degree qualification or by undertaking a three year degree in midwifery all practicing midwives must be registered with the nursing and midwifery council and are subject to the local supervising authority most midwives work within the national health service providing both hospital and community care but a significant proportion work independently providing total care for their clients within a community setting to be a midwife is to be responsible at all times for the woman for whom you are caring to know when to refer complications to medical staff to act as the woman s advocate and to ensure the mother retains some choice and control over her childbirth experience many midwives are opposed to the so called medicalisation of childbirth preferring a more normal and natural option to ensure a more satisfactory outcome for mother and baby midwives may train to be community health visitors as may nurses community midwives there are also numerous midwives working in the community in addition to the midwives working in hospitals the roles of community midwives include the initial appointments of pregnant women the running of clinics postnatal checks in the home and attending home births midwifery in canada midwifery was reborn as a profession in canada in the one nine six zero s along with other aspects of heath care reform that trace their roots to that decade of societal ferment and change after several decades of intensive political lobbying by midwives and consumers regulated midwifery has become part of legislated medical care in the provinces of british columbia alberta saskatchewan manitoba ontario and quebec and in the northwest territories and nunavut alberta does not publically fund midwifery midwifery is not yet legally recognised in the atlantic provinces of new brunswick nova scotia prince edward island or newfoundland and labrador midwives in canada have come from a variety of backgrounds including nurse midwifery lay midwifery and direct entry midwifery however they are all simply known as midwives regardless of their original training from the original alternative style of midwifery in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s midwifery practice has become somewhat standardized in all of the regulated provinces midwives offer continuity of care within group practises choice of birthplace and a focus on the woman as the primary decision maker in her maternity care as long as the woman s health remains normal when women experience deviations from normal in their pregnancies midwives consult with other health care professionals the women s care may continue with the midwife in collaboration with an obstetrician or other health care specialist her care may be transferred to an obstetrician or other health care specialist temporarily or for the remainder of her pregnancy and birth woman as primary decision maker informed choice and choice of birth place are primary tenets of midwifery care in canada there are three provinces that now offer midwifery education which consists of a four year baccalaureate degree in midwifery usually based in a university setting in british columbia this university training is under the auspices of the school of medicine at the university of british columbia in ontario the midwifery education programme is offered at mcmaster university ryerson university and laurentian university in quebec the programme is offered at the universit du qu bec trois rivi res the professionalization of midwifery has brought midwives into the mainstream of medicine with hospital privileges malpractice insurance and membership requirements in the provincial colleges disciplinary bodies the professionalisation process has resulted in a shift away from woman centred consumer friendly care to a more self protective focus similar to the medical profession a new consumer movement is arising to address this since obstetrics is the most litigated profession in medicine it stands to reason that midwives are now protecting themselves by engaging in similar routine testing and much of the same aggressive medical interventions as physicians the trade off for avoiding the criminal and civil litigation of the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s has been to join the system in order to sidestep civil lawsuits practises that were never seen in midwifery e g induction of labor at four one weeks gestational age administration of epidurals sending women for routine ultrasounds and administering antibiotics and vitamin k routinely to newborns have become commonplace since regulation the words of ivan illich the death knell of a viable underground organization is legalization are descriptive of what has happened to midwifery in canada see also childbirth doula nurse midwife pregnancy obstetrics traditional birth attendant external links efn org the role of social support in midwifery practice and research melinda cook bhs hunter valley midwives association journal vol two no six november one nine nine four midwife org american college of nurse midwives australian college of midwives midwiferytoday com midwifery today the heart and science of birth mothering com caretakers of homebirth doctors who come to you wendy correa mothering may june two zero zero two mymidwife org everything you need to know about midwifery pregnancy and women s health american college of nurse midwives nmc uk org nursing midwifery council protecting the public through professional standards overseers of uk midwifery by mandate of parliament midwifery nursing specialties obstetrics traditional birth attendant mercedes may refer to things mercedes benz a german brand of automobiles and trucks mercedes benz song by janis joplin mercedes calculator an early two zero th century computing device mercedes college south australia places mercedes buenos aires argentina mercedes corrientes argentina mercedes paran brazil mercedes camarines norte philippines mercedes eastern samar philippines mercedes texas united states mercedes uruguay soriano department people mercedes de acosta one eight nine three one nine six eight poet and socialite mercedes bresso born one nine four four italian politician mercedes lackey born one nine five zero fantasy author mercedes mccambridge one nine one six two zero zero four actress eleoncio mercedes one nine five seven one nine eight five boxer mercedes ruehl born one nine four eight u s actress mercedes sosa born one nine three five argentine singer mercedes joseph cohen one eight eight eight one nine six six a vaudeville and magic entertainer of the early two zero th century mercedes the fianc of edmond dantes in dumas s novel the count of monte cristo miguel de cervantes saavedra an artist s conception there are no authentic portraits or sculptures of cervantes miguel de cervantes saavedra september two nine one five four seven april two three one six one six was a spanish novelist poet and playwright he is best known for his novel don quixote de la mancha which is considered by many to be the first modern novel one of the greatest works in western literature and the greatest of the spanish language it is one of the encyclopedia britannica s great books of the western world and the russian author fyodor dostoyevsky called it the ultimate and most sublime word of human thinking israeli prime minister david ben gurion learned the spanish language so that he could read it in the original considering it a prerequisite to becoming an effective statesman biography cervantes was born at alc zar de san juan spain on a day not recorded but since he was named miguel it is guessed he was born on the feast day of st michael sept two nine in one five four seven he was baptized on november nine one five five eight although cervantes reputation rests almost entirely on his portrait of the gaunt country gentleman el ingenioso hidalgo his literary production was considerable william shakespeare cervantes great contemporary had evidently read don quixote but it is most unlikely that cervantes had ever heard of shakespeare cervantes lived an unsettled life of hardship and adventure he was the son of a surgeon who presented himself as a nobleman although cervantes s mother seems to have been a descendant of jewish converts to christianity little is known of his early years but it seems that cervantes spent much of his childhood moving from town to town while his father sought work after studying in madrid one five six eight one five six nine where his teacher was the humanist juan l pez de hoyos cervantes went to rome in the service of giulio acquavita once in italy he doubtless began straightway to familiarize himself with italian literature a knowledge of which is so readily discernible in his own productions in one five seven zero he became a soldier and fought bravely on board a vessel in the great battle of lepanto in one five seven one and was shot through the left hand in such a way that he never after had the entire use of it when his wound was healed he engaged in another campaign one directed against the moslems in northern africa and then after living a while longer in italy he finally determined to return home in one five seven five the ship was captured by the turks and the brothers were taken to algiers as slaves there he spent five years undergoing great sufferings some of which seem to be reflected in the episode of the captive in don quixote and in scenes of the play el trato de argel after four unsuccessful escape attempts he was ransomed by the trinitarians and returned to his family in madrid in one five eight zero in one five eight four he married two two years younger catalina de salazar y palacios during the next two zero years he led a nomadic existence working as a purchasing agent for the spanish armada and as a tax collector he suffered a bankruptcy and was imprisoned at least twice one five nine seven and one six zero two because of irregularities in his accounts one due rather to some subordinate than to himself between the years one five nine six and one six zero zero he lived primarily in seville in one six zero six cervantes settled permanently in madrid where he remained for the rest of his life in one five eight five cervantes published his first major work la galatea a pastoral romance at the same time that some of his plays now lost except for el trato de argel where he dealt with the life of christian slaves in algiers and el cerco de numancia were playing on the stages of madrid la galatea received little contemporary notice and cervantes never wrote the continuation for it which he repeatedly promised cervantes next turned his attention to the drama hoping to derive an income from that source but the plays which he composed failed to achieve their purpose aside from his plays his most ambitious work in verse was viaje del parnaso one six one four an allegory which consisted largely of a rather tedious though good natured review of contemporary poets cervantes himself realized that he was deficient in poetic gifts if a remark which cervantes himself makes in the prologue of don quixote is to be taken literally the idea of the work though hardly the writing of its first part as some have maintained occurred to him in prison at argamasilla in la mancha cervantes idea was to give a picture of real life and manners and to express himself in clear language the intrusion of everyday speech into a literary context was acclaimed by the reading public the author stayed poor until one six zero five when the first part of don quixote appeared although it did not make cervantes rich it brought him international appreciation as a man of letters cervantes also wrote many plays only two of which have survived short novels and the vogue obtained by cervantes s story led to the publication of a continuation of it by an unknown who masqueraded under the name of alonso fern ndez de avellaneda in self defense cervantes produced his own continuation or second part of don quixote which made its appearance in one six one five for the world at large interest in cervantes centres particularly in don quixote and this work has been regarded chiefly as a novel of purpose it is stated again and again that he wrote it in order to ridicule the romances of chivalry and to destroy the popularity of a form of literature which for much more than a century had engrossed the attention of a large proportion of those who could read among his countrymen and which had been communicated by them to the ignorant don quixote certainly reveals much narrative power considerable humour a mastery of dialogue and a forcible style of the two parts written by cervantes the first has ever remained the favourite the second part is inferior to it in humorous effect but nevertheless the second part shows more constructive insight better delineation of character an improved style and more realism and probability in its action in one six one three he published a collection of tales the exemplary novels some of which had been written earlier on the whole the exemplary novels are worthy of the fame of cervantes they bear the same stamp of genius as don quixote the picaroon strain already made familiar in spain by the lazarillo de tormes and his successors appears in one or another of them especially in the rinconete y cortadillo which is the best of all he also published the viaje del parnaso in one six one four and in one six one five the eight comedies and eight new interludes at the same time cervantes continued working on los trabajos de persiles y sigismunda a novel of adventurous travel completed just before his death and which appeared posthumously in january one six one seven he died in madrid on april two three one six one six it is worth mentioning that the encyclopedia hispanica claims the date widely quoted as cervantes date of death namely april two three is the date on his tombstone which in accordance of the traditions of spain at the time would be his date of burial rather than date of death if this is true according to hispanica then it means that cervantes probably died on april two two and was buried on april two three cervantes s influence is seen among others in the works of sir walter scott charles dickens gustave flaubert herman melville fyodor dostoyevsky and in the works of james joyce and jorge luis borges works novels cervantes s novels listed chronologically are la galatea one five eight five a pastoral romance in prose and verse based upon the genre introduced into spain by jorge de montemayor s diana one five five nine its theme is the fortunes and misfortunes in love of a number of idealized shepherds and shepherdesses who spend their life singing and playing musical instruments el ingenioso hidalgo don quijote de la mancha i one six zero five novelas ejemplares one six one three a collection of twelve short stories of varied types about the social political and historical problems of the cervantes spain la gitanilla the gypsy girl el amante liberal the generous lover rinconete y cortadillo la espa ola inglesa the english spanish lady el licenciado vidriera the glassy bachelor la fuerza de la sangre the power of blood el celoso extreme o the jealous old man from extremadura la ilustre fregona the illustrious kitchen maid novela de las dos doncellas the two damsels novela de la se ora cornelia lady cornelia novela del casamiento enga oso the deceitful marriage el di logo de los perros the dialogue of the dogs segunda parte del ingenioso caballero don quijote de la mancha one six one five los trabajos de persiles y segismunda historia septentrional the labors of persiles and sigismunda a northern story one six one seven los trabajos is the best evidence not only of the survival of byzantine novel themes but also of the survival of forms and ideas of the spanish novel of the second renaissance in this work published after the author s death cervantes relates the ideal love and unbelievable vicissitudes of a couple who starting from the arctic regions arrive in rome where they find a happy ending for their complicated adventures don quixote statues of don quixote left and sancho panza right don quixote is universally regarded as cervantes masterwork and one of the greatest novels of all time as well as the first novel in the western literary canon the novel is actually two separate books that cover the adventures of don quixote also known as the knight or man of la mancha a hero who carries his enthusiasm and self deception to unintentional and comic ends on one level don quixote works as a satire of the romances of chivalry which ruled the literary environment of cervantes time however the novel also allows cervantes to illuminate various aspects of human nature by using the ridiculous example of the delusional quixote because the novel particularly the first part was written in individually published sections the composition includes several incongruities in the preface to the second part cervantes himself pointed out some of these errors but he disdained to correct them because he conceived that they had been too severely condemned by his critics cervantes felt a passion for the vivid painting of character as his successful works prove under the influence of this feeling he drew the natural and striking portrait of his heroic don quixote so truly noble minded and so enthusiastic an admirer of every thing good and great yet having all those fine qualities accidentally blended with a relative kind of madness and he likewise portrayed with no less fidelity the opposite character of sancho panza a compound of grossness and simplicity whose low selfishness leads him to place blind confidence in all the extravagant hopes and promises of his master the subordinate characters of the novel exhibit equal truth and decision a translator cannot commit a more serious injury to don quixote than to dress that work in a light anecdotical style a style perfectly unostentatious and free from affectation but at the same time solemn and penetrated as it were with the character of the hero diffuses over this comic romance an imposing air which were it not so appropriate would seem to belong exclusively to serious works and which is certainly difficult to be seized in a translation but it is precisely this solemnity of language which imparts a characteristic relief to the comic scenes it is the genuine style of the old romances of chivalry improved and applied in a totally original way and only where the dialogue style occurs is each person found to speak as he might be expected to do and in his own peculiar manner but wherever don quixote himself harangues the language re assumes the venerable tone of the romantic style and various uncommon expressions of which the hero avails himself serve to complete the delusion of his covetous squire to whom they are only half intelligible this characteristic tone diffuses over the whole a poetic colouring which distinguishes don quixote from all comic romances on the ordinary style and that poetic colouring is moreover heightened by the judicious choice of episodes the essential connection of these episodes with the whole has sometimes escaped the observation of critics who have regarded as merely parenthetical those parts in which cervantes has most decidedly manifested the poetic spirit of his work the novel of el curioso impertinente cannot indeed be ranked among the number of these essential episodes but the charming story of the shepherdess marcella the history of dorothea and the history of the rich camacho and the poor basilio are unquestionably connected with the interest of the whole iv centenary of don quixote of la mancha one six zero five two zero zero five these serious romantic parts which are not it is true essential to the narrative connexion but strictly belong to the characteristic dignity of the whole picture also prove how far cervantes was from the idea usually attributed to him of writing a book merely to excite laughter the passages which common readers feel inclined to pass over are in general precisely those in which cervantes is most decidedly a poet and for which he has manifested an evident predilection on such occasions he also introduces among his prose episodical verses for the most part excellent in their kind and no translator can omit them without doing violence to the spirit of the original were it not for the happy art with which cervantes has contrived to preserve an intermediate tone between pure poetry and prose don quixote would not deserve to be cited as the first classic model of the modern romance or novel it is however fully entitled to that distinction cervantes was the first writer who formed the genuine romance of modern times on the model of the original chivalrous romance that equivocal creation of the genius and the barbarous taste of the middle ages the result has proved that modern taste however readily it may in other respects conform to the rules of the antique nevertheless requires in the narration of fictitious events a certain union of poetry with prose which was unknown to the greeks and romans in their best literary ages it was only necessary to seize on the right tone but that was a point of delicacy which the inventors of romances of chivalry were not able to comprehend diego de mendoza in his lazarillo de tormes departed too far from poetry cervantes in his don quixote restored to the poetic art the place it was entitled to hold in this class of writing and he must not be blamed if cultivated nations have subsequently mistaken the true spirit of this work because their own novelists had led them to regard common prose as the style peculiarly suited to romance composition don quixote is moreover the undoubted prototype of the comic novel the humorous situations are it is true almost all burlesque which was certainly not necessary but the satire is frequently so delicate that it escapes rather than obtrudes on unpractised attention as for example in the whole picture of the administration of sancho panza in his imaginary island the language even in the description of the most burlesque situations never degenerates into vulgarity it is on the contrary throughout the whole work so noble correct and highly polished that it would not disgrace even an ancient classic of the first rank this explanation of a part of the merits of a work which has been so often wrongly judged may perhaps seem belong rather to the eulogist than the calm and impartial historian let those who may he inclined to form this opinion study don quixote in the original language and study it rightly for it is not a book to be judged by a superficial perusal but care must be taken lest the intervention of many subordinate traits which were intended to have only a transient national interest should produce an error in the estimate of the whole by the two zero th century it became clear that don quixote was the first true modern novel a systemical and structural masterpiece in fact coded in kabalistical keys la galatea la galatea the pastoral romance which cervantes wrote in his youth is a happy imitation of the diana of jorge de montemayor but exhibiting a still closer resemblance to gil polo s continuation of that romance next to don quixote and the novelas exemplares his pastoral romance is particularly worthy of attention as it manifests in a striking way the poetic direction in which the genius of cervantes moved even at an early period of life and from which he never entirely departed in his subsequent writings as however the galatea possesses but little originality it constantly excites the recollection of its models and particularly of the diana of gil polo of the invention of the fable likewise but little can be said for though the story is continued through six books it is still incomplete in composing this pastoral romance cervantes seems to have had no other object than to clothe in the popular garb of a tale a rich collection of poems in the old spanish and italian styles which he could not have presented to the public under a more agreeable form the story is merely the thread which holds the beautiful garland together for the poems are the portion of the work most particularly deserving attention they are as numerous as they are various and should the title of cervantes to rank among the most eminent poets whether in reference to verse or to prose or should his originality in versified composition be called in question an attentive perusal of the romance of galatea must vanish every doubt of these points it was remarked by the contemporaries of cervantes that he was incapable of writing poetry and that he could compose only beautiful prose but that observation referred solely to his dramatic works every critic sufficiently acquainted with his lyrical compositions has rendered justice to their merit from the romance of galatea it is obvious that cervantes composed in all the various kinds of syllabic measure which were used in his time he even occasionally adopted the old dactylic stanza he appears to have experienced some difficulty in the metrical form of the sonnet and his essays in that style are by no means numerous but his poems in italian octaves display the utmost facility and among the number the song of caliope in the last book of the galatea is remarkable for graceful ease of versification in the same manner as gil polo in his diana makes the river turia pronounce the praises of the celebrated valencians the poetic fancy of cervantes summoned the muse calliope before the shepherds and shepherdesses to render solemn homage to those contemporaries whom he esteemed worthy of distinction as poets but the critic can scarcely venture to place reliance on praises dealt out with such profuse liberality the most beautiful poems in the galatea are a few in the cancion style some of which are iambics and some in trochaic or old spanish verse cervantes has here and there indulged in those antiquated and fantastic plays of wit which at a subsequent period he himself ridiculed novelas exemplares it would be scarcely possible to arrange the other works of cervantes according to a critical judgment of their importance for the merits of some consist in the admirable finish of the whole while others exhibit the impress of genius in the invention or some other individual feature a distinguished place must however be assigned to the novelas exemplares moral or instructive tales they are unequal in merit as well as in character cervantes doubtlessly intended that they should be to the spaniards nearly what the novels of boccaccio were to the italians some are mere anecdotes some are romances in miniature some are serious some comic and all are written in a light smooth conversational style four of them are perhaps of less interest than the rest el amante liberal la se ora cornelia las dos doncellas and la espa ola inglesa the theme common to these is basically the traditional one of the byzantine novel pairs of lovers separated by lamentable and complicated happenings are finally reunited and find the happiness they have longed for the heroines are all of most perfect beauty and of sublime morality they and their lovers are capable of the highest sacrifices and they exert their souls in the effort to elevate themselves to the ideal of moral and aristocratic distinction which illuminates their lives in el amante liberal to cite an example the beautiful leonisa and her lover ricardo are carried off by turkish pirates both fight against serious material and moral dangers ricardo conquers all obstacles returns to his homeland with leonisa and is ready to renounce his passion and to hand leonisa over to her former lover in an outburst of generosity but leonisa s preference naturally settles on ricardo in the end another group of exemplary novels is formed by la fuerza de la sangre la ilustre fregona la gitanilla and el celoso extreme o the first three offer examples of love and adventure happily resolved while the last unravels itself tragically its plot deals with the old felipe carrizales who after traveling widely and becoming rich in america decides to marry taking all the precautions necessary to forestall being deceived he weds a very young girl and isolates her from the world by having her live in a house with no windows facing the street but in spite of his defensive measures a bold youth succeeds in penetrating the fortress of conjugal honor and one day carrizales surprises his wife in the arms of her seducer surprisingly enough he pardons the adulterers recognizing that he is more to blame than they and dies of sorrow over the grievous error he has committed cervantes here deviated from literary tradition which demanded the death of the adulterers but he transformed the punishment inspired by the social ideal of honor into a criticism of the responsibility of the individual rinconete y cortadillo el casamiento enga oso el licenciado vidriera and el di logo de los perros four works of art which are concerned more with the personalities of the characters who figure in them than with the subject matter form the final group of these stories the protagonists are two young vagabonds rinc n and cortado lieutenant campuzano a student tom s rodaja who goes mad and believes himself to have been changed into a man of glass and finally two dogs cipi n and berganza whose wandering existence serves as a mirror for the most varied aspects of spanish life rinconete y cortadillo is one of the most delightful of cervantes works its two young vagabonds come to seville attracted by the riches and disorder that the sixteenth century commerce with the americas had brought to that metropolis there they come into contact with a brotherhood of thieves led by the unforgettable monipodio whose house is the headquarters of the sevillian underworld under the bright andalusian sky persons and objects take form with the brilliance and subtle drama of a velazquez and a distant and discreet irony endows the figures insignificant in themselves as they move within a ritual pomp that is in sharp contrast with their morally deflated lives when monipodio appears serious and solemn among his silent subordinates all who were looking at him performed a deep protracted bow rinc n and cortado had initiated their mutual friendship beforehand with saintly and praiseworthy ceremonies the solemn ritual of this band of ruffians is all the more comic for being concealed in cervantes drily humorous style los trabajos de persiles y sigismunda the romance of persiles and sigismunda which cervantes finished shortly before his death must be regarded as an interesting appendix to his other works the language and the whole composition of the story exhibit the purest simplicity combined with singular precision and polish the idea of this romance was not new and scarcely deserved to be reproduced in a new manner but it appears that cervantes at the close of his glorious career took a fancy to imitate heliodorus he has maintained the interest of the situations but the whole work is merely a romantic description of travels rich enough in fearful adventures both by sea and land real and fabulous geography and history are mixed together in an absurd and monstrous manner and the second half of the romance in which the scene is transferred to spain and italy does not exactly harmonize with the spirit of the first half poetry some of his poems are found in la galatea he also wrote dos canciones a la armada invencible his best work however is found in the sonnets particularly al t mulo del rey felipe en sevilla among his most important poems canto de cal ope ep stola a mateo v zquez and the viaje del parnaso journey to parnassus one six one four stand out the latter is his most ambitious work in verse an allegory which consists largely of reviews of contemporary poets compared to the novelist cervantes is often considered a mediocre poet if we cast a glance on the collected works of cervantes in order to ascertain what their author was entitled to claim as his original property independently of his contemporaries and predecessors we shall find that the genius of that poet who is in general only partially estimated shines with the finer lustre the longer it is contemplated that kind of criticism that is to be learned contributed but little to the development and formation of his genius a critical tact which is a truer guide than any rule but which abandons genius when it forgets itself secured the fancy of cervantes against the aberrations of common minds and his sportive wit was always subject to the control of solid judgement the vanity which occasionally made him mistake the true bent of his talent must be confessed to have been pardonable considering how little he was known to his contemporaries he did not even know himself though he felt the consciousness of his genius from the mental height to which he had raised himself he might without too highly rating his own abilities look down on all the writers of his age more than one poet of great of immortal genius might be placed beside him in his own country but of all the spanish poets cervantes alone belongs to the whole world viaje al parnaso the prose of the galatea which is in other respects so beautiful is also occasionally overloaded with epithet cervantes displays a totally different kind of poetic talent in the viaje al parnaso a work which cannot properly be ranked in any particular class of literary composition but which next to don quixote is the most exquisite production of its extraordinary author the chief object of the poem is to satirize the false pretenders to the honours of the spanish parnassus who lived in the age of the writer but this satire is of a peculiar character it is a most happy effusion of sportive humour and yet it remains a matter of doubt whether cervantes intended to praise or to ridicule the individuals whom he points out as being particularly worthy of the favour of apollo he himself says those whose names do not appear in this list may be just as well pleased as those who are mentioned in it to characterise true poetry according to his own poetic feelings to manifest in a decided way his enthusiasm for the art even in his old age and to hold up a mirror for the conviction of those who were only capable of making rhymes and inventing extravagances seem to have been the objects which cervantes had principally in view when he composed this satirical poem concealed satire open jesting and ardent enthusiasm for the beautiful are the boldly combined elements of this noble work it is divided into eight chapters and the versification is in tercets the composition is half comic and half serious after many humorous incidents mercury appears to cervantes who is represented as travelling to parnassus in the most miserable condition and the god salutes him with the title of the adam of poets mercury after addressing to him many flattering compliments conducts him to a ship entirely built of different kinds of verse and which is intended to convey a cargo of spanish poets to the kingdom of apollo the description of the ship is an admirable comic allegory mercury shows him a list of the poets with whom apollo wishes to become acquainted and this list owing to the problematic nature of its half ironical and half serious praises has proved a stumbling block to commentators in the midst of the reading cervantes suddenly drops the list the poets are now described as crowding on board the ship in numbers as countless as drops of rain in a shower or grains of sand on the seacoast and such a tumult ensues that to save the ship from sinking by their pressure the sirens raise a furious storm the flights of imagination become more wild as the story advances thy storm subsides and is succeeded by a shower of poets that is to say poets fall from the clouds one of the first who descends on the ship is lope de vega on whom cervantes seizes this opportunity of pronouncing an emphatic praise the remainder of the poem a complete analysis of which would occupy too much space proceeds in the same spirit one of the most beautiful pieces of verse ever written by cervantes is his description of the goddess poesy whom he sees in all her glory in the kingdom of apollo to this fine picture the portrait of the goddess vain glory who afterwards appears to the author in a dream forms an excellent companion among the passages which for burlesque humour vie with don quixote is the description of a second storm in which neptune vainly endeavours to plunge the poetasters to the bottom of the deep venus prevents them from sinking by changing them into gourds and leather flasks at length a formal battle is fought between the real poets and some of the poetasters the poem is throughout interspersed with singularly witty and beautiful ideas and only a very few passages can be charged with feebleness or languor it has never been equalled far less surpassed by any similar work and it had no prototype the language is classical throughout and it is only to be regretted that cervantes has added to the poem a comic supplement in prose in which he indulges a little too freely in self praise plays comparisons have also diminished the reputation of his plays but two of them el trato de argel and la numancia one five eight two made a big impact and were not surpassed until lope de vega appeared the first of these is written in five acts based on his experiences as a moorish captive cervantes dealt with the life of christian slaves in algiers the other play numancia is a description of the siege of numantia by the romans stuffed with horrors and described as utterly devoid of the requisites of dramatic art cervantes s later production consists of one six dramatic works among which eight full length plays el gallardo espa ol los ba os de argel la gran sultana do a catalina de oviedo la casa de los celos el laberinto del amor the cloak and dagger play la entretenida el rufi n dichoso and pedro de urdemalas a sensitive play about a p caro who joins a group of gypsies for love of a girl he also wrote eight short farces entremeses el juez de los divorcios el rufi n viudo llamado trampagos la elecci n de los alcaldes de daganzo la guarda cuidadosa the vigilant sentinel el vizca no fingido el retablo de las maravillas la cueva de salamanca and el viejo celoso the jealous old man these plays and entremeses made up ocho comedias y ocho entremeses nuevos nunca representados eight comedies and eight new interludes which appeared in one six one five cervantes s entremeses whose dates and order of composition are not known must not have been performed in their time faithful to the spirit of lope de rueda cervantes endowed them with novelistic elements such as simplified plot the type of description normally associated with the novel and character development the dialogue is sensitive and agile cervantes includes some of his dramas among those productions with which he was himself most satisfied and he seems to have regarded them with the greater self complacency in proportion as they experienced the neglect of the public this conduct has sometimes been attributed to a spirit of contradiction and sometimes to vanity that the penetrating and profound cervantes should have so mistaken the limits of his dramatic talent would not be sufficiently accounted for had he not unquestionably proved by his tragedy of numantia how pardonable was the self deception of which he could not divest himself cervantes was entitled to consider himself endowed with a genius for dramatic poetry but he could not preserve his independence in the conflict he had to maintain with the conditions required by the spanish public in dramatic composition and when he sacrificed his independence and submitted to rules imposed by others his invention and language were reduced to the level of a poet of inferior talent the intrigues adventures and surprises which in that age characterized the spanish drama were ill suited to the genius of cervantes his natural style was too profound and precise to be reconciled to fantastical ideas expressed in irregular verse but he was spaniard enough to be gratified with dramas which as a poet he could not imitate and he imagined himself capable of imitating them because he would have shone in another species of dramatic composition had the public taste accommodated itself to his genius la numancia this play is a dramatization of the long and brutal siege of the celtiberian town numantia hispania by the roman forces of scipio africanus cervantes invented along with the subject of his piece a peculiar style of tragic composition in doing which he did not pay much regard to the theory of aristotle his object was to produce a piece full of tragic situations combined with the charm of the marvellous in order to accomplish this goal cervantes relied heavily on allegory and on mythological elements the tragedy is written in conformity with no rules save those which the author prescribed to himself for he felt no inclination to imitate the greek forms the play is divided into four acts jornadas and no chorus is introduced the dialogue is sometimes in tercets and sometimes in redondillas and for the most part in octaves without any regard to rule but everyone has to die because u touch yourself at night cervantes historical importance and influence cervantes s novel don quixote has had a tremendous influence on the development of prose fiction it has been translated into all modern languages and has appeared in seven zero zero editions the first translation in english and also in any language was made by thomas shelton in one six zero eight but not published until one six one two don quixote has been the subject of a variety of works in other fields of art including operas by the italian composer giovanni paisiello the french jules massenet and the spanish manuel de falla a tone poem by the german composer richard strauss a german film one nine three three directed by g w pabst and a soviet film one nine five seven directed by grigori kozintzev a ballet one nine six five by george balanchine and an american musical man of la mancha one nine six five by mitch leigh its influence can be seen in the work of smollett defoe fielding and sterne as well as in the classic one nine th century novelists scott dickens flaubert melville and dostoyevsky the theme also inspired the one nine th century french artists honor daumier and gustave dor selected criticism english cervantes modern critical views author bloom harold two zero zero five cervantes essays in memory of e c riley author robbins jeremy two zero zero five cervantes and the hermeneutics of satire author reichenberger kurt two zero zero five ekphrasis in the age of cervantes author de armas frederick alfred two zero zero five love and the law in cervantes author gonzalez echevarria roberto two zero zero five a companion to cervantes s novelas ejemplares author boyd stephen f two zero zero five where shall wisdom be found author bloom harold two zero zero four passing for spain cervantes and the fictions of identity author fuchs barbara two zero zero three cambridge companion to cervantes author cascardi anthony j two zero zero two a study of don quixote author eisenberg daniel two zero zero one cervantes s don quixote modern critical interpretations author harold bloom two zero zero one cervantes the novel and the new world author de armas wilson diana two zero zero one cervantes for the two one st century author dudley edward j two zero zero zero cervantes and the comic mind of his age author close a j two zero zero zero miguel de cervantes twayne world authors series author manuel duran one nine nine nine cervantes don quixote norton critical editions one nine nine nine cervantes and his postmodern constituencies author cruz anne j one nine nine nine cervantes essays on social and literary polemics author finello dominick l one nine nine eight the western canon author harold bloom one nine nine four cervantes and the modernists the question of influence author williamson edwin one nine nine four pastoral themes and forms in cervantes s fiction author finello dominick l one nine nine four studies on cervantes author selig karl ludwig one nine nine three through the shattering glass cervantes and the self made world author spadaccini nicholas one nine nine three after cervantes author macklin j j one nine nine three cervantine journeys author hutchinson steven d one nine nine two on cervantes essays for l a murillo author parr james a one nine nine one in the margins of cervantes author weiger john g one nine eight eight don quijote symbol of a culture in crisis author creel bryant l one nine eight eight critical essays on cervantes author el saffar ruth s one nine eight six the substance of cervantes author weiger john g publication one nine eight five beyond fiction the recovery of the feminine in the novels of cervantes author el saffar ruth one nine eight four cervantes and the humanist vision a study of four exemplary novels author forcione alban k one nine eight two skepticism in cervantes author ihrie maureen one nine eight two the romantic approach to don quixote author close a j one nine seven eight don quixote or the critique of reading author fuentes carlos one nine seven six hamlet and don quixote turgenev s ambivalent vision author kagan kans eva one nine seven five cervantes a critical trajectory author barbera raymond e one nine seven one cervantes twentieth century views author nelson lowry one nine seven zero cervantes across the centuries author flores angel one nine six nine cervantes and the art of fiction author trotter g d one nine six five spanish cervantes y su mundo reichenberger eva two zero zero five discordancias cervantinas baena julio two zero zero three estudios sobre cervantes y la edad de oro porqueras mayo alberto two zero zero three el mundo como escritura estudios sobre cervantes carrasco cantos ines two zero zero three cervantes navarro duran rosa two zero zero three el pensamiento de cervantes y otros estudios cervantinos castro americo two zero zero two para leer el quijote parodi alicia two zero zero one la rara invencion estudios sobre cervantes riley e c two zero zero one don quijote el lector por excelencia bernardez asun two zero zero zero nuevas visiones del quijote reyes felipe benitez two zero zero zero cervantes entre vida y creaci n canavaggio jean two zero zero zero don quijote ciudadano del mundo y otros ensayos sanchez alberto one nine nine nine la etica del quijote funcion de las novelas intercaladas neuschafer hans jorg one nine nine nine lecturas del quijote siglos xvii xix rivas hernandez ascension one nine nine eight el quijote y la critica contemporanea montero reguera jose one nine nine seven cervantes y la melancolia ensayos garcia gibert javier one nine nine seven los quijotes del quijote historia de una aventura creativa ascunce arrieta jose angel one nine nine seven cervantes close a j one nine nine five cervantes y las puertas del sueno egido aurora one nine nine four cervantes estudios en la vispera de su centenario one nine nine four cervantes novelar del mundo desintegrado guntert georges one nine nine three introducci n a cervantes meregalli franco one nine nine two cervantes y la creaci n de la novela moderna basanta angel one nine nine two estudios cervantinos eisenberg daniel one nine nine one cervantes clave espa ola mar as juli n one nine nine zero cervantes y borges la inversi n de los signos madrid lelia one nine eight seven cervantismos y quijoterias mesa carlos e one nine eight five cervantes y la libertad rosales luis one nine eight five lecciones cervantinas blecua alberto one nine eight five los cien dias del quijote alcerreca luis g one nine eight two cervantes basanta angel one nine eight one don quijote ante el mundo gimenez caballero ernesto one nine seven nine cervantes novelista dramaturgo poeta gaos vicente one nine seven nine la naturaleza en el pensamiento de cervantes garrote p rez francisco one nine seven nine nuevos deslindes cervantinos avalle arce juan bautista one nine seven five reflexiones sobre el quijote moreno b ez enrique one nine six eight cervantes alborg juan luis one nine six six claves de espana cervantes y el quijote garciasol ramon de one nine six five cervantes savi lopez paolo one nine one seven vida de don quijote y sancho miguel de unamuno one nine zero six trivia cervantes and shakespeare both died on the same date but not on the same day britain was still using the julian calendar whereas spain had already adopted the gregorian calendar april two three is unesco s international day of the book in honour of this co incidence there is no surviving portrait of cervantes it is common to find pictures claiming to represent cervantes likeness but none of them has been authenticated external links the secret of don quixote el secreto de don quixote film directed by alberto mart nez flechoso et ra l fern ndez rinc n the kabbalistical encodings in don quixote luca films madrid two zero zero five el ingenioso hidalgo don quijote de la mancha spanish ebook biblioteca virtual miguel de cervantes spanish web site with multiple cervantes links and audio of whole of don quixote famous hispanics the cervantes project with biographies and chronology entry in the one nine one one edition encyclopedia brittanica life and times before writing don quixote ibero american electronic text series presented online by the university of wisconsin digital collections center see also don quixote cervantes stepchild turns four zero zero the oxonian review of books see don chisciot da la mancja for a friulian translation of don quijote de la mancha miguel de cervantes in e book one five four seven births one six one six deaths spanish writers commonly used image indicating one artist s conception of maimonides s appearance moshe ben maimon march three zero one one three five december one three one two zero four was a jewish rabbi physician and philosopher moshe ben maimon s hebrew name is and his arabic name is mussa bin maimun ibn abdallah al kurtubi al israili however he is most commonly known by his greek name moses maimonides and many jewish works refer to him by the acronym of his title and name rambam or rambam the greek appellation means son of maimon and is a literal rendition of ben maimon biography maimonides was born in one one three five in c rdoba spain then under muslim rule during what some scholars consider to be the end of the golden age of jewish culture in spain maimonides studied torah under his father maimon who had in turn studied under rabbi joseph ibn migash the almohades conquered c rdoba in one one four eight and offered the jewish community the choice of conversion to islam death or exile maimonides s family along with most other jews chose exile for the next ten years they moved about in southern spain avoiding the conquering almohades but eventually settled in fes in morocco where maimonides acquired most of his secular knowledge studying at the university of fes during this time he composed his acclaimed commentary on the mishna following this sojourn in morocco he briefly lived in the holy land spending time in jerusalem and finally settled in fostat egypt where he was doctor of the grand vizier alfadhil and or the sultan saladin of egypt in egypt he composed most of his oeuvre including the mishneh torah he died in fostat and was buried in tiberias today in israel his son avraham recognized as a great scholar succeeded him as nagid head of the egyptian jewish community as well as in the office of court physician at the age of only eighteen he greatly honored the memory of his father and throughout his career defended his father s writings against all critics the office of nagid was held by the maimonides family for four successive generations until the end of the one four th century he is widely respected in spain and a statue of him was erected in cordoba alongside his synagogue which is no longer functioning as a jewish house of worship but is open to the public there is no jewish community in cordoba now but the city is proud of its historical connection to rambam see history of the jews in egypt works and bibliography manuscript page by maimonides judeo arabic language in hebrew letters maimonides composed both works of jewish scholarship and medical texts most of maimonides works were written in arabic however mishneh torah was written in hebrew his jewish texts were the commentary on the mishna written in arabic this text was one of the first commentaries of its kind its introductory sections are widely quoted see mishnah commentaries for details sefer hamitzvot the book of commandments see six one three mitzvot for details the mishneh torah also known as sefer yad ha chazaka a comprehensive code of jewish law the guide for the perplexed a philosophical work harmonising and differentiating aristotelian philosophy and jewish theology teshuvot collected correspondence and responsa including a number of public letters on resurrection and the after life on conversion to other faiths and iggereth teiman addressed to the oppressed jewry of yemen maimonides also wrote a number of medical texts some of which are still in existence the best known is his collection of medical aphorisms titled fusul musa in arabic chapters of moses pirkei moshe in hebrew influence maimonides was one of the few medieval jewish philosophers who also influenced the non jewish world even today he is among the most respected of all jewish philosophers a popular medieval saying that also served as his epitaph stated that from moshe of the torah to moshe maimonides there was none like moshe maimonides maimonides was by far the most influential figure in medieval jewish philosophy radical jewish scholars in the centuries that followed can be characterised as maimonideans or anti maimonideans moderate scholars were eclectics who largely accepted maimonides aristotelian world view but rejected those elements of it which they considered to contradict the religious tradition such eclecticism reached its height in the one four th one five th centuries the most rigorous medieval critique of maimonides is hasdai crescas or hashem crescas bucked the eclectic trend by demolishing the certainty of the aristotelian world view not only in religious matters but even in the most basic areas of medieval science such as physics and geometry crescas critique provoked a number of one five th century scholars to write defenses of maimonides a translation of crescas was produced by harry austryn wolfson of harvard university in one nine two nine the one three principles of faith see also the main article jewish principles of faith in his commentary on the mishna tractate sanhedrin chapter one zero maimonides formulates his one three principles of faith they described his views on the existence of god god s unity god s spirituality and incorporeality god s eternity god alone should be the object of worship revelation through god s prophets the preeminence of moses among the prophets god s law given on mount sinai the immutability of the torah as god s law god s foreknowledge of human actions reward of good and retribution of evil the coming of the jewish messiah the resurrection of the dead these principles were controversial when first proposed evoking criticism by hasdai crescas and joseph albo and were effectively ignored by much of the jewish community for the next few centuries dogma in medieval jewish thought menachem kellner however two poetic restatements of these principles ani ma amin and yigdal eventually became canonized in the siddur jewish prayer book and these principles became widely held today most of orthodox judaism holds these beliefs to be obligatory halakhic works see also mishneh torah on his influence in halakha with mishneh torah maimonides composed a code of jewish law with the widest possible scope and depth the work gathers all the binding laws from the talmud and incorporates the positions of the geonim post talmudic early medieval scholars mainly from mesopotamia it is a highly systematised work and employs a very clear hebrew reminiscent of the style of the mishna while mishneh torah is now considered the fore runner of the arbaah turim and the shulkhan arukh two later codes it met initially with a lot of opposition there were two main reasons for this opposition firstly maimonides had refrained from adding references to his work for brevity secondly in the introduction he gave the impression of wanting to cut out study of the talmud to arrive at a conclusion in jewish law his most forceful opponents were the rabbis of the provence southern france and a running critique by rabbi abraham ibn daud raavad iii is printed in virtually all editions of mishneh torah philosophy through the guide for the perplexed and the philosophical introductions to sections of his commentaries on the mishna maimonides exerted an important influence on the scholastic philosophers especially on albert the great thomas aquinas and duns scotus he was himself a jewish scholastic educated more by reading the works of arab muslim philosophers than by personal contact with arabian teachers he acquired an intimate acquaintance not only with arab muslim philosophy but with the doctrines of aristotle maimonides strove to reconcile aristotelian philosophy and science with the teachings of the torah negative theology the principle which inspired his philosophical activity was identical with the fundamental tenet of scholasticism there can be no contradiction between the truths which god has revealed and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy maimonides primarily relied upon the science of aristotle and the philosophies of the talmud and aristotle commonly finding basis in the former for the latter in some important points however he departed from the teaching of aristotle for instance he rejected the aristotelian doctrine that god s provident care extends only to humanity and not to the individual maimonides was led by his admiration for the neo platonic commentators to maintain many doctrines which the scholastics could not accept for instance maimonides was an adherent of negative theology also known as apophatic theology in this theology one attempts to describe god through negative attributes for instance one should not say that god exists in the usual sense of the term all we can safely say is that god is not non existent we should not say that god is wise but we can say that god is not ignorant i e in some way god has some properties of knowledge we should not say that god is one but we can state that there is no multiplicity in god s being in brief the attempt is to gain and express knowledge of god by describing what god is not rather than by describing what god is the scholastics agreed with him that no predicate is adequate to express the nature of god but they did not go so far as to say that no term can be applied to god in the affirmative sense they admitted that while eternal omnipotent etc as we apply them to god are inadequate at the same time we may say god is eternal etc and need not stop as moses did with the negative god is not not eternal etc in essence what maimonides wanted to express is that when people give god anthropomorphic qualities they do not do justice to his greatness prophecy he agrees with the philosophers in teaching that man s intelligence being one in the series of intelligences emanating from god the prophet must by study and meditation lift himself up to the degree of perfection required in the prophetic state but here he invokes the authority of the law which teaches that after that perfection is reached there is required the free act of god before the man actually becomes a prophet the problem of evil maimonides wrote on theodicy the attempt to reconcile the existence of evil with the premise that an omnipotent and good god exists he follows the neo platonists in laying stress on matter as the source of all evil and imperfection astrology maimonides answered an inquiry concerning astrology addressed to him from marseille he responded that man should believe only what can be supported either by rational proof by the evidence of the senses or by trustworthy authority he affirms that he had studied astrology and that it does not deserve to be described as a science the supposition that the fate of a man could be dependent upon the constellations is ridiculed by him he argues that such a theory would rob life of purpose and would make man a slave of destiny see also fatalism predestination true beliefs versus necessary beliefs in guide for the perplexed book iii chapter two eight maimonides explicitly draws a distinction between true beliefs which were beliefs about god which produced intellectual perfection and necessary beliefs which were conducive to improving social order maimonides places anthropomorphic statements about god in the latter class he uses as an example the notion that god becomes angry with people who do wrong in the view of maimonides god does not actually become angry with people but it is important for them to believe god does so that they desist from sinning resurrection acquired immortality and the afterlife maimonides distinguishes two kinds of intelligence in man the one material in the sense of being dependent on and influenced by the body and the other immaterial that is independent of the bodily organism the latter is a direct emanation from the universal active intellect this is his interpretation of the no s poietik s of aristotelian philosophy it is acquired as the result of the efforts of the soul to attain a correct knowledge of the absolute pure intelligence of god the knowledge of god is a form of knowledge which develops in us the immaterial intelligence and thus confers on man an immaterial spiritual nature this confers on the soul that perfection in which human happiness consists and endows the soul with immortality one who has attained a correct knowledge of god has reached a condition of existence which renders him immune from all the accidents of fortune from all the allurements of sin and even from death itself man therefore is in a position not only to work out his own salvation and immortality the resemblance between this doctrine and spinoza s doctrine of immortality is so striking as to warrant the hypothesis that there is a causal dependence of the later on the earlier doctrine the differences between the two jewish thinkers are however as remarkable as the resemblance while spinoza teaches that the way to attain the knowledge which confers immortality is the progress from sense knowledge through scientific knowledge to philosophical intuition of all things sub specie ternitatis maimonides holds that the road to perfection and immortality is the path of duty as described in the torah and the rabbinic understanding of the oral law religious jews not only believed in immortality in some spiritual sense but most believed that there would at some point in the future be a messianic era and a resurrection of the dead this is the subject of jewish eschatology maimonides wrote much on this topic but in most cases he wrote about the immortality of the soul for people of perfected intellect his writings were usually not about the resurrection of dead bodies this prompted hostile criticism from the rabbis of his day and sparked a controversy over his true views rabbinic works usually refer to this afterlife as olam haba the world to come some rabbinic works use this phrase to refer to a messianic era an era of history right here on earth in other rabbinic works this phrase refers to a purely spiritual realm it was during maimonides s lifetime that this lack of agreement flared into a full blown controversy with maimonides charged as a heretic by some jewish leaders some jews at this time taught that judaism did not require a belief in the physical resurrection of the dead as the afterlife would be a purely spiritual realm they used maimonides works on this subject to back up their position in return their opponents claimed that this was outright heresy for them the afterlife was right here on earth where god would raise dead bodies from the grave so that the resurrected could live eternally maimonides was brought into this dispute by both sides as the first group stated that his writings agreed with them and the second group portrayed him as a heretic for writing that the afterlife is for the immaterial spirit alone eventually maimonides felt pressured to write a treatise on the subject the ma amar tehiyyat hametim the treatise on resurrection chapter two of the treatise on resurrection refers to those who believe that the world to come involves physically resurrected bodies maimonides refers to one with such beliefs as being an utter fool whose belief is folly if one of the multitude refuses to believe that angels are incorporeal and prefers to believe that angels have bodies and even that they eat since it is written genesis one eight eight they ate or that those who exist in the world to come will also have bodies we won t hold it against him or consider him a heretic and we will not distance ourselves from him may there not be many who profess this folly and let us hope that he will go farther than this in his folly and believe that the creator is corporeal however maimonides also writes that those who claimed that he altogether believed the verses of the hebrew bible referring to the resurrection were only allegorical were spreading falsehoods and revolting statements maimonides asserts that belief in resurrection is a fundamental truth of judaism about which there is no disagreement and that it is not permissible for a jew to support anyone who believes differently he cites daniel one two two and one two one three as definitive proofs of physical resurrection of the dead when they state many of them that sleep in the earth shall awake some to everlasting life and some to reproaches and everlasting abhorrence and but you go your way till the end for you shall rest and will arise to your inheritance at the end of the days while these two positions may be seen as in contradiction non corporeal eternal life versus a bodily resurrection maimonides resolves them with a then unique solution maimonides believed that the resurrection was not permanent or general in his view god never violates the laws of nature rather divine interaction is by way of angels which maimonides holds to be metaphors for the laws of nature the principles by which the physical universe operates or platonic eternal forms thus if a unique event actually occurs even it is perceived as a miracle it is not a violation of the world s order commentary on the mishna avot five six in this view any dead who are resurrected must eventually die again in his discussion of the one three principles of faith the first five deal with knowledge of god the next four deal with prophecy and the torah while the last four deal with reward punishment and the ultimate redemption in this discussion maimonides says nothing of a universal resurrection all he says it is that whatever resurrection does take place it will occur at an indeterminate time before the world to come which he repeatedly states will be purely spiritual he writes it appears to us on the basis of these verses daniel one two two one three that those people who will return to those bodies will eat drink copulate beget and die after a very long life like the lives of those who will live in the days of the messiah maimonides thus disassociated the resurrection of the dead from both the world to come and the messianic era in his time many jews believed that the physical resurrection was identical to the world to come thus denial of a permanent and universal resurrection was considered tantamount to denying the words of the talmudic sages however instead of denying the resurrection or maintaining the current dogma maimonides posited a third way that resurrection had nothing to do with the messianic era here in this world nor to do with olam haba the purely spiritual afterlife rather he considered resurrection to be a miracle that the book of daniel predicted thus at some point in time we could expect some instances of resurrection to occur temporarily which would have no place in the final eternal life of the righteous maimonides and the modern maimonides remains the most widely debated and controversial jewish thinker among modern scholars he has been adopted as a symbol and an intellectual hero by almost all major movements in modern judaism and has proven immensely important to modern jewish philosophers such as leo strauss maimonides s importance to diverse systems of thought lies in the philosopher s embrace of paradoxical and often contradictory ideas the reform movement for instance pointed out maimonides s argument that jewish ritual has developed over time as justification for its proposed changes to jewish tradition orthodoxy on the other hand has pointed out the equally valid maimonidean argument that the oral law halacha and the principles of faith are inviolate and must be scrupulously observed even if they are not fully understood maimonides s reconciliation of the philosophical and the traditional has given his legacy an extremely diverse and dynamic quality he is one of the few figures in jewish history who is universally embraced by all strains of modern judaism one scholar has noted that every generation creates the maimonides it needs or desires one of the major issues regarding maimonides work is the obscure nature of the guide of the perplexed leo strauss who held that maimonides was the most important philosopher who ever lived has theorized that maimonides deliberately intended his book to have two meanings the first obvious meaning was intended for his average readers the second hidden meaning was intended for his elite readers who would understand it due to their intellectual sophistication strauss believed that maimonides telegraphed his real meaning by using codes numerological indications and deliberate contradictions within the text strauss s writings remain controversial although he is now accepted as one of the most important modern scholars of maimonides s philosophy modern scholars tend to fall into two camps those who believe that maimonides was attempting a synthesis between judaism and aristotelian philosophy and those who hold that maimonides was in fact a secret aristotelian who saw jewish tradition as an allegorical system which was intended to maintain the jewish community but was not philosophically accurate this debate appears unlikely to ever be resolved since it is based in differing exegetical readings of maimonides s obscure and difficult philosophical works references marvin fox interpreting maimonides univ of chicago press one nine nine zero julius guttman philosophies of judaism translated by david silverman jps one nine six four maimonides principles the fundamentals of jewish faith in the aryeh kaplan anthology volume i mesorah publications one nine nine four dogma in medieval jewish thought menachem kellner oxford university press one nine eight six maimonides thirteen principles the last word in jewish theology marc b shapiro the torah u maddah journal vol four one nine nine three yeshiva university a history of jewish philosophy isaac husik dover publications inc two zero zero two originally published in one nine four one by the jewish publication of america philadelphia pp two three six three one one see also golden age of jewish culture in spain external links a brief biography of maimonides maimonides rambam from the jewish virtual library maimonidean controversy writings of maimonides manuscripts and early print editions maimonides page links to online resources the foundations of jewish belief rambam s introduction to the mishnah torah english translation rambam s introduction to the commentary on the mishnah hebrew fulltext the guide for the perplexed by moses maimonides translated into english by michael friedl nder maimonides mishneh or mishnah torah or rambam the codified laws compiled by maimonides oath and prayer of maimonides as a choice instead of the hippocratic oath in medical profession one one three five births one two zero four deaths medieval philosophers middle ages rabbis philosophers of judaism spanish philosophers magnetic resonance image showing a vertical sagittal cross section through a human head magnetic resonance imaging mri formerly referred to as magnetic resonance tomography mrt or nuclear magnetic resonance nmr is a method used to visualize the inside of living organisms as well as to detect the amount of bound water in geological structures it is primarily used to demonstrate pathological or other physiological alterations of living tissues and is a commonly used form of medical imaging mri has also found many novel applications outside of the medical and biological fields such as rock permeability to hydrocarbons and certain non destructive testing methods such as produce and timber quality characterization the devices used in medicine are expensive costing approximately one million usd per tesla for each unit with several hundred thousand dollars per year upkeep costs background information nomenclature magnetic resonance imaging was developed from knowledge gained in the study of nuclear magnetic resonance the original name for the medical technology is nuclear magnetic resonance imaging nmri but the word nuclear is almost universally dropped this is done to avoid the negative connotations of the word nuclear and to prevent patients from associating the examination with radiation exposure which is not one of the safety concerns for mri scientists still use nmr when discussing non medical devices operating on the same principles technique animation of a series sections through a human brain from an mri scan starting at the top of the head and moving towards the base medical mri most frequently relies on the relaxation properties of excited hydrogen nuclei in water when the object to be imaged is placed in a powerful uniform magnetic field the spins of the atomic nuclei with non zero spin numbers within the tissue all align in one of two opposite directions parallel to the magnetic field or antiparallel common magnetic field strengths range from zero three to three teslas although research instruments range as high as two zero teslas and commercial suppliers are investing in seven tesla platforms only one in a million nuclei align themselves with the magnetic field yet the vast quantity of nuclei in a small volume sum to produce a detectable change in field most basic explanations of nmr and mri will say that the nuclei align parallel or anti parallel with the static magnetic field however because of quantum mechanical reasons beyond the scope of this article the nuclei are actually set off at an angle from the direction of the static magnetic field the magnetic dipole moment of the nuclei then precesses around the axial field while the proportion is nearly equal slightly more are oriented at the low energy angle the frequency with which the dipole moments precess is called the larmor frequency the tissue is then briefly exposed to pulses of electromagnetic energy rf pulse in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field causing some of the magnetically aligned hydrogen nuclei to assume a temporary non aligned high energy state the frequency of the pulses is governed by the larmor equation in order to selectively image different voxels picture elements of the material in question orthogonal magnetic gradients are applied although it is relatively common to apply gradients in the principal axes of a patient so that the patient is imaged in x y and z from head to toe mri allows completely flexible orientations for images all spatial encoding is obtained by applying magnetic field gradients which encode position within the phase of the signal in one dimension a linear phase with respect to position can be obtained by collecting data in the presence of a magnetic field gradient in three dimensions a plane can defined by slice selection in which an rf pulse of defined bandwidth is applied in the presence of a magnetic field gradient in order to reduce spatial encoding to two dimensions spatial encoding can then be applied in two d after slice selection or in three d without slice selection in either case a two d or three d matrix of spatially encoded phases is acquired and these data represent the spatial frequencies of the image object images can be created from the acquired data using the discrete fourier transform dft in order to understand mri contrast it is important to have some understanding of the time constants involved in relaxation processes that establish equilibrium following rf excitation as the high energy nuclei relax and realign they emit energy at rates which are recorded to provide information about their environment the realignment of nuclear spins with the magnetic field is termed longitudinal relaxation and the time typically about one sec required for a certain percentage of the tissue nuclei to realign is termed time one or t one t two weighted imaging relies upon local dephasing of spins following the application of the transverse energy pulse the transverse relaxation time typically three while research models can exceed one m three contrast enhancement both t one and t two weighted images are acquired for most medical examinations however these two sets of images are not always sufficient to adequately show anatomy or pathology one option is to use a more sophisticated image acquisition technique e g fat suppression chemical shift imaging the other is to administer a contrast agent to delineate areas of interest a contrast agent may be as simple as water taken orally for imaging the stomach and small bowel alternatively substances with specific magnetic properties may be used most commonly a paramagnetic contrast agent usually a gadolinium compound is given gadolinium enhanced tissues and fluids appear extremely bright on t one weighted images this provides high sensitivity for detection of vascular tissues e g tumors and permits assessment of brain perfusion e g in stroke more recently superparamagnetic contrast agents e g iron oxide nanoparticles have become available these agents appear very dark on t two weighted images these agents may be used for liver imaging normal liver tissue retains the agent but abnormal areas e g scars tumors do not they can also be taken orally to improve visualisation of the gastrointestinal tract and to prevent water in the gastrointestinal tract from obscuring other organs e g pancreas diamagnetic agents e g barium sulfate have been studied for potential use in the gi tract but are less frequently used application three d mri in clinical practice mri is used to distinguish pathologic tissue such as a brain tumor from normal tissue one of the advantages of an mri scan is that according to current medical knowledge it is harmless to the patient it utilizes strong magnetic fields and non ionizing radiation in the radio frequency range compare this to ct scans and traditional x rays which involve doses of ionizing radiation and may increase the chance of malignancy especially in the fetus while ct provides good spatial resolution the ability to distinguish two structures an arbitrarily small distance from each other as separate mri provides comparable resolution with far better contrast resolution the ability to distinguish the differences between two arbitrarily similar but not identical tissues the basis of this ability is the complex library of pulse sequences that the modern medical mri scanner includes each of which is optimized to provide image contrast based on the chemical sensitivity of mri for example with particular values of the echo time te and the repetition time tr which are basic parameters of image acquisition a sequence will take on the property of t two weighting on a t two weighted scan fat water and fluid containing tissues are bright most modern t two sequences are actually fast t two sequences damaged tissue tends to develop edema which makes a t two weighted sequence sensitive for pathology and generally able to distinguish pathologic tissue from normal tissue with the addition of an additional radio frequency pulse and additional manipulation of the magnetic gradients a t two weighted sequence can be converted to a flair fluid light attenuation inversion recovery sequence in which free water is now dark but edematous tissues remain bright this sequence in particular is currently the most sensitive way to evaluate the brain for demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis the typical mri examination typically consists of five two zero sequences each of which are chosen to provide a particular type of information about the subject tissues this information is then synthesized by the interpreting physician specialized mri scans diffusion mri diffusion mri measures the diffusion of water molecules in biological tissues in an isotropic medium inside a glass of water for example water molecules naturally move according to brownian motion in biological tissues however the diffusion is very often anisotropic for example a molecule inside the axon of a neuron has a low probability to cross a myelin membrane therefore the molecule will move principally along the axis of the neural fiber conversely if we know that molecules locally diffuse principally in one direction we can make the assumption that this corresponds to a set of fibers the recent development of diffusion tensor imaging dti enables diffusion to be measured in multiple directions currently up to nine nine and the fractional anisotropy in each direction to be calculated for each voxel this enables researchers to make axonal maps to examine the structural connectivity of different regions in the brain tractography or to examine areas of neural degeneration and demyelinaton in diseases like multiple sclerosis another application of diffusion mri is diffusion weighted imaging dwi following an ischemic stroke brain cells die it is speculated that resultant areas of restricted diffusion are detectable this finding appears within five one zero minutes of the onset of stroke symptoms as compared with computed tomography which often does not detect changes of acute infarct for up to four six hours and remains for up to two weeks as such dwi sequences are extraordinarily sensitive for acute stroke finally it has been proposed that diffusion mri may be able to detect minute changes in extracellular water diffusion and therefore could be used as a tool for fmri the nerve cell body enlarges when it conducts an action potential hence restricting extracellular water molecules from diffusing naturally although this process works in theory evidence is only moderately convincing magnetic resonance angiography magnetic resonance angiography mra is used to generate pictures of the arteries in order to evaluate them for stenosis abnormal narrowing or aneurysms vessel wall dilatations at risk of rupture mra is often used to evaluate the arteries of the neck and brain the thoracic and abdominal aorta the renal arteries and the legs called a run off a variety of techniques can be used to generate the pictures such as administration of a paramagnetic contrast agent gadolinium or using a technique known as flow related enhancement e g two d and three d time of flight sequences where most of the signal on an image is due to blood which has recently moved into that plane mrv is a similar procedure that is used to image veins in this method the tissue is now excited inferiorly while signal is gathered in the plane immediately superior to the excitation plane and thus imaging the venous blood which has recently moved from the excited plane magnetic resonance spectroscopy magnetic resonance spectroscopy mrs also known as mrsi mrs imaging and volume selective nmr spectroscopy is a technique which combines the spatially addressable nature of mri with the spectroscopically rich information obtainable from nuclear magnetic resonance nmr that is to say mri allows one to study a particular region within an organism or sample but gives relatively little information about the chemical or physical nature of that region its chief value is in being able to distinguish the properties of that region relative to those of surrounding regions mr spectroscopy however provides a wealth of chemical information about that region as would an nmr spectrum of that region functional mri a fmri scan showing regions of activation in orange including the primary visual cortex v one ba one seven functional mri fmri measures signal changes in the brain that are due to changing neural activity the brain is scanned at low resolution but at a rapid rate typically once every two three seconds increases in neural activity cause changes in the mr signal via a mechanism called the bold blood oxygen level dependent effect increased neural activity causes an increased demand for oxygen and the vascular system actually overcompensates for this increasing the amount of oxygenated hemoglobin haemoglobin relative to deoxygenated hemoglobin because deoxygenated hemoglobin attenuates the mr signal the vascular response leads to a signal increase that is related to the neural activity the precise nature of the relationship between neural activity and the bold signal is a subject of current research the bold effect also allows for the generation of high resolution three d maps of the venous vasculature within neural tissue while bold signal is the most common method employed for neuroscience studies in human subjects the flexible nature of mr imaging provides means to sensitize the signal to other aspects of the blood supply alternative techniques employ arterial spin labeling asl or weight the mri signal by cerebral blood flow cbf and cerebral blood volume cbv the cbv method requires injection of a class of mri contrast agents that are now in human clinical trials because this method has been shown to be far more sensitive than the bold technique in pre clinical studies it may potentially expand the role of fmri in clinical applications the cbf method provides more quantitative information than the bold signal albeit at a significant loss of detection sensitivity interventional mri because of the lack of harmful effects on the patient and the operator mr is well suited for interventional radiology where the images produced by an mri scanner are used to guide a minimally invasive procedure intraoperatively and or interactively however the non magnetic environment required by the scanner and the strong magnetic radiofrequency and quasi static fields generated by the scanner hardware require the use of specialized instruments often required is the use of an open bore magnet which permits the operating staff better access to patients during the operation such open bore magnets are often lower field magnets typically in the zero two tesla range which decreases their sensitivity but also decreases the radio frequency power potentially absorbed by the patient during a protracted operation higher field magnet systems are beginning to be deployed in intraoperative imaging suites which can combine high field mri with a surgical suite and even ct in a series of interconnected rooms specialty high field interventional mr devices such as the imris system can actually bring a high field magnet to the patient within the operating theatre permitting the use of standard surgical tools while the magnet is in an adjoining space radiation therapy simulation because of mri s superior imaging of soft tissues it is now being utilized to specifically locate tumors within the body in preparation for radiation therapy treatments for therapy simulation a patient is placed in specific reproducible body position and scanned the mri system then computes the precise location shape and orientation of the tumor mass correcting for any spatial distortion inherent in the system the patient is then marked or tattooed with points which when combined with the specific body position will permit precise triangulation for radiation therapy current density imaging current density imaging is a subbranch of mri that endeavors to use the phase information from the mri images to reconstruct current densities within a subject current density imaging works because electrical currents generate magnetic fields which in turn affect the phase of the magnetic dipoles during an imaging sequence to date no successful cdi has been performed using biological currents however several studies have been published which involve applied currents through a pair of electrodes magnetic resonance guided focused ultrasound in mrgfus therapy ultrasound beams are focused on a tissue guided and controlled using mr thermal imaging and due to the significant energy deposition at the focus temperature within the tissue rises to more than six five c completely destroying it this technology can achieve precise ablation of diseased tissue mr imaging provides a three dimensional view of the target tissue allowing for precise focusing of ultrasound energy the mr imaging provides quantitative real time thermal images of the treated area this allows the physician to ensure that the temperature generated during each cycle of ultrasound energy is sufficient to cause thermal ablation within the desired tissue and if not to adapt the parameters to ensure effective treatment multinuclear imaging hydrogen is the most frequently imaged nucleus in mri because it is present in biological tissues in great abundance however any nucleus which has a net nuclear spin could potentially be imaged with mri such nuclei include helium three carbon one three oxygen one seven sodium two three phosphorus three one and xenon one two nine two three na and three one p are naturally abundant in the body so can be imaged directly gaseous isotopes three he and one two nine xe must be hyperpolarized as their nuclear density is too low to yield a useful signal under normal conditions one seven o and one three c can be administered in sufficient quantities in liquid form e g one seven o water or one three c glucose solutions that hyperpolarization is not a necessity multinuclear imaging is primarily a research technique at present however potential applications include functional imaging and imaging of organs poorly seen on one h mri e g lungs and bones or as alternative contrast agents inhaled hyperpolarized three he can be used to image the distribution of air spaces within the lungs injectable solutions containing one three c or stabilized bubbles of hyperpolarized one two nine xe have been studied as contrast agents for angiography and perfusion imaging three one p can potentially provide information on bone density and structure as well as functional imaging of the brain safety implants and foreign bodies pacemakers are generally considered an absolute contraindication towards mri scanning several cases of arrhythmias or death have been reported in patients with pacemakers who have undergone mri scanning other electronic implants are at least relative contraindications ferromagnetic foreign bodies e g shell fragments or metallic implants e g surgical prostheses aneurysm clips are also potential risks and safety aspects need to be considered on a individual basis interaction of the magnetic and radiofrequency fields with such objects can lead to trauma due to movement of the object in the magnetic field thermal injury from radiofrequency induction heating of the object or failure of an implanted device in the case of pacemakers the risk is thought to be primarily rf induction in the pacing electrodes wires causing inappropriate pacing of the heart rather than the magnetic field affecting the pacemaker itself other significant safety issues include projectiles as a result of the very high strength of the magnetic field needed to produce scans frequently up to three zero zero zero zero times the earth s own magnetic field effects there are several incidental safety issues addressed in mri facilities missile effect accidents where ferromagnetic objects are attracted to the center of the magnet have resulted in injury and death it is for this reason that ferrous objects and devices are prohibited in proximity to the mri scanner with non ferro magnetic mri safe versions of many of these objects typically retained by the scanning facility the magnetic field remains a permanent hazard electromagnetic machines are kept energized at all times radio frequency energy a powerful radio transmitter is needed for excitation of proton spins this can result in deposition of signficant thermal energy in the body with the risk of hyperthermia in children or elderly patients several countries have issued restrictions on the maximum specific absorption rate that a scanner may produce acoustic noise loud noises and vibrations are produced by forces resulting from rapidly switched magnetic gradients interacting with the main magnetic field this is most marked with high field machines and rapid imaging techniques in which sound intensity can reach one three zero db equivalent to a jet engine at take off appropriate use of ear protection is essential manufacturers are now incorporating noise insulation and active noise cancellation systems on their equipment cryogens an emergency shut down of a superconducting electromagnet an operation known as quenching involves the rapid boiling of liquid helium from the device if the rapidly expanding helium cannot be dissipated though external vents it may be released into the scanner room where it may cause displacement of the oxygen and present a risk of asphyxiation since a quench results in immediate loss of all cryogens in the magnet recommissioning the magnet is extremely expensive and time consuming spontaneous quenches are uncommon but can occur at any time pregnancy no reproducible harmful effects of mri on the fetus have been demonstrated in particular mri avoids the use of ionizing radiation to which the fetus is particularly sensitive however as a precaution current guidelines recommend that pregnant women undergo mri only when essential this is particularly the case during the first trimester of pregnancy as organogenesis takes place during this period the concerns in pregnancy are the same as for mri in general but the fetus may be more sensitive to the effects particularly to heating and to noise however one additional concern is the use of contrast agents gadolinium compounds are known to cross the placenta and enter the fetal bloodstream and it is recommended that their use be avoided despite these concerns mri is rapidly growing in importance as a way of diagnosing and monitoring disease of the fetus because it can provide more diagnostic information than ultrasound without the use of ionizing radiation guidance safety issues including the potential for biostimulation device interference movement of ferromagnetic bodies and incidental localized heating have been addressed in the american college of radiology s white paper on mr safety which was originally published in two zero zero two and expanded in two zero zero four two zero zero three nobel prize reflecting the fundamental importance and applicability of mri in the medical field paul lauterbur and sir peter mansfield were awarded the two zero zero three nobel prize in medicine for their discoveries concerning mri lauterbur discovered that gradients in the magnetic field could be used to generate two dimensional images mansfield analyzed the gradients mathematically in a controversial decision the nobel committee snubbed mri pioneer raymond v damadian although nobel rules allowed for the award to be shared with a third person soon after the announcement damadian took out expensive full page advertisements in major newspapers to protest the decision new york times ad text raymond damadian s apparatus and method for detecting cancer in tissue in one nine seven four damadian patented the design and use of nmr us patent three seven eight nine eight three two for detecting cancer this patent did not describe a method for generating pictures however in one nine nine seven he successfully sued general electric for infringement and received an award of one two nine million he later settled out of court for further millions from other mri scanner manufacturers in one nine eight zero he produced the first commercial mri scanner though the machine failed to sell and was never used clinically in recording the history of mri mattson and simon one nine nine six credit damadian with describing the concept of whole body nmr scanning as well as discovering the nmr tissue relaxation differences that made this feasible in two zero zero one the lemelson mit program bestowed its lifetime achievement award on dr damadian as the man who invented the mri scanner it is still not clear if damadian s method of detecting cancer is working and it is not used in modern mri imaging and diagnostics his description of a whole body scanner only concerned itself with searching the body for cancer and does not discuss the use of the data for generating pictures showing different tissues the procedure as described would take a very long time to perform there is a big difference between this scanner and contemporary mri machines see also history of brain imaging nobel prize controversies functional magnetic resonance imaging magnetic resonance guided focused ultrasound t one t two t two reference james mattson and merrill simon the pioneers of nmr and magnetic resonance in medicine the story of mri jericho apparatus and method of detecting cancer in tissue international society for magnetic resonance in medicine radiologyinfo the radiology information resource for patients magnetic resonance imaging mri nobel prizefight article about the two zero zero three nobel prize controversy mrinteractive animations and tutorials describing mri white paper on mr safety acr s white paper combined two zero zero two and two zero zero four how stuff works mri article basic information applications and advantages of mri scans the basics of mri information and images about flying objects in mri mri equipment and information from siemens medical mri equipment and information from philips medical systems example mri human mri datasets electromagnetism neuroimaging nuclear magnetic resonance in mathematics a group is a set together with a binary operation such as multiplication or addition satisfying certain axioms detailed below for example the set of integers is a group under the operation of addition the branch of mathematics which studies groups is called group theory the historical origin of group theory goes back to the works of variste galois one eight three zero concerning the problem of when an algebraic equation is soluble by radicals previous to this work groups were mainly studied concretely in the form of permutations some aspects of abelian group theory were known in the theory of quadratic forms many of the objects investigated in mathematics turn out to be groups these include familiar number systems such as the integers the rational numbers the real numbers and the complex numbers under addition as well as the non zero rationals reals and complex numbers under multiplication another important example is given by non singular matrices under multiplication and more generally invertible functions under composition group theory allows for the properties of these systems and many others to be investigated in a more general setting and its results are widely applicable group theory is also a rich source of theorems in its own right groups underlie many other algebraic structures such as fields and vector spaces they are also important tools for studying symmetry in all its forms the principle that the symmetries of any object form a group is foundational for much mathematics for these reasons group theory is an important area in modern mathematics and also one with many applications to mathematical physics for example in particle physics history see group theory basic definitions a group g is a nonempty set g together with a binary operation g g g satisfying the group axioms below a b represents the result of applying the operation to the ordered pair a b of elements of g the group axioms are the following associativity for all a b and c in g a b c a b c neutral element there is an element e in g such that for all a in g e a a e a inverse element for all a in g there is an element b in g such that a b b a e where e is the neutral element from the previous axiom you will often also see the axiom closure for all a and b in g a b belongs to g the way that the definition above is phrased this axiom is not necessary since binary operations are already required to satisfy closure when determining if is a group operation however it is nonetheless necessary to verify that satisfies closure this is part of verifying that it is in fact a binary operation the neutral element is usually called the identity element for a multiplicative group and the null element or zero element for an additive group it is worth noting that we can weaken these axioms associativity right identity i e a e a and right inverse a b e imply the left identity and left inverse as given above it is canonical to define the axioms as above because combinations of the above define other useful algebraic structures e g the groupoid and semigroup thus the above axioms are not strictly minimal from a logical viewpoint however the difference is slight and in practice one usually just checks the above axioms it should be noted that there is no requirement that the group operation be commutative that is there may exist elements such that a b b a a group g is said to be abelian after the mathematician niels abel or commutative if for every a b in g a b b a groups lacking this property are called non abelian the order of a group g denoted by g or o g is the number of elements of the set g a group is called finite if it has finitely many elements that is if the set g is a finite set note that we often refer to the group g as simply g leaving the operation unmentioned but to be perfectly precise different operations on the same set define different groups notation for groups usually the operation whatever it really is is thought of as an analogue of multiplication and the group operations are therefore written multiplicatively that is we write a b or even ab for a b and call it the product of a and b we write one or e for the identity element and call it the unit element we write a one for the inverse of a and call it the reciprocal of a however sometimes the group operation is thought of as analogous to addition and written additively we write a b for a b and call it the sum of a and b we write zero for the identity element and call it the zero element we write a for the inverse of a and call it the opposite of a usually only abelian groups are written additively although abelian groups may also be written multiplicatively when being noncommittal one can use the notation with and terminology that was introduced in the definition using the notation a one for the inverse of a if s is a subset of g and x an element of g then in multiplicative notation xs is the set of all products similarly the notation sx and for two subsets s and t of g we write st for in additive notation we write x s s x and s t for the respective sets some elementary examples and nonexamples an abelian group the integers under addition a group that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition for this example let z be the set of integers and let the symbol indicate the operation of addition then z is a group written additively proof if a and b are integers then a b is an integer closure really is a binary operation if a b and c are integers then a b c a b c associativity zero is an integer and for any integer a zero a a zero a identity element if a is an integer then there is an integer b a such that a b b a zero inverse element this group is also abelian a b b a the integers with both addition and multiplication together form the more complicated algebraic structure of a ring in fact the elements of any ring form an abelian group under addition called the additive group of the ring not a group the integers under multiplication on the other hand if we consider the operation of multiplication denoted by then z is not a group if a and b are integers then a b is an integer closure if a b and c are integers then a b c a b c associativity one is an integer and for any integer a one a a one a identity element however it is not true that whenever a is an integer there is an integer b such that ab ba one for example a two is a integer but the only solution to the equation ab one in this case is b one two we cannot choose b one two because one two is not an integer inverse element fails since not every element of z has an inverse z is not a group the most we can say is that it is a commutative monoid an abelian group the nonzero rational numbers under multiplication consider the set of rational numbers q that is the set of numbers a b such that a and b are integers and b is nonzero and the operation multiplication denoted by since the rational number zero does not have a multiplicative inverse q like z is not a group however if we instead use the set q instead of q that is include every rational number except zero then q does form an abelian group written multiplicatively the inverse of a b is b a and the other group axioms are simple to check we don t lose closure by removing zero because the product of two nonzero rationals is never zero just as the integers form a ring the rational numbers form the algebraic structure of a field in fact the nonzero elements of any given field form a group under multiplication called the multiplicative group of the field a finite nonabelian group permutations of a set for a more concrete example consider three colored blocks red green and blue initially placed in the order rgb let a be the action swap the first block and the second block and let b be the action swap the second block and the third block cycle diagram for d six a loop specifies a series of powers of any element connected to the identity element one for example the e ba ab loop reflects the fact that ba two ab and ba three e as well as the fact that ab two ba and ab three e the other loops are roots of unity so that for example a two e in multiplicative form we traditionally write xy for the combined action first do y then do x so that ab is the action rgb rbg brg i e take the last block and move it to the front if we write e for leave the blocks as they are the identity action then we can write the six permutations of the set of three blocks as the following actions e rgb rgb a rgb grb b rgb rbg ab rgb brg ba rgb gbr aba rgb bgr note that the action aa has the effect rgb grb rgb leaving the blocks as they were so we can write aa e similarly bb e aba aba e and ab ba ba ab e so each of the above actions has an inverse by inspection we can also determine associativity and closure note for example that ab a a ba aba and ba b b ab bab this group is called the symmetric group on three letters or s three it has order six or three factorial and is non abelian since for example ab ba since s three is built up from the basic actions a and b we say that the set generates it every group can be expressed in terms of permutation groups like s three this result is cayley s theorem and is studied as part of the subject of group actions further examples for some further examples of groups from a variety of applications see examples of groups and list of small groups simple theorems a group has exactly one identity element every element has exactly one inverse proof suppose both b and c are inverses of x then by the definition of an inverse xb bx e and xc cx e but then therefore the inverse is unique the first two properties actually follow from associative binary operations defined on a set given a binary operation on a set there is at most one identity and at most one inverse for any element you can perform division in groups that is given elements a and b of the group g there is exactly one solution x in g to the equation x a b and exactly one solution y in g to the equation a y b the expression a one a two an is unambiguous because the result will be the same no matter where we place parentheses socks and shoes the inverse of a product is the product of the inverses in the opposite order a b one b one a one proof we will demonstrate that ab b one a one b one a one ab e as required by the definition of an inverse a a bb a associativity aea definition of inverse aa definition of neutral element e definition of inverse and similarly for the other direction these and other basic facts that hold for all individual groups form the field of elementary group theory constructing new groups from given ones if a subset h of a group g together with the operation restricted on h is itself a group then it is called a subgroup of g the direct product of two groups g and h is the set g h together with the operation g one h one g two h two g one g two h one h two the product can also be defined with an infinite number of terms the direct external sum of a family of groups is the subgroup of the product constituted by elements that have a finite number of non identity terms if the family is finite the direct sum and the product are of course the same given a group g and a normal subgroup n the quotient group is the set of cosets of g n together with the operation gn hn ghn see also glossary of group theory elementary group theory list of group theory topics important publications in group theory examples of groups list of small groups semidirect product abstract algebra group theory symmetry this article is about the band marilyn manson for its lead singer of the same name see marilyn manson person marilyn manson is an alternative metal rock band based in los angeles california in the united states frequently termed shock rock the group s sound contains influences from heavy metal industrial rock and glam formed in one nine eight nine see one nine eight nine in music in fort lauderdale florida as marilyn manson this has been due in large part to eponymous lead singer marilyn manson born brian warner and his frequent clashes with religious and political figures the name of each band member was originally created by combining the first name of a female pop culture icon and the last name of a mass murderer or a serial killer the members of the band dress in outlandish makeup and costumes and have engaged in intentionally shocking behavior both onstage and off their lyrics often receive criticism for their anti religious sentiment and with references to sex drugs and violence marilyn manson s music and performances have frequently been called offensive and obscene and more than a few times protests and petitions have led to the group s being banned from performing as this controversy began to wane so did the band s mainstream popularity despite this its many devoted fans have made marilyn manson a consistently high profile group three of the band s albums have been awarded platinum certification and three have been awarded gold and the band has seen three of its releases debut in the top ten including two number one albums in june two zero zero three jon wiederhorn of mtv com referred to marilyn manson as the only true artist today musical style marilyn manson has come to be known for altering both its image and its musical trappings frequently the group s sound incorporating at various stages elements of spoken word poetry glam rock and more recently cabaret lead singer manson was fond of black sabbath and kiss as a young music fan but every member of the band has brought his own unique style and set of influences to the band s sonic palette attempting to blend the typical heavy metal sound of heavily distorted guitar and kick drum heavy percussion with industrial metal s emphasis on electronic musical instruments marilyn manson s alternative metal is also marked by tendencies toward unconventional recording techniques and musical experimentation influences initially after being introduced to big black by a fellow miami clubgoer manson had the desire to form a rock band that used a drum machine an uncommon technique outside of dance music at the time the earliest incarnations of marilyn manson used this setup and produced experimental drum heavy compositions similar to steve albini s work with big black later with the addition of a live drummer the band s composing process recording techniques and live performances were by necessity altered guitarist daisy berkowitz and bassist gidget gein who came from punk rock backgrounds brought the musicianship and songwriting style of the jim carroll band whose people who died was an early favorite cover for marilyn manson and the showmanship of the new york dolls to the mixture the result was something that nothing records would initially compare to jane s addiction but which after the band spent some time at nothing would also gather sonic elements from other bands on that label s roster like nine inch nails and prick late influences have come from the glam rock of david bowie whose chameleon like ability to shift from one style to another replete with a new look and musical philosophy was a characteristic which would also be frequently ascribed to marilyn manson by the music press the hard rock background of john five amplified this aspect of the band s sound in live performance tim skold a former guitarist bassist and vocalist in kmfdm later blended in that band s so called ultra heavy beat of industrial drums and guitars composition and songwriting all of the band s lyrics are written by manson whose songwriting style is characterized by a tendency toward misanthropy as well as by sharp and occasionally inventive wordplay he frequently makes use of puns and double entendres in his writing for instance a song on the holy wood album which references the shootings at columbine high school is titled target audience the album also makes frequent allusions to assassination and the song the fall of adam refers to abraham lincoln town cars these witticisms often take the form of neologisms frequently delivered several at a time in rapid fire fashion the title song from mechanical animals includes the lines we were neurophobic and perfect the day that we lost our souls you were my mechanical bride my phenobarbidoll a manniqueen of depression with the face of a dead star music is primarily composed by the other band members who at present are tim skold on bass guitar electric guitar and programming and madonna wayne gacy on keyboards synthesizers and electronic drums until their respective departures from the band daisy berkowitz and twiggy ramirez were the chief contributors to the compositions with one or both receiving music by credits on every marilyn manson album prior to the golden age of grotesque according to the albums credits every permanent member of the band has had input at some point in its songwriting process marilyn manson has also become extremely well known for recording cover versions of songs by other artists the band s two most successful singles have been a brooding punk metal version of eurythmics sweet dreams are made of this and a heavily synthesized nearly nu metal tainted love as popularized by soft cell though originally performed by gloria jones notable covers the band has recorded have been by depeche mode personal jesus the doors five to one david bowie golden years gary numan down in the park and several other artists history the spooky kids and the early years one nine eight nine one nine nine two a one nine nine two flyer for a marilyn manson bundy was replaced by gidget gein born brad stewart in one nine nine one drummer fred streithorst joined the band with the stage name sara lee lucas the stage names used by each member were representative of a concept the band considered central the dichotomy of good and evil and the existence of both together in every whole marilyn monroe had a dark side explained manson in his autobiography just as charles manson has a good intelligent side images of both monroe and manson as well as of others equally famous and notorious were common in the band s early promotional materials the spooky kids popularity in the area grew quickly largely because of radio dj scott david of wynx fm an early fan who eagerly played songs from the band s demo tapes on the air and because of the band s highly visual concerts which drew from performance art and used many shock techniques it was not uncommon to see onstage naked women nailed to a cross a child in a cage or bloody animal body parts manson berkowitz and gein variously performed in women s clothing or bizarre costumes and for lack of a professional pyrotechnician they would occasionally set their own stage props on fire the band would dramatically contrast these grotesque theatrics with elements drawn from the culture of the members youth in the one nine seven zero s and one nine eight zero s characters from that era s children s television made regular often somewhat altered appearances on marilyn manson flyers and newsletters and were frequently sampled in the music they continued to perform and release cassettes shortening their name to marilyn manson in one nine nine two until the summer of one nine nine three when the band drew the attention of trent reznor who at the time had just founded his own record label nothing records nothing records and the first albums one nine nine three one nine nine six the cover of one nine nine five s smells like children ep reznor offered marilyn manson a contract with his new label and the opportunity to support nine inch nails on their upcoming headlining tour the band accepted both offers and recording sessions for its national debut portrait of an american family began in july one nine nine three working with producer roli mosimann at criteria studios in miami florida the band recorded a selection of new songs along with material from their spooky kids repertoire and by the end of autumn one nine nine three had completed the first version of their debut titled the manson family album it was not however well received the abrasive sonic rawness that mosimann s production had brought to such groups as swans had failed to materialize on the manson family album reznor and the band found it flat and lifeless and poorly representative of marilyn manson s dynamic performances i thought this really sucks manson explained so i played it for trent and he thought it sucked at the same time the band was having difficulties with bassist gidget gein who had begun to lose control of his addiction to heroin in october one nine nine three reznor agreed to rework the production on marilyn manson s album taking them and their tapes to the record plant in los angeles gein who had been hospitalized after an overdose was not invited after seven weeks of mixing remixing and rerecording the album now titled portrait of an american family was ready to be presented to interscope records even as the first single get your gunn was beginning to receive radio airplay gein received a letter declaring his services no longer needed by marilyn manson he was replaced by twiggy ramirez formerly known as jeordie white of miami death metal band amboog a lard ramirez debuted as the band s new bass player on the first date of a fourteen week national tour opening for nine inch nails it was during this tour that manson had occasion to meet with church of satan founder dr anton lavey after a cordial meeting lavey honored manson with the title of reverend meaning in the church of satan a person who is revered by the church and not necessarily one who dedicates his life to preaching the religion to others as with a priest or minister marilyn manson began one nine nine five with its first headlining tour a two month outing with monster voodoo machine as support this would be drummer sara lee lucas s last tour with the band tension between lucas and manson had apparently grown as the tour wore on and on the final night of the tour manson secretly decided to end the show with a flourish during a performance of the then current single lunchbox he doused lucas s drum kit in butane and set it ablaze with lucas still attempting to play on behind it lucas quit the band immediately less than two weeks after his replacement ginger fish joined the group marilyn manson was touring again this time on a bill with danzig and korn that tour ended in summer one nine nine five after which the band relocated to the new home of nothing studios in new orleans louisiana to begin work on the third single from portrait of an american family dope hat accompanied by a music video which featured manson in the role of willy wonka in a shock horror version of willy wonka and the chocolate factory the proposed single for dope hat eventually developed into an hour long ep smells like children the ep s fifteen tracks of covers remixes and bizarre sonic experiments also included the band s version of the eurythmics sweet dreams are made of this which would prove to be marilyn manson s first legitimate hit the video was placed in heavy rotation on mtv in stark contrast with the dope hat video which mtv had banished to late night airplay only a few months before and the mainstream music press was suddenly clamoring to cover the group a five month headlining tour followed from september through february during which the band began to debut new material like irresponsible hate anthem minute of decay and smells like children rumors of a new album circulated widely during this time and were confirmed when the band returned to nothing s new orleans studio in early one nine nine six to perform what manson termed a musical ritual designed to bring about the apocalypse the highly anticipated lead single from antichrist superstar the beautiful people was released in one nine nine six marilyn manson s second proper album antichrist superstar was released on october eight one nine nine six it was recorded at nothing studios with trent reznor himself acting as executive producer the process of making the album was reportedly a long and difficult one highlighted by experiments allegedly involving sleep deprivation and near constant drug use in an effort to create an environment suited to the album s moody and occasionally violent content during this time antagonism between band members was high which caused the departure of guitarist and founding member daisy berkowitz with berkowitz out of the band twiggy ramirez performed lead guitar for much of the recording of antichrist superstar and the group placed an ad seeking a new guitarist for its upcoming tour timothy linton of chicago band life sex and death lsd auditioned for and was given the position breaking with the six year tradition of icon killer naming structures the newest member was dubbed zim zum a name derived from kabbalah one of the major sources of inspiration for the album the album s first single the beautiful people made a fairly major impact on the alternative rock charts and created enough anticipation for antichrist superstar that the album debuted at number three on the album charts the year and a half long dead to the world tour in support of the album followed it was the band s longest and widest yet and included marilyn manson s live debut in the united kingdom continental europe and south america in the united states however the band was receiving more attention than ever before and not all of it was positive protests mechanical animals columbine and holy wood one nine nine seven two zero zero one as the tour was getting underway the band found itself the target of congressional hearings led by senator joseph lieberman to determine the effects if any of violent lyrics on young listeners lieberman would later go on to refer to marilyn manson as perhaps the sickest group ever promoted by a mainstream record company in addition nearly every performance on the tour was picketed by religious organizations pleading with fans not to see the musician who once said i think every time people listen to this new album maybe god will be destroyed in their heads on november one zero even as all this was taking place the band released a remix live ep remix and repent featuring new versions of antichrist superstar s three singles the beautiful people tourniquet and man that you fear alongside songs recorded live on the u s leg of the dead to the world tour two antichrist superstar outtakes were also contributed to film soundtracks apple of sodom to david lynch s lost highway and the suck for your solution to the howard stern biopic private parts as the year ended manson made the announcement of the upcoming publication of his first book the autobiographical long hard road out of hell the book was released in february one nine nine eight along with another live document of the world tour a longform video entitled dead to the world the release of the follow up to antichrist superstar was according to the band also immiment accompanied by early rumors of the involvement of billy corgan and the dust brothers with the as yet untitled album manson onstage during the rock is dead tour on september one five one nine nine eight marilyn manson released mechanical animals an album strongly influenced by david bowie interscope s promotion of the album was massive including an enormous billboard of singer manson as an androgynous extraterrestrial over times square and repeated appearances on mtv and other networks to promote the album and the single the dope show propelled by the success of antichrist superstar and by this press push the album debuted at number one on the billboard two zero zero albums chart the band had recast itself in a new image for this album setting aside the bleakness of the previous record marilyn manson was now a glam rock band borrowing its visual presentation largely from bowie and from roxy music and its contemporaries by this time the band had permanently relocated to los angeles and zim zum had been replaced by glam influenced guitarist john lowery who joined the band as john five after a brief promotional tour the band set out on the rock is dead world tour with hole and monster magnet as support the tour however would be a problematic one on march one one nine nine nine the three bands played the first show in spokane washington by march one four hole had left the tour and manson had broken his ankle forcing postponements of some shows less than three weeks after the tour resumed two students at columbine high school in littleton colorado killed thirteen people early media reports declared them fans of violent music and video games on april two eight out of respect for the victims marilyn manson canceled the remaining dates of the rock is dead tour and would not reappear in denver until the two zero zero one ozzfest john five and m w gacy performing during the guns god and government world tour the gun cross logo is visible in the background the rest of one nine nine nine and much of two zero zero zero was a period of relative silence for marilyn manson the band spent over a year quietly writing and recording in a studio in death valley with only the single astonishing panorama of the endtimes an outtake from antichrist superstar appearing during that time on november one four two zero zero zero holy wood in the shadow of the valley of death was released returning to the darker more visceral sound of antichrist superstar much of the album s content was written in response to the columbine massacre despite much critical acclaim holy wood was marilyn manson s most poorly selling album described by the band as the third part of a trilogy begun with antichrist superstar and continued in mechanical animals its overarching theme is an exploration of the relationship between death and fame in american culture and its lyrics and artwork contain many references to john f kennedy and lee harvey oswald john lennon and mark david chapman and even abraham lincoln and john wilkes booth the guns god and government world tour expanded upon the exploration of america s fascination with violence and with the tour s logo a rifle and handguns arranged to resemble the christian cross manson made no attempt to conceal what he saw as the source of that fascination on may one six two zero zero one it was announced on the marilyn manson website that manson planned to quote the bible at his next concert to balance out his violent lyrics so we can examine the virtues of wonderful christian stories of disease murder adultery suicide and child sacrifice now that seems like entertainment to me on june two one two zero zero one manson did indeed read from the bible onstage in denver colorado presenting such passages as leviticus two zero nine for every one that curseth his father or his mother shall surely be put to death and psalm one three seven nine happy shall he be that taketh and dasheth thy little ones against the stones as evidence the band s lyrics were at least no more violent than the bible itself the golden age and beyond two zero zero two marilyn manson in two zero zero three from left to right tim skold john five marilyn manson m w gacy ginger fish with the triptych of the previous three albums now complete marilyn manson was free to begin a fresh project finding inspiration in the decadent swing era of the one nine three zero s see music in the one nine three zero s the band recorded the golden age of grotesque in two zero zero two and the album was released on may one three two zero zero three eschewing the lyrical depth and volume of symbolism and hidden meaning of holy wood the new album was relatively straightforward in an extended metaphor manson compares his own often criticized music to the entartete kunst banned by the nazi regime new member tim skold replacing twiggy ramirez added a new dimension to the band s sound he brought with him from kmfdm that band s use of heavy industrial beats for better or worse the golden age of grotesque was frequently impugned as derivative of kmfdm and lacking the originality that marilyn manson had become known for the album still managed a number one debut on the album charts selling over one one eight zero zero zero copies in the us its first week of release however it quickly fell down and eventually off the chart another world tour the grotesk burlesk followed which furthered the album s weimar republic inspired theme by adding elements of german kabarett to the group s performances elaborate artwork by gottfried helnwein appeared in the band s stage dressing and the members began appearing both on stage and off in designer suits and with fashion superstars lest we forget the best of marilyn manson was released on september two eight two zero zero four it was referred to by the singer as his farewell album however he has insisted that it will not be the final marilyn manson album it was supported by a series of greatest hits performances the against all gods tour after the release of the single personal jesus the band made a number of promotional appearances at one of these the comet awards show in germany drummer ginger fish fell from his drum riser fracturing his skull and wrist former nine inch nails drummer chris vrenna has replaced him since his recovery from the accident fish has been recording and performing with a new band martyr plot no official announcement has been made regarding fish s current position in marilyn manson john five has also been replaced mark chaussee of fight took over lead guitar on the against all gods tour lest we forget was certified gold in two zero zero five it has been speculated that manson s farewell album comment may be an indication that the membership of marilyn manson may no longer be permanent and that the musicians who record the albums and play live may in the future rotate as has been the case with nine inch nails and kmfdm this theory may be borne out with the release of marilyn manson s sixth album which was recorded by the core trio of manson gacy and skold accompanied by an assortment of other musicians and is planned for release by mid two zero zero six in january a series of numerical patterns were supplied by the official marilyn manson website believed to be in connection to the album controversy and media response in december one nine nine six a press conference was called by william j bennett senator joseph lieberman and activist c delores tucker aimed at mca the owner of interscope records calling several albums released by the label including antichrist superstar profane violent filth and crap the group questioned mca president edgar bronfman jr s ability to head the label competently while profiting from such material that november six u s senate subcommittee on oversight of government management and restructuring held a public hearing on the effect of violent rock and rap lyrics on youths supporters of the band claim it was merely another salvo in senator lieberman s declared war on the band the hearing chaired by representative sam brownback featured the testimony of lieberman and tucker and of raymond kuntz of burlington north dakota who blamed his son s suicide on antichrist superstar which lieberman denounced as vile hateful nihilistic and damaging in addition the band s performances have come under fire the dead to the world tour in particular was followed by protesters at nearly every north american venue it visited the band s march one zero one nine nine seven performance in columbia south carolina was cancelled in response to growing public pressure by religious civic and political leaders who criticized the group s image the owner of calgary s max bell centre had marilyn manson s july two five show cancelled citing immorality and the band s use of animals on stage another concert in portland was cancelled a few days later due to manson s reputation and the venue s inability to get insurance for the show protestors outside a concert in greensboro north carolina included state senator mark mcdaniel the new jersey date of ozzfest nine seven to be held at giants stadium was cancelled by the new jersey sports and exposition authority who cited marilyn manson s performance as its reason the event was only held after ozzy osbourne himself successfully sued the state which compelled the authorities to allow the concert legislation was introduced and passed in south carolina and utah allowing state operated venues to ban groups like marilyn manson from performing and in at least one instance in florida local schools have gone so far as to threaten expulsion for students in attendance of marilyn manson concerts following the columbine high school massacre there were accusations that killers eric harris and dylan klebold were influenced by marilyn manson s music when later evidence was presented that neither harris nor klebold were fans of the band many were led to criticize the media for using the band as a scapegoat instead of analyzing the underlying societal problems surrounding the incident in the controversial documentary bowling for columbine michael moore interviewed manson about the tragedy when asked what he would say to the two if he had a chance to talk to them before the killings manson replied i wouldn t say a single word to them i would listen to what they have to say and that s what no one did marilyn manson on the internet beginning in one nine nine eight manson frequently interacted with his listeners on the band s official website initially posting text messages and eventually short films of himself addressing the audience and of the band in the studio his participation in this has gradually declined from the release of the golden age of grotesque through late two zero zero five there has been very little activity on the site the marilyn manson bbs was opened up after mechanical animals and was a very active forum in subjects other than the band including art politics news and current events there was much debate on the meanings and interpretations of various lyrics diagrams or pictures featured in the band s album cover art particularly the symbolism of holy wood manson would occasionally interject on discussions along these lines for reasons unknown the bbs was removed then reintroduced a few months later and removed again the user base sharply declined as many members never returned manson also released companion websites spawned from his concept albums mechanical animals was companioned by comawhite com an interactive online maze which led users to various drug and rose themed graphics and links to hidden sections of the main marilyn manson website holy wood was companioned with the website celebritarian com which featured a provoking questionnaire and a diagram of a human soul growing in size as a child progresses to adulthood an additional website thisasvalentinesday com featured a headline announcing john f kennedy s death on october one two zero zero five celebritarian com became active again initially the page featured only a stylized depiction of the cross of lorraine and a link to marilynmanson com although the html link for the image does in fact point to marilyn manson s offical website the administrative contact for the domain is registered to ann hill with a yahoo email address it is unclear whether this new activity is legitimate beginning in january two zero zero six messages began to appear on the band s websites in numeric codes these messages once decrypted revealed hidden sections of those websites featuring among other content new artwork by marilyn manson on january one nine the main pages of all official marilyn manson websites were replaced with the cross of lorraine and the following text which makes direct reference to the celebritarian corporation by novel and experimental inquest not the product of abstract speculations nor vindicative legalistic theories this website and all contents therein have been seized by explicit orders from the celebritarian corporation the text is a direct reference to a november two one one nine four five statement by robert h jackson during the nuremberg trials in which the justice described the tribunal as novel and experimental and not the product of abstract speculations nor created to vindicate legalistic theories additional encoded messages have since been added to those websites their meanings and the future contents have yet to be revealed during the early morning hours of february five two zero zero six the next in the line of mysterious changes to manson s official web site was the addition of a looped flash animation depicting two nearly naked girls covered in blood fading in and out and shifting about from focus accompanied by new music an eerie off key piano with ambience this was updated on february one zero keeping the aforementioned flash intact but including a new image that interrupts the animation midway in between flashes of blank static a white rabbit in a cage audio samples personnel current members marilyn manson brian warner vocals madonna wayne gacy stephen bier jr keyboards and electronic drums tim skold thim sk ld guitar and bass guitar ginger fish kenny wilson live drums former members zsa zsa speck perry pandrea keyboards one nine nine zero one nine nine one olivia newton bundy brian tutunick bass one nine nine one gidget gein brad stewart bass one nine nine zero one nine nine three sara lee lucas fred streithorst drums one nine nine zero one nine nine five daisy berkowitz scott putesky guitars and programming one nine nine zero one nine nine six zim zum timothy michael linton guitar one nine nine six one nine nine eight twiggy ramirez jeordie white bass and guitar one nine nine three two zero zero two john five john lowery guitar one nine nine eight two zero zero four chris vrenna live drums two zero zero four two zero zero five mark chaussee live guitar two zero zero four two zero zero five most if not all members of the band have contributed performances either live or in studio on instruments other than their primary ones for instance gacy has played theremin and calliope manson has played pan flute and harpsichord and berkowitz has been credited with bass guitar and drum machines further details on these contributions can be found in the individual members articles and in the articles on the band s albums discography albums and eps top four zero singles video releases references ankeny jason marilyn manson all music guide accessed december one two zero zero five baker greg manson family values miami new times july two zero one nine nine four cullen dave inside the columbine high investigation salon news september two three one nine nine nine gein gidget interview august six two zero zero three glasgow greg marilyn manson concert canceled the boulder co daily camera april two three one nine nine nine harris chris marilyn manson likens his new guitar god to a naked woman mtv news feature october two eight two zero zero five manson marilyn the long hard road out of hell harpercollins one nine nine eight isbn zero zero six zero nine eight seven four six four o keefe paula the history of marilyn manson o keefe paula the history of marilyn manson one nine nine seven update part one of two part two of two strauss neil a band to scare parents with longview tx news journal may one eight one nine nine seven wiederhorn jon the argument marilyn manson is the only true artist today mtv com news feature june six two zero zero three quoted from one nine nine seven marilyn manson press kit the antichrist superstar story interview in huh magazine october one nine nine six p three seven reported on november seven one nine nine seven marilyn manson in bowling for columbine associated press report external links official website celebritarian com marilyn manson s artistic site the heirophant news essays on lyrics and symbolism marilyn manson net news online community marilyn manson lyrics marilyn manson at musicbrainz marilyn manson at last fm at discogs com mirrors of the album companion websites at nachtkabarett com comawhite com celebritarian com cruci fictioninspace com thisasvalentinesday com yourburningflag com marilyn manson mortimer adler around one nine six three mortimer jerome adler december two eight one nine zero two june two eight two zero zero one was an american philosopher and author adler was born in new york city after dropping out of high school at age one four he worked as a copy boy for the new york sun wanting to become a journalist he took writing classes at night where he discovered the works of men he would come to call heroes plato aristotle thomas aquinas john locke john stuart mill and others he went on to study philosophy at columbia university though he failed to complete the necessary physical education requirements for a bachelor s degree he stayed at the university and eventually was given a teaching position and was awarded a doctorate in philosophy adler was appointed to the philosophy faculty at the university of chicago in one nine three zero where he met its president robert hutchins with whom he founded the great books of the western world program he founded and served as director of the institute for philosophical research in one nine five two for a long time he was chairman of the board of editors of the encyclop dia britannica and influenced many of the policies of the one five th edition he founded the paedia program a grade school curriculum centered around guided reading and discussion of difficult works as judged for each grade with max weismann he founded the center for the study of the great ideas adler long strove to bring philosophy to the masses and some of his works such as how to read a book became popular bestsellers adler was often aided in his thinking and writing by arthur rubin an old friend from his columbia undergraduate days in his own words unlike many of my contemporaries i never write books for my fellow professors to read i have no interest in the academic audience at all i m interested in joe doakes a general audience can read any book i write and they do adler took a long time in his own life to make up his mind about theological issues in volume five one of the mars hill audio journal two zero zero one ken meyer includes his one nine eight zero interview with adler conducted after how to think about god was published meyer reminisces during that interview i asked him why he had never embraced the christian faith himself he explained that while he had been profoundly influenced by a number of christian thinkers during his life there were moral not intellectual obstacles to his conversion he didn t explain any further meyer goes on to point out that adler finally surrendered to the hound of heaven and made a confession of faith and was baptised only a few years after that interview offering insight into adler s conversion meyer quotes adler from a subsequent one nine nine zero article in christianity magazine my chief reason for choosing christianity was because the mysteries were incomprehensible what s the point of revelation if we could figure it out ourselves if it were wholly comprehensible then it would just be another philosophy in two zero zero zero adler became a roman catholic he can be considered a catholic philosopher due to his lifelong participation in the neo thomist movement despite not being a catholic for most of this time also in his one nine eight zero interview meyer playfully asked adler which single book he would want to take on a desert island adler responded with eleven thucydides the history of the peloponnesian war five or six of plato s dialogues aristotle s ethics the philosopher ought never to try to avoid the duty of making up his mind we ought to desire only that which is good for us not to engage in the pursuit of ideas is to live like ants instead of like men if local civil government is necessary for local civil peace then world civil government is necessary for world peace philosopher at large one nine seven seven works mortimer adler around one nine nine two dialectic one nine two seven the nature of judicial proof an inquiry into the logical legal and empirical aspects of the law of evidence one nine three one with jerome michael diagrammatics one nine three two with maude phelps hutchins crime law and social science one nine three three with jerome michael art and prudence a study in practical philosophy one nine three seven what man has made of man a study of the consequences of platonism and positivism in psychology one nine three seven the philosophy and science of man a collection of texts as a foundation for ethics and politics one nine four zero how to read a book the art of getting a liberal education one nine four zero a dialectic of morals towards the foundations of political philosophy one nine four one how to think about war and peace one nine four four the revolution in education one nine four four with milton mayer the capitalist manifesto one nine five eight with louis o kelso isbn zero eight three seven one eight two one zero seven the idea of freedom a dialectical examination of the conceptions of freedom one nine five eight the new capitalists a proposal to free economic growth from the slavery of savings one nine six one with louis o kelso the idea of freedom a dialectical examination of the controversies about freedom one nine six one great ideas from the great books one nine six one the conditions of philosophy its checkered past its present disorder and its future promise one nine six five how to read a book a guide to reading the great books one nine six six the difference of man and the difference it makes one nine six seven the time of our lives the ethics of common sense one nine seven zero the common sense of politics one nine seven one how to read a book the classic guide to intelligent reading one nine seven two with charles van doren the american testament one nine seven five with william gorman some questions about language a theory of human discourse and its objects one nine seven six philosopher at large an intellectual autobiography one nine seven seven reforming education the schooling of a people and their education beyond schooling one nine seven seven edited by geraldine van doren aristotle for everybody difficult thought made easy one nine seven eight isbn zero six eight four eight three eight two three zero how to think about god a guide for the two zero th century pagan one nine eight zero six great ideas truth goodness beauty liberty equality justice one nine eight one isbn zero zero two zero seven two zero two zero three the angels and us one nine eight two the paideia proposal an educational manifesto one nine eight two how to speak how to listen one nine eight three paideia problems and possibilities a consideration of questions raised by the paideia proposal one nine eight three a vision of the future twelve ideas for a better life and a better society one nine eight four isbn zero zero two five zero zero two eight zero five the paideia program an educational syllabus one nine eight four with members of the paideia group ten philosophical mistakes one nine eight five isbn zero zero two five zero zero three three zero five a guidebook to learning for a lifelong pursuit of wisdom one nine eight six we hold these truths understanding the ideas and ideals of the constitution one nine eight seven reforming education the opening of the american mind one nine eight eight edited by geraldine van doren intellect mind over matter one nine nine zero truth in religion the plurality of religions and the unity of truth one nine nine zero haves without have nots essays for the two one st century on democracy and socialism one nine nine one isbn zero zero two five zero zero five six one eight desires right desert island books mentioned above one nine zero two births two zero zero one deaths two zero th century philosophers american philosophers catholic philosophers columbia alumni world federalists may one one is the one three one st day of the year in the gregorian calendar one three two nd in leap years there are two three four days remaining events three three zero byzantium is renamed nova roma during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as constantinople one five zero two christopher columbus leaves for his fourth and final voyage to the west indies one seven four five war of austrian succession battle of fontenoy at fontenoy french forces defeat an anglo dutch hanoverian army one seven nine two captain robert gray becomes the first documented caucasian to visit the columbia river one eight one two prime minister spencer perceval is assassinated by john bellingham in the lobby of the house of commons london one eight one eight charles xiv of sweden norway is crowned king of sweden one eight five seven indian mutiny indian rebels seize delhi from the british one eight five eight minnesota is admitted as the three two nd u s state one eight six two american civil war the ironclad css virginia is scuttled in the james river northwest of norfolk virginia one eight six four american civil war battle of yellow tavern confederate general jeb stuart is mortally wounded at yellow tavern virginia one eight six seven luxembourg gains its independence one eight nine four pullman strike three thousand pullman palace car company workers go on a wildcat strike in illinois one nine one zero an act of the u s congress establishes glacier national park in montana one nine one one the united states becomes a signatory to the buenos aires copyright treaty one nine two seven the academy of motion picture arts and sciences is founded one nine two eight the first analog tv service is inaugurated by wgy schenectady new york one nine three four dust bowl a strong two day dust storm removes massive amounts of great plains topsoil in one of the worst dust storms of the dust bowl in north america one nine four two william faulkner s collections of short stories go down moses is published one nine four three world war ii american troops invade attu in the aleutian islands in an attempt to expel occupying japanese forces one nine four four world war ii the allies start a major offensive against the axis powers on the gustav line one nine four nine siam changes its name to thailand one nine four nine israel joins the united nations one nine five three the waco tornado an f five tornado hits downtown waco texas killing one one four one nine six zero in buenos aires argentina four israeli mossad agents capture fugitive nazi adolf eichmann living under the assumed name ricardo klement one nine six zero the first contraceptive pill is made available on the market one nine six four terence conran opened the first habitat store on london s fulham road one nine six nine vietnam war operation apache snow near the laos border american and south vietnamese forces fight north vietnamese troops for ap bia mountain aka hill nine three seven or hamburger hill one nine seven zero the lubbock tornado an f five tornado hits downtown lubbock texas killing two six one nine seven three citing government misconduct daniel ellsberg has his charges for his involvement in releasing the pentagon papers to the new york times dismissed one nine seven six the last episode of the tv medical drama marcus welby m d is aired one nine eight one death of reggae legend bob marley one nine eight four a transit of earth from mars takes place no one is there to observe it one nine eight five five six spectators die when a flash fire strikes a football ground during a match in bradford england one nine eight seven klaus barbie goes on trial in lyon for war crimes committed during world war ii one nine eight seven the first heart lung transplant takes place baltimore maryland one nine nine two an election is held in the philippines where general fidel ramos emerged as winner for president one nine nine five in new york city more than one seven zero countries decide to extend the nuclear nonproliferation treaty indefinitely and without conditions one nine nine six after taking off from miami a fire started by improperly handled oxygen canisters in the cargo hold of atlanta bound valujet flight five nine two causes the douglas dc nine to crash in the florida everglades killing all one one zero on board one nine nine seven ibm s deep blue chess playing supercomputer defeats garry kasparov in the last game of the rematch becoming the first computer to beat a world champion chess player one nine nine eight an election is held in the philippines where actor joseph estrada emerged as winner for president one nine nine eight nuclear testing in the rajasthan desert india conducts its first underground nuclear tests violating the nuclear nonproliferation treaty and inflaming its rival neighbor pakistan who already has nuclear weapons one nine nine eight zdtv the official technology television network begins broadcasting it lasts six years before merging with g four to become g four techtv a gaming channel two zero zero zero last performance of the musical cats musical in london s west end two zero zero one british airways finally removes the world art designs from the tails of their aircraft two zero zero three rafael palmeiro becomes the one nine th member of the five zero zero home run club with a home run at the ballpark in arlington texas two zero zero three benvenuto cellini s saliera is stolen from the kunsthistorisches museum in vienna two zero zero four the stockline plastics factory explosion in glasgow kills nine people births one five seven one niwa nagashige japanese warlord d one six three seven one seven two zero karl friedrich hieronymus freiherr von m nchhausen german officer and adventurer d one seven nine seven one seven two two petrus camper dutch anatomist d one seven eight nine one seven five two johann friedrich blumenbach german anthropologist d one eight four zero one seven six three j nos bacsanyi hungarian poet d one eight four five one eight zero one henri labrouste french architect d one eight seven five one eight two seven jean baptiste carpeaux french sculptor and painter d one eight seven five one eight seven one stjepan radic croatian politician d one nine two eight one eight eight one theodore von k rm n hungarian physicist d one nine six three one eight eight seven paul wittgenstein austrian born pianist d one nine six one one eight eight eight irving berlin american composer d one nine eight nine one eight nine zero woodall rodgers mayor of dallas texas d one nine six one one eight nine two margaret rutherford english actress d one nine seven two one eight nine four martha graham american dancer and choreographer d one nine nine one one eight nine five jiddu krishnamurti indian philosopher d one nine eight six one eight nine six josip tolcer slavenski croatian composer d one nine five five one eight nine seven kurt gerron german director d one nine four four one nine zero three charlie gehringer baseball player d one nine nine three one nine zero four salvador dal catalan painter d one nine eight nine one nine zero seven rose aus nder german poet d one nine eight eight one nine one one phil silvers american actor and comedian d one nine eight five one nine one two foster brooks american actor and comedian d two zero zero one one nine one three robert jungk austrian publicist d one nine nine four one nine one six camilo jos cela spanish writer nobel prize laureate d two zero zero two one nine one eight richard feynman american physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine eight eight one nine two one hildegard hamm br cher german politician one nine two four antony hewish english radio astronomer recipient of the nobel prize in physics one nine two seven mort sahl canadian comedian and political commentator one nine two eight yaacov agam israeli sculptor one nine three zero edsger dijkstra dutch computer scientist d two zero zero two one nine three three louis farrakhan american black muslim leader one nine three eight carla bley american musician and composer one nine four zero juan downey chilean video artist d one nine nine three one nine four one graham miles english snooker player one nine four six robert jarvik american physicist and inventor one nine four eight shigeru izumiya japanese folk musician one nine five zero jeremy paxman british journalist and author one nine five two renaud s chan french composer one nine five two mike lupica american sports journalist one nine five two shohreh aghdashloo iranian actress one nine five two frances fisher english born actress one nine five four lubomir stoykov bulgarian journalist and broadcaster one nine five five john destefano jr american politician one nine five six theresa burke canadian journalist one nine five six alex lester british broadcaster one nine five nine martha quinn american television personality one nine six three natasha richardson english born actress one nine six four john parrott english snooker player one nine six five greg dulli american musician one nine six six christoph schneider german drummer rammstein one nine seven two anita hegh australian actress one nine seven seven janne ahonen finnish ski jumper one nine eight one lauren jackson australian basketball player one nine eight one neil tapinos south african top radio newscaster one nine eight two jonathan jackson american actor one nine eight three matt leinart american football player one nine eight three holly valance new zealand born actress and singer one nine eight four andres iniesta spanish football soccer player deaths nine one two leo vi byzantine emperor b eight six six one three zero four mahmud ghazan persian ruler b one two seven one one six one zero matteo ricci italian jesuit missionary b one five five two one six seven two charles seton two nd earl of dunfermline english royalist b one six one five one seven zero eight jules hardouin mansart french architect b one six four six one seven two three jean galbert de campistron french dramatist b one six five six one seven seven seven george pigot baron pigot british governor of madras b one seven one nine one seven seven eight william pitt the elder prime minister of the united kingdom b one seven zero eight one eight one two spencer perceval prime minister of the united kingdom assassinated b one seven six two one eight seven one john herschel british mathematician and astronomer b one seven nine two one eight four eight tom cribb english boxer b one seven eight one one eight eight seven jean baptiste boussingault french chemist b one eight zero two one eight nine one a e becquerel french physicist b one eight two zero one nine one six max reger german composer b one eight seven three one nine one six karl schwarzschild german astronomer and physicist b one eight seven three one nine two zero william dean howells american writer b one eight three seven one nine three four orest khvolson russian physicist b one eight five two one nine five five gilbert jessop english cricketer b one eight seven four one nine six zero john d rockefeller jr american philanthropist b one eight seven four one nine six three herbert spencer gasser american physiologist nobel prize laureate b one eight eight eight one nine seven zero johnny hodges american musician b one nine zero six one nine seven three lex barker american actor b one nine one nine one nine seven six alvar aalto finnish architect b one eight nine eight one nine eight one odd hassel norwegian chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight nine seven one nine eight one bob marley jamaican singer and musician b one nine four five one nine eight five chester gould american cartoonist b one nine zero zero one nine eight six fritz pollard american football player b one eight nine four one nine eight eight kim philby british spy b one nine one two one nine nine six ademir brazilian football player b one nine two two two zero zero one douglas adams english author b one nine five two two zero zero two joseph bonanno italian born gangster b one nine zero five two zero zero three noel redding english bassist the jimi hendrix experience b one nine four five holidays and observances feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church mamertus gengou gangulphus majolus of cluny gauthier of esterp john rochester james walworth francis of girolamo roman empire feast of the lemures see larvae holiday of the city of miskolc since one nine nine two national school nurse day u s external links bbc on this day thisdaythatyear com on may one one today in history may one one may one zero may one two april one one june one one listing of all days maximilian weber april two one one eight six four june one four one nine two zero was a german political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern antipositivistic study of sociology and public administration his major works deal with rationalisation in sociology of religion and government but he also wrote much in the field of economics his most popular work is his essay the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism which began his work in the sociology of religion weber argued that religion was one of the primary reasons for the different ways the cultures of the occident and the orient have developed in another famous work politics as a vocation weber defined the state as an entity which possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force a definition that became pivotal to the study of modern western political science life and career weber was born in erfurt in thuringia germany the eldest of seven children of max weber sr a prominent politician and civil servant and his wife helene fallenstein his younger brother alfred weber was also a sociologist and economist because of his father s engagement with public life weber grew up in a household immersed in politics and his father received a long list of prominent scholars and public figures in his salon at the same time weber proved to be intellectually precocious his christmas present to his parents in one eight seven six when he was thirteen years old took the form of two historical essays entitled about the course of german history with special reference to the positions of the emperor and the pope and about the roman imperial period from constantine to the migration of nations it seemed clear then that weber would apply himself to the social sciences at the age of fourteen he wrote letters studded with references to homer virgil cicero and livy and he had an extended knowledge of goethe spinoza kant and schopenhauer before he entered university studies max weber and his brothers alfred and karl in one eight seven nine in one eight eight two weber enrolled in the university of heidelberg as a law student weber joined his father s duelling fraternity and chose as his major study his father s field of law apart from his work in law he attended lectures in economics and studied medieval history in addition weber read a great deal in theology intermittently he served with the german army in strasbourg in the fall of one eight eight four weber returned to his parents home to study at the university of berlin for the next eight years of his life interrupted only by a term at the university of goettingen and short periods of further military training weber stayed at his parents house first as a student later as a junior barrister in berlin courts and finally as a dozent at the university of berlin in one eight eight six weber passed the examination for referendar comparable to the bar examination in the american legal system throughout the late one eight eight zero s weber continued his study of history he earned his doctorate in law in one eight eight nine by writing a doctoral dissertation on legal history entitled the history of medieval business organisations two years later weber completed his habilitationsschrift the roman agrarian history and its significance for public and private law having thus become a privatdozent weber was now qualified to hold a german professorship in the years between the completion of his dissertation and habilitation however weber also began pondering contemporary social policy in one eight eight eight he had joined the verein f r socialpolitik the new professional association of german economists affiliated with the historical school who saw the role of economics primarily in the solving of the wide ranging social problems of the age and who pioneered large scale statistical studies of economic problems in one eight nine zero the verein established a research program to examine the polish question meaning the influx of foreign farm workers into eastern germany as local labourers migrated to germany s rapidly industrialising cities weber was put in charge of the study and wrote a large part of its results the final report was widely acclaimed as an excellent piece of empirical research and cemented weber s reputation as an expert on agrarian economics max weber and his wife marianne in one eight nine four in one eight nine three he married his distant cousin marianne schnitger later a feminist and author in her own right who after his death in one nine two zero was decisive in collecting and publishing weber s works as books which previously had only appeared as articles in journals in one eight nine four the couple moved to freiburg where weber was appointed professor of economics at freiburg university before accepting the same position at the university of heidelberg in one eight nine seven during the same year max weber sr his father died two months after a severe quarrel with his son leaving the quarrel unresolved following this incident weber become increasingly prone to nervousness and insomnia making it more and more difficult for him to lecture and fulfill his duties as a professor his condition forced him reduce his teaching and give his last course in the fall of one eight nine nine unfinished after months in a sanatorium in summer and fall of one nine zero zero max weber and his wife marianne travelled to italy at the end of the year not to return to heidelberg until april one nine zero two max weber in one nine one seven after his immense productivity in the early one eight nine zero s he did not publish a single paper between early one eight nine eight and the end of the year one nine zero two and finally resigned as a professor in the fall of one nine zero three however being freed of this burden he accepted a position as associate editor of the archives for social science and social welfare next to his colleagues edgar jaff and werner sombart in one nine zero four max weber began to publish some of his most seminal papers in this journal notably his essay the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism it became his most famous work and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of cultures and religions on the development of economic systems incidentally this essay was the only one of his works that was published as a book during his lifetime in one nine one two weber tried to organise a left wing political party to combine social democrats and liberals this attempt was unsuccessful because many liberals feared social democratic revolutionary ideals during the first world war weber served for a time as director of the army hospitals in heidelberg in one nine one five and one nine one six he was a member of commissions that tried to retain german supremacy in belgium and poland after the war weber was a german imperialist and wanted to enlarge the german empire to the east and the west he became a member of the worker and soldier council of heidelberg in one nine one eight in one nine one eight weber became a consultant to the german armistice commission at the treaty of versailles and to the commission charged with drafting the weimar constitution he argued in favour of inserting article four eight into the weimar constitution this article was later used by adolf hitler to institute rule by decree thereby allowing his government to suppress opposition and obtain dictatorial powers from one nine one eight weber resumed teaching first at the university of vienna then in one nine one nine at the university of munich in munich he headed the first german university institute of sociology but he never held a personal sociology appointment in his life weber left politics due to right wing agitation in one nine one nine and one nine two zero many colleagues and students in munich despised him for his speeches and left wing attitude during the german revolution of one nine one eight and one nine one nine right wing students protested at his home max weber died of pneumonia in munich on june one four one nine two zero it should be noted that many of his works famous today were collected revised and published posthumously significant interpretations of weber s writings were produced by such sociological luminaries as talcott parsons and c wright mills weber and german politics max weber described himself as a left wing liberal he can be regarded as a social liberal one of his one nine th century liberal views was his staunch nationalism based on classical republicanism and that a nation with freedom for individuals is maintained by the virtues and character of its citizens he also had a strong belief in the benefits of capitalism the social element in his thinking is that he wanted to turn the members of the german working class into responsible citizens with virtue and character this means that the workers must be educated by giving them political responsibility weber started his career as a german celebrity in one eight nine four max weber had a large influence on german policy towards the germanisation of eastern germany he proposed closing the border to polish workers from russia and austria hungary in his speech at the v evangelical social congress in one eight nine four he feared that germany would eventually lose these eastern territories he advocated the recolonisation of empty lands on the large estates of the prussian junkers by german settlers from the west who would start small farms the congress was mainly against weber s demands because it supported the prussian junkers but weber influenced his friends and allies including the pastor friedrich naumann who later became an influential politician and one of the founders of the liberal deutsche demokratische partei after ww i in one nine zero five weber changed his mind he was impressed by the attitude of the russian liberal party which wanted to change russian nationalism by accepting ethnic minorities as russians weber wanted the germans to absorb other ethnic groups especially the poles who should have become a part of a huge german empire weber thought that the only way that german culture would survive was by creating an empire power politics was to be the basis for defending the german culture and economy and to prevent it from becoming a powerless country like switzerland weber disliked the empty nationalist ideas of many german nationalists he thought that power alone was not an acceptable goal that politicians should stand for certain ideas but that they need a strong will to power to win this idea of the will to power is originally from nietzsche who was very popular in the germany of the one eight nine zero s but nietzsche meant a strictly individual will to power and not a will to power to make a collective like germany stronger as advocated by weber weber wanted germany to strengthen its economy by creating a huge empire he was afraid of the huge world population that would lead to german unemployment in the long run and believed that the only way to support the german workers was to create an empire he was afraid that an end would come to economic expansion and that countries would protect their own economy with tariff walls he did not foresee the technological advances and the profits of international trade for the national economy in the twentieth century weber wanted the end of the power of the nobility he despised the red scare of the middle classes because the middle classes let the nobility rule in his opinion the socialist parties were harmless because they would turn into middle classes in due time the nobility was only holding germany up to become a major power in the world in his opinion which he expressed in the media and his politics the middle classes should have united against the aristocracy this led to a lot of dismay in right wing germany weber was against the student fraternities which idolised military ranks he wanted to stop the agrarian lobby damaging the regulations in the stock exchange he was especially against the buying of titles and noble land by the upper class of the bourgeoisie weber wanted unlimited economic growth not military ranks but ability and talent should be important for one s prospects money should be put into a company and not wasted in a useless piece of land weber feared the inefficiency of the economy in roman catholic non puritanical countries and was afraid that germany would become like austria ver sterreicherung deutschlands weber was against the german annexation plans during the first world war but he was also against a dishonourable peace he didn t believe that germany could dominate the ethnic minorities after the war was won but that germany should work together with german dominated nations and make them enthusiastic about german imperialism weber wrote a series of newspaper articles in one nine one seven entitled parliament and government in a re constructed germany these articles called for democratic reforms to the one eight seven one constitution of the german empire weber argued that germany s political problems were essentially a problem of leadership otto von bismarck had created a constitution that preserved his own power but limited the ability of another powerful leader to succeed him because of the limited experience of the political establishment with decision making in january one nine one nine weber s brother was a founding member of the german democratic party weber advocated democracy as a means for selecting strong leaders weber viewed democracy as a form of charismatic leadership where the demagogue imposes his will on the masses for this reason the european left wing politics is highly critical of weber for albeit unwittingly preparing the intellectual groundwork for the leadership position of adolf hitler like nietzsche weber was strongly anti socialist he despised the anti nationalist stance of the marxist parties weber thought that the socialist society was impossible he was surprised that the communists in russia who dissolved the old elite and bureaucracy could survive for more than half a year weber died in one nine two zero it is unknown what his opinion about communism would have been after its survival it would have probably been very negative given weber s emphasis on capitalist freedom and the german nation his view on the social democratic party was different he thought that the social democrats would become liberals after a while and get rid of their revolutionary ideals weber wanted to make the working classes enthusiastic about germany and german imperialism but later on he realized that this was impossible later on he changed his mind and realized that the imperial expansion of germany was not in the interest of the working classes and only strengthened the power of the german establishment only the middle classes could make germany into a huge empire weber wanted to unify germany and to give the german working classes co responsibility in the german government but not out of an ideal of equality he was against compassion he wanted to create responsibility hard work and efficiency should bring wealth for successful members of the working classes the socialist society was impossible according to him making an end to capitalism and enlarging of the bureaucracy would only lead to more enslavement of the workers the only possible way for salvation would be the capitalist system and the application of new techniques weber openly supported strikes and labour unions while right wing germans were very opposed to this weber was very opposed to the conservatives that tried to hold back the democratic liberation of the working classes weber further dismayed the left when one of his students carl schmitt one eight eight eight one nine eight five incorporated weber s theories into a corpus of nazi legal propaganda weber s personal and professional letters show considerable disgust for the anti semitism of his day it is doubtful that weber would have supported the nazis had he lived long enough to see their doings weber was very critical of german conservatives and the german emperor before the first world war he believed that emperor william ii was a weak leader who with the conservatives were destroying germany s diplomatic position the one nine zero eight daily telegraph interview of william ii especially was a great disappointment in his view during the first world war weber was very critical of the german government he thought that the right wing alldeutscher verband and the german army leaders were making germany lose the war he was against the undemocratic views of the right wing which alienated the working class and resulted in strikes and revolution he was opposed to unlimited submarine warfare which resulted in a declaration of war from the united states weber was opposed to the request of the majority of the german parliament for peace negotiations and strongly advocated continuing the war in many newspaper articles at the same time the right wing supported by the army was agitating against the parliament s decision when he found that peace was requested because of the near collapse of austria which had been kept secret from the press he became enraged for the army had known about the coming collapse of austria weber strongly denounced the german emperor and the german army and advocated peace in a speech at a mass meeting in munich accompanied by a social democratic speaker this speech led to sympathy among socialists for max weber weber openly advocated resistance to the allies in one nine one eight he hoped that the battle would go on until the whole of germany was occupied and wanted to defend the eastern cities of thorn danzig and reichenberg against the poles and the czechs he tried to win over the working classes who didn t want to continue the war and hoped for international revolution weber was against the revolution of one nine one eight because he feared that a strong right wing reaction would follow he tactically called himself a socialist but the revolting workers regarded him as old fashioned president ebert of germany wanted him as minister of interior in november one nine one eight but he later chose hugo preuss ebert then wanted weber as ambassador in vienna but weber s anti government attitude in speeches made this impossible in early one nine one nine he lost a possible seat in the german parliament because of his alienation from the revolution in one nine one eight weber was a member of the german delegation during the peace negotiations in versailles weber first wanted germany not to sign the treaty but he feared that this would only make things worse for germany after a while and doubted for months what would be the best solution signing or not in america weber s politics are less well known apologists claim that weber s distinction between evaluative politics and value neutral science shields his sociology from the harsh realpolitik of his personal convictions the debate over weber s politics continues to this day achievements max weber was along with karl marx vilfredo pareto and mile durkheim one of the founders of modern sociology whereas pareto and durkheim following comte worked in the positivist tradition weber created and worked like werner sombart his friend and then the most famous representative of german sociology in the antipositivist idealist and hermeneutic tradition those works started the antipositivistic revolution in social sciences which stressed the difference between the social sciences and natural sciences especially due to human social actions which weber differentiated into traditional affectional value rational and instrumental weber s early work was related to industrial sociology but he is most famous for his later work on the sociology of religion and sociology of government max weber began his studies of rationalisation in the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism in which he shows how the aims of certain protestant denominations particularly calvinism shifted towards the rational means of economic gain as a way of expressing that they had been blessed the rational roots of this doctrine he argued soon grew incompatible with and larger than the religious and so the latter were eventually discarded weber continues his investigation into this matter in later works notably in his studies on bureaucracy and on the classifications of authority in these works he alludes to an inevitable move towards rationalisation sociology of religion weber s work on the sociology of religion started with the essay the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism and continued with the analysis of the religion of china confucianism and taoism the religion of india the sociology of hinduism and budhism and ancient judaism his work on other religions was interrupted by his sudden death in one nine two zero which prevented him from following ancient judaism with studies of psalms book of jacob talmudic jewry early christianity and islam his three main themes were the effect of religious ideas on economic activities the relation between social stratification and religious ideas and the distinguishable characteristics of western civilization his goal was to find reasons for the different development paths of the cultures of the occident and the orient in the analysis of his findings weber maintained that puritan and more widely christian religious ideas had had a major impact on the development of the economic system of europe and the united states but noted that they were not the only factors in this development other notable factors mentioned by weber included the rationalism of scientific pursuit merging observation with mathematics science of scholarship and jurisprudence rational systematisation of government administration and economic enterprise in the end the study of the sociology of religion according to weber merely explored one phase of the emancipation from magic that disenchantment of the world that he regarded as an important distinguishing aspect of western culture the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism cover of one of many editions of the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism weber s essay the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism die protestantische ethik und der geist des kapitalismus is his most famous work it is argued that this work should not be viewed as a detailed study of protestantism but rather as an introduction into weber s later works especially his studies of interaction between various religious ideas and economic behaviour in the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism weber puts forward the thesis that the puritan ethic and ideas influenced the development of capitalism religious devotion has usually been accompanied by rejection of mundane affairs including economic pursuit why was that not the case with protestantism weber addresses that paradox in his essay he defines the spirit of capitalism as the ideas and habits that favour the rational pursuit of economic gain weber points out that such a spirit is not limited to western culture when considered as the attitude of individuals but that such individuals heroic entrepreneurs as he calls them could not by themselves establish a new economic order capitalism among the tendencies identified by weber were the greed for profit with minimum effort the idea that work was a curse and a burden to be avoided especially when it exceeded what was enough for modest life in order that a manner of life well adapted to the peculiarities of capitalism wrote weber could come to dominate others it had to originate somewhere and not in isolated individuals alone but as a way of life common to whole groups of man after defining the spirit of capitalism weber argues that there are many reasons to look for its origins in the religious ideas of the reformation many observers like william petty montesquieu henry thomas buckle john keats and others have commented on the affinity between protestantism and the development of the commercial spirit weber showed that certain types of protestantism favoured rational pursuit of economic gain and worldly activities which had been given positive spiritual and moral meaning it was not the goal of those religious ideas but rather a byproduct the inherent logic of those doctrines and the advice based upon them both directly and indirectly encouraged planning and self denial in the pursuit of economic gain a common illustration is in the cobbler hunched over his work who devotes his entire effort to the praise of god weber stated that he abandoned research into protestantism because his colleague ernst troeltsch a professional theologian had initiated work on the book the social teachings of the christian churches and sects another reason for weber s decision was that that essay has provided the perspective for a broad comparison of religion and society which he continued in his later works the phrase work ethic used in modern commentary is a derivative of the protestant ethic discussed by weber it was adopted when the idea of the protestant ethic was generalised to apply to japanese jews and other non christians the religion of china confucianism and taoism the religion of china confucianism and taoism was weber s second major work on the sociology of religion weber focused on those aspects of chinese society that were different from those of western europe and especially contrasted with puritanism and posed a question why capitalism did not develop in china in hundred schools of thought warring states period he concentrated on the early period of chinese history during which the major chinese schools of thoughts confucianism and taoism came to the fore by two zero zero bc the chinese state had developed from a loose federation of feudal states into a unified empire with patrimonal rule as described in the warring states period as in europe chinese cities had been founded as forts or leaders residences and were the centres of trade and crafts however they never received political autonomy and its citizens had no special political rights or privileges this is due to the strength of kinship ties which stems from religious beliefs in ancestral spirits also the guilds competed against each other for the favour of the emperor never uniting in order to fight for more rights therefore the residents of chinese cities never constitute a separate status class like the residents of european cities early unification of the state and the establishment of central officialdom meant that the focus of the power struggle changed from the distribution of land to the distribution of offices which with their fees and taxes were the most prominent source of income for the holder who often pocketed up to five zero of the revenue the imperial government depended on the services of those officials not on the service of the military knights as in europe weber emphasised that confucianism tolerated a great number of popular cults without any effort to systematise them into a religious doctrine instead of metaphysical conjectures it taught adjustment to the world the superior man literati should stay away from the pursuit of wealth though not from wealth itself therefore becoming a civil servant was preferred to becoming a businessman and granted a much higher status chinese civilisation had no religious prophecy nor a powerful priestly class the emperor was the high priest of the state religion and the supreme ruler but popular cults were also tolerated however the political ambitions of their priests were curtailed this forms a sharp contrast with medieval europe where the church curbed the power of secular rulers and the same faith was professed by rulers and common folk alike according to confucianism the worship of great deities is the affair of the state while ancestral worship is required of all and the multitude of popular cults is tolerated confucianism tolerated magic and mysticism as long as they were useful tools for controlling the masses it denounced them as heresy and suppressed them when they threatened the established order hence the opposition to buddhism note that in this context confucianism can be referred to as the state cult and taoism as the popular religion weber argued that while several factors favoured the development of a capitalist economy long periods of peace improved control of rivers population growth freedom to acquire land and move outside of native community free choice of occupation they were outweighed by others mostly stemming from religion technical inventions were opposed on the basis of religion in the sense that the disturbance of ancestral spirits was argued to lead to bad luck and adjusting oneself to the world was preferred to changing it sale of land was often prohibited or made very difficult extended kinship groups based on the religious importance of family ties and ancestry protected its members against economic adversities therefore discouraging payment of debts work discipline and rationalisation of work processes those kinship groups prevented the development of an urban status class and hindered developments towards legal institutions codification of laws and the rise of a lawyer class according to weber confucianism and puritanism represent two comprehensive but mutually exclusive types of rationalisation each attempting to order human life according to certain ultimate religious beliefs both encouraged sobriety and self control and were compatible with the accumulation of wealth however confucianism aimed at attaining and preserving a cultured status position and used as means adjustment to the world education self perfection politeness and familial piety puritanism used those means in order to create a tool of god creating a person that would serve the god and master the world such intensity of belief and enthusiasm for action were alien to the aesthetic values of confucianism therefore weber states that it was the difference in prevailing mentality that contributed to the development of capitalism in the west and the absence of it in china the religion of india the sociology of hinduism and buddhism the religion of india the sociology of hinduism and buddhism was weber s third major work on the sociology of religion in this work he deals with the structure of indian society with the orthodox doctrines of hinduism and the heterodox doctrines of buddhism with modifications brought by the influence of popular religiosity and finally with the impact of religious beliefs on the secular ethic of indian society the indian social system was shaped by the concept of caste it directly linked religious belief and the segregation of society into status groups weber describes the caste system consisting of the brahmins priests the kshatriyas warriors the vaisyas merchants and the shudras labourers then he describes the spread of the caste system in india due to conquests the marginalisation of certain tribes and the subdivision of castes weber pays special attention to brahmins and analyses why they occupied the highest place in indian society for many centuries with regard to the concept of dharma he concludes that the indian ethical pluralism is very different both from the universal ethic of confucianism and christianity he notes that the caste system prevented the development of urban status groups next weber analyses the hindu religious beliefs including asceticism and the hindu world view the brahman orthodox doctrines the rise and fall of buddhism in india the hindu restoration and the evolution of the guru weber asks the question whether religion had any influence upon the daily round of mundane activities and if so how it impacted economic conduct he notes the idea of an immutable world order consisting of the eternal cycles of rebirth and the deprecation of the mundane world and finds that the traditional caste system supported by the religion slowed economic development in other words the spirit of the caste system militated against an indigenous development of capitalism weber concludes his study of society and religion in india by combining his findings with his previous work on china he notes that the beliefs tended to interpret the meaning of life as otherworldly or mystical experience that the intellectuals tended to be apolitical in their orientation and that the social world was fundamentally divided between the educated whose lives were oriented toward the exemplary conduct of a prophet or wise man and the uneducated masses who remained caught in their daily rounds and believed in magic in asia no messianic prophecy appeared that could have given plan and meaning to the everyday life of educated and uneducated alike he argues that it was the messianic prophecies in the countries of the near east as distinguished from the prophecy of the asiatic mainland that prevented the countries of the occident from following the paths of development marked out by china and india and his next work ancient judaism was an attempt to prove this theory ancient judaism in ancient judaism his fourth major work on the sociology of religion weber attempts to explain the combination of circumstances that was responsible for the early differences between oriental and occidental religiosity it is especially visible when the interworldly asceticism developed by western christianity is contrasted with mystical contemplation of the kind developed in india weber noted that some aspects of christianity sought to conquer and change the world rather than withdraw from its imperfections this fundamental characteristic of christianity when compared to far eastern religions stems originally from the ancient jewish prophecy stating his reasons for investigating ancient judaism weber wrote that anyone who is heir to the traditions of modern european civilisation will approach the problems of universal history with a set of questions which to him appear both inevitable and legitimate these questions will turn on the combination of circumstances which has brought about the cultural phenomena that are uniquely western and that have at the same time a universal cultural significance for the jew the social order of the world was conceived to have been turned into the opposite of that promised for the future but in the future it was to be overturned so that jewry could be once again dominant the world was conceived as neither eternal nor unchangeable but rather as being created its present structure was a product of man s actions above all those of the jews and god s reaction to them hence the world was a historical product designed to give way to the truly god ordained order there existed in addition a highly rational religious ethic of social conduct it was free of magic and all forms of irrational quest for salvation it was inwardly worlds apart from the path of salvation offered by asiatic religions to a large extent this ethic still underlies contemporary middle eastern and european ethic world historical interest in jewry rests upon this fact thus in considering the conditions of jewry s evolution we stand at a turning point of the whole cultural development of the west and the middle east weber analyses the interaction between the bedouins the cities the herdsmen and the peasants including the conflicts between them and the rise and fall of the united monarchy the time of the united monarchy appears as a mere episode dividing the period of confederacy since the exodus and the settlement of the israelites in canaan from the period of political decline following the division of the monarchy this division into periods has major implications for religious history since the basic tenets of judaism were formulated during the time of israelite confederacy and after the fall of the united monarchy they became the basis of the prophetic movement that left a lasting impression on the western civilisation weber discusses the organisation of the early confederacy the unique qualities of the israelites relations to yahweh the influence of foreign cults types of religious ecstasy and the struggle of the priests against ecstasy and idol worship he goes on to describe the times of the division of the monarchy social aspects of biblical prophecy the social orientation of the prophets demagogues and pamphleteers ecstasy and politics and the ethic and theodicity of the prophets weber notes that judaism not only fathered christianity and islam but was crucial to the rise of modern occident state as its influence were as important to those of hellenistic and roman cultures reinhard bendix summarising ancient judaism writes that free of magic and esoteric speculations devoted to the study of law vigilant in the effort to do what was right in the eyes of the lord in the hope of a better future the prophets established a religion of faith that subjected man s daily life to the imperatives of a divinely ordained moral law in this way ancient judaism helped create the moral rationalism of western civilisation sociology of politics and government in the sociology of politics and government weber s most significant essay is probably his politics as a vocation therein weber unveils the definition of the state that has become so pivotal to western social thought that the state is that entity which possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force which it may nonetheless elect to delegate as it sees fit politics is to be understood as any activity in which the state might engage itself in order to influence the relative distribution of force politics thus comes to be understood as deriving from power a politician must not be a man of the true christian ethic understood by weber as being the ethic of the sermon on the mount that is to say the injunction to turn the other cheek an adherent of such an ethic ought rather to be understood to be a saint for it is only saints according to weber that can appropriately follow it the political realm is no realm for saints a politician ought to marry the ethic of ultimate ends and the ethic of responsibility and must possess both a passion for his avocation and the capacity to distance himself from the subject of his exertions the governed weber distinguished three pure types of political leadership domination and authority charismatic domination familial and religious traditional domination patriarchs patrimonalism feudalism and legal domination modern law and state bureaucracy in his view every historical relation between rulers and ruled contained elements that can be analysed on the basis of this tripartite distinction he also notes that the instability of charismatic authority inevitably forces it to routinize into a more structured form of authority likewise he notes that in a pure type of traditional rule sufficient resistance to a master can lead to a traditional revolution thus he alludes to an inevitable move towards a rational legal structure of authority utilising a bureaucratic structure thus this theory can be sometimes viewed as part of the social evolutionism theory this ties to his broader concept of rationalisation by suggesting the inevitability of a move in this direction weber is also well known for his study of the bureaucratisation of society the rational ways in which formal social organisations apply the ideal type characteristics of a bureaucracy many aspects of modern public administration go back to him and a classic hierarchically organised civil service of the continental type is called weberian civil service although this is only one ideal type of public administration and government described in his magnum opus economy and society one nine two two and one that he did not particularly like himself he only thought it particularly efficient and successful in this work weber outlines a description which has become famous of rationalisation of which bureaucratisation is a part as a shift from a value oriented organisation and action traditional authority and charismatic authority to a goal oriented organisation and action legal rational authority the result according to weber is a polar night of icy darkness in which increasing rationalisation of human life traps individuals in an iron cage of rule based rational control weber s bureaucracy studies also led him to his analysis correct as it would turn out that socialism in russia would due to the abolishing of the free market and its mechanisms lead to over bureaucratisation evident for example in the shortage economy rather than to the withering away of the state as karl marx had predicted would happen in communist society economics while max weber is best known and recognised today as one of the leading scholars and founders of modern sociology he also accomplished much in the field of economics however during his life no such distinctions really existed from the point of view of the economists he is a representative of the youngest german historical school his most valued contributions to the field of economics is his famous work the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism this is a seminal essay on the differences between religions and the relative wealth of their followers weber s work is parallel to sombart s treatise of the same phenomenon which however located the rise of capitalism in judaism weber s other main contribution to economics as well as to social sciences in general is his work on methodology his theories of verstehen known as understanding or interpretative sociology and of antipositivism known as humanistic sociology the doctrine of interpretative sociology is as well known as it is controversial and debated this thesis states that social economic and historical research can never be fully inductive or descriptive as one must always approach it with a conceptual apparatus this apparatus weber identified as the ideal type the idea can be summarised as follows an ideal type is formed from characteristics and elements of the given phenomena but it is not meant to correspond to all of the characteristics of any one particular case it is interesting to compare weber s ideal type to ferdinand toennies concept of the normal type weber conceded that employing ideal types was an abstraction but claimed that it was nonetheless essential if one were to understand any particular social phenomena because unlike physical phenomena they involve human behaviour which must be interpreted by ideal types this together with his antipositivistic argumentation can be viewed as the methodological justification for the assumption of the rational economic man homo economicus max weber formulated a three component theory of stratification with social class social status and party or politicals as conceptually distinct elements social class is based on economically determined relationship to the market owner renter employee etc status is based on non economical qualities like honour prestige and religion party refers to affiliations in the political domain all three dimensions have consequences for what weber called life chances weber s other contributions to economics were several these include a seriously researched economic history of roman agrarian society his work on the dual roles of idealism and materialism in the history of capitalism in his economy and society one nine one four which present weber s criticisms or according to some revisions of some aspects of marxism finally his thoroughly researched general economic history one nine two three is perhaps the historical school at its empirical best works weber wrote his books in german original titles printed after his death one nine two zero are most likely compilations of his unfinished works note the collected essays form in titles many translations are made of parts or selections of various german originals and the names of the translations often do not reveal what part of german work they contain for an extensive list of max weber s works see list of max weber works attacks from conservatives despite or perhaps because of weber s influence on modern economics and sociology aspects of his work have been criticised during his own lifetime weber was critical of the neoclassical economic approaches of authors such as carl menger and friedrich von weiser whose formal approach was quite different from his own historical sociology the work of these authors eventually led to the creation of the austrian school of economics and it is not surprising that today those influenced by that school continue to take issue with weber s work this includes followers of friedrich von hayek and more recently authors daniel yergin and joseph stanislaw in their pro globalization book commanding heights the battle for the world economy they attack weber for claiming that only protestantism could lead to a work ethic pointing to the tiger economies of southeastern asia on the other hand ludwig von mises hayek s teacher and a key figure in the austrian school was sympathetic to weber s work and another of mises s pupils the philosopher alfred schutz was substantially influenced by weber at least as much as by austrian school thought similarly weber s protestant ethic thesis has been criticised by many historians of the period in his biography of benjamin franklin for instance walter isaacson dismissed weber s work on the protestant ethic as a marxist argument despite weber s criticism of many of marx s ideas modernly weber s blending of economics with calvinism has been satirized by such works as america s keenest city by mongo references weber s work is generally quoted according to the critical gesamtausgabe collected works edition which is published by mohr siebeck in t bingen germany bendix reinhard one nine six zero max weber an intellectual portrait doubleday isbn zero five two zero zero three one nine four kaesler dirk one nine eight nine max weber an introduction to his life and work university of chicago press isbn zero two two six four two five six zero six mommsen wolfgang one nine five nine one nine seven four max weber and german politics one eight nine zero one nine two zero j c b mohr paul siebeck isbn zero two two six five three three nine nine nine roth guenther two zero zero one max webers deutsch englische familiengeschichte j c b mohr paul siebeck isbn three one six one four seven five five seven seven weber marianne one nine two six one nine eight eight max weber a biography new brunswick transaction books isbn zero four seven one nine two three three three eight richard swedberg max weber as an economist and as a sociologist american journal of economics and sociology richard swedberg max weber and the idea of economic sociology princeton princeton university press isbn zero six nine one zero seven zero one three x radkau joachim two zero zero five max weber the most important weber biography on max weber s life and torments since marianne weber see also civil religion political religion liberalism contributions to liberal theory list of economists list of sociologists speeches of weber spirit of capitalism church sect typology tripartite classification of authority external links texts of weber works large collection of the german original texts large collection of english translations another collection of english translations a comprehensive collection of english translations and secondary literature english translations of many of weber s works unfortunately merged into one very long unformatted file about weber biography entry and link section weber on ideal types max weber the person more of weber on ideal types an essay on max weber s view of objectivity in social science max weber on bureaucracy a study guide developed for a political theory course which draws from several works by or about weber thoughts on bureaucracy max weber on capitalism as above but on capitalism some of weber concepts in the form of a list max weber s homepage a site for undergraduates images dirk kaesler s max weber gallery max weber one eight six four births one nine two zero deaths sociology max horkheimer front left theodor adorno front right and j rgen habermas in the background right in one nine six five at heidelberg max horkheimer february one four one eight nine five july seven one nine seven three was a jewish german philosopher and sociologist known especially as the founder and guiding thinker of the frankfurt school of critical theory biography horkheimer was born in stuttgart to an assimilated jewish family due to parental pressure he did not initially pursue an academic career leaving secondary school at the age of sixteen to work in his father s factory after world war i however he enrolled in m nchen where he studied philosophy and psychology he subsequently moved to frankfurt am main where he studied under hans cornelius there he would meet theodor adorno many years his junior with whom he would strike a lasting friendship and one of the most fruitful collaborative efforts in contemporary philosophy in one nine two five he was habilitated with a dissertation on kant s critique of judgement as mediation between practical and theoretical philosophy under cornelius direction he was appointed as privatdozent the following year when the institute for social research s direction became vacant in one nine three zero he was elected for the position among the founding members of the institute were also friedrich pollock leo lowenthal and erich fromm the following year publication of the institute s zeitschrift f r sozialforschung was begun with horkheimer as its editor besides the institute s members contributors included adorno and walter benjamin in one nine three three his venia legendi was revoked by the nazi government and the institute closed horkheimer emigrated to switzerland from where he would leave for the usa the following year the generous offer of columbia university to host the institute in exile allowed for the continued publication of the institute s journal in one nine four zero horkheimer received american citizenship and moved to pacific palisades california where his collaboration with adorno would yield the dialectic of enlightenment unlike adorno horkheimer was never a prolific writer and in the following twenty years he published little although he continued to edit studies in philosophy and social science as a continuation to the zeitschrift in one nine four nine he returned to frankfurt where the institute was reopened the following year between one nine five one and one nine five three horkheimer was rektor of the university of frankfurt he would return to america between one nine five four and one nine five nine to lecture at chicago he retired in one nine five five he remained an important figure until his death in n rnberg in one nine seven three philosophy and writings eclipse of reason horkheimer s book eclipse of reason deals with the concept of reason within the history of western philosophy horkheimer defines true reason as rationality he details the difference between objective and subjective reason and states that we have moved from objective to subjective objective reason deals with universal truths that dictate that an action is either right or wrong subjective reason takes into account the situation and social norms actions that produce the best situation for the individual are reasonable according to subjective reason the movement from one type of reason to the other occurred when thought could no longer accommodate these objective truths or when it judged them to be delusions under subjective reason concepts lose their meaning all concepts must be strictly functional to be reasonable because subjective reason rules the ideals of a society for example democratic ideals become dependent on the interests of the people instead of being dependent on objective truths writing in one nine four six horkheimer was strongly influenced by the nazi legacy in germany he outlined how the nazis had been able to make their agenda appear reasonable but also issued a warning about the possibility of this happening again horkheimer believed that the ills of modern society are caused by the misuse and misunderstanding of reason if people use true reason to critique their societies they will be able to identify and solve their problems select bibliography authority and the family one nine three six critique of instrumental reason one nine six seven dawn decline dialectic of enlightenment one nine four seven with theodor adorno eclipse of reason one nine four seven egoism and the freedom movement the authoritarian state the longing for the totally other external links max horkheimer internet archive contains complete texts of enlightenment as mass deception one nine four four theism and atheism one nine six three and feudal lord customer and specialist one nine six four short description of eclipse of reason one eight nine five births one nine seven three deaths two zero th century philosophers continental philosophers frankfurt school german philosophers marxist theorists social philosophy german sociologists the union of myanmar also known as the union of burma by bodies and states who do not recognise the military junta s right to rule is the largest country in geographical area in mainland southeast asia it is bordered by the people s republic of china on the north laos on the east thailand on the south east bangladesh on the west and india on the north west with the andaman sea to the south and the bay of bengal to the south west there are over two zero zero zero kilometers one two four three mi of coast line the country was ruled by a military junta led by general ne win from one nine six two to one nine eight eight and its political system today remains under the tight control of its military government since one nine nine two led by senior general than shwe origin and history of the name the name myanmar comes from the two words myan which translates swift and mar which translates strong it also refers to a resident or citizen of myanmar or more specifically a person from the majority bamar ethnic group in one nine eight nine the military junta officially changed the english version of its name from burma to myanmar along with changes in the english versions of many place names in the country such as its former capital city from rangoon to yangon the official name of the country in the burmese language myanmar did not change however the renaming proved to be politically controversial seen by some as being less inclusive of minorities and linguistically unscholarly some deny that the military junta had authority to officially change the name in english in the first place acceptance of the name change in the english speaking world has been slow with many people still using the name burma to refer to the country major news organisations like the bbc and western governments including those of the united states and the united kingdom still refer to it as burma history in a series of wars one eight two four one eight two six one eight five one one eight five two and one eight eight five one eight eight six burma lost territory to the british and became a province of india under british rule on april one one nine three seven burma became self administered colony independent of the indian administration during world war ii burma became a major front in the south east asian theatre after initial successes by the japanese in the burma campaign which saw them expel the british from most of burma the british fought back and by july one nine four five had retaken the country burmese fought for both sides in the war the burma one st division the kachin levies the karen rifles and in other formations such as the american kachin rangers fought for the allies and the burmese national army under the command of aung san fought for the japanese a british one eight two five lithography of shwedagon pagoda on january four one nine four eight at zero four two zero am the nation became sovereign as the union of burma with u nu as the first prime minister democratic rule ended in one nine six two with a military coup d tat led by general ne win ne win ruled for nearly two six years bringing in harsh reforms in one nine nine zero free elections were held for the first time in almost three zero years but the landslide victory of the nld the party of aung san suu kyi was voided by the military which refused to step down one of the top figures in burmese history in the two zero th century is army founder and freedom figure general aung san a student turned activist whose daughter is one nine nine one nobel peace laureate and worldwide peace freedom and democracy icon aung san suu kyi of the nld now under house arrest the third most recognised burmese figure in the world is u thant who was un secretary general for two terms and highly respected throughout united nations history in november two zero zero five the military junta announced that the national capital would be moved from yangon to pyinmana politics map of myanmar myanmar has been under military rule since one nine six two the current head of state is senior general than shwe who holds the title of chairman of the state peace and development council his appointed prime minister was khin nyunt until one nine october two zero zero four when he was replaced by gen soe win almost all cabinet offices are held by military officers us sanctions against the military government have been largely ineffective due to loopholes in the sanctions and the willingness of mainly asian business to continue investing in myanmar and to initiate new investments particularly in natural resource extraction for example the french oil company total s a is able to buy myanmar s oil despite the country being under sanctions although total formerly totalfinaelf is the subject of a lawsuit in french and belgian courts for alleged connections to human rights abuses along the gas pipeline jointly owned by total the american company unocal and the myanmar military one the united states clothing and shoe industry could also be affected if all the sanctions loopholes were to be closed although they were already subject to boycotts prior to us sanctions imposed in june of two zero zero two at the same time the us led sanctions are criticized by many for their adverse effects mainly on the civilian population rather than on the military rulers two a government slogan at mandalay palace stating tatmadaw and the people cooperate and crush all those harming the union the regime is accused of having a questionable human rights record and the human rights situation in the country is a subject of concern for a wide number of international organizations there is no independent judiciary in myanmar and political opposition to the military government is not tolerated internet access is highly restricted the state uses software based filtering from us company fortinet to limit the materials citizens can access on line including free email services free web hosting and most political opposition and pro democracy pages in one nine eight eight protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression were violently repressed on august eight of that year the military opened fire on demonstrators in what has come to be known as the eight eight eight eight uprising a partial list of victims is here nonetheless the one nine eight eight protests paved way for the one nine nine zero elections these were however invalidated by the military aung san suu kyi whose opposition party won eight three of parliamentary seats in a one nine nine zero national election but who was prevented from becoming prime minister by the military has earned international praise as an activist for the return of democratic rule to myanmar she won the nobel peace prize in one nine nine one she has been repeatedly placed under house arrest although in recent years the regime has been willing to enter into negotiations with her and her party the national league for democracy she was placed under house arrest on may three one two zero zero three following an attack on her convoy in northern myanmar her house arrest was extended for yet another year in late november of two zero zero five the junta faces increasing international isolation burma s situation was referred to the un security council for the first time in december for an informal consultation asean has also stated its frustration with burma s government however with india and china supporting the junta any drastic change in the country s political situation seems unlikely subdivisions myanmar is divided into seven states and divisions myanmar is divided into states and divisions divisions are predominantly bamar states in essence are divisions in which particular ethnic minorities exist there are seven divisions and seven states in the country the administrative divisions are further subdivided into townships major cities such as yangon and mandalay have larger metropolitan areas therefore townships in the suburbs of such cities are designated as myo thit new town upon reaching the government s installed development markers the new towns become townships within the states there are ethnic based movements for self autonomy and independence divisions image bscript taing png ayeyarwady division irrawaddy division bago division pegu division magway division mandalay division sagaing division tanintharyi division tenasserim division yangon division rangoon division states image bscript pyineh png chin state kachin state kayin state karen state kayah state karenni state mon state rakhine state arakan state shan state geography myanmar is located between bangladesh and thailand with china to the north and india to the north west with coastline on the bay of bengal and andaman sea the country has a total area of six seven eight five zero zero km two six one nine seven zero sq mi of which almost half is forest or woodland in the north the hengduan shan mountains form the border with china the fertile plains of the ayeyarwady and thanlwin rivers are in the central lowlands of myanmar most of the country s population lives in this central lowland east of mandalay lies the shan plateau in the south the ayeyarwady river fans out into a wide and fertile delta many crops are grown in this region which borders the andaman sea the gulf of martaban also indents the southern coast of myanmar it drains into the andaman sea economy the sakura tower in yangon is virtually vacant due to lack of major foreign investment during british colonisation myanmar was the wealthiest country in southeast asia and was believed to be on the fast track to development today it is one of the poorest nations in the world suffering from the one nine six two military takeover and burmese way to socialism a plan to consolidate and nationalise all industries during this period there was economic mismanagement and stagnation in one nine eight nine the government of myanmar began decentralising economic control and has since liberalised some portions of the economy however the lucrative industries of gems oil and forestry remain under the control of the military government the united nations lists myanmar as a ldc three least developed country tourism is being encouraged by the government however fewer than seven five zero zero zero zero tourists enter the country yearly private enterprises are often co owned or indirectly by the tatmadaw due to myanmar s oil reserves both china and india have attempted to strengthen ties with the government in recent years some nations such as canada and the united kingdom have placed trade sanctions on myanmar foreign investment comes primarily from china singapore and thailand myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure and has suffered as a result goods travel primarily through the burmese thai borders from which most illegal drugs are exported and through the ayeyarwady river railroads are rudimentary with few repairs since their construction in the one nine th century highways are normally unpaved except in the major cities energy shortages are common throughout the country myanmar is the second largest producer of heroin in the world other industries include agricultural goods textiles wood products construction materials and metals the lack of an educated workforce also contributes to the growing problems of the burmese economy demographics much of yangon s population reside in densely populated flats all population figures are at best educated guesses the last accurate census was taken by the british in the one nine three zero s the largely untabulated results of the last pre world war two census were destroyed during the japanese invasion the cia world factbook gives an unsupported estimate of about four two nine million and one branch of the un reports there are about five zero million mid two zero zero five other reports speak of four zero to five five million inhabitants a million or more burmese might be living and working in neighbouring countries especially thailand with figures varying for the whole country by several million it is evident that figures for various minority groups are not very reliable reports and observations in the northern half of the country suggest that several hundred thousand chinese have migrated into myanmar in recent years other reports suggest that some of these emigres have returned to china in recent years ethnicity myanmar is ethnically diverse although the government recognises over one zero zero distinct ethnic groups the actual number is much lower the dominant ethnic group are the bamar who form what is guessed to be six eight of the population and speak burmese one zero of the population are shan who speak shan dialects related to laotian and thai the kayin karen make up seven of the population and speak a variety of tibeto burman languages the rakhine arakanese who constitute four of the population are ethnically related to the bamar but are culturally different overseas chinese mainly hokkien and cantonese speakers form approximately three of the population but are primarily unrecognised by the government in terms of citizenship mon who form two of the population are ethnolinguistically related to the khmer overseas indians mainly tamil hindi and bengali speakers comprise two as well and like the chinese do not have citizenship rights the remainder are kachin chin and other ethnic minorities the anglo burmese once forming at least eight of the population and forming at least a quarter of the population of rangoon have decreased in number there are no trustworthy census numbers for the country since the one nine three zero s all of the estimates with regard to percentages of population are only guesswork with no scientific basis the existing government continues to honour both colonial laws and laws passed after independence regarding citizenship granting it only to those who have lineage in myanmar s former entities prior to colonisation overseas groups particularly the indians and chinese to obtain such citizenship have intermixed with the local populace making the percentages more obscure a person of two ethnic backgrounds is known as kabya citizenship is generally of dubious value because of open discrimination large portions of the population have for years functioned without official citizenship after the burmese way to socialism was enacted in the one nine six zero s millions of people left the country anti chinese riots took place during the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s causing a large but temporary exodus of ethnic chinese however many chinese have entered the country in recent years wars with various ethic groups in the border areas forced many more people out of the country in addition many indians muslim and non muslim returned to pakistan and india because of similar discriminatory policies the government is widely known for its persecution of minority groups throughout the country particularly because of civil unrest and calls for secession and self autonomy throughout the mid one nine nine zero s the government negotiated treaties to end warfare however the government continues to detain and relocate minority groups further from bamar dominant areas in addition massive refugee camps exist along the borders of both thailand and bangladesh language burmese is the official language of myanmar because of years of british colonisation english is still spoken in bamar dominant areas because english instruction begins during primary school and because most textbook materials from secondary school upward are exclusively written in english ethnic minorities with the exception of overseas groups tend to speak burmese as a second language the burmese alphabet developed from the mon script which was adapted from a southern indian script during the eight th century the earliest known inscriptions in the burmese script date from the one one th century the script is also used to write pali the sacred language of theravada buddhism religion buddhism particularly theravada buddhism is practised by eight nine of the population especially the bamar and its subgroups including the rakhine shan mon and chinese christianity is practised by four of the population especially the chin kayin anglo burmese and anglo indians protestantism is most practised among christians four of the population practise islam these muslims are divided amongst long established persons of indian indo burmese descent persian arab and chinese descent and rohingya muslims of rakhine state the muslim population is socially marginalised and is widely segregated small segments of the population practise hinduism or animism due to a lack of accurate census data these percentages are guesswork there are no trustworthy figures for the percentages of the population that follow particular religions buddhism has been patronised since independence by both civilian and military governments large amounts of state money under both military governments and the government of u nu in the one nine five zero s have been provided for the creation of buddhist monuments and the general support of buddhism the government continually persecutes christians and muslims religious tolerance does exist in theory but because of stigmas attached to certain religions particularly christianity and islam such tolerance is often undermined culture an ear piercing ceremony in mandalay although a variety of indigenous cultures exist in myanmar the dominant culture is bamar based bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring china india and thailand this is reflected in aspects of its language cuisine and music the arts particularly literature have historically been influenced by the burmese form of theravada buddhism buddhism is practised along with nat worship which involves elaborate rituals to appease deceased spirits in traditional burmese villages monks are well respected citizens the majority of burmese monks reside in mandalay division and sagaing division the burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year many villages have a patron nat superstitition and taboos are essential in burmese life coming of age ceremonies including monkhood novitiation shinbyu for boys are also important british colonisation also introduced western elements of culture to myanmar myanmar s educational system is modelled after that of great britain and its architectural influences are most evident in colonised cities such as yangon and mawlamyine because of western influence many ethnic minorities particularly the kachin and chin who populate the northern areas practise christianity burmese which is linguistically related to tibetan and to the family of chinese languages is written in a script consisting of circular and semi circular letters which originated from the mon script the language incorporates widespread usage of honorifics and is age oriented burmese society from historical times to the present day has stressed the importance of education this has been influential in myanmar s relatively high literacy rate which stands at eight nine seven unesco literacy in myanmar is considered important for interpreting religious texts of theravada buddhism see also cuisine of myanmar literature of myanmar music of myanmar miscellaneous topics communications in myanmar myanmar wide web education in myanmar foreign relations of myanmar golden triangle military of myanmar public holidays in myanmar scouting in burma transportation in myanmar international rankings gdp per capita one eight five th of two three two countries index of economic freedom one five five th of one five seven countries reporters without borders worldwide press freedom index one six five th of one six seven countries corruption perceptions index two zero zero four transparency international one four two th of one four six countries save the children state of the world s mothers two zero zero four children s index one one four th of one five seven countries environmental sustainability index four six th of one four six countries population population us census bureau two six th most populated country in the world area size of country three nine th largest out of one nine four who ranking of the health systems one nine zero th out of one nine zero countries earthquake prone countries listed in five seven most earthquake prone countries hiv infected population two four th largest among one four eight countries labor force two two nd largest in the world inflation rate consumer prices three rd highest in the world opium production unodc two nd largest in the world human development index undp one three one st out of one seven five internet user density cia one five five th out of two one seven zero zero five nine six rice grower by area of land eight th largest in the world footnotes one see dilemma of dealing with burma article retrieved from bbc co uk on two nd november two zero zero four myanmar promoting human development in a heavily criticized country from total com totalfinaelf in the line of fire from earthrights international two see how best to rid the world of monsters from washingtonpost com belgian group seeks total boycott over myanmar reuters report reproduced on ibilio three see list of ldcs external links pictures from myanmar in polish government official myanmar website ministry of foreign affairs ministry of home affairs ministry of communications posts and telegraphs ministry of religious affairs ministry of education ministry of finance ministry of transport ministry of health ministry of hotels tourism national coalition government of the union of burma other bbc country profile cia factbook myanmar profile bbc burmese news burma campaign uk u s campaign for burma rfa burmese news native myanmar discussion forums asean member states former british colonies military dictatorship myanmar southeast asian countries may two four is the one four four th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one four five th in leap years there are two two one days remaining events one one five three malcolm iv becomes king of scotland one two one eight the fifth crusade leaves acre for egypt one two seven six magnus ladul s crowned king of sweden in uppsala cathedral one four eight seven imposter lambert simnel is crowned as king edward vi at dublin one five nine five nomenclator of leiden university library appears the first printed catalog of an institutional library one six two one protestant union formally dissolved one six two six peter minuit buys manhattan one six six eight glen cove new york is founded one six eight six gabriel fahrenheit german physicist and engineer d one seven three six one six eight nine the act of toleration passes the english parliament protecting protestants roman catholics are intentionally excluded one seven three eight john wesley is converted essentially launching the methodist movement the day is celebrated annually by methodists as aldersgate day one seven eight seven the united states constitutional convention is convened after a quorum of delegates arrives in philadelphia pennsylvania one seven nine eight irish republican rebellion against british rule begins one eight two two battle of pichincha antonio jos de sucre secures the independence of the presidency of quito one eight three zero mary had a little lamb by sarah hale is published one eight four four the first electric telegram is sent by samuel f b morse from baltimore maryland to washington d c saying what hath god wrought one eight four six mexican american war general zachary taylor captures monterrey one eight five six john brown and his men murder five slavery supporters at pottawatomie creek kansas one eight six one american civil war union troops occupy alexandria virginia one eight eight three the brooklyn bridge in new york is opened to traffic after one four years of construction one eight nine three the niagara falls park and river railway opens in ontario one eight nine five henry irving becomes the first personage from the theatre to be knighted one eight nine nine the first public parking garage in the united states is opened in boston massachusetts one nine zero zero second boer war the united kingdom annexes the orange free state one nine one one the new york public library opened one nine one four levski sofia football club is established one nine one five world war i italy declares war on austria hungary one nine two one the trial of sacco and vanzetti opens one nine two nine the cocoanuts the first film to star the marx brothers opens one nine three zero amy johnson lands in darwin northern territory becoming the first woman to fly from england to australia she left on may five for the one one zero zero zero mile flight one nine three five crosley field in cincinnati ohio hosts major league baseball s first night game ever as the cincinnati reds beat the philadelphia phillies two one one nine four zero igor sikorsky performs the first successful single rotor helicopter flight one nine four one world war ii in the north atlantic the german battleship bismarck sinks the hms hood killing all but three crewmen on what was the pride of the royal navy one nine four three holocaust josef mengele becomes chief medical officer in auschwitz concentration camp one nine four nine the soviet union ends the one one month berlin blockade one nine five six in lugano switzerland lys assia wins the first eurovision song contest for switzerland singing refrain one nine five eight united press international is formed through a merger of the united press and the international news service one nine six one american civil rights movement freedom riders are arrested in jackson mississippi for disturbing the peace after disembarking from their bus one nine six two american astronaut scott carpenter orbits the earth three times in the aurora seven space capsule one nine six eight students set fire to the paris bourse one nine six eight flq separatists bomb the u s consulate in quebec city one nine seven four after a nine year run the dean martin show airs for the last time one nine seven six london to washington dc concorde service begins one nine eight zero the international court of justice calls for the release of united states embassy hostages in tehran one nine eight one first international women s day for disarmament one nine eight eight section two eight is passed as law by parliament in the united kingdom one nine eight nine sonia sutcliffe wife of the yorkshire ripper is awarded a six figure sum in damages after winning a libel action against private eye one nine nine zero a car carrying american earth first activists judi bari and darryl cherney explodes in oakland california critically injuring both one nine nine one israel conducts operation solomon evacuating ethiopian jews to israel one nine nine two the last thai dictator general suchinda kraprayoon resigns following pro democracy protests one nine nine three eritrea gains its independence from ethiopia one nine nine three microsoft unveils windows nt two zero zero zero israeli troops withdraw from southern lebanon after two two years of occupation two zero zero one mountain climbing one five year old sherpa temba tsheri becomes the youngest person to climb to the top of mount everest two zero zero one wedding hall collapse in jerusalem israel kills two three and injures over two zero zero in israel s worst ever civil disaster births one five bc julius caesar germanicus roman commander d one nine one four nine four pontormo italian painter d one five five seven one five two two john jewel english bishop d one five seven one one five four four william gilbert english scientist d one six zero three one six one six john maitland duke of lauderdale d one six eight two one six seven one gian gastone de medici grand duke of tuscany d one seven three seven one six eight nine daniel finch eight th earl of winchilsea english politician d one seven six nine one seven four three jean paul marat french revolutionary d one seven nine three one seven nine four william whewell english philosopher d one eight six six one eight one zero charles clark governor of mississippi d one eight seven seven one eight one zero abraham geiger german rabbi and scholar d one eight seven four one eight one six emanuel leutze german born painter d one eight six eight one eight one nine queen victoria of the united kingdom d one nine zero one one eight three six joseph rowntree british social reformer d one nine two five one eight five four john riley banister american law officer and cowboy d one nine one eight one eight five five arthur wing pinero english playwright d one nine three four one eight six three george grey barnard american sculptor d one nine three eight one eight seven zero benjamin cardozo american jurist d one nine three eight one eight seven zero jan christian smuts prime minister of south africa d one nine five zero one eight seven eight lillian moller gilbreth american engineer d one nine seven two one eight eight six paul paray french conductor and composer d one nine seven nine one eight nine one william f albright american archeologist and biblical scholar d one nine seven one one eight nine nine suzanne lenglen french tennis player one eight nine nine henri michaux french poet one nine zero one jos nasazzi uruguayan footballer one nine zero five michail aleksandrovich sholokhov russian writer nobel prize laureate d one nine eight four one nine zero nine wilbur mills american politician d one nine nine two one nine one four lilli palmer german born actress d one nine eight six one nine two five mai zetterling swedish born entertainer d one nine nine four one nine two six stanley baxter scottish actor one nine two eight william trevor irish writer one nine three zero hans martin linde german conductor one nine three four jane byrne mayor of chicago one nine three four barry rose english choir trainer and organist one nine three six harold budd american musician one nine three eight tommy chong canadian born actor and comedian one nine four zero joseph brodsky russian born poet nobel prize laureate d one nine nine six one nine four one bob dylan american singer and songwriter one nine four three gary burghoff american actor one nine four four arthur brown english musician one nine four four patti labelle american singer one nine four five priscilla presley american actress one nine four six irena kirszenstein szewinska russian born polish athlete one nine four nine jim broadbent english actor one nine five three alfred molina english actor one nine five five rosanne cash american singer one nine five six michael jackson northern irish clergyman one nine six zero kristin scott thomas english actress one nine six two gene anthony ray american actor d two zero zero three one nine six three joe dumars american basketball player one nine six three kathy leander swiss singer one nine six four adrian moorhouse british swimmer one nine six four pat verbeek canadian ice hockey player one nine six five john c reilly american actor one nine six six eric cantona french footballer one nine six seven heavy d american rapper and actor one nine seven two greg berlanti american television writer and producer one nine seven three bartolo col n dominican major league baseball player one nine seven three dermot o leary english television presenter one nine seven three ruslana ukrainian singer one nine seven five marc gagnon canadian short track speed skater one nine seven six alessandro cortini italian musician one nine seven eight bryan greenberg american actor one nine seven nine tracy mcgrady american basketball player one nine eight zero cecilia cheung hong kong actress one nine eight four sarah hagan american actress one nine eight eight billy gilman american singer deaths one one five three king david i of scotland b one zero eight four one three five one abu al hasan ali sultan of morocco one four two five murdoch stewart two nd duke of albany scottish politician b one three six two one four five six ambroise de lor french military commander b one three nine six one five four three nicolas copernicus astronomer b one four seven three one six one two robert cecil one st earl of salisbury english statesman and spymaster b one five six three one six two seven luis de g ngora spanish poet b one five six one one seven two five jonathan wild english criminal b one six eight three one seven three four georg ernst stahl german physician and chemist b one six six zero one seven four nine graf valentin potocki polish nobleman burned at the stake one seven nine two george brydges rodney one st baron rodney british naval officer b one seven one eight one eight zero six john campbell five th duke of argyll british field marshal b one seven two three one eight seven nine william lloyd garrison american abolitionist writer and publisher b one eight zero five one eight eight one samuel palmer english artist b one eight zero five one eight eight three abdel kadir algerian leader b one eight zero eight one nine one nine amado nervo mexican poet b one eight seven zero one nine four seven c f ramuz swiss writer b one eight seven eight one nine four nine aleksey shchusev russian architect b one eight seven three one nine five zero archibald wavell american general b one eight eight three one nine five nine john foster dulles united states secretary of state b one eight eight eight one nine six three elmore james american musician b one nine one eight one nine six nine willy ley german born rocket scientist b one nine zero six one nine seven four duke ellington american composer and musician b one eight nine nine one nine eight one george jessel american actor b one eight nine eight one nine eight four vincent j mcmahon american pro wrestling promoter b one nine one four one nine nine five harold wilson british statesman and prime minister b one nine one six one nine nine six john abbott third prime minister of canada b one nine zero five one nine nine seven edward mulhare irish actor b one nine two three one nine nine nine owen hart canadian professional wrestler b one nine six five two zero zero three lady rachel kempson english actress and the mother of vanessa redgrave and lynn redgrave b one nine one zero two zero zero four henry ries american photographer b one nine one seven two zero zero five arthur haulot belgian journalist and resistance figher b one nine one three two zero zero five vivian liberto first wife of johnny cash b one nine three four holidays and observances canada victoria day on this date or the monday before it in quebec it is known as national patriots day journ e nationale des patriotes bermuda bermuda day eritrea national day bulgaria sts cyril and methodius day saint sarah is celebrated in carmague france by the roma or gypsies external links bbc on this day may two three may two five april two four june two four listing of all days this article lists military technology items devices and methods the classification of weapons of war is one of the research issues of military science martial arts martial arts also known as fighting systems are bodies of codified practices or traditions of training for unarmed and armed combat usually without the use of guns and other modern weapons list of martial arts list of martial arts weapons list of martial arts related topics personal weapons m l e m l e generally means hand to hand combat or mano a mano weapons commonly used in m l e include swords clubs spears axes or fists almost anything you can hit someone with list of m l e weapons armour etc armour spelled armor in american english is protective clothing intended to defend its wearer from intentional harm in combat and military engagements typically associated with soldiers list of armour types ammunition etc ammunition is a generic military term meaning a projectile and its propellant bullet list of rifle cartridges list of handgun cartridges list of cartridges weaponry pistol and rifle list of shotgun cartridges list of shells and explosives missile list of missiles small arms and firearms a firearm is a kinetic energy weapon that fires either a single or multiple projectiles propelled at high velocity by the gases produced by action of the rapid confined burning of a propellant list of firearms list of machine guns list of pistols list of assault rifles list of shotguns list of submachine guns artillery list of artillery list of artillery by country medieval siege weaponry military vehicles military vehicles are land combat or transportation vehicles excluding rail based which are designed for or in significant use by military forces list of military vehicles list of armoured fighting vehicles list of tanks military aviation and aircraft military aviation includes any use of aircraft by a country s military including such areas as transport training disaster relief border patrol search and rescue surveillance surveying peacekeeping and very rarely aerial warfare list of aircraft list of aircraft weapons naval warfare naval warfare is combat in and on seas and oceans list of navies list of historical ship and boat types list of aircraft carriers list of submarines list of submarine classes military tactics military strategy and military doctrine military tactics is the collective name for methods of engaging and defeating an enemy in battle military strategy is a collective name for planning the conduct of warfare military doctrine is a level of military planning between national strategy and unit level tactics techniques and procedures list of military tactics list of military strategies list of military doctrines principles of military strategy military unit a military unit is an organisation within an armed force it may consist of any number of soldiers ships vehicles or aircraft armies navies and air forces are organised hierarchically into groups of various sizes for functional tactical and administrative purposes military rank comparative military ranks military communications military communications is defined as the transmission medium that links military components on the battlefield communications military engineer fortifications fortifications are military constructions and buildings designed for defence in warfare list of fortifications list of forts external links freenet links note you will need an access to freenet node to visit these links localhost is assumed as the base for the freesite boom e books on explosives weaponry combat and related topics military technology lists mazurek d browskiego d browski s mazurka is the polish national anthem written by j zef wybicki in one seven nine seven originally called the song of the polish legions in italy pie legion w polskich we w oszech it is also informally known as poland will never lose her life from its initial verse jeszcze polska nie zgin a which is sometimes erroneously taken to be the polish state motto the song gained much currency in poland and became one of the most popular hymns during poland s november one eight three zero and january one eight six three uprisings during the european revolutions of one eight four eight it won favor throughout europe as a revolutionary anthem in berlin vienna prague and paris this led the slovak poet samuel toma ik to write the anthem hey slavs based on the melody of d browski s mazurek and later adopted by the first congress of the pan slavic movement in prague as the pan slavic anthem during the second world war a translation of this anthem became the national anthem of yugoslavia notes and historical context see also partitioned poland d browski henryk d browski one of the leaders of the polish legions he was not however the author of this anthem poland will never lose her life so long as we shall live poland had been erased from the political map of europe by russia prussia and austria in one seven nine five two years before wybicki composed this anthem see partitions of poland czarniecki stefan czarniecki one of the leaders of poland s ultimately victorious war against the one seven th century swedish invasion crossed the sea after the liberation of poland czarnecki had fought in denmark italy bonaparte the polish legions had been created in italy by napoleon bonaparte the polish legionnaires had believed that they would eventually fight for the independence of poland basia common polish nickname for barbara rac awice village in southern poland site of a one seven nine four battle during the ko ciuszko uprising in which the polish insurgents victory against the russians was largely assured by the valor of peasants armed with scythes media lyrics mazurek d browskiego d browski s mazurek the original lyrics to d browski s mazurek as written by wybicki included two additional stanzas absent from the official lyrics to the polish national anthem external links image ltspkr png mazurek d browskiego in mp three format full version image ltspkr png mazurek d browskiego in mp three format instrumental version national anthems polish music polish national symbols this article discusses the four player game of chinese origin for the two player tile matching game see mahjong solitaire mahjong cantonese m hjeung or cantonese m hjeuk other common english spellings include mahjongg majiang and hyphenated forms such as mah jong or mah jongg is a game for four players that originated in china it is a game of skill intelligence calculation and luck depending on the variation which is played the amount of luck may vary from two zero to eight zero percent in china japan taiwan and other countries mahjong is often used for gambling the chinese word literally means hemp general in cantonese an alternate writing is more common the same kanji are used in japanese in cantonese this literally means sparrow while in japanese it means hemp sparrow and is pronounced m jan in english in addition to mahjong the name of the game is variously written as mah jong mahjongg majong or simply m j there are other less common variations as well the spelling mah jongg was trademarked by joseph park babcock in one nine two zero the closest western analogue is probably the card game gin rummy both games involve selecting or discarding units tiles in one case cards in the other to score points by forming groups or runs of similar units the game pieces tiles and scoring rules used in the game are slightly different depending on regional variations the game play in general is very similar in all versions as players compete to build sets including the highest point value the object of the game is to build complete suits usually of threes from either one three or one six tiles the first person to achieve this goal is said to have won the game the winning tile completes the set of either one four or one seven tiles history mahjong in china different kinds of chinese playcards from left to right b g y z caozhou pa three kingdoms y z dongguan pa one of the myths probably originates from the west regarding the origin of mahjong suggests that confucius the great chinese philosopher had developed the game about five zero zero bc the appearance of the game in various chinese provinces coincides with confucius travels at the time he was teaching his new doctrines the three dragon cardinal tiles also agree with the three cardinal virtues bequeathed by confucius zhong image mjd one png lit middle the red fa image mjd two png lit prosperity the green bai image mjd three png lit white the white represent benevolence sincerity and filial piety respectively confucius was said to be fond of birds which would explain the name mahjong hemp bird terms used in the play of the game pong chee and kong also give evidence to this theory confucius was of the kong family his full name being kong qiu he married a girl named che and adopted the term chee meaning to connect which westerners corrupted into chow another possible theory implies that the game had been developed from existing chinese card and domino games sometime around one eight five zero some historians believe it was based on a card game called m d ao also known as ma tiae lit hanging horse or y z lit leaf in the early ming dynasty this game was played with four zero paper cards similar in appearance to the cards used in the game ya pei these forty cards numbered one to nine in four different suits along with four extra flower cards are quite alike to the numbering of mahjong tiles today there is still a healthy debate about to whom the creation of the game should be attributed one theory is that chinese army officers serving during the tai ping rebellion created the game to pass the time another theory is that a noble living in the shanghai area created the game between one eight seven zero and one eight seven five it is thought that around one eight five zero in the city of ningpo two brothers had created mah jong from the earlier game of m d ao and some believed mahjong was invented by pinyin h n x n during the war between chu and han mahjong in the western world mahjong taikai a japanese mahjong computer game on psp produced by koei in two zero zero five by one eight nine five stewart culin an american anthropologist wrote a paper in which mahjong was mentioned this is the first known written account of mahjong in any language other than chinese by one nine one zero there were written accounts in many languages including french and japanese an important english read was joseph park babcock s rules of mah jongg which simplified in one nine two zero was simply known as the red book although this was the earliest version of mahjong that had been introduced to america many of babcock s simplifications are abandoned nowadays the book introduced many similar english language rulebooks with a large number of inaccurate rumors including those of the national mah jongg league the governing body of american mahjong a patently false claim was made that mahjong had originated in ancient china in order to bring an air of mystique into the game ironically many of these hearsay information about mahjong s ancient origins are used today in much the same way for mahjong solitaire a much newer game the game was a sensation in america when it was imported from china in the one nine two zero s with the same mahjong game taking on a number of trademarked names such as pung chow or the game of thousand intelligences part of mahjong nights in america were to decorate rooms in chinese style and dress like chinese several hit songs were also recorded during the mahjong fad most notably since ma is playing mah jong by eddie cantor american mahjong which was mainly played by women during the time grew from this craze and in the one nine three zero s after many revisions of the rules including some that were considered fundamentals in other variants such as the notion of a standard hand led to the formation of the national mah jongg league in one nine three seven along with the first american mahjong rulebook maajh the american version of the ancient chinese game despite it being chinese in origin and accepted by players of all racial backgrounds when first introduced by babcock american mahjong is considered a jewish game as many american mahjong players are of jewish descent and the nmjl was founded by jewish players and considered a jewish organization but at the same time this traditional chinese game was banned in its homeland in one nine four nine when the people s republic of china was founded the new communist government forbade any gambling activities which were regarded as symbols of capitalist corruption after the cultural revolution the game was revived and once again mahjong has become one of the most favourite pastimes of the chinese people current development today the popularity and demographic of players of mahjong differs greatly from country to country in america most players of american mahjong are women in japan there has been a much greater emphasis on gambling before other le gender of the players is much less divided there are also many governing bodies of mahjong many of them hosting exhibition games and tournaments in japan video arcades have introduced mahjong arcade machines that can be connected to others over the internet as well as video games that allow a victorious player to view pictures of women in varying stages of undress mahjong culture is still deeply ingrained in the chinese community sam hui wrote cantopop songs using mahjong as their themes chinese movies have always included scenes of mahjong games gambling movies have been filmed time and again in hong kong and a recent sub genre is the mahjong movie variants beijing residents playing mahjong in public four filipino women playing filipino mahjong there are many variations of mahjong in many places players observe one version and are either often unaware of other variations or claim that other variations are incorrect although many variations today differ only by scoring there are several main variations of mahjong chinese classical mahjong is the oldest variety of mahjong and was the version introduced to america in the one nine two zero s under various names hong kong mahjong or cantonese mahjong is the most common form of mahjong differing in minor scoring details with the chinese classical variety japanese mahjong is a standardized form of mahjong in japan found prevalently in video games in addition to scoring changes the rules of riichi and dora are unique highlights of japanese mahjong western classical mahjong is a descendant of the version of mahjong introduced by babcock to america in the one nine two zero s the evolution of mahjong in america led to american mahjong today this term largely refers to the wright patterson rules used in the u s military and other similar american made variants that are closer to the babcock rules american mahjong is a form of mahjong standardized by the national mah jongg league and the american mah jongg association that has the greatest divergence from traditional mahjong with the introduction of joker tiles the charleston as well as melds of five or more tiles and eschewing the chow and the notion of a standard hand because of this divergence the nmjl and amja variations which differ from each other by minor scoring differences is commonly referred to as mahjongg with two gs possibly hyphenated purists of mahjong claim that the divergence from standard mahjong makes american mahjong not a true mahjong and thus should be considered a separate game in and of itself other variants include fujian mahjong with dadi joker taiwanese mahjong each player would have one six tiles vietnamese mahjong with one six different kinds of joker and filipino mahjong with window joker international rules in one nine nine eight the china state sports commission in the interest of changing mahjong from an illegal gambling game to an approved healthy sport published a new set of rules now generally referred to as chinese official rules or international tournament rules the principles of the new healthy mahjong are no gambling no drinking no smoking on international tournaments players are often grouped in teams to emphasize that mahjong from now on is considered a sport the new rules are highly pattern based the rulebook contains eight zero combinations based on patterns and scoring elements popular in both classic and modern regional chinese variants some table practices of japan have also been adopted in order to go out players must score at least eight points points for flower tiles each flower is worth one point may not be added until the player has scored eight points the winner of a game receives the score of his winning hand in points from the player who discarded the winning tile plus eight basic points from each player in the case of zimo self drawn win he receives the value of his winning hand plus eight points from all players the new rules were used in an international tournament first in tokyo where in two zero zero two the first world championship in mahjong was organized by the mahjong museum the japan mahjong organizing committee and the city council of ningbo china the town where it is believed mahjong most likely originated one hundred players participated mainly from japan and china but also from europe and the united states miss mai hatsune from japan became the first world champion the following year saw the first annual china majiang championship held in hainan the next two annual tournaments were held in hong kong and beijing most players were chinese but players from other nations attended as well in two zero zero five in the netherlands the first open european mahjong championship was held with one zero eight players the first prize was won by masato chiba from japan critics say that these new rules are unlikely to achieve great popularity outside of tournaments since regional variations are well entrenched they also complain that the game is excessively complex even by normal mahjong standards but those who advocate the new mahjong claim that it is not meant to replace existing rules but only to act as a standard for international mahjong events equipment basic equipment chips tiles and dice mahjong houses provide a convenient venue for mahjong old hands this is a typical scene of mahjong house in wan chai hong kong mahjong can be played either with a set of mahjong tiles or less commonly a set of mahjong playing cards sometimes called mhing playing cards are often used when travelling as it reduces space and is lighter than their tile counterparts but are of a lower quality in return in this article tile will be used to denote both playing cards and tiles many mahjong sets will also include a set of chips or bone tiles for scoring as well as indicators denoting the dealer and the wind of the round some sets may also include racks to hold tiles or chips although in many sets the tiles are generally sufficiently thick so that they can stand on their own with one of them being different to denote the dealer s rack computer implementations of mahjong are also available these allow you to play against computer opponents or against human opponents on the internet a set of mahjong tiles will usually differ from place to place it usually has at least one three six tiles most commonly one four four although sets originating from america or japan will have more mahjong tiles include circle suit named as each tile consists of a number of circles each circle is said to represent copper tong coins with a square hole in the middle image mjt one pngimage mjt two pngimage mjt three pngimage mjt four pngimage mjt five pngimage mjt six pngimage mjt seven pngimage mjt eight pngimage mjt nine png bamboo suit named as each tile except the one bamboo consists of a number of bamboo sticks each stick is said to represent a string suo that holds a hundred coins image mjs one pngimage mjs two pngimage mjs three pngimage mjs four pngimage mjs five pngimage mjs six pngimage mjs seven pngimage mjs eight pngimage mjs nine png character suit named as each tile represents ten thousand wan coins or one hundred strings of one hundred coins image mjw one pngimage mjw two pngimage mjw three pngimage mjw four pngimage mjw five pngimage mjw six pngimage mjw seven pngimage mjw eight pngimage mjw nine png wind tiles east south west and north image mjf one pngimage mjf two pngimage mjf three pngimage mjf four png dragon tiles red green and white the term dragon tile is a western convention introduced by joseph park babcock in his one nine two zero book introducing mahjong to america image mjd one pngimage mjd two pngimage mjd three png flower tiles typically optional components to a set of mahjong tiles often contain artwork on their tiles image mjh one pngimage mjh two pngimage mjh three pngimage mjh four pngimage mjh five pngimage mjh six pngimage mjh seven pngimage mjh eight png setting up the board shuffling of the mahjong tiles is needed before piling around the table all players throw three dice and the one with the highest total would be the dealer players picking up their own tiles after rolling the dice the charleston the following sequence is for setting up a standard hong kong or singapore game casual or beginning players may wish to proceed directly to gameplay shuffling the tiles is needed before piling up prevailing wind and game wind to determine the player game wind or each player throws three dice two in some variants and the player with the highest total is chosen as the dealer or the banker the dealer s wind is now east the player to the right of the dealer has south wind the next player to the right has west and the fourth player has north game wind changes after every round unless the dealer wins in some variations the longer the dealer remains as the dealer the higher the value of each hand the prevailing wind is always set to east when starting it changes after the game wind has rotated around the board that is after each player has lost as the dealer a mahjong set with winds in play will usually include a separate prevailing wind marker typically a die marked with the wind characters in a holder and a pointer that can be oriented towards the dealer to show player game wind in sets with racks a rack may be marked differently to denote the dealer these winds are also significant as winds are often associated with a member of a flower tile group typically one with east two with south three with west and four with north dealing tiles all tiles are placed face down and shuffled each player then stacks a row of tiles two deep in front of him the length of the row depending on the number of tiles in use one three six tiles one seven tiles for all players one four four tiles one eight tiles for all players one four eight tiles one nine tiles for dealer and player opposite one eight for rest one five two tiles one nine tiles for all players the dealer throws three dice and sums up the total counting counterclockwise so that the dealer is one a player s row is chosen starting at the right edge sum tiles are counted and shifted to the right the dealer now takes a block of four tiles to the left of the divide the player to the dealer s right takes four tiles to the left and players counterclockwise take blocks of four tiles clockwise until all players have one two tiles for one three tile variations and one six for one six tile variations in one three tile variations each player then takes one more tile to make a one three tile hand in practice in order to speed up the dealing procedure the dealer often takes one extra tile during the dealing procedure to start their turn the board is now ready and new tiles will be taken from the wall where the dealing left off proceeding clockwise in some special cases discussed later tiles are taken from the other end of the wall commonly referred to as the back end of the wall in some variations a group of tiles at the back end known as the dead wall is reserved for this purpose instead in such variations the dead wall may be visually separated from the main wall but it is not required unless the dealer has already won see below the dealer then discards a tile the dealing process with tiles is ritualized and complex to prevent cheating casual players or players with mahjong playing cards may wish to simply shuffle well and deal out the tiles with fewer ceremonial procedures charleston in the american variations it is required that before each hand begins a charleston is enacted this consists of a procedure where three tiles are passed to the player on one s right followed by three tiles passed to the player opposite followed by three tiles passed to the left the dealer can demand for a second charleston followed by an optional pass to the player across of one two or three tiles this is a distinctive feature of american style mahjong that may have been borrowed from card games gameplay view from a player going to discard a tile in an ongoing gameplay players may read the name of the discarded tile out loud the flower tile image mjh seven png on the left should be replaced by a tile from the dead wall promptly each player is dealt either one three tiles for one three tile variations or one six tiles for one six tile variations a turn involves a player s drawing of a tile from the wall or draw pile and then placing it in his hand the player then discards a tile onto the table this signals the end of his turn prompting the player to the right to make his move as a form of courtesy each player is encouraged to announce loudly the name of the tile being discarded many variations require that discarded tiles be placed in an orderly fashion in front of the player while some require that these be placed face down flower tiles flower tiles when dealt or drawn must be immediately replaced by a tile from the dead wall or if no dead wall exists the back end of the wall they are immediately exposed placed in view on the table on front of the player s tiles at the start of each round where two or more players may have flower tiles flower tiles are replaced starting with the dealer and moving to the right flower tiles may or may not have point value and in some variations possession of all the flower tiles wins the round regardless of the actual contents of the hand in american mahjong however flower tiles are not instantly exposed and replaced as they may be melded with other flower tiles in the same group in essence they are treated as if they were another set of honor tiles or be used as a requirement of a winning hand early versions of american mahjong used flower tiles as joker tiles joker tiles a feature of several variations most notably american variations of mahjong is the notion of wild card or joker tiles they may be used as a substitute for any tile in a hand or in some variations only tiles in melds depending on the variation a player may replace a joker tile that is part of an exposed meld belonging to any player with the tile it represents rules governing discarding joker tiles also exist some variations permit the joker tile to take on the identity of any tile and others only permit the joker tile to take on the identity of the previously discarded tile or the absence of a tile if it is the first discard joker tiles may or may not have an impact on scoring depending on the variation some special hands may require the use of joker tiles for example to represent a fifth tile of a certain suited or honor tile in american mahjong it is illegal to pass jokers during the charleston melds when a player discards a tile any other player may call or bid for it in order to complete a meld a certain set of tiles in his or her own hand the disadvantage of doing this is that the player must now expose the completed meld to the other players giving them an idea of what type of hand he or she is creating this also creates an element of strategy as in many variations discarding a tile that allows another player to win the game causes the discarding player to lose points or pay the winner more in a game for money most variants again with the notable exception of american mahjong allow three types of melds when a meld is declared through a discard the player must state the type of the meld to be declared and place the meld face up the player must then discard a tile and play continues to the right because of this turns may be skipped in the process pong image mjs seven png pong or pung pinyin peng japanese pon a pong or pung is a set of three identical tiles in american mahjong where it is possible to meld flower tiles a pong may also refer to a meld of three of the four flower tiles in a single group american mahjong may also have hands requiring a knitted triplet three tiles of identical rank but of three different suits for examples image mjt nine pngimage mjt nine pngimage mjt nine png image mjs three pngimage mjs three pngimage mjs three png image mjf two pngimage mjf two pngimage mjf two png image mjd two pngimage mjd two pngimage mjd two png kong image mjf one png kong pinyin gang japanese kan a kong is a set of four identical tiles because all other melds contain three tiles a kong must be immediately exposed when explicitly declared if the fourth tile is formed from a discard it is said to be an exposed kong pinyin ming gang if all four tiles were formed in the hand it is said to be a concealed kong pinyin an gang it is also possible to form a kong if the player has an exposed pung and draws the fourth tile in any case a player must draw an extra tile from the back end of the wall or from the dead wall if it exists and discard as normal play then continues to the right once a kong is formed it cannot be split up say if you wanted to instead use one tile as part of a chow and thus it may be advantageous not to immediately declare a kong for examples image mjd one pngimage mjd one pngimage mjd one pngimage mjd one png image mjs seven pngimage mjs seven pngimage mjs seven pngimage mjs seven png the woman sitting on the left may make a chow with a tile discared by the player on the right chow chi in some versions shang a chow is a meld of three suited tiles in sequence unlike other melds an exposed chow may only be declared off the discard of the player on the left american mahjong does not have a formal chow that is you cannot declare chows but some hands may require that similar sequences be constructed in the hand some american variations may also have the knitted sequence where the three tiles are of three different suits sequences of higher length are usually not permissible unless it forms more than one meld for examples image mjs one pngimage mjs two pngimage mjs three png image mjs three pngimage mjs four pngimage mjs five png image mjs seven pngimage mjs eight pngimage mjs nine png image mjt five pngimage mjt six pngimage mjt seven png two image mjt eight png are the eyes of this completed set of tiles eye jiang in some versions yan also pair the pair while not a meld and thus cannot be declared or formed with a discard is the final component to the standard hand it consists of two identical tiles two image mjf four png are the eyes in this case image mjf four pngimage mjf four pngimage mjt five pngimage mjt five pngimage mjt five pngimage mjs five pngimage mjs five pngimage mjs five pngimage mjf one pngimage mjf one pngimage mjf one pngimage mjd three pngimage mjd three pngimage mjd three png it is to note that american mahjong hands may have tile constructions that are not melds such as news having one of each wind as they are not melds they cannot be formed off discards and in some variations cannot be constructed in part or in whole by joker tiles when two or more players call for a discarded tile a player taking the tile to win the hand has precedence over all others followed by pong or kong declarations and lastly chows in american mahjong where it may be possible for two players needing the same tile for melds the meld of a higher number of identical tiles takes precedence if two or more players call for a meld of the same precedence or to win the player closest to the right wins out but the game may be declared an abortive draw if two or more players call a tile for the win again depending on the variation in particular if a call to win overrides a call to form a kong such a move is called robbing the kong and may give a scoring bonus there is generally an informal convention as to the amount of time allowed to make a call for a discarded tile before the next player takes its turn in american mahjong this window of opportunity is explicitly stated in the rules where in other variants it is generally viewed that when the next player s turn starts ie the tile leaves the wall the opportunity has been lost ready hands ready hand waiting for image mjw eight png or image mjd two png when a hand is one tile short of winning for example image mjs one pngimage mjs two pngimage mjs three pngimage mjs one pngimage mjs two pngimage mjs three pngimage mjs two pngimage mjs three pngimage mjs seven pngimage mjs eight pngimage mjs nine pngimage mjd two pngimage mjd two png the remaining tile image mjs one png image mjd two png or image mjs four png the hand is said to be a ready hand or more figuratively on the pot the player holding a ready hand is said to be waiting for certain tiles it is common to be waiting for two or three tiles and some variations award points for a hand that is waiting for one tile in one three tile mahjong the most amount of tiles that you can wait for is one three the thirteen terminals a nonstandard special hand some variations of da mahjong most notably japanese variations allow a player to declare riichi sometimes known as reach as it is phonetically similar a declaration of riichi is a promise that any tile drawn by the player is immediately discarded unless it constitutes a win a player who declares riichi and wins usually receives a point bonus for their hand while a player who declares riichi and loses is usually penalized in some fashion when four players declare a riichi the game is a draw declaring a nonexistent riichi is penalized draws if only the dead wall remains and no one has won the round is drawn liu ju japanese ryuukyoku or goulashed a new round begins and depending on the variant game wind may change abortive draws in japanese mahjong abortive draws draws where the game is declared drawn while tiles are available are possible they can be declared under the following conditions kyuu shu yao kyuu tou pai if on a player s first turn and with no melds declared a player has nine different terminal or honor tiles the player may declare the round to be drawn for example image mjt one pngimage mjt four pngimage mjt five pngimage mjt nine pngimage mjs one pngimage mjs four pngimage mjs six pngimage mjs nine pngimage mjw one pngimage mjf one pngimage mjf three pngimage mjd one pngimage mjd one pngimage mjd three png but could also go for the nonstandard thirteen terminals hand as well san ka agari if three players claim the same discard in order to win the round the round is drawn suu fontsu renda if on the first turn without any meld declarations all four players discard the same wind tile the hand is drawn suu ka riichi if all four players declare riichi the round is drawn suu kan nagare the round is drawn when the fourth kong is declared unless all four kongs were declared by a single player in this case the round is drawn when another player declares a kong winning che hu the three great scholars image mjf one pngimage mjf one pngimage mjs three pngimage mjs three pngimage mjs three pngimage mjd three pngimage mjd three pngimage mjd three pngimage mjd two pngimage mjd two pngimage mjd two pngimage mjd one pngimage mjd one pngimage mjd one png a player wins the round hu by creating a standard mahjong hand in western classical variants this is known as creating a mahjong and the process of winning is called going mahjong which consists of a certain number of melds four for one three tile variations and five for one six tile variations and a pair some variations may also require that winning hands be of some point value variations may also have special nonstandard hands that a player can make in this sense american mahjong is a variant where only special hands exist turns and rounds if the dealer wins the game they will stay as the dealer otherwise the player to the right becomes dealer and the player s wind becomes the game wind in the sequence east south west north after the wind returns to east ie each player has been the dealer a round is complete and the prevailing wind will change again in the sequence east south west north a full game of mahjong ends after four rounds ie when the north prevailing wind round is over it is often regarded as an unlucky act to stop the gameplay at the west round as west has a similar sound to death in chinese scoring when gambling with mahjong scores are typically directly translated into sums of money poker chips are used in transaction throughout the playout scoring in mahjong involves points with a monetary value for points agreed upon by players although in many variations scoreless hands are possible many require that hands be of some point value in order to win the round while the basic gameplay is more or less the same throughout mahjong the greatest divergence between variations lies in the scoring systems like the gameplay there is a generalized system of scoring based on the method of winning and the winning hand from which chinese and japanese among notable systems base their roots american mahjong generally has greatly divergent scoring rules as well as greatly divergent gameplay rules because of the large differences between the various systems of scoring especially for chinese variants groups of players will often agree on particular scoring rules before a game like with gameplay many attempts have been made to create an international standard of scoring but most are not widely accepted points terminology of which differs from variation to variation are obtained by matching the winning hand and the winning condition with a specific set of criteria with different criteria scoring different values some of these criteria may be subsets of other criteria for example having a meld of one dragon versus having a meld of all of them and in these cases only the most general criteria is scored the points obtained may be translated into scores for each player using some typically exponential functions when gambling with mahjong these scores are typically directly translated into sums of money some criteria may be also in terms of both points and score trivia little known to most players the suits of the tiles are money based in ancient china the copper coins had a square hole in the center people passed a rope through the holes to tie coins into strings these strings are usually in groups of one zero zero coins called diao or variant or one zero zero zero coins called guan mahjong s connection to the ancient chinese currency system is consistent with its alleged derivation from the game named ma diao in the mahjong suits the coppers represent the coins the ropes are actually strings of one zero zero coins and the character myriad represents one zero zero zero zero coins or one zero zero strings when a hand received the maximium allowed winning of a round it is called man guan lit full string of coin a mahjong game is described in the murder of roger ackroyd by agatha christie ending with the very unusual event of a player getting a complete winning hand on the initial draw this success makes the character unduly talkative which leads to significant plot developments british superspy james bond plays a dangerous game of mahjong in zero minus ten a suspense novel by raymond benson in the one nine four zero film charlie chan s murder cruise the title character remarks in china mahjong very simple in america very complex like modern life the character that translates to centre is found on the super hero suit worn by the greatest american hero since the character is typically painted red the tile is commonly called red centre for this reason the hongkong tv station tvb named the chinese dubbed the greatest american hero the flying red centre hero abc one nine eight one eight three mahjong is featured in amy tan s novel the joy luck club and its one nine nine three film adaptation mahjong has always appeared in one way or another in hong kong made movies or tv drama since it is considered as a daily life of a chinese lifestyle two recent cantonese movies fat choi spirit and kung fu mahjong parody the game s subculture the tile that translates to red dragon is used as a major plot point in the same titled thomas harris novel as well as its two film adaptations manhunter and red dragon see also computer mahjong games played with mahjong equipment mahjong culture mahjong buzzword mahjong slang mahjong solitaire mahjong movie mahjong manga mahjong strategy and tactics list of free mahjong programs list of mahjong topics references print matter lo amy the book of mah jong an illustrated guide tuttle publishing two zero zero one isbn zero eight zero four eight three three zero two eight oxfeld ellen blood sweat and mahjong family and enterprise in an overseas chinese community anthropology of contemporary issues cornell university press one nine nine three isbn zero eight zero one four nine nine zero eight nine pritchard david teach yourself mahjong mcgraw hill contemporary two zero zero one isbn zero six five eight zero two one four seven eight websites play mahjong onlineonline live games you can play against other players two four seven no download required chinese official and hong kong versions available jade dragon mahjong game multiplayer play chinese official hong kong taiwan one six tile european american rules with help for beginners mahjong faq of newsgroup news rec games mahjong rules of singapore mahjong national mah jongg league how to play the japanese three player mahjong variation on the standard four player game japanese mah jong rules description of game play rules exceptions hands listings nan s mah jong notes mahjongnews specialized in international news and mahjong tournaments mah jongg the tiles that bind is a documentary about the jewish and chinese women who play jim may s mah jong museum yahoo online mah jong wright patterson officers wives club mah jongg website mahjong in mame guide to japanese mahjong arcade games east wind is a free online japanese mahjong game with hundreds of players japanese only pussers bones is a set of mahjong rules developed by sailors in the royal australian navy footnotes butler jonathan the tiles of mah jong one nine nine six y z in ming dynasty chinese only chapter one six made in america bill bryson eddie cantor and his mahjong song why are so many players of american mah jongg jewish variants of mahjong in chinese wikipedia chinese only external links mahjong bulletin boards the maj exchange bulletin boards mahjong organizations national mah jongg league japan professional mahjong league japanese only nihon pro mahjong association japanese only new japan mahjong association japanese only open china championship chinese only deutsche mah jong liga german only f d ration fran aise de mah jongg french only mah jong montr al french english japanese mahjong denmark danish only nederlandse mahjong bond dutch only mahjong hungary hungarian only mahjongverband sterreich german only federazione italiana mah jong italian only deutsche mah jongg liga german only one nine two zero s fads chinese games chinese terms mahjong tile based games events one one nine one richard i of england marries berengaria of navarre one two six four the battle of lewes between king henry iii of england and the rebel simon de montfort six th earl of leicester begins one three two eight antipope nicholas v a claimant to the papacy is consecrated in rome by the bishop of venice one three six four jagiellonian university in krak w the oldest university in poland was founded in krak w poland one five five one national university of san marcos the oldest university in the americas was founded in lima peru one five eight eight french wars of religion henry iii of france flees paris after henry of guise enters the city one six eight nine king william s war william iii of england joins the league of augsburg starting a war with france one seven eight zero american revolutionary war charleston south carolina is taken by british forces one seven nine seven first coalition napoleon i of france conquers venice one eight six two u s federal troops occupy baton rouge louisiana one eight six four american civil war battle of spotsylvania court house thousands of union and confederate soldiers die in the bloody angle one eight seven zero the manitoba act was given the royal assent paving the way for manitoba to become a province of canada on july one five one eight seven three oscar ii of sweden norway is crowned king of sweden one eight eight one in north africa tunisia becomes a french protectorate one eight eight five north west rebellion the four day battle of batoche pitting rebel french canadians against the canadian government comes to an end with a decisive rebel defeat one eight nine zero the first ever official county championship match begins yorkshire beat gloucestershire by eight wickets at bristol george ulyett scores the first century in the competition one nine two six uk general strike one nine two six in the united kingdom a nine day general strike by trade unions ends one nine three two ten weeks after his abduction the infant son of charles lindbergh is found dead in hopewell new jersey just a few miles from the lindbergh s home one nine three seven coronation of king george vi of britain at westminster abbey one nine four two world war ii second battle of kharkov in the eastern ukraine the soviet army initiates a major offensive during the battle the soviets will capture the city of kharkov from the german army only to be encircled and destroyed one nine four two one five zero zero jews are sent to gas chambers in auschwitz one nine four nine cold war the soviet union lifts its blockade of berlin one nine five two gaj singh crowned maharaja of jodhpur one nine five eight a formal north american aerospace defense command agreement is signed between the united states and canada one nine six two douglas macarthur delivers his famous duty honor country valedictory speech at west point one nine six five the soviet spacecraft luna five crashes on the moon one nine six six busch memorial stadium home of the st louis cardinals major league baseball team opens in st louis missouri one nine six seven at queen elizabeth hall england pink floyd stages the first ever quadraphonic rock concert one nine seven zero ernie banks becomes the ninth member of the five zero zero home run club with a home run at wrigley field in chicago illinois one nine seven two the rolling stones release exile on main street often considered their best album one nine seven five mayag ez incident the cambodian navy seizes the american merchant ship ss mayaguez in international waters one nine seven eight in zaire rebels occupy the city of kolwezi the mining center of the province of shaba the government of zaire asks the u s france and belgium to restore order one nine eight nine a southern pacific railroad freight train derails on duffy street on the very steep cajon pass in san bernardino california one nine nine seven in the seven th inning of a baseball game between the anaheim angels and the chicago white sox the angels score one three runs one nine nine nine david steel becomes the first presiding officer speaker of the modern scottish parliament two zero zero zero the tate modern art gallery opens in london two zero zero one in copenhagen denmark tanel padar everybody two zero zero two former president jimmy carter arrives in cuba for a five day visit with fidel castro becoming first president of the united states in or out of office to visit the island since castro s one nine five nine revolution two zero zero three the riyadh compound bombings carried out by al qaeda kill two six two zero zero five the lymington branchline in england is launched as a heritage rail operation births one four zero one emperor shoko of japan d one four two eight one four nine six gustav i of sweden d one five six zero one five nine zero cosimo ii de medici grand duke of tuscany d one six two one one six two six louis hennepin flemish catholic missionary in north america one six seven zero king frederick augustus i of poland d one seven three three one seven zero zero luigi vanvitelli italian architect d one seven seven three one seven two five louis philip i duke of orl ans french soldier and writer d one seven eight five one seven six seven manuel de godoy spanish statesman d one eight five one one eight zero three justus von liebig german chemist d one eight seven three one eight zero six johan vilhelm snellman finnish statesman d one eight eight one one eight one two edward lear english author and poet d one eight eight eight one eight two zero florence nightingale english nurse d one nine one zero one eight two eight dante gabriel rossetti english poet and painter d one eight eight two one eight four five gabriel faur french composer d one nine two four one eight five zero henry cabot lodge u s statesman d one nine two four one eight six seven hugh trumble australian test cricketer d one nine three eight one eight eight zero lincoln ellsworth american scientist and polar explorer d one nine five one one eight eight nine otto frank german writer father of anne frank d one nine eight zero one eight nine two fritz kortner austrian born director d one nine seven zero one eight nine five william giauque canadian chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine eight two one eight nine nine indra devi yogi d two zero zero two one nine zero zero helene weigel german actress d one nine seven one one nine zero seven katharine hepburn american actress d two zero zero three one nine one zero charles b fulton american jurist d one nine nine six one nine one zero dorothy crowfoot hodgkin british chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine four one nine one two archibald cox u s solicitor general and watergate special prosecutor d two zero zero four one nine one four bertus aafjes dutch poet d one nine nine three one nine one four howard k smith american journalist d two zero zero two one nine one seven frank clair canadian football coach one nine one eight julius rosenberg american spy d one nine five three one nine two one joseph beuys german artist d one nine eight six one nine two one farley mowat canadian writer and naturalist one nine two four tony hancock british comedian d one nine six eight one nine two five yogi berra baseball player one nine two eight burt bacharach american composer one nine three five felipe alou dominican major league baseball manager one nine three six frank stella american painter one nine three six tom snyder american journalist and television personality one nine three seven george carlin american comedian one nine three seven beryl burton english cyclist one nine three nine ron ziegler white house press secretary d two zero zero three one nine four two ian dury british musician d two zero zero zero one nine four eight steve winwood english singer songwriter and musician blind faith traffic the spencer davis group one nine five zero bruce boxleitner american actor one nine five zero billy squier american singer songwriter and guitarist one nine five zero gabriel byrne irish actor one nine five five kix brooks american musician one nine five six bernie federko canadian ice hockey player one nine six one lar park lincoln american actress one nine six two emilio estevez american actor one nine six three vanessa a williams american actress one nine six four brett gurewitz american guitarist bad religion one nine six six stephen baldwin american actor one nine six eight tony hawk american skateboarder one nine six nine kim fields american actress one nine seven zero mike weir canadian golfer one nine seven zero jim furyk american golfer one nine seven five jonah lomu new zealand rugby player one nine seven seven graeme dott scottish snooker player one nine seven eight hossein reza zadeh iranian weightlifter one nine seven eight jason biggs american actor one nine eight one kentaro sato japanese composer one nine nine two malcolm david kelley american child actor one nine nine three kayla rolland school shooting victim d two zero zero zero one nine nine five jean carlos chera brazilian footballer one nine nine five sawyer and sullivan sweeten american child actors deaths one zero zero three pope silvester ii one zero one two pope sergius iv one three eight two queen joan i of naples b one three two seven one three nine nine demetrius i starshiy killed in battle b one three two seven one six three four george chapman english writer one six four one thomas wentworth earl of strafford english statesman b one five nine three one six eight four edme mariotte french physicist and priest one six nine nine lucas achtschellinck flemish painter b one six two six one seven zero zero john dryden english writer b one six three one one seven zero eight adolf friedrich ii of mecklenburg strelitz b one six five eight one seven four eight thomas lowndes english astronomer b one six nine two one seven five nine lambert sigisbert adam french sculptor b one seven zero zero one seven eight four abraham trembley swiss naturalist b one seven one zero one seven nine two charles simon favart french dramatist b one seven one zero one seven nine six johann peter uz german poet b one seven two zero one eight four five j nos bacsanyi hungarian poet b one seven six three one eight five nine sergei aksakov russian writer b one seven nine one one eight six zero charles barry english architect b one seven nine five one eight six seven friedrich william eduard gerhard german archaeologist b one seven nine five one eight seven one anselme payen french physicist b one seven nine five one eight eight four bed ich smetana czech composer b one eight two four one eight eight nine john cadbury english chocolate entrepreneur b one eight zero one one nine zero seven joris karl huysmans french author b one eight four eight one nine two five amy lowell american poet b one eight seven four one nine three five j zef pi sudski polish statesman b one eight six seven one nine four four max brand american author b one eight nine two one nine four four q british writer b one eight six three one nine five six louis calhern american actor b one eight nine five one nine five seven erich von stroheim film director and actor b one eight eight five one nine six three bobby kerr canadian runner b one eight eight two one nine six seven john masefield british writer b one eight seven eight one nine seven zero nelly sachs german writer nobel prize laureate b one eight nine one one nine seven one heinie manush baseball player b one nine zero one one nine eight five jean dubuffet french painter b one nine zero one one nine eight six elisabeth bergner austrian actress b one eight nine seven one nine nine zero chen kenmin japanese chef b one nine one two one nine nine two robert reed american actor b one nine three two one nine nine four john smith british politician b one nine three eight one nine nine four erik erikson german psychoanalyst b one nine zero two one nine nine five mia martini italian singer b one nine four seven one nine nine nine saul steinberg romanian american cartoonist b one nine one four two zero zero zero adam petty american race car driver b one nine eight zero two zero zero one perry como american singer b one nine one two two zero zero three sadruddin aga khan french un high commissioner for refugees b one nine three three two zero zero five monica zetterlund swedish actress and singer b one nine three seven two zero zero five martin lings english islamic scholar b one nine zero nine holidays and observances feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church domitilla achilleus and nereus saint pancras epiphanius modoald imelda lambertini israel yom ha atzma ut israeli independence day for two zero zero five the observed date of this national holiday is determined by the jewish calendar international nurses day external links bbc on this day today in history may one two may one one may one three april one two june one two listing of all days mariah carey born march two seven one nine seven zero is an american r they presented a more overtly sexual and hip hop oriented sound and image in two zero zero one issues between carey and her label executives led her to part ways with them and she signed a lucrative deal with virgin records shortly after however she was dropped the following year after a highly publicised physical breakdown and the notoriously poor reception of glitter her film and soundtrack project after signing to island def jam records in two zero zero two she returned to the forefront of popular music in two zero zero five with the success of her ninth studio album the emancipation of mimi since her debut carey has scored seventeen number one singles on the u s billboard charts tying the record with elvis presley for the most u s number one hits by a solo artist in two zero zero three she was declared as the most successful and number one selling female artist in the history of recorded music by the ifpi she is also well known for her five octave vocal range where the use of the whistle register and melisma are central features of her singing style biography and music career early life and discovery carey was born in huntington new york she is the third and youngest child of patricia hickey a former opera singer and voice coach of irish american roman catholic extraction and alfred roy carey n n ez an aeronautical engineer of mixed african american and hispanic venezuelan descent she was named after the song they call the wind maria from the musical paint your wagon carey s older brother morgan suffered from epilepsy while her older sister alison developed a drug addiction and was arrested for prostitution in two zero zero five as a multiracial family the carey household was met with racial slurs hostility and sometimes violence causing the family to move frequently around the new york area the strain on the family led to the divorce of carey s parents when she was three years old carey had little contact with her father and her mother worked several jobs to support the family spending much of her time at home alone carey turned to music as an outlet she began singing at the age of four and first performed in public at the age of six she began writing songs while in grade school and her mother and the members of her opera company were impressed with her talents when carey hit a cue note that her mother had missed carey attended and graduated from oldfield middle school and harborfields high school in greenlawn new york although she was frequently absent due to efforts to break into the music business after moving to new york city and completing five hundred hours of beauty school she eventually landed a role as a backup singer for brenda k starr in one nine eight eight carey met columbia records executive tommy mottola at a party where starr gave him a demo tape mottola played the tape while leaving the party and was very impressed by what he heard he returned to the party to find carey but she had already left nevertheless mottola tracked her down and signed her to a recording contract this cinderella like story became part of the standard publicity surrounding carey s entrance into the industry one nine nine zero one nine nine two early commercial success carey s professional music career began with the release of her eponymous debut album mariah carey in one nine nine zero carey co wrote all of the compositions on the album with songwriter producers such as ric wake and rhett lawrence and would continue to co write nearly all of her material for the rest of her career the album ascended to number one on the u s billboard two zero zero chart a year after its release where it remained for eleven weeks it produced four number one singles making carey a star in the united states elsewhere however the album s success was limited in one nine nine one carey won her first two grammy awards for best new artist and best female pop vocal performance for her debut single vision of love carey performing on mtv unplugged in one nine nine two emotions carey s second album was released in the fall of one nine nine one to critical and commercial success britain s q magazine described emotions as a technically perfect example of mainstream r its first single the title track emotions gave carey the distinction of being the only recording act in history to have their first five singles reach number one on the u s hot one zero zero chart but the album s follow up singles failed to maintain this feat carey had been lobbying for the ability to produce her own songs and beginning with emotions would co produce most of her material she would also begin writing and producing for other artists such as penny ford and daryl hall within the coming year although she had fulfilled several concert dates to support her debut album carey had not embarked on any major public tours her first widely seen concert appearance was on the television show mtv unplugged in may one nine nine two and her performance proved that her vocal abilities were not as some had previously speculated simulated using studio techniques in addition to acoustic versions of some of her earlier songs carey premiered a cover of the jackson five s i ll be there on the special with back up singer trey lorenz the duet was released as a single and became carey s sixth number one hit in the u s while her unplugged setlist was later released on the ep mtv unplugged entertainment weekly called it the strongest most genuinely musical record she has ever made did this live performance help her take her first steps toward growing up sandow greg mtv unplugged ep entertainment weekly june one nine one nine nine two one nine nine three one nine nine six worldwide popularity carey then two three and tommy mottola four three had become romantically involved and in june one nine nine three they were married in an episcopalian ceremony in manhattan her third studio album music box was released later that year and became her most successful album worldwide it yielded her first uk number one hit a cover of badfinger s without you as well as the u s number one singles dreamlover and hero carey s attempt at a mellower work than her previous efforts was met with generally positive reviews with billboard magazine proclaiming it as heart piercing easily the most elemental of carey s releases her vocal eurythmics in natural sync with the songs some were less praiseful all music guide said carey blended into the background and let the tracks guide her instead of pushing and exploding through them and rolling stone s stephen holden criticised carey s lyrics which are made up entirely of pop and soul clich s carey and boyz ii men recording one sweet day one nine nine five one of carey s most successful singles following a hit duet with luther vandross of diana ross endless love carey released the holiday album merry christmas in late one nine nine four in addition to covers of traditional christmas songs it contained a very successful original holiday song all i want for christmas is you the single became her first number one hit in japan and was described as a well crafted phil spector tribute by roch parisien who dismissed merry christmas as an otherwise vanilla set the album was popular with the public becoming one of the most successful christmas albums of all time in one nine nine five carey released daydream which combined the pop sensibilities of music box with modern r fantasy became only the second single to debut at number one in the u s and spent twelve weeks at number one in canada one sweet day a duet with boyz ii men spent a still record sixteen weeks at number one and always be my baby appeared at number one on the one nine nine six year end airplay charts daydream generated career best reviews for carey and was named one of one nine nine five s best albums by publications such as the new york times who wrote that its best cuts bring pop candy making to a new peak of textural refinement and noted that carey s songwriting has taken a leap forward becoming more relaxed sexier and less reliant on thudding cliches holden stephen mariah carey glides into new territory new york times p seven six october one three one nine nine five carey was the recipient of several awards following the success of the album and received six grammy nominations but lost in all categories one nine nine seven two zero zero zero independence and new image carey and mottola separated in one nine nine seven although she had often projected the image of a happy marriage to the public in reality she had felt emotionally and psychologically abused by mottola whom she often described as controlling their divorce became final the following year the lyrics and music video for honey one nine nine seven presented a more overtly sexual image of carey than had been previously seen carey s one nine nine seven album butterfly saw her continuing to move in an r honey presented a more overtly sexual image of carey than had been previously seen my all the album s fifth single was her thirteenth u s number one an unprecedented feat for a female artist j r reynolds said butterfly pushes the envelope a move that he thought may prove disconcerting to more conservative fans but reynolds still praised the album as a welcome change a review in the los angeles times said butterfly is easily the most personal confessional sounding record she s ever done carey bashing just might become a thing of the past one nine nine seven also marked the year that carey became a major songwriter and producer for other artists contributing to the debut albums of allure seven mile and blaque she also wrote songs for the soundtracks to the films men in black one nine nine seven and how the grinch stole christmas two zero zero zero and began to develop her own film soundtrack project all that glitters towards the turn of the millennium carey became a prominent figure in hip hop music and collaborated with both new and established rappers during one nine nine eight carey had a romance with new york yankees baseball player derek jeter who was also biracial she would state later that while the timing was not right for their relationship it did teach her that multiracial families could function well that year saw the release of the album one s a collection of her u s number one singles up to that point included amongst the new material on the album was when you believe a duet with whitney houston recorded for the soundtrack to the prince of egypt that won an academy award for best song the album sold well but a review in nme magazine labelled carey a purveyor of saccharine bilge like hero whose message seems wholesome enough that if you vacate your mind of all intelligent thought flutter your eyelashes and wish hard sweet babies and honey will follow also that year she appeared on the first televised vh one divas benefit concert program with singers such as aretha franklin and shania twain though carey s alleged prima donna behavior had already led many to consider her a diva by the following year she had begun a relationship with singer luis miguel rainbow carey s sixth studio album was released in one nine nine nine like butterfly it was comprised of pop and more r carey intended them to express her feelings about her divorce two years previously both heartbreaker and thank god i found you the former featuring jay z the latter featuring joe and boyband nine eight degrees reached number one in the u s however despite several other collaborations with artists such as usher and snoop dogg rainbow became her lowest selling lp up to that point reviews were not as favourable as those of her previous releases with the washington post characterising the album as a major disappointment although the recipient of several awards in recognition of her decade spanning career such as billboard s artist of the decade award and the world music award for the world s best selling female artist of the millennium a further sign of decline appeared when the double a side crybaby can t take that away the final release from rainbow became her first single to peak outside of the u s top twenty via her website carey publicly accused sony of mishandling the release of the single two zero zero one two zero zero four personal and career struggles following a successful decade at columbia records carey finally ended her contract and signed a five album deal with emi s virgin records worth a reported us eight zero million just a few months later in july two zero zero one it was widely reported that carey had suffered a physical and emotional breakdown she had left voicemail messages on her website which were quickly removed to her fans complaining of being overworked and her relationship with luis miguel was ending carey made a notorious appearance on mtv s total request live where she handed out popsicles to the teen aged audience and began what was later described by some as a strip tease by the month s end carey had checked into a psychiatric hospital and her publicist announced that she would be taking a break from public appearances a scene from carey s poorly received star vehicle glitter two zero zero one her much delayed semi autobiographical film titled glitter was panned by most critics upon its release and became a box office failure see below its soundtrack album glitter released by virgin generated her worst showing to date on the u s charts kevin c johnson of the st louis post dispatch dismissed the album as an absolute mess that ll go down as an annoying blemish on a career that while not always critically heralded was at least nearly consistently successful while blender thought after years of trading her signature flourishes for a radio ready purr carey s left with almost no presence at all lead single loverboy reached number two on the hot one zero zero thanks to a price cut but the album s follow up singles all failed to chart shortly after the disastrous release of glitter and just before christmas columbia released a second compilation album the two cd greatest hits in early two zero zero two virgin decided to drop carey from their roster and they bought out her contract for two eight million as an addition to the two one million paid the previous year when signing giving her another round of bad publicity later that year she signed a three album contract with island records def jam to add further to carey s emotional burdens her father died of cancer following a well received supporting role in the independent film wisegirls see below carey released a new album charmbracelet which she said marked a new lease on life for her charmbracelet sold poorly and the quality of carey s vocals which had previously been perceived as her strong point came under severe criticism the boston globe declared the album as the worst of her career revealing a voice no longer capable of either gravity defying gymnastics or soft coos and barry walters of rolling stone commented carey needs bold songs that help her use the power and range for which she is famous charmbracelet is like a stream of watercolors that bleed into a puddle of brown singles such as through the rain failed both on the charts and with pop radio whose playlists had become less open to maturing diva stylists such as carey whitney houston and c line dion i know what you want carey s two zero zero three duet with busta rhymes recorded for his eighth album fared considerably better and reached the top five in the u s columbia later included it on the remix collection the remixes which failed to find an audience and became carey s lowest selling album that year she was awarded the diamond award by the world music awards show in honour of selling over one five zero million albums worldwide she was featured on rapper jadakiss single u make me wanna in two zero zero four which reached the top ten of billboard s r present return of the voice don t forget about us two zero zero five has tied carey with elvis presley for the most u s number one singles by a solo recording artist carey s ninth studio album the emancipation of mimi was released in two zero zero five it was advertised as the return of the voice though carey maintained that the voice had always been there slant magazine wrote whatever the songs lack they make up for in restraint brevity keeps you wanting more a critic for the guardian defined it as a tough cookie of an album and cool focused and urban the first mariah carey tunes in years i wouldn t have to be paid to listen to again it became the year s best selling album in the u s the first by a female solo artist to do so since one nine nine six and won a grammy award for best contemporary r we belong together became the biggest hit of two zero zero five and carey s career it topped the u s charts for fourteen weeks reached number one in several other countries was honored as the world s most played single of the year at the world music awards and received two grammys don t forget about us became carey s seventeenth number one in the u s tying her with elvis presley for the most number ones by a solo artist according to billboard magazine s revised methodology their own statician however credits presley with an eighteenth by this count carey is behind only the beatles who are currently credited with twenty number one singles producer jermaine dupri carey s frequent collaborator reported in early two zero zero six that he had arranged for her to record a duet with fellow r letter perfect and tony lee simply stated no she can t act carey s first starring role was in glitter a two zero zero one film that had been in development as a vehicle for carey since one nine nine seven in it she played billie frank a struggling singer and songwriter who breaks into the music industry after she meets dj julian dice max beesley reviews were scathing while roger ebert gave mild praise for carey s performance saying her acting ranges from dutiful flirtatiousness to intense sincerity most other critics panned it stephanie zacharek called carey numbingly bland in her role and michael atkinson observed when she tries for an emotion any emotion she looks as if she s lost her car keys glitter was a box office failure and carey earned a razzie award for her role she has since referred to the film as a diva moment carey with melora walters and mira sorvino in wisegirls two zero zero two carey next appeared co starring with mira sorvino and melora walters as a tough talking waitress in the independent film wisegirls which premiered at the sundance film festival in two zero zero two critics who saw the film lauded carey for her efforts kirk honeycutt of the hollywood reporter predicted those scathing notices for glitter will be a forgotten memory for the singer once people warm up to raychel and roger freidman referring to her as a thelma ritter for the new millennium said her line delivery is sharp and she manages to get the right laughs wisegirls producer anthony esposito cast carey in another film the sweet science about an unknown but talented boxer who is recruited by a determined female boxing manager however the project later fell into development hell while wisegirls was not given a theatrical release and went straight to cable in the united states carey became one of several musicians to make cameo appearances in the independently produced damon dash films death of a dynasty two zero zero three and state property two two zero zero five her small screen work has been more limited she played a legal client of the title character in ally mcbeal in january two zero zero two and appeared in an episode of the animated children s series the proud family in october two zero zero three voice carey is credited as having a five octave vocal range she can cover all the notes from the alto range leading to those of a coloratura soprano her vocal trademark is her ability to sing in the whistle register she has often been incorrectly credited as having a six or seven octave vocal range it has been suggested that carey s publicists falsely claimed this at the start of her career although it may also be a misstatement of the fact that carey frequently accesses the notes situated in the seventh octave carey s voice has come under minor scrutiny from some critics who believe that she does not effectively communicate the message of her songs rolling stone in a negative review of the album emotions wrote carey has a remarkable vocal gift but to date unfortunately her singing has been far more impressive than expressive at full speed her range is so superhuman that each excessive note erodes the believability of the lyric she is singing while others have referred to her high notes as dog whistles in comparison criticisms were levelled at what carey herself described as breathy vocals in some of her later songs on albums such as charmbracelet said carey some people are of the opinion that if you have a big voice you should use it all the time but i don t want to hear someone scream at me all the time carey s voice which is a continual subject of both positive and negative debate was voted as the greatest voice in music in mtv and blender magazine s countdown of the two two greatest voices in music and is believed to have influenced singers such as christina aguilera and kelly clarkson in cove magazine s poll of the one zero zero outstanding pop vocalists she placed second behind aguilera other activities carey is a philanthropist who has donated both time and millions of dollars to organizations such as the make a wish foundation the national adoption center vh one s save the music foundation and the fresh air fund among many others carey is well known nationally for her work with the make a wish foundation in granting the wishes of the terminally ill caleb boulter who called her a very real person who overflows with compassion and love for others as part of her involvement with the fresh air fund she is the co founder of a camp located in fishkill new york that enables inner city youth to embrace the arts be introduced to career opportunities and build self esteem the camp was named camp mariah in honour of carey s work with the fresh air fund and she received a congressional award titled the horizon award for her charity work on behalf of children carey performed as part of the america a tribute to heroes nationally televised fundraiser in the aftermath of the september one one two zero zero one attacks and in december two zero zero one she performed before u s peacekeeping troops in kosovo she hosted the cbs television special at home for the holidays with mariah carey which documented real life stories of adopted children and foster families in july two zero zero five carey performed for live eight at the live eight concert london with the african children s choir she was also a participant in the shelter from the storm telethon following hurricane katrina s damage to the u s gulf coast later that year carey who considered writing her autobiography with david ritz has instead chosen to fictionalize her life story and adapt it into a series of illustrated children s books titled automatic princess about an orphaned young girl who is biracial also forthcoming is a clothing and accessories line known as automatic princess as well as a lingerie line kiss kiss which will be available for women in all sizes carey s fashion sense has itself often been criticized for exposing too much of her or just being poorly put together discography albums mariah carey one nine nine zero nine platinum emotions one nine nine one five platinum mtv unplugged one nine nine two three platinum music box one nine nine three one zero platinum merry christmas one nine nine four five platinum daydream one nine nine five one zero platinum butterfly one nine nine seven five platinum one s one nine nine eight five platinum rainbow one nine nine nine three platinum glitter two zero zero one platinum greatest hits two zero zero one platinum charmbracelet two zero zero two platinum the remixes two zero zero three n a the emancipation of mimi two zero zero five six platinum number one singles see also list of songs by mariah carey list of unreleased songs by mariah carey sales and charts achievements for mariah carey world sales and certifications for mariah carey list of mariah carey awards grammy awards and nominations for mariah carey list of music videos for mariah carey singles list of best selling music artists list of artists who reached number one on the hot one zero zero u s list of artists who reached number one on the u s dance chart notes references cole melanie mariah carey one nine nine seven uk mitchell lane publishers inc isbn one eight eight three eight four five five one three uk nickson chris mariah carey her story one nine nine five uk saint martin s press isbn zero three one two one three one two one six uk nickson chris mariah carey revisited an unauthorised biography one nine nine eight uk saint martin s press isbn zero three one two one nine five one two five uk parker judy mariah carey two zero zero one uk franklin watts ltd isbn zero five one six two nine six zero zero zero uk shapiro marc mariah carey two zero zero one uk ecw press canada isbn one five five zero two two four four four one uk wellman sam mariah carey galaxy of superstars two zero zero zero uk chelsea house publishers isbn zero seven nine one zero five three three three four uk mariah carey credits all music guide retrieved november one eight two zero zero five u s charts and sales compiled by billboard magazine http www billboard com and nielsen soundscan http www soundscan com uk charts compiled by the official uk charts company http www theofficialcharts com canadian charts compiled by jam canoe http jam canoe ca and members aol com http members aol com skrebs chartdata canada htm australian charts compiled by the australian recording industry association http www aria com au japanese charts compiled by oricon http www oricon co jp and members aol com http www mariah charts com chartdata tokio htm bedell geraldine something about mariah the observer november one seven two zero zero two retrieved november one four two zero zero five rottenberg josh mariah carey interview glamour magazine november one nine nine nine retrieved july one one two zero zero five episode of people in the news cnn aired april three zero two zero zero five transcript retrieved november one eight two zero zero five episode of larry king live cnn aired december one nine two zero zero two transcript retrieved november one eight two zero zero five miss mariah cosmopolitan december one nine nine seven retrieved november one eight two zero zero five erlewine stephen thomas daydream review all music guide retrieved august one eight two zero zero five daydream lamb bill daydream about com retrieved august one eight two zero zero five daydream erlewine stephen thomas rainbow review all music guide retrieved august one nine two zero zero five rainbow friedman roger mariah melts down madonna disappoints fox news july two six two zero zero one retrieved december nine two zero zero five breakdown the emancipation of mimi tatara paul review the bachelor cold feet bad film cnn com november nine one nine nine nine retrieved december one zero two zero zero five the bachelor young jeff the bachelor review videovista issue one seven august two zero zero zero retrieved december one zero two zero zero five the bachelor ebert roger glitter glosses over important moments chicago sun times september two three two zero zero one retrieved from the wayback machine on december one zero two zero zero five glitter film zacharek stephanie glitter salon com september two zero two zero zero one retrieved december one zero two zero zero five glitter film atkinson michael eat drink man mariah the village voice september two six october two two zero zero one retrieved december one zero two zero zero five glitter film honeycutt kirk wisegirls hollywood reporter january one five two zero zero two retrieved december one zero two zero zero five wisegirls friedman roger mariah makes good in mob movie fox news january one four two zero zero two retrieved december one zero two zero zero five wisegirls moss corey despite glitter mariah carey s movie career could still sparkle mtv com february two zero two zero zero two retrieved december one zero two zero zero five wisegirls wisegirls carey sad over wisegirls flop contactmusic com april one one two zero zero five retrieved december one zero two zero zero five wisegirls moody nekesa mumbi u two upstages mariah carey with five grammys february nine two zero zero six retrieved february nine two zero zero six associated press charity work mariah carey makes a sick boy s dreams come true popdirt com december two three two zero zero two retrieved december one zero two zero zero five caleb boulter fresh air fund summer programs summer camping fresh air fund retrieved december one zero two zero zero five camp mariah mariah carey to receive congressional award for charity efforts mtv com april one three one nine nine nine retrieved december one zero two zero zero five horizon award duffy mike mariah carey leads heartfelt holiday special to promote adoption detroit free press december two one two zero zero one retrieved from the wayback machine on december one zero two zero zero five at home for the holidays vineyard jennifer and norris john mariah carey talking to publishers about autobiography mtv com september two five two zero zero five retrieved december one zero two zero zero five autobiography vineyard jennifer mariah carey plans to pen series of children s books mtv com june nine two zero zero four retrieved december one zero two zero zero five automatic princess book series automatic princess fashion line mariah s lingerie to be released next year tonight co za december one four two zero zero four retrieved december one zero two zero zero five kiss kiss four eight th grammy awards winners and nominations february nine two zero zero six external links mariahcarey com official website mariah carey at all music guide mariah carey at rock on the net snopes articles debunking various carey related legends jordan vocal range starving kids mariah carey clips of live preformances videos and interviews one nine seven zero births american r b singers american female singers american film actors american pop singers american singer songwriters artist producers dance top four zero acts in united states gay icons irish americans living people long islanders mariah carey multiracial americans music video directors record producers rhythmic top four zero acts venezuelan americans whistle register singers seventh octave wonders worst actress razzie mervyn laurence peake july nine one nine one one november one seven one nine six eight was a british modernist writer artist poet and illustrator he is best known for what are usually referred to as the gormenghast books though the titus books would be more accurate the four works that exist were the beginning of what peake conceived as a lengthy cycle following his protagonist titus groan from cradle to grave but peake s untimely death interrupted the cycle at what is now commonly but erroneously called a trilogy they are sometimes compared to the work of his contemporary j r r tolkien but his surreal fiction was influenced by his early love for charles dickens and robert louis stevenson rather than tolkien s studies of mythology and philology peake also wrote a number of nonsense poems a children s story letters from a lost uncle a radio play and mr pye a relatively tightly structured novel in which god implicitly mocks the evangelical pretensions and cosy world view of the eponymous hero peake first made his reputation as a painter and illustrator during the one nine three zero s and one nine four zero s when he lived in london and he was often commissioned to produce portraits of well known people a collection of these drawings is still in the possession of his family although he gained little popular success in his lifetime his work was highly respected by his peers and his friends included dylan thomas and graham greene his works are now included in the collections of the national portrait gallery and the imperial war museum biography mervyn peake was born in kuling in central china in one nine one one of british parents his father ernest cromwell peake was a doctor and christian missionary oriental influences can be detected in his work not least in the castle of gormenghast itself which in some respects resembles a tibetan lamasery more than the gothic castle it is meant to be however it is likely that his early exposure to the extreme contrasts between the lives of the poor and the refined highly structured lives of the chinese nobility also exerted a strong influence on the gormenghast books peake attended tientsin grammar school until the family returned to england in one nine two three his education continued at eltham college mottingham one nine two three one nine two nine where his talents were encouraged by his english teacher eric drake he completed his formal education at croydon school of art and at the royal academy schools from one nine two nine to one nine three three where he first painted in oils and wrote his first long poems he first exhibited at the royal academy and with the so called soho group in one nine three one his early career in the one nine three zero s was as a painter in london although he lived on the channel island of sark for a time he first moved to sark in one nine three two after visiting his former teacher eric drake who lived there with a group of other artists in one nine three four he exhibited with the sark artists at the cooling galleries in london and in one nine three five he exhibited at the royal academy and at the leger galleries in london in one nine three six he returned to london and was commissioned to design the sets and costumes for insect play and his work was acclaimed in the sunday times he also began teaching life drawing at westminster school of art where he met painter maeve gilmore whom he married in one nine three seven they had three children sebastian b one nine four zero fabian b one nine four two and clare b one nine four nine he had a very successful exhibition of paintings at the calmann gallery in london in one nine three eight and his first book the self illustrated children s pirate romance captain slaughterboard drops anchor based on a story he had written around one nine three six was first published in one nine three nine by country life in december one nine three nine he was commissioned by chatto outstanding in one nine four five he was commissioned by a magazine to visit france and germany shortly after the war had ended with writer tom pocock he was one of the first britons to witness the horrors of the nazi concentration camp at belsen he made many drawings of the scenes he encountered but not surprisingly he found the experience profoundly harrowing in one nine four six the family moved to sark where peake continued to write and illustrate and maeve painted gormenghast was published in one nine five zero and the family moved back to the uk settling in smarden kent peake taught part time at the central school of art began his comic novel mr pye and renewed his interest in theatre his father died that year and left his house in wallington surrey to mervyn mr pye was published in one nine five three and he later adapted it as a radio play the bbc broadcast other plays of his in one nine five four and one nine five six in one nine five six mervyn and maeve visited spain so that mervyn could convalesce after an illness and the novella boy in darkness was published on one eight december in this year the bbc broadcast his radio play the eye of the beholder also called the voice of one in which an avante garde artist is commissioned to paint a church mural he placed much hope in his play the wit to woo which was finally staged in the london s west end in one nine five seven but it was a critical and commercial failure this affected him greatly his health degenerated rapidly and he was again admitted to hospital with a nervous breakdown by one nine five eight he was showing unmistakable early symptoms of parkinson s disease and over the next few years he gradually lost the ability to draw steadily and quickly although he still managed to produce some drawings with the help of his wife among his last completed works were the illustrations for balzac s droll stories one nine six one and for his own poem the rhyme of the flying bomb one nine six two which he had written some fifteen years earlier titus alone was published in one nine five nine and was revised by langdon jones in one nine seven zero to remove apparent inconsistencies introduced by the publisher s careless editing peake died in november one nine six eight his work and the gormenghast books in particular became much better known and more widely appreciated after his death and they have since been reprinted in many languages four collections of his poems were published during his lifetime shapes it was first performed in wuppertal germany in november one nine nine eight a number of early songs by new zealand rock group split enz were inspired by peake s work bibliography captain slaughterboard drops anchor one nine three nine shapes and sounds one nine four one rhymes without reason one nine four four titus groan one nine four six the craft of the lead pencil one nine four six letters from a lost uncle from polar regions one nine four eight drawings by mervyn peake one nine four nine gormenghast one nine five zero the glassblowers one nine five zero mr pye one nine five three figures of speech one nine five four titus alone one nine five nine the rhyme of the flying bomb one nine six two poems and drawings one nine six five a reverie of bone and other poems one nine six seven selected poems one nine seven two a book of nonsense one nine seven two the drawings of mervyn peake one nine seven four mervyn peake writings and drawings one nine seven four twelve poems one nine seven five boy in darkness first separate edition one nine seven six peake s progress one nine seven eight ten poems one nine nine three eleven poems one nine nine five the cave one nine nine six external links mervyn peake the official site peake studies the scriptorium mervyn peake an excellence of peake by michael moorcock a reverie of bone a peake appreciation by langdon jones who edited some of his work gormenghast castle mervyn peake an introduction to his prose works references gilmore m johnson one nine seven four mervyn peake writings and drawings academy press london one nine one one births one nine six eight deaths english illustrators modern artists english poets english novelists english fantasy writers congregationalists gormenghast londoners hawaiian state grappling championships a martial art often referred to as a fighting system is a system of codified practices and traditions of training for combat usually but not always without the use of guns and other modern weapons today people study martial arts for various reasons including sport fitness self defense self cultivation meditation mental discipline and character development and self confidence the term martial arts is slightly anomalous in its english usage its strict meaning should be arts for military use flying fighter aircraft sniper training and so forth but in normal usage it is used to refer to formalized systems of training to fight without modern technology the term military science has derived into the latter meaning it is nevertheless valuable to distinguish between fighting systems intended for soldiers in battle even without modern technology and fighting systems intended for sport or for civilian self defense the practice of martial arts in china dates back to at least the zhou dynasty i e over two five zero zero years ago when students were required to master the li y chinese six arts rites music archery charioteering calligraphy and mathematics so the word y has long been associated with fighting arts that can be used in battle knowledge of chinese martial arts traveled to okinawa and japan but these countries already had their indigenous fighting systems whose origins are lost in the fog of pre history overview there are many styles and schools of martial arts broadly speaking they share a common goal to physically defeat a person or defend oneself some eastern martial arts have a tradition of being about more than simple fighting which is perhaps why their practice has been seen as worth preserving in the face of their military obsolescence in modern technological culture some believe that it is worthwhile practicing martial arts because the principles of warriorship and understanding of tactics and strategy remain applicable in modern warfare certain martial arts such as t ai chi ch uan may also be practiced to maintain or improve mental or physical health what differentiates the martial arts from mere unarmed brawling is the organization of their techniques into a coherent system and the codification of effective teaching methods one common training technique is to have a series of routines called forms also called kata poomse ch an t ao kuen tao lu hyung sequencias or tuls which can serve as a dictionary of essential techniques to be memorized and drawn from at need martial arts are also characterized by the controlled mindful application of force in ways selected for empirical effectiveness in this sense boxing fencing archery and wrestling can also be considered martial arts martial arts may focus on striking e g boxing some styles of karate southern praying mantis wing chun krav maga bando kicking e g taekwondo savate capoeira lethwei tantui grappling and throwing e g wrestling shuai jiao jujutsu judo pehlwani sambo naban aikido qin na kampfringen hapkido or weaponry e g iaido naginata do bojutsu kendo fencing kali gatka banshay fechtkunst most martial arts include some study of all of these different areas of combat and some explicitly attempt to be complete systems such as eskrima many types of jujutsu many traditional wushu chinese martial arts and kalarippayattu some martial arts particularly the traditional chinese arts go beyond this to teach side disciplines such as bone setting qigong acupuncture acupressure tui na and other aspects of traditional chinese medicine this is a natural extension as at an advanced level techniques can take advantage of a detailed knowledge of how the opponent s body works to drastically increase their effectiveness the martial arts perhaps due to a half century of dramatic portrayals in popular media particuarly in films starring famous martial artist and martial arts stars such as bruce lee jackie chan and jet li see orientalism have been inextricably bound in the western romantic imagination to east asian cultures and people martial arts are by no means unique to asia however humans around the world have always had to develop ways to defend themselves from attack often without weapons not all martial arts were developed in asia savate for example was developed as a form of kickboxing in france capoeira s athletic movements were developed in brazil by slaves based on skills brought with them from africa history the history of martial arts is both long and universal martial arts likely existed in every culture and at all classes and levels of society from the family unit up to small communities for instance villages and even ethnic groups one example is t an t ui a northern chinese kicking art often said to be practiced among chinese muslims systems of fighting have likely been in development since learning became transferable among humans along with the strategies of conflict and war in some places such as indonesia and the philippines one can still see this plethora of village fighting systems every martial arts system and every martial arts school has its own history this generally falls into two categories recent history and ancient history recent history in this context is relatively verifiable whom did the teacher learn from where did the teacher study what other arts has the teacher studied and how has the teacher incorporated them into their teaching was the teacher given permission to teach by their own teacher what are the teacher s goals in teaching the class this last question deserves some explanation some classes are taught primarily to teach students to become effective competitors in tournaments whilst other classes are taught to attempt to teach the students to defend themselves effectively against anticipated situations further classes are taught to preserve an ancient tradition the practical details of these distinct kinds of classes will be very different ancient history at least in the sense used here is much more difficult in fact for most systems it is essentially a legend in the sense that it is propagated by word of mouth among students in the absence of verifiable evidence this is not to say that it is not also true however the importance of such a history does not depend on its truth the effect of such a legend on shaping the contemporary development of a martial art is probably much greater than the effect of events two hundred years previous at least five generations of passing the art on from teacher to student so an art that is believed to be an art of warriors will focus on battlefield effectiveness and weapon use against highly skilled opponents while an art that is believed to be for self defense will focus on reactions to surprise attack and multiple opponents the history of martial arts around the world is therefore quite complex on the one hand most groups of people have had to defend themselves and have developed effective fighting techniques but on the other hand most of those techniques have been rendered militarily obsolete over the centuries even at an individual rural level the threat to the safety of a village is now more likely to come from warriors armed with automatic rifles than from men with swords furthermore it is extremely difficult to preserve a martial art doing so requires many years of teaching at the hands of a good teacher to pass on the art for a single generation so it is relatively rare that a martial art would survive and become popular in today s culture and each art that has done so has a unique history some broad comments can be made though and the next few sections will attempt to discuss the overall rise to popularity of some martial arts martial arts in asia practicing martial arts is still a popular past time in modern china the teaching of martial arts in asia has historically followed the confucian cultural tradition of teacher disciple apprenticeship students are trained in a strictly hierarchical system by a master instructor guru in hindi sensei in japanese in chinese wade giles lao shih pinyin l o sh lit old master cantonese sifu mandarin wade giles shih fu pinyin sh f lit the master father sabeomnim also spelled sah bum nim korean kalari gurukkal malayalam south india the instructor is expected to directly supervise their students training and the students are expected to memorize and recite as closely as possible the rules and basic training routines of the school in traditional systems open speculation about training methods or the instructor s motives and personality is generally not tolerated in juniors as they are not considered familiar enough with the basic requirements of their respective arts to make realistic distinctions they are instead encouraged to repeatedly train applications of the forms and techniques that they ve been shown in gradually more complex scenarios in this confucian family based hierarchy those who enter instruction with the instructor before the student are considered older brothers and sisters those after younger brothers and sisters the instructor s peers are considered aunts and uncles etc into other generations above and below such clearly delineated relationships based on seniority are designed to develop intangibles such as good character patience and discipline in martial students as a matter of safety for the instructors the student body and the individual student before they are shown anything beyond the most basic conditioning exercises students learn their place in the school hierarchy students should learn how and why to clearly demonstrate respect for others and how to follow the directions of their instructors properly the traditional schools are said by this reasoning to provide thereby a level playing field for all students providing a relatively fixed framework for interaction with one s seniors peers and juniors so that everyone not just the physically gifted can have an opportunity to benefit from the training provided in a martial art school some method of certification can be involved where one s skills would be tested for mastery before being allowed to study further in some systems especially in china and other nations japan there are no such certifications only years of close personal practice and evaluation under a master much like an apprenticeship until the master deems one s skills satisfactory this pedagogy while still preserved and respected in many traditional styles has weakened to varying degrees in others and is even actively rejected by some schools especially in the west the interest in eastern martial arts dates back to the late one nine th century as americans became involved in china and japan this involvement was initially through trade where the martial arts seen were recorded as eccentricities of strange lands relatively few westerners actually practiced the arts most seeing them as performances this view held with many of the first asians to demonstrate martial arts in america and europe doing so as part of vaudeville shows as western influence grew in the east a greater number of military personnel spent time in china japan and elsewhere protecting western interests and advising certain factions on military matters initially much of this advice was aimed at changing the eastern way of fighting to a western way of fighting but gradually individual members of the western contingents began to see the value of eastern martial arts and actually began training in them seriously this training resulted in various techniques being incorporated into western military training this escalated to the extent that by the second world war nearly all commandos received training in japanese jujutsu judo after the war with large numbers of servicemen stationed in japan the adoption of techniques and the gradual transmission of entire systems of martial arts to the west started it was in the one nine five zero s however when this exportation of systems really began to gain momentum large groups of us military personnel were taught korean arts taekwondo during the war with north korea and many of these brought their training home and continued to practice and teach after their demobilisation by the one nine six zero s the japanese arts like karate and judo had become very popular the early one nine seven zero s saw martial arts in the movies and due in part to bruce lee the rise in popularity of chinese styles the exportation saw an increase in the dilution of the arts with many of them being molded into competitive disciplines sport karate for example became a major force internationally with professional fighters and big prizes television coverage and sponsorship deals the later one nine seven zero s and one nine eight zero s saw a rise in interest in non sport arts especially those that provided weapons as well as empty hand techniques this interest was fed by the media with magazines books and movies embracing the supposed mysticism and alleged supernatural lethality of various arts especially those claiming to be associated with ninja and neo ninja this in turn led to opportunistic teachers at one end of the spectrum exploiting the fashion by making many claims of the overwhelming superiority and rarity of their techniques to sell books videos and certificates yet providing little evidence of such superiority to the other end of simpler black belt factory schools selling expensive long term training contracts as well as a diverse array of uniforms and multicoloured belts to children of affluent suburban families martial arts were unearthed and brought to america from vietnam burma the philippines indonesia south america and almost every other corner of the earth others were simply invented by the unscrupulous out of previously existing styles or out of whole cloth some gained a measure of popularity due to the novelty of their claims of effectiveness in some cases justified this in turn led to further exploration of disciplines from korea japan and china for their historical and cultural value martial arts in europe martial arts with historical roots in europe do not exist to the same extent as in asia boxing as well as forms of wrestling have endured european martial arts have mostly adapted to changing technology and are truer to the english meaning of that phrase so that while their descendants still exist martial arts are focused on things like flying helicopters and infantry tactics for riflemen these are generally not referred to as martial arts martial arts existed in classical european civilization most notably in greece where sport was integral to the way of life boxing pygme pyx wrestling pale and pankration pan meaning all kratos meaning power or strength were represented in the ancient olympic games the romans produced gladiatorial combat as public spectacle based on a more martial sport some traditional martial arts have been preserved in one form or another for example boxing wrestling archery and fencing were preserved by being made into sports of course this has changed the practice significantly some historical fencing has survived and some groups have attempted to reconstruct old european martial arts from a few surviving combat manuals this includes such styles as sword and shield two handed swordfighting jousting and other types of melee weapons combat another aspect of the reconstruction effort involves more historically recent martial arts and combat sports such as those practiced during the one eight zero zero s and one nine zero zero s a partial list would include bare knuckle boxing bartitsu quarterstaff fencing according to late one eight zero zero s rules etc unarmed european martial arts that have survived in active form include english boxing olympic wrestling and french savate some weapon systems have also survived as folk sports and as self defence methods including stick fighting systems such as jogo do pau of portugal and the juego del palo style s of the canary islands other martial arts were made into sports that we no longer recognize as combative such as some kinds of gymnastics where the pommel horse is called a horse because it simulates a horse the art comes from the necessity of a cavalryman to be able to change positions and fight effectively from the back of a horse more ancient origins exist for the shot put and the javelin throw both weapons utilised extensively by the romans martial arts in the americas while the native peoples of north america had their own martial training these like much of their culture have been almost completely lost however the european colonists and later asian immigrants brought over their own martial arts such as boxing fencing and wrestling in one eight three one jim bowie is reputed to have won a duel killing three bandits with his soon to be famous bowie knife due to the sensationalism of american newspaper reports the bowie knife soon became the most popular personal blade being sold in the us schools of bowie fighting quickly sprung up across the country which probably drew from european influences and possibly drew from native influences although more in south america capoeira is a martial art originating in brazil that involves an incredible amount of flexibility and endurance it consists of kicks and sweeps although modern capoeira has incorporated punches and arm strikes martial arts internationally every village and tribe around the world had a few trained fighters who passed on their knowledge however it is difficult to pass on a fighting system so almost all of these have been lost as their practical relevance has declined a few have nonetheless survived for one reason or another and a very few of those have seen a recent boom in popularity perhaps related to the world music phenomenon examples of this are pehlwani india capoeira and some related arts in cuba haiti and trinidad and tobago which were preserved partly through their relationship with candombl santer a vodun and other syncretic religions of these only capoeira has risen to worldwide prominence the two zero zero three movie whale rider featured several scenes involving mau rakau a traditional martial art of the m ori people it involves the use of the taiaha a two handed fighting staff martial arts also developed among military and police forces to be used as arrest and self defense methods one example is krav maga a self defense system developed by the armed forces of israel another example is san shou developed for chinese armed forces and kombato developed for the brazilian armed forces lethal tactical arts for use in close quarter combat warfare i e military martial arts e g uac british line usa accs advanced commando combat system comparisons between martial arts it is common to compare the goals teaching methods and the techniques of different fighting systems in order to understand their similarities and differences such comparisons tend to be controversial when there is a lack of format in which a direct and objective comparison is possible in addition to physical combat many martial arts have spiritual or philosophical aspirations such as the various chinese japanese and korean martial arts that emphasise traditional confucian teaching methods some systems are sports oriented such as judo tae kwon do and wushu and have their own distinct set of rules which are incompatible with other systems some are described as reality based with a focus on self defense including jeet kune do defendo krav maga kombato and angeles eskrima as different martial arts often have differing goals it is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of various martial arts based on one general standard or method it is arguably impossible to directly compare the arts with fundamentally different domains of practice such as kendo against tae kwon do however many martial arts claim to be effective fighting disciplines within a particular context such as unarmed combat between two fighters self defense against multiple attackers use of specific weapons escaping from those seeking to harm or capture the practitioner and so on while some of these claims are sometimes difficult to assess an objective evaluation of practitioners may be achieved within context for instance regardless of background those sharing a common interest in hand to hand fighting may engage in sparring using a mutually accepted set of rules in order to determine who is the better fighter at that time an example of a martial arts tournament that attempted to answer the question of which fighting system is the best using as few rules as possible was the ultimate fighting championship in the united states in the early one nine nine zero s organizations such as the ufc have since evolved due to the rise of mixed martial arts mixed martial arts or mma is an eclectic modern form of martial arts cross training followers of this practice believe that no traditional fighting system is strictly better than all others and that by being competent and well trained in multiple areas one can become a better fighter overall due to this movement tournaments such as the ufc ultimate fighting championship and pride fighting championships have emphasized more on competition between individuals and less on competition between specific systems as virtually all participants in these events have become knowledgable in multiple systems while mma is currently seen largely as a form of sport competition with organization specific rules it can also be considered a school of thought in which the practitioner may incorporate any useful martial art technique into their personal training classification numerous criteria have been devised to classify different fighting systems though many of these criteria are either controversial or overly generalized for example while some chinese systems have traditionally been classified as either internal or external these notions require concepts such qi which are not necessarily applicable to all systems internationally another category is the notion of hard versus soft which asks whether a system relies on using force and power to defeat the opponent or instead on avoiding attacks and applying leverage the shotokan school of karate may be perceived as using a harder approach than judo does however many systems have both hard and soft aspects and do not always fit into either category a judo practitioner still uses full physical strength when throwing opponents in competition another set of similar concepts is striking versus grappling does the art focus on punching and kicking as in boxing and taekwondo or on clinching and holding as in wrestling and brazilian jiu jitsu while some systems may consist of mostly striking or mostly grappling various arts such as ninjutsu sambo or san shou among many others often utilize both areas in conjunction muay thai for example is studied primarily as a striking art yet it makes frequent use of the grappling technique double collar tie technical aspects fighting is a highly complex discipline in the past soldiers such as greek hoplites roman legionary roman legion mongolian cavalrymen manchu bannermen european knights and japanese samurai usually spent lifetimes studying all relevant aspects of unarmed fighting and fighting with basic weapons honed by real close quarters combat resulting in fatalities while soldiers today are still trained in these areas due to the characteristics of modern warfare unarmed fighting is often practiced now by civilians in sport like and less lethal fashions modern militaries are typically trained in only the most basic of hand to hand combat skills practitioners today generally study a limited number of fighting aspects within specific martial art systems nonetheless many practitioners would like to have some skill in more than one context and most arts include some study of many aspects in certain systems in depth study of certain aspects is not begun until a practitioner has been training for many years some aspects of fighting include long range unarmed fighting in this situation things happen relatively slowly hundreds of milliseconds giving participants time to react to visual stimuli this allows powerful strikes as well as subtle feints to be performed short range unarmed fighting in this situation reaction time is such an important factor that visual stimuli are not very useful and practitioners must learn to react to tactile stimuli strikes are still possible but reactions must become reflexes making feints more difficult grappling in this situation participants are wrestling each other attempting to get the other in a submission or weak spot for striking leverage and physical strength become very important if not forbidden by rules biting pinching and spitting can be very effective at this range armed fighting fighting with weapons can be rather different from unarmed fighting both because strikes can become much more destructive and because weapons can drastically increase the reach of a practitioner of course each weapon and each range requires its own techniques but a cleverly designed teaching system can take advantage of similarities to simplify the study the study of pressure points can be used to improve the effectiveness of traditional techniques and they also add a whole range of new options to the martial artist for example instead of just striking the body knowledge of pressure points means that the target point can be chosen for much greater effect moral emotional and physical development the dedication and practice required to acquire skill in a martial art can be very beneficial to the character of a practitioner and in learning to defeat an attacker some martial arts systems focus on these effects and emphasize techniques and training that encourage this development fighting against a single opponent both traditional duels and most modern sparring matches pit one expert fighter against another with some set of rules and after a battle declare a victor this has a number of different effects for example footwork can be simplified as a practitioner rarely needs to turn quickly on the other hand one can expect one s opponent to be about as skilled as oneself fighting against multiple opponents some martial arts systems focus on being able to deal with multiple opponents simultaneously in order for this to be possible normally the opponents must be assumed to have less skill than the practitioner this has technical effects as well including tight careful footwork to allow rapid turning as well as rapid disabling of opponents in order to move on fighting without injuring the opponent many systems are suggested for police or security work as such there is a certain amount of effort devoted to minimizing the damage a practitioner inflicts on an opponent disarming locking and controlling techniques are emphasized in this situation over the simpler striking techniques which disable or kill avoidance of fighting some martial arts systems are strongly oriented towards practical self defense and so some emphasis is placed on defusing or avoiding violent situations rather than fighting martial artists while the techniques origins and historys of the numerous martial arts vary there are many core qualities that are customarily assosciated with martial artists these core qualities include but are not limited to courtesy integrity perseverance self control respect indomitable spirit honor discipline and humility compared to other fighters such as boxers or wrestlers a large portion of a martial artist s training is not physical a major contribution to the lifestyle of a martial artist is deep concentration mental focus and great knowledge core qualities civilize the mind but make savage the body chairman mao in spite of the many different kinds of martial arts in existance almost all martial artists must possess similar core qualities simply memorizing techniques and practicing different moves and styles will not adequately classify one as a good practitioner of martial arts it is in this belief that one must refine and mold their mind and spirit to be a true martial artist while many people believe that most martial artists look to fight the exact opposite is true every martial art enforces these core qualities to avoid such confrontations the point of martial arts training is to forge from the body a weapon of great power the belief is that as this weapon gains power the martial artist will gain more respect for it thus limiting its use courtesy all martial artists must be courteous to not just his fellow practitioners but to all people and living things a practitioner who is rude selfish and inconsiderate is often times scoffed by other martial artists taking the time out to teach another student or practitioner a new skill they are struggling with is also part of the courtesy a martial artist must display integrity steadfast adherence to a strict moral or ethical code is invaluable to a martial artist without integrity it is easier to lose sight of the respect for the art that is being trained without respect and integrity the martial art loses its meaning perseverance one two out of every one zero zero students reach black belt and of those only one out of every one zero zero zero achieves his two nd dan masutatsu oyama in reference to karate martial arts training is difficult especially when learning new material in all disciplines without perseverance it is impossible to progress many early practitioners drop out of their programs because of the perception that the art is too hard in many martial arts many practitioners will gain their first degree black belt then drop out of their program a true martial artist s goal is to persevere and perfect their techniques throughout their lifetime self control self control to a martial artist is twofold one must have a strong physical control over their own body this physical self control is invaluable when practicing techniques that allow the martial artist to perform tasks including standard hand strikes standard take downs board breaking and even acrobatic back flips and jump kicks also a martial artist must have a strong mental self control in practical danger situations a martial artist strives to keep their mind clear and calm in situations such as a confrontation or fight a martial artist trains to be calm and ready to apply the physical skills they have learned through repitition and practice this becomes possible for this reason martial artists will find themselves more able to spare their opponent s life after a brutal fight due to the fact that their psychological state of mind was less altered than that of a person who had no physical or mental martial arts training respect respect of all things living dead and inanimate is a key aspect to all martial arts in the ninjitsu branch of martial arts a practitioner believes everything around you is a weapon including the room itself in this particular case all things deserve respect as they might provide you with the best method to defeat your enemy more generally in all branches of martial arts there is a strong demand for respect of not only the others that you train with but also of oneself as training progresses ones own body becomes a fatal weapon which must be respected as such also one must regard and respect all other bodies with the same regard indomitable spirit forget about winning and losing forget about pride and pain let your opponent graze your skin and you smash into his flesh let him smash into your flesh and you fracture his bones let him fracture your bones and you take his life do not be concerned with escaping safely lay your life before him bruce lee a spirit that is incapable of being overcome subdued or vanquished is strongly linked to many other core qualities of a martial artist strongly linked to perseverance it is necessary to have an indomitable spirit not only while fighting but also while training one training in a martial art must have such a spirit to overcome the many failures and hardships that come along with the learning process martial artists must believe in themselves that with every defeat a greater victory should arise from it according to martial arts schools a true martial artist will have a spirit that refuses to be conquered honor the japanese chinese and korean cultures all place a deep importance on the notion of honor and of one being honorable this importance is reflected in martial arts and is taught to be a key component of being a successful martial artist humility humility and the act of being humble is most often overlooked by many martial artists with great skill in their respective art many practitioners will become cocky and arrogant as their skill increases however in order to keep improving martial arts trainers often stress the importance of being humble when one is humble it is believed that their mind is kept open thus allowing them to continue growing and learning once the student loses their humility they lose their open mind causing a great stunt in the growth of their skill meditation while often ignored by most western schools meditative practices are vital to many martial arts having a mind trained in clarity and meditation is crucial to understanding the full potential of any martial art most often misjudged is the massive mental acuity of many martial artists classical martial arts schools will teach that meditation helps to build and train this acuity and train the mind to remain calm in a panic situation ranking systems most martial arts disciplines contain some kind of ranking system while this ranking system varies from discipline to discipline a martial artist typically has to progress along from the lowest rank to the higher ranks as one progresses in the ranks newer techniques stances and fighting styles are usually presented to the student to learn before they may obtain their next ranking belt system in martial arts such as karate taekwondo and judo students of the martial art will progress according to a belt system in the martial arts that use a belt system the lowest ranking belt is usually white whereas the highest ranking belt is black and the arrangement of the colored belts between them varies the white belt symbolizes innocence and purity the black belt symbolizes the collection of all colors of experience in most martial arts that utilize a belt there are multiple degrees of black belt called dans even though a black belt has been achieved training in the art has not completed usually obtaining the highest dan of black belt in a martial art is very difficult and nearly impossible it is important to note that among the various martial arts schools it is entirely possible to experience a system of belts that do not utilize black as the most experienced and white as the least many liberties with ranking systems are usually taken into liberty with many western schools sash system in martial arts such as kung fu students progress according to a sash system similar to the belt system the sash system typically progresses from a grey sash to a black sash with various colored sashes between them the color system of the sashes carries the same symbolism as that of the belt martial arts once again it is important to note that various martial arts schools may take liberty with the system of sashes this means many schools may not use the color black as the most experianced and grey as the least western schools usually take much liberty with the colors of the ranking systems title systems other martial arts do not utilize a belt system at all but rather a system that involves a series of titles these titles depending on the martial art vary from a beginner rank to an advanced rank from there the student then progresses to an instructor rank which later becomes an advanced instructor rank and so on menkyo system most classical japanese martial arts those developed between the eight th century and one eight seven seven use the menkyo system this system has great integrity and generally encompasses three to five levels usually these levels are okuiri four eight years of training this is a teacher s license of the lowest grade but really more of an assistant teacher mokuroku eight one five years the practicioner s name finally is recorded on the ryu s official catalog before that the name does not appear sublevels of mokuroku might include shomokuroku or gomokuroku but not all systems use these additional designations menkyo one five two five years licensed this is the first level where the system would actually back one up on one s decisions kaiden three zero years at this level one is licensed to teach and start one s own system testing and competition in general testing or evaluation in some form is important to martial art practitioners of many disciplines who wish to determine their own level of skill in specific contexts students within individual martial art systems often undergo periodic testing and grading by their own teacher in order to advance to a higher level of recognized achievement such as a different belt color or title the type of testing used varies from system to system but may include forms or sparring sparring can generally be divided into light or medium contact and full contact variants both forms and sparring are commonly used in martial art exhibitions and tournaments some competitions pit practitioners of different disciplines against each other using a common set of rules forms forms known as kata in various japanese arts and hyung or poomse in various korean arts involve the performance and interpretation of routines either traditional or recently invented both unarmed and armed these may be performed solo or with more than one practitioner by definition forms are distinguished from sparring in that they involve mostly pre determined routines and patterns which may artistically resemble combat but are inherently non combative or co operative jet li is a well known practitioner who has been successful in form based wushu tournaments in open competitions the routines may be evaluated by a panel of master level judges from more than one martial art background light and medium contact sparring sparring in some martial arts may involve a point based system of light to medium contact sparring in a marked off area where both competitors are protected by foam padding particular targets are prohibited such as face and groin and certain techniques may be also prohibited points are awarded to competitors on the solid landing of one technique again master level judges start and stop the match award points and resolve disputes after a set number of points are scored or when the time set for the match expires for example three minutes or five points and elimination matches occur until there is only one winner these matches may also be sorted by gender weight class level of expertise and even age some critics of these point sparring competition note that this type of training teaches students to pull their punches or not throw combination attacks as the fighting is frequently stopped by judges to award points or declare fouls this disruption alters the flow of actual combat and enforces what some see are the bad habits of not following through on attacks lowering your guard and relying on tactics that may score points but lack the power to disable or hurt an actual attacker full contact fighting full contact sparring or fighting is often pursued by martial art practitioners who are interested in realistic unarmed combat the phrase may refer to several aspects which differentiate it from light and medium contact sessions it may simply be a general lack of protective gear for example kyokushin is a variant of karate that requires advanced practitioners to engage in sparring while wearing no more than a groin guard for protection it may refer to a full variety of permitted attacks and contact zones on the body excluding a small and limited number of forbidden techniques such as biting groin striking or attacking the eyes bestowing significant fighting freedom upon the competitors the phrase could also refer to the use of full force in order to disable the opponent either by knock out or direct submission of defeat there is often a lower emphasis on scoring points assuming a point system exists points judges and time limits were not used in the early ufc events whose outcomes were determined only by the inability to continue due to these factors full contact matches tend to be more aggressive in character vale tudo meaning anything goes in portuguese is a definite form of full contact fighting nearly all mma events including ufc pride pancrase and shooto use full contact rules although recently the use of small protective gloves and other safety rules have been added brazilian jiu jitsu and judo do not allow striking but are full contact in the sense that full force is applied during grappling and submissions some versions of sambo are full contact some practitioners believe that physically defeating the enemy as opposed to winning a sport match by rules is the only important matter in hand to hand combat some of them treat martial arts only as matters of self defense or life and death situations as such these people may prefer not to participate in most types of rule based martial art competition even one such as vale tudo electing instead to study fighting techniques with little or no regard to competitive rules or perhaps ethical concerns and the law the techniques practiced may include attacking vulnerable spots such as the groin or the eyes nonetheless others maintain that given proper precautions such as a referee and a ring doctor full contact matches with basic rules could serve as a useful gauge of one s overall fighting ability encompassing broad categories including striking grappling and finishing holds martial arts and self defense self defense strategies formed the basis of numerous martial arts especially east asian martial arts which usually provide self defense classes as part of their curricula many schools of self defense also teach strategies aimed at avoiding or defusing physical confrontations the curriculum for such courses commonly teach positioning strategies and strengthening the defender s self confidence which is assumed to discourage some physical attacks martial arts practice with or without actual emphasis in self defense specific techniques is a recognized way to both teach positioning strategy and to boost self confidence thus subjectively martial arts in general could be regarded to some extent as a kind of self defense system martial arts as sport on the subject of competition martial artists vary wildly practitioners in some arts such as boxing taekwondo judo and brazilian jiu jitsu often train for sport matches in those arts whereas those in other arts such as aikido and krav maga generally spurn such competitions some schools believe that competition breeds better and more efficient practitioners and gives a sense of good sportsmanship others believe that the rules under which competition takes place have removed the combat effectiveness of martial arts or encourage a kind of practice which focuses on winning trophies rather than the more traditional focus of combat effectiveness or in east asian cultures of developing the confucian person which eschews showing off see confucius also renaissance man some martials artists including forrest morgan have criticized sports derivatives for being unrealistic and distracting warriors from looking at the whole art instead concentrating only on techniques allowed in their competitions as part of the response to sport martial arts new forms of competition are being held such as the ultimate fighting championship in the u s or pancrase in japan which are also known as mixed martial arts or mma events while the financial success or failure of these events is not well known it is interesting to note that certain systems do indeed tend to dominate these full contact or freestyle competitions supporters of those styles which win time and again may argue that this proves the real world self defense effectiveness of their art martial arts and dance as mentioned above some martial arts in various cultures can be performed in dance like settings either for evoking fiercefulness pumping adrenaline in preparation of battle or rather showing off skill in a more stylised manner or both examples of such war dances include the gymnopaidiai from ancient sparta new zealand s haka the sabre dance depicted in khachaturian s ballet gayane the maasai jumping dance brunei s aduk aduk qatar s ayyalah the indian kalarippayattu pakistani afghan khattak dance brazil s capoeira scotland s dannsa biodag not to forget the spoofing weasel war dance often there appears some tension between martial arts considered macho and dancing considered more effeminate e g plato s the laws devotes some attention to this topic the solution given to this by the maasai can be considered amongst the most original they perform their jumping martial dance in women s attire because as they say women are prettier than men ballet as it originated at the court of louis xiv also goes back to a sort of ambiguity between being the strongest and being the most refined worldly power was granted by the king to his noblemen according to their ability to perform refined ballet dancing in addition in theatre and film the fight scene is essentially a dance meant to depict hand to hand combat notable styles of martial arts aikijujutsu is a japanese martial art which dates back to the samurai it has been suggested that aikido evolved from this style aikido is a japanese martial art which evolved from jujutsu and kenjutsu amateur wrestling emphasises throws and controlling opponent s movement both while standing up and on the ground and positioning notable styles are greco roman wrestling and freestyle wrestling baguazhang is an internal chinese martial art that trains in distinctive circular footwork patterns and is also known for training with unusually large weapons at advanced levels in some schools bando is the official burmese fighting system that includes techniques of throws holds locks chokes foot sweeps etc several bando sub systems include lethwei naban and banshay which includes stick fighting sword fighting knife fighting spear fighting etc catch wrestling forms the base of many modern martial arts including shootfighting pancrase and shooto this form of wrestling emphasises ground fighting submissions throws and fighting from multiple positions capoeira is a survival oriented dance fight game originally developed in the one six th century by angolan slaves in brazil it emphasizes kicks dodging and mental training including trickery sense of humor and understanding of rhythm eskrima or pekiti tirsia kali highly combative filipino martial art fencing the european olympic style exists now almost entirely as a sport hapkido is a korean martial art with kicks punches joint manipulation locks and throws that is said to have developed from aikijutsu many of its techniques are similar to those of aikido hybrid martial arts systems which combine multiple arts kenpo military combatives jeet kune do see also mixed martial arts jeet kune do meaning way of the intercepting fist was developed by bruce lee one of the most famous martial artists of the two zero th century this is not actually a specific martial arts style but a collection of concepts that focuses on constant adaptation and inclusion of moves from other styles judo means gentle way do means way of a japanese martial art and sport that consists in the aggregation of techniques from many jujutsu schools striking atemi waza and some dangerous throws are forbidden in competitions but still present in training and sparring jujutsu is a general japanese term encompassing mostly unarmed martial arts with strikes throws grappling and locks and those using small weapons brazilian jiu jitsu is a much modified version of some original japanese jujutsu schools based on and closely related to judo but with even greater emphasis on ground fighting sometimes referred to as gracie jiu jitsu after its founders kalarippayattu a martial art from kerala in south india it has a strong association with ayurveda and healing systems it is considered one of the oldest and most scientific comprehensive systems of martial training existing in the world today all present day martial arts are said to be derived from kalarippayattu hence the nickname mother of all martial arts karate meaning empty hand originally chinese hand and is perhaps the most popular martial art in japan and the west it is okinawan in origin and has several sub styles including shotokan shotokai and wado ryu isshin ryu meaning one heart way is a descendent of karate its forms were taken from shirin ryu and gojo ryu the style stands out because of it s vertical fist punch much like a boxer s jab and it s forearm blocking which utilizes the large area of the forearm instead of the muscled sides kendo is the japanese art of sword fighting using bamboo swords shinai and protective clothing kuk sool won is a systematic study of all of the traditional fighting systems which together comprise the martial arts history of the korean peninusla kung fu or more precisely wushu refers to the many diverse chinese martial arts some of which include shaolin shuai chiao wing chun drunken boxing taijiquan xingyiquan yiquan lau gar hung gar and many more the chinese words kung fu can be used to describe one s skill in any discipline not just martial arts krav maga is a modern martial art derived from the distinctive fighting style of the israeli haganah and the modern day idf the style is purely focused on practical combat skills and eschews competitions beyond occasional fight club nights wherein practitioners can free form spar with protective padding mixed martial arts or mma the combat sport which combines practical aspects of many or all useful martial arts including brazilian jiu jitsu muay thai and wrestling among others the emphasis is on actual combat and freestyle competition with few rules as opposed to theoretical philosophy well known mma organizations include pride and ufc the term mma may also refer to the fighting style associated with mma competition or any combinational style of fighting hybrid martial arts muay thai a thai martial art from which most styles now known as kickboxing descend ninjutsu is a japanese style said to have originally been practiced by ninja this martial art combines traditional attacks with scout style survival and elusive moves silat is an art from the malay world and has regional variations in indonesia malaysia brunei singapore among others systema is an art of russian origin this style employs no pre defined moves kata rankings or sport application rather systema works from the basis of the breathing movement form not to be confused with forms and lastly technique tai chi chuan the different styles of which are a chinese martial art practiced nowadays by many people for health maintenance its slow moving training forms are often described as moving meditation but are also a catalogue of self defence techniques despite the emphasis on relaxed training the name actually means supreme ultimate fist and often uses its soft style interceptions to simultaneously counter attacks and strike the attacker in its advanced level martial training traditional t ai chi classes at intermediate level and above should include weapons training two person pushing hands as well as ch i kung for greater health benefits and generating coordinated martial power taekwondo is a modern korean martial sport with literal meaning the way of the hand and foot along with judo one of only two asian martial arts to make it into the olympic games tang soo do which means way of the chinese hand is a traditional korean martial art descended from karate which remained outside the merging of korean styles into a national sport in one nine six one its most famous proponent is chuck norris western martial arts wma or european martial arts consist mainly of fighting techniques developed in europe they include everything from unarmed combat to grappling ringen to weapons practices with a great variety of weapons such as the longsword various types of staves and polearms daggers sword and buckler to more specialized weapons such as the rapier the premier organization for wma training is the association for renaissance martial arts better known as arma other organizations such as the society for creative anachronism also practice wma but due to the fact that that such organizations are generally more concerned with re enactment the fighting techniques they teach are generally watered down and or historically inaccurate xingyiquan is also an internal chinese martial art known for its direct offensive style yiquan is a relatively modern chinese martial art which attempts to move away from traditional concepts further resources for a detailed list of martial arts see list of martial arts for a detailed list of martial arts weapons see list of martial arts weapons for a detailed list of fictional martial arts see list of fictional martial arts for other related topics see list of martial arts related topics see also combatives combat sports hand to hand combat historical european martial arts koryu kick iron palm martial arts film martial arts therapy martialism mcdojo punch qi external links all styles martial arts resource karate resource the arma org bullshido martial arts information consumer protection and humor chinese martial arts martial arts info com martial arts studies university ba degrees rec martial arts faq martial arts planet map a website for martial artists all over the globe to discuss their arts in a friendly community non english sites v thu t y quy n das martial arts forum combat sports individual sports martial arts murat ses is a turkish keyboard player and composer with strong eurasian electronic elements he is creator of the anadolu pop style a synthesis of anatolian music and western elements that has been influencing turkish music scene for decades his album danses et rythmes de la turquie d hier aujourd hui was awarded the grand prix du disque by the charles cros academie in paris france the albums automaton slave with ewer device binfen feat tan and culduz all released in the one nine nine zero s are parts of a trilogy with the concept the timeless and boundaryless context of culture and civilization ses has had excellent press us keyboard audion i e expose and airplay automaton was no one binfen no seven in ohio his main influences are pink floyd traffic jimmy smith eastern mediterranean levantine and central asian cultures and music he is the most important turkish artist still internationally active and shaping today s independent electronic music scene his earlier late six zero s early seven zero s psychedelic anatolian works with english lyrics released under us dutch german and canadian labels in the late one nine nine zero s through two zero zero two murat s album with his san francisco miami impressions was recorded in miami florida and was published in two zero zero five as automaton automaton squared followed by binfen two zero zero five remix his newest two zero zero six release is electric levantine his sixth solo album in a row in the early one nine nine zero s murat ses developed a musical style he terms electric levantine the main elements of the style are microtonal properties created on authentic levantine scales electronical produced instrument timbres and western music it s an experimental form of anadolu pop his typical electric levantine sound can be heard on his album automaton slave with ewer device and on the subsequent albums of his nine zero s trilogy see also mogollar external links personal website turkish people turkish musicians this article presents the generalized concept of a relation for more basic presentations see the articles on binary relations and triadic relations in mathematics a finitary relation is defined by one of the formal definitions given below the basic idea is to generalize the concept of a two place relation such as the relation of equality denoted by the sign in a statement like five seven one two or the relation of order denoted by the sign one x k is a subset of their cartesian product written l x one x k under this definition then a k ary relation is simply a set of k tuples the second definition makes use of an idiom that is common in mathematics stipulating that such and such is an n tuple in order to ensure that such and such a mathematical object is determined by the specification of n component mathematical objects in the case of a relation l over k sets there are k one things to specify namely the k sets plus a subset of their cartesian product in the idiom this is expressed by saying that l is a k one tuple definition two a relation l over the sets x one x k is a k one tuple l x one x k g l where g l is a subset of the cartesian product x one x k g l is called the graph of l elements of a relation are more briefly denoted by using boldface characters for example the constant element mathbf a one a k or the variable element mathbf x one x k a statement of the form mathbf is in the relation l is taken to mean that mathbf is in l under the first definition and that mathbf is in g l under the second definition the following considerations apply under either definition the sets x j for j one to k are called the domains of the relation in the case of the first definition the relation itself does not uniquely determine a given sequence of domains if all of the domains x j are the same set x then l is more simply referred to as a k ary relation over x if any of the domains x j is empty then the cartesian product is empty and the only relation over such a sequence of domains is the empty relation l varnothing as a result naturally occurring applications of the relation concept typically involve a stipulation that all of the domains be nonempty as a rule whatever definition best fits the application at hand will be chosen for that purpose and anything that falls under it will be called a relation for the duration of that discussion if it becomes necessary to distinguish the two alternatives the latter type of object can be referred to as an embedded or included relation if l is a relation over the domains x one x k it is conventional to consider a sequence of terms called variables x one x k that are said to range over the respective domains a boolean domain b is a generic two element set say b whose elements are interpreted as logical values typically zero false and one true the characteristic function of the relation l written f l or l is the boolean valued function f l x one x k b defined in such a way that f l mathbf one just in case the k tuple mathbf is in the relation l the characteristic function of a relation may also be called its indicator function especially in probability and statistics it is conventional in applied mathematics computer science and statistics to refer to a boolean valued function like f l as a k place predicate from the more abstract viewpoints of formal logic and model theory the relation l is seen as constituting a logical model or a relational structure that serves as one of many possible interpretations of a corresponding k place predicate symbol as that term is used in predicate calculus due to the convergence of many different styles of study on the same areas of interest the reader will find much variation in usage here the variation presented in this article treats a relation as the set theoretic extension of a relational concept or term another variation reserves the term relation to the corresponding logical entity either the logical comprehension which is the totality of intensions or abstract properties that all of the elements of the relation in extension have in common or else the symbols that are taken to denote these elements and intensions further but hardly finally some writers of the latter persuasion introduce terms with more concrete connotations like relational structure for the set theoretic extension of a given relational concept example coplanarity for lines l in three dimensional space there is a ternary relation picking out the triples of lines that are coplanar this does not reduce to the binary symmetric relation of coplanarity of pairs of lines in other words writing p l m n when the lines l m and n lie in a plane and q l m for the binary relation it is not true that q l m q m n and q n l together imply p l m n although the converse is certainly true any pair out of three coplanar lines is coplanar a fortiori there are two geometrical reasons for this in one case for example taking the x axis y axis and z axis the three lines are concurrent i e intersect at a single point in another case l m and n can be three edges of an infinite triangular prism what is true is that if each pair of lines intersects and the points of intersection are distinct then pairwise coplanarity implies coplanarity of the triple remarks relations are classified according to the number of sets in the cartesian product in other words the number of terms in the expression unary relation or property l u binary relation l u v or u l v ternary relation l u v w quaternary relation l u v w x relations with more than four terms are usually referred to as k ary for example a five ary relation references peirce c s description of a notation for the logic of relatives resulting from an amplification of the conceptions of boole s calculus of logic memoirs of the american academy of arts and sciences nine three one seven three seven eight one eight seven zero reprinted collected papers cp three four five one four nine chronological edition ce two three five nine four two nine ulam s m and bednarek a r on the theory of relational structures and schemata for parallel computation pp four seven seven five zero eight in a r bednarek and fran oise ulam eds analogies between analogies the mathematical reports of s m ulam and his los alamos collaborators university of california press berkeley ca one nine nine zero bibliography bourbaki n elements of the history of mathematics john meldrum trans springer verlag berlin germany one nine nine four halmos p r naive set theory d van nostrand company princeton nj one nine six zero lawvere f w and rosebrugh r sets for mathematics cambridge university press cambridge uk two zero zero three minsky m l and papert s a perceptrons an introduction to computational geometry mit press cambridge ma one nine six nine expanded edition one nine eight eight peirce c s writings of charles s peirce a chronological edition volume two one eight six seven one eight seven one peirce edition project eds indiana university press bloomington in one nine eight four ce two royce j the principles of logic philosophical library new york ny one nine six one tarski a logic semantics metamathematics papers from one nine two three to one nine three eight j h woodger trans first edition oxford university press one nine five six second edition j corcoran ed hackett publishing indianapolis in one nine eight three ulam s m analogies between analogies the mathematical reports of s m ulam and his los alamos collaborators a r bednarek and fran oise ulam eds university of california press berkeley ca one nine nine zero venetus p logica parva translation of the one four seven two edition with introduction and notes alan r perreiah trans philosophia verlag munich germany one nine eight four see also relation construction relation composition relation reduction relational database relational algebra relational model binary relation computable predicate database logic of relatives logical matrix projection sign relation triadic relation logic set theory the mok l mb mb is the name given a large creature reported to live in the lakes and swamps of the congo river basin whose existence has long been disputed between mainstream scientists on one side local pygmies creationists and cryptozoologists on the other fishermen who inhabit the area often run from waters and land near the water s edge in fear of the creature describing its ability to kill humans mok l mb mb means one who stops the flow of rivers mok l mb mb is generally described as a beast about as large as an elephant with a long flexible neck and with a tail similar to an alligator s explication the creature has often been likened to the loch ness monster some cryptozoologists suppose that the creature might be a type of dinosaur that could have survived the mass extinction of the dinosaurs about six five million years ago which is believed to be possible due to the thickness of the congo rainforest mok l mb mb s description is consistent with a sauropod the tales of the mok l mb mb are an apparently ancient component of the oral history of the pygmy tribes these peoples have an intimate relationship with the rainforest which supplies all their needs mok l mb mb are apparently herbivores although they have been reported to kill humans and hippopotamuses it is interesting to note that there is a low population of hippos in the likouala swamp where mok l mb mb s are reported to live there is a story that involved a killing of a mok l mb mb a group of people that lived near lake tele in the likouala swamp constructed a large wall to keep mok l mb mb from interfering in their fishing a mok l mb mb managed to break through and the natives killed the creature they butchered and cooked the carcass and ate it however everyone who ate it either became very ill or died soon afterward explanation so far all investigations have failed to find evidence of a creature corresponding to the native legend although casts of inexplicable footprints have reportedly been taken which some say were made by the mok l mb mb and a controversial videotape was recently presented the congo basin has wide expanses of marshland and swamps including several large lakes that have not been extensively explored by scientists a recent megatransect into the wilderness of the congo basin by the biologist and africa explorer michael fay did not reveal any trace of the mok l mb mb one investigator roy mackal a professor of zoology at chicago university took teams to the congo in one nine eight zero and one nine eight one to search for the creature although they failed to encounter the beast they collected important anecdotal evidence including information on its primary food source a type of vine in one nine eight five and one nine nine two british explorer bill gibbons added further local reports to the dossier cryptozoologists believe the likelihood of its existence to be significantly higher than the loch ness monster because of the large amount of uncharted territory to which can be ascribed the inability to find a specimen other large creatures such as elephants exist in large open clearings in the rainforests each called a bai as well as in thicker wooded areas so the existence of the mok l mb mb appears to be a possibility when taking into account its native environment however it is often thought to be even bigger than an elephant there is also a theory that the mok l mb mb is a rhinoceros see this link third paragraph after the second image another not so cryptic explanation is that this phenomenon is nothing but a sighting of a group of male crocodiles following a female crocodile during the mating season a fictional book was written about this creature called cryptid hunters by roland smith sightings of this creature are said to have occurred at lake tele external links mokele mbembe the living dinosaur see also lake tianchi monster loch ness monster ogopogo bibliography mackal roy a living dinosaur in search of mokele mbembe ndanga alfred jean paul two zero zero zero r flexion sur une l gende de bayanga le mok l mb mb in zo three three nine four five nugent rory one nine nine three drums along the congo on the trail of mokele mbembe the last living dinosaur boston houghton mifflin isbn zero three nine five five eight seven zero seven seven or isbn zero three nine five six seven zero seven one three regusters h a one nine eight two mokele mbembe an investigation into rumors concerning a strange animal in the republic of the congo one nine eight one munger africana library notes vol six four pasadena california institute of technology congo dinosaur a similar congoese cryptid animal called the emela ntouka lake cryptids this article is about intuitionism in mathematics and philosophical logic for other uses see ethical intuitionism in the philosophy of mathematics intuitionism or neointuitionism opposed to preintuitionism is an approach to mathematics as the constructive mental activity of humans any mathematical object is considered to be a product of a construction of a mind and therefore the existence of an object is equivalent to the possibility of its construction this contrasts with the classical approach which states that the existence of an entity can be proved by refuting its non existence for the intuitionist this is not valid the refutation of the non existence does not mean that it is possible to find a constructive proof of existence as such intuitionism is a variety of mathematical constructivism but it is not the only kind intuitionism takes the truth of a mathematical statement to be equivalent to its having been proved what other criteria can there be for truth an intuitionist would argue if mathematical objects are merely mental constructions this means that an intuitionist may not believe that a mathematical statement has the same meaning that a classical mathematician would for example to say a or b to an intuitionist is to claim that either a or b can be proved in particular the law of excluded middle a or not a is disallowed since one cannot assume that it is always possible to either prove the statement a or its negation see also intuitionistic logic intuitionism also rejects the abstraction of actual infinity i e it does not consider as given objects infinite entities such as the set of all natural numbers or an arbitrary sequence of rational numbers this requires the reconstruction of the foundations of set theory and calculus as constructivist set theory and constructivist analysis respectively contributors to intuitionism l e j brouwer arend heyting stephen kleene michael dummett branches of intuitionistic mathematics intuitionistic logic intuitionistic arithmetic intuitionistic type theory intuitionistic set theory intuitionistic calculus see also ultraintuitionism anti realism game semantics curry howard isomorphism computability logic epistemology philosophy of mathematics may six is the one two six th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one two seven th in leap years there are two three nine days remaining events one five two seven spanish and german troops sack rome some consider this the end of the renaissance one five three six king henry viii orders bibles be placed in every church one six eight two louis xiv of france moves his court to versailles one seven five seven battle of prague a prussian army fought an austrian army in prague during the seven years war one eight one six the american bible society is founded in new york city one eight three five james gordon bennett sr publishes the first issue of the new york herald one eight four zero the penny black postage stamp is valid for use in the united kingdom of great britain and ireland one eight six one american civil war arkansas secedes from the union one eight six three american civil war the battle of chancellorsville ends with a defeat of the army of the potomac under general joseph hooker by confederate troops under stonewall jackson one eight seven seven realizing that his people were weakened by cold and hunger chief crazy horse of the oglala sioux surrenders to united states troops in nebraska one eight eight nine the eiffel tower is officially opened to the public at the universal exposition in paris one nine one zero george v becomes king of the united kingdom upon the death of his father edward vii one nine three five new deal executive order seven zero three four creates the works progress administration wpa one nine three seven hindenburg disaster the german zeppelin hindenburg catches fire and is destroyed within a minute while attempting to dock at lakehurst new jersey thirty six people are killed one nine four zero john steinbeck is awarded the pulitzer prize for his novel the grapes of wrath one nine four one at california s march field bob hope performs his first uso show one nine four two world war ii on corregidor the last american forces in the philippines surrender to the japanese one nine four five world war ii axis sally delivers her last propaganda broadcast to allied troops first was on december one one one nine four one one nine four five world war ii the prague offensive the last major battle of the eastern front begins one nine five four roger bannister becomes the first person to run the mile in under four minutes one nine six zero princess margaret s wedding day one nine six six myra hindley and ian brady are sentenced to life imprisonment for the moors murders in england one nine eight one a jury of architects and sculptors unanimously selects maya ying lin s design for the vietnam veterans memorial from one four two one other entries one nine eight eight an airplane going from namsos to br nn ysund in norway crashes into the side of the torghatten mountain killing all three six passengers and crew one nine nine four queen elizabeth ii of the united kingdom and french president fran ois mitterrand inaugurate the opening of the channel tunnel a tunnel under the english channel linking england and france for the first time since the end of the great ice age one nine nine eight the body of former cia director william colby is found washed up on a riverbank in southern maryland eight days after he disappeared one nine nine nine in new york a parole board votes to release amy fisher in prison for the last seven years for shooting her lover s wife two zero zero two jean pierre raffarin becomes prime minister of france two zero zero two the world wrestling federation announces that they have changed their name to world wrestling entertainment after losing a court battle with the world wildlife fund two zero zero four the last episode of the popular television sitcom friends airs births one three nine seven sejong the great of joseon ruler of korea d one four five zero one five zero one pope marcellus ii d one five five five one five seven four pope innocent x d one six five five one six three eight henry capell one st baron capell first lord of the british admiralty d one six nine six one seven one three charles batteux french philosopher d one seven eight zero one seven five eight andr mass na french marshal d one eight one seven one seven five eight maximilien robespierre french revolutionary d one seven nine four one seven six nine ferdinand iii grand duke of tuscany d one eight two four one seven nine seven joseph brackett american religious leader and composer d one eight eight two one eight five six sigmund freud austrian psychiatrist d one nine three nine one eight five six robert peary american explorer d one nine two zero one eight six one rabindranath tagore indian author d one nine four one one eight six one motilal nehru indian freedom fighter d one nine three one one eight six eight gaston leroux french writer d one nine two seven one eight six eight tsar nicholas ii of russia d one nine one eight one eight seven one victor grignard french chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine three five one eight seven one christian morgenstern german author d one nine one four one eight seven nine bedrich hrozny czech orientalist and linguist d one nine five two one eight eight zero ernst ludwig kirchner german painter d one nine three eight one eight eight two crown prince wilhelm of germany d one nine five one one eight nine five rudolph valentino italian actor d one nine two six one nine zero two harry golden american journalist d one nine eight one one nine zero two max oph ls german born director d one nine five seven one nine zero four moshe feldenkrais ukrainian born founder of the feldenkrais method d one nine eight four one nine zero four harry martinson swedish writer nobel prize laureate d one nine seven eight one nine zero six enrique laguerre puerto rican writer d two zero zero five one nine one five orson welles american director d one nine eight five one nine one five theodore h white american writer d one nine eight six one nine two zero ratu sir kamisese mara first prime minister of fiji and president of fiji d two zero zero four one nine two one erich fried german author d one nine eight eight one nine two nine paul lauterbur american chemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine three one willie mays baseball player one nine three seven rubin hurricane carter american boxer one nine four five jimmie dale gilmore american musician one nine four five bob seger american singer one nine four seven martha nussbaum american philosopher one nine four eight mary macgregor american singer one nine five two michael o hare american actor one nine five three tony blair prime minister of the united kingdom one nine five five tom bergeron american game show host one nine six zero roma downey northern irish actress one nine six zero john flansburgh american musician they might be giants one nine six one george clooney american actor one nine six four dana hill american actress d one nine nine six one nine six nine jim magilton northern irish footballer one nine seven zero melania trump slovenian model and wife of american real estate tycoon donald trump one nine seven two martin brodeur canadian hockey player one nine eight zero taebin korean r may seven april six june six listing of all days march two is the six one st day of the year in the gregorian calendar six two nd in leap years there are three zero four days remaining events nine eight six louis v becomes king of the franks one seven one seven the loves of mars and venus becomes the first ballet performed in england one seven nine one long distance communication speeds up with the unveiling of a semaphore machine in paris one eight zero seven the u s congress passes an act to prohibit the importation of slaves into any port or place within the jurisdiction of the united states from any foreign kingdom place or country one eight three six texas revolution declaration of independence of the republic of texas from mexico one eight five five alexander ii becomes tsar of russia one eight six one nevada territory and dakota territory are organized as political divisions of the united states one eight six one emancipation reform of one eight six one in russia tsar alexander ii signed the emancipation reform into law abolishing russian serfdom one eight six five second taranaki war the volkner incident in new zealand one eight seven seven u s presidential election one eight seven six the u s congress declares rutherford b hayes the winner of the election even though samuel j tilden had won the popular vote on november seven one eight seven six reconstruction ends one eight eight eight the convention of constantinople is signed guaranteeing free maritime passage through the suez canal during war and peace one eight nine six ethiopia defeats italy in the battle of adwa marking the first victory of an african nation over a colonial power one eight nine nine in washington state usa mount rainier national park is established one nine zero one the u s congress passes the platt amendment limiting the autonomy of cuba as a condition for the withdrawal of american troops one nine zero three in new york city the martha washington hotel opens becoming the first hotel exclusively for women one nine one seven the enactment of the jones shafroth act grants puerto ricans united states citizenship one nine one seven old style nicholas ii of russia abdicates the throne in favor of his brother michael ii of russia one nine one nine the first communist international meets in moscow one nine three three king kong premieres in new york city one nine three nine cardinal eugenio pacelli is elected pope and takes the name pius xii one nine four three world war ii battle of the bismarck sea united states and australian forces sink japanese convoy ships one nine four six ho chi minh is elected the president of north vietnam one nine four nine captain james gallagher lands his b five zero superfortress lucky lady ii in fort worth texas after completing the first non stop around the world airplane flight in nine four hours and one minute one nine five five king norodom sihanouk of cambodia abdicates the throne in favor of his father king norodom suramarit one nine five six morocco declares its independence from france one nine five nine miles davis holds the first recording session for kind of blue at columbia three zero th street studio in new york ny one nine six two in hershey pennsylvania wilt chamberlain of the philadelphia warriors scores one zero zero points against the new york knicks breaking several national basketball association records one nine six two in burma the army led by general ne win seizes power in a coup one nine six three release of please please me in the united kingdom the first lp from the beatles one nine six nine in toulouse france the first test flight of the concorde is conducted one nine six nine soviet and chinese forces clash at a border outpost on the ussuri river one nine seven zero rhodesia declares itself a republic breaking its last links with the british crown one nine seven two the pioneer one zero spaceprobe is launched from cape canaveral florida with a mission to explore the outer planets one nine seven eight czech vladim r remek becomes the first non russian or non american to go into space when he is launched aboard soyuz two eight one nine eight five tv anime series mobile suit z gundum broadcasts its first episode in japan one nine eight seven chrysler acquires american motors one nine eight nine twelve european community nations agree to ban the production of all chlorofluorocarbons cfcs by the end of the century one nine nine zero nelson mandela elected deputy president of the african national congress one nine nine one battle at rumaila oil field brings end to the one nine nine one gulf war one nine nine two uzbekistan joins the un one nine nine two moldova joins the un one nine nine five nick leeson is arrested for his role in the collapse of barings bank one nine nine five yahoo is incorporated establishing the internet portal as a model one nine nine six john howard is appointed as prime minister of australia one nine nine eight data sent from the galileo spaceprobe indicates that jupiter s moon europa has a liquid ocean under a thick crust of ice two zero zero two u s invasion of afghanistan operation anaconda begins ending on march one nine after killing five zero zero taliban and al qaeda fighters with one one allied troop fatalities two zero zero three the first international symposium on taiwan sign language linguistics is held at chung cheng university two zero zero four voters in the u s state of georgia vote on a referendum concerning its confederacy derived flag two zero zero four war in iraq al qaeda carries out the ashoura massacre in iraq killing one seven zero and wounding over five zero zero two zero zero four war in iraq a united nations report from the weapons inspection teams states that iraq had no weapons of mass destruction of any significance after one nine nine four despite president bush s objection to the contrary before the invasion two zero zero six sir menzies campbell is elected the new leader of the uk liberal democrat party two zero zero six just two days before u s president george w bush is scheduled to visit pakistan a car bomb explodes outside a united states consulate in karachi pakistan killing at least four people including a us diplomat and his driver and injuring at least fifty others births one three one six king robert ii of scotland d one three nine zero one four zero nine john ii of alen on french soldier d one four seven six one four five nine pope adrian vi d one five two three one five four five thomas bodley english diplomat and library founder d one six one three one five seven eight george sandys english colonist and poet d one six four four one seven zero five william murray one st earl of mansfield scottish judge and politician d one seven nine three one seven seven zero louis gabriel suchet french marshal d one eight two six one seven seven nine joel roberts poinsett american statesman and botanist d one eight five one one seven nine three sam houston president of the republic of texas d one eight six three one eight zero zero evgeny baratynsky russian poet d one eight four four one eight one zero pope leo xiii d one nine zero three one eight two zero multatuli dutch writer d one eight eight seven one eight two four bedrich smetana czech composer d one eight eight four one eight two nine carl schurz german revolutionary and american statesman d one nine zero six one eight four nine robert means thompson u s naval officer d one nine three zero one eight five nine sholom aleichem russian yiddish novelist d one nine one six one eight six zero susanna m salter mayor of argonia kansas d one nine six one one eight six two boris borisovich galitzine russian physicist d one nine one six one eight seven six pope pius xii d one nine five eight one nine zero zero kurt weill german composer d one nine five zero one nine zero two moe berg baseball player and spy d one nine seven two one nine zero four dr seuss american author d one nine nine one one nine zero eight walter bruch german engineer d one nine nine zero one nine zero nine mel ott baseball player d one nine five eight one nine one four martin ritt american director d one nine nine zero one nine one seven desi arnaz cuban born actor bandleader and musician d one nine eight six one nine one nine jennifer jones american actress one nine two three robert h michel american politician one nine two six murray rothbard american economist d one nine nine five one nine three zero john cullum american actor and singer one nine three one mikhail gorbachev president of the soviet union recipient of the nobel peace prize one nine three one tom wolfe american author one nine three five al waxman canadian actor d two zero zero one one nine three seven abdelaziz bouteflika president of algeria one nine four zero tony croatto italian born singer and composer d two zero zero five one nine four two john irving american author one nine four two lou reed american singer and guitarist one nine four three peter straub american author one nine four four uschi glas german actress one nine four eight rory gallagher irish guitarist d one nine nine five one nine four eight jeff kennett australian politician one nine four nine eddie money new york police officer and singer one nine four nine jpr williams welsh rugby player one nine four nine gates mcfadden american actress one nine five zero karen carpenter american singer and drummer d one nine eight three one nine five two mark evanier american writer one nine five two laraine newman american actress and comedian one nine five three russ feingold american politician one nine five five shoko asahara japanese religious leader one nine five six mark evans australian bassist ac dc one nine five eight ian woosnam welsh golfer one nine six one simone young australian conductor one nine six two morioka hiroyuki japanese writer one nine six two jon bon jovi american singer songwriter and actor one nine six four megan leigh american pornstar d one nine nine zero one nine six eight daniel craig english actor one nine seven one amber smith american actress and model one nine seven three trevor sinclair english footballer one nine seven four monika niederst tter italian athlete one nine seven seven chris martin british musician coldplay one nine seven seven heather mccomb american actress one nine seven seven andrew strauss english cricketer one nine seven nine damien duff irish footballer one nine eight one bryce dallas howard american actress one nine eight two kevin kur nyi german footballer one nine eight two henrik lundqvist swedish hockey player for the new york rangers one nine eight two ben roethlisberger american football player one nine eight two corey webster american football player one nine eight five robert iler american actor one nine eight five reggie bush american football player deaths eight five five lothair king of the franks and holy roman emperor b seven nine five one three one six marjorie bruce daughter of robert i of scotland b one two nine six one five seven two mem de s portuguese governor general of brazil one five eight nine alessandro cardinal farnese italian cardinal b one five two zero one seven two nine francesco bianchini italian philosopher and scientist b one six six two one seven three zero pope benedict xiii b one six four nine one seven five five louis de rouvroy duc de saint simon french writer b one six seven five one seven five eight pierre gu rin de tencin french cardinal b one six seven nine one seven nine one john wesley english founder of methodism b one seven zero three one seven nine three carl gustaf pilo swedish born artist one seven nine seven horace walpole english politican and writer b one seven one seven one eight three zero samuel thomas von s mmering german physician b one seven five five one eight three five francis ii holy roman emperor b one seven six eight one eight four zero heinrich wilhelm matth us olbers german astronomer b one seven five eight one eight six five carl sylvius v lkner german missionary to new zealand one eight eight zero sir john macneill irish civil engineer b one seven nine zero one eight nine five berthe morisot french painter b one eight four one one nine two one king nicholas i of montenegro b one eight four one one nine three zero d h lawrence english writer b one eight eight five one nine three eight ben harney american composer and pianist b one eight seven one one nine three nine howard carter british archaeologist b one eight seven four one nine five three jim lightbody american runner b one eight eight two one nine six zero stanis aw taczak polish general commander in chief of the greater poland uprising b one eight seven four one nine six two charles jean de la vall e poussin belgian mathematician b one eight six six one nine seven three cleo a noel jr us chief of mission to sudan b one nine one eight see khartoum diplomatic assassinations one nine seven five josiah mwangi kariuki kenyan politician b one nine two nine one nine eight two philip k dick american author b one nine two eight one nine eight seven randolph scott american actor and director b one eight nine eight one nine nine one serge gainsbourg french singer b one nine two eight one nine nine two sandy dennis american actress b one nine three seven one nine nine nine dusty springfield english singer b one nine three nine two zero zero one john diamond british journalist b one nine five three two zero zero three hank ballard american musician b one nine two seven two zero zero three malcolm williamson australian composer b one nine three one two zero zero four cormac mcanallen northern irish gaelic footballer b one nine eight zero two zero zero four mercedes mccambridge american actress b one nine one six two zero zero four marge schott baseball team owner b one nine two eight two zero zero five rick mahler baseball player b one nine five three holidays and observances bah faith feast of al loftiness first day of the one nine th month of the bah calendar bah faith beginning of the fast sunrise to sunset fast for one nine days church of england saint chad s day texas independence day one eight three six external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march one march three february two april two listing of all days the mishnah hebrew repetition is a major source of rabbinic judaism s religious texts it is the first recording of the oral law of the jewish people as championed by the pharisees and is considered the first work of rabbinic judaism the mishnah was redacted around the year two zero zero ce by judah hanasi judah the prince he is usually simply referred to as rebbi rabbi nearly all of the mishnah is written in mishnaic hebrew except for a few verses which are written in aramaic rabbinic commentaries on the mishnah over the next three centuries were recorded mostly in aramaic and were redacted as the gemara the mishnah and the gemara together form the talmud the mishnah is noteworthy in rabbinic literature for its depiction of a religious universe in which the temple in jerusalem destroyed a century earlier still retains a central place laws concerning the temple service constitute one of the mishnah s six divisions also noteworthy is the mishnah s lack of citation of a scriptural basis for its laws it is said that the oral law was given simultaneously with the written law torah and so does not derive directly from it connecting the mishnaic law with the torah law was a major enterprise of the later midrash and talmuds the rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the mishnah are called tannaim the plural of tanna tanna is an aramaic term for the hebrew word shana which also is the root word of mishnah the verb shano literally means to repeat what one was taught and is used to mean to learn the word mishna can also indicate a single paragraph i e the smallest unit of structure in the mishnah the plural is mishnayot thus a number of mishnayot make up a perek chapter a number of perakim chapters make up a masechet tractate a number of masechtot tractates make up a seder order and the shas acronym for shisha sedarim the six orders make up the mishnah the term shas is also used to refer to a complete talmud which follows the structure of the mishnah relation between the hebrew bible and the mishnah rabbinical judaism holds that the five books of moses called the written torah have always been transmitted in parallel with an oral tradition two guides to laws were given to moses at mount sinai the first known as torah she bi khtav or the written law is composed of only the five books of moses genesis through deuteronomy these five books are the first five books of the hebrew bible when the writings of the nevi im meaning prophets and ketuvim meaning writings the wisdom and creative literature are added to the torah the five books of moses the expanded volume is called the tanakh it is this complete version of hebrew literature that christianity knows as the old testament the tanakh comprises the hebrew bible as we know it today the second law given to moses at sinai known as torah she be al peh is the exposition of the written law as relayed by the scholarly and other religious leaders of each generation this oral law is in some sense the more authoritative of the two the traditions of the oral law are considered as the basis for the interpretation and often for the reading of the written law by two zero zero ce the time of rabbi judah ha nasi much of the oral law was edited together into the mishnah see below over the next four centuries this material underwent analysis and debate known as gemara completion in both of the world s major jewish communities in the land of israel and babylon these eventually came to be edited together into compilations known as the talmud jewish law and custom thus is not based on a literal reading of the torah or the rest of the tanakh but on the combined oral and written traditions the writing of the mishnah according to jewish law the written law must be transmitted from a written source and the oral law orally therefore it was forbidden to write down the oral law in any form other than for notes the babylonian talmud hagiga one four a states that there were either six hundred or seven hundred orders of the mishnah hillel the elder organized them into six orders to make it easier to remember over time different traditions of the oral law came into being debating what the laws or their rulings were further according to the mavoh hatalmud many rulings were given about specific things that could have been taken out of context or where a ruling was revisited but the second ruling was not as popularly known to correct this rabbi took up the redaction of the mishnah if something was already there with no conflict he used it without changes in language he reordered and ruled on where there was conflict and clarifed where context was not given the idea was not do this at his own discretion but rather to examine the tradition as far back as he could and only supplement as required as he went through the tractates the mishnah was set forth but throughout his life some parts were updated as new information came to light because of the proliferation of earlier versions it was deemed too hard to retract anything already released as such a second version of certain laws were released the talmud refers to these differing version as mishnah rishona first mishnah and mishna acharona last mishnah with rabbi s death no more redactions were done to the body of the mishnah though it was still not written down it was finally written down some centuries later when it was deemed too difficult to remember but the exact date is a matter of debate together the gemara and mishnah form the talmud the structure of the mishnah the mishnah consists of six orders sedarim this explains the traditional name for the talmud as shas which is an abbreviation of shishah sedarim six orders each of the six orders contains between seven and one two tractates called masechtot each masechet is divided into verses called mishnayot singular mishna first order zeraim seeds one one tractates it deals with agricultural laws and prayers second order moed festival one two tractates this pertains to the laws of the sabbath and the festivals third order nashim women seven tractates concerns marriage and divorce fourth order nezikin damages one zero tractates deals with civil and criminal law fifth order kodshim holy things one one tractates this involves sacrificial rites the temple and the dietary laws sixth order tohorot purities one two tractates this pertains to the laws of purity and impurity including the impurity of the dead the laws of ritual purity for the priests cohanim the laws of family purity the menstrual laws and others most of the mishnah is related stam i e without any name attributed to it this usually indicates that many sages taught so and the halakhic ruling usually follows that view sometimes however it is the opinion of a single sage whom rabbi judah hanasi favored and sought to establish the ruling accordingly the generations of the mishnah sages first generation rabban yohanan ben zakkai s generation circa four zero eight zero ce second generation rabban gamliel of yavneh rabbi eliezer and rabbi yehoshua s generation the teachers of rabbi akiva third generation the generation of rabbi akiva and his colleagues fourth generation the generation of rabbi meir rabbi yehuda and their colleagues fifth generation rabbi judah hanasi s generation sixth generation the interim generation between the mishnah and the talmud rabbis shimon ben judah hanasi and yehoshua ben levi etc oral traditions and pronunciation the mishnah was and still is traditionally studied through recitation out loud many medieval manuscripts of the mishnah are vowelized and some of these contain partial tiberian cantillation jewish communities around the world preserved local melodies for chanting the mishnah and distinctive ways of pronouncing its words most vowelized editions of the mishnah today reflect standard ashkenazic vowelization and often contain mistakes the albeck edition of the mishnah was vowelized by hannokh yellin who made careful eclectic use of both medieval manuscripts and current oral traditions of pronunciation from jewish communities all over the world the albeck edition includes an entire volume by yellin detailing his eclectic method two institutes at the hebrew university in jerusalem have collected major oral archives which hold among other things extensive recordings of jews chanting the mishnah using a variety of melodies and many different kinds of pronunciation these institutes are the jewish oral traditions research center and the national voice archives the phonoteca at the jewish national and university library see below for external links commentaries in one one six eight maimonides was probably the first to author a comprehensive commentary on the mishnah it was written in arabic and was one of the first commentaries of its kind in it rambam condenses the associated talmudical debates and offers his conclusions in a number of undecided issues of particular significance are the various introductory sections as well as the introduction to the work itself these are widely quoted in other works on the mishna and on the oral law in general perhaps the most famous is his introduction to the tenth chapter of tractate sanhedrin where he enumerates the thirteen fundamental beliefs of judaism rabbi samson of sens france was apart from maimonides one of the few rabbis of the early medieval era to compose a mishnah commentary it is printed in many editions of the mishnah rabbi obadiah ben abraham of bertinoro one five th century wrote one of the most popular mishnah commentaries he draws on maimonides work but also offers talmudical material in effect a summary of the talmudic discussion in addition to its role as a commentary on the mishna this work is often referenced by students of talmud as a review text and is often referred to as the bartanura after the maharal of prague had initiated organised mishnah study chevrath ha mishnayoth his pupil yomtov lipman heller wrote a commentary which resembles that of the tosafists on the talmud and is therefore called tosafoth yom tov he offers brief insights into the mishnah and bertinoro in many compact mishnah printings a condensed version of his commentary titled ikar tosafoth yom tov is featured other acharonim who have written mishnah commentaries rabbi solomon luria the maharshal the vilna gaon shenoth eliyahu rabbi akiva eiger a prominent commentary from the one nine th century is tifereth yisrael by rabbi yisrael lipschutz it is subdivided into two parts one more general and the other more analytical titled yachin and boaz respectively after two large pillars in the temple in jerusalem lipschutz has not been completely without controversy partially because he refers on occasion to scientific findings the commentary by rabbi pinhas kehati which is written in modern israeli hebrew and based on classical and contemporary works has become popular in the late twentieth century the commentary is designed to make the mishnah widely accessible to a wide spectrum of learners of all ages and all levels of experience in torah study it is popularly referred to as the kehati each tractate is introduced with an overview of its contents including historical and legal background material and each mishnah is prefaced by a thematic introduction historical study both the mishnah and talmud contain little serious biographical studies of the people discussed therein and the same tractate will conflate the points of view of many different people yet sketchy biographies of the mishaic sages can often be constructed with historical detail from talmudic and midrashic sources many modern historical scholars have focused on the timing and the formation the mishnah a vital question is whether it is comprised of sources which date from its editor s lifetime and to what extent is it comprised of earlier or later sources are mishnaic disputes distinguishable along theological or communal lines and in what ways do different sections derive from different schools of thought within early judaism can these early sources be identified and if so how in response to these questions modern scholars have adopted a number of different approaches traditionally rabbinic judaism has viewed the statements in the mishnah and talmud as being historically accurate and written under a subtle form of divine inspiration sometimes called the ruach hakodesh the holy spirit in this view the statements described therein are entirely reliable and accepted as much nevertheless even the talmud points out that the mishnah is on occasions ambiguous or deficient in general textual criticism of the mishnah from orthodox point of view has ceased after the completion of the talmud and modern attempts at textual criticism are mainly considered heretical most orthodox jews view the biographical statements in the mishnah talmud and in some cases even the early midrash collections as being entirely historically reliable some scholars hold that there has been extensive editorial reshaping of the stories and statements within the mishnah and later in the talmud lacking outside confirming texts they hold that we cannot confirm the origin or date of most statements and laws and that we can say little for certain about their authorship in this view the questions above are impossible to answer see for example the works of louis jacobs baruch m bokser shaye j d cohen steven d fraade some scholars hold that the mishnah and talmud have been extensively shaped by later editorial redaction but that it contains sources which we can identify and describe with some level of reliability in this view sources can be identified to some extent because each era of history and each distinct geographical region has its own unique feature which one can trace and analyze thus the questions above may be analyzed see for example the works of goodblatt lee levine david c kraemer and robert goldenberg some scholars hold that many or most of the statements and events described in the mishnah and talmud usually occurred more or less as described and that they can be used as serious sources of historical study in this view historians do their best to tease out later editorial additions itself a very difficult task and skeptically view accounts of miracles leaving behind a reliable historical text see for example the works of saul lieberman david weiss halivni avraham goldberg and dov zlotnick see also tannaim talmud tosefta beraita minor tractates references translations herbert danby the mishna oxford one nine three three isbn zero one nine eight one five four zero two x jacob neusner the mishnah a new translation new haven reprint one nine nine one isbn zero three zero zero zero five zero two two four various editors the mishnah a new translation with commentary yad avraham new york mesorah publishers since one nine eight zero s historical study shalom carmy ed modern scholarship in the study of torah contributions and limitations jason aronson inc shaye j d cohen patriarchs and scholarchs proceedings of the american academy for jewish research four eight one nine eight one pp five seven eight seven steven d fraade the early rabbinic sage in the sage in israel and the ancient near east ed john g gammie and leo g perdue winona lake indiana eisenbrauns one nine nine zero pp four one seven two three robert goldenberg the sabbath law of rabbi meir missoula montana scholars press one nine seven eight jacob neusner making the classics in judaism atlanta scholars press one nine eight nine pp one one three and one nine four four jacob neusner judaism the evidence of the mishna chicago university of chicago press one nine eight one pp one four two two gary porton the traditions of rabbi ishmael leiden e j brill one nine eight two vol four pp two one two two five dov zlotnick the iron pillar mishnah jerusalem bialik institute one nine eight eight pp eight nine external links wikimedia projects wikisource s open mishnah project is developing mishnah texts commentaries and translations the project is currently available in three languages the largest collection and other electronic texts mishna on demand custom pdf versions of any section of the mishna in hebrew mechon mamre hebrew text according to maimonides version the structured mishnah hebrew text according to the albeck edition without vowels with special formatting the daily mishnah a study cycle the daily mishnah uses the kehati commentary in english translation mishna yomis daily mishnah audio english mishnah yomit one mishnah per day note this study cycle follows a different schedule than the regular one contains extensive archives in english mishnah of the daf a new mishnah study cycle that parallels the progress of the daf yomi audio lectures rabbi meir pogrow advanced lectures in english free mp three download manuscripts kaufmann manuscript of the mishnah view images of the entire vowelized manuscript oral traditions chanting and pronunciation of the mishnah jewish oral traditions research center hebrew university the national sound archives at the hebrew university catalogue not currently online mishnah in mathematics a morphism is an abstraction of a structure preserving process between two mathematical structures the most common example occurs when the process is a function or map which preserves the structure in some sense in set theory for example morphisms are just functions in group theory they are group homomorphisms while in topology they are continuous functions in the context of universal algebra morphisms are generically known as homomorphisms the abstract study of morphisms and the structures or objects between which they are defined forms part of category theory in category theory morphisms need not be functions at all and are usually thought as arrows between two different objects which need not be sets rather than mapping elements of one set to another they simply represent some sort of relationship between the domain and codomain despite the abstract nature of morphisms most people s intuition about them and indeed much of the terminology comes from the case of concrete categories where the objects are simply sets with some additional structure and morphisms are functions preserving this structure definition a category c is given by two pieces of data a class of objects and a class of morphisms there are two operations defined on every morphism the domain or source and the codomain or target morphisms are often depicted as arrows from their domain to their codomain e g if a morphism f has domain x and codomain y it is denoted f x y the set of all morphisms from x to y is denoted hom c x y or simply hom x y and called the hom set between x and y some authors write mor c x y or mor x y for every three objects x y and z there exists a binary operation hom x y hom y z hom x z called composition the composite of f x y and g y z is written g circ f or gf some authors write it as fg composition of morphisms is often denoted by means of a commutative diagram for example image morphismcomposition zero one png morphisms must satisfy two axioms identity for every object x there exists a morphism id x x x called the identity morphism on x such that for every morphism f a b we have b circ f f f circ a associativity h circ g circ f h circ g circ f whenever the operations are defined when c is a concrete category composition is just ordinary composition of functions the identity morphism is just the identity function and associativity is automatic functional composition is associative note that the domain and codomain are really part of the information determining the morphism for example in the category of sets where morphisms are functions two functions may be identical as set of ordered pairs but have different codomains these functions are considered distinct for the purposes of category theory for this reason many authors require that the hom classes hom x y be disjoint in practice this is not a problem because if they are not disjoint the domain and codomain can be appended to the morphisms say as the second and third components of an ordered triple making them disjoint types of morphisms let f x y be a morphism if there exists a morphism g y x such that f circ g y and g circ f x then f is called an isomorphism and g is said to be an inverse morphism of f inverse morphisms if they exist are unique it is easy to see that g is also an isomorphism with inverse f two objects with an isomorphism between them are said to be isomorphic or equivalent isomorphisms are the most important kinds of morphisms in category theory a morphism f x y is called an epimorphism if g one circ f g two circ f implies g one g two for all morphisms g one g two y z it is also called an epi or an epic epimorphisms in concrete categories are typically surjective morphisms although this is not always the case a morphism f x y is called a monomorphism if f circ g one f circ g two implies g one g two for all morphisms g one g two z x it is also called a mono or a monic monomorphisms in concrete categories are typically injective morphisms if f is both an epimorphism and a monomorphism then f is called a bimorphism note that every isomorphism is a bimorphism but in general not every bimorphism is an isomorphism for example in the category of commutative rings the inclusion z q is a bimorphism which is not an isomorphism a category in which every bimorphism is an isomorphism is a balanced category for example set is a balanced category any morphism f x x is called an endomorphism of x an endomorphism that is also an isomorphism is called an automorphism if f x y and g y x satisfy f circ g y one can show that f is epic and g is monic and that g circ f x x is idempotent in this case f and g are said to be split f is called a retraction of g and g is called a section of f any morphism that is both an epimorphism and a split monomorphism or both a monomorphism and a split epimorphism must be an isomorphism e g if the latter holds for f then f circ g circ f y circ f f circ x and therefore by the monic property of f g circ f x see also zero morphisms normal morphisms holomorphism examples in the concrete categories studied in universal algebra such as those of groups rings modules etc morphisms are called homomorphisms the terms isomorphism epimorphism monomorphism endomorphism and automorphism are all used in that specialized context as well in the category of topological spaces morphisms are continuous functions and isomorphisms are called homeomorphisms in the category of smooth manifolds morphisms are smooth functions and isomorphisms are called diffeomorphisms functors can be thought of as morphisms in the category of small categories in a functor category the morphisms are natural transformations for more examples see the article on category theory category theory marathon may refer to marathon sport a distance race of two six two miles four two one nine five km as the name of a place marathon greece and the battle of marathon after which the distance race was named marathon village new york marathon town new york marathon texas marathon florida marathon ontario in canada marathon county wisconsin in other uses until one nine nine zero the name in the united kingdom for a snickers bar marathon bar unrelated to the candy above is a candy that was available in the us from one nine seven three one nine eight two marathon computer game series a series of computer games marathon film a korean film marathon oil corporation marathon petroleum company subsidiary of the above formed by the former marathon ashland petroleum llc marathon television the sequential broadcast of a number of related television programs marathon animation producer of totally spies monotheism in greek single and god in contrast with polytheism is the belief in the one single universal all encompassing god in traditional jewish christian and islamic thought only those religions derived from biblical sources were considered monotheistic with monotheism being regarded as their most basic belief they have traditionally interpreted scriptures as exclusive monotheism however upon a careful study of scriptures the conceptualization of the biblical god seems to be more monistic or even pantheistic no different from all the other spiritual traditions in the world which existed then and the major religious traditions which exist today middle eastern traditions monotheism pre biblical middle eastern religions ancient middle eastern religions may have worshipped a single god within a pantheon and the abolition of all others as in the case of the aten cult in the reign of the egyptian pharaoh akhenaten under the chiefly influence of the eastern originating nefertiti iconoclasm during this pharaoh s rule is considered a chief origin for the subsequent destruction by some groups of idols holding that no other god before the preferred deity dually and subtly acknowledging the existence of the other gods but only as foes to be destroyed for their drawing of attention away from the primary deity the hyksos continued an inheritance of akhenaten s religious policies other issues like the divine right of kings may possibly also stems from pharaonic laws on the ruler being the demigod or representative of the creator on earth the massive tombs in the egyptian pyramids which aligned with astronomical observations exemplify this relationship between the pharaoh and the heavens and was subsequently adopted by christian royalty by claiming a direct lease on ruling by the grace of god judaism and the hebrew bible monotheism polytheism or monism from the above we can see that like judaism and christianity the qur an s interpretation of god is that of a being whose spiritual presence is experienced in the universe islam has a simple expression of monotheism the arabic word for monotheism is tawhidtawh d means unification i e to unify or to keep something unified the shahadah or the islamic creed is the declaration of belief in the unity of god allah in arabic and the prophethood of muhammad its recitation is considered one of the five pillars of islam by sunni muslims when sincerely stated aloud one is considered to have officially declared oneself a convert to islam the salaat in islam for example involve explicit monotheistic testimony islam declares the unity of god as their primary teaching furthermore islam considers christianity s trinity as a distortion of jesus s original teaching after the fact bah view the oneness of god is one of the core teachings of the bah faith in bah belief god is omnipotent omniscient and perfect bah s believe that although people have different concepts of god and his nature and call him by different names everyone is speaking of the same one being the obligatory prayers in the bah faith involve explicit monotheistic testimony the bah faith also accepts the authenticity of the founders of faiths with monotheism such as gaudiya vaishnavism which focuses on worship of krishna as god or even what are sometimes interpreted as atheistic teachings such as buddhism bah s believe in the unity of religion and that revelation is progressive and thus that earlier non monotheisms are simply less mature understandings of the unity of god in regards to the trinity bah s believe that the trinity is symbolic of the light from the one god being reflected on pure mirrors which are jesus and the holy spirit source of abrahamic religions although the major source of both christianity and islam is judaism s hebrew bible judaism and christianity like all cultures have received influences from various non biblical religions present in egypt and syria this can be seen by the torah s reference to egyptian culture in genesis and the story of moses as well as the mention of hittite and hurrian cultures of syria in the genesis story of abraham central and east asian traditions monotheism hinduism the vedas are the most sacred texts shruti in hinduism the oldest of them the rigveda in its youngest books books one and one zero contains evidence for emerging monotheistic thought often quoted are pada one one six four four six c to what is one sages give many a title trans griffith and hymns one zero one two nine and one zero one three zero dealing with a creator deity especially verse one zero one two nine seven he the first origin of this creation whether he formed it all or did not form it whose eye controls this world in highest heaven he verily knows it or perhaps he knows not trans griffith in one one six four four six c means one being or one truth in hinduism views are broad and range from polytheism monism dualism pantheism panentheism alternatively called monistic theism by some scholars to strict monotheism see hindu denominations contemporary hinduism is divided into four major divisions vaishnavism shaivism shaktism and smartism the denominations all believe in one god but differ in their conceptions the two primary form of differences are between the two monotheistic denominations of vaishnavism which conceives god as vishnu and shaivism which conceives god as shiva other aspects of god are in fact aspects of vishnu or shiva smartas who follow advaita philosophy are monists and view multiple manifestations of the one god or source of being hindu monists see one unity with the personal gods different aspects of only one supreme being like a single beam of light separated into colours by a prism and are valid to worship some of the smarta aspects of god include devi vishnu ganesh and siva it is the smarta view that dominates the view of hinduism in the west as smarta belief includes advaita belief and the first hindu saint who significantly brought hinduism to the west was swami vivekananda an adherent of advaita not till much later gurus such as a c bhaktivedanta swami prabhupada and others brought a vaishnavite perspective to the west by contrast with smarta advaita belief vaishnavism and shaivism follows a singular concept of god or panentheistic monotheism or panentheistic monism for certain sects of hindus it is believed that god has six attributes however the actual number of auspicious qualities of god are countless with the following six qualities being the most important the number six is invariably given but the individual attributes listed vary one set of attributes and their common interpretations are j na omniscience defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously aishvarya sovereignty derived from the word ishvara which consists in unchallenged rule over all shakti energy or power which is the capacity to make the impossible possible bala strength which is the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigue v rya vigor or valour which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the supreme being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations and tejas splendor which expresses his self sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by his spiritual effulgence cited from bhakti schools of vedanta by swami tapasy nanda additionally many hindus including smartas believe in god having three aspects as brahma vishnu and shiva the trimurti also called the hindu trinity and these different aspects are part of the one and the same god conflicts between the denominations are rare though a rigvedic verse illustrates this theme of tolerance by stating that truth is one though the sages know it variously this is in contrast with some beliefs of other religious traditions where one must believe in god being one aspect in rejection or disdain of other beliefs for further information please see hindu views on monotheism ayyavazhi though ayyavazhi a religion originating in the one nine th century is a monistic religion it also accepts almost all deities in hinduism in the first half of its scripture akilattirattu ammanai it says about the previous six aeons where narayana incarnates to destroy the different aspects of kroni but in the seventh kali yukam the sixth fragment of kroni kaliyan spread in the mind of people as evil force there is a universal change as kaliyan claimed all the power of different godheads as boons so it was impossible for any godheads to destroy him so the power of all deities were unified into vaikundar who was the incarnation of ekam the ultimate soul or paramatama the activities of vaikundar such as unifying the deities shows vaikundar reigning as a king by controlling all other deities so after the incarnation of vaikundar all the deities were under vaikundar and he was considered as a supreme deity and the one and only worshippable god there after sikhism sikhism is a distinct monotheistic faith that rose in northern india during the one six th and one seven th centuries sikhs believe in one timeless omnipresent supreme creator the opening verse of the guru granth sahib known as the mool mantra signifies this transliteration ik a k r sat n m karat purakh nirabha u niravair ak l m rat aj n saibha gur pras d english one universal creator god the name is truth creative being personified no fear no hatred image of the undying beyond birth self existent by guru s grace it is often said that the one four three zero pages of the guru granth sahib are all expansions on the mool mantra although the sikhs have many names for god they all refer to the same supreme being taoism tao is the ultimate that cannot be defined in words with nothingness as its nature and contains other deities unlike the middle east origined monotheisms the tao has no personal attributes such as holiness love and righteousness this makes taoism exempt from the problems of theodicy zoroastrianism zoroastrianism is considered by some to perhaps be one of the earliest monotheistic belief to have evolved among humanity though some derivatives of it are not fully so as the chief god in derivatives such as zurvanism is not the sole creator zoroastrian monotheism has had major influence on the religions of the middle eastern monotheisms in adaptations of such concepts as heavens hells judgement day and messianic figures several professors of archaeology and of biblical criticism connect zoroastrianism and the religion of the early israelites for example they have made the controversial claim that many stories in the old testament were actually initially developed by scribes employed by king josiah seven th century bc to rationalize monotheistic belief in yhvh this theory observes that the neighbouring countries such as egypt persia etc although keeping written records have no writings about the stories of the bible or its main characters before six five zero bc such claims are detailed in who were the early israelites by william g dever another such book is the bible unearthed by neil a silberman and colleagues simon and schuster can there be different types of monotheism some argue that there are various forms of monotheism including theism a term that refers to the belief in the existence of a god or divine being deism is a form of monotheism in which it is believed that one god exists however a deist rejects the idea that this god intervenes in the world hence any notion of special revelation is impossible and the nature of god can only be known through reason and observation from nature a deist thus rejects the miraculous and the claim to knowledge made for religious groups and texts monistic theism is the type of monotheism found in hinduism and in the scriptures of the semitic religions the long time monistic interpretation of hindu scriptures is different from the interpretation of semitic scriptures which claim exclusive monotheism as it encompasses pantheism monism and at the same time includes the concept of a personal god as an universal omnipotent supreme being the other types of monotheism are qualified monism the school of ramanuja or vishishtadvaita which admits that the universe is part of god or narayana a type of panentheism but there is a plurality of souls within this supreme being and dvaita which differs in that it is dualistic as god is separate and not panentheistic pantheism holds that the universe itself is god the existence of a transcendent supreme extraneous to nature is denied depending on how this is understood such a view may be presented as tantamount to atheism deism or theism panentheism or monistic monotheism is a form of theism that holds that god contains but is not identical to the universe the one god is omnipotent and all pervading the universe is part of god and god is both immanent and transcendent this is also the view of process theology and also vishistadvaita vedanta hinduism according to this school from ramanuja the universe is part of god but god is not equal to the universe but in fact transcends it as well however unlike process theology god in vishistadvaita vedanta hinduism is omnipotent panentheism is thought of as god is within the universe as the soul is within the body substance monotheism found e g in some indigenous african religions holds that the many gods are different forms of a single underlying substance and that this underlying substance is god this view has vague similarities to the christian trinitarian view of three persons sharing one nature comparison to polytheism in contrast see polytheism which holds that there are many gods dualism teaches that there are two independent divine beings or eternal principles the one good and the other evil as set forth especially in early zoroastrianism modern zoroastrianism is strictly monotheistic but more fully in its later offshoots in gnostic systems such as manichaeism monotheism can be divided into different types on the basis of its attitude towards polytheism inclusive monotheism claims that all polytheistic deities are just different names for the single monotheistic god smartism a denomination of hinduism follows this belief and holds that god is one but has different aspects and can be called by different names this belief dominate the view of hinduism in the west exclusive monotheism on the other hand claims that these deities are false and distinct from the one god either invented demonic or simply incorrect as vaishnavism a denomination of hinduism regards the worship of anyone other than vishnu exclusive monotheism is a well known tenet in the beliefs of the abrahamic religions further reading dever william g two zero zero three who were the early israelites william b eerdmans publishing co grand rapids mi silberman neil a and colleagues simon and schuster two zero zero one the bible unearthed new york whitelam keith one nine nine seven the invention of ancient israel routledge new york see also abrahamic religion henotheism hindu views on monotheism kathenotheism monistic theism semitic monotheism psychology of religion external links zoroastrian brief description of zoroastrianism zoroastrianism s influence jewish jewish monotheism chabad org biblical monotheism christianity belief of trinity among christians islam islaam website shaivism shiva as the supreme god vaishnavism dvaita vaishnavite view of vishnu homage only to vishnu monotheism theology christian theology may nine is the one two nine th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one three zero th in leap years there are two three six days remaining events three two eight athanasius is elected patriarch bishop of alexandria one zero nine two lincoln cathedral is consecrated one four five zero abd al latif mirza timurid monarch assassinated one five zero two christopher columbus leaves spain for his fourth and final journey to the new world one six seven one thomas blood disguised as a clergyman attempts to steal the crown jewels from the tower of london he is immediately caught because he is too drunk to run with the loot he is later condemned to death and then mysteriously pardoned and exiled by king charles ii one seven two six five men arrested during a raid on mother clap s molly house in london are executed at tyburn one eight six eight the city of reno nevada is founded one eight seven four the first horse drawn carriage made its d but in the city of mumbai plying on two routes one eight eight seven buffalo bill s wild west show opens in london one nine zero one australia opens its first parliament in melbourne one nine one four j t hearne becomes the first bowler to take three zero zero zero first class wickets one nine one five world war i second battle of artois between german and french forces one nine two six admiral richard e byrd and floyd bennett claim to have flown over the north pole later discovery of his diary seems to indicate that this did not happen one nine two seven the australian parliament first convenes in canberra one nine three six italy formally annexes ethiopia after taking the capital addis ababa on may five one nine four zero world war ii the german submarine u nine sinks french coastal submarine doris near den helder one nine four one world war ii the german submarine u one one zero is captured by the royal navy on board is the latest enigma cryptography machine which allied cryptographers later use to break coded german messages one nine four two world war ii belgrade becomes the first axis conquered city to murder or eliminate its jewish population largely with the help of serbian collaborators one nine four five world war ii the final german surrender to marshal georgy zhukov at berlin karlshorst is signed by colonel general hans j rgen stumpff as the representative of the luftwaffe field marshal wilhelm keitel as the chief of staff of okw and admiral hans georg von friedeburg as commander in chief of the kriegsmarine one nine four five world war ii hermann g ring is captured by the united states army one nine four five world war ii norway arrests vidkun quisling one nine four five world war ii red army enters prague capitulation of nazi occupation troops one nine four five world war ii the soviet union marks victory day one nine four five world war ii the channel islands are formally liberated by the british one nine four six king victor emmanuel iii of italy abdicates and is succeeded by humbert ii one nine four nine rainier iii of monaco becomes prince of monaco one nine five zero robert schuman presents his proposal on the creation of an organized europe indispensable to the maintenance of peaceful relations this proposal known as the schuman declaration is considered by some people to be the beginning of the creation of what is now the european union one nine five zero l ron hubbard publishes his book on dianetics entitled dianetics the modern science of mental health one nine five five cold war west germany joins nato one nine five five sam and friends debuts on a local us television channel marking the first television appearance of both jim henson and what would become kermit the frog and the muppets one nine five six first ascent of manaslu the world s eighth highest mountain one nine six zero reproductive rights the u s food and drug administration approves sale of the birth control pill one nine seven zero vietnam war in washington d c seven five zero zero zero to one zero zero zero zero zero war protestors peacefully demonstrate behind a barricaded white house one nine seven four watergate scandal the united states house of representatives judiciary committee opens formal and public impeachment hearings against president richard m nixon one nine eight zero in florida liberian freighter ss summit venture hits the sunshine skyway bridge over tampa bay sending three five people most in a bus to a watery death as a one four zero zero foot section of the bridge collapses one nine eight zero the first meeting of pope john paul ii and the archbishop of canterbury takes place in ghana one nine eight seven a polish lot ilyushin i six two m tadeusz ko ciuszko sp lbg crashes after takeoff in warsaw poland killing one eight three people one nine eight seven in brussels belgium johnny logan wins the thirty second eurovision song contest for ireland singing hold me now one nine nine two in malm sweden linda martin wins the thirty seventh eurovision song contest for ireland singing why me one nine nine two at five one eight a m adt the westray mine in plymouth nova scotia experiences a methane explosion killing all two six miners who were working one nine nine four nelson mandela is inaugurated as south africa s first black president one nine nine eight in birmingham united kingdom dana international wins the forty third eurovision song contest for israel singing diva two zero zero two the three eight day stand off in the church of the nativity in bethlehem comes to an end when the palestinians inside agree to have one three suspected militants among them deported to several different countries two zero zero two in kaspiysk russia a remote controlled bomb explodes during a holiday parade killing four three and injuring at least one three zero two zero zero four chechen president akhmad kadyrov is killed in a landmine bomb blast under a vip stage during a world war ii memorial victory parade in grozny chechnya two zero zero four team of canada won the world ice hockey championship in prague two zero zero six more information on the nintendo revolution will be released to the public births one one four seven minamoto no yoritomo japanese shogun d one one nine nine one four three nine pope pius iii d one five zero three one seven four one giovanni paisiello italian composer d one eight one six one eight zero zero john brown american abolitionist d one eight five nine one eight three seven adam opel german engineer and industrialist b one eight nine five one eight six zero j m barrie scottish author d one nine three seven one eight seven three anton cermak mayor of chicago d one nine three three one eight seven four howard carter british archaeologist d one nine three nine one eight eight two george barker american painter d one nine six five one eight eight two henry j kaiser american ship builder d one nine six seven one eight nine two zita of bourbon parma empress of austria hungary d one nine eight nine one eight nine five richard barthelmess american actor d one nine six three one eight nine five lucian blaga romanian poet playwright and philosopher b one eight nine five one nine zero seven baldur von schirach nazi official d one nine seven four one nine one two pedro armend riz mexican actor d one nine six three one nine one two per imerslund the aryan idol d one nine four three one nine one four hank snow canadian born musician d one nine nine nine one nine one eight mike wallace american journalist one nine one eight orville l freeman american politician d two zero zero three one nine two zero richard adams english author one nine two zero william tenn american author one nine two one sophie scholl resistance fighter in nazi germany d one nine four three one nine two one mona van duyn american poet d two zero zero four one nine two four bulat okudzhava russian writer and musician d one nine nine seven one nine two seven manfred eigen german biophysicist recipient of the nobel prize in chemistry one nine two eight colin chapman english engineer and automobile manufacturer d one nine eight two one nine two eight pancho gonzalez american tennis player d one nine nine five one nine two eight barbara ann scott canadian figure skater one nine three zero joan sims british actress d two zero zero one one nine three four alan bennett british author one nine three six albert finney british actor one nine three six glenda jackson english actress and politician one nine three seven jos rafael moneo spanish architect one nine three nine ralph boston american athlete one nine four zero james l brooks american film producer and writer one nine four two john ashcroft united states attorney general one nine four four richie furay american musician poco and buffalo springfield one nine four six candice bergen american actress one nine four nine billy joel american musician one nine five five anne sofie von otter swedish mezzo soprano one nine six three sanja dole al croatian singer novi fosili one nine six four david gahan english singer depeche mode one nine six four kevin saunderson american music producer and disc jockey one nine six five steve yzerman canadian hockey player one nine six eight marie jos perec french athlete one nine seven zero ghostface killah american rapper one nine seven two megumi odaka japanese actress and artist one nine seven five george boateng dutch footballer one nine seven eight leandro dami n cufr argentine football player one nine seven nine pierre bouvier canadian musician simple plan one nine eight two rachel boston american actress deaths one three one five hugh v duke of burgundy b one two eight two one four four six mary of enghien queen of naples b one three six eight one six five seven william bradford governor of plymouth colony b one five nine zero one seven zero seven dieterich buxtehude german composer one seven four seven john dalrymple two nd earl of stair scottish soldier and diplomat b one six seven three one seven six zero nicolaus ludwig zinzendorf german religious and social reformer b one seven zero zero one seven eight nine jean baptiste vaquette de gribeauval french artillery specialist b one seven one five one seven nine zero william clingan american delegate to the continental congress one seven nine one francis hopkinson american signer of the declaration of independence b one seven three seven one eight zero five friedrich schiller german poet and historian b one seven five nine one eight six one peter ernst von lasaulx german philosopher and writer b one eight zero five one eight eight nine william s harney u s general b one eight zero zero one nine zero three paul gauguin french painter b one eight four eight one nine three one albert abraham michelson german born physicist nobel prize laureate b one eight five two one nine three eight thomas b thrige danish industrialist b one eight six six one nine four nine prince louis ii of monaco b one eight seven zero one nine five zero esteban terradas i illa catalan mathematician scientist and engineer b one eight eight three one nine five seven ezio pinza italian bass b one eight nine two one nine six eight mercedes de acosta american poet playwright costume designer and socialite b one eight nine three one nine seven zero andrew watson myles canadian politician b one eight eight four one nine seven zero walter reuther american labor leader b one nine zero seven one nine seven six jens bj rneboe norwegian author b one nine two zero one nine seven eight aldo moro prime minister of italy b one nine one six one nine eight five edmond o brien american actor b one nine one five one nine eight six tenzing norgay nepalese sherpa b one nine one four one nine eight nine keith whitley american country music singer b one nine five five one nine nine four elias motsoaledi south african freedom fighter b one nine two four one nine nine eight alice faye american actress b one nine one five two zero zero three russell b long u s senator from louisiana b one nine one eight two zero zero four akhmad kadyrov chechen president b one nine five one two zero zero four alan king american comedian b one nine two seven two zero zero five nasrat parsa afghani singer b one nine six nine holidays and observances russia and some other parts of the former soviet union victory day as the end of the great patriotic war european union europe day commemorating the schuman declaration jersey guernsey liberation day roman empire feast of the lemures see larvae mother s day some countries one nine nine nine two zero zero four two zero one zero external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day thisdaythatyear com on may nine may eight may one zero april nine june nine listing of all days muay thai thai ipa muai three two t ai three two thai boxing is the thai name for an indigenous form of martial art practiced in several southeast asian countries including myanmar where it is generally known as lethwei and malaysia where it is known as tomoi ram muay before an amateur muay thai match it is the national sport of thailand traditional muay thai has a long history in thailand as a martial art used by the military the military style of muay thai is called lerdrit while today s sport muay thai slightly varies from the original art and uses kicks and punches in a ring and with gloves similar to those used in western boxing muay thai is referred to as the science of eight limbs as the hands feet elbows and knees are all used extensively in this art a master practitioner of muay thai thus has the ability to execute strikes using eight points of contact as opposed to the four points fists feet in other forms of martial arts this effectively gives the practitioner the ability to debilitate opponents with any combination of the eight limbs techniques the basic offensive techniques in muay thai use fists elbows shins feet and knees to strike the opponent to bind the opponent for both offensive and defensive purposes small amounts of stand up grappling are used the clinch the clinch is applied by holding the opponent either around the neck or around the body in western boxing the two fighters are separated when they clinch defensively the concept of wall of defense is used in which shoulders arms and legs are used to hinder the attacker from successfully executing his techniques blocking is a critical element in muay thai and compounds the level of conditioning a successful practitioner must possess low and mid body roundhouse kicks are normally blocked with a raised shin mid to high body strikes are blocked with the forearm knee shin roundhouse kicks to the mid section are often blocked accepted by a slight rotation of the torso so that the attacking shin strikes the back one four of the rib cage mid section round house kicks can also be caught trapped allowing for a sweep or counter attack to the remaining leg of the opponent muay thai is often a fighting art of attrition where opponents exchange blows with one another this is certainly the case with traditional stylists in thailand but is a less popular form of fighting in the contemporary world fighting circuit with the success of muay thai in mixed martial arts fighting it has become the de facto martial art of choice for competitive stand up fighters as a result it has evolved in order and incorporated much more powerful hand striking techniques used in westen style boxing and the thai style of exchanging blow for blow is no longer favorable note when muay thai fighters compete against fighters of other styles and if the rules permit it they almost invariably emphasize elbow sok and knee kao techniques to gain a distinct advantage in fighting two muay thai techniques were adopted by fighters from other martial arts the thai low kick and the thai roundhouse kick they are actually variations of the same kick but hit at different heights the low kick uses a rotational movement of the entire body to hit the opponent s outer thigh or side of knee with the shin when not properly defended against this technique often leads to the end of the fight as the opponent has great difficulty standing after a few powerful low kicks the thai roundhouse kick is also unique and was adapted for its efficiency the kick is carried out with a straight leg and the entire body rotating from the hip which is locked right before the leg makes contact to the opponent at close ranges thai boxers strike with the shin at longer ranges the foot makes contact some knee techniques kao kao dode jumping knee strike the thai boxer jumps up on one leg and strikes with that leg s knee kao loi jumping or flying knee strike the thai boxer jumps up or takes step s springs up off one leg and in mid air switches to the other knee to strike a quite spectacular sight when it connects kao tone straight knee strike the thai boxer simply thrusts it straight upwards according to one written source this technique is somewhat more recent than kao dode or kao loi supposedly when the thai boxers fought with rope bound hands rather than the modern boxing gloves this particular technique was subject to potentially vicious cutting slicing and sawing by an alert opponent who would block it or deflect it with the sharp rope glove edges or sometimes by the glass glued onto the rope gloves this explanation also holds true for some of the following knee strikes below as well kao noi small knee strike the thai boxer hits the inside upper thigh above the knee of the opponent when clinching this technique is used to wear down the opponent or to counter the opponent s knee strike or kick almost all techniques in muay thai use the entire body movement rotating the hip with each kick punch and block the rotation of the hips in muay thai techniques and intensive focus on core muscles such as abdominal muscles and surrounding muscles is very distinctive and is what sets muay thai apart from other styles of martial arts during a competition the participants perform a lengthy ritual and ceremony before the fight wai khru ram muay the ritual is both for religious reasons and as a stretching warm up conditioning muay thai for youth like most competitive full contact fighting sports muay thai has a heavy focus on body conditioning muay thai is specifically designed to promote the level of fitness and toughness required for ring competition training regimens include many staples of combat sport conditioning such as running shadowboxing rope jumping body weight resistance exercises medicine ball exercises abdominal exercises and in some cases weight training training that is specific to a muay thai fighter includes training with coaches on thai pads focus mitts heavy bag and sparring the daily training includes many rounds three five minute periods broken up by a short rest often one two minutes of these various methods of practice thai pad training is a cornerstone of muay thai conditioning which involves practicing punches kicks knees and elbow strikes with a trainer wearing thick pads which cover the forearms and hands these special pads are used to absorb the impact of the fighter s strikes and allow the fighter to react to the attacks of the pad holder the trainer will often also wear a belly pad around the abdominal area so that the fighter can attack with straight kicks to the body at anytime during the round focus mitts are specific to training a fighter s hand speed punch combinations timing punching power defense counter punching and are also used to practice elbow strikes heavy bag training is a conditioning and power exercise that reinforces the techniques practiced on the pads sparring is a means to test technique skills range strategy and timing against a partner sparring is often a light to medium contact exercise because competitive fighters on a full schedule are not advised to risk injury by sparring hard specific tactics and strategies can be trained with sparring including in close fighting clenching and kneeing only cutting off the ring or using reach and distance to keep an aggressive fighter away muay thai has demonstrated its effectiveness against other martial arts in a ring setting many times in thailand and internationally due to the rigorous fighting and training regimen some thai boxers fight almost every other week professional muay thai fighters have relatively short careers in the ring most professional thai boxers come from the lower economic backgrounds and the fight money after the other parties get their cut is sought as means of support for the fighters and their families very few higher economic strata thais join the professional muay thai ranks they usually practise the sport as amateur muay thai boxers history although muay thai is considered by some to be a derivation of a general indigenous martial art style native to southeast asia it was the first to be popularized outside of southeast asia traditionally in the past muay thai was used as entertainment to kings it is thought by some sources that gloves were made out of wrapped twine tar and broken pieces of glass to ensure a bloody event however it is still a subject of debate nai khanomtom a very famous fighter was nai khanomtom around one seven seven four he was captured along with other thai prisoners either in a skirmish or at the fall of the ancient capital of siam thailand s name at that time of ayutthaya he was brought to yangon rangoon in burma where the burmese king mangra was holding a religious festival in honor of buddha s relics the festivities included many forms of entertainment king mangra was reported to be curious to see how the various fighting styles of burma and other countries would compare at one point he wanted to see how muay thai or muay boran would compare to the burmese art either parma or lethwei nai khanomtom was selected to fight against the burmese champion nai khanomtom did a wai kru wai khru ram muay pre fight dance which puzzled all of the burmese when the fight began he charged out and using punches kicks elbows and knees quickly pummelled the burmese the referee was reported to have stated that the burmese opponent was distracted by the wai kru so the knockout was invalid the king then asked if nai khanomtom would fight nine other burmese champions to prove himself he agreed and fought them all one after the other the last burmese was reputed to be a great boxing teacher nai khanomtom defeated them all in a superior fashion king mangra was so impressed that he remarked every part of the thai is blessed with venom even with his bare hands he can fell nine or ten opponents as his lord master was incompetent the country was lost to the enemy if his lord were any good there was no way the city of ayutthaya would fall he offered nai khanomtom freedom along with either riches or two beautiful burmese wives nai khanomtom chose the wives as he said that money was easier to find he then departed with his wives for siam thailand other variations of this story had him also winning the release of his fellow thais his feat is celebrated every march one seven as boxer s day or national muay thai day in his honor and that of muay thai s kickboxing muay thai along with savate and karate heavily influenced the development of kickboxing in japan europe and north america although the rules of kickboxing are highly diverse in many competitions elbow strikes knee strikes and kicks below the waist are not allowed some muay thai practioners therefore consider kickboxing to be a watered down version of muay thai mixed martial arts starting in the one nine nine zero s muay thai has enjoyed a boost in popularity worldwide as it has been very effective in mixed martial arts fights such as those held by the pride fighting championship and the ufc ultimate fighting championship mixed martial artists such as marco ruas of ruas vale tudo and wanderlei silva of the chute boxe academy have combined many striking elements of muay thai with grappling submission and choking elements from judo wrestling or brazilian jiu jitsu into a hybrid synthesis that has been highly effective in defeating practitioners of pure martial arts other fighters that have used muay thai as their primary style in mixed martial arts include duane bang ludwig yves edwards and spencer cooper shoot fighters and professional wrestlers who have trained and influenced by muay thai include satoru sayama the original tiger mask and founder of shooto and yoshiaki fujiwara media depiction recently the films ong bak born to fight and tom yum goong helped to popularize muay thai the first and last films star tony jaa now a well known upcoming thai international action film superstar ong bak demonstrates some techniques of the more older style of muay thai muay boran and tom yum goong illustrates the fighting style of the thai royal bodyguards circa one four zero zero one seven zero zero s muay kochasan smashing elephant style the film kickboxer starring jean claude van damme was a film set in thailand and based on the sport of muay thai the video game characters sagat and adon street fighter joe higashi fatal fury king art of fighting zack dead or alive four bruce irvin and bryan fury tekken and brad burns virtua fighter are muay thai fighters vanessa virtua fighter uses muay thai as an alternate stance in addition to her standard vale tudo move set jax mortal kombat deadly alliance also uses a watered down form of the style see also k one ufc references muay thai the most distinguished art of fighting text book of pahuyuth panya kraitus and dr pitisuk kraitus third edition special revised one nine nine two panya kraitus phuket thailand isbn nine seven four eight six eight four one nine nine external links world muay thai council history of muay thai muaythaitv worldwide informations about muay thai oc muay thai combat sports thai terms muay thai sport in thailand thai martial arts thai culture mao redirects here for other uses see mao disambiguation december two six one eight nine three september nine one nine seven six mao tse tung in wade giles was the chairman of the politburo of the communist party of china from one nine four three and the chairman of the central committee of the communist party of china from one nine four five until his death in one nine seven six under his leadership the chinese communist party ccp became the ruling party of mainland china after victory over chinese nationalists the kuomintang in the chinese civil war on october one one nine four nine mao declared the formation of the people s republic of china at tiananmen square introduction mao created a mostly unified china free of foreign domination for the first time since the opium wars with zhu de mao co founded the people s liberation army as the red army on august one one nine two seven after chiang kai shek began leading a series of purges against the communists after gaining power mao initiated a transformation of the economic and social system through a process of collectivisation culminating in the great leap forward of one nine five eight six two which has subsequently been recognised as an economic disaster for china the changes in social and agricultural policies which he ordered during this period known in china as three years of natural disasters caused the massive famine of one nine five nine one nine six one mao created a totalitarian one party state contributed to the sino soviet split and initiated the cultural revolution which purged tortured and publicly humiliated millions these millions included many of those fellow communists who had forced mao to end the policies that caused the famine of one nine five nine one nine six one during the cultural revolution mao encouraged the wholesale destruction of a large part of china s cultural heritage mao zedong is sometimes referred to as chairman mao in the west and in china simply as the chairman at the height of his personality cult mao was commonly known in china as the four greats great teacher great leader great supreme commander great helmsman mao was an avid reader particularly of chinese history and it has been argued that his skill at outmanoevering his political opponents as well as his belief in the overriding importance of unifying and revolutionising china regardless of the sacrifices imposed on his people owed much to his understanding of chinese imperial history his political writings were influential in the development of marxist thought and he also wrote poetry which retains some popularity in china early life the eldest son of four children of a moderately prosperous peasant farmer and money lender mao zedong was born in the village of shaoshan in xiangtan county hunan province his ancestors had migrated from jiangxi province during the ming dynasty and had pursued farming for generations during the one nine one one revolution he served in the hunan provincial army in the one nine one zero s mao returned to school in changsha where he became an advocate of physical fitness and collective action young mao after graduation from hunan first normal university in one nine one eight mao traveled with his high school teacher and future father in law professor yang changji to beijing during the may fourth movement when yang held a faculty position at peking university due to yang s recommendation he worked as an assistant in the university library which was headed by li dazhao at the same time mao registered as a part time student at peking university and sat in lectures of many leading scholars such as chen duxiu hu shih and qian xuantong as he was working he read extensively which brought him a life long influence also in beijing he married his first wife yang kaihui a peking university student and yang changji s daughter however when mao was one four his father had arranged a marriage for him with a fellow villager luo but mao never recognized this marriage instead of going abroad which was the path of many of his radical compatriots mao spent the early one nine two zero s traveling in china and finally returned to hunan where he took the lead in promoting collective action and labor rights at age two seven mao attended the first congress of the communist party of china in shanghai on july two three one nine two one two years later he was elected to the central committee of the party at the third congress he worked for a while in shanghai where the ccp was based at the time but after the party suffered major setbacks in organizing the labor union movement and problems abounded with the alliance with the nationalist party kuomintang he became disillusioned with the revolutionary movement and moved back to his home village of shaoshan apparently retired from politics during this time he also developed depression which plagued him occasionally for the rest of his life however he gained back his interest in the revolution after the violent uprisings in shanghai and guangzhou canton in one nine two five which triggered the avenge the shame movement in all of china and moved back into active politics moving to canton where the kmt had its strongest base during the chinese civil war s first kmt ccp united front mao served as the director of the peasant training institute of the kuomintang in early one nine two seven he was dispatched to hunan province to report on the recent peasant uprisings in the wake of the northern expedition the report that mao produced from this investigation is considered the first important work of maoist theory political ideas during his early political career mao developed his political thinking his ideas have had a monumental impact on generations of chinese and have significantly affected the rest of the world mao sought to transform traditional marxism into a political ideology that could be implemented in a primarily agrarian economy such as china marx whom mao read voraciously had focused his analysis of capitalism on the industrial economies of western europe and accordingly wage labor china at the time was more of an agrarian economy and most of its laborers were peasants mao believed that the only way communism could be implemented in china was by making revolutionary changes to the social systems and the economy in the countryside mao also believed that he built on the theories of hegel and marx to create a new theory of dialectical materialism during this time mao also pursued notions like the concept of the people s democratic dictatorship and the concept of a three stage theory of guerrilla warfare war and revolution mao escaped the white terror in the spring and summer of one nine two seven and led the ill fated autumn harvest uprising at changsha hunan that autumn mao barely survived this mishap he escaped his guards on the way to his execution he and his rag tag band of loyal guerillas found refuge in the jinggang mountains in southeastern china there from one nine three one to one nine three four mao helped establish the chinese soviet republic and was elected chairman it was during this period that mao married he zizhen after yang kaihui had been killed by kmt forces mao with the help of zhu de built a modest but effective army undertook experiments in rural reform and government and provided refuge for communists fleeing the rightist purges in the cities mao s methods are normally referred to as guerrilla warfare but he himself made a distinction between guerrilla warfare youji zhan and mobile warfare yundong zhan under increasing pressure from the kmt encirclement campaigns there was a struggle for power within the communist leadership mao was removed from his important positions and replaced by individuals including zhou enlai who appeared loyal to the orthodox line advocated by moscow and represented within the cpc by a group known as the two eight bolsheviks mao in one nine three five chiang kai shek who had earlier assumed nominal control of china due in part to the northern expedition was determined to eliminate the communists by october one nine three four he had them surrounded prompting them to engage in the long march a retreat from jiangxi in the southeast to shaanxi in the northwest of china it was during this nine six zero zero km year long journey that mao emerged as the top communist leader aided by the zunyi conference and the defection of zhou enlai to mao s side at this conference mao entered the standing committee of the politburo of the communist party of china from his base in yan an mao led the communist resistance against the japanese in the second sino japanese war one nine three seven one nine four five mao further consolidated power over the communist party in one nine four two by launching the cheng feng or rectification campaign against rival cpc members such as wang ming wang shiwei and ding ling also while in yan an mao divorced he zizhen and married the actress lan ping who would become known as jiang qing mao in one nine three eight writing on protracted war during the sino japanese war mao zedong s strategies were opposed by both chiang kai shek and the united states the us regarded chiang as an important ally able to help shorten the war by engaging the japanese occupiers in china chiang in contrast sought to build the roc army for the certain conflict with mao s communist forces after the end of world war ii this fact was not understood well in the us and precious lend lease armaments continued to be allocated to the kuomintang in turn mao spent some of the war fighting the kuomintang for control of certain parts of china both the communists and nationalists have been criticised for fighting amongst themselves rather than allying against the imperial japanese army however americans sent a special diplomatic envoy called the dixie mission to the communists by one nine four four according to edwin moise in modern china a history two nd edition most of the americans were favourably impressed the ccp seemed less corrupt more unified and more vigorous in its resistance to japan than the guomingdang united states fliers shot down over north china confirmed to their superiors that the ccp was both strong and popular over a broad area in the end the contacts with the usa developed with the ccp led to very little mao in one nine four six at yan an after the end of world war ii the us continued to support chiang kai shek now openly against the communist red army led by mao zedong in the civil war for control of china the us support was part of its view to contain and defeat world communism likewise the soviet union gave quasi covert support to mao acting as a concerned neighbor more than a military ally to avoid open conflict with the us and gave large supplies of arms to the chinese communists although newer chinese records indicate the soviet supplies were not as large as previously believed and consistently fell short of the promised amount of aid on january two one one nine four nine kuomintang forces suffered massive losses against mao s red army in the early morning of december one zero one nine four nine red army troops laid siege to chengdu the last kmt occupied city in mainland china and chiang kai shek evacuated from the mainland to taiwan formosa that same day leadership of china mao declared the founding of the prc on october one one nine four nine the people s republic of china was established on october one one nine four nine it was the culmination of over two decades of civil and international war from one nine five four to one nine five nine mao was the chairman of the prc during this period mao was called chairman mao or the great leader chairman mao the communist party assumed control of all media in the country and used it to promote the image of mao and the party the nationalists under general chiang kai shek were vilified as were countries such as the united states of america and japan the chinese people were exhorted to devote themselves to build and strengthen their country almost every chinese had a book called the quotations from chairman mao tse tung which was regarded as a source of infallible truth in discussions or arguments at schools or the workplace he took up residence in zhongnanhai a compound next to the forbidden city in beijing and there he ordered the construction of an indoor swimming pool and other buildings mao often did his work either in bed or by the side of the pool preferring not to wear formal clothes unless absolutely necessary according to dr li zhisui his personal physician li s book the private life of chairman mao is regarded as controversial by some of those still sympathetic to mao following the consolidation of power mao launched a phase of rapid collectivization lasting until around one nine five eight the ccp introduced price controls as well as a chinese character simplification aimed at increasing literacy land was taken from landlords and more wealthy peasants and given to poorer peasants large scale industrialization projects were also undertaken programs pursued during this time include the hundred flowers campaign in which mao indicated his supposed willingness to consider different opinions about how china should be governed given the freedom to express themselves liberal and intellectual chinese began opposing the communist party and questioning its leadership this was initially tolerated and even encouraged however after a few months mao s government reversed its policy and persecuted those totalling perhaps five zero zero zero zero zero who criticized and were merely alleged to have criticized the party in what is called the anti rightist movement authors such as jung chang have alleged that the hundred flowers campaign was merely a ruse to root out dangerous thinking others such as dr li zhisui have suggested that mao had initially seen the policy as a way of weakening those within his party who opposed him but was surprised by the extent of criticism and the fact that it began to be directed at his own leadership it was only then that he used it as a method of identifying and subsequently persecuting those critical of his regime great leap forward in january one nine five eight mao launched the second five year plan known as the great leap forward a plan intended as an alternative model for economic growth to the soviet model focusing on heavy industry that was advocated by others in the party under this economic program the relatively small agricultural collectives which had been formed to date were rapidly merged into far larger people s communes and many of the peasants ordered to work on massive infrastructure projects and the small scale production of iron and steel all private food production was banned livestock and farm implements were brought under collective ownership under the great leap forward mao and other party leaders ordered the implementation of a variety of unproven and unscientific new agricultural techniques by the new communes combined with the diversion of labour to steel production and infrastructure projects and the reduced personal incentives under a commune system this lead to an approximately one five drop in grain production in one nine five nine followed by further one zero reduction in one nine six zero and no recovery in one nine six one in an effort to win favour with their superiors and avoid being purged each layer in the party hierarchy exaggerated the amount of grain produced under them and based on the fabricated success party cadres were ordered to requisition a disproportionately high amount of the true harvest for state use primarily in the cities and urban areas but also for export the net result which was compounded in some areas by drought and in others by floods was that the rural peasants were not left enough to eat and many millions starved to death in what is thought to be the largest famine in human history the extent of mao s knowledge as to the severity of the situation has been disputed according to some most notably dr li zhisui mao was not aware of anything more then a mild food and general supply shortage until late one nine five nine one nine six zero but i do not think that when he spoke on july two one nine five nine he knew how bad the disaster had become and he believed the party was doing everything it could to manage the situation the great leap forward was a disaster for china although the steel quotas were officially reached almost all of it made in the countryside was useless lumps of iron as it had been made from assorted scrap metal in home made furnaces with no reliable source of fuel such as coal according to zhang rongmei a geometry teacher in rural shanghai during the great leap forward we took all the furniture pots and pans we had in our house and all our neighbors did likewise we put all everything in a big fire and melted down all the metal moreover most of the dams canals and other infrastructure projects which millions of peasants and prisoners had been forced to toil on and in many cases die for proved useless as they had been built without the input of trained engineers who mao had rejected on ideological grounds mao shown here with henry kissinger and zhou enlai in the party congress at lushan in july august one nine five nine several leaders expressed concern that the great leap forward was not as successful as planned the most direct of these was minister of defence peng dehuai mao orchestrated a denouncement of peng and his supporters stiffling criticism of the great leap policies there is a great deal of controversy over the number of deaths by starvation during the great leap forward until the mid one nine eight zero s when official census figures were finally published by the chinese government little was known about the scale of the disaster in the chinese countryside as the handful of western observers allowed access during this time had been restricted to model villages where they were deceived into believing that great leap forward had been a great success there was also an assumption that the flow of individual reports of starvation that had been reaching the west primarily through hong kong and taiwan must be localised or exaggerated as china was continuing to claim record harvests and was a net exporter of grain through the period censuses were carried out in china in one nine five three one nine six four and one nine eight two the first attempt to analyse this data in order to estimate the number of famine deaths was carried out by american demographer dr judith banister and published in one nine eight four given the lengthy gaps between the censuses and doubts over the reliability of the data an accurate figure is difficult to ascertain nevertheless banister concluded that the official data implied that around one five million excess deaths incurred in the china during one nine five eight six one and that based on her modelling of chinese demographics during the period and taking account of assumed underreporting during the famine years the figure was around three zero million various other sources have put the figure between two zero and four three million on the international front the period was dominated by the further isolation of china due to start of the sino soviet split which resulted in khrushchev withdrawing all soviet technical experts and aid from the country the split was triggered by border disputes and arguments over the control and direction of world communism and other disputes pertaining to foreign policy most of the problems regarding communist unity resulted from the death of stalin and his replacement by khrushchev stalin had established himself as the successor of correct marxist thought well before mao controlled the ccp and therefore mao never challenged the suitability of any stalinist doctrine at least while stalin was alive upon the death of stalin mao believed perhaps because of seniority that the leadership of the correct marxist doctrine would fall to him the resulting tension between khrushchev at the head of a politically militarily superior government and mao believing he had a superior understanding of marxist ideology eroded the previous patron client relationship between the ussr and ccp the great leap policies were effectively given up following a politburo meeting in january one nine six one and mao took a more backseat role whilst more moderate leaders such as liu shaoqi who had become state president in one nine five nine and deng xiaoping rescued the economy by disbanding the people s communes introducing elements of private control of peasant smallholdings and importing grain from canada and australia to mitigate the worst effects of famine cultural revolution following these events other members of the communist party including liu shaoqi and deng xiaoping decided that mao should be removed from actual power and only remain in a largely ceremonial and symbolic role they attempted to marginalize mao and by one nine five nine liu shaoqi became state president but mao remained chairman liu and others began to look at the situation much more realistically somewhat abandoning the idealism mao wished for facing the prospect of losing his place on the political stage mao responded to liu and deng s movements by launching the cultural revolution in one nine six six this allowed mao to circumvent the communist hierarchy by giving power directly to the red guards groups of young people often teenagers who set up their own tribunals the revolution led to the destruction of much of china s cultural heritage and the imprisonment of a huge number of chinese intellectuals as well as creating general economic and social chaos in the country millions of lives were ruined during this period which is best depicted by such chinese films as to live and farewell my concubine it was during this period that mao chose lin biao to become his successor subsequently it is unclear whether lin was planning a military coup or an assassination attempt he died trying to flee china probably anticipating his arrest in a suspicious plane crash over mongolia it was declared that lin was planning to depose mao and he was posthumously expelled from the ccp at this time mao lost trust in many of the top ccp figures mao greeted united states president richard nixon right in a china visit in one nine seven two in one nine six nine mao declared the cultural revolution to be over although the official history of the people s republic of china marks the end of the cultural revolution in one nine seven six with mao s death in the last years of his life mao was faced with declining health due to either parkinson s disease or according to li zhisui motor neuron disease as well as lung ailments due to smoking and heart trouble mao remained passive as various factions within the communist party mobilized for the power struggle anticipated after his death when mao could not swim any longer the indoor swimming pool he had at zhongnanhai was converted into a giant reception hall according to li zhisui private life genealogy mao zedong had several wives which contributed to a large family these were luo yixiu one eight eight nine one nine one zero of shaoshan married one nine zero seven to one nine one zero yang kaihui one nine zero one one nine three zero of changsha married one nine two one to one nine two seven executed by the kuomintang in one nine three zero he zizhen one nine one zero one nine eight four of jiangxi married may one nine two eight to one nine three nine jiang qing one nine one four one nine nine one married one nine three nine to mao s death from left to right mao zetan mao zemin wen qimei mao zedong at changsha one nine one nine his ancestors were wen qimei one eight six seven one nine one nine mother mao yichang one eight seven zero one nine two zero father courtesy name mao shunsheng mao enpu paternal grandfather he had several siblings mao zemin one eight nine five one nine four three younger brother mao zetan one nine zero five one nine three five younger brother mao zehong sister executed by the kuomintang in one nine three zero mao zedong s parents altogether had six sons and two daughters two of the sons and both daughters died young leaving the three brothers mao zedong mao zemin and mao zetan like all three of mao zedong s wives mao zemin and mao zetan were communists like yang kaihui both zemin and zetan were killed in warfare during mao zedong s lifetime note that the character ze appears in all of the siblings given names this is a common chinese naming convention he had several children mao anying son to yang married to liu siqi who was born liu songlin killed in action during the korean war mao anqing son to yang married to shao hua son mao xinyu li min daughter to he married to kong linghua son kong ji ning daughter kong dongmei li na daughter to jiang whose birth given name was li married to wang jingqing son wang xiaozhi sources suggest that mao did have other children during his revolutionary days in most of these cases the children were left with peasant families because it was difficult to take care of the children while focusing on revolution two english researchers who retraced the entire long march route in two zero zero two two zero zero three located a woman who they believe might well be a missing child abandoned by mao to peasants in one nine three five ed jocelyn and andrew mcewen hope a member of the mao family will respond to requests for a dna test relationships having lost children a brother and a wife to war and revolution mao rarely seemed moved by the suffering of others neither the misery of millions of dying chinese during the great leap forward nor private tragedies among his lovers and political companions showed any visible impact on him mao s retainers remained on permanent probation whatever their backgrounds old comrades were sent into internal exile in several cases to their deaths although mao s role in these tragedies was indirect in politics and personal life alike he discarded those for whom he had no present use just as coolly calling them back when he wanted them if they were still alive mao lived a life without friends so party and army political departments competed in recruiting young women of sterling proletarian background and excellent physical appearance supposedly to engage in a weekly ballroom dancing with the leader actually for possible service in bed mao at first tried to spare his wives the knowledge of his love affairs but when he needed his fourth and in famous wife jiang qing as a political proxy he brought her into the inner circle where she finally even made friends with mao s then favorite female companion zhang yufeng to get better access to the source of power lifestyle despite his publicly simplistic appearance mao enjoyed many luxuries available living in a swimming pool equipped villa in the forbidden city zhongnanhai he rarely got in touch with the hardships of common peoples lives after coming into power he only traveled the country on a private train manufactured with luxurious details in the ddr if mao didn t want anybody to know where he was going train traffic in china was shut down and when he was on a public trip his entourage cleared all railway stations along the way for security reasons letting advance detail stage a busy happy railway station for mao during famines local governments went as far as displacing entire rice fields replanting them along the train tracks to confirm the leader s wise agricultural policies when he came by china s state governors competed in building opulent private villas for the great leader many never even visited by mao he exclusively slept on a specially made huge wooden bed that was carried on his train set up in his villas and even airlifted to moscow on his state visit special food grown in a labor camp for his exclusive use near beijing was airlifted to him and tried by tasters before he ate it adding to his comfort every wednesday a ballroom dance hall was set up for him creating a relaxed atmosphere with a crowd of carefully chosen young women so that the great leader could pick one easily for the night health mao s health was a secret but major concern during most of his reign suffering from depressions and anxiety as well as sleeplessness he constantly lived on high doses of antipsychotic drugs exercising sovereignty over clock and calendar mao got used to an almost daylight independent three zero h day rhythm forcing china s political elite to be at his disposal at any time day or night he followed no schedule except on may day national day and the rare occasion of receiving foreign visitors mao did not bathe preferring a rubdown with hot towels as a consequence the spread of veneral infections among his numerous girlfriends kept his doctors busy his badly decayed teeth mao refused to brush teeth all his life and preferred to rinse with green tea further nurtured infections his ever detoriating health was well covered up with highly publicized pictures of mao swimming in the heavily polluted yangtse river a fish cannot live in clean water although this added much to the popularity of swimming in china it added little to his health when he came down with a month long cold afterwards death mao zedong died at the age of eight two on september six one nine seven six at one zero minutes past midnight in beijing mao had been in poor health for several years and had declined visibly for some months prior to his death his body laid in state at the great hall of the people a memorial service was held in tiananmen square on september one eight one nine seven six there was a three minute silence observed during this service his body was later placed into the mausoleum of mao zedong although he wished to be cremated and was one of the first high ranking officials to sign the proposal that all central leaders be cremated after death in november one nine five six as anticipated after mao s death there was a power struggle for control of china on one side were the leftists led by the gang of four who wanted to continue the policy of revolutionary mass mobilization on the other side were the rightists which consisted of two groups one was the restorationists led by hua guofeng who advocated a return to central planning along the soviet model the other was the reformers led by deng xiaoping who wanted to overhaul the chinese economy based on market oriented policies and to de emphasize the role of maoist ideology in determining economic and political policy eventually the moderates won control of the government deng xiaoping defeated hua guofeng in a bloodless power struggle shortly afterwards cult of mao much of china regarded mao as a great leader but corrupt later in life the caption on the poster reads the people s liberation army is the school of mao tse tong s thought one of the reasons mao is most remembered is the cult of mao the personality cult that was created around him mao presented himself as an enemy of landowners businessmen and western and american imperialism as well as an ally of impoverished peasants farmers and workers some argue that personality cults go against the basic ideas of marxism stalin however circumvented this and began cultivating a cult of personality around himself and lenin even though lenin expressly wished that no monuments be created after his death mao said the following about cults at the one nine five eight party congress in chengdu where he expressed support for the idea of personality cults even ones like stalin s there are two kinds of personality cults one is a healthy personality cult that is to worship men like marx engels lenin and stalin because they hold the truth in their hands the other is a false personality cult i e not analysed and blind worship in one nine six two mao proposed the socialist education movement sem in an attempt to protect the peasants against the temptations of feudalism and the sprouts of capitalism that he saw re emerging in the countryside thanks to liu s economic reforms large quantities of politicised art were produced and circulated with mao at the centre numerous posters and musical compositions referred to mao as a red sun in the centre of our hearts and a savior of the people the cult of mao proved vital in starting the cultural revolution china s youth had mostly been brought up during the communist era and they had been told to love mao thus they were his greatest supporters their feelings for him were so strong that many followed his urge to challenge all established authority in october one nine six six mao s quotations from chairman mao tse tung which was known as the little red book was published party members were encouraged to carry a copy with them and possession was almost mandatory as a criterion for membership over the years mao s image became displayed almost everywhere present in homes offices and shops his quotations were typographically emphasised by putting them in boldface or red type in even the most obscure writings legacy mao s legacy has produced a large amount of controversy some chinese mainlanders continue to regard mao zedong as a great revolutionary leader although they also recognize that he made serious mistakes in his later life according to deng xiaoping mao was seven parts right and three parts wrong and his contributions are primary and his mistakes secondary some including members of the communist party of china hold mao responsible for pulling china away from its biggest ally the ussr in the sino soviet split the great leap forward and the cultural revolution were also considered to be major disasters in his policy if the figure of seventy million dead as a result of his policies is true it would be an unprecedented number of victims of state violence in peace time other critics of mao fault him for not encouraging birth control and for creating a demographic bump which later chinese leaders responded to with the one child policy supporters of mao point out that before one nine four nine for instance the illiteracy rate in mainland china was eight zero percent and life expectancy was a meager three five years at his death they claim illiteracy had declined to less than seven percent and average life expectancy had increased to more than seven zero years alternative statistics also quote improvements though not nearly as dramatic in addition to these increases the total population of china increased five seven to seven zero zero million from the constant four zero zero million mark during the span between the opium war and the chinese civil war supporters also state that under mao s regime china ended its century of humiliation from western imperialism and regained its status as a major world power they also state their belief that mao also industrialized china to a considerable extent and ensured china s sovereignty during his rule some of mao s supporters view the kuomintang as having been corrupt and credit mao with driving them off the chinese mainland to taiwan they also argue that the maoist era improved women s rights by abolishing prostitution a phenomenon that was to return after deng xiaoping and post maoist ccp leaders increased liberalization of the economy indeed mao once famously remarked that women hold up half the heavens skeptics observe that similar gains in literacy and life expectancy occurred after one nine four nine in neighboring countries such as taiwan which was ruled by mao s opponents namely chiang kai shek and the kuomintang even though they themselves were forced to substantial repression in their own right some of the gains may have simply been the result of a country no longer at war so perhaps any regime could achieve such improvements the regime that took over in taiwan was composed of the same people ruling the mainland for over two zero years when life expectancy was so low yet life expectancy there also increased mao believed that socialism is the only way out for china because the united states and other western countries would not allow china to join the ranks of advanced capitalism as if to support this theory the united states placed a trade embargo on china that lasted until richard nixon decided mao had made himself a force to be reckoned with in dealing with the soviet union while the tigers obtained favorable trade terms from the united states most third world capitalist countries did not and they saw nothing like the social gains in china or the economic growth of the tigers there is more consensus on mao s role as a military strategist and tactician during the chinese civil war and the korean war even among those who find mao s ideology to be either unworkable or abhorrent many acknowledge that mao was a brilliant political and military strategist mao s military writings continue to have a large amount of influence both among those who seek to create an insurgency and those who seek to crush one remains of mao s personality cult one of the last publicly displayed portraits of mao zedong at the tiananmen gate the ideology of maoism has influenced many communists around the world including third world revolutionary movements such as cambodia s khmer rouge peru s shining path the revolutionary movement in nepal and also claims influence of the revolutionary communist party in the united states china has moved sharply away from maoism since mao s death and most people outside of china who describe themselves as maoist regard the deng xiaoping reforms to be a betrayal of mao s legacy in mainland china there are those people that still consider mao a hero in the first half of his life but hold that he was too corrupt after gaining power however most chinese liberals eschew mao s totalitarian tactics contemporary views about him in the prc are affected by bans on some works that harshly criticise mao the controversial mao the unknown story by jung chang and jon halliday provides a far less flattering picture of mao than previous historical works do chang s book notes that mao fabricated many myths about his background and youth to enhance his image as a true people s hero it likewise points out that details relevant to key events in the long march in particular the one nine three five battle of luding bridge were falsified open academic discussion of mao s life is restricted by the official seven zero good three zero bad verdict the chinese government have put less emphasis on studying mao in recent years for example there was hardly any state recognition of the recent two five th anniversary of mao s death this is a clear contrast to one nine nine three when the state organized numerous events and seminars commemorating mao s one zero zero th birthday in the mid one nine nine zero s mao zedong s picture began to appear on all new renminbi currency from the people s republic of china this is intended primarily as an anti counterfeiting measure as mao s face is widely recognized in contrast to the generic figures that appear in older currency writings the collected works of mao zedong mao is the attributed author of quotations from chairman mao tse tung known in the west as the little red book this is a collection of extracts from his speeches and articles he wrote several other philosophical treatises both before and after he assumed power these include on practice one nine three seven on contradiction one nine three seven on new democracy one nine four zero on literature and art one nine four two on the correct handling of the contradictions among the people one nine five seven on guerilla warfare in memory of bethune the foolish man who removed a mountain serve the people mao s calligraphy the people s republic of china every race uniting and rising as one mao also wrote poetry mainly in the ci and shi forms see also famous military writers mao game mausoleum of mao zedong poetry of mao zedong mao the unknown story nixon in china an opera by the american composer john adams about u s president richard nixon s visit to mao external links mao zedong biography from spartacus educational the mao zedong reference archive at marxists org the encyclopedia of marxism gives a trotskyist view of mao s life parts of this article are based on it the encyclopedia of marxism gives a trotskyist view of mao zedong thought collected works of mao zedong at the maoist internationalist movement mao zedong portal from the pla daily includes some photos and poetry mao zedong on propaganda posters set of propaganda paintings showing mao zedong as the great leader of china mim maoist internationalist movement a faction of maoism their theories do not reflect those of most maoists other chinese leaders cnn profile mao ten parts bad no parts good by gwynne dyer a critical opinion on mao a forum discussion on dyer s text the marriages of mao tse tung audio video interview part one realplayer interview part two realplayer mao declares the founding of the prc eight five two kb asf file in chinese with chinese subtitles references asia source biography li zhisui the private life of chairman mao one nine nine six jasper becker hungry ghosts mao s secret famine one nine nine eight phillip short mao a life one nine nine nine jung chang and jon halliday mao the unknown story knopf october one eight two zero zero five hardcover eight one four pages isbn zero six seven nine four two two seven one four one eight nine three births one nine seven six deaths chinese poets communist rulers leaders of the communist party of china maoism marxist theorists revolutionaries warlords the w one six engine from a bugatti veyron mechanical engineering is a very broad field of engineering that involves the application of physical principles for analysis design manufacturing and maintenance of mechanical systems the system can be as simple as the design of a chair for comfort or as complex as the operations of a turbo charge engine for speed it can be as small as the manufacturing of a nano sized gear or as large as the structure of a supertanker used to carry oil around the world the major divisions of mechanical engineering are designs and controls thermo science and fluids engineering mechanics and manufacturing depending on the colleges and the universities some mechanical engineering programs offer more specialized programs such as mechatronics robotics transport and logistics cryogenics and biomechanics if a separate department does not exist for these subjects modern analysis and design processes in mechanical engineering are aided by various computational tools like finite element analysis fea and computational fluid dynamics cfd computer aided design cad and computer aided manufacturing cam in system design and controls a mechanical engineer may apply cad cam systems to feed instructions to computer numerically controlled cnc machines such as robots milling machines and lathes in this way the engineer could automate the manufacturing process without the need for intermediate drawings a mechanical engineer working in thermo fluid might design a heat sink an air conditioning system or an internal combustion engine other processes might focus on the fluid itself such as a fan to cool an electrical system a turbine to power a submarine or a spray gun to apply chemical coatings given the wide range of subjects students preparing to study mechanical engineering should consider the programs available in their respective colleges and universities most mechanical engineering programs offer the major subjects of study fundamental subjects of mechanical engineering include statics dynamics strength of materials solid mechanics thermodynamics fluid dynamics heat transfer refrigeration and air conditioning kinematics including robotics manufacturing technology mechatronics and control theory mechanical engineers are also expected to understand and be able to apply concepts from chemistry and electrical engineering at the smallest scales mechanical engineering becomes nanotechnology and molecular engineering one speculative goal of which is to create a molecular assembler to build molecules and materials via mechanosynthesis for now this goal remains within exploratory engineering related disciplines include electrical engineering industrial engineering systems engineering civil engineering nuclear engineering aerospace engineering and other engineering disciplines subdisciplines continuum mechanics structural failure thermodynamics drafting development of engineering until the industrial revolution there were only two kinds of engineers the military engineer built such things as fortifications catapults and later cannons the civil engineer built bridges harbors aqueducts buildings and other structures during the early one nine th cent in england mechanical engineering developed as a separate field to provide manufacturing machines and the engines to power them the first british professional society of civil engineers was formed in one eight one eight that for mechanical engineers followed in one eight four seven in the united states the order of growth of the different branches of engineering measured by the date a professional society was formed is civil engineering one eight five two mining and metallurgical engineering one eight seven one mechanical engineering one eight eight zero electrical engineering one eight eight four and chemical engineering one nine zero eight aeronautical engineering industrial engineering and genetic engineering are more modern developments one zero the first schools in the united states to offer an engineering education were the united states military academy west point in one eight one seven an institution now known as norwich univ in one eight one nine and rensselaer polytechnic institute in one eight two five an engineering education is based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science this is followed by courses emphasizing the application of this knowledge to a specific field and studies in the social sciences and humanities to give the engineer a broader education subdisciplines continuum mechanics structural failure thermodynamics drafting see also list of mechanical engineering topics fields of engineering simple machine list of mechanical engineers list of inventors patent wikibooks external links mechanical engineering tutorial for robotics engineering hvac mechanical engineering minister can mean several things minister government a politician who heads a government ministry minister christianity a member of the christian clergy minister diplomacy the rank of diplomat directly below ambassador one one march is the seven zero th day of the year in the gregorian calendar seven one st in leap year there are two nine five days remaining in the western world especially western europe the name of the date has become a synonym for the one one march two zero zero four madrid train bombings events one five one three leo x is elected pope one six four nine the frondeurs rebels and the french government sign the peace of rueil one seven zero two the first regular english language newspaper the daily courant is published in london one seven zero eight queen anne withholds royal assent from a militia bill the last time a british monarch vetoes legislation one eight two four the united states war department creates the bureau of indian affairs one eight four five the flagstaff war in new zealand chiefs hone heke and kawiti lead seven zero zero maoris to chop down the british flagpole and drive settlers out of the british colonial settlement of kororareka because of breaches of the one eight four zero treaty of waitangi one eight six one american civil war the constitution of the confederate states of america is adopted one eight six four the great sheffield flood the largest man made disaster ever to befall england kills over two five zero people in sheffield one eight eight eight the great blizzard of eight eight begins along the eastern seaboard of the united states shutting down commerce and killing more than four zero zero one eight nine seven a meteorite enters the earth s atmosphere and explodes over new martinsville west virginia the debris causes damage but no human injuries are reported one nine zero zero second boer war boer leader paul kruger s peace overtures are rejected by prime minister of the united kingdom lord salisbury one nine one seven baghdad falls to the anglo indian forces commanded by general maude one nine two seven in new york city samuel roxy rothafel opens the roxy theatre one nine three six british prime minister pardons five convicted irish militants who promise to join growing conflict with germany one nine four one world war ii president franklin delano roosevelt signs the lend lease act into law allowing american built war supplies to be shipped to the allies on loan one nine four two world war ii general douglas macarthur abandons corregidor one nine five nine in cannes france teddy scholten wins the fourth eurovision song contest for the netherlands singing een beetje a little bit one nine six six president sukarno of indonesia was forced to give up his executive power one nine six six a fire at two ski resorts in numata japan kills three one people one nine six six henry dickie marrow is murdered in a violent racially motivated crime in oxford n c one nine seven seven one three zero hostages held in washington d c by hanafi muslims were set free after ambassadors from three islamic nations joined negotiations one nine seven eight nine palestinian al fatah guerillas hijack a bus in israel killing three four civilians and wounding seven zero before being killed by security forces the israelis retaliate by invading southern lebanon three days later under codename operation litani one nine eight three bob hawke becomes two three rd prime minister of australia one nine eight five mikhail gorbachev becomes soviet leader one nine eight eight iran iraq war cease fire declared one nine nine zero lithuania declares itself independent from the soviet union one nine nine zero patricio aylwin is sworn in as the first democratically elected chilean president since one nine seven zero one nine nine one a curfew is imposed on black townships in south africa after fighting between rival political gangs kills four nine one nine nine three janet reno is confirmed by the united states senate and sworn in the next day becoming the first female attorney general of the united states one nine nine six john howard comes to power as the twenty fifth prime minister of australia one nine nine seven an explosion at a nuclear waste reprocessing plant in japan exposes three five workers to low level radioactive contamination in the worst nuclear accident in japan s history one nine nine nine infosys becomes the first indian company listed on the nasdaq stock exchange two zero zero three the international criminal court is founded in the hague two zero zero four simultaneous explosions on rush hour trains in madrid kill one nine one people two zero zero five judge rowland barnes court reporter julie brandau and deputy hoyt teasley are all murdered in the fulton county courthouse in atlanta georgia the main suspect being brian nichols who surrendered to police on the one two th births one five four four torquato tasso italian poet d one five nine five one seven two five henry benedict stuart pretender to the throne of great britain d one eight zero seven one seven eight five john mclean u s supreme court justice d one eight six one one eight six three andrew stoddart english cricketer one eight seven six carl ruggles american composer d one nine seven one one eight eight zero harry h laughlin american eugenicist d one nine four three one eight eight five malcolm campbell english race car driver d one nine four eight one eight nine zero vannevar bush american engineer and politician d one nine seven four one eight nine two raoul walsh american film director d one nine eight zero one eight nine eight dorothy gish american actress d one nine six eight one eight nine nine king frederick ix of denmark d one nine seven two one nine zero three ronald syme new zealand classicist and historian d one nine eight nine one nine zero three lawrence welk american musician d one nine nine two one nine one zero robert havemann german chemist d one nine eight two one nine one five hans peter keller german writer d one nine eight eight one nine one six harold wilson prime minister of the united kingdom d one nine nine five one nine two zero nicolaas bloembergen dutch physicist nobel prize laureate one nine two one frank harary american mathematician d two zero zero five one nine two one astor piazzolla argentine composer d one nine nine two one nine two six reverend ralph abernathy american civil rights leader d one nine nine zero one nine two seven robert mosbacher united states secretary of commerce one nine two eight albert salmi american actor d one nine nine zero one nine two nine timothy carey american actor d one nine nine four one nine three one rupert murdoch australian born publisher and entrepreneur one nine three four sam donaldson american reporter one nine three six antonin scalia u s supreme court justice one nine three nine flaco jim nez american musician one nine four eight dominique sanda french actress one nine five zero bobby mcferrin american singer one nine five zero jerry zucker american producer director and writer one nine five two douglas adams english writer d two zero zero one one nine five five nina hagen german singer one nine five eight anissa jones american actress d one nine seven six one nine five nine nina hartley american actress one nine six zero christophe gans french film director one nine six one elias koteas canadian actor one nine six three alex kingston english actress one nine six four vinnie paul american drummer pantera one nine six four shane richie british actor one nine six five lawrence llewelyn bowen british television presenter one nine six eight lisa loeb american singer one nine seven one johnny knoxville american television personality one nine seven four russ haas professional wrestler and brother of charlie haas one nine seven four bobby abreu baseball player one nine seven eight didier drogba ivory coast footballer one nine seven eight albert luque spanish footballer one nine seven nine benji madden american musician good charlotte one nine seven nine joel madden american musician good charlotte one nine eight one david anders american actor one nine eight one lee evans american football player one nine eight one russell lissack english musician bloc party one nine eight two thora birch american actress one nine eight nine anton yelchin russian born actor deaths two two two elagabalus roman emperor two two two julia soaemias mother of elagabalus b one eight zero one one nine eight marie de champagne daughter of louis vii of france b one one four five one four eight six albert iii margrave of brandenburg b one four one four one five one four donato bramante italian architect b one four four four one five seven five matthias flacius croatian protestant reformer b one five two zero one six zero two emilio de cavalieri italian composer one six zero seven giovanni maria nanino italian composer one seven two two john toland irish philosopher b one six seven zero one seven five nine john forbes british general b one seven one zero one seven eight six charles humphreys american delegate to the continental congress b one seven one four one eight four seven johnny appleseed american pioneer agronomist b one seven seven four one eight five four willard richards american religious leader b one eight zero four one eight six nine vladimir odoevsky russian philosopher and writer b one eight zero three one eight seven zero king moshoeshoe i of lesotho one nine zero seven jean casimir p rier french politician b one eight four seven one nine zero eight revd benjamin waugh american activist b one eight three nine one nine two zero julio garavito armero colombian astronomer b one eight six five one nine three one f w murnau german director b one eight eight eight one nine five five alexander fleming scottish scientist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one eight eight one one nine five seven admiral richard e byrd american explorer b one eight eight eight one nine six seven geraldine farrar american soprano b one eight eight two one nine six nine john wyndham british author b one nine zero three one nine seven zero erle stanley gardner american novelist b one eight eight nine one nine seven one philo t farnsworth american television pioneer b one nine zero six one nine seven one whitney young american civil rights leader b one nine two one one nine seven seven ulysses s grant iv american geologist and paleontologist b one eight nine three one nine seven eight claude fran ois french singer b one nine three nine two zero zero two james tobin american economist nobel prize laureate b one nine one eight holidays and observances lithuania reestablishment of lithuania s independence lesotho moshoeshoe day red nose day in the united kingdom zambia youth day external links bbc on this day march one zero march one two february one one april one one listing of all days this article describes the series of adventure games for other uses of the name see monkey island disambiguation the secret of monkey island cd version the original had textual verb buttons and inventory monkey island is the collective name given to a series of four graphical point and click adventure games produced and published by lucasarts originally known as lucasfilm games through the development of the first two games in the series the games follow the misadventures of the hapless guybrush threepwood as he struggles to become the most notorious pirate in the caribbean defeat the plans of the evil undead pirate lechuck and win the heart of governor elaine marley each game s plot usually involves the mysterious monkey island and its impenetrable secrets ron gilbert the creator of the series only worked on the two original games before leaving lucasarts which retained the series rights and went on to produce sequels without gilbert s input overview the monkey island series is known for its humor and player friendly qualities the player cannot permanently place the game in an unwinnable state or cause guybrush to die aside from one situation in the first game that was extremely unlikely to happen unintentionally as it required the player to be stymied by a fairly easy puzzle for over ten minutes furthermore a software bug in mi two could cause a player to be locked out this player friendly approach was unusual at the time of the first game s release in one nine nine zero prominent adventure game rivals were sierra on line and infocom both of whom were known for games with sudden and frequent character deaths or lock outs lucasarts itself used such closed plot paths for its drama games like indiana jones and the last crusade the graphic adventure one nine eight nine but preferred the open format for other humor oriented adventure games such as sam elaine marley s name is also an obvious reference to bob marley setting many islands large and small are scattered throughout the tri island area the main setting of the monkey island games is the tri island area a fictional archipelago in the caribbean since the first game in the series smi each game has visited the titular island of monkey island while introducing its own set of islands to explore mi two features four new islands cmi introduces three and emi which revisits some of the older islands features three new islands as well the main islands of the tri island area are m l e island booty island and plunder island which are all ruled by governor elaine marley in place of her long lost grandfather horatio torquemada marley elaine moves from island to island at her convenience though she considers her governors mansion on m l e island the capital island of the area as home other islands in the region are considered under the umbrella of tri island area as well even though elaine does not rule them these include the pirate islands scabb island and phatt island the urbanised lucre island and jambalaya island the minor islands of hook island dinky island skull island and knuttin atoll and the volcanic islands of blood island and monkey island itself additional islands seen in maps of the area but never visited include spittle pinchpenny and blunderbuss the former two appearing in the main sea map from emi characters many supporting characters have recurring roles in the games including stan a disreputable salesman the voodoo lady who advises guybrush in supernatural matters herman toothrot an old hermit who has a surprising secret largo lagrande lechuck s short mean and bra wearing henchman who mugged guybrush in mi two wally b feed a myopic height challenged cartographer carla the swordmistress of m l e island otis the flower fancying pirate and friend of carla who invariably gets locked up murray a talking skull with delusions of grandeur a tribe of cannibals who eventually convert to vegetarianism the games the secret of monkey island smi cover the series debuted in one nine nine zero with the secret of monkey island on the atari st macintosh and ibm pc platforms and it was later ported to amiga sega cd and fm towns the game starts off with the main character guybrush threepwood stating i want to be a pirate and he is soon off to prove himself to the old pirate captains during the perilous pirate trials he meets the beautiful governor elaine marley with whom he falls in love unaware that the ghost pirate lechuck has kept his love for elaine beyond the grave when elaine is kidnapped guybrush procures crew and ship to track lechuck down he defeats him and rescues his love islands visited m l e and hook island m l e s main settlement is surrounded by thick jungle and holds the infamous scumm bar a seedy dive where pirates drown their fear of lechuck hook island is a small rock off the north coast of m l e the two islands connected by a track cable monkey island the cannibal infested island that makes the home for lechuck s stronghold monkey island two lechuck s revenge mi two cover the second game monkey island two lechuck s revenge from one nine nine two was available for fewer platforms only being ported to amiga ms dos macintosh and later for fm towns as guybrush with a treasure chest in hand and elaine hang on to ropes in a void he tells her the story of the game he has decided to find the greatest of all treasures the big whoop but unwittingly he has helped revive lechuck now in zombie form and guybrush is eventually captured by his archnemesis with help from wally he escapes and finds the treasure only to be stuck on the robe with the treasure the situation from the beginning of the game as guybrush concludes his story his rope breaks and he finds himself facing lechuck and the two of them engage in voodoo magic the ending is very surrealistic and suggests a number of interpretations islands visited scabb island the starting island of the game however there are no treasure so guybrush decides to look elsewhere phatt island an island visited in order to piece together a map to big whoop booty island a part of elaine s governorship visited in order to find another piece of the map to big whoop monkey island guybrush is held prisoner here but escapes through a tunnel to dinky island dinky island the island where guybrush finds the treasure chest the curse of monkey island cmi cover the curse of monkey island the third in the series was exclusively available for windows users in one nine nine seven when guybrush unwittingly turn elaine into a gold statue with a cursed diamond engagement ring he first tracks her down from the greedy pirates who stole her before searching for a new diamond ring to lift the curse lechuck appears in a fire demon form and is on the heels of guybrush until they stand off in lechuck s amusement park ride the rollercoaster of doom islands visited plunder island another island under elaine s gubernatorial powers guybrush must find a way off plunder in order to lift the curse blood island a run down resort island and the place of a big uncursed diamond ring skull island the home of pirate smugglers who have made the uncursed diamond their own monkey island guybrush and elaine are both captured and taken to lechuck s island now utilized as an amusement park escape from monkey island emi cover the last game to date escape from monkey island from two zero zero zero was released for windows playstation two and macintosh a fifth game has been rumored and it is the source of jokes in the fourth game though lucasarts cancellation of full throttle hell on wheels and sam ultimate insult to make all pirates domicile in order to turn the caribbean into a center of tourism islands visited m l e and hook island emi revisits the first two islands of the game though certain things have changed lucre island guybrush travels to lucre to have the marley family lawyers put an end to the destruction to order but he is framed for bankrobbery by pegnose pete jambalaya island and knuttin atoll jambalaya is the place to find the ultimate insult but the island has already been taken over by consumer franchises and the pirates are sent to knuttin atoll for re socializing monkey island guybrush is taken hostage by lechuck and he must figure out how to escape from monkey island common themes the games in the series share several minigames puzzles in jokes and references in each game there is a minigame based on learning and repetition of a sequence in order to become more proficient insult sword fighting in the first game the term rapier wit gets a new meaning here a number based password in the second rhyming insult sword fighting in the third and insult arm wrestling and monkey kombat in the fourth the first and fourth games also both feature a puzzle which involves following another character through several locations a trick also used in indiana jones and the fate of atlantis some other minigames include a spitting competition naval cannon battles and platform diving pop cultural references the monkey island series is full of spoofs in jokes humorous references and easter eggs so many in fact that entire web sites are dedicated to their detection and listing running gags include lines such as look behind you a three headed monkey the introduction i m guybrush threepwood a mighty pirate and hi i m selling these fine leather jackets a reference to the indiana jones and the last crusade adventure game many attempts have been made to draw parallels between the series and the movie pirates of the caribbean the curse of the black pearl this would be very appropriate since ron gilbert openly admits that sections of monkey island two borrowed extensively from the original disneyland ride such as the famous dog holding the keys to the jail cell each game in the series features cameo appearances by steve purcell s characters sam and max who were featured in their own lucasarts adventure game sam secret of monkey island lechuck himself when asked in the second and third games refuses to answer the question guybrush can eventually prod lechuck to confess that he doesn t know what the secret is there are many theories popular among players and at least one case can be made from each game in the series a fairly credible theory is that the bizarre revelation at the end of mi two is the true secret of monkey island the fact that it was debunked in cmi is merely a retcon by the new development team after the departure of ron gilbert but flashes of supernatural power from little chucky s eyes and the meanwhile of elaine still waiting for guybrush in the final scene of mi two seem to indicate that mi two is not giving out the definite truth and a sequel was intended by gilbert gilbert stated in a two zero zero four interview that when the game was originally conceived it was too big so they split it into three parts adding that he knows what the third part is and how the story s supposed to end indicating that he knows what the secret is in an attempt to resolve the issue over the secret the team behind escape named the cut scene revealing the giant monkey robot the real secret of monkey island this however seemed to confuse the matter even more footnotes idle thumbs ron gilbert speaks part two plunder island was erroneously referred to as puerto pollo in emi puerto pollo is the main settlement on plunder island see also lucasarts adventure games scumm scummvm grime ron gilbert external links mobygames entry for the monkey island series scummvm a multi platform open source scumm interpreter allowing the first three mi games to be played on all modern platforms the monkey island scumm bar a popular fan site although it has since been closed all content is still available for viewing grumpy gamer the personal blog of monkey island creator ron gilbert lucasarts soundtracks soundtracks to all four monkey island games converted to mp three format and free for download quick and easy or how to run lucasarts adventure games in windows xp two zero zero zero and nt with no problem at all world of monkey island fan site with hints monkey island series cardiff arms park is a stadium complex situated in the centre of cardiff wales it is the spiritual and physical home of welsh rugby union and is the site of the modern day millennium stadium history the stadium was named after the cardiff arms pub a coaching inn in close proximity to the building site in one nine four one the stadium was hit in a blitz by the luftwaffe there were two stadia on the site both with approximately east west alignment cardiff rugby club cardiff athletic at the north castle street end and the national stadium at the south wood street end the old national stadium was demolished in one nine nine seven and a new stadium the millennium stadium was built in its place completed to a north south alignment in one nine nine nine the rugby club still uses the name cardiff arms park for its own ground physically attached to the rear of millennium stadium s north stand buildings and structures in cardiff rugby union stadiums in wales macintosh can refer to apple macintosh computer charles macintosh scottish inventor charles rennie mackintosh scottish architect and designer mackintosh raincoat the scottish clan mackintosh or macintosh mcintosh apple cultivar donald mcintosh canadian born officer in custer s seven th cavalry killed at little big horn the town of mcintosh alabama the hi fi manufacturer mcintosh laboratory the white terrier from jeeves and wooster mikhail kalashnikov circa two zero zero zero mikhail timofeevich kalashnikov born november one zero one nine one nine is a famous russian gun designer born in a poor peasant family in the village of kurya altai region he started his engineering career working at a train depot where kalashnikov was able to learn much about mechanics in one nine three eight he was drafted into the red army and served as a tank commander during the first months of the great patriotic war in october one nine four one kalashnikov was heavily wounded in combat and sent home from the frontlines he started to create his first gun designs in a hospital and soon joined a depot s workshop of the moscow aviation institute while working there kalashnikov produced a number of innovations for tanks including a mechanism that would count the number of shots fired within several years he was promoted to the position of chief engineer and given far more resources to work with in one nine four seven he designed the ak four seven an acronym for avtomat kalashnikov model one nine four seven in one nine four nine the ak four seven assault rifle became operational in the red army after this the design would become kalashnikov s most famous invention mikhail kalashnikov in the late one nine four zero s kalashnikov who started as a self taught inventor ascended to the prominent position of general designer of small arms for the soviet army in his design engineering department hugo schmeisser and dr gruner mg four two a pioneer in the area of the sheet metal embossing technology worked into the one nine five zero s in addition a number of german laborers were enlisted or coerced to work in the ussr under the technical designer later in his career he developed a squad automatic weapon variant of the ak four seven known as the rpk ruchnoi pulemyot kalashnikova kalashnikov s light machinegun and also the pk pulemyot kalashnikova kalashnikov s machinegun which used a much larger cartridge the same full powered rifle cartridge as employed in the mosin nagant rifle the cartridge was belt fed rather than magazine fed in other respects it was nearly the same design these designs both saw widespread adoption in their respective roles though the ak four seven still served as the primary infantry weapon since one nine four nine mikhail kalashnikov has been living and working in his native town of izhevsk in two zero zero four he began promoting his own brand of vodka he told reuters television i ve always wanted to improve and expand on the good name of my weapon by doing good things the new brand is four one alcohol and sold worldwide with his seal of approval mikhail kalashnikov holding an m one six a two and eugene stoner designer of m one six holding an ak four seven mikhail kalashnikov was awarded twice the title of hero of socialist labor in one nine nine eight he was awarded an order of saint andrew the protoclete his military rank is lieutenant general he is a doctor of technical sciences his son later became a weapons designer and lost in the recent abakan design competition which saw the adoption of the an nine four nikonov rifle by the russian army external links biography biography i sleep soundly interview with and article on mikhail kalashnikov at the age of eight three from the guardian newspaper the biography of the main gun designer mikhail timofeevich kalashnikov official biography automat kalaschnikow film documented the man and his machine one nine one nine births living people firearm designers russian inventors this article is about a type of online computer game for other uses of the word mud see mud in computer gaming a mud multi user dungeon dimension or sometimes domain is a multi player computer game that combines elements of role playing games hack and slash style computer games and social instant messaging chat rooms typically running on a bulletin board system or internet server the game is usually text driven where players read descriptions of rooms objects events other characters and computer controlled creatures or non player characters npcs in a virtual world they may interact with each other and the surroundings by typing commands that resemble a natural language usually english traditional muds implement a fantasy world populated by elves goblins and other mythical beings with players being able to take on any number of classes including warriors mages priests thieves druids etc the object of the game is to slay monsters explore a world rich in fantasy and with adventure and to complete quests muds are typically fashioned around the dice rolling rules of the dungeons some may accept donations or allow players to purchase in game items history a mud logon screen the first games we might today call muds appeared in one nine seven seven on the plato system in europe at around the same time mud development was centered around academic networks particularly at the university of essex where they were played by many people both internal and external to the university in this context it has been said that mud stands for multi undergrad destroyer due to their popularity among college students and the amount of time devoted to the mud by the student the popularity of muds of the essex university tradition escalated in the usa during the one nine eight zero s when relatively speaking cheap home personal computers with three zero zero to two four zero zero baud modems enabled role players to log into multi line bbses and online service providers such as compuserve the first known mud was created in one nine seven eight by roy trubshaw and richard bartle at essex university on a dec pdp one zero in the uk they chose the acronym mud to stand for multi user dungeon in reference to another pdp one zero game called dungeon or dungen due to the six character filename limit which was later commercially released by infocom under the original development code name zork zork in turn was inspired by an older text adventure game known as colossal cave adventure or advent the classic game mist also part of essex university mud which could be played from any computer connected to janet a european academic network predating the internet became one of the first of its kind to attain broad popularity oubliette written by jim schwaiger and published on the plato system predated mud one by about a year it was so difficult that one could not play it alone in order for players to survive they had to run in groups whilst oubliette was a multi player game there was no persistence to the game world following it also on plato was a game called moria written in one nine seven seven copyright one nine seven eight again players could run in parties but in this game and it was also possible to effectively play while only running one character they were graphical in nature and very advanced for their time but were proprietary programs that were unable to spread beyond plato textual worlds which typically ran on unix vms or dos were far more accessible to the public another early mud was avatar written in one nine seven nine by bruce maggs and andrew shapira both high school students using the plato system at the university of illinois this mud was two five d game running on five one two x five one two plasma panels of the plato system and groups of up to one five players could enter the dungeon simultaneously and fight monsters as a team in the early one nine eight zero s alan e klietz wrote a game called milieu using multi pascal on a cdc cyber which was used by high school students in minnesota for educational purposes klietz ported milieu to an ibm xt in one nine eight three naming the new port scepter of goth also spelled sceptre of goth goth supported one zero to one six simultaneous users typically connecting in by modem scepter of goth was one of the first commercial muds as franchises were sold to a number of locations scepter as well as unfinished advanced mud by klietz called screenplay was first owned and run by gambit of minneapolis minnesota founded by bob alberti gambit s assets including scepter and screenplay were then sold to interplay of fairfax virginia interplay eventually went bankrupt making scepter no longer available in one nine eight four mark peterson wrote the realm of angmar beginning as a clone of sceptre of goth a version of mud is still running at www british legends com and versions of its descendant mud two run at www mud two com and www mudii co uk two versions of avatar one from one nine seven nine and one from one nine eight four are still running at www cyber one org moria and oubliette are also available these text adventure games both single and multi player drew inspiration from the paper and pencil based role playing games rpgs such as dungeons monster allows players to do something that very few if any other games allow the players themselves create the fantasy world as part of the game players can create objects make locations and set up puzzles for other players to solve monster was the inspiration for tinymud in one nine eight nine tinymud introduced the ability for the players to easily participate in creating the online environment as well as playing in it the tinymud code spawned a number of descendants including tinymuck and tinymush which added more sophisticated programmability muck versions two and higher contain a full programming language named muf or multi user forth while mush greatly expanded the variety of commands and functions available and allowed them to apply to all objects some use the term mu to refer to tinymud muck mush muse mux and their kin others simply allow the term mud to apply universally muve is a recent coinage intended to stand for multi user virtual environment ubermud untermud and moo are some other mud servers that were at least partially inspired by tinymud but are not direct descendants also in one nine eight nine and inspired by tinymud and abermud lpmud was developed as a more game oriented mud that allowed participants to program the behavior of its monsters in one nine nine one the release of dikumud which was inspired by abermud lead to a virtual explosion of hack n slash muds based upon its code dikumud inspired several derivative code bases as well including circlemud merc rom nimud and smaug in one nine nine four mark peterson rewrote the realm of angmar adapting it to ms dos the basis for many dial in bbs systems and renamed it swords of chaos for a few years this was a very popular form of mud hosted on a number of bbs systems until widespread internet access eliminated most bbss though seeing some decline in the past few years due to the advent of graphical muds mmorpgs and other networked games the mud scene is still very much alive on the internet and can be accessed via standard telnet clients or specialized mud clients that give a more pleasant user experience these games are still listed at various web portals see external links variations on muds graphical muds a graphical mud is a mud that uses computer graphics to represent parts of the virtual world and its visitors a prominent graphical mud was habitat written by randy farmer and chip morningstar for lucasfilm in one nine eight five graphical muds require players to download a special client and the game s artwork they range from simply enhancing the user interface to simulating three d worlds with visual spatial relationships and customized avatar appearances after the increase in computing power and internet connectivity during the late nineties graphical muds became better known as mmorpgs m assively m ultiplayer o nline r ole p laying g ames unlike earlier muds most mmorpgs are commercial ventures see list of mmorpgs for examples of this type of game talkers and spods main article talker a lesser known variant is the talker typically based on ew too or nuts with plenty of derived code bases the early talkers were essentially muds with most of the complex bits of code stripped away leaving just the communication level commands hence the name talker people who use these tend to be called spods the spod tends to be something of a long term fanatic where many mudders may move on after a year or two people who use talkers typically have been doing so for a decade or more talkers are significantly easier to run than an average mud since they don t incorporate very much artificial intelligence and they are usually much more user friendly since there is not often much fighting as a focus in other words whole families of husbands wives children and siblings have been known to spod in certain circles they also use very little network traffic and use simple protocols making them ideal for setting up quietly at work talker applications predate muds by many years although some of the early ones were used to play dungeons massive multiplayer online rpg mush moo talker historically based on muds online creation otbrpg for an academic look at muds see sherry turkle s writings external links most popular muds ranking of the most popular muds mudlists com large selection of available online rpgs mud connector com extensive list of available muds and related resources top mud sites ranking of the most popular muds some history and reviews from richard bartle s interactive multi user computer games report confessions of an arch wizard mud history michael lawrie s account of the early years of mud and mist virtual ly law the emergence of law in lambdamoo intermud org information about the i three and imc two intermud communication protocols mud magic com mud software downloads discussion game listings and documentations ftp game org hierarchal archive of mud source code the mudline a timeline of mud history mapping muds three dimensional modelling of a mud the gaming center one of the largest free gaming based bulletin board systems in existence today early mud history a classification of muds by martin keegan grandmaster data services ltd cambridge u k erwin s andreasen home of the mud personality test one six k mud competition and other resources taiwan mud list a watch list about informations status of taiwan muds a history of mud at the dot eaters videogame history one zero one computer and video role playing games multiplayer online games a muslim arabic sometimes also spelled moslem is an adherent of islam literally the word means someone who has submitted to the will of god definition most muslims accept as a fellow muslim anyone who has publicly pronounced the shahada a ritual declaration of submission to god and assertion that muhammad is the last prophet muslims describe many biblical figures such as musa moses and isa jesus as muslims because they submitted completely to god allah and preached his message as prophets etymology the word muslim is arabic and comes from from the four consonantal root as la ma meaning to submit muslim thus means someone who has submitted to the will of god many people ignorant of basic arabic morphology state that it comes from the tri consonantal root sa la ma meaning to be at peace making a muslim a peaceful person this however is incorrect as this would be saalim and not muslim the plural form is muslimeen in arabic and muslims in english the word islaam however is closest in meaning to submission some scholars argue however that it originally had more to do with submission to one god than submission in general thereby emphasizing a break with the pre islamic polythesitic practices pronunciation and spelling until around the late one nine eight zero s the word was commonly spelled moslem the spelling has since fallen into disuse muslims do not recommend this spelling because it is often pronounced mawzlem which sounds somewhat similar to an arabic word for oppressor za lem in arabic the word is pronounced mus lim in arabic but often muz lim in english the word is now most commonly written muslim other words for muslim many english language writers used to call muslims mohammedans or mahometans meaning followers of mohammed but this terminology is considered incorrect and insulting by muslims because muslims believe it implies that they worship the prophet muhammad contrary to the fundamental principles of islam itself this terminology is also seen as too similar to christians as followers and worshippers of christ in addition muslims believe that the religion of submitting to god isl m in arabic existed long before the birth of muhammad making all the prophets before him muslims english writers of the one nine th century and earlier sometimes used the words mussulman musselman or mussulmaun variant forms of this word are still used by many indo european languages these words are similar to the french spanish italian and portuguese words for muslim arabic terms used in discussions of muslim identity when discussing whether or not someone is a real muslim the following terms may be used by those arguing mu min believer fasiq shameless sinner munafiq hypocrite professes islam but does not believe in it one who professes but does not practice is a fasiq kafir neither professes nor believes an infidel also one verse in the qur an makes a distiction between a mu min and a muslim rodwell four nine one four the arabs of the desert say we believe tu min oo say thou ye believe not but rather say we profess islam a slam na for the faith al e eman u hath not yet found its way into your hearts but if ye obey god and his apostle he will not allow you to lose any of your actions for god is indulgent merciful disagreements there are some groups that claim to be muslim but are not accepted as muslim by most muslims for example neither sunni nor shi a muslims accept ahmedis as fellow muslims this is also true of other groups as well an agnostic of islamic background may refer to him herself as a cultural muslim but this is likewise unacceptable to most observant muslims but it is a common practice especially in secular muslim countries like turkey and other parts of the former ottoman empire some sunni regard the shi a and the alaw sects as non muslim there have also been numerous instances in which some sunni have declared other sunni to be unbelievers some shi a have declared other shi a the same and so on the act of calling another a disbeliever is called takfir see also islam qur an muhammad list of muslims islam muslims the login screen from m u s h the centre of development for pennmush a mush sometimes said to be an abbreviation for m ulti u ser s hared h ack h abitat h olodeck or h allucination though these are backronyms is a text based online social medium to which multiple users are connected at the same time mush are often used for online social intercourse and role playing games although the first forms of mush do not appear to be coded specifically to implement gaming activity today s two major mush variants are descended from tinymud which was fundamentally a social game mush has forked over the years and there are now different varieties with different features although most have strong similarities and one who is fluent in coding one variety can switch to coding for the other with only a little effort the source code for most widely used mush servers is open source and available from its current maintainers a primary feature of mush codebases that tends to distinguish it from other multi user environments is the ability by default of any player to extend the world by creating new rooms or objects and specifying their behavior in the mush s internal scripting language another is the default lack of much player or administrative hierarchy imposed by the server itself over the years both of these traits have become less pronounced as many server admin choose to eliminate or heavily restrict player controlled building and several games have custom coded systems to restore more of a hierarchal system the programming language for mush usually referred to as mushcode or softcode to distinguish it from hardcode the language in which the mush server itself is written was developed by larry foard tinymush started life as a set of enhancements to the original tinymud code mushcode is similar in syntax to lisp it is fairly easy to learn most custom coding for the sake of simplicity security and stability is done in softcode rather than by directly modifying the hardcode roleplay on mushes traditionally roleplay consists of a series of poses each character makes a pose that is writes a description of speech actions etc which the character performs special commands allow players to print ooc messages distinguished by a prefixed tag from ic action this medium borrows traits from both improvisational stage acting and writing roleplaying is one of the primary activities of mushes along with socializing there is nothing in the code base that restricts a new mush from being a traditional hack and slash mud style game however the earliest uses of mush servers were for roleplaying and socializing and these early trends have largely governed their descendants in addition due to this pressure code updates have tended to emphasize improvements of value to the roleplayer mush servers have one combat command out of the box aptly called kill despite the name it simply gives a player a chance of killing another player dependant on how much ooc currency that player put into the effort if successful the killed player is sent to his home and given some money for his trouble if unsuccessful nothing interesting occurs this command is frequently disabled by server administrators a large number of roleplaying mushes have custom combat systems coded by their administrators however these are usually intended to provide a vehicle for roleplayed combat and not as the main objective of the game many mushes with combat systems in fact discourage their players from using them administration of mushes all mush servers provide a flag that when set on a player bestows the ability to view and modify nearly everything in the game s database such players are usually called wizards and typically form the basis for the mush administration although mush servers do not impose strong administrative hierarchies most mush games establish additional levels of management besides wizards some do so on a purely organizational basis naming some wizards head wizards or junior wizards or assigning sphere of responsibility to wizards despite the technical equality of their abilities in the game world others provide finer grained control over capabilities that can be assigned to players so that some players can be granted the ability to view but not modify the entire game world or to perform limited modifications other levels of power can include added control over ones own character or fewer limits on resources pennmush tinymush and tinymux include the royalty flag which gives a player the powers to do most anything that doesn t involve modifying the database rhostmush has a wide array of staff flags that differ in many ways from its sister servers popular mush software maintainers and developers of mush servers have traditionally shared ideas with one another so most mush servers include concepts or code developed originally in other servers there is particular interest in ensuring that common mushcode features work similarly across servers pennmush developed from tinymud and pernmush at university of pennsylvania and later at university of california berkeley and university of illinois at chicago tinymush three zero through three one derive from a merger of tinymush two two five and tinymux one six both of which ultimately derive from tinymud tinymux two zero through two four derive from tinymux one six tinymux one zero through one six were developed from a fork of tinymush two zero one zero p six and ultimately from tinymud rhostmush developed from tinymud then tinymuse it s source is not yet publicly available but can obtained on request subject to accepting a non disclosure agreement pennmush tinymush and tinymux are open source rhost is free but not open source some enthusiasts may exclude one or more of the above on the basis of distribution method name or parentage but all are free form mush servers there are differences but they are well understood few players can tell them apart see also tinymud the ancestor to mush servers ubermud moo also descended from tinymud but radically different in both nature and intent from its cousins online creation dunemush external links home of pennmush mush warehouse list of mu s mud connector well maintained list of mu s and other related items such as clients mud magic good list of mu s available and a community site also tinymux wiki mushcode help server details and indepth articles for the four major mush codebases mushcode com mushcoding and mush related resources a collection of roleplay logs from one of the larger mu s wora when online rpgs attack wora a forum for frank discussion of mu related issues globalmush is the oldest social mush still online to date having used various mu variants pernmu com provides a discussion forum and information about pern themed mushes electricsoup is a forum dedicated to discussions of anything mu related multiplayer online games mu servers microevolution is the occurrence of small scale changes in gene frequencies in a population over a few generations also known as change at or below the species level these changes may be due to several processes mutation natural selection gene flow and genetic drift population genetics is the branch of biology that provides the mathematical structure for the study of the process of microevolution ecological genetics concerns itself with observing microevolution in the wild typically observable instances of evolution are examples of microevolution for example bacterial strains that have antibiotic resistance microevolution can be contrasted with macroevolution which is the occurrence of large scale changes in gene frequencies in a population over a geological time period i e consisting of lots of microevolution the difference is largely one of approach microevolution is reductionist but macroevolution is holistic each approach offers different insights into evolution because microevolution can be observed directly creationists agree that it occurs though they tend to make a distinction between microevolution macroevolution and speciation population genetics david axmark left and michael monty widenius founders of mysql ab at a conference mysql is a multithreaded multi user sql structured query language database management system dbms with an estimated six million installations mysql ab makes mysql available as free software under the gnu general public license gpl but they also dual license it under traditional proprietary licensing arrangements for cases where the intended use is incompatible with the gpl unlike projects such as apache where the software is developed by a public community and the copyright to the codebase is owned by its individual authors mysql is owned and sponsored by a single for profit firm the swedish company mysql ab which holds the copyright to most of the codebase the company develops and maintains the system selling support and service contracts as well as proprietary licensed copies of mysql and employing people all over the world who collaborate via the internet two swedes and a finn founded mysql ab david axmark allan larsson and michael monty widenius programming languages there are apis available that allow applications written in numerous programming languages to access mysql databases including c c c eiffel smalltalk java with a native java driver implementation lisp perl php python ruby realbasic and tcl each of these uses a specific api an odbc interface called myodbc allows additional programming languages that support the odbc interface to communicate with a mysql database such as asp mysql is mostly implemented in ansi c and that being a common lingua franca for system libraries tends to use that as its native language uses mysql is popular for web applications like mediawiki and php nuke and acts as the database component of the lamp and wamp platforms linux windows apache mysql php perl python its popularity as a web application is closely tied to the popularity of php which is often combined with mysql and nicknamed the dynamic duo it is easy to find many references that combine the two in websites and books php and mysql for dummies php and mysql bible beginning php and mysql etc the claim made in many books is that mysql is easier to learn and use than many other database applications an example from the dummies book is that you can quit mysql with an obvious command of either exit or quit although this is true for many other database applications administration to administer mysql databases one can use the included command line tool commands mysql and mysqladmin also downloadable from the mysql site are gui administration tools mysql administrator and mysql query browser a widespread and popular alternative written in php is the free software web application phpmyadmin program specifications platforms mysql works on many different platforms including aix bsdi freebsd hp ux gnu linux mac os x netbsd novell netware openbsd os two warp qnx sgi irix solaris sunos sco openserver sco unixware tru six four windows nine five windows nine eight windows nt windows two zero zero zero windows xp and more recent versions of windows a port of mysql to openvms is available here the latest production version as of january two zero zero six mysql offers production version five zero one eight it includes the following features a broad subset of ansi sql nine nine as well as extensions cross platform support stored procedures triggers cursors updatable views true varchar support information schema strict mode x open xa distributed transaction processing dtp support two phase commit as part of this using oracle s innodb engine independent storage engines myisam for read speed innodb for transactions and referential integrity archive for storing historical data in little space transactions with the innodb bdb and cluster storage engines savepoints with innodb ssl support query caching sub selects or nested selects replication with one master per slave many slaves per master no automatic support for multiple masters per slave full text indexing and searching using myisam engine embedded database library full unicode support acid compliance using the innodb bdb and cluster engines shared nothing clustering through mysql cluster future releases the mysql five one roadmap outlines support for partitioning online backup for all storage engines fail safe replication column level constraints event scheduling xml functions foreign key support for all storage engines will likely be released with mysql five two although it has been present since version three two three for innodb distinguishing features the following features are implemented by mysql but not by some other rdbmses multiple storage engines myisam merge innodb bdb memory heap cluster federated archive csv blackhole and example in five x letting you choose the one which is most effective for each table in the application commit grouping gathering multiple transactions from multiple connections together to increase the number of commits per second different server compilation type standard max and debug there are three types of mysql server compilation standard the mysql standard binaries are recommended for most users and include the innodb storage engine max not maxdb which is a cooperation with sap is mysqld max extended mysql server the mysql max binaries include additional features that may not have been as extensively tested or are not required for general usage the mysql debug binaries have been compiled with extra debug information and are not intended for production use because the included debugging code may cause reduced performance source code specifics mysql is written in a mixture of c and c the sql parser uses yacc and home brewed lexer a document describing some of the internal structures of the code and the coding guidelines is available from the mysql web site support via mysql network mysql ab offers support itself including two four seven three zero minute response time with the support team having direct access to the developers as necessary to handle problems in addition it hosts forums and mailing lists and employees and other users are often available in several irc channels providing assistance members of the mysql network enjoy access to binaries and software that is certified for their particular operating system and the codebase changes much less frequently then the community edition of the mysql database server engine the network maintains several levels of membership based on importance and urgency for response times licensing both the mysql server software itself and the client libraries are distributed under a dual licensing format users may choose the gnu general public license or they may choose a proprietary license some users have independently continued to develop an earlier version of the client libraries which was distributed under the less restrictive lesser general public license pronunciation mysql is officially pronounced as my ess queue ell not my sequel however the company doesn t mind if others use either the my sequel form or other local variations if they are preferred by the speaker the my portion of the name comes from the name of monty s child spelled my but pronounced in the local language as me the sql portion uses the fully spelled out pronunciation of the initials s q l not the sequel pronunciation which conflicts with the earlier ibm database of that name the swedish mysql ab is a swedish company word myskv ll cozy evening or even my s evening mys kv ll is pronounced in a similar way but this might be a coincidence nevertheless this pronunciation is quite usual in sweden criticisms of mysql early versions of mysql included few standard relational database management system rdms features and the current production version still lacks many properties found in other sql rdbmss this has led some database experts such as chris date and fabian pascal to criticize mysql as falling short of being an rdbms many of the early criticisms have been remedied in later versions of the software including the lack of transactions and relational integrity constraints these are features necessary to support the acid properties for relational databases which allow the dbms to ensure that client applications cannot interfere with one another or insert inconsistent values other criticisms include mysql s divergence from the sql standard on the subject of treatment of null values and default values its handling of dates allows storing a date with a day beyond the last day of a month with less than three one days and arithmetic operations are vulnerable to either integer overflow or floating point truncation these values are treated according to the sql standards in mysql version five through the use of special sql modes earlier versions of the mysql manual included claims that certain missing features considered essential for sql compliant rdbmss were useless or even harmful and that users were better off without them one section entitled reasons not to use foreign keys constraints sic advised users that relational integrity checking was difficult to use and complicated a database application and that its only useful purpose was to allow client software to diagram the relationships between database tables another section claimed that a dbms lacking transactions can provide as reliable of data integrity assurances as one supporting them conflating the issue of transactional integrity with that of saving data when the database server loses power since these claims contradicted basic principles of relational database design they caused mysql to be ridiculed by some database experts regardless of whether they were right or not these claims are omitted in more recent versions of the manual mysql today allows some support for previously dismissed features of relational integrity checking and transactions when the beta version of mysql five zero was released in march two zero zero five david axmark a co founder of mysql said that people have been criticising mysql since we started for not having stored procedures triggers and views and we re fixing one zero years of criticism in one release mysql five zero s one three october build five zero one five was released for production use on two four october two zero zero five after more than two million downloads in the five zero beta cycle critics find mysql s popularity surprising in the light of the existence of other open source database projects with comparable performance and in closer compliance to the sql standards mysql advocates reply that the program serves its purpose for its users who are willing to accept the program s limitations which decrease with every major revision in exchange for speed simplicity and rapid development another perhaps simpler explanation for mysql s popularity is that it is often included as a default component in low end commercial web hosting plans so that for application developers mostly using php and perl mysql is the only dbms choice unless they want to operate their own web hosts some users have also criticized mysql ab s position on the licensing of the software a few open source projects such as asterisk pbx have reduced support for mysql because of licensing difficulties further there was some controversy generated regarding the distribution of gpl d mysql library files with other open source applications the biggest controversy arising with php which has a license incompatible with the gpl this was later resolved when mysql made an exception for inclusion in open source projects in september two zero zero five mysql ab and the highly controversial company sco joined forces for joint certification marketing sales training and business development work for a commercial version of the database for sco s new openserver six version of unix various mysql employees gave what appeared to be the company s position that it was committed to serving end users of the database regardless of their operating system choice that the company would leave it to the courts to resolve the sco licensing controversy and that other common open source databases have also been ported to and support openserver users in october two zero zero five oracle corporation acquired innodb oy inc the company responsible for the innodb storage engine that allows mysql to provide such functionality as transactions and foreign keys this will presumably lead to changes in the arrangements in its availability as according to the press release the contracts that make the company s software available to mysql ab come up for renewal and presumably renegotiation some time in two zero zero six in february two zero zero six oracle corporation acquired sleepycat software makers of the berkeley db another storage engine used by mysql trivia the dolphin symbol in the mysql logo was given the swazi name sakila in october two zero zero two after a naming contest mysql was first released internally on may two three one nine nine five prominent users yahoo for some data management functions cox communications the fourth largest cable television provider in the united states has more than three six zero zero tables and two billion rows of data in their databases and handles approximately four million inserts every two hours sabre and its travel reservation system travelocity livejournal around three zero zero million page views per day amazon com for many in house projects slashdot with around five zero million page views per day two zero zero five mysql application of the year winners cnet networks friendster more than eight five million dynamic page views per day able to support more than one five billion mysql queries per day wikipedia more than two zero zero million queries and one two million updates per day with peak loads of one one zero zero zero queries per second see also list of relational database management systems comparison of relational database management systems postgresql mysql cluster odbc lamp wamp mysql maxdb external links mysql website mysql general purpose stored routines library documentation mysql manual mysql roadmap mysql channel documentation wiki mysql gotchas description of many features in mysql which work as advertised but not as those used to other databases may expect free hosts db four free net db four free net freesql org freesql third party tools phpmyadmin administration tool mytop monitoring tool for unix like operating systems fabforce net dbdesigner four mysql for openvms mysql manager smycc simple mysql connection class phpmybackuppro mysql database backup tool database designer for mysql open source case tool navicat desktop application for mysql administration toad for mysql administration tool press two zero zero three database journal roadmap of mysql s expected feature development database journal articles on mysql database corner articles on mysql guides mysqldevelopment com mysql five development how to install apache php pear mysql phpmyadmin for windows xp magoo s mysql quickstart guide win three two mysql build and install guides mysql web hosting tizag s beginner mysql php tutorial cgisecurity collection of guides and articles mysql tutorials blogs planetmysql planetmysql org mysql community blogs markus popp s blog andrew gilfrin s blog roland bouman s blog beat vontobel s blog giuseppe maxia s blog jay pipe s blog mike kruckenberg s blog sheeri kritzer s blog mysql mysql database administration blog mysql compilation type open source database management systems sql for christian theological modernism see liberal christianity and modernism roman catholicism modernism is a cultural movement that generally includes progressive art and architecture music and literature which emerged in the decades before one nine one four as artists rebelled against late one nine th century academic and historicist traditions some divide the two zero th century into modern and postmodern periods whereas others see them as two parts of the same larger period this article will focus on the movement that grew out of the late one nine th and early two zero th century while postmodernism has its own article historical outline the modernist movement emerged in the mid one nine th century in france and was rooted in the idea that traditional forms of art literature social organization and daily life had become outdated and that it was therefore essential to sweep them aside and reinvent culture modernism encouraged the re examination of every aspect of existence from commerce to philosophy with the goal of finding that which was holding back progress and replacing it with new and therefore better ways of reaching the same end in essence the modern movement argued that the new realities of the two zero th century were permanent and imminent and that people should adapt their world view to accept that what was new was also good and beautiful precursors to modernism the first half of the one nine th century for europe was marked by a series of turbulent wars and revolutions which gradually formed into a series of ideas and doctrines now identified as romanticism which focused on individual subjective experience the supremacy of nature as the standard subject for art revolutionary or radical extensions of expression and individual liberty by mid century however a synthesis of these ideas with stable governing forms had emerged partly in reaction to the failed romantic revolutions of one eight four eight called by various names this stabilizing synthesis was rooted in the idea that what was real dominated over what was subjective it was exemplified by otto von bismarck s realpolitik by practical philosophical ideas such as positivism and in general by cultural norms now connoted by the term victorian era central to this synthesis however was the importance of institutions common assumptions and frames of reference these drew their support from religious norms found in christianity scientific norms found in classical physics and doctrines that asserted that depiction of the basic external reality from an objective standpoint was in fact possible cultural critics and historians label this set of doctrines realism though this term is not universal in philosophy the rationalist and positivist movements established a primacy of reason and system against the current ran a series of ideas some of them direct continuations of romantic schools of thought notable were the agrarian and revivalist movements in plastic arts and poetry e g the pre raphaelite brotherhood and the philosopher john ruskin rationalism also drew responses from the anti rationalists in philosophy in particular hegel s dialectic view of civilization and history drew responses from friedrich nietzsche and s ren kierkegaard who were major influences on existentialism all of these separate reactions together however began to be seen as offering a challenge to any comfortable ideas of certainty derived by civilization history or pure reason from the one eight seven zero s onward the views that history and civilization were inherently progressive and that progress was inherently amicable were increasingly called into question writers like wagner and ibsen had been reviled for their own critiques of contemporary civilization and warned that increasing progress would lead to increasing isolation and the creation of individuals detached from social norms and their fellow men increasingly it began to be argued not merely that the values of the artist and those of society were different but that society was antithetical to progress itself and could not move forward in its present form moreover there were new views of philosophy that called into question the previous optimism the work of schopenhauer was labelled pessimistic for its idea of the negation of the will an idea that would be both rejected and incorporated by later thinkers such as nietzsche two of the most disruptive thinkers of the period were in biology charles darwin and in political science karl marx darwin s theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty of the general public and the sense of human uniqueness of the intelligentsia the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality karl marx seemed to present a political version of the same problem that problems with the economic order were not transient the result of specific wrong doers or temporary conditions but were fundamentally contradictions within the capitalist system both thinkers would spawn defenders and schools of thought that would become decisive in establishing modernism separately in the arts and letters two ideas originating in france would have particular impact the first was impressionism a school of painting that initially focused on work done not in studios but outdoors en plein air they argued that human beings do not see objects but instead see light itself the school gathered adherents and despite deep internal divisions among its leading practitioners became increasingly influential initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time the government sponsored paris salon the art was shown at the salon des refus s created by emperor napoleon iii to display all of the paintings rejected by the paris salon while most were in standard styles but by inferior artists the work of manet attracted tremendous attention and opened commercial doors to the movement the second school was symbolism marked by a belief that language is expressly symbolic in its nature and that poetry and writing should follow whichever connection the sheer sound and texture of the words create the poet st phane mallarm would be of particular importance to what would occur afterwards at the same time social political and economic forces were at work that would eventually be used as the basis to argue for a radically different kind of art and thinking chief among these was steam powered industrialization which produced buildings that combined art and engineering in new industrial materials such as cast iron to produce railroad bridges and glass and iron train sheds or the eiffel tower which broke all previous limitations on how tall man made objects could be and at the same time offered a radically different environment in urban life the miseries of industrial urbanity and the possibilities created by scientific examination of subjects would be crucial in the series of changes that would shake european civilization which at that point regarded itself as having a continuous and progressive line of development from the renaissance with the telegraph s harnessing of a new power offering instantaneity at a distance time itself was altered the breadth of the changes can be seen in how many disciplines are described in their pre two zero th century form as being classical including physics economics and arts such as ballet the beginning of modernism one eight nine zero one nine one zero clement greenberg wrote what can be safely called modernism emerged in the middle of the last century and rather locally in france with baudelaire in literature and manet in painting and maybe with flaubert too in prose fiction it was a while later and not so locally that modernism appeared in music and architecture the avant garde was what modernism was called at first and the term remained to describe movements which identify themselves as attempting to overthrow some aspect of tradition or the status quo beginning in the one eight nine zero s and with increasing force afterwards a strand of thinking began to assert that it was necessary to push aside previous norms entirely and instead of merely revising past knowledge in light of current techniques it would be necessary to make more thorough changes the movement in art paralleled such developments as the theory of relativity in physics the increasing integration of the internal combustion engine and industrialization and the rise of social sciences in public policy in the first fifteen years of the twentieth century a series of writers thinkers and artists made the break with traditional means of organizing literature painting and music again in parallel to the change in organizational methods in other fields the argument was that if the nature of reality itself was in question and the restrictions which it was felt had been in place around human activity were falling then art too would have to radically change as sigmund freud vividly offered a view of subjective states that involved an unconscious mind full of primal impulses and counterbalancing restrictions and carl jung would combine freud s doctrine of the unconscious with a belief in natural essence to stipulate a collective unconscious that was full of basic typologies that the conscious mind fought or embraced this attacked the idea that people s impulses towards breaking social norms were the product of being childish or ignorant and were instead essential to the nature of the human animal while the ideas of darwin had introduced the idea of man the animal to the public mind at the same time and in nearly the same place as freud friedrich nietzsche championed a process philosophy in which processes and forces specifically the will to power were more important than facts or things although it must be mentioned that freud was far more influenced by nietzsche than the latter was by the former similarly the writings of henri bergson became increasingly influential as bergson also championed the vital life force over static conceptions of reality what united all these writers was a romantic distrust of the victorian positivism and certainty instead they championed or in the case of freud attempted to explain irrational thought processes through the lens of rationality and holism this was connected with a general search to culminate the century long trend to thinking in terms of holistic ideas which would include an increased interest in the occult and the vital force out of this collision of ideals derived from romanticism and an attempt to find a way for knowledge to explain that which was as yet unknown came the first wave of works which while their authors considered them extensions of existing trends in art broke the implicit contract that artists were the interpreters and representatives of bourgeois culture and ideas these modernist landmarks include arnold schoenberg s atonal ending to his second string quartet in one nine zero six the abstract paintings of wassily kandinsky starting in one nine zero three and culminating with the founding of the blue rider group in munich and the rise of cubism from the work of picasso and georges braque in one nine zero eight powerfully influential in this wave of modernity were the theories of freud who argued that the mind had a basic and fundamental structure and that subjective experience was based on the interplay of the parts of the mind all subjective reality was based according to freud s ideas on the play of basic drives and instincts through which the outside world was perceived this represented a break with the past in that previously it was believed that external and absolute reality could impress itself on an individual as for example in john locke s tabula rasa doctrine however the modern movement was not merely defined by its avant garde but also by a reforming trend within previous artistic norms as well as arguing that to maintain the high standards of previous accomplishments it was necessary to advance technique and theory this search for simplification of diction was found in the work of joseph conrad the pressures of communication transportation and more rapid scientific development began placing a premium on architectural styles which were cheaper to build and less ornamented and on writing which was shorter clearer and easier to read the rise of cinema and moving pictures in the first decade of the twentieth century gave the modern movement an art form which was uniquely its own and again created a direct connection between the perceived need to extend the progressive tradition of the late nineteenth century even if this conflicted with then established norms this wave of the modern movement broke with the past in the first decade of the twentieth century and tried to redefine various artforms in a radical manner leading lights within the literary wing of this movement or rather these movements include guillaume apollinaire paul valery d h lawrence virginia woolf james joyce william faulkner t s eliot ezra pound wallace stevens max jacob pierre reverdy joseph conrad marcel proust louis aragon tristan tzara jean cocteau paul eluard gertrude stein wyndham lewis h d marianne moore william carlos williams robert walser gabriele d annunzio federico garcia lorca rafael alberti and franz kafka composers such as schoenberg stravinsky and poulenc represent modernism in music artists such as gustav klimt picasso matisse mondrian les fauves cubism and the surrealists represent various strains of modernism in the visual arts while architects and designers such as le corbusier walter gropius and mies van der rohe brought modernist ideas into everyday urban life several figures outside of artistic modernism were influenced by artistic ideas for example john maynard keynes was friends with woolf and other writers of the bloomsbury group in architecture and the arts of design a search for a recognizably modern vocabulary of ornament had been under way since the essays of viollet le duc and henry cole in mid century art nouveau termed modern style by many of its adherents continued in this vein a handful of designers like christopher dresser managed to eliminate ornament from some industrial design adolf loos manifesto ornament and crime one nine zero eight in english one nine one three repudiated the work of the austrian form of art nouveau the vienna secession expressing the idea that the progress of culture is associated with the deletion of ornament from everyday objects and that it was a crime to force craftsmen or builders to waste their time on ornamentation that simply served to hasten obsolescence modernist design retained a moral reaction against ornament the explosion of modernism one nine one zero one nine three zero on the eve of world war i a growing tension and unease with the social order began to break through seen in the russian revolution of one nine zero five the increasing agitation of radical parties and an increasing number of works which either radically simplified or rejected previous practice in one nine one three famed russian composer igor stravinsky working for sergei diaghilev and the ballets russes composed rite of spring for a ballet choreographed by vaslav nijinsky that depicted human sacrifice and young painters such as pablo picasso and henri matisse had only recently begun causing a shock with their rejection of traditional perspective as the means of structuring paintings a step that none of the impressionists not even c zanne had taken this development began to give a new meaning to what was termed modernism at its core was the embracing of disruption and a rejection of or movement beyond simple realism in literature and art and the rejection of or dramatic alteration of tonality in music in the one nine th century artists had tended to believe in progress though what that word entailed varied dramatically and the importance of the artist s contributing positively to the values of society so for example writers like dickens and tolstoy painters like turner and musicians like brahms were not radicals or bohemians but were instead valued members of society who produced art that added to society even if it was at times critiquing less desirable aspects of it modernism while it was still progressive increasingly saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress and therefore the artist was recast as a revolutionary overthrowing rather than enlightening an example of this trend was to be found in futurism in one nine zero nine f t marinetti s first manifesto was published in the parisian newspaper le figaro and rapidly a group of painters giacomo balla umberto boccioni carlo carr luigi russolo and gino severini co signed the manifesto of futurist painting such manifestos were modelled on the famous communist manifesto of the previous century and were meant to provoke and gather followers while they put forward principles and ideas however futurism was strongly influenced by bergson and nietzsche and it should be seen as part of the general trend of modernist rationalization of disruption it must be stressed that modernist philosophy and art were still viewed as being part and only a part of the larger social movement artists such as klimt paul cezanne and mahler and richard strauss were the terrible moderns those farther to the avant garde were more heard of than heard polemics in favour of geometric or purely abstract painting were largely confined to little magazines like the new age in the uk with tiny circulations modernist primitivism and pessimism was controversial but was not seen as representative of the edwardian mainstream which was more inclined towards a victorian faith in progress and liberal optimism however world war i and its subsequent events were the cataclysmic disruptions that late one nine th century artists such as brahms had worried about and avant gardists had embraced first the fantastic failure of the previous status quo seemed self evident to a generation that had seen millions die fighting over scraps of earth prior to the war it had been argued that no one would fight such a war since the cost was too high second the introduction of a machine age into life seemed obvious machine warfare became a touchstone of the ultimate reality finally the immensely traumatic nature of the experience made both critical and subjective strands of the modern movement basic assumptions realism seemed to be bankrupt when faced with the fundamentally fantastic nature of trench warfare as exemplified by books such as erich maria remarque s all quiet on the western front moreover the view that mankind was making slow and steady moral progress came to seem ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter of the great war the first world war at once fused the harshly mechanical geometric rationality of technology with the nightmarish irrationality of myth thus in the one nine two zero s and increasingly after modernism which had been such a minority taste before the war came to define the age there was a subtle but important shift from the earlier phase in the beginning the movement was undertaken by individuals who were part of the establishment or wished to join the establishment however increasingly the mood began to shift towards a replacement of the older hierarchy with one based on new ideas norms and methods modernism was seen in europe in such critical movements as dada and then in constructive movements such as surrealism as well as in smaller movements such as the bloomsbury group each of these modernisms as some observers labelled them at the time stressed new methods to produce new results again impressionism was a precursor breaking with the idea of national schools artists and writers adopted ideas of international movements surrealism cubism bauhaus and leninism are all examples of movements that rapidly found adopters far beyond their original geographic base exhibitions theatre cinema books and buildings all served to cement in the public view the perception that the world was changing and this often met with hostile resistance paintings were spat upon riots organized at the opening of works and some political figures even denounced modernism as being connected with immorality at the same time the one nine two zero s were known as the jazz age and there was a public embrace of the advancements of mechanization cars air travel and the telephone the assertion of modernists was that these advances required people to change not merely their habits but their fundamental aesthetic sense by one nine three zero modernism had won a place in the establishment including the political and artistic establishment ironically by the time it was being accepted modernism itself had changed there was a general reaction in the one nine two zero s against the pre one nine one eight modernism which emphasised its continuity with a past even as it rebelled against it and against the aspects of that period which seemed excessively mannered irrational and emotionalistic the post world war period at first veered either to systematization or nihilism and had as perhaps its most paradigmatic movement dada since both rationality and irrationality are present to varying degrees in all large movements some writers attacked the madness of the new modernism while at the same time others described it as soulless and mechanistic modernists in turn attacked the madness of hurling millions of young men into the hell of war and the falseness of artistic norms that could not depict the emotional reality of life in the two zero th century the rationalistic side of modernism was a move back towards control self restraint and an urge to re engage with society some influences came from machine age thought and the idolization of technology examples of this approach include stravinsky s neoclassical style of composition the international style of bauhaus schoenberg s atonality the new objectivity in german painting at the same time the desire to turn social critique into persuasive counter order found expression in the beginnings of econometrics and the rise of societies to reform nations along scientific and often socialistic lines the victories of the russian revolution of one nine one seven with its emphasis at least in words on both humane life and rational planning came to be taken by many as an example of the maxim i have seen the future and it works however it must be remembered that these concepts and movements were often in competition with each other and even in direct conflict within modernity there were disputes about the importance of the public the relationship of art to audience and the role of art in society rather than a lockstep organized unity it is better to see modernism as taking a series of responses to the situation as it was understood and the attempt to wrestle universal principles from it in the end science and scientific rationality often taking models from the one eight th century enlightenment came to be seen as the source of logic and stability while the basic primitive sexual and unconscious drives along with the seemingly counter intuitive workings of the new machine age were taken as the basic emotional substance from these two poles no matter how seemingly incompatible modernists began to fashion a complete worldview that could encompass every aspect of life and express everything from a scream to a chuckle modernism s second generation one nine three zero one nine four five by one nine three zero modernism had entered popular culture with the jazz age and the increasing urbanization of populations it had begun making systematic challenges to previous art and ideas and was beginning to be looked to as the source for ideas to deal with the host of challenges faced in that particular historical moment modernism was by this point increasingly represented in academia and was developing a self conscious theory of its own importance the modernism of the one nine three zero s then increasingly begins to focus on the realities of there being a popular culture which was not derived from high culture but instead from its own realities particularly of mass production modern ideas in art were also increasingly used in commercials and logos the famous london underground logo is an early example of the need for clear easily recognizable and memorable visual symbols another strong influence at this time was marxism after the generally primitivistic irrationalist aspect of pre world war one modernism which for many modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions and the neoclassicism of the one nine two zero s as represented most famously by t s eliot and igor stravinsky which rejected popular solutions to modern problems the rise of fascism the great depression and the march to war helped to radicalise a generation the russian revolution was the catalyst to fuse political radicalism and utopianism with more expressly political stances bertolt brecht auden andre breton louis aragon and the philosophers gramsci and walter benjamin are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this modernist marxism this move to the radical left however was neither universal nor definitional there is no particular reason to associate modernism fundamentally with the left and in fact many modernists were explicitly of the right for example wyndham lewis w b yeats arnold schoenberg t s eliot ezra pound the dutch author menno ter braak and many others one of the most visible changes of this period is the adoption of objects of modern production into daily life electricity the telephone the automobile and the need to work with them repair them and live with them created the need for new forms of manners and social life the kind of disruptive moment which only a few knew in the one eight eight zero s became a common occurrence the kind of speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of one eight nine zero became part of family life modernism as leading to social organization would produce inquiries into sex and the basic bondings of the nuclear rather than extended family the freudian tensions of infantile sexuality and the raising of children became more intense because people had fewer children and therefore a more specific relationship with each child the theoretical again became the practical and even popular modernism after the second world war one nine four five people often draw the lessons from history that they feel others should have learnt from experience and the post world war modernist experience is no exception nazi germany was depicted as the last charge romanticism had in its belly and the product of irrational attachment to the state although many scholars even those more recently such as michael burleigh wolfgang wippermann alternative modernisms the shattering of europe swept away many of the traditional forms and lifestyles which had been arguing against the adoption of a mechanised economy and there was such a vast need of rebuilding that everything had to be made new this period is often described as high modernism and on the one hand it led to artists exploring the most extended some would say extreme consequences of modernist ideas for example serialism and abstract expressionism and at the same time modernist design in consumer goods architecture clothing and furnishings became the norm the top hats dresses and frills of another age were tossed aside or used only as high costume the expansion of rail and road networks the pouring of labor into cities from the country side and the vast building programs necessitated by the need to command and control the new economy meant that the societies of europe america and japan were thrust into the modern and modernist world the collision between popular sensibility and rarefied ideas became one of the most contentious and extended debates within modernism the conflict always latent became acute as on one hand the need for ever more specialised elites and ever more specialised knowledge pushed towards the pure forms of modernism while at the same time mass production broadcasting and organisation lead to the creation of popular culture which while it made reference to the imagined victorian way of life was as rooted in new ideas as the most esoteric of poems modernism itself began to face a series of crisis points as the unquestioned assumption that artistic and philosophical progress was mirrored and equivalent to technical progress became more problematic for more and more artists one example from music is in the serialist music of pierre boulez where he began to feel that pure parameterisation was not enough to produce the variety of sound which was pleasing his correspondent and some time rival john cage argued that if pure serial music sounded random to people why not just use random process to create music another example from painting can be seen at the boundary of abstract expressionism and minimalism in painting if the only thing that mattered was the presentation why cover a canvas with so much for some artists these challenges were best met by reviving renewing or expanding the precepts of modernism as a continuing revolution that the new environment having produced more liberation was an invitation to yet further artistic experimentation as a modernist would call it and more direct methods of creation examples of this would be the work of willem de kooning who as a painter sought more and more expressionistic means of presentation for others it meant the abandoning of the pressure that modernism seemed to impose on them for example the change in styles of composer lukas foss for other young artists there was no conflict merely a permission to act in whatever manner seemed most conducive to their inner sense of expression exemplified by andy warhol the views on what this meant and mean differ widely for some the relaxation of progress and rationality represent a betrayal of modernism for others for whom modern and contemporary are close synonyms it was merely modernism by other means this division between modern as meaning a particular way of responding to conditions and those who feel that modernism is merely relevant to the present has been seen in arguments over what music to include in programs what art to show at galleries and where to draw lines in history modernism s goals the glass palace one nine three five in the netherlands functional and open many modernists believed that by rejecting tradition they could discover radically new ways of making art arnold schoenberg believed that by ignoring traditional tonal harmony the hierarchical system of organizing works of music which had guided music making for at least a century and a half and perhaps longer he had discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound based in the use of twelve note rows see twelve tone technique this led to what is known as serial music by the post war period abstract artists taking as their examples the impressionists as well as paul c zanne and edvard munch began with the assumption that color and shape formed the essential characteristics of art not the depiction of the natural world wassily kandinsky piet mondrian and kazimir malevich all believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure colour the use of photography which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete strongly affected this particular aspect of modernism however these artists also believed that by rejecting the depiction of material objects they helped art move from a materialist to a spiritualist phase of development chicago s ibm plaza main article international style architecture other modernists especially those involved in design had more pragmatic views modernist architects and designers believed that new technology rendered old styles of building obsolete le corbusier born charles edouard jeanneret thought that buildings should function as machines for living in analogous to cars which he saw as machines for travelling in just as cars had replaced the horse so modernist design should reject the old styles and structures inherited from ancient greece or from the middle ages following this machine aesthetic modernist designers typically reject decorative motifs in design preferring to emphasise the materials used and pure geometrical forms the skyscraper such as ludwig mies van der rohe s seagram building in new york one nine five six one nine five eight became the archetypal modernist building modernist design of houses and furniture also typically emphasised simplicity and clarity of form open plan interiors and the absence of clutter modernism reversed the one nine th century relationship of public and private in the one nine th century public buildings were horizontally expansive for a variety of technical reasons and private buildings emphasized verticality to fit more private space on more and more limited land where as in the two zero th century public buildings became vertically oriented and private buildings became organized horizontally many aspects of modernist design still persist within the mainstream of contemporary architecture today though its previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration historical quotation and spatial drama in other arts such pragmatic considerations were less important in literature and visual art some modernists sought to defy expectations mainly in order to make their art more vivid or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions this aspect of modernism has often seemed a reaction to consumer culture which developed in europe and north america in the late one nine th century whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices high modernists rejected such consumerist attitudes in order to undermine conventional thinking the art critic clement greenberg expounded this theory of modernism in his essay avant garde and kitsch greenberg labelled the products of consumer culture kitsch because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal with any difficult features removed for greenberg modernism thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial popular music hollywood and advertising greenberg associated this with a revolutionary rejection of capitalism many modernists did see themselves as part of a revolutionary culture one that included political revolution however many rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions believing that a revolution of consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures many modernists saw themselves as apolitical only concerned with revolutionizing their own field of endeavour others such as t s eliot rejected mass popular culture from a conservative position indeed one can argue that modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an elite culture which excluded the majority of the population modernism s reception and controversy the most controversial aspect of the modern movement was and remains its rejection of tradition both in organization and in the immediate experience of the work this dismissal of tradition also involved the rejection of conventional expectations hence modernism often stresses freedom of expression experimentation radicalism and primitivism in many art forms this often meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre and unpredictable effects hence the strange and disturbing combinations of motifs in surrealism or the use of extreme dissonance and atonality in modernist music in literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible plots or characterisation in novels or the creation of poetry that defied clear interpretation because of its emphasis on individual freedom and expression and its emphasis on the individual many modern artists ran afoul of totalitarian governments many of which saw traditionalism in the arts as an important prop to their political power the soviet communist government rejected modernism on the grounds of alleged elitism and the nazi government in germany deemed it narcissistic and nonsensical as well as jewish and negro see anti semitism the nazis exhibited modernist paintings alongside works by the mentally ill in an exhibition entitled degenerate art louis a sass bauer two zero zero four compares madness specifically schizophrenia and modernism in a less fascist manner by noting their shared disjunctive narratives surreal images and incoherence accusations of formalism could lead to the end of a career or worse for this reason many modernists of the post war generation felt that they were the most important bulwark against totalitarianism the canary in the coal mine whose repression by a government or other group with supposed authority represented a warning that individual liberties were being threatened in fact modernism flourished mainly in consumer capitalist societies despite the fact that its proponents often rejected consumerism itself however high modernism began to merge with consumer culture after world war ii especially during the one nine six zero s in britain a youth sub culture even called itself moderns though usually shortened to mods following such representative music groups as the who and the kinks in popular music bob dylan combined folk music traditions with modernist verse adopting literary devices derived from eliot and others the beatles also developed along these lines even creating atonal and other modernist musical effects in their later albums musicians such as frank zappa and captain beefheart proved even more experimental modernist devices also started to appear in popular cinema and later on in music videos modernist design also began to enter the mainstream of popular culture as simplified and stylized forms became popular often associated with dreams of a space age high tech future this merging of consumer and high versions of modernist culture led to a radical transformation of the meaning of modernism itself firstly it implied that a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition of its own secondly it demonstrated that the distinction between elite modernist and mass consumerist culture had lost its precision some writers declared that modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now post avant garde indicating that it had lost its power as a revolutionary movement many have interpreted this transformation as the beginning of the phase that became known as postmodernism for others such as for example art critic robert hughes postmodernism represents an extension of modernism one deep element of modernism has been alienation either of the individual from self or from society or from the natural basis of existence for this reason there have been repeated anti modern or counter modern movements which seek to emphasize holism connection and spirituality as being remedies or antidotes to modernism such movements see modernism as reductionist and therefore subject to the failure to see systemic and emergent effects many modernists came to this viewpoint for example paul hindemith in his late turn towards mysticism writers such as paul ray and sherry ruth in culture creatives fredrick turner in a culture of hope and lester brown in plan b have articulated a critique of the basic idea of modernism itself that individual creative expression should conform to the realities of technology and instead that individual creativity should make every day life more emotionally acceptable in some fields the effects of modernism have remained stronger and more persistent than in others visual art has made the most complete break with its past most major capital cities have museums devoted to modern art as distinct from post renaissance art circa one four zero zero to circa one nine zero zero examples include the museum of modern art in new york the tate modern in london and the centre pompidou in paris these galleries make no distinction between modernist and postmodernist phases seeing both as developments within modern art see also international style architecture references sass louis a one nine nine two madness and modernism insanity in the light of modern art literature and thought new york basic books cited in bauer amy two zero zero four cognition constraints and conceptual blends in modernist music in the pleasure of modernist music isbn one five eight zero four six one four three three bradbury malcolm one nine three zero penguin penguin literary criticism series one nine seven eight isbn zero one four zero one three eight three two three by hughes robert the shock of the new art and the century of change gardners books one nine nine one isbn zero five zero zero two seven five eight two three levenson michael ed the cambridge companion to modernism cambridge university press cambridge companions to literature series one nine nine nine isbn zero five two one four nine eight six six x pevsner nikolaus pioneers of modern design from william morris to walter gropius yale university press two zero zero five isbn zero three zero zero one zero five seven one one the sources of modern architecture and design thames world of art series one nine eight five isbn zero five zero zero two zero zero seven two six weston robert modernism phaidon press two zero zero one isbn zero seven one four eight four zero nine nine eight kolocotroni vassiliki et al ed modernism an anthology of sources and documents edinburgh edinburgh university press one nine nine eight nicholls peter modernisms a literary guide hampshire and london macmillan one nine nine five modernism herbert marshall mcluhan july two one one nine one one december three one one nine eight zero was a canadian educator philosopher and scholar professor of english literature literary critic and communications theorist who is one of the founders of the study of media ecology and is today an honorary guru among technophiles biography born in edmonton alberta mcluhan moved to winnipeg manitoba as a young child where he later studied english at the university of manitoba he later studied at the university of cambridge under i a richards and f r leavis and was influenced by new criticism upon reflection later he credited the faculty there for being chiefly concerned with the training of perception this application finds resonance throughout his work as do occasionally such notions of richards from the one nine three zero s as feedforward in the one nine three six three seven academic year he taught at the university of wisconsin on march three zero one nine three seven mcluhan culminated what was a slow but total conversion when he was formally received into the roman catholic church subsequently he taught in roman catholic institutions of higher education from one nine three seven to one nine four four he taught english at saint louis university there he taught and befriended walter j ong one nine one two two zero zero three who would go on to do his ph d dissertation on a topic mcluhan had called to his attention and who would himself also later become a well known authority on communication and technology on august four one nine three nine mcluhan married corinne lewis of fort worth texas and they spent one nine three nine four zero at cambridge university where he continued to work on his doctoral dissertation on thomas nashe and the verbal arts from one nine four four to one nine four six mcluhan taught at assumption college in windsor ontario from one nine four six to one nine seven nine he taught at st michael s college university of toronto where hugh kenner was one of his students mcluhan also taught at fordham university one year one nine six seven six eight when his son eric mcluhan did the famed fordham experiment works in perspective introduction during his years at saint louis university one nine three seven one nine four four mcluhan evidently worked concurrently on two ambitious projects his doctoral dissertation and the manuscript that was eventually published in one nine five one as the book the mechanical bride which included only a representative selection of the materials that mcluhan had prepared for it mcluhan s one nine four three cambridge university doctoral dissertation is a formidable piece of scholarship surveying the history of the verbal arts grammar dialectic and logic and rhetoric collectively known as the trivium from the time of cicero down to the time of thomas nashe in his later publications mcluhan at times uses the latin concept of the trivium to outline an orderly and systematic picture of certain periods in the history of western culture mcluhan suggests that the middle ages for instance was characterized by the heavy emphasis on the formal study of logic the key turn that led to the renaissance was not the rediscovery of ancient texts but a reemphasis on the importance of rhetoric and language over the formal study of logic this shift signalled in renaissance humanism was largely a shift in emphasis not a shift to totally eliminate one verbal art modern life is characterized by the reemergence of grammar as its most salient feature an approach mcluhan felt was exemplified at times by the new criticism of richards and leavis for a nuanced account of mcluhan s thought regarding richards and leavis see mcluhan s poetic and rhetorical exegesis the case for leavis against richards and empson in the sewanee review volume five two number two one nine four four two six six seven six mcluhan s doctoral dissertation is scheduled to be published by gingko press in the near future it is a key work for understanding mcluhan s arguments and aims in all of his subsequent works for example when we consider that rhetoric has long been characterized as the art of persuasion we will more readily understand how he came to study the various items displayed in the mechanical bride the common denominator is that all of these items in one way or another aim to persuade the reader gingko press also plans to publish the complete manuscript of items and essays that mcluhan prepared only a selection of which were published in his book when these two announced books have been published then we will be in a better position to assess mcluhan s work overall because both dialectic and rhetoric in the classical trivium aimed at persuasion it is not surprising that mcluhan in the mechanical bride turned his attention to analyzing and commenting on numerous contemporary examples of persuasion in popular culture from centering his attention on persuasion in his doctoral dissertation and in his book he made a dramatic inward turn as it may be styled in attending to the inwardness of persuasion carried out by communication media as such as distinct from their content his famous or infamous depending on your point of view slogan the medium is the message elaborated in his one nine six four book understanding media the extensions of man uses hyperbole to call attention to the inward impact of communication media however it should be noted that he titled his later one nine six seven book the medium is the massage an initially unintentional bit of wordplay that is also characteristic of mcluhan because many people have not followed mcluhan s inward turn it should be noted here that he read insight a study of human understanding by bernard lonergan s j when it was first published in one nine five seven in his letter of september two one one nine five seven to his former student and friend walter j ong s j mcluhan says find much sense in bern lonergan s insight letters of marshall mcluhan one nine eight seven two five one lonergan s insight is an extended guidebook on making the inward turn to attending ever more carefully to one s own consciousness and reflecting on it ever more carefully and monitoring one s articulations ever more carefully we can use lonergan s terminology to clarify the meaning of mcluhan s statement that the medium is the message at the empirical level of consciousness the medium is the message whereas at the intelligent and rational levels of consciousness the content is the message when mcluhan declares that he is more interested in percepts than concepts he is declaring in effect that he is more interested in what lonergan refers to as the empirical level of consciousness than in what lonergan refers to as the intelligent level of consciousness in which concepts are formed which lonergan distinguishes from the rational level of consciousness in which the adequacy of concepts and of predications is adjudicated mcluhan s inward turn to attending to percepts and to the cultural conditioning of the empirical level of consciousness through the impact of communication media sets him apart from more outward oriented studies of sociological influences and the outward presentation of self carried out by george herbert mead erving goffman berger and luckmann kenneth burke hugh duncan and others the mechanical bride one nine five one mcluhan s the mechanical bride folklore of industrial man one nine five one is a pioneering study in the field known today as popular culture this book is the work of a deeply original thinker it is sui generis as is his one nine six two book the gutenberg galaxy in which mcluhan carries forward his use of short essays that can be read in any order an approach that he styles a mosaic approach to writing a book mcluhan s interest in the critical study of popular culture was influenced by the short book culture and environment by f r leavis and denys thompson one nine three three even so it is impossible to imagine leavis or any of mcluhan s other teachers at cambridge university undertaking such a detailed critique of popular culture mcluhan s former student and friend walter j ong wrote a highly laudatory review essay about mcluhan s one nine five one book the mechanical bride christen the folklore of industrial man social order two feb one nine five two seven nine eight five in a letter to ong dated january two three one nine five three mcluhan says your review of bride literally the only review that made sense you were generous but you saw what was up the absence of serious study of these matters is total i e universal emotional and intellectual illiteracy and so unnecessary letters of marshall mcluhan one nine eight seven p two three four in a letter to ong dated may three one one nine five three p two three six mcluhan reports that he has received a two year grant of four three zero zero zero from the ford foundation to carry out a communication project at the university of toronto involving faculty from different disciplines in connection with this project mcluhan and ted carpenter started the journal explorations in communication according to mcluhan a student at the university of toronto told him that harold innis had put the mechanical bride on the reading list for one of his courses there which led mcluhan to discover innis s later work the gutenberg galaxy one nine six two mcluhan s the gutenberg galaxy the making of typographic man written in one nine six one first published in canada by university of toronto press in one nine six two is a pioneering study of print culture a pioneering study in cultural studies and a pioneering study in media ecology throughout the book mcluhan is at pains to reveal how communication technology alphabetic writing the printing press and the electronic media affects cognitive organization which in turn has profound ramifications for social organization if a new technology extends one or more of our senses outside us into the social world then new ratios among all of our senses will occur in that particular culture it is comparable to what happens when a new note is added to a melody and when the sense ratios alter in any culture then what had appeared lucid before may suddenly become opaque and what had been vague or opaque will become translucent gutenberg galaxy one nine six two p four one his episodic and often rambling history takes the reader from pre alphabetic tribal humankind to the electronic age according to mcluhan the invention of movable type greatly accelerated intensified and ultimately enabled cultural and cognitive changes that had already been taking place since the invention and implementation of the alphabet by which mcluhan means phonemic orthography mcluhan is careful to distinguish the phonetic alphabet from logographic logogramic writing systems like hieroglyphics or ideograms print culture ushered in by the gutenberg press in the middle of the fifteenth century brought about the cultural predominance of the visual over the aural oral quoting with approval an observation on the nature of the printed word from prints and visual communication by william ivins mcluhan remarks in this passage ivins not only notes the ingraining of lineal sequential habits but even more important points out the visual homogenizing of experience of print culture and the relegation of auditory and other sensuous complexity to the background the technology and social effects of typography incline us to abstain from noting interplay and as it were formal causality both in our inner and external lives print exists by virtue of the static separation of functions and fosters a mentality that gradually resists any but a separative and compartmentalizing or specialist outlook galaxy pp one two four two six the main concept of mcluhan s argument later elaborated upon in the medium is the massage is that new technologies like alphabets printing presses and even speech itself exert a gravitational effect on cognition which in turn affects social organization print technology changes our perceptual habits visual homogenizing of experience which in turn impacts social interactions fosters a mentality that gradually resists all but a specialist outlook according to mcluhan the advent of print technology contributed to and made possible most of the salient trends in the modern period in the western world individualism democracy protestantism capitalism and nationalism for mcluhan these trends all reverberate with print technology s principle of segmentation of actions and functions and principle of visual quantification galaxy p one five four visual individualistic print culture will soon mcluhan is writing in the early one nine six zero s be brought to an end by what mcluhan calls electronic interdependence when electronic media replace visual culture with aural oral culture in this new age humankind will move from individualism and fragmentation to a collective identity with a tribal base mcluhan s coinage for this new social organization is the global village a term which has predominantly negative connotations in the gutenberg galaxy a fact lost on its later popularizers instead of tending towards a vast alexandrian library the world has become a computer an electronic brain exactly as an infantile piece of science fiction and as our senses have gone outside us big brother goes inside so unless aware of this dynamic we shall at once move into a phase of panic terrors exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums total interdependence and superimposed co existence terror is the normal state of any oral society for in it everything affects everything all the time in our long striving to recover for the western world a unity of sensibility and of thought and feeling we have no more been prepared to accept the tribal consequences of such unity than we were ready for the fragmentation of the human psyche by print culture galaxy p three two note again mcluhan s stress on the importance of awareness of a medium s cognitive effects if we are not vigilant to the effects of media s impact the global village has the potential to become a place where totalitarianism and terror rule key to mcluhan s argument is the idea that technology has no per se moral bent it is a tool that shapes profoundly an individual s and by extension a society s self conception and realization is it not obvious that there are always enough moral problems without also taking a moral stand on technological grounds print is the extreme phase of alphabet culture that detribalizes or decollectivizes man in the first instance print raises the visual features of alphabet to highest intensity of definition thus print carries the individuating power of the phonetic alphabet much further than manuscript culture could ever do print is the technology of individualism if men decided to modify this visual technology by an electric technology individualism would also be modified to raise a moral complaint about this is like cussing a buzz saw for lopping off fingers but someone says we didn t know it would happen yet even witlessness is not a moral issue it is a problem but not a moral problem and it would be nice to clear away some of the moral fogs that surround our technologies it would be good for morality galaxy p one five eight technology affects cognition and the moral valence of these changes is for mcluhan good or bad depending on one s perspective in the later seventeenth century for instance mcluhan identifies a considerable amount of alarm and revulsion towards the growing quantity of printed books a few hundred years later though many thinkers express alarm at the end of the book if there can be no universal moral sentence passed on technology mcluhan believes that there can only be disaster arising from unawareness of the causalities and effects inherent in our technologies though the world wide web did not yet exist when mcluhan wrote the gutenberg galaxy mcluhan is if not the coiner then a popularizer of the term surfing when used to refer to rapid irregular and multidirectional movement through a heterogenous body of documents or knowledge e g statements like heidegger surf boards along on the electronic wave as triumphantly as descartes rode the mechanical wave paul levinson s excellent one nine nine nine book digital mcluhan explores the ways that mcluhan s work can be better understood through the lens of the digital revolution mcluhan frequently quotes ong s ramus method and the decay of dialogue one nine five eight which evidently had prompted mcluhan to write this book once again ong wrote a highly favorable review of this new book in america one zero seven sept one five one nine six two seven four three seven four seven however in the one nine six seven new catholic encyclopedia ong subsequently qualified his earlier praise by characterizing mcluhan s the gutenberg galaxy as a racy survey indifferent to some scholarly detail but uniquely valuable in suggesting the sweep and depth of the cultural and psychological changes entailed in the passage from illiteracy to print and beyond eight eight three eight in short certain parts should be read with a grain of salt but it is definitely worth reading to this day mcluhan s the gutenberg galaxy won the one nine six two governor general s award for non fiction canada s highest literary award understanding media one nine six four mcluhan s most widely known work understanding media the extensions of man one nine six four is also a pioneering study in media ecology in it mcluhan proposes that media themselves not the content they carry should be the focus of study popularly quoted as the medium is the message more controversially he postulates that content had little effect on society in other words it did not matter if television broadcasts children s shows or violent programming to illustrate one example the effect of television on society would be identical he notes that all media have characteristics that engaged the viewer in different ways for instance a passage in a book could be reread at will but at least until the advent of the videocassette a movie had to be screened again in its entirety to study any individual part of it in understanding media mcluhan generally divides media into hot high definition of information and cool low definition of information a hot medium is one that extends one single sense in high definition high definition means the state of being well filled with data a cool medium is one with low definition because of the lack of information much has to be filled in by users therefore a cool medium generally requires higher level of participation of users than a hot medium when looking at the two different kinds of media it can be interpreted that the hotter the medium the less someone needs to interpret what is being presented to them whereas the colder the medium the more someone has to uncover and engage in the media for example this could be compared with hot a high definition photograph where the viewer can glean a lot of information contrasted with a blue print where the viewer has to fill in the blanks mcluhan in popular culture after the publication of understanding media mcluhan received an astonishing amount of publicity making him perhaps the most publicized english teacher in the twentieth century and arguably the most controversial for example newsweek magazine did a cover story on him he made a cameo appearance as himself in woody allen s movie annie hall alvy singer allen s character presents mcluhan to rebuff the professor behind alvy who is trying to impress his date with his discussion of marshall mcluhan s work he corrects the professor and derisively asks how he ever became a professor woody captured an important aspect of mcluhan s personality having him utter the line you know nothing of my work mcluhan was fond of telling his students and others that they simply did not understand him no matter how much of his work they had studied playboy magazine published a lengthy interview with mcluhan in one nine eight three he was lampooned in the david cronenberg film videodrome where his character was given the name professor brian o blivion and issued such memorable quotes as the television screen has become the retina of the mind s eye and i refuse to appear on television except on television mcluhan in modern technology culture mcluhan was named as the patron saint of wired magazine and a quote from mcluhan appeared on the masthead of the magazine for the first ten years of its publication timothy leary credited a meeting with mcluhan with inspiring him to create the phrase turn on tune in drop out mcluhan s ideas have informed much of silicon valley culture and have inspired intellectuals including jaron lanier mcluhan himself met with many academics including buckminster fuller and gregory bateson in one nine seven zero mcluhan was made a companion of the order of canada after mcluhan s death his former student and friend walter j ong wrote what is arguably the most favorable assessment of mcluhan in print anywhere to this day mcluhan as teacher the future is a thing of the past journal of communication three one one nine eight one one two nine three five as mentioned above oxford university press published the five five zero page letters of marshall mcluhan in one nine eight seven two biographies of mcluhan have been published one by philip marchand in one nine eight nine and the other by w terrence gordon in one nine nine seven books and articles in which mcluhan s thought is discussed are far too numerous to enumerate here further information about mcluhan s thought can be found in the johns hopkins guide to literary theory and criticism one st ed one nine nine four four eight one eight three two nd ed two zero zero five six four three four five encyclopedia of contemporary literary theory approaches scholars terms u of toronto p one nine nine three four two one two three and encyclopedia of literary critics and criticism fitzroy dearborn one nine nine nine seven four four four seven recognizing his lasting global influence for his pioneering work on the study of media ecology the government of canada honoured him with his image on a postage stamp in two zero zero zero pictured above in two zero zero four the university of chicago press noted that marshall mcluhan and walter ong today enjoy the status of honorary gurus among technophiles see the back cover of ong s ramus method and the decay of dialogue from the art of discourse to the art of reason that was reissued by the university of chicago press in two zero zero four with a new foreword by adrian johns on march two seven two eight one nine nine eight fordham university sponsored a symposium on the legacy of mcluhan who had taught at fordham for one year in two zero zero five hampton press published papers from the symposium as the book the legacy of mcluhan see also list of notable brain tumor patients works one nine five one the mechanical bride folklore of industrial man one st ed the vanguard press ny one nine five one gingko press isbn one five eight four two three zero five zero nine one nine six two the gutenberg galaxy the making of typographic man routledge produced by jerome agel random house two zero zero zero reprint by gingko isbn one five eight four two three zero seven zero three one nine six eight war and peace in the global village design layout by quentin fiore produced by jerome agel two zero zero one reprint by gingko isbn one five eight four two three zero seven four six one nine six eight through the vanishing point space in poetry and painting written with harley parker one st ed harper that not so silent sea appendix b in the virtual marshall mcluhan by donald f theall mcgill queen s university press two zero zero one two three six six one for the complete essay before it was edited for publication see the external link below daniel jeff mcluhan s two messengers maurice mcnamee and walter ong world class interpreters of his ideas st louis post dispatch sunday august one zero one nine nine seven four c flahiff f t always someone to kill the doves a life of sheila watson edmonton newest press two zero zero five gordon w terrence marshall mcluhan escape into understanding a biography basic books one nine nine seven levinson paul digital mcluhan a guide to the information millennium routledge one nine nine nine marchand philip marshall mcluhan the medium and the messenger the mit press revised edition may one one nine nine eight molinaro matie corinne mcluhan and william toye eds letters of marshall mcluhan toronto oxford university press one nine eight seven ong walter j mcluhan as teacher the future is a thing of the past journal of communication three one one nine eight one one two nine three five reprinted in ong s faith and contexts volume one scholars press one nine nine two one one one eight ong walter j untitled review of mcluhan s the interior landscape the literary criticism of marshall mcluhan one nine four three one nine six two criticism one two one nine seven zero two four four five one reprinted in an ong reader challenges for further inquiry hampton press two zero zero two six nine seven seven theall donald f the virtual marshall mcluhan mcgill queen s university press two zero zero one external links mcluhan s philosophy includes a list of books web links and tv interviews mcluhan did in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s mcluhan program in culture and technology at the university of toronto http www press jhu edu books hopkins guide to literary theory marshall mcluhan html marshall mcluhan page from the johns hopkins guide to literary theory that not so silent sea essay by edmund carpenter pdf ubuweb marshall mcluhan featuring the lp the medium is the massage official site marshall mcluhan the man and his message cbc archives mcluhan global research network jeffrey s mcluhan bibliography free online mcluhan revisited by cecil adams the media ecology association marshall mcluhan finnegans wake reading club venice calif very active west coast usa club link to yahoo mcluhan group one nine one one births one nine eight zero deaths two zero th century philosophers canadian literary critics canadian philosophers edmontonians media theorists members of the order of canada new criticism north american cultural studies postmodernism rhetoric saint louis university philosophers of technology some object oriented programming languages e g c allow multiple inheritance in which a class can inherit behaviors and features from more than one superclass this contrasts with single inheritance where a class inherits from only one superclass multiple inheritance can cause some confusing situations so there is some debate over whether or not its benefits outweigh its risks java compromises it allows a class to inherit interfaces from more than one parent that is one can specify that a class inherits all the types from its parents and must have all of the same externally exposed methods of its interface parents and allow the compiler to enforce that but can inherit implementation methods and fields from only one parent microsoft s net languages such as c and visual basic implement this interface approach as well in object oriented programming oop inheritance describes a relationship between two types or classes of objects in which one is said to be a subtype or child of the other the child inherits features of the parent allowing for shared functionality for example one might create a variable class mammal with features such as eating reproducing etc then define a subtype cat that inherits those features without having to explicitly program them while adding new features like chasing mice if however one wants to use more than one totally orthogonal hierarchy simultaneously such as allowing cat to inherit from cartoon character and pet as well as mammal lack of multiple inheritance often results in a very awkwardly mixed hierarchy or forces functionality to be rewritten in more than one place with the attendant maintenance problems multiple inheritance has been a touchy issue for many years with opponents pointing to its increased complexity and ambiguity for example if two parents have independent implementations of a feature named x which one is inherited this situation is commonly referred to as the diamond problem languages have different ways of dealing with these problems eiffel for example allows subtypes to adapt their inherited features by renaming them or setting selection rules for them ahead of time java allows objects to inherit multiple interfaces but only a single implementation realbasic is similar but also allows additional methods to extend a class without inheritance perl uses the list of classes to inherit from as an ordered list and uses the first method it finds by depth first searching first the current class then the inherited classes in the order listed and their superclasses clos allows for complete programmer control of method combination and if that s not enough the meta object protocol gives the programmer a means to modify the inheritance method dispatch class instantiation and other internal mechanisms without affecting the stability of the system external links article by jonathan lurie of builder com on instances in net languages http builder com com five one zero zero six three seven three five zero three zero seven three four html object oriented programming media studies is a social science that studies the nature and effects of mass media upon individuals and society as well as analysing actual media content and representations a cross disciplinary field media studies uses techniques and theorists from sociology cultural studies psychology art theory information theory and economics development media studies pioneers include marshall mcluhan stuart hall ien ang and jean baudrillard walter benjamin s one nine three six essay the work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction marks one of the first major interrogations of the play between technical media and culture in the uk media studies emerged in the one nine six zero s from the academic study of english and from literary criticism more broadly it tended to grow through colleges and polytechnics rather than through established universities nevertheless the centre for contemporary cultural studies cccs founded by richard hoggart at the university of birmingham in one nine six four was a notable exception media studies can partially be understood as a response to the mccarthyist paranoia of the influences of the mass media in the uk mary whitehouse s right wing national viewers and listeners association was concerned at the growing permissiveness of broadcasting and in the us a number of pressure groups have campaigned against the supposed corrupting influence of popular media in particular on children the critical paradigm was formed in the early one nine seven zero s raising questions about media and power the cccs was pivotal in developing the field producing a number of key researchers under the directorship of stuart hall who wrote the seminal encoding decoding model the centre produced key empirical research about the relationship between texts and audiences amongst these was the nationwide project by david morley and charlotte brunsdon for several decades discussion of popular media was frequently dominated by the debate about media effects in particular the link between screen violence and real life aggression david gauntlett s article ten things wrong with the media effects model one nine nine eight outlines significant problems with the way previous research had been conducted in subsequent work gauntlett instead proposes new creative research methods in which participants are invited to make media artefacts themselves a reflective process which is said to produce more nuanced insights strands in addition to the interdisciplinary nature of the academic field popular understandings of media studies encompass media production mass communication journalism although most production and journalism courses incorporate media studies for contextual purposes see fourth estate the terms are not interchangeable separate strands are being identified within media studies such as audience studies television studies and radio studies film studies is a separate discipline with a different history and focus critical media theory looks at how the corporate ownership of media production and distribution affects society and provides a common ground to social conservatives concerned by the effects of media on the traditional family and liberals and socialists concerned by the corporatization of social discourse the study of the effects and techniques of advertising forms a cornerstone of media studies contemporary media studies includes the analysis of new media of course with emphasis on the internet video games mobile devices interactive television and other forms of mass media which developed from the one nine nine zero s tom mcphail s theory of electronic colonialism has gained some international recognition derogatory attitudes in the uk media studies is regularly the victim of jokes and cynical attitudes often being labelled as a mickey mouse subject it is possible that media studies is singled out in the media because most established journalists and broadcasters are either not degree educated or achieved degrees in classical subjects such as english literature perhaps ironically media studies is the victim of the ideology and power relations it attempts to expose its relation to polytechnics and subsequently the post one nine nine two new universities are also a target for ridicule the now annual moral panic in the uk every august when gcse and a level results are released normally focuses upon media studies as an example of the alleged dumbing down of education barker two zero zero one however media studies academics such as steven barnett professor of communications at the university of westminster have argued that the interdisciplinary nature of media studies means that graduates are knowledgeable in a wide variety of areas see also mass media mass communication multimedia literacy journalism yellow journalism transparency humanities references barker martin with julian petley two zero zero one on the problems of being a trendy travesty in m barker and j petley eds ill effects the media violence debate two nd ed london routledge pp two zero two two two four isbn zero four one five two two five one three two crisell andrew two zero zero two an introductory history of british broadcasting two nd ed london routledge isbn zero four one five two four seven nine two six moores shaun one nine nine three interpreting audiences the ethnography of media consumption london sage isbn zero eight zero three nine eight four four seven two external links theory org uk media studies website by david gauntlett timefound the interactive media education foundation mana the media alliance for new activism languagemonitor media metrics and analysis informed article by john ellis about the predictable annual debate over the subject mediastudies com excellent page with links to a variety of news and other media sites mass media media studies interdisciplinary fields microprocessors including an intel eight zero four eight six dx two and an intel eight zero three eight six a microprocessor sometimes abbreviated p is a digital electronic component with miniaturized transistors on a single semiconductor integrated circuit ic one or more microprocessors typically serve as a central processing unit cpu in a computer system or handheld device microprocessors made possible the advent of the microcomputer before this electronic cpus were typically made from bulky discrete switching devices and later small scale integrated circuits containing the equivalent of only a few transistors by integrating the processor onto one or a very few large scale integrated circuit packages containing the equivalent of thousands or millions of discrete transistors the cost of processor power was greatly reduced since the advent of the ic in the mid one nine seven zero s the microprocessor has become the most prevalent implementation of the cpu nearly completely replacing all other forms see history of computing hardware for pre electronic and early electronic computers the evolution of microprocessors has been known to follow moore s law when it comes to steadily increasing performance over the years this law suggests that the complexity of an integrated circuit with respect to minimum component cost will double in about one eight months this rule has been generally followed unconsciously since the early one nine seven zero s from their humble beginnings as the drivers for calculators the continued increase in power has led to the dominance of microprocessors over every other form of computer every system from the largest mainframes to the smallest handheld computers now uses a microprocessor at its core history the first microprocessors as with many advances in technology the microprocessor was an idea whose time had come three projects arguably delivered a complete microprocessor at about the same time intel s four zero zero four texas instruments tms one zero zero zero and garrett airesearch s central air data computer in one nine six eight garrett was invited to produce a digital computer to compete with electromechanical systems then under development for the main flight control computer in the us navy s new f one four tomcat fighter the design was complete by one nine seven zero and used a mos based chipset as the core cpu the design was smaller and much more reliable than the mechanical systems it competed against and was used in all of the early tomcat models however the system was considered so advanced that the navy refused to allow publication of the design and continued to refuse until one nine nine seven for this reason the cadc and the mp nine four four chipset it used are fairly unknown even today ti developed the four bit tms one zero zero zero and stressed pre programmed embedded applications introducing a version called the tms one eight zero two nc on september one seven one nine seven one which implemented a calculator on a chip the intel chip was the four bit four zero zero four released on november one five one nine seven one developed by federico faggin ti filed for the patent on the microprocessor gary boone was awarded for the single chip microprocessor architecture on september four one nine seven three it may never be known which company actually had the first working microprocessor running on the lab bench in both one nine seven one and one nine seven six intel and ti entered into broad patent cross licensing agreements with intel paying royalties to ti for the microprocessor patent a nice history of these events is contained in court documentation from a legal dispute between cyrix and intel with ti as and owner of the microprocessor patent interestingly a third party claims to have been awarded a patent which might cover the microprocessor see a webpage claiming an inventor pre dating both ti and intel describing a microcontroller which may or may not count as a microprocessor a computer on a chip is a variation of a microprocessor which combines the microprocessor core cpu some memory and i o input output lines all on one chip the computer on a chip patent called the microcomputer patent at the time was awarded to gary boone and michael j cochran of ti aside from this patent the standard meaning of microcomputer is a computer using one or more microprocessors as its cpu s while the concept defined in the patent is perhaps more akin to a microcontroller according to a history of modern computing mit press pp two two zero two one intel entered into a contract with computer terminals corporation later called datapoint of san antonio tx for a chip for a terminal they were designing datapoint later decided not to use the chip and intel marketed it as the eight zero zero eight in april one nine seven two this was the world s first eight bit microprocessor it was the basis for the famous mark eight computer kit advertised in the magazine radio electronics in one nine seven four the eight zero zero eight and its successor the world famous eight zero eight zero opened up the microprocessor component marketplace notable eight bit designs the four zero zero four was later followed in one nine seven two by the eight zero zero eight the world s first eight bit microprocessor these processors are the precursors to the very successful intel eight zero eight zero one nine seven four zilog z eight zero one nine seven six and derivative intel eight bit processors the competing motorola six eight zero zero was released august one nine seven four its architecture was cloned and improved in the mos technology six five zero two in one nine seven five rivaling the z eight zero in popularity during the one nine eight zero s both the z eight zero and six five zero two concentrated on low overall cost through a combination of small packaging simple computer bus requirements and the inclusion of circuitry that would normally have to be provided in a separate chip for instance the z eight zero included a memory controller it was these features that allowed the home computer revolution to take off in the early one nine eight zero s eventually delivering semi usable machines that sold for us nine nine the western design center inc wdc introduced the cmos six five c zero two in one nine eight two and licensed the design to serveral companies which became the core of the apple iic and iie personal computers medical implantable grade pacemakers and diffribrilators automotive industrial and consumer devices wdc s pioneered the licensing of microprocessor technology which was later followed by arm and other microprocessor ip providers in the one nine nine zero s motorola trumped the entire eight bit world by introducing the mc six eight zero nine in one nine seven eight arguably one of the most powerful orthogonal and clean eight bit microprocessor designs ever fielded and also one of the most complex hardwired logic designs that ever made it into production for any microprocessor microcoding replaced hardwired logic at about this point in time for all designs more powerful than the mc six eight zero nine specifically because the design requirements were getting too complex for hardwired logic another early eight bit microprocessor was the signetics two six five zero which enjoyed a brief flurry of interest due to its innovative and powerful instruction set architecture a seminal microprocessor in the world of spaceflight was rca s rca one eight zero two aka cdp one eight zero two rca cosmac introduced in one nine seven six which was used in nasa s voyager and viking spaceprobes of the one nine seven zero s and onboard the galileo probe to jupiter launched one nine eight nine arrived one nine nine five the cdp one eight zero two was used because it could be run at very low power and because its production process silicon on sapphire ensured much better protection against cosmic radiation and electrostatic discharges than that of any other processor of the era thus the one eight zero two is said to be the first radiation hardened microprocessor one six bit designs the first multi chip one six bit microprocessor was the national semiconductor imp one six introduced in early one nine seven three an eight bit version of the chipset introduced in one nine seven four as the imp eight in one nine seven five national introduced the first one six bit single chip microprocessor the pace which was later followed by an nmos version the ins eight nine zero zero other early multi chip one six bit microprocessors include one used by digital equipment corporation dec in the lsi one one oem board set and the packaged pdp one one zero three minicomputer and the fairchild semiconductor microflame nine four four zero both of which were introduced in the one nine seven five to one nine seven six timeframe the first single chip one six bit microprocessor was ti s tms nine nine zero zero which was also compatible with their ti nine nine zero line of minicomputers the nine nine zero zero was used in the ti nine nine zero four minicomputer the ti nine nine four a home computer and the tm nine nine zero line of oem microcomputer boards the chip was packaged in a large ceramic six four pin dip package package while most eight bit microprocessors such as the intel eight zero eight zero used the more common smaller and less expensive plastic four zero pin dip a follow on chip the tms nine nine eight zero was designed to compete with the intel eight zero eight zero had the full ti nine nine zero one six bit instruction set used a plastic four zero pin package moved data eight bits at a time but could only address one six kb a third chip the tms nine nine nine five was a new design the family later expanded to include the nine nine one zero five and nine nine one one zero the western design center inc wdc introduced the cmos six five eight one six one six bit upgrade of the wdc cmos six five c zero two in one nine eight four th the six five eight one six one six bit microprocessor was the core of the apple iigs and later the super nintendo making it one of the most popular one six bit designs of all time intel followed a different path having no minicomputers to emulate and instead upsized their eight zero eight zero design into the one six bit intel eight zero eight six the first member of the x eight six family which powers most modern pc type computers intel introduced the eight zero eight six as a cost effective way of porting software from the eight zero eight zero lines and succeeded in winning much business on that premise following up their eight zero eight six and eight zero eight eight intel released the eight zero one eight six eight zero two eight six and in one nine eight five the three two bit eight zero three eight six cementing their pc market dominance with the processor family s backwards compatibility the integrated microprocessor memory management unit mmu was developed by childs et al of intel and awarded us patent number four four four two four eight four three two bit designs one six bit designs were in the market only briefly when full three two bit implementations started to appear the world s first single chip three two bit microprocessor was the at in the three b two the world s first desktop supermicrocomputer in the companion the world s first three two bit laptop computer and in alexander the world s first book sized supermicrocomputer featuring rom pack memory cartridges similar to today s gaming consoles all these systems ran the original bell labs unix operating system which included the first windows type software called xt layers the most famous of the three two bit designs is the mc six eight zero zero zero introduced in one nine seven nine the six eight k as it was widely known had three two bit registers but used one six bit internal data paths and a one six bit external data bus to reduce pin count motorola generally described it as a one six bit processor though it clearly has three two bit architecture the combination of high speed large one six megabyte memory space and fairly low costs made it the most popular cpu design of its class the apple lisa and macintosh designs made use of the six eight zero zero zero as did a host of other designs in the mid one nine eight zero s including the atari st and commodore amiga intel s first three two bit microprocessor was the iapx four three two which was introduced in one nine eight one but was not a commercial success it had an advanced capability based object oriented architecture but poor performance compared to other competing architectures such as the motorola six eight zero zero zero motorola s success with the six eight zero zero zero led to the mc six eight zero one zero which added virtual memory support the mc six eight zero two zero introduced in one nine eight five added full three two bit data and address busses the six eight zero two zero became hugely popular in the unix supermicrocomputer market and many small companies e g altos charles river data systems produced desktop size systems following this with the mc six eight zero three zero which added the mmu into the chip the six eight k family became the processor for everything that wasn t running dos the continued success led to the mc six eight zero four zero which included an fpu for better math performance a six eight zero five zero failed to achieve its performance goals and was not released and the follow up mc six eight zero six zero was released into a market saturated by much faster risc designs the six eight k family faded from the desktop in the early one nine nine zero s other large companies designed the six eight zero two zero and follow ons into embedded equipment at one point there were more six eight zero two zero s in embedded equipment than there were intel pentiums in pcs see this webpage for this embedded usage information the coldfire processor cores are derivatives of the venerable six eight zero two zero during this time early to mid one nine eight zero s national semiconductor introduced a very similar one six bit pinout three two bit internal microprocessor called the ns one six zero three two later renamed three two zero one six the full three two bit version named the ns three two zero three two and a line of three two bit industrial oem microcomputers by the mid one nine eight zero s sequent introduced the first symmetric multiprocessor smp server class computer using the ns three two zero three two this was one of the design s few wins and it disappeared in the late one nine eight zero s other designs included the interesting zilog z eight zero zero zero which arrived too late to market to stand a chance and disappeared quickly in the late one nine eight zero s microprocessor wars started killing off some of the microprocessors apparently with only one major design win sequent the ns three two zero three two just faded out of existence and sequent switched to intel microprocessors six four bit microchips on the desktop while six four bit microprocessor designs have been in use in several markets since the early one nine nine zero s the early two zero zero zero s have seen the introduction of six four bit microchips targeted at the pc market with amd s introduction of the first six four bit ia three two backwards compatible architecture amd six four in september two zero zero three followed by intel s own x eight six six four chips the six four bit desktop era began both processors can run three two bit legacy apps as well as the new six four bit software with six four bit windows xp and linux that run six four bit native the software too is geared to utilise the full power of such processors in reality the move to six four bits is more than just an increase in register size from the ia three two as it also includes a small increase in register quantity for the aging cisc designs the move to six four bits by powerpc processors had been intended since the processors design in the early nine zero s and was not a major cause of incompatibility existing integer registers are extended as are all related data pathways but in common with the ia three two designs both floating point and vector units had been operating at or above six four bits for several years unlike the ia three two no new general purpose registers are added so any performance gained when using the six four bit mode is minimal risc in the mid one nine eight zero s to early one nine nine zero s a crop of new high performance risc reduced instruction set computer microprocessors appeared which were initially used in special purpose machines and unix workstations but have since become almost universal in all roles except the intel standard desktop the first commercial design was released by mips technologies the three two bit r two zero zero zero the r one zero zero zero was not released the r three zero zero zero made the design truly practical and the r four zero zero zero introduced the world s first six four bit design competing projects would result in the ibm power and sun sparc systems respectively soon every major vendor was releasing a risc design including the at weeded out many of these designs leaving the power and the derived powerpc as the main desktop risc processor with the sparc being used in sun designs only mips continues to supply some sgi systems but is primarily used as an embedded design notably in cisco routers the rest of the original crop of designs have either disappeared or are about to other companies have attacked niches in the market notably arm originally intended for home computer use but since focussed at the embedded processor market today risc designs based on the mips arm or powerpc core power the vast majority of computing devices in six four bit computing dec alpha amd six four mips sparc powerpc ibm power and hp intel itanium are all popular designs special purpose microprocessors though the term microprocessor has traditionally referred to a single or multi chip cpu or soc several types of specialized processing devices have followed from the technology the most common examples are microcontrollers dsps and gpus many examples of these are either not programmable or have limited programming facilities for example in general gpus through the one nine nine zero s were mostly non programmable and have only recently gained limited facilities like programmable vertex shaders there is no universal consensus on what defines a microprocessor but it is usually safe to assume that the term refers to a general purpose cpu of some sort and not a special purpose processor unless specifically noted the rca one eight zero two had what is called a static design meaning that the clock frequency could be made arbitrarily low even to zero hz a total stop condition this let the voyager viking galileo spacecraft use minimum electric power for long uneventful stretches of a voyage timers and or sensors would awaken speed up the processor in time for important tasks such as navigation updates attitude control data acquisition and radio communication design concepts see the main article cpu design market statistics in two zero zero three about four four billion usd worth of microprocessors were manufactured and sold although about half of that money was spent on cpus used in desktop or laptop personal computers those count for only about zero two of all cpus sold about five five of all cpus sold in the world are eight bit microcontrollers over two billion eight bit microcontrollers were sold in one nine nine seven less than one zero of all the cpus sold in the world are three two bit or more of all the three two bit cpus sold about two are used in desktop or laptop personal computers the rest are sold in household appliances such as toasters microwaves vacuum cleaners and televisions taken as a whole the average price for a microprocessor microcontroller or dsp is just over six common ps architectures amd k five k six k six two k six iii duron athlon athlon xp athlon mp athlon xp m intel x eight six architecture amd athlon six four athlon six four fx athlon six four x two opteron sempron turion six four amd six four architecture arm family strongarm intel pxa two xx atmel avr architecture purely microcontrollers rca one eight zero two aka rca cosmac cdp one eight zero two cyrix m one m two intel x eight six architecture dec alpha intel four zero zero four four zero four zero intel eight zero eight zero eight zero eight five zilog z eight zero intel eight zero eight six eight zero eight eight eight zero one eight six eight zero one eight eight eight zero two eight six eight zero three eight six eight zero four eight six intel x eight six architecture intel pentium pentium pro celeron pentium ii pentium iii xeon pentium four pentium m pentium d celeron m celeron d intel x eight six parents of ia six four with hp pa risc intel itanium ia six four architecture intel i eight six zero i nine six zero mips architecture motorola six eight zero zero mos technology six five zero two motorola six eight zero nine motorola six eight zero zero zero family coldfire motorola eight eight zero zero zero parents of the powerpc family with power nexgen nx five eight six intel x eight six architecture ibm power parents of the powerpc family with eight eight zero zero zero nsc three two zero xx opencores openrisc architecture pa risc family hp parents to the ia six four architecture with x eight six powerpc family g three g four g five national semiconductor sc mp scamp signetics two six five zero sparc ultrasparc ultrasparc ii iv superh family transmeta crusoe efficeon vliw architectures intel x eight six emulator inmos transputer via s c three c seven eden series intel x eight six architecture western design center six five xx see also central processing unit computer architecture addressing mode digital signal processor microcontroller list of amd microprocessors list of intel microprocessors arithmetic and logical unit bios cisc risc clock rate computer bus computer engineering cpu cooling cpu core voltage cpu design cpu locking cpu power consumption floating point unit front side bus instruction pipeline instruction set microarchitecture microcode motherboard superscalar superpipelined wait state external links patents memory system for a multi chip digital computer cpu research emlabs info list of universities and research groups engaged in microcontrollers development general the chiplist by adrian offerman great microprocessors of the past and present by john bayko cpu info center at uc berkeley microprocessor history hosted by ibm a simple course on microprocessors by kenneth richardson microprocessor instruction set cards by jonathan bowen tom s hardware guide anandtech the overclocker s club cpu collection freedom cpu laptop processors howstuffworks how microprocessors work historical documents tms one eight zero two nc calculator chip press release texas instruments one seven september one nine seven one one nine seven three ti receives first patent on single chip microprocessor ti awarded basic microcomputer patent ti one seven february one nine seven eight microcomputer to be understood as a single chip computer a simple c important discoveries in microprocessors during two zero zero four hosted by ibm history of the eight zero eight zero microprocessor processor company sites advanced micro devices intel semiconductor ibm microelectronics amcc freescale formerly of motorola arm mips technologies ti semiconductors renesas technology corp the western design center digital electronics microcomputers microprocessors communication engineering in general a molecule is the smallest particle of a pure chemical substance that still retains its composition and chemical properties in chemistry and molecular sciences a molecule is a sufficiently stable electrically neutral entity composed of two or more atoms the concept of monatomic molecule single atom as in noble gases is used almost exclusively in the kinetic theory of gases the science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics depending on the focus molecular chemistry deals with the laws governing the interaction between molecules that results in the formation and breakage of chemical bonds while molecular physics deals with the laws governing their structure and properties in practice however this distinction is vague in molecular sciences a molecule consists of a stable system bound state comprising two or more atoms the term unstable molecule is used for very reactive species i e short lived assemblies resonances of electrons and nuclei such as radicals molecular ions rydberg molecules transition states van der waals complexes or systems of colliding atoms as in bose einstein condensates a peculiar use of the term molecular is as a synonym to covalent which arises from the fact that unlike molecular covalent compounds ionic compounds do not yield well defined smallest particles that would be consistent with the definition above no typical smallest particle can be defined for covalent crystals or network solids which are composed of repeating unit cells that extend indefinitely either in a plane such as in graphite or three dimensionally such as in diamond figure one three d left and center and two d right representations of the terpenoid atisane in the three d model on the left carbon atoms are represented by gray spheres white spheres represent the hydrogen atoms and the cylinders represent the bonds the model is enveloped in a mesh representation of the molecular surface colored by areas of positive red and negative blue electric charge in the three d model center the light blue spheres represent carbon atoms the white spheres are hydrogen atoms and the cylinders in between the atoms correspond to single bonds history although the concept of molecules was first introduced in one eight one one by avogadro and was accepted by many chemists as a result of dalton s laws of definite and multiple proportions one eight zero three one eight zero eight with notable exceptions boltzmann maxwell gibbs the existence of molecules as anything other than convenient mathematical constructs was still an open debate in the physics community until the work of perrin one nine one one and was strenuously resisted by early positvists such as mach the modern theory of molecules makes great use of the many numerical techniques offered by computational chemistry dozens of molecules have now been identified in interstellar space by microwave spectroscopy chemical bond see main article chemical bond in a molecule the atoms are joined by shared pairs of electrons in a chemical bond it may consist of atoms of the same chemical element as with oxygen o two or of different elements as with water h two o size most molecules are much too small to be seen with the naked eye but there are exceptions dna a macromolecule can reach macroscopic sizes the smallest molecule is the hydrogen molecule the interatomic distance is zero one five nanometres one five but the size of its electron cloud is difficult to define precisely under standard conditions molecules have a dimension of a few to a few dozen empirical formula see main article empirical formula the empirical formula of a molecule is the simplest integer ratio of the chemical elements that constitute the compound for example in their pure forms water is always composed of a two one ratio of hydrogen to oxygen and ethyl alcohol or ethanol is always composed of carbon hydrogen and oxygen in a two six one ratio however this does not determine the kind of molecule uniquely dimethyl ether has the same ratio as ethanol for instance molecules with the same atoms in different arrangements are called isomers the empirical formula is often the same as the molecular formula but not always for example the molecule acetylene has molecular formula c two h two but the simplest integer ratio of elements is ch chemical formula bond lengths and angles about which they continuously oscillate through vibrational and rotational motions a pure substance is composed of molecules with the same average geometrical structure the chemical formula and the structure of a molecule are the two important factors that determine its properties particularly its reactivity isomers share a chemical formula but normally have very different properties because of their different structures stereoisomers a particular type of isomers may have very similar physico chemical properties and at the same time very different biochemical activities molecular spectroscopy molecular spectroscopy deals with the response spectrum of molecules interacting with probing signals of known energy or frequency according to planck s formula scattering theory provides the theoretical background for spectroscopy the probing signal used in spectroscopy can be an electromagnetic wave or a beam of particles electrons positrons etc the molecular response can consist of signal absorption absorption spectroscopy the emission of another signal emission spectroscopy fragmentation or chemical changes spectroscopy is recognized as a powerful tool in investigating the microscopic properties of molecules in particular their energy levels in order to extract maximum microscopic information from experimental results spectroscopy is often coupled with chemical computations see also covalent bond diatomic molecule molecular geometry molecular orbital nonpolar molecule polar molecule related lists for a list of molecules see the list of compounds list of molecules in interstellar space matter molecular physics this article is about modes as used in music for other meanings of the word mode see mode in music a mode is an ordered series of musical intervals which along with the key or tonic define the pitches however mode is usually used in the sense of scale applied only to the specific diatonic scales found below the use of more than one mode is polymodal such as with polymodal chromaticism while all tonal music may technically be described as modal music that is called modal often has less diatonic functionality and changes key less often than other music greek modes the early music of greek antiquity referred to scales in the context of scalar modes the modes are named after cities that preferred a given mode in times past the greek modes were ionian aeolian and locrian dorian and hypodorian phrygian and hypophrygian lydian hypolydian and mixolydian the greek philosopher plato felt that playing music in a particular mode would incline one towards specific behavior associated with that mode and suggested that soldiers should listen to music in dorian or phrygian modes to help make them stronger but avoid music in lydian or ionian modes for fear of being softened church modes there is a common misconception that the church modes of medieval european music were directly descended from the greek notion of modality directly above in fact the church modes originated in the nine th century authors from that period misinterpreted a text by boethius a scholar from the six th century who had translated the greek musical theory into latin in the one six th century the swiss theorist henricus glareanus published dodekachordon in which he solidified the concept of the church modes and added four additional modes the aeolian hypoaeolian ionian and hypoionian thus the names of the modes used today do not actually reflect those used by the greeks the eight church modes or gregorian modes can be divided into four pairs where each pair shares the final note or tonic most chants in a particular mode will begin on the mode s final note and all are expected to end on that note the pair also shares the central five notes of the scale if the scale is completed by adding the three upper notes the mode is termed authentic while if the scale is completed by adding the three lower notes the mode is called plagal serious the pairs are organized so that the modes sharing a final note are numbered together with the odd numbers used for the authentic modes and the even numbers for the plagal modes in addition each mode has a dominant or reciting tone which is the tenor of the psalm tone the reciting tones of all authentic modes began a fifth above the final with those of the plagal modes a third above however the reciting tones of modes three four and eight rose one step during the tenth and eleventh centuries with three and eight moving from b to c half step and that of four moving from g to a whole step hoppin one nine seven eight p six seven only one accidental is permitted in classical gregorian chant si b may be lowered by a half step this usually but not always occurs in modes v and vi and is optional in other modes given the confusion between ancient early and modern terminology today it is more consistent and practical to use the traditional designation of the modes with numbers one to eight curtis one nine nine eight using roman numeral i viii rather than using the pseudo greek naming system the eight musical modes f indicates final curtis one nine nine eight use of the modes early music made heavy use of the church modes a mode indicated a primary pitch a final the organization of pitches in relation to the final suggested range melodic formulas associated with different modes location and importance of cadences and affect ie emotional affect as liane curtis one nine nine eight explains modes should not be equated with scales principles of melodic organization placement of cadences and emotional affect are essential parts of modal content in medieval and renaissance music carl dahlhaus one nine nine zero p one nine two lists three factors that form the respective starting points for the modal theories of aurelian of r me hermannus contractus and guido of arezzo the relation of modal formulas to the comprehensive system of tonal relationships embodied in the diatonic scale the partitioning of the octave into a modal framework and the function of the modal final as a relational center the oldest medieval treatise regarding modes is musica disciplina by aurelian of r me while hermannus contractus was the first to define modes as partitionings of the octave ibid p one nine two one nine one various interpretations of the character imparted by the different modes have been suggested three such interpretations from guido d arezzo nine nine five one zero five zero adam of fulda one four four five one five zero five and juan de espinoza medrano one six three two one six eight eight follow most of the theoretical writings on gregorian chant modes postdate the composition of the early gregorian chant repertoire which was not composed with the intention of conforming to particular modes as a result for these chants the application of a mode number can be only approximate later chants however were written with a conscious eye on the eight modes modern modes the use and conception of modes or modality today is different from their use and conception in early music jim samson one nine seven seven p one four eight describes clearly any comparison of medieval and modern modality would recognize that the latter takes place against a background of some three centuries of harmonic tonality permitting and in the nineteenth century requiring a dialogue between modal and diatonic procedure the modern conception of modal scales describes a system where each mode is the usual diatonic scale but with a different starting note modes came back into favour some time later in the development of jazz modal jazz and more contemporary two zero th century music much folk music is also composed or best analysed in terms of modes for example in irish traditional music the ionian dorian aeolian and mixolydian modes occur in roughly decreasing order of frequency the phrygian mode is an important part of the flamenco sound some works by beethoven contain modal inflections and chopin berlioz and liszt made extensive use of modes they influenced nineteenth century russian composers including mussorgsky and borodin many twentieth century composers drew on this earlier work in their incorporation of modal elements including claude debussy leos janacek jean sibelius ralph vaughan williams and others zolt n kod ly gustav holst manuel de falla use modal elements as modifications of a diatonic background while in the music of debussy and b la bart k modality replaces diatonic tonality samson one nine seven seven the major and minor modes three of the modes are major while four of them are minor one of the minor modes the locrian is considered theoretical rather than practical a mode is said to be minor if the three rd scale degree is flattened that is if the third scale degree is one and a half steps above the one st instead of the two steps in a major mode major modes ionian i lydian iv mixolydian v minor modes dorian ii phrygian iii aeolian vi locrian vii the ionian mode is another name for the major mode in which much western music is composed nearly all the rest is in minor which closely corresponds to aeolian however a true aeolian mode composition will use only the seven notes of the aeolian scale while nearly every minor mode composition will have some accidentals on the sixth and seventh scale degrees in order to make the melodies and harmonies work better besides the ionian major and modern harmonic melodic minor modes the other modes have limited use in music today aeolian natural minor is probably the most common of these but dorian mode is found in some folk music particularly irish music while phrygian is found in some central european or stylized arabic music whether as natural phrygian or harmonic phrygian which has a raised third the so called gypsy scale mixolydian mode is quite common in jazz the relationship between the seven modern modes is complex and various techniques and mnemonics are used to explain and remember them these are discussed in great detail in the article on properties of musical modes modes in jazz in jazz the modes of the major scale are commonly played over specific chords the chord examples below are shown for the modes of the key of c for example over an fmaj seven one one chord musicians typically play notes from the f lydian scale in the key of c although both dorian and aeolian can be played over a minor seventh m seven chord dorian mode is most commonly used in straightahead jazz because of the consonant natural six th e g b over dm seven as opposed to the b six in aeolian similarly instead of locrian many jazz musicians play the six th mode of the melodic minor over a half diminished or m seven b five chord because the natural nine th in that mode e g c over b is more consonant with the m seven b five chord than the b nine in locrian e g c over b the susb nine chord is also often played using the two nd mode of melodic minor instead of phrygian because of the natural six th see other types of modes below for jazz chords built from melodic minor modes other types of modes in modern music theory scales other than the major scale sometimes have the term modes applied to the scales which begin with their degrees this is seen for example in melodic minor scale harmony see minor scale for a brief description of the melodic minor which is based on the seven modes of the melodic minor scale yielding some interesting scales as shown below the chord row lists chords that can be built from the given mode most of these chords and modes are commonly used in jazz the min maj chord seven one one and alt were in common use in the bebop era indeed the lydian dominant scale and seven one one chord practically defined the bebop sound while coltrane era and later jazz made extensive use of susb nine chords maj five is less common but appears in wayne shorter s compositions the b six b seven is rarely seen as such though the term mode is still used in this case and is useful in recognizing that these scales all have a common root that is the melodic minor scale it is more common for musicians to understand the term mode to refer to ionian dorian phrygian lydian mixolydian aeolian or locrian scales in everyday speech this is the most common understanding analogues in different musical traditions echos makam maqam pentatonic scale raga references dahlhaus carl gjerdingen robert o trans one nine nine zero studies in the origin of harmonic tonality princeton university press isbn zero six nine one zero nine one three five eight hoppin richard h one nine seven eight medieval music new york w w norton mode further reading apel willi harvard dictionary of music belknap press two nd edition january one nine six eight grout donald and palisca claude a history of western music isbn zero three nine three nine seven five two seven four levine mark one nine eight nine the jazz piano book sher music co isbn zero nine six one four seven zero one five one new grove dictionary of music and musicians powers harold s mode the new grove dictionary of music and musicians ed stanley sadie london macmillan one nine eight zero the classic treatment of mode in the english language modes mechanics refers to a craft relating to machinery from the latin mechanicus from the greek mechanikos meaning one skilled in machines or any of a range of disciplines in physics and engineering mechanics in physics and engineering mechanics can be seen as the prime and even as the original discipline of physics it is a huge body of knowledge about the natural world it also constitutes a central part of technology that is how to apply this knowledge for humanly defined purposes briefly stated mechanics is concerned with the motion of physical bodies and with the forces that cause or limit these motions as well as with forces which such bodies may in turn give rise to due to the wide scope of the subject one may well find topics that would not fit easily into even this general characterization thus the term body needs to stand for a wide assortment of objects including particles projectiles spacecraft stars parts of machinery parts of solids parts of fluids gases and liquids etc the major division of the mechanics discipline separates classical mechanics from quantum mechanics historically classical mechanics came first while quantum mechanics is a comparatively recent invention classical mechanics is older than written history while quantum mechanics didn t appear until the year one nine zero zero both are commonly held to constitute the most certain knowledge that exists about physical nature especially classical mechanics has therefore often been viewed as a model for other so called exact sciences essential in this respect is the relentless use of mathematics in theories as well as the decisive role played by experiment in generating and testing them quantum mechanics is formally at least of the widest scope and can be seen as encompassing classical mechanics as a sub discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances if properly interpreted there is no contradiction or conflict between the two subjects each simply pertains to specific situations while it is true that historically quantum mechanics has been seen as having superseded classical mechanics this is only true on the abstract or fundamental level in practice classical mechanics remains as useful as ever in a somewhat analogous way einsteinian relativity has expanded the scope of mechanics this is true for classical as well as quantum mechanics again there are no contradictions or conflicts so long as the specific circumstances are carefully kept in mind just as one could in the loosest possible sense characterize classical mechanics as dealing with large bodies such as engine parts and quantum mechanics with small ones such as particles it could be said that relativistic mechanics deals with fast bodies and non relativistic mechanics with slow ones however fast and slow are relative concepts depending on the state of motion of the observer this means that all mechanics whether classical or quantum potentially needs to be described relativistically on the other hand as an observer one may frequently arrange the situation in such a way that this is not really required other distinctions between the various sub disciplines of mechanics concern the nature of the bodies being described particles are bodies with little known internal structure treated as mathematical points in classical mechanics rigid bodies have extension but retain a simplicity close to that of the particle adding just a few so called degrees of freedom such as orientation in space otherwise bodies may be semi rigid i e elastic or non rigid i e fluid these subjects have both classical and quantum divisions of study for instance the motion of a spacecraft is described by classical mechanics regarding its orbit and attitude i e by rotation with respect to the fixed stars while an atomic nucleus is described by quantum mechanics in analogous situations sub disciplines in mechanics classical mechanics newtonian mechanics the original theory of motion kinematics and forces dynamics lagrangian mechanics a theoretical formalism hamiltonian mechanics another theoretical formalism celestial mechanics the motion of stars galaxies etc astrodynamics spacecraft navigation etc solid mechanics elasticity the properties of semi rigid bodies acoustics sound in solids fluids etc statics semi rigid bodies in equilibrium fluid mechanics the motion of fluids continuum mechanics mechanics of continua both solid and fluid hydraulics fluids in equilibrium biomechanics solids fluids etc in biology statistical mechanics large assemblies of particles relativistic or einsteinian mechanics universal gravitation quantum mechanics particle physics the motion structure and reactions of particles nuclear physics the motion structure and reactions of nuclei condensed matter physics quantum gases solids liquids etc quantum statistical mechanics large assemblies of particles formally fields constitute a separate discipline in physics distinct from mechanics whether classical fields or quantum fields in actual practice however subjects belonging to mechanics and fields are closely interwoven thus for instance forces that act on particles are frequently derived from fields electromagnetic or gravitational and particles generate fields by acting as sources in fact in quantum mechanics particles themselves are fields as described theoretically by the wave function mechanics a rendering of the mandelbrot set black points represent the stable points under the iterative map in mathematics the mandelbrot set is a fractal that is defined as the set of points c in the complex plane for which the iteratively defined sequence z zero zero z two c does not tend to infinity the sequence is thus expanded mathematically as follows for each point c in the complex plane c x iy z zero zero beginz one circles the largest of these and the most easily visible from a view of the entire set is along the spike which follows the negative real axis out roughly from real values of one seven eight to one seven five inside the mandelbrot set there are replicas of the set ad infinitum when the mandelbrot set is explored using increasingly higher resolutions replicas of the set can be found ad infinitum a characteristic of fractal objects history the mandelbrot set was first defined in one nine zero five by pierre fatou a french mathematician working in the field of complex analytic dynamics fatou studied recursive processes like z mapsto z two c starting with some point z zero on the complex plane successive points may be generated by repeatedly applying this formula the sequence of points thus obtained is called the orbit of z zero under the transformation z mapsto z two c fatou realised that the orbit of z zero zero under this transformation would provide some insight into the behaviour of such systems there are an infinite number of such functions one for each value of c fatou did not have access to a computer capable of plotting the orbits of all these functions but attempted to do so by hand he proved that once a point moved to a distance greater than two from the origin then the orbit would escape to infinity fatou never saw the image of what we now call the mandelbrot set as we do because the number of calculations required to generate this is far more than could be calculated by hand professor beno t mandelbrot was the first person to use a computer to plot the set fractals were popularised by mandelbrot in one nine seven five in his book les objets fractals forme hasard et dimension in this book mandelbrot used the term fractal to describe a number of mathematical phenomena that seemed to exhibit chaotic or surprising behaviour all of these phenomena involved the definition of some curve or set through the use of some recursive functions or algorithms the mandelbrot set is one such phenomenon that is named after its discoverer relationship with julia sets an embedded julia set the mandelbrot set was created by beno t mandelbrot as an index to the julia sets each point in the complex plane corresponds to a different julia set the points within the mandelbrot set correspond precisely to the connected julia sets and the points outside correspond to disconnected ones intuitively the interesting julia sets correspond to points near the boundary of the mandelbrot set those far inside tend to be simple geometric shapes while those well outside look like dust surrounded by blobs of color some programs such as fractint let the user choose a point and jump to the corresponding julia set making it easy to find julia sets that the user is likely to enjoy the mandelbrot set also contains structures that strongly resemble julia sets indeed for any value c the region of the mandelbrot set near c resembles the center of the julia set with parameter c mathematics douady and hubbard have shown that the complement of the mandelbrot set in the riemann sphere is conformally isomorphic to the open unit disk which implies that the mandelbrot set is connected and every loop is contractible to a point the mandelbrot set is also conjectured but unproven to be path connected and locally connected the hausdorff dimension of the boundary of the mandelbrot set equals two by a result of shishikura therefore it qualifies as a fractal under mandelbrot s definition the mandelbrot set is compact and thus measurable its area was estimated as one five zero six five nine one eight by r munafo an exact formula exists for the area of the mandelbrot set but it converges so slowly that more than one zero one zero zero zero terms are needed to determine just the first three digits in the blum shub smale model of real computation the mandelbrot set is not computable but its complement is computably enumerable however many simple objects e g the graph of exponentiation are also not computable in the bbs model at present it is unknown whether the mandelbrot set is computable in models of real computation based on computable analysis which correspond more closely to the intuitive notion of plotting the set by a computer hertling has shown that the mandelbrot set is computable in this model if the so called hyperbolicity conjecture is true douady and hubbard proved earlier that the hyperbolicity conjecture is implied by local connectedness of the mandelbrot set periodic cycles in the mandelbrot set periodic cycles in the mandelbrot set inside the mandelbrot set the iteration of sequence zn one zn two c evolve in different ways for different values of c for values of c inside the big cardioid the iterations converge to a point for c inside the big bulb to the left of the cardioid the iterations converge to a cycle of period two for other bulbs the iterations converge to a cycle of a different period n according to the numbers shown in the following figure period values for the bulbs notice that in the bulb in the middle of bulb with n two and the bulb with n three the period of the cycle is n two three five in the bulb in the middle of the bulb with n two and the bulb with n five the period of the cycle is n two five seven in the bulb in the middle of the bulb with n two and the bulb with n seven the period of the cycle is n two seven nine in fact there are so many bulbs as the real numbers between two and three in that quadrant of the main bulb plotting the set sample generated image with colouring given by the rate of divergence to infinity the brighter the points the slower the divergence buddhabrot method still image of on zero zero zero one six four three seven two one nine seven one one five three zero eight two two four six seven six three three two nine eight eight seven six i a portion of the mandelbrot set centered at zero two eight two zero zero one it can be shown that once the absolute value of z n is larger than two in cartesian form when x n two y n two two two the sequence will tend to infinity and c is therefore outside the mandelbrot set this value known as the bail out value allows the calculation to be terminated for points outside the mandelbrot set for points inside the mandelbrot set i e values of c for which z n doesn t tend to infinity the calculation never comes to such an end so it must be terminated after some number of iterations determined by the program this results in the displayed image being only an approximation to the true set mandelbrot hobbyists quickly learn to recognize the blobby images caused by a program mistakenly placing points in the set and will then up the iteration count at the expense of slowing down the calculation of every point actually in the set adding color mathematically speaking the pictures of the mandelbrot set and julia sets are black and white either a point is in the set or it is not most computer generated graphs are drawn in color under the most common rendering method for the points that diverge to infinity and are therefore not in the set the color reflects the number of iterations it takes to reach a certain distance from the origin this creates concentric shapes each a better approximation to the mandelbrot set than the last one possible scheme is that points that diverge quickly are drawn in black then you have brighter colors for the middle then you have white for the points in the set and near white for the points that diverge very slowly in order to determine if the point c is going to be in the mandelbrot set traditionally coloured black or outside the set coloured according to the escape speed the distance of the zn must be calculated at each iteration in the sequence if z n x iy then z n sqrt note that one of the many possible optimisations for calculating mandelbrots can be applied here rather than testing to see if sqrt two we can simply test to see if x two y two four thus saving the square root operation so if z n two then colour the point black otherwise colour it according to the value of n using the number of iterations required to determine that the point has escaped is the easiest and most common way of recording the speed of escape this number can be directly mapped to a colour via a lookup table or palette or by use of some suitable algorithm so far we have worked out how to tell if the point is outside the set it moves more than a distance of two away from the origin how do we tell it is inside the set there are lots of strategies for this this is not so simple if it were there would not be so many different algorithms out there for calculating mandelbrots this is the essence of the problem clearly most points will not actually get to zero in a reasonable number of iterations the simplest algorithm is to simply limit the number of iterations and if you have not gone outside the boundary by the time you have done your last iteration then you assume the point is in the set indeed points nearer the set take longer to escape this is why plotting slows down near the dark region because more terms in the expansion are having to be calculated to determine the escape speed when not near the set one can get away with a lower maximum iteration count the images below of the same location are created with iteration limits of three two six four one two eight two five six five one two one zero two four two zero four eight and one zero zero zero zero zero zero respectively note that there are diminishing returns in upping the iteration count past a point these are also good examples of the blobby images one gets with a too low iteration count these images are centered at one seven four nine zero one one zero five zero nine zero zero zero zero four five two five the image is roughly zero zero zero zero four one seven of a unit wide and located about halfway down the valley at the x end of the largest mini set image iter three two gif at a count of three two the whole image is black since it is completely inside the false negative contour image iter six four gif if we allow six four iterations some points are no longer falsely inside the set image iter one two eight gif at one two eight iterations the image is blobby but recognizable as a fractal image iter two five six gif two five six image iter five one two gif at five one two we get a nice image the black dots up and to the left of each wart contain tiny cardioids image iter one zero two four gif one zero two four image iter two zero four eight gif two zero four eight image iter one m gif diminishing returns are quite obvious when we use a million iterations even with periodicity checking this one took one zero one five seconds to generate on an athlon xp two zero zero zero code example pseudocode for plotting a mandelbrot set note the speed optimisation that x and y is only calculated once per iteration and that y two x y y zero is calculated before x x two y two x zero since otherwise the new x would have to be stored in a temporary variable before y is calculated for each pixel on the screen do cos theta but with the center of polar coordinates located at one four zero the cardioid s cusp instead of at the origin given point x y calculate rho sqrt right two y two if x le rho two rho two then point x y is in the cardioid color it black and the usual calculations can be skipped this can be easily proved from the formula for rho c it is also easy to check if a point is in the large circle to the left of the cardioid its center is at x one and its radius is to prevent having to do huge numbers of iterations for other points in the set one can do periodicity checking which means check if a point reached in iterating a pixel has been reached before if so the pixel cannot diverge and must be in the set art and the mandelbrot set some people have a hobby of searching the mandelbrot set for interesting pictures and using them in fractal art they have a collection of pictures along with the coordinates for generating that picture stunning representations of fractals can be obtained by projecting them onto the riemann sphere fractal planet further examples below are regions to the right is a min cardioid connected by filaments too thin to be seen to the main set and other cardioids some of which are actually in this image but too small to be seen cool mandelbrot hot mandelbrot mini set with filaments leading elsewhere fractal flame set there are many free fractal generating programs available such as those by stephen ferguson sterling fractal and the tierazon series and many people write such programs themselves for the highest level of control over their pictures since the set unlike nature has unlimited detail it appears less noisy when calculated on a fine grid and down sampled with anti aliasing here are two color codings of the same calculation and two images made by combining two calculations for each image spiral cleft done with mandelzot and down sampled with photoshop spiral cleft simpler colors islands of consciousness distance estimator calculated separately cypress underbrush hairy filaments calculated separately as in previous image following the left of one valley and the right of another cancels out most of the spiraling found on the sides of valleys in the following three images the distance estimator has been used to help in anti aliasing by eliminating unrepresentative samples in the last three these pixels were replaced by bleeding in their neighbors deep re twisted has been processed to enhance the edges similarly to some in the previous row wayne s pachifractal with white edges deep re twisted wayne s pachifractal very large budding turbines the main artistic challenge is that simple mathematical forms are boring like classical greek pottery without the painting or like classical music sounds to a jazz fan without classical training to make it more like classical chinese pottery or like the way classical music sounds to a classical fan or jazz to a jazz fan there needs to be a greater variety of shapes this is achieved by taking a varied path while zooming in near a point down a cleft right and left sides of valleys etc and by picking dense areas where most of the pixels are blends of the colors of different dwell values the difficulty is that deeper dwells fine detail and large calculations to be down sized all increase the computer time so what one can do without parallel arithmetic is limited also oil paintings tend to be around a meter square or larger so computer art should really use many megapixels generalizations when people speak of the mandelbrot set they usually are referring to the set described above any function that maps to and from the complex number plane has a mandelbrot set which characterizes whether or not the julia set corresponding to that function is connected example let f c z z three c mandelbrot set for z three c and z four c for each value of c we draw the julia set j c of f c z and determine if it is connected or not if j c is connected then c is in the mandelbrot set of otherwise c is not in the mandelbrot set this can also be generalized to julia sets parameterized by more than two real numbers for example a collection of julia sets parametrized by three real numbers will have a three dimensional mandelbrot set of course only the two dimensional case will have an easily viewed picture mandelbrot set in songs the australian band ganggajang has a song time and the mandelbrot set where the term mandelbrot set is used liberally in the lyrics the american singer jonathan coulton has a song titled mandelbrot set on his ep where tradition meets tomorrow about the history of the mandelbrot set and of benoit mandelbrot himself the blue man group s first album audio features tracks titled mandelgroove opening mandelbrot and klein mandelbrot the album was nominated for a grammy in two zero zero zero see also udo of aachen external links mandelbrot and julia sets java applet to explore mandelbrot and julia sets mandelbrot set applet an applet for exploring the mandelbrot set the chaos hypertextbook an introductory primer on chaos and fractals auto colouring mandelbrot explorer by hans liss a simple java applet that tries to optimize the colouring scheme with source code mandelbrot explorer a neat java applet by robin hu that can draw mandelbrots of high powers mandelbrot set gallery mu ency encyclopedia of the mandelbrot set faq on the mandelbrot set explore and discover mandelbrot set as web client server solution julia and mandelbrot set explorer a cgi based interface created by david joyce a clark university professor the fractal microscope provides a nice java interface figure to right detailed mandelbrot set see bottom of page a gallery of fractal images and copies of fractal exploring programs realtime mandelbrot set generator web based mandelbrot set explorer color cycling on the mandelbrot set at cut the knot iterations and the mandelbrot set at cut the knot mandelbrot and julia sets at cut the knot xaos an open source fractal explorer with mandelbrot julia exploration other fractals and autopilot mode for easy exploration fract a free software web zoomer for the mandelbrot set the mandelbrot and julia sets anatomy mandelbrot set fractal gallery mandelbrot set images created with fractint theory of mset juliabrot interactive visualization of the relation between the julia and mandelbrot set fractals by michael michelitsch using turbo basic and turbo pascal programs by albert m rle more mandelbrot are images fractals a music critic is someone who reviews music songs and albums and writes about them a music critic may also write entire books analyzing music styles and discussing music history at least in the realm of rock music critics have not garnered much respect indeed frank zappa once famously declared that most rock journalism is people who can t write interviewing people who can t talk for people who can t read the following is an incomplete list of influential music critics and writers theodor w adorno lester bangs stanley booth robert christgau anthony decurtis jim derogatis alfred einstein kyle gann peter guralnick eduard hanslick donal henehan nat hentoff stephen holden nick kent julius korngold jon landau alan lomax albert murray charles shaar murray ian macdonald greil marcus dave marsh janet maslin richard meltzer nadeem f paracha kris needs robert palmer ian penman tim mikesell riley john rockwell pitts sanborn piero scaruffi harold schonberg linda solomon nick tosches martin williams ellen willis see also music journalism external links who cares what critics say jay nordlinger music critics michael mann michael kenneth mann born february five one nine four three in chicago illinois is an american film director screenwriter and producer he has been nominated for four oscars for writing directing and producing during the seven two nd and seven seven th oscars in one nine nine nine and two zero zero four respectively he attended the university of wisconsin madison and later went on to receive a graduate degree at the london international film school mann is now known primarily as a feature film director he is considered one of america s top filmmakers he has a very distinct style that is reflected in his works his trademarks include ethereal synth scores such as jan hammer s theme to miami vice or the new age score to manhunter dante spinotti is a frequent cinematographer of mann s pictures mann has an affinity for stark urban landscapes mann s visual style often times places an emphasis on soft blues and harsh sterile whites career early days he spent seven years in the united kingdom then moved back to the united states and began career as a writer on such shows as vega and starsky and hutch his first feature movie was a made for tv special called the jericho mile his television work also includes having acted as director and producer on such shows as miami vice and crime story thief mann is best known for making gritty crime dramas the two films that cemented this reputation were thief and manhunter they feature intense performances from james caan and william petersen respectively and showcase mann s ability to write realistic thought provoking dialogue and create incredibly atmospheric worlds for his characters to inhabit thief focuses on frank caan a master safe cracker who makes a faustian deal with the mob only to realizes that he has lost his independence at the price of material gain manhunter manhunter is a chilling trip into the mind of a serial killer who butchers whole families to fuel his fantasies william petersen plays a profiler named will graham who must come out of retirement and use his special ability to empathize with murderers it is the first film to feature the character hannibal lecter played by brian cox or lektor as he was renamed for this version of thomas harris one nine nine zero novel red dragon red dragon was later remade by producer dino de laurentis and director brett ratner with edward norton in the pivotal role of will graham and anthony hopkins returning as hannibal lector manhunter though remains relatively popular as it has a cult following across the globe heat heat features the pairing together for the first time of al pacino and robert de niro this film is best known for its impressive bank heist sequence the insider based on a true story the insider a searing indictment of the tobacco industry and of tv network censorship is perhaps mann s masterwork russell crowe plays high level tobacco executive jeffrey wigand who is unfairly fired from his job he meets with a six zero minutes producer lowell bergman al pacino and blows the whistle stating that tobacco companies know cigarettes are addictive and continues to sell them to the public at large anyway cbs gets cold feet and censors the interview destroying wigand s life in the process bergman understandably upset sets out to clear wigand s name and get his interview back on the air ali while it received mixed reviews from the critics and a lukewarm reception at the box office ali is an absorbing historical biopic in the grand tradition of oliver stone it is an epic with an all star cast will smith goes all out with his portrayal of muhammad ali the problem inherent with doing a movie like this is that there is so much documented footage of the real ali that any fictionalized account is going to have tough fight against it collateral michael mann shooting collateral with the thompson viper collateral is a tightly wound thriller shot on the streets of los angeles with state of the art digital cameras tom cruise turns in one of his best performances as vincent a coldly efficient hitman in town to take out five witnesses in a high profile case he forces max a cab driver jamie foxx to drive him around the city to each of his murders the film catapulted jamie foxx to fame and he was nominated for an academy award for his performace miami vice miami vice is the film adaptation of the hit tv series of the same name which mann executive produced it stars a completely new cast with colin farrell in don johnson s role and jamie foxx filling in philip michael thomas shoes future projects mann has many projects in development after miami vice such as arms and the man a federal agent goes on a hunt for some stolen plutonium mann is most likely to do this film after miami vice public enemies starring leonardo dicaprio the film is based on the book public enemies about the one nine three zero s crime wave and j edgar hoover s campaign against it damage control mann will reunite once again with jamie foxx in this sports drama the few the film is being produced by tom cruise who was also set to star but has dropped out the fate of the film remains unknown hatfields and mccoys a drama about the famous feud between the neighboring farmers that began when a hatfield under confederate colors killed a mccoy who was fighting for the union army possibly starring brad pitt selected filmography miami vice two zero zero six collateral two zero zero four ali two zero zero one the insider one nine nine nine heat one nine nine five the last of the mohicans one nine nine two manhunter aka red dragon the pursuit of hannibal lecter one nine eight six the keep one nine eight three thief aka violent streets one nine eight one the jericho mile tv one nine seven nine references heat an excellent detailed look at one of mann s most well known films by nick james university of california press two zero zero two isbn zero eight five one seven zero nine three eight nine external links senses of cinema great directors critical database information about mann s role in directing manhunter one nine eight six one nine four three births living people american film directors american film producers jewish american directors in chemistry and atomic physics main group elements are groups whose lightest members are represented by hydrogen beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine and helium as arranged in the periodic table of the elements the main group elements with some of the lighter transition metals are the most abundant elements on the earth in the solar system and in the universe chemical element groups microscopy is any technique for producing visible images of structures or details too small to otherwise be seen by the human eye using a microscope or other magnification tool in classical light microscopy this involves passing light transmitted through or reflected from the subject through a series of lenses to be detected directly by the eye imaged on a photographic plate or captured digitally as resolution depends on the wavelength of the light electron microscopy has been developed since the one nine three zero s that use electron beams instead of light because of the much lower wavelength of the electron beam resolution is far higher though less common x ray microscopy has also been developed since the late one nine four zero s the resolution of x ray microscopy lies between that of light microscopy and the electron microscopy microscopy usually involves the diffraction reflection or refraction of radiation incident upon the subject of study in some types of microscopy the subject of study is imaged by scanning it line by line with a very fine physical probe scanning probe microscopes examples of scanning probe microscopes are the atomic force microscope the scanning tunneling microscope and the photonic force microscope the development of microscopy revolutionized biology and remains an essential tool in that science types of transmitted light microscopy there are many different types of microscopes light microscopy improving contrast light microscopy can distinguish objects separated by down to zero two micrometers several optical configurations exist depending on the amount of contrast a specimen under study needs bright field dark field phase contrast differential interference contrast dic live cells in general lack sufficient contrast to be studied successfully internal structures of the cell are colourless and transparent i e without enough contrast to see detail in a normal brightfield light microscope contrast can generally be enhanced by closing the condenser aperture however this tends reduce resolution the most common way to increase contrast is to stain the different structures with selective dyes but this generally involves killing and fixing the material followed by staining staining can also introduce artifacts apparent structural details that are caused by the processing of the specimen and are thus not a legitimate feature of the specimen to observe structures in living cells less invasive methods are used to enhance the contrast in general these techniques make use of differences in the refractive index of cell structures it is comparable to looking through a glass window you don t see the glass but merely the dirt on the glass there is however a difference as glass is a more dense material and this creates a difference in phase of the light passing through the human eye is not sensitive to this difference in phase but clever optical solutions have been thought out to change this difference in phase into a difference in amplitude ie light intensity very old is the use of sideways oblique illumination by covering part of the light entrance to the condenser this method will give the specimen a sense of relief a more recent technique based on this method is hoffmann s modulation contrast this system is most often found on inverted microscopes for use in cell culture dark field illumination is another well known technique where a cone of light is being produced by the condenser that will not reach the objective minute particles will show up brightly on a dark background much like the dust that shows up in a beam of sunlight in an otherwise darkened room tyndall effect more sophisticated techniques will show differences in optical density in proportion phase contrast is a widely used technique that shows differences in refractive index as difference in contrast it was developed by the dutch physicist frits zernike in the one nine three zero s for which he was awarded the nobel prize in one nine five three the nucleus in a cell for example will show up darkly against the surrounding cytoplasm contrast is excellent however it is not for use with thick objects frequently a halo is formed even around small objects which obscures detail the system consists of a circular annulus in the condenser which produces a cone of light this cone is superimposed on a similar sized ring within the phase objective every objective has a different size ring so for every objective another condenser setting has to be chosen the ring in the objective has special optical properties it first of all reduces the direct light in intensity but more importantly it creates an artificial phase difference of about a quarter wavelength as the physical properties of this direct light have changed interference with the diffracted light occurs resulting in the phase contrast image superior and much more expensive is the use of interference contrast differences in optical density will show up as differences in relief a nucleus within a cell will actually show up as a globule in the most often used differential interference contrast system according to nomarski however it has to be kept in mind that this is an optical effect and the relief does not necessarily resemble the true shape contrast is very good and the condenser aperture can be used fully open thereby reducing the depth of field and maximising resolution the system consists of a special prism in the condenser that splits light in a normal and a reference beam the spatial difference between the two beams is minimal less than the maximum resolution of the objective after passage through the specimen the beams are reunited by a similar prism in the objective in a homogeneous specimen there is no difference between the two beams and no contrast is being generated however near a refractive boundary say a nucleus within the cytoplasm the difference between the normal and the reference beam will generate a relief in the image differential interference contrast uses polarised light to work properly two polarising filters have to be fitted in the light path one below the condenser the polarizer and the other above the objective the analyser fluorescence microscopy fluorescence is the effect that certain compounds will send out light when illuminated with more energetic light often specimens show their own characteristic autofluorescence image based on their chemical makeup this method took a high flight in the modern life sciences as it can be extremely sensitive with even detection of single molecules possible many different fluorescent dyes can be used to stain different structures or chemical compounds very powerful is the combination of antibodies coupled to a fluorochrome as in immunostaining examples of commonly used fluorochromes are fluorescein or rhodamine the antibodies can be made very specific towards a chemical compound for example one strategy often in use nowadays is by producing proteins artificially based on the genetic code dna these proteins can then be used to immunize rabbits the antibodies developed against those proteins are then coupled chemically to a fluorochrome and then used to trace back the proteins in the cells under study since recently highly efficient fluorescent proteins such as the green fluorescent protein gfp can be specifically fused on dna level to the protein of interest this combined fluorescent protein is not toxic and hardly ever impedes the original task of the protein under study genetically modified cells or organisms directly express the fluorescently tagged proteins which enables the study of the function of the original protein in vivo since fluorescence emission differs in wavelength color from the excitation light a fluorescent image ideally only shows the structure of interest that was labelled with the fluorescent dye this high specificity lead to the widespread use of fluorescence light microscopy in biomedical research different fluorescent dyes can be used to stain different biological structures which can then be detected simultaneously still being specific due to the individual color of the dye to block the excitation light from reaching the observed or the detector filter sets of high quality are needed these typically consist of an excitation filter selecting the range of excitation wavelengths a dichroic mirror and an emission filter blocking the excitation light most fluorescence microscopes are operated in the epi illumination mode illumination and detection from one side of the sample to further decrease the amount of excitation light entering the detector see also total internal reflection fluorescence microscope confocal laser scanning microscopy main article see confocal laser scanning microscopy generates the image by a completely different way than the normal visual bright field microscope it gives slightly higher resolution but most importantly it provides optical sectioning without disturbing out of focus light degrading the image therefore it provides sharper images of three d objects this is often used in conjunction with fluorescence microscopy deconvolution microscopy fluorescence microscopy is extremely powerful due to its ability to show specifically labelled structures within a complex environment but also because of its inherent ability to provide three dimensional information of biological structures unfortunately this information is blurred by the fact that upon illumination all fluorescently labelled structures emit light no matter if they are in focus or not this means that an image of a certain structure is always blurred by the contribution of light from structures which are out of focus this phenomenon becomes apparent as a loss of contrast especially when using objectives with a high resolving power typically oil immersion objectives with a high numerical aperture fortunately though this phenomenon is not caused by random processes such as light scattering but can be relatively well defined by the optical properties of the image formation in the microscope imaging system if one considers a small fluorescent light source essentially a bright spot light coming from this spot spreads out the further out of focus one is under ideal conditions this produces a sort of hourglass shape of this point source in the third axial dimension this shape is called the point spread function psf of the microscope imaging system since any fluorescence image is made up of a large number of such small fluorescent light sources the image is said to be convolved by the point spread function knowing this point spread function means that it is possible to reverse this process to a certain extent by computer based methods commonly known as deconvolution there are various algorithms available for two d or three d deconvolution they can be roughly classified in non restorative and restorative methods while the non restorative methods can improve contrast by removing out of focus light from focal planes only the restorative methods can actually reassign light to it proper place of origin this can be an advantage over other types of three d microscopy such as confocal microscopy because light is not thrown away but reused for three d deconvolution one typically provides a series of images derived from different focal planes called a z stack plus the knowledge of the psf which can be either derived experimentally or theoretically from knowing all contributing parameters of the microscope a very good introduction into deconvolution for microscopy can be found here a working persons guide to deconvolution electron microscopy for light microscopy the wavelength of the light limits the resolution to around zero two micrometers in order to gain higher resolution the use of an electron beam with a far smaller wavelength is used in electron microscopes transmission electron microscopy tem is principally quite similar to the compound light microscope by sending an electron beam through a very thin slice of the specimen the resolution limit nowadays two zero zero five is around zero zero five nanometer scanning electron microscopy sem visualizes details on the surfaces of cells and particles and gives a very nice three d view it gives results much like the stereo light microscope and akin to that its most useful magnification is in the lower range than that of the transmission electron microscope ultrasonic force microscopy external links microscopy in detail a resource with many illustrations elaborating the most common microscopy techniques confocal microscopy theory and protocols dark field microscopy page from fsu the science of spectroscopy supported by nasa spectroscopy education wiki and films introduction to light its uses in nasa space science astronomy medicine health environmental research and consumer products microscopy laboratory techniques one eight five two microscope compound microscope made by john cuff in one seven five zero a microscope greek micron small and scopos aim is an instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by the naked or unaided eye the science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy and the term microscopic means minute or very small not easily visible with the unaided eye in other words requiring a microscope to examine the most common type of microscope and the first to be invented is the optical microscope this is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses that produce an enlarged image of an object placed in the focal plane of the lens es see also microscopy simple optical microscope a simple microscope as opposed to a standard compound microscope see below with multiple lenses is a microscope that uses only one lens for magnification van leeuwenhoek s microscopes consisted of a single small convex lens mounted on a plate with a mechanism to hold the material to be examined the sample or specimen this use of a single convex lens to magnify objects for viewing is still found in the magnifying glass the hand lens and the loupe compound optical microscope the diagram below shows a compound microscope in its simplest form as used by robert hooke for example the compound microscope would have a single glass lens of short focal length for the objective and another single glass lens for the eyepiece or ocular modern microscopes of this kind are usually more complex with multiple lens components in both objective and eyepiece assemblies these multi component lenses are designed to reduce aberrations particularly chromatic aberration and spherical aberration in modern microscopes the mirror is replaced by a lamp unit providing stable controllable illumination the parts of the microscope there are eleven main parts to a microscope at the top of the microscope there is a cylinder that is called the ocular or eyepiece that is where you look to see the magnified image the ocular is connected to the body tube that leads to the main microscope the hanging cylinders are called the objective lenses and can have many magnifications they are attached to the nose piece right under them is the stage where the item is placed and a diaphragm is attached under the stage to control how much light or what color you view the object with right under the diaphragm is the light source next to the light source there are two knobs the small knob is the fine adjustment and the big knob is the coarse adjustment these knobs are usually located on the arm last but not least if the microscope is electronic there should be a power switch compound optical microscopes can magnify an image up to one zero zero zero and are used to study thin specimens as they have a very limited depth of field typically they are used to examine a smear a squash preparation or a thinly sectioned slice of some material with a few exceptions they utilize light passing through the sample from below and special techniques are usually necessary to increase the contrast in the image to useful levels see contrast methods typically on a standard compound optical microscope there are three objective lenses a scanning lens four low power lens one zero and high power lens four zero advanced microscopes often have a fourth objective lens called an oil immersion lens to use this lens a drop of oil is placed on top of the cover slip and the lens moved into place where it is immersed in the oil an oil immersion lens usually has a power of one zero zero the actual power or magnification is the product of the powers of the ocular eyepiece usually about one zero and the objective lens being used to study the thin structure of metals see metallography and minerals another type of microscope is used where the light is reflected from the examined surface the light is fed through the same objective using a semi transparent mirror how a microscope works the optical components of a modern microscope are very complex and for a microscope to work well the whole optical path has to be very accurately set up and controlled despite this the basic optical principles of a microscope are quite simple the objective lens is at its simplest a very high powered magnifying glass i e a lens with a very short focal length this is brought very close to the specimen being examined so that the light from the specimen comes to a focus about one six zero mm inside the microscope tube this creates a virtual and enlarged image of the subject this image is inverted and can be seen by removing the eyepiece and placing a piece of tracing paper over the end of the tube by careful focusing a rather dim image of the specimen much enlarged can be seen it is this virtual image that is viewed by the eyepiece lens that provides further enlargement in most microscopes the eyepiece is a compound lens which is made of two lenses one near the front and one near the back of the eyepiece tube forming an air separated couplet in many designs the virtual image comes to a focus between the two lenses of the eyepiece the first lens bringing the virtual image to a focus and the second lens enabling the eye to focus on the image in all microscopes the image is viewed with the eyes focused at infinity headaches and tired eyes after using a microscope are usually signs that the eye is being forced to focus at a close distance rather than at infinity stereomicroscope the stereo or dissecting microscope is designed differently from the diagrams above and serves a different purpose it uses two separate optical paths with two objectives and two eypieces to provide slightly different viewing angles to the left and right eyes in this way it produces a three dimensional three d visualisation of the sample being examined scientist using a stereo microscope outfitted with a digital imaging pick up the stereo microscope is often used to study the surfaces of solid specimens or to carry out close work such as sorting dissection microsurgery watch making small circuit board manufacture or inspection and the like great working distance and depth of field here are important qualities for this type of microscope both qualities are inversely correlated with resolution the higher the resolution i e magnification the smaller the depth of field and working distance a stereo microscope has a useful magnification up to one zero zero the resolution is maximally in the order of an average one zero objective in a compound microscope and often much lower the stereo microscope should not be confused with ordinary compound microscopes equipped with a binocular eyepieces in these microscopes both eyes can see the image but the binocular head provides greater viewing comfort and slightly better appearance of resolution however the image in such microscopes remains monocular special designs other types of optical microscope include the inverted microscope for studying samples from below useful for cell cultures in liquid the student microscope designed for low cost durability and ease of use and the research microscope which is an expensive tool with many enhancements the petrographic microscope whose design usually includes a polarizing filter rotating stage and gypsum plate to facilitate the study of minerals or other crystalline materials whose optical properties can vary with orientation optical resolution a lens magnifies by bending light see refraction optical microscopes are restricted in their ability to resolve features by a phenomenon called diffraction which based on the numerical aperture na or a n of the optical system and the wavelengths of light used lambda sets a definite limit d to the optical resolution assuming that optical aberrations are negligible the resolution d is given by d frac usually a lambda of five five zero nm is assumed corresponding to green light with air as medium the highest practical a n is zero nine five and with oil up to one five due to diffraction even the best optical microscope is limited to a resolution of zero two micrometres history of the microscope a one seven th century compound microscope from an engraving in robert hooke s micrographia see timeline of microscope technology it is impossible to say who invented the compound microscope dutch spectacle makers hans janssen and his son zacharias janssen are often said to have invented the first compound microscope in one five nine zero but this was a declaration by zacharias janssen himself halfway through the one seven th century the date is certainly not likely as it has been shown that zacharias janssen actually was just about born in one five nine zero another favorite for the title of inventor of the microscope was galileo galilei he developed an occhiolino or compound microscope with a convex and a concave lens in one six zero nine galilei s microscope was celebrated in the lynx academy founded by federico cesi in one six zero three francesco stelluti s drawing of three bees were part of pope urban viii s seal and count as the first microscopic figure published see stephen jay gould the lying stones of marrakech two zero zero zero christiaan huygens another dutchman developed a simple two lens ocular system in the late one six zero zero s that was achromatically corrected and therefore a huge step forward in microscope development the huygens ocular is still being produced to this day but suffers from a small field size and the eye relief is uncomfortably close compared to modern widefield oculars anton van leeuwenhoek one six three two one seven two three is generally credited with bringing the microscope to the attention of biologists even though simple magnifying lenses were already being produced in the one five zero zero s and the magnifying principle of water filled glass bowls had been described by the romans seneca van leeuwenhoek s home made microscopes were actually very small simple instruments with a single very strong lens they were awkard in use but enabled van leeuwenhoek to see highly detailed images mainly because a single lens does not suffer the lens faults that are doubled or even multiplied when using several lenses in combination as in a compound microscope it actually took about one five zero years of optical development before the compound microscope was able to provide the same quality image as van leeuwenhoek s simple microscopes so although he was certainly a great microscopist van leeuwenhoek is contrary to widespread claims certainly not the inventor of the microscope other types of microscopes an old pocket microscope see also microscopy atom probe atomic force microscope darkfield microscope electron microscope field ion microscope field emission microscope phase contrast microscope see frits zernike scanning tunneling microscope virtual microscope x ray microscope total internal reflection fluorescence microscope confocal laser scanning microscopy see also angular resolution microscope image processing microscope slide microscopy microscopy laboratory in a study guide to the science of botany at wikibooks telescope external links a virtual polarization microscope requires java how to buy a microscope micscape a monthly magazine directed towards the amateur microscopist microscopy microscope directory the optics of the microscope optical microscopy primer royal microscopical society the microscope quarterly journal antique german microscopes history of continental microscopes illustrated with two zero zero zero photos in german early american made microscopes antique american made microscopes and the makers some early microscopes from the optical institute in wetzlar microscope history microscopes optical devices a membrane is a thin typically planar structure or material that separates two environments because it sits between environments or phases and has a finite volume it can be referred to as an interphase rather than an interface membranes selectively control mass transport between the phases or environments biological membranes biological membranes include cell membrane and intracellular membranes mucous membrane s layer membranes such as serous membrane and mesothelium that surround organs including the peritoneum that lines the abdominal cavity the pericardium that surrounds the heart the pleura that surround the lungs periosteum membrane that surrounds bone the meninges that surround the brain the dura mater arachnoid mater and the pia mater artificial membranes artificial membranes are used in reverse osmosis filtration microfiltration ultrafiltration pervaporation dialysis electrodialysis emulsion liquid membranes membrane based solvent extraction membrane reactors gas permeation supported liquid membranes theoretical membranes are used in m theory simplified midrash hebrew plural midrashim is a hebrew word referring to a method of exegesis of a biblical text the term midrash also can refer to a compilation of midrashic teachings in the form of legal exegetical or homiletical commentaries on the tanakh jewish bible methodology when used as a verb midrash refers to a way of interpreting a biblical verse traditionally understanding of biblical text in judaism is divided between peshat direct meaning remez hints derash exegesis and sod mystical the midrash concentrates on remez but even more on derash many different exegetical methods are employed to derive deeper meaning from text this is not limited to the traditional thirteen textual tools attributed to the tanna rabbi yishmael which are used in the interpretation of halakha jewish law presence of superfluous words or letters chronology of events parallel narratives or other textual anomalies are often a springboard for interpretation of segments of biblical text in many cases a dialogue is expanded manifold handfuls of lines in the biblical narrative may become long philosophical discussions it is unclear whether the midrash assumes these dialogues took place in reality or if this refers only to subtext or religious implication the classical midrash starts off with a seemingly unrelated sentence from the biblical books of psalms proverbs or the prophets this sentence later turns out to metaphorically reflect the content of the rabbinical interpretation offered some midrash discussions are highly metaphorical and many jewish authors stress that they are not intended to be taken literally rather other midrashic sources may sometimes serve as a key to particularly esoteric discussions later authors maintain that this was done to make this material less accessible to the casual reader and prevent its abuse by detractors forms of midrashic literature in general the midrash is focused on either halakhic legal or aggadic non legal and chiefly homiletical subject matter both kinds of midrashim were at first preserved only orally but their writing down commenced in the two nd century and they now exist in the shape chiefly of exegetical or homiletical commentaries on tanakh the hebrew bible midrashic literature is worthwhile reading not only for its insights into judaism and the history of jewish thought but also for the more incidental data it provides to historians philologists philosophers and scholars of either historical critical bible study or comparative religion halakhic midrashim midrash halakha are the works in which the sources in the tanakh hebrew bible of the traditionally received laws are identified these midrashim often predate the mishnah the midrash linking a verse to a halakha will often function as a proof of a law s authenticity a correct elucidation of the torah carries with it the support of the halakhah and often the reason for the rule s existence although many rabbinical laws have no direct biblical source the term is applied also to the derivation of new laws either by means of a correct interpretation of the obvious meaning of scriptural words themselves or by the application of certain hermeneutic rules origins after the return of jewish refugees from their diaspora in babylon the torah was the center of the life of the jews at home and abroad a significant concern of the jewish authorities was to ensure compliance with the torah s commandments the enactments of the mosaic law made for the purpose of promoting righteousness in israel yet as these laws had been written in view of concrete circumstances of the past they had to be explained in a way to make them fit the new circumstances of their life all such explanations of the terms of the mosaic legislation are legal or halakhic midrashim relatedly the mishna does not generally cite a scriptural basis for its laws connecting the mishnaic law with the torah law is also undertaken by the later midrash and talmuds aggadic midrashim the homiletical midrashim embrace the interpretation of the non legal portions of the hebrew bible these midrashim are sometimes referred to as aggadah or haggadah a loosely defined term that may refer to all non legal discourse in classical rabbinic literature aggadic explanations of the non legal parts of scripture are characterized by a much greater freedom of exposition than the halachic midrashim midrashim on jewish law aggadic expositors availed themselves of various techniques including sayings of prominent rabbis these aggadic explanations could be philosophical or mystical disquisitions concerning angels demons paradise hell the messiah satan feasts and fasts parables legends satirical assaults on those who practice idolatry etc some of these midrashim entail mystical or kabbalistic teachings the presentation is such that the midrash is a simple lesson to the uninitiated and a direct allusion or analogy to a mystical teaching for those educated in this area an example of a midrashic interpretation and god saw all that he had made and found it very good and there was evening and there was morning the sixth day genesis one three one midrash rabbi nahman said in rabbi samuel s name behold it was very good refers to the good desire and behold it was very good refers to the evil desire can then the evil desire be very good that would be extraordinary but without the evil desire however no man would build a house take a wife and beget children and thus said solomon again i considered all labour and all excelling in work that it is a man s rivalry with his neighbour kohelet iv four genesis rabbah nine seven translation from soncino publications classical compilations tannaitic mekhilta the mekhilta essentially functions as a commentary on the book of exodus there are two versions of this midrash collection one is mekhilta de rabbi ishmael the other is mekhilta de rabbi simeon ben yohai the former is still studied today while the latter was used by many medieval jewish authorities while the latter ben yohai text was popularly circulated in manuscript form from the one one th to one six th centuries it was lost for all practical purposes until it was rediscovered and printed in the one nine th century mekhilta de rabbi ishmael this is a halakhic commentary on exodus concentrating on the legal sections from exodus one two to three five it derives halakha from biblical verses this midrash collection was redacted into its final form around the three rd or four th century its contents indicate that its sources are some of the oldest midrashim dating back possibly to the time of rabbi akiva the midrash on exodus that was known to the amoraim is not the same as our current mekhilta their version was only the core of what later grew into the present form mekhilta de rabbi simeon ben yohai based on the same core material as mekhlita de rabbi ishmael it followed a second route of commentary and editing and eventually emerged as a distinct work the mekhlita de rabbi simeon ben yohai is an exegetical midrash on exodus three to three five and is very roughly dated to near the four th century sifra on leviticus the sifra work follows the tradition of rabbi akiva with additions from the school of rabbi ishmael references in the talmud to the sifra are ambiguous it is uncertain whether the texts mentioned in the talmud are to an earlier version of our sifra or to the sources that the sifra also drew upon references to the sifra from the time of the early medieval rabbis and after are to the text extant today the core of this text developed in the mid three rd century as a critique and commentary of the mishnah although subsequent additions and editing went on for some time afterwards sifre on numbers and deuteronomy going back mainly to the schools of the same two rabbis this work is mainly a halakhic midrash yet includes a long haggadic piece in sections seven eight one zero six references in the talmud and in the later geonic literature indicate that the original core of sifre was on numbers exodus and deuteronomy however transmission of the text was imperfect and by the middle ages only the commentary on numbers and deuteronomy remained the core material was redacted around the middle of the three rd century sifre zutta the small sifre this work is a halakhic commentary on the book of numbers the text of this midrash is only partially preserved in medieval works while other portions were discovered by solomon schechter in his research in the famed cairo geniza it seems to be older than most other midrash coming from the early three rd century post talmudic midrash qohelet on ecclesiastes probably before middle of ninth century midrash esther on esther a d nine four zero the pesiqta a compilation of homilies on special pentateuchal and prophetic lessons early eighth century pirqe rabbi eliezer not before eighth century a midrashic narrative of the more important events of the pentateuch tanchuma or yelammedenu ninth century on the whole pentateuch its homilies often consist of a halachic introduction followed by several poems exposition of the opening verses and the messianic conclusion there are actually a number of different midrash tanhuma collections the two most important are midrash tanhuma ha nidpas literally the published text this is also sometimes referred to as midrash tanhuma yelamdenu the other is based on a manuscript published by solomon buber and is usually known as midrash tanhuma buber much to many students confusion this too is sometimes referred to as midrash tanhuma yelamdenu midrash shemuel on the first two books of kings i ii samuel midrash tehillim on the psalms midrash mishle a commentary on the book of proverbs one one yalqut shimeoni a kind of catena extending over all the hebrew scriptures seder olam rabbah or simply seder olam traditionally attibuted to the tannaitic rabbi yose ben halafta this work covers topics from the creation of the universe to the construction of the second temple in jerusalem yalkut shimoni a collection of midrash on the entire tanakh containing both halakhic and aggadic midrash it was compiled by shimon ha darshan in the one three th century ce and is collected from over five zero other midrashic works tanna devei eliyahu this work that stresses the reasons underlying the commandments the importance of knowing torah prayer and repentance and the ethical and religious values that are learned through the bible it consists of two sections seder eliyahu rabbah and seder eliyahu zuta it is not a compilation but a uniform work with a single author midrash rabbah midrash rabbah widely studied are the rabboth great commentaries a collection of ten midrashim on different books of the bible however despite the similarity in their names these are not a cohesive work they were written by different authors in different locales in different historical eras the ones on exodus leviticus numbers and deuteronomy are chiefly made up of homilies on the scripture sections for the sabbath or festival while the others are rather of an exegetical nature bereshith rabba genesis rabbah this text dates from the sixth century ce a midrash on genesis it offers explanations of words and sentences and haggadic interpretations and expositions many of which are only loosely tied to the text it is often interlaced with maxims and parables its redactor drew upon earlier rabbinic sources including the mishna tosefta the halakhic midrashim the targums it apparently drew upon a version of talmud yerushalmi that resembles yet was not identical to the text that survived to present times it was redacted sometime in the early five th century shemot rabba exodus rabbah eleventh and twelfth century vayyiqra rabba leviticus rabba middle seventh century bamidbar rabba numbers rabba twelfth century devarim rabba deuteronomy rabba tenth century shir hashirim rabba song of songs rabbah probably before the middle of ninth century ruth rabba same date as foregoing eicha rabba lamentations rabbah seventh century lamentations rabbah has been transmitted in two versions one edition is represented by the one st printed edition one five one nine pesaro the other is the buber edition based on manuscript j i four from the biblioteca casanatense in rome this latter version buber is quoted by the shulkhan arukh as well as medieval jewish authorities it was probably redacted sometime in the five th century external links sacred texts judaism tales and maxims from the midrash extracted and translated by samuel rapaport one nine zero eight the midrashic collections jtsa edu fulltext resources tanchuma yalkut shimoni tana devei eliyahu jewishgates org jewish texts jewish mysticism hebrew words for the native american tribe see missouri tribe for the north american river see missouri river missouri or named after the missouri siouan indian tribe meaning town of the large canoes is a u s state in the united states with jefferson city as its capital it is considered by most of its inhabitants to be a midwestern state but it has many southern cultural influences the state s nickname is the show mestate the u s post office abbreviation for missouri is mo and the state s general admission public university has a main campus located in columbia the mississippi and missouri rivers are the two large rivers which flow through this state uss missouri was named in honor of this state history originally part of the louisiana purchase missouri was admitted as a state in one eight two one as part of the missouri compromise it earned the nickname gateway to the west because it served as a departure point for settlers heading to the west it was the starting point and the return destination of the lewis and clark expedition during the civil war missouri a slave state remained in the union but sentiment was split with a significant portion of the populace supporting the confederate cause law and government the capital of missouri is jefferson city the current constitution of missouri the fourth constitution for the state was adopted in one nine four five and provides for three branches of government the legislative judicial and executive branches the legislative branch consists of two bodies the house of representatives and the senate these bodies comprise the general assembly of the state of missouri the house of representatives has one six three members that are apportioned based on the last decennial census the senate consists of three four members from districts divided such that the population of each district is approximately equal the judicial department consists of a supreme court consisting of seven judges superior and inferior courts are also provided the executive branch is headed by the governor the governor of missouri is matt blunt republican the lieutenant governor of missouri is peter kinder republican the missouri attorney general is jay nixon democrat the missouri secretary of state is robin carnahan democrat the missouri state auditor is claire mccaskill democrat the missouri state treasurer is sarah steelman republican the senior united states senator is christopher s kit bond republican the junior united states senator is james m talent republican although neither major party has traditionally been dominant in missouri the republican party has been gaining strength there in recent years missouri has a longer stretch of supporting the winning presidential candidate than any other state having chosen with the nation in every election since one nine zero four with the exception of adlai stevenson in one nine five six in two zero zero four george w bush won the state s one one electoral votes by a margin of seven percentage points with five three three of the vote democrat john kerry only won four of the state s one one five counties st louis city st louis county ste genevieve and jackson county geography missouri county borders missouri s border physically touches a total of eight different states it is bounded on the north by iowa on the east across the mississippi river by illinois kentucky and tennessee on the south by arkansas and on the west by oklahoma kansas and nebraska the latter two across the missouri river north of the missouri river lie the northern plains that stretch into iowa nebraska and kansas here gentle rolling hills remain behind from a glacier that once had extended from the north to the missouri river the ozark plateau begins south of the river and extends into arkansas s e kansas and n e oklahoma springfield missouri in southwestern missouri lies on the ozark plateau southern missouri is the home of the ozark mountains a dissected plateau surrounding the precambrian igneous st francois mountains it is in the ozarks that a distinct dialect often compared to that of residents in certain areas of kentucky and tennessee still exists the southeastern part of the state is home to the bootheel part of the mississippi alluvial plain or mississippi embayment this region is the lowest flattest and wettest part of the state it is also the most fertile it is here that one finds cotton and rice production the bootheel area was the focus of the great new madrid earthquake of one eight one one one eight one two although now generally considered part of the midwest missouri was once thought of as southern and still is by many missourians today for example mark twain who grew up in hannibal missouri in life on the mississippi described his upbringing as in the south still while larger cities especially those in the northern part of the state i e st louis columbia kansas city consider themselves midwestern rural areas and cities further south i e cape girardeau and springfield consider themselves more southern additional topics climate of missouri missouri national and state parks list of missouri counties transportation current missouri license plate kansas city is still a major railroad hub for bnsf railway norfolk southern kansas city southern and union pacific the state of missouri also has two major airport hubs now as well with kansas city international airport and lambert saint louis international airport several highways also traverse the state interstate highways interstate two nine interstate two two nine interstate three five interstate four three five the perimeter around the kansas city metropolitan area interstate six three five interstate four four interstate five five interstate one five five interstate two five five interstate five seven interstate six four interstate seven zero interstate one seven zero interstate two seven zero the perimeter around the missouri side of the st louis metropolitan area interstate four seven zero interstate six seven zero interstate seven two interstate four nine proposed united states highways north south routes east west routes u s highway five nine u s highway one five nine u s highway six one u s highway six three u s highway six five u s highway six seven u s highway six nine u s highway one six nine u s highway seven one u s highway one six nine u s highway two seven five u s highway four one two u s highway two four u s highway four zero u s highway five zero u s highway five four u s highway five six u s highway six zero u s highway one six zero u s highway four six zero u s highway six two u s highway six six u s highway one six six u s highway four zero zero economy greetings from missouri the bureau of economic analysis estimates that missouri s total state product in two zero zero three was one nine five billion per capital personal income in two zero zero three was two nine four six four two seven th in the nation major industries include aerospace transportation equipment food processing chemicals printing publishing electrical equipment light manufacturing the agriculture products of the state are beef soybeans pork dairy products hay hemp corn poultry and eggs missouri is ranked six th in the nation for the production of hogs and seven th for cattle missouri is ranked in the top five states in the nation for production of soy beans as of two zero zero one there were one zero eight zero zero zero farms the second largest number in any state after texas missouri also actively promotes its quickly growing wine industry missouri has vast quantities of limestone other minerals mined are lead coal portland cement and crushed stone missouri produces the most lead of all of the states in the union with most of these mines in the central eastern portion of the state missouri also ranks first or near first among the production of lime tourism services and wholesale retail trade follow manufacturing in importance demographics as of two zero zero five missouri has an estimated population of five eight zero zero three one zero which is an increase of four zero seven seven eight or zero seven from the prior year and an increase of two zero three six two seven or three six since the year two zero zero zero this includes a natural increase since the last census of one one five four zero three people that is four zero one one four eight births minus two eight five seven four five deaths and an increase due to net migration of six nine six six nine people into the state immigration from outside the united states resulted in a net increase of four two six nine zero people and migration within the country produced a net increase of two six nine seven nine people as of two zero zero four the population included one nine four zero zero zero foreign born three four of the state population race and ancestry the racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census the five largest ancestry groups in missouri are german two three five irish one two seven american one zero five english nine five french three five american includes those reported as native american or african american german americans are a large ancestry group present in most of missouri in southern missouri most residents are of british american ancestry the northern edge of the state also has a high proportion of residents of british and american ancestry blacks are populous in the city of st louis and central kansas city as well as in the southeastern bootheel and some areas of the missouri river valley places where plantation agriculture was once important missouri creoles of french ancestry are concentrated in the mississippi river valley south of st louis six six of its population were reported as under five two five five under one eight and one three five were six five or older females made up approximately five one four of the population three four of missourians are foreign born and five one speak a language other than english at home the one nine nine seven birth and death rates were births seven four zero three seven deaths five four three two two infant deaths five six four eight one three were high school graduates higher than the national average while two one six had a bachelor s degree or higher the mean commute time to work was two three eight minutes the homeownership rate in two zero zero zero was seven zero three with the mean value of the owner occupied dwelling being eight nine nine zero zero there were two one nine four five nine four households with two four eight people per household the median household money income for one nine nine nine was three seven nine three four with the one nine nine nine per capita money income of one nine nine three six there were one one seven six three seven eight nine one missourians living below the poverty line in one nine nine nine religion the religious affiliations of the people of missouri christian eight three protestant six two baptist mostly southern baptist two three methodist eight lutheran four episcopal four other protestant two three roman catholic two zero other christian one other religions one non religious one six of those missourians who identify with a religion three in four are protestants there is also a moderate sized catholic community present in the some parts of the state approximately one out of five missourians are catholics heavily catholic areas include kansas city and st louis a number of religious organizations have their headquarters in missouri including the lutheran church missouri synod which has its headquarters in kirkwood outside st louis kansas city is the headquarters of the church of the nazarene independence outside of kansas city is the headquarters for the community of christ formerly the reorganized church of jesus christ of latter day saints and the latter day saints group remnant church of jesus christ of latter day saints springfield is the headquarters of the assemblies of god the general association of general baptists has its headquarters in poplar bluff culture there is an idiom being from missouri which relates to the state s unofficial slogan show me which even appears on their license plates people from missouri have a reputation for being skeptical see and important cities and towns missouri cities and geographic features saint louis the largest metropolitan area kansas city the largest city springfield the third largest city missouri state university columbia the university of missouri at columbia branson major tourist destination cape girardeau sainte genevieve oldest permanent european settlement west of the mississippi river saint joseph the pony express began here hannibal where mark twain samuel clemens lived independence hometown of president harry s truman saint charles the beginning of the lewis and clark expedition and the first state capital rolla the university of missouri rolla jefferson city the state capital sedalia home of the missouri state fair joplin education missouri s public school system includes kindergarten to one two th grade and requires all children between the ages of seven one six inclusive to be enrolled in a school the university of missouri is missouri s statewide public university system having campuses in saint louis kansas city columbia and rolla additionally missouri has several regional public universities in different parts of the state the largest being missouri state university after heated political debate in jefferson city the name was changed from southwest missouri state university in spring two zero zero five having the second largest student enrollment after university of missouri columbia commonly referred to as mizzou the state also funds a two zero zero zero renewable merit based scholarship bright flight given to the top three of missouri high school graduates who attend a university in state colleges and universities avila university baptist bible college calvary bible college central bible college central christian college of the bible central methodist university formerly central methodist college central missouri state university cleveland chiropractic college college of the ozarks columbia college concordia seminary cottey college crowder college culver stockton college devry university kansas city drury university evangel university fontbonne university forest institute of professional psychology greenleaf university hannibal lagrange college harris stowe state college heritage college heritage institute kirksville college of osteopathic medicine lincoln university lindenwood university logan college of chiropractic maryville university missouri baptist university missouri southern state university missouri state university missouri valley college missouri western state university northwest missouri state university ozark christian college ozarks technical community college park university rockhurst university saint louis college of pharmacy saint louis university southeast missouri state university southwest baptist university stephens college truman state university university of missouri university of missouri columbia university of missouri kansas city university of missouri rolla university of missouri st louis washington university in st louis webster university westminster college william jewell college william woods university professional sports teams baseball kansas city royals and saint louis cardinals football kansas city chiefs and saint louis rams hockey saint louis blues soccer kansas city wizards indoor soccer st louis steamers and kansas city comets arena football kansas city brigade tennis st louis aces kansas city explorers and springfield lasers minor leagues baseball springfield cardinals class aa texas league mid missouri mavericks independent frontier league river city rascals independent frontier league farmington firebirds independent kitty leauge see also missouri river missouri tribe missouri pacific railroad henry shaw ozark corridor list of people from missouri and the missouri wall of fame historical houses in missouri list of individuals executed in missouri list of bsa local councils and districts in missouri list of missouri state highways list of television stations in missouri missouri day references u s census bureau missouri quickfacts geographic and demographic information missouri race and hispanic origin one eight one zero to one nine nine zero pdf external links missouri government missouri historical society st louis state historical society of missouri columbia missouri s african american history missouri state tourism office state and local government on the net vital records information census data missouri authors and literature at the southern literary review missouri states of the united states one eight two one establishments the word monitor is a latin term for warner or suggester and now has several different meanings depending on context some of these alternate meanings are listed below use as a verb when used as a verb to monitor or monitoring may mean to observe a situation for any changes which may occur over time to observe the behaviour or communications of individuals or groups see surveillance display technology a computer display or screen a hardware device that measures electrical events such as pulses or voltage levels in a digital computer a medical monitor a speaker used on stage or in a studio to enable musicians to hear what is being recorded or broadcasted a video monitor such as is used in studio lab or test environments computer software a small interactive bootstrap program or machine code debugger an execution profiler a programming technique for managing access of parallel processes to shared resources while ensuring mutual exclusion monitor synchronization roles or positions a hall monitor one who patrols the hall of a school a prefect empowered schoolboy or schoolgirl in certain british schools especially public schools warships uss monitor the ironclad warship of the american civil war a monitor is a type of ship based on the uss monitor and built by several navies for coastal defense in the one eight six zero s and one eight seven zero s it reappeared in a different form during the first world war and lasted until the end of the second world war a river monitor the strongest type of river warships other meanings monitor was a popular nbc radio program which aired from one nine five five to one nine seven five monitor is a free canadian computer related magazine distributed around the ottawa area since august one nine nine three monitor was a bbc arts programme that began one nine five eight monitor is a british organisation that regulates the nhs foundation trusts two characters from the dc comics limited comic book series crisis on infinite earths the ai that is the caretaker of halo better known as three four three guilty spark a polish one eight th century newspaper monitor polish newspaper a bulgarian newspaper monitor bulgarian newspaper a device for channeling water under high pressure against a surface also known as a water cannon was used in hydrolic mining in california monitor lizards are a family of large tropical lizards varanidae a device attached to the back of the child s neck used for monitoring nearly every aspect of a child s life in the science fiction novel ender s game monitor group is a strategy consultancy based in cambridge massachusetts the simplest hydrocarbon methane is a gas with a chemical formula of ch four pure methane is odorless but when used commercially is usually mixed with small quantities of odorants strongly smelling sulfur compounds such as ethyl mercaptan to enable the detection of leaks a principal component of natural gas methane is a significant fuel burning one molecule of methane in the presence of oxygen releases one molecule of co two carbon dioxide and two molecules of h two o water ch four two o two co two two h two o methane is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential over one zero zero years of two three ipcc third assesment report i e when averaged over one zero zero years each kg of ch four warms the earth two three times as much as the same mass of co two properties at room temperature and pressure methane is a colourless odourless gas it has boiling point of one six two c at one atmosphere pressure and is highly flammable potential health effects methane is not toxic by any route the immediate health hazard is that it may cause thermal burns it is flammable and may form mixtures with air that are flammable or explosive methane is violently reactive with oxidizers halogens and some halogen compounds methane is an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in a workplace atmosphere asphyxia may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below one eight by displacement the concentrations at which flammable or explosive mixtures form are much lower than the concentration at which asphyxiation risk is significant reactions of methane combustion in the combustion of methane several steps are involved methane forms a methyl radical ch three which reacts with oxygen forming formaldehyde hcho or h two co the formaldehyde gives a formyl radical hco which then forms carbon monoxide co the process is called oxidative pyrolysis ch four o two co h two h two o following oxidative pyrolysis the h two oxidizes forming h two o replenishing the active species and releasing heat this occurs very quickly usually in less than a millisecond h two o two h two o finally the co oxidizes forming co two and releasing more heat this process is generally slower than the other chemical steps and typically requires a few to several milliseconds to occur co o two co two hydrogen activation the strength of the carbon hydrogen covalent bond in methane is among the strongest in all hydrocarbons and thus its use as a chemical feedstock is limited despite the high activation barrier for breaking the c h bond ch four is still the principal starting material for manufacture of hydrogen the search for catalysts which can facilitate c h bond activation in methane and other low alkanes is an area of research with considerable industrial significance halogenation uses fuel for more on the use of methane as a fuel see natural gas methane is an important fuel for electrical generation compared to other fossil fuels burning methane produces less carbon dioxide for each unit of heat released in many cities methane is piped into homes for domestic heating and cooking purposes in this context it is usually known as natural gas industrial uses methane is used in industrial chemical processes and may be transported in liquid or refrigerated liquid form while leaks from a liquid container are initially heavier than air the gas is lighter than air gas pipelines distribute large amounts of natural gas of which methane is a significant component in the chemical industry methane is the feedstock of choice for the production of hydrogen methanol acetic acid and acetic anhydride when used to produce any of these chemicals methane is first converted to synthesis gas a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen by steam reforming in this process methane and steam react on a nickel catalyst at high temperatures seven zero zero one one zero zero c ch four h two o co three h two the ratio of carbon monoxide to hydrogen in synthesis gas can then be adjusted via the water gas shift reaction to the appropriate value for the intended purpose co h two o co two h two less significant methane derived chemicals include acetylene prepared by passing methane through an electric arc and the chloromethanes chloromethane dichloromethane chloroform and carbon tetrachloride produced by reacting methane with chlorine gas however the use of these chemicals is declining acetylene as it is replaced by less costly substitutes and the chloromethanes due to health and environmental concerns units of measure one cubic meter m at normal pressure one zero one three kpa has a mass of seven one seven grams sources of methane natural gas fields the major source of methane is extraction from geological deposits known as natural gas fields it is associated with other hydrocarbon fuels and sometimes accompanied by helium and nitrogen the gas is formed by anaerobic decay of organic matter deep under the earth s surface in general sediments buried deeper and at higher temperatures than those which give oil generate natural gas alternative sources apart from gas fields an alternative method of obtaining methane is via biogas generated by the fermentation of organic matter including manure wastewater sludge municipal solid waste or any other biodegradable feedstock under anaerobic conditions industrially methane can be created from common atmospheric gases and hydrogen produced perhaps by electrolysis through chemical reactions such as the sabatier process fischer tropsch process coal bed methane extraction is a method for extracting methane from a coal deposit methane in earth s atmosphere methane concentrations graph methane in the earth s atmosphere is an important greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of two three over a one zero zero year period its concentation has increased by about one five zero since one seven five zero and it accounts for two zero of the total radiative forcing from all of the long lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases the average concentration of methane at the earth s surface in one nine nine eight was one seven four five ppb its concentration is higher in the northern hemisphere as most sources both natural and human are larger the concentrations vary seasonally with a minimum in the late summer emissions of methane houweling et al one nine nine nine give the following values for methane emissions slightly over half of the total emission is due to human activity living plants e g forests have recently been identified as a potentially important source of methane the recent paper calculated emissions of six two two three six tg yr one and this newly identified source may have important implications however the authors stress our findings are preliminary with regard to the methane emission strength removal processes the major removal mechanism of methane from the atmosphere is by reaction with the hydroxyl radical oh ch four oh ch three h two o this reaction in the troposphere gives a methane lifetime of nine six years two more minor sinks are soil sinks one six zero year lifetime and stratospheric loss by reaction with oh cl and o one d in the stratosphere one two zero year lifetime giving a net lifetime of eight four years sudden release from methane clathrates at high pressures such as are found on the bottom of the ocean methane forms a solid clathrate with water known as methane hydrate an unknown but possibly very large quantity of methane is trapped in this form in ocean sediments the sudden release of large volumes of methane from such sediments into the atmosphere has been suggested as a possible cause for rapid global warming events in the earth s distant past such as the paleocene eocene thermal maximum of five five million years ago one source estimates the size of the methane hydrate deposits of the oceans at ten million million tons one zero exagrams theories suggest that should global warming cause them to heat up sufficiently all of this methane could again be suddenly released into the atmosphere since methane is twenty three times stronger for a given weight averaged over one zero zero years than co two as a greenhouse gas this would immensely magnify the greenhouse effect heating earth to unprecedented levels extraterrestrial methane methane has been detected or is believed to exist in several locations of the solar system it is believed to have been created by abiotic processes with the possible exception of mars jupiter mars saturn iapetus titan neptune triton uranus ariel miranda oberon titania umbriel comet halley comet hyakutake two zero zero three ub three one three traces of methane gas are present in the thin atmosphere of the earth s moon methane has also been detected in interstellar clouds see also alkane a type of hydrocarbon of which methane is simplest member methane clathrate form of water ice which contains methane methanogen archaea that produce methane as a metabolic by product methanogenesis the formation of methane by microbes methanotroph bacteria that are able to grow using methane as their only source of carbon and energy methyl group a functional group similar to methane external links international chemical safety card zero two nine one methane hydrates computational chemistry wiki molview from bluerhinos co uk see methane in three d alkanes greenhouse gases luther at age four six lucas cranach the elder one five two nine the luther seal martin luther november one zero one four eight three february one eight one five four six was a german theologian an augustinian monk and an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the reformation and deeply influenced the doctrines and culture of the lutheran and protestant traditions luther s call to the church to return to the teachings of the bible led to the formation of new traditions within christianity and to the counter reformation the catholic reaction to these movements his contributions to western civilization went beyond the life of the christian church his translations of the bible helped to develop a standard version of the german language and added several principles to the art of translation his hymns inspired the development of congregational singing in christianity his marriage on june one three one five two five to katharina von bora began a movement of clerical marriage within many christian traditions luther s early life the luther house where luther boarded from ages one four to one seven while attending private school at eisenach martin luther was born to hans and margarette luther n e lindemann on november one zero one four eight three in eisleben germany and was baptized on the feast day of st martin of tours after whom he was named his father owned a copper mine in nearby mansfeld having risen from the peasantry his father was determined to see his son ascend to civil service and bring further honor to the family to that end hans sent young martin to schools in mansfeld magdeburg and eisenach at the age of seventeen in one five zero one luther entered the university of erfurt the young student received a bachelor s degree in one five zero two and a master s degree in one five zero five according to his father s wishes he enrolled in the law school of that university all that changed during a thunderstorm in the summer of one five zero five a lightning bolt struck near to him as he was returning to school terrified he cried out help saint anne i ll become a monk his life spared luther left his law school and entered the augustinian monastery in erfurt luther s struggle to find peace with god image luther with tonsure gif young brother martin luther fully dedicated himself to monastic life the effort to do good works to please god and to serve others through prayer for their souls he devoted himself to fasts flagellations long hours in prayer and pilgrimage and constant confession the more he tried to do for god it seemed the more aware he became of his sinfulness johann von staupitz luther s superior concluded the young man needed more work to distract him from excessive rumination he ordered the monk to pursue an academic career in one five zero seven luther was ordained to the priesthood in one five zero eight he began teaching theology at the university of wittenberg luther received his bachelor s degree in biblical studies on march nine one five zero eight and a bachelor s degree in the sentences by peter lombard the main textbook of theology in the middle ages in one five zero nine on october one nine one five one two martin luther received the degree doctor of theology and on october two one one five one two he was received into the senate of the theological faculty and called to the position of doctor in biblia luther s theology of grace the demanding discipline of earning academic degrees and preparing lectures drove martin luther to study the scriptures in depth influenced by humanism s call ad fontes to the sources he immersed himself in the study of the bible and the early church soon terms like penance and righteousness took on new meaning for luther and he became convinced that the church had lost sight of several of the central truths of christianity taught in scripture the most important of them being the doctrine of justification by faith alone luther began to teach that salvation is completely a gift of god s grace through christ received by faith later luther defined and reintroduced the principle of the proper distinction between law and gospel that undergirded his theology of grace overall luther believed that this principle of interpretation was an essential starting point in the study of the scriptures luther saw failure to distinguish law and gospel properly as the cause of the obstruction of the gospel of jesus in the church of his day which in turn gave rise to many fundamental theological errors image luther jpg the indulgence controversy in addition to his duties as a professor martin luther served as a preacher and confessor at the castle church a foundation of frederick the wise elector of saxony this church was named all saints because it was the repository of his collection of holy relics this parish served both the augustinian monastery and the university it was in the performance of these duties that the young priest was confronted with the effects of obtaining indulgences on the lives of everyday people an indulgence is the remission either full or partial of temporal punishment still remaining for sins after their guilt has already been removed by absolution a buyer could purchase one either for himself or for one of his deceased relatives in purgatory the dominican friar johann tetzel was enlisted to travel throughout archbishop albert of mainz s episcopal territories promoting and selling indulgences for the renovation of st peter s basilica in rome tetzel was very successful at it he urged as soon as the coin in the coffer rings the soul from purgatory springs as a priest concerned about the spiritual welfare of his parishioners luther saw this traffic in indulgences as an abuse that could mislead them into relying simply on the indulgences themselves to the neglect of the confession true repentance and satisfactions luther preached three sermons against indulgences in one five one six and one five one seven on october three one one five one seven according to traditional accounts luther s nine five theses were nailed to the door of the castle church as an open invitation to debate them the theses condemned greed and worldliness in the church as an abuse and asked for a theological disputation on what indulgences could grant luther did not challenge the authority of the pope to grant indulgences in these theses the nine five theses were quickly translated into german widely copied and printed within two weeks they had spread throughout germany and within two months throughout europe this was one of the first events in history that was profoundly affected by the printing press which made the distribution of documents easier and more widespread response of the papacy turning this woodcut upside down can show how martin luther s enemies thought of him after disregarding luther as a drunken german who wrote the theses who when sober will change his mind pope leo x ordered the dominican professor of theology sylvester mazzolini called from his birthplace priero prierias also prieras in one five one eight to inquire into the matter prierias recognized luther s implicit opposition to the authority of the pope by being at variance with a papal bull declared him a heretic and wrote a scholastic refutation of his theses it asserted papal authority over the church and denounced every departure from it as a heresy luther replied in kind and a controversy developed meanwhile luther took part in an augustinian convention at heidelberg where he presented theses on the slavery of man to sin and on divine grace in the course of the controversy on indulgences the question arose of the absolute power and authority of the pope since the doctrine of the treasury of the church the treasury of merits which undergirded the doctrine and practice of indulgences was based on the bull unigenitus one three four three of pope clement vi because of his opposition to that doctrine luther was branded a heretic and the pope who had determined to suppress his views summoned him to rome yielding however to the elector frederick who the pope hoped would become the next holy roman emperor and who was unwilling to part with his theologian the pope did not press the matter and the cardinal legate cajetan was deputed to receive luther s submission at augsburg oct one five one eight luther while professing his implicit obedience to the church now boldly denied papal authority and appealed first from the pope not well informed to the pope who should be better informed and then nov two eight to a general council luther now declared that the papacy formed no part of the original and immutable essence of the church desiring to remain on friendly terms with luther the pope made a final attempt to reach a peaceful resolution of the conflict with him a conference with the papal chamberlain karl von miltitz at altenburg in january one five one nine led luther to agree to remain silent as long as his opponents would to write a humble letter to the pope and to compose a treatise demonstrating his reverence for the catholic church the letter was written but never sent since it contained no retraction in the german treatise he composed later luther while recognizing purgatory indulgences and the invocation of the saints denied all effect of indulgences on purgatory when johann eck challenged luther s colleague carlstadt to a disputation at leipzig luther joined in the debate two seven june one eight july one five one nine in the course of this debate he denied the divine right of the papal office and authority holding that the power of the keys had been given to the church i e to the congregation of the faithful he denied that membership in the western catholic church under the pope was necessary to salvation maintaining the validity of the eastern greek orthodox church after the debate johann eck claimed that he had forced luther to admit the similarity of his own doctrine to that of jan hus who had been burned at the stake eck viewed this as corroborating his own claim that luther was the saxon hus and an arch heretic the breach widens luther s thought develops there was no longer hope of peace luther s writings were now circulated widely reaching france england and italy as early as one five one nine and students thronged to wittenberg to hear luther who had been joined by melanchthon in one five one eight and now published his shorter commentary on galatians and his operationes in psalmos work on the psalms while at the same time he received deputations from italy and from the utraquists of bohemia these controversies necessarily led luther to develop his doctrines further and in his sermon on the blessed sacrament of the holy and true body of christ and the brotherhoods he set forth the significance of the eucharist that it is for the forgiveness of sins and the strengthening of faith for those who receive it he advocated that a council be called to restore communion in both kinds for the laity the lutheran concept of the church wholly based on immediate relation to the christ who gives himself in preaching and the sacraments was already developed in his von dem papsttum zu rom on the papacy in rome a reply to the attack of the franciscan augustin von alveld at leipzig june one five two zero while in his sermon von guten werken sermon on good works delivered in the spring of one five two zero he controverted the catholic doctrine of good works and works of supererogation holding that the works of the believer are truly good in any secular calling vocation ordered of god the treatises of one five two zero to the german nobility the disputation at leipzig one five one nine brought luther into contact with the humanists particularly melanchthon reuchlin erasmus and associates of the knight ulrich von hutten who in turn influenced the knight franz von sickingen von sickingen and silvester of schauenburg wanted to place luther under their protection by inviting him to their fortresses in the event that it would not be safe for him to remain in saxony because of the threatened papal ban under these circumstances complicated by the crisis then confronting the german nobles luther issued his to the christian nobility of the german nation aug one five two zero committing to the laity as spiritual priests the reformation required by god but neglected by the pope and the clergy for the first time of many luther here publicly referred to the pope as the antichrist the reforms luther proposed concerned not only points of doctrine but also ecclesiastical abuses the diminution of the number of cardinals and demands of the papal court the abolition of annates the recognition of secular government the renunciation of papal claims to temporal power the abolition of the interdict and abuses connected with the ban the abolition of harmful pilgrimages the reform of mendicant orders to eliminate wrongdoing the elimination of the excessive number of holy days the suppression of nunneries beggary and luxury the reform of the universities the abrogation of the clerical celibacy reunion with the bohemians and a general reform of public morality the babylonian captivity luther employed doctrinal polemics in his prelude on the babylonian captivity of the church especially with regard to the sacraments with regard to the eucharist he advocated restoring the cup to the laity called into question the dogma of transubstantiation while affirming the real presence of the body and blood of christ in the eucharist and rejected the teaching that the eucharist was a sacrifice offered to god with regard to baptism he taught that it brings justification only if conjoined with saving faith in the recipient however it remained the foundation of salvation even for those who might later fall and be reclaimed as for penance its essence consists in the words of promise absolution received by faith only these three can be regarded as sacraments because of their divine institution and the divine promises of salvation connected with them but strictly speaking only baptism and the eucharist are sacraments since only they have divinely instituted visible signs water in baptism and bread and wine in the eucharist luther denied in this document that confirmation matrimony holy orders and extreme unction were sacraments freedom of a christian in like manner the full development of luther s doctrine of salvation and the christian life is seen in his on the freedom of a christian published november two zero one five two zero here he required complete union with christ by means of the word through faith entire freedom of the christian as a priest and king set above all outward things and perfect love of one s neighbor the three works may be considered among the chief writings of luther on the reformation the excommunication of luther on june one five one five two zero the pope warned martin luther with the papal bull exsurge domine that he risked excommunication unless he recanted four one points of doctrine culled from his writings within six zero days in october one five two zero at the instance of miltitz luther sent his on the freedom of a christian to the pope adding the significant phrase i submit to no laws of interpreting the word of god meanwhile it had been rumored in august that eck had arrived at meissen with a papal ban which was actually pronounced there on september two one this last effort of luther s for peace was followed on december one two by his burning of the bull which was to take effect on the expiration of one two zero days and the papal decretals at wittenberg a proceeding defended in his warum des papstes und seiner j nger b cher verbrannt sind and his assertio omnium articulorum pope leo x excommunicated luther on january three one five two one in the bull decet romanum pontificem the execution of the ban however was prevented by the pope s relations with frederick iii elector of saxony and by the new emperor charles v who in view of the papal attitude toward him and the feeling of the diet found it inadvisable to lend his aid to measures against luther diet of worms emperor charles v opened the imperial diet of worms on january two two one five two one luther was summoned to renounce or reaffirm his views and was given an imperial guarantee of safe conduct to ensure his safe passage on april one six luther appeared before the diet johann eck an assistant of archbishop of trier presented luther with a table filled with copies of his writings eck asked luther if the books were his and if he still believed what these works taught luther requested time to think about his answer it was granted luther prayed consulted with friends and mediators and presented himself before the diet the next day when the matter came before the diet the next day counsellor eck asked luther to plainly answer the question would luther reject his books and the errors they contain luther replied unless i am convicted by scripture and plain reason i do not accept the authority of popes and councils for they have contradicted each other my conscience is captive to the word of god i cannot and will not recant anything for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe according to tradition luther is then said to have spoken these words here i stand i can do no other god help me amen over the next few days private conferences were held to determine luther s fate before a decision was reached luther left worms during his return to wittenberg he disappeared the emperor issued the edict of worms on may two five one five two one declaring martin luther an outlaw and a heretic and banning his literature exile at the wartburg castle wartburg castle in eisenach luther s disappearance during his return trip was planned frederick the wise arranged for luther to be seized on his way from the diet by a company of masked horsemen who carried him to wartburg castle at eisenach where he stayed for about a year he grew a wide flaring beard took on the garb of a knight and assumed the pseudonym junker j rg knight george during this period of forced sojourn in the world luther was still hard at work upon his celebrated translation of the new testament though he could not rely on the isolation of a monastery martin luther preaching at the wartburg by hugo vogel with luther s residence in the wartburg began a constructive period of his career as a reformer while at the same time the struggle was inaugurated against those who claiming to proceed from the same evangelical basis were deemed by him to swing to the opposite extreme and to hinder if not prevent all constructive measures in his desert or patmos as he called it in his letters of the wartburg moreover he began his translation of the bible of which the new testament was printed in september one five two two here too besides other pamphlets he prepared the first portion of his german postilla and his von der beichte concerning confession in which he denied compulsory confession although he admitted the wholesomeness of voluntary private confessions he also wrote a polemic against archbishop albrecht which forced him to desist from reopening the sale of indulgences while in his attack on jacobus latomus he set forth his views on the relation of grace and the law as well as on the nature of the grace communicated by christ here he distinguished the objective grace of god to the sinner who believing is justified by god because of the justice of christ from the saving grace dwelling within sinful man while at the same time he emphasized the insufficiency of this beginning of justification as well as the persistence of sin after baptism and the sin still inherent in every good work although his stay at wartburg kept luther hidden from public view luther often received letters from his friends and allies asking for his views and advice for example philipp melanchthon wrote to him and asked how to answer the charge that the reformers neglected pilgrimages fasts and other traditional forms of piety luther replied on august one one five two one if you are a preacher of mercy do not preach an imaginary but the true mercy if the mercy is true you must therefore bear the true not an imaginary sin god does not save those who are only imaginary sinners be a sinner and let your sins be strong but let your trust in christ be stronger and rejoice in christ who is the victor over sin death and the world we will commit sins while we are here for this life is not a place where justice resides we however says peter two peter three one three are looking forward to a new heaven and a new earth where justice will reign meanwhile some of the saxon clergy notably bartholom us bernhardi of feldkirchen had renounced the vow of celibacy while others including melanchthon had assailed the validity of monastic vows luther in his de votis monasticis concerning monastic vows though more cautious concurred on the ground that the vows were generally taken with the intention of salvation or seeking justification with the approval of luther in his de abroganda missa privata concerning the abrogation of the private mass but against the firm opposition of the prior the wittenberg augustinians began changes in worship and did away with the mass their violence and intolerance however were displeasing to luther and early in december he spent a few days among them returning to the wartburg he wrote his eine treue vermahnung vor aufruhr und emp rung a sincere admonition by martin luther to all christians to guard against insurrection and rebellion but in wittenberg carlstadt and the ex augustinian gabriel zwilling demanded the abolition of the private mass communion in both kinds the removal of pictures from churches and the abrogation of the magistracy return to wittenberg and the invocavit sermons around christmas one five two one anabaptists from zwickau added to the anarchy thoroughly opposed to such radical views and fearful of their results luther secretly returned to wittenberg march six one five two two and the zwickau prophets left the city for eight days beginning on march nine invocavit sunday and concluding on the following sunday luther preached eight sermons that would become known as the invocavit sermons in these sermons luther counseled careful reform that took into consideration the consciences of those who were not yet persuaded to embrace reform communion in one kind the consecrated bread was restored for a time the consecrated cup given only to those of the laity who desired it he was thought by his hearers john agricola and jerome schurf to have accomplished his goal of quelling unrest the canon of the mass giving it its sacrificial character was now omitted since the former practice of penance had been abolished communicants were now required to declare their intention to commune and to seek consolation in christian confession and absolution this new form of service was set forth by luther in his formula miss et communionis form of the mass and communion one five two three and in one five two four the first wittenberg hymnal appeared with four of his own hymns since however his writings were forbidden in that part of saxon ruled by duke george luther declared in his ber die weltliche gewalt wie weit man ihr gehorsam schuldig sei temporal authority to what extent it should be obeyed that the civil authority could enact no laws for the soul herein denying to a catholic what he permitted an evangelical martin luther s marriage and family april eight one five two three luther wrote wenceslaus link yesterday i received nine nuns from their captivity in the nimbschen convent luther had arranged for torgau burgher leonhard koppe on april four to assist twelve nuns to escape from marien thron cistercian monastery in nimbschen near grimma in ducal saxony he transported them out of the convent in herring barrels three of the nuns went to be with their relatives leaving the nine that were brought to wittenberg one of them was katharina von bora all of them but she were happily provided for in may and june one five two three it was thought that she would be married to a wittenberg university student jerome paumgartner but his family most likely prevented it dr caspar glatz was the next prospective husband put forward but katharina had neither desire nor love for him she made it known that she wanted to marry either luther himself or nicholas von amsdorf luther did not feel that he was a fit husband considering his being excommunicated by the pope and outlawed by the emperor in may or early june one five two five it became known in luther s circle that he intended to marry katharina forestalling any objections from friends against katharina luther acted quickly on the evening of tuesday june one three one five two five luther was legally married to katharina whom he would affectionately call katy katy moved into her husband s home the former augustinian monastery in wittenberg and they began their family the luthers had three boys and three girls hans born june seven one five two six studied law became a court official and died in one five seven five elizabeth born december one zero one five two seven prematurely died on august three one five two eight magdalena born may five one five two nine died in her father s arms september two zero one five four two her death was especially hard on luther and katherine martin jr born november nine one five three one studied theology but never had a regular pastoral call before his death in one five six five paul born january two eight one five three three became a physician he fathered six children before his death on march eight one five nine three and the male line of the luther family continued through him to john ernest ending in one seven five nine margaretha born december one seven one five three four married george von kunheim of the noble wealthy prussian family but died in one five seven zero at the age of three six her descendants have continued to the present time the peasants war the peasants war one five two four two five was in many ways a response to the preaching of luther and others revolts by the peasantry had existed on a small scale since the one four th century but many peasants mistakenly believed that luther s attack on the church and the hierarchy meant that the reformers would support an attack on the social hierarchy as well because of the close ties between the secular princes and the princes of the church that luther condemned revolts that broke out in swabia franconia and thuringia in one five two four gained support among peasants and disaffected nobles many of whom were in debt at that period gaining momentum and a new leader in thomas m nzer the revolts turned into an all out war the experience of which played an important role in the founding of the anabaptist movement initially luther seemed to many to support the peasants condemning the oppressive practices of the nobility that had incited many of the peasants as the war continued and especially as atrocities at the hands of the peasants increased the revolt became an embarrassment to luther who now professed forcefully to be against the revolt since luther relied on support and protection from the princes he was afraid of alienating them in against the murderous thieving hordes of peasants one five two five he encouraged the nobility to visit swift and bloody punishment upon the peasants many of the revolutionaries considered luther s words a betrayal others withdrew once they realized that there was neither support from the church nor from its main opponent the war in germany ended in one five two five when rebel forces were put down by the armies of the swabian league luther s german bible luther s one five three four bible luther translated the bible into german to make it more accessible to the common people he began the task of translating the new testament alone in one five two one during his stay in the wartburg castle it was completed and published in september one five two two the entire bible appeared in a six part edition in one five three four and was a collaborative effort of luther johannes bugenhagen justus jonas caspar creuziger philipp melanchthon matthew aurogallus and george r rer luther worked on refining the translation for the rest of his life having a hand in the edition that was published in the year of his death one five four six the luther bible by reason of its widespread circulation facilitated the emergence of the modern german language by standardizing it for the peoples of the holy roman empire that would become germany in the nineteenth century and it is considered a landmark in german literature transformations in liturgy and church government luther marked a further step in his revision of the liturgy by his deutsche messe german mass in one five two six making provision for week day services and for catechetical instruction he strongly objected however to making a new law of the forms and urged the retention of other good liturgies while luther thus advocated christian liberty in liturgical matters he also spoke out in favor of maintaining and establishing liturgical uniformity among those sharing the same faith in a given area he saw in liturgical uniformity a fitting outward expression of unity in the faith he considered liturgical variation as confusing openings for theological variation he did not consider liturgical innovation and change a virtue especially not one to be exercised by individual christians or congregations he was content to reform what he had inherited from the past the gradual transformation of the administration of baptism was accomplished in the taufb chlein baptismal booklet one five two three one five two six in may one five two five the first evangelical ordination took place at wittenberg luther had long since rejected the roman catholic sacrament of ordination and had replaced it by a simple calling to the service of preaching and the administration of the sacraments the laying on of hands with prayer in a solemn congregational service was considered a fitting human rite conditions now seemed to luther to require the introduction of a higher official authority as early as one five two five he had complained of the state of affairs and he held that the secular authorities should take part in the administration of the church as in making appointments to ecclesiastical office and in directing visitations nevertheless the discharge of these functions did not appertain to the secular authorities as such and luther would gladly have vested them in an evangelical episcopate had he known of any persons suited for that office he even declared in one five four two that the evangelical princes themselves must be necessity bishops and even went so far as to meditate letter of mar two nine one five two seven a congregation of christians with full ecclesiastical powers but determined to be guided by the course of events and to wait until parishes and schools were provided with the proper persons since however the result of the saxon visitation gave no encouragement to this project it was deemed far more important first to win non christians to the faith through the gospel preserving the external form of the church as it was at the beginning of the reformation the visitation accordingly took place in one five two seven two nine luther writing the preface to melanchthon s unterricht der visitatoren an die pfarrherrn and himself acting as a visitor in one of the districts after oct one five two eight while as a result of his observations he wrote both his catechisms in one five two nine at the same time he took the keenest interest in education conferring with georg spalatin q v in one five two four on plans for a school system and declared that it was the duty of the civil authorities to provide schools and to see that parents sent their children to them he also advocated the establishment of elementary schools for the instruction of girls in the meantime lutheran churches in scandanavia and many of the baltic states as well as the moravians continued to maintain the historic episcopate and apostolic succession even though they had adopted luther s anti papal theology eucharistic views and controversies in the meantime the nature of the eucharist had become a theme on which luther found himself obliged to articulate his doctrine fully and polemically rejecting the roman catholic doctrine of transubstantiation he nevertheless maintained the real presence of the body and blood of christ in the sacramental bread and wine he stood by the simple literal meaning of the words of institution this is my body this is my blood refusing to define the mystery of the eucharist by concepts such as consubstantiation luther utilized the patristic analogy for the doctrine of the personal union of the two natures in jesus christ to illustrate his eucharistic doctrine by the analogy of the iron put into the fire whereby both fire and iron are united in the red hot iron and yet each continues unchanged a concept which he called the sacramental union the oxford dictionary of the christian church f l cross ed london oxford one nine five eight p three three seven luther s doctrine distinguished him from carlstadt zwingli leo jud and colampadius who went further by rejected the real presence altogether carlstadt zwingli and colampadius offered differing interpretations of the words of institution carlstadt interpreted the this of this is my body as christ s action of pointing to himself zwingli interpreted the is as signifies and colampadius interpreted my body as a sign of my body in the controversy that ensued luther replied to colampadius in the preface to the syngramma suevicum swabian writing and also set forth his views in his sermon von den sakramenten wider die schw rmgeister sermon on the sacrament against the fanatical spirits and dass diese worte noch feststehen that these words still stand firm spring one five two seven and more exhaustively in his vom abendmahl christi bekenntnis confession on christ s supper one five two eight in view of the perils to protestantism in the measures of the diet of speyer in one five two nine and the coalition of the emperor with france and the pope the landgrave philip desired a union of all the adherents of the reformation but luther declared himself opposed to any alliance which might aid heresy he accepted however the landgrave s invitation to a conference at marburg oct one three one five two nine to settle the matters in controversy at marburg luther opposed colampadius while melanchthon was the antagonist of zwingli although they found an unexpected harmony in other respects no agreement could be reached regarding the eucharist luther therefore refused to call his opponents brethren even while he wished them peace and love luther was convinced that god had blinded zwingli s eyes so that he could not see the true doctrine of the lord s supper luther denounced zwingli and his followers at this time as fanatics patricides matricides fratricides devils knaves heretics rioters hypocrites and the like the princes themselves then subscribed to the schwabach articles upheld by luther as a condition of alliance with them luther s basis for his eucharistic doctrine was not a mere literal interpretation of the words of institution but rather thankfulness for jesus bodily sacrifice and the administration of this very same body luther emphasized the absolute unity of the divine with the human in christ to explain the actual presence while christ s presence is repletive filling all places at once his omnipresence in the eucharist is especially definitive unbound by space on the other hand luther taught with equal clearness that participation in itself is of no avail without faith he insisted that the impious and even beasts in partaking of the consecrated elements partake of the body and blood of christ but the unworthy partake unto damnation also while he disputed the view that the eucharist is a mere memorial he fully recognized the commemorative element in it as regards the effect of the sacrament on the faithful he laid special stress on the words given for you and hence on the atonement and forgiveness through the death of christ the small and large catechisms in one five two eight frederick asked luther to tour the local churches to determine the quality of the peasants christian education luther wrote in the preface to the small catechism mercy good god what manifold misery i beheld the common people especially in the villages have no knowledge whatever of christian doctrine and alas many pastors are altogether incapable and incompetent to teach in response luther prepared the small and large catechisms they are instructional and devotional material on what luther considered the fundamentals of the christian faith namely the ten commandments the apostles creed the lord s prayer baptism confession and absolution and the eucharist the small catechism was supposed to be read by the people themselves the large catechism by the pastors the two catechisms are still popular instructional materials among lutherans the diet of augsburg and the question of civil resistance under the same perilous conditions which had made desirable an alliance of all adherents of the reformation the estates convened with the emperor at augsburg in one five three zero when the relation of the empire to protestantism was definitely to be determined luther despised by emperor and empire remained at coburg but the confession there presented by melanchthon was essentially based upon his labors the latter while refraining from an authoritative attitude was little pleased by the smooth and cautious procedure of melanchthon and saw no chance of harmony of doctrine except in abolishment of the papacy although he hoped for official toleration of both religions in the empire while the recess of the diet gave the protestants only a short time to make their submission the emperor urged on by threatened war with the turks and by the schmalkald league of the protestant princes and cities made further attempts to secure harmony which led to the religious peace of nuremberg in one five three two q v to last until a general council should be called to make a final decision since the diet of speyer one five two nine the question had become vital whether in case the emperor refused peace the princes were justified in or even bound to armed resistance until now luther had held that even wrongful acts of the emperor in no way released his subjects from obedience and had been unfavorable to offensive and defensive alliances between evangelical princes preserving this attitude even in regard to the schmalkald league his position was somewhat modified however by the opinions of the jurists that in cases of public and notorious injustice the existing imperial laws the emperor himself in his laws warranted such resistance accepting this he nevertheless referred judgment on the present conditions to the jurists and not to the theologians in his warnung an die lieben deutschen one five three one nevertheless he openly advocated resistance in a righteous cause while in letters written in one five three nine he went back still further to the general requirements of natural law luther s other writings autograph of martin luther the number of books attributed to martin luther is nothing short of impressive however some luther scholars contend that many of the works were at least drafted by some of his good friends like melanchthon luther s fame provided a much larger potential audience than his at least as learned friends could have obtained under their own names his books explain the settings of the epistles and show the conformity of the books of the bible to each other of special note would be his writings about the epistle to the galatians in which he compares himself to the apostle paul in his defense of the gospel for example the faith building commentary in luther and the epistle to the galatians luther also wrote about church administration and wrote much about the christian home luther s writing was very polemical and when he was passionate about a subject he would often insult his opponents for example in the preface to de servo arbitrio on the bondage of the will a response to erasmus s diatribe seu collatio de libero arbitrio discussion or collation concerning free will luther writes your book struck me as so worthless and poor that my heart went out to you for having defiled your lovely brilliant flow of language with such vile stuff i thought it outrageous to convey material of so low a quality in the trappings of such rare eloquence it is like using gold or silver dishes to carry garden rubbish or dung luther as well as the other reformers were quite intolerant of others beliefs and this may have exacerbated the reformation in germany this intolerance was displayed in on the jews and their lies which is remembered even today see martin luther and the jews however an indication that luther really meant what he said in his de servo arbitrio and was not simply carried away by rhetoric is that twelve years later when luther s friends began collecting his writings he was able to say that of all the things he had written he considered only his catechism and his book on the bondage of the will to be truly worthwhile luther s work contains a number of statements that modern readers would consider rather crude it should be remembered that luther received many communications from throughout europe from people who could write anonymously that is without the spectre of mass media making their communications known no public figure today could write in the manner of the correspondences luther received or in the way luther responded to them opinions today can be immediately shared electronically with a wide audience at least one such statement would not be heard from most modern pastors he regularly told the devil off martin luther and the jews luther s anti jewish rhetoric and doctrines are often described as anti semitic or examples of anti judaism luther had expected that presenting his understanding of the christian gospel to the jews would convert them but when his efforts failed he became embittered and recommended their harsh persecution in his pamphlet von den juden und ihren l gen on the jews and their lies published in one five four three he wrote that jews synagogues should be set on fire prayerbooks destroyed rabbis forbidden to preach homes smashed and destroyed property seized money confiscated and that these poisonous envenomed worms be drafted into forced labor or expelled for all time british historian paul johnson has called on the jews and their lies the first work of modern anti semitism and a giant step forward on the road to the holocaust australian lutheran pastor russell briese s comments at the council of christians and jews at the great synagogue in sydney historians are at a loss to find a direct link between the anti semitism of luther s time and that of hitler s campaign four centuries later the nazis cited the pamphlet to justify the final solution since the one nine eight zero s lutheran church bodies and organizations have begun a process of formally disassociating themselves from these writings martin luther and the medieval persecution of witches luther shared the common medieval superstition against witchcraft as inimical to christianity the persecution of witches and warlocks took place in protestant as well as in roman catholic countries in middle europe during and after the reformation not only luther but john calvin supported this persecution as well they felt it to be in accordance with exodus two two one eight luther mentioned the hunting down of witches in a few of his sermons e g that of may six one five two six wa one six five five one f cf also wa three one one seven nine f wa two nine five two zero f in a sermon of august two five one five three eight luther said you must not have pity on witches i myself would burn them mit hexen mu man kein mitleid haben ich wollte sie selber verbrennen wa two two seven eight two ff luther believed witchcraft to be a sin against the second commandment luther s last journey and death martin luther s final journey to mansfeld eisleben came about because of his concern for the families of his brothers and sisters who continued in father hans luther s copper mining trade which was threatened by count albrecht of mansfeld s bringing this industry under his own personal control for his own profit the controversy that ensued involved all four of the mansfeld counts albrecht philip john george and gerhard luther journeyed to mansfeld twice in late one five four five to participate in the negotiations for a settlement a third visit was needed in early one five four six to complete the negotiations on january two three luther left wittenberg accompanied by his three sons the negotiations were successfully concluded on february one seven after eight zero zero p m on that day luther suffered chest pains when he went to his bed he prayed into your hand i commit my spirit you have redeemed me o lord faithful god ps three one five the common prayer of the dying at one zero zero a m he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels knowing that his death was imminent he thanked god for revealing his son to him in whom he had believed his companions justus jonas and michael coelius shouted loudly reverend father are you ready to die trusting in your lord jesus christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name a distinct yes was luther s reply he died two four five a m february one eight one five four six in eisleben the city of his birth he was buried in the castle church in wittenberg near to where he had made such an impact on christendom his pulpit a slip of paper luther wrote february one six one five four six was his last written statement know that no one can have indulged in the holy writers sufficiently unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets such as elijah and elisha john the baptist christ and the apostles we are beggars this is true image the worms luther statue jpg his legacy martin luther more than the reformers that preceded him shaped the protestant reformation thanks to the printing press his pamphlets were well read throughout germany influencing many subsequent protestant reformers and thinkers and giving rise to diversifying protestant traditions in europe and elsewhere protestant countries no longer subject to the papacy exercised their expanded freedom of thought facilitating protestant europe s rapid intellectual advancement in the one seven th and one eight th centuries giving rise to the age of reason in reaction to the protestant reformation the catholic reformation too was a part of this intellectual advancement for example through its scholastic jesuit order it would also be accurate to consider martin luther one of the founders of the german language on the darker side the absolute power of princes over their subjects increased considerably in the lutheran territories and catholics and protestants waged bitter and ferocious wars of religion against each other a century after luther s protests a revolt in bohemia ignited the thirty years war a catholic vs protestants war which ravaged much of germany and killed about a third of the population see also christianity christianity and anti semitism jesus real presence consubstantiation erasmus correspondents huldrych zwingli john calvin luther s seal lutheranism protestant reformation footnotes brecht vol one p four eight johann von staupitz at catholic encyclopedia brecht vol one p nine three brecht vol one pp one two six two seven luther s works vol one zero pp one two brecht vol one p one eight two brecht vol one p two zero zero an open letter to the christian nobility of the german nation concerning the reform of the christian estate one five two zero part one part two bainton pp one four two four four letter nine nine one three to philipp melanchthon the protestant inquisition reformation intolerance and persecution by dave armstrong paul johnson a history of the jews one nine eight seven p two four two siemon netto uwe luther and the jews lutheran witness one two three two zero zero four no four one nine martin luther on the jews and their lies trans martin h bertram in luther s works philadelphia fortress press one nine seven one two six eight two seven one johnson two four two russell briese martin luther and the jews lutheran forum three four two zero zero zero no two three zero egil grislis martin luther and the jews consensus two seven two zero zero one no one six four exodus two two one eight j rg haustein martin luthers stellung zum zauber und hexenwesen dissertation berlin one nine nine zero p one five zero small catechism i b a cf brecht vol three pp three six nine seven nine the last written words of luther bibliography bainton roland h here i stand a life of martin luther new york penguin one nine nine five one nine five zero isbn zero four five two zero one one four six nine bornkamm heinrich luther in mid career one five two one one five three zero e theodore bachmann trans philadelphia fortress press one nine eight three isbn zero eight zero zero six zero six nine two two bornkamm heinrich luther s world of thought martin h bertram trans st louis concordia publishing house one nine five eight isbn zero seven five eight six zero eight three two two brecht martin martin luther three volumes james l schaaf trans philadelphia fortress press one nine eight five one nine nine three isbn zero eight zero zero six two eight one three six isbn zero eight zero zero six two eight one four four isbn zero eight zero zero six two eight one five two dickens a g martin luther and the reformation new york harper minneapolis fortress press one nine five seven cd rom edition two zero zero one macculloch diarmaid the reformation europe s house divided one four nine zero one seven zero zero london bbc books two zero zero three isbn zero seven one three nine nine three seven zero seven manns peter martin luther an illustrated biography new york crossroad publishing co one nine eight two isbn zero eight two four five zero five one zero seven marty martin martin luther a penguin life new york penguin two zero zero four isbn zero six seven zero zero three two seven two seven nohl frederick luther biography of a reformer st louis concordia publishing house two zero zero three isbn zero seven five eight six zero six five one six oberman heiko a luther man between god and the devil new york doubleday one nine eight nine isbn zero three eight five four two two seven eight four oberman heiko a the roots of anti semitism in the age of renaissance and reformation james i porter trans philadelphia fortress press one nine eight four isbn zero eight zero zero six zero seven zero nine zero plass ewald m this is luther a character study st louis concordia publishing house one nine four eight reprint one nine eight four isbn zero five seven zero zero three nine four two eight reu john michael luther and the scriptures columbus ohio the wartburg press one nine four four reprint st louis concordia publishing house one nine eight zero reu john michael luther s german bible an historical presentation together with a collection of sources columbus ohio the lutheran book concern one nine three four reprint st louis concordia publishing house one nine eight four ritter gerhard luther his life and work john riches trans new york harper luther and the jews lutheran witness one two three two zero zero four no four one six one nine tjernagel neelak s martin luther and the jewish people milwaukee northwestern publishing house one nine eight five isbn zero eight one zero zero zero two one three two todd john m luther a life new york crossroad publishing company one nine eight two isbn zero eight two four five zero four seven nine eight also at westerholm stephen israel s law and the church s faith grand rapids william b eerdmans one nine eight eight isbn zero eight zero two eight zero two eight eight five filmography one nine five three martin luther theatrical film with niall macginnis as luther directed by irving pichel academy award nominations for black religionfacts com memorial foundation of saxony anhalt german english martin luther pbs movie luther theatrical release martin luther the reformer travelling exhibition new schaff herzog encyclopedia of religious knowledge article by john griffinon luther martin martin luther eine bibliographie german martin luther ron schuler s parlour tricks one bull necked german priest the seat of the reformation bbc news one four eight three births one five four six deaths anti semitism augustinians bible translators christian leaders german theologians lutherans protestant reformers revolutionaries this article is about the biblical figure for other meanings of moses see moses disambiguation moses or m she standard hebrew m e tiberian hebrew m eh arabic musa ethiopic musse son of amram and his wife jochebed a levite he is known as the legendary hebrew liberator leader lawgiver prophet and historian moses strikes water from the stone by bacchiacca moses in the bible moses with the tablets by rembrandt according to the hebrew bible moses led the israelites out of slavery in egypt and into the desert and received the torah of judaism from god on mount sinai the torah contains the life story of moses and his people until his death at the age of one two zero years according to accepted calculations in the year two four eight eight or one two seven two bce arising in part from his age but also because one two zero is elsewhere stated as the maximum age for noah s descendants genesis six three may you live to one two zero has become a common blessing among jews moses s greatest legacy was probably expounding the doctrine of monotheism which was not widely accepted at the time codifying it in jewish religion with the one st commandment and punishing polytheists he is revered as a prophet in judaism christianity and islam the birth of moses occurred at a time when the current egyptian pharaoh had commanded that all male children born to hebrew slaves should be killed by drowning in the nile river the torah leaves the identity of this pharaoh unstated but he is widely believed to be ramses ii other earlier pharaohs have also been suggested including a hyksos pharaoh or one shortly after the hyksos had been expelled the finding of moses by giovanni battista tiepolo the finding of moses by edwin long jochebed the wife and paternal aunt of the levite amram bore a son and kept him concealed for three months when she could keep him hidden no longer rather than deliver him to be killed she set him adrift on the nile river in a small craft of bulrushes coated in pitch the daughter of pharaoh discovered the baby and adopted him as her son and named him moses considered to mean to draw out by biblical account moses sister miriam observed the progress of the tiny boat miriam then asked pharaoh s daughter if she would like a hebrew woman to nurse the baby thereafter jochebed was employed as the child s nurse and he grew and was brought to pharaoh s daughter and became her son when moses reached adulthood he went one day to see how his brethren slaves to the egyptians fared seeing an egyptian mistreating a hebrew he killed the egyptian and hid his body in the sand supposing that no one who would be disposed to reveal the matter knew of it the next day seeing two hebrews quarreling he endeavored to separate them whereupon the hebrew who was wronging the other taunted moses for slaying the egyptian moses soon discovered from a higher source that the affair was known and that pharaoh was likely to put him to death for it he therefore made his escape to the sinai peninsula and settled with hobab or jethro priest of midian whose daughter zipporah he in due time married there he sojourned forty years following the occupation of a shepherd during which time his son gershom was born moses is also said to have had an ethiopian wife according to numbers one two one however the one one th century talmudic commentator rashi stated that this is merely a reference to the beauty of zipporah one day as moses led his flock to mount horeb he saw a bush burning without being consumed when he turned aside to look more closely at the marvel god spoke to him from the bush revealing his name to moses in the time of emperor constantine mount horeb was identified with mount sinai but scholars think it was located much farther north god also commissioned him to go to egypt and deliver his fellow hebrews from their bondage he then returned to egypt moses was met on his arrival in egypt by his elder brother aaron and gained a hearing with his oppressed brethren it was a more difficult matter however to persuade pharaoh to let the hebrews depart this was not accomplished until god sent ten plagues upon the egyptians these plagues culminated in the slaying of the egyptian first borns whereupon such terror seized the egyptians that they ordered the hebrews to leave the long procession moved slowly and found it necessary to encamp three times before passing the egyptian frontier some believe at the great bitter lake while others propose sites as far south as the northern tip of the red sea meanwhile pharaoh had a change of heart and was in pursuit of them with a large army shut in between this army and the sea the israelites despaired but god divided the waters so that they passed safely across on dry ground when the egyptian army attempted to follow god permitted the waters to return upon them and drown them following this according to the last chapters of exodus the tabernacle was constructed the priestly law ordained the plan of encampment arranged both for the levites and the non priestly tribes and the tabernacle consecrated moses in jewish thought there is a wealth of stories and additional information about moses in the jewish genre of rabbinical exegesis known as midrash as well as in the primary works of the jewish oral law the mishnah and the talmud moses in christian thought for christians moses mentioned more often in the new testament than any other old testament figure is often a symbol of the contrast between traditional judaism and the teachings of jesus new testament writers often made comparison of jesus words and deeds with moses in order to explain jesus mission in the book of acts for example the rejection of moses by the jews when they worshipped the golden calf is likened to the rejection of jesus also by the jews moses also figures into several of jesus messages when he met the pharisee nicodemus at night in the third chapter of john he compares moses lifting up of the bronze serpent in the wilderness which any israelite could look upon and be healed to his own lifting up by his death and resurrection for the people to look upon and be healed in the sixth chapter jesus responds to the people s claim that moses provided them manna in the wilderness by saying that it was not moses but god who provided calling himself the bread of life jesus states that he is now provided to feed god s people moses is also regarded as a symbol of the law and so he is presented in all three gospel accounts of the transfiguration in matthew one seven mark nine and luke nine respectively moses in mormon thought members of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints acknowledge moses as a prophet and as the great law giver for israel latter day saints believe that in one eight three six moses appeared to joseph smith jr at the kirtland temple in kirtland ohio and gave him the keys for the gathering of the twelve tribes of israel moses in islamic thought in the qur an the holy book of islam the life of moses musa is narrated and recounted more than any other prophet recognized in islam although the qur an reiterates what was available and currently present in jewish scripture many differences can be found with many details introduced moses in the bah faith bah s believe that moses was a manifestation of god or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the word of god progressively for a gradually maturing humanity in this way moses shares an exalted station with abraham krishna buddha zoroaster jesus muhammad the b b and the founder of the bah faith bah u ll h bah scripture often refers to moses using the traditional islamic designation he who conversed with god textual origin of the torah it has been traditionally assumed that moses received from god and subsequently transcribed all or almost all of the torah and this is still the view of most christians and most of orthodox judaism however many liberal scholars following the practice of higher criticism have become convinced that this work in the form we know it today was edited together from several earlier sources this idea is discussed in the entry on the documentary hypothesis moses in history skeptical historians generally called biblical minimalists suggest that moses never actually existed as a historical figure and that the exodus is mythical on the other hand historical records are so fragmentary that extra biblical records of moses may have been long lost for example if the exodus occurred during the end of the hyksos era in egypt one six th century bc as some scholars believe then any hyksos records of moses would have been deliberately destroyed by victorious egyptians as they drove the hyksos out of egypt destruction of unfavorable records by unsympathetic pharaohs and even mass obliteration of cartouches from monuments is known to have occurred at several epochs in ancient egyptian history known extra biblical references to moses date from many centuries after his supposed lifetime whether or not they are reliant on jewish tradition or also have access to additional sources is unknown polyhistor flavius josephus philo and manetho refer to him as do others also of course there are the above mentioned stories in the mishna and qur an see the article on the bible and history in the three rd century bc manetho a hellenistic egyptian chronicler and priest alleged that moses was not a jew but an egyptian renegade priest called osarseph and portrayed the exodus as the expulsion of a leper colony a similar assertion is made by the roman historian tacitus in the book five of his histories even if moses is accepted as a historical figure various aspects of the biblical tale can be re interpreted manetho s claim that moses was an egyptian is quite plausible it has been suggested that he may have been an egyptian nobleman or prince influenced by the religion of aten see freud s theory below or simply sympathetic to hebrew culture moses is an egyptian name meaning son and was often used in pharaohs names as in tut moses the hebrews might have fabricated the bulrushes story along the lines of the tales of sargon of akkad mesopotamian or oedipus greek to legitimize his position on the other hand infants were sometimes abandoned by the lower classes in ancient times and moshe is a hebrew word meaning one who draws water dating the exodus has also proved challenging views include it occurred around the end of the hyksos era as expressed above it occurred about one four two zero bc since records exist of habiru invasions of canaan forty years later this theory fits well the modern idea that the historical persona of moses was the early one five th century bc crown prince of egypt called ramose who also disappeared from egyptian records around the time of queen hatshepsut s death or it occurred during the one three th century bc as the pharaoh during most of that time rameses ii is commonly considered to be a pharaoh with whom moses squabbled either as the pharaoh of the exodus himself or the preceding pharaoh of the oppression who is said to have commissioned the hebrews to build for pharaoh treasure cities pithom and raamses these cities are known to have been built under both seti i and rameses ii possibly making his successor merneptah pharaoh of the exodus this is considered plausible by those who view the famed stele of merneptah s five th year ca one two zero eight bc claiming that israel is wasted bare of seed as propaganda covering up his own loss of an army in the sea a more recent and controversial view places moses as a noble in the court of the pharaoh akhenaten see below many scholars from sigmund freud to joseph campbell suggest that moses may have fled egypt after akhenaten s death ca one three five eight bc when much of the pharaoh s monotheistic reforms were being violently reversed the principal ideas behind this theory are the monotheistic religion of akhenaten being a possible predecessor to moses monotheism and a contemporaneous collection of amarna letters written by nobles to akhenaten amarna was akhenaten s capital city which describe raiding bands of habiru attacking the egyptian territories in mesopotamia transformations of myth through time joseph campbell p eight seven nine zero harper reed sea through which the egyptian chariots could not penetrate the manna which god bestowed on the hungry israelites may have been the secretion of the hammada shrub and the swallowing of korah numbers one six could have been an earthquake according to tsunami experts the massive volcanic eruption on the greek island of santorini in one six zero zero bc could have generated a giant tidal wave or tsunami that struck the nile delta parting of the sea triggered the ten plaques during the time of moses escape from egypt for more information visit http www bbc co uk religion programmes moses all the evidences are based on scientific facts and findings and not based on religion there is also a psychoanalytical interpretation of moses life put forward by sigmund freud in his last book moses and monotheism in one nine three seven freud postulated that moses was an egyptian nobleman who adhered to the monotheism of akhenaten freud also believed that moses was murdered in the wilderness producing a collective sense of patricidal guilt which has been at the heart of judaism ever since judaism had been a religion of the father christianity became a religion of the son he wrote a recent alternative suggestion resulting from interpreting biblical and egyptian history by egyptologist ahmed osman proposes that moses and akhenaten are the same person moses and akhenaten dec two zero zero two opponents of this view point to the fact that the religion of the torah seems very different to atenism in everything except the central feature of devotion to a single god several professors of archaeology claim that many stories in the old testament including important chronicles about moses solomon and others were actually made up for the first time by scribes hired by king josiah seven th century bc in order to rationalize monotheistic belief in yahweh and that no surviving written records from egypt assyria etc refer to the stories of the bible or its main characters before six five zero bc such claims are detailed in who were the early israelites by william g dever william b eerdmans publishing co grand rapids mi two zero zero three another such book by neil a silberman and colleagues is the bible unearthed simon and schuster new york two zero zero one traditionalists point out that many of the details of the pentateuch are consistent with the time period such as the price of a slave three zero shekels as opposed to around six zero at the time of the babylonian captivity the practice of blood covenants and the discovery of what appear to be chariot wheels on the bottom of the red sea skeptics view most of these as inconclusive or otherwise consequential ethical dilemmas if the bible gives an accurate description of moses views then by modern standards some of his commands might amount to calls for murder war crimes or slavery for instance according to numbers three one one five one eight he called for the massacre of boys and the enslavement of female children to israelite veterans of the midian war kill every male among the little ones and kill every woman that hath known man by lying with him but all the little girls among the women that have not known a man by lying with him keep alive for yourselves notwithstanding modern perceptions of morality or ethics moses s commands to the children of israel were received from the almighty and are thus the definition of morality versus an alignment with previously set standards for those jews who practice judaism as well as some christians the five books of moses are holy books revealed by god and the message within them is eternal for unitarian universalists and other liberal movements it is regarded as a sacred text but not as a divinely revealed work adherents of all these faiths understand the serious ethical dilemmas that arise when reading certain parts of the bible as such jews and christians have developed a number of responses to understanding such texts there are two basic positions that one can assume when approaching such texts both of which offer a variety of responses one using the traditional approach was originally called a fundamentalist the fundamentalist term has evolved to reflect other meanings however including that of a person with an unthinking devotion to an agenda without regard to reason the traditional approach assumes that biblical characters the situations described and the words said took place as the bible says the bible is believed to be divinely revealed truth unique among historical texts this view does not exempt humans from a carefully reasoned examination of the scriptures however and in fact requires it translation historical context and assumptions and the definition and applicability of terms used in the original text not only affect what the bible says they define it a fundamentalist may believe there is one valid source organization person etc for the interpretation of the truths of the bible the traditional christian view implies however that a literal interpretation of the bible is an oxymoron the important characteristic of the traditional christian view comes from the bible itself that scripture is useful in the context of personal applicability two timothy three one six one seven thus blind adherence to an organization s or one s own static interpretation is rejected in this view as devotion to the living god prohibits devotion to a static ideology the traditional christian view implies that the bible is unique among texts in its truthful nature lack of falsehood while simultaneously implying that truth is meaningful only in living application through a personal relationship to god attempting to adhere to a static set of moral laws is believed to lead to death see ie romans seven the traditional christian believes one arrives at this view by answering the call of god who speaks to all mankind through revelation where revelation is never contradictory and consists of both the bible and experience gained through life when faced with an ethical dilemma in moses s writings a traditional christian might employ critical examination of available historical context critical examination of how the writing should be translated and critical examination of his or her understanding of god s nature to determine what the passage means all the while believing the bible contains no falsehood for an example of this process applied to the midian war see this exploration of moses s writing from a traditional christian point of view moses and the midianites moses in the traditional christian view was considered a good man not because of his ethics but because of his trust in god in this view only jesus was a good man for what he did the rest of mankind including moses and his contemporaries can only become good by believing and trusting god traditional christianity believes that one who honestly looks for god will find god as this is stated in the bible and that honest rational exploration yields the bible as the most rational explanation for human experience liberal christian denominations and congregations reject this view they hold that the texts of the bible were edited together from a number of sources over a long period of time and the authorship and timing of the torah is debated in this view the situations described in the bible do not necessarily represent divinely inspired truth but instead represent the views of the editors of the bible the horned moses moses with horns by michaelangelo exodus three four two nine three five tells that after meeting with god the skin of moses face became radiant frightening the israelites and leading moses to wear a veil jonathan kirsch in his book moses a life thought that since he subsequently had to wear a veil to hide it moses face was disfigured by a sort of divine radiation burn this story has led to one longstanding tradition that moses grew horns this is derived from a mistranslation of the hebrew phrase karnu panav the root may be read as either horn or ray as in ray of light panav translates as his face if interpreted correctly those two words form an expression which means that he was enlightened and many rabbinical studies explain that the knowledge that was revealed to him made his face metaphorically shine with enlightenment and not that it suddenly sported a pair of horns the septuagint properly translates the hebrew word as was glorified but jerome translated it as cornuta horned and it was the latter image that became the more popular this tradition survived from the first centuries ad well into the renaissance many artists including michelangelo in a famed sculpture depicted moses with horns moses in popular media moses appears as the central character in the one nine five six cecil b demille movie the ten commandments he is played by charlton heston moses appears as the central character as well in the one nine nine eight dreamworks pictures animated movie the prince of egypt he is voiced by val kilmer in the play abridged africa by english playwright thomas wooltorton the main character ebert ironically gives a pea he finds floating in the nile river the name moses see also the exodus aaron joshua biblical figures list of founders of major religions passage of red sea code of hammurabi manu smriti external links difficult texts by bonna devora haberman how do we study difficult jewish texts without apologizing for justifying or historicizing them unitarian universalist approach to reading the bible prof e anati archaeological discoveries at har karkom by richard darlow puts forward the idea that moses was prince ramose moses prophesies concerning the tribulation of the latter days further reading ahmed osman moses and akhenaten the secret history of egypt at the time of the exodus december two zero zero two inner traditions international limited isbn one five nine one four three zero zero four six for further scripture on the transfiguration of moses see corinthians chapter three seven http scriptures lds org two cor three christian prophets islamic prophets torah people characters in paradise lost two one zero m s seven four six zero ft s saint louis five one five zero m s one eight two zero zero zero ft s vicksburg one seven zero five zero m s six zero two zero zero zero ft s baton rouge one two seven four zero m s four five zero zero zero zero ft s watershed two nine eight zero zero zero zero km one one five one zero zero zero mi the mississippi river derived from the old ojibwe word misi ziibi meaning great river gichi ziibi big river at its headwaters is the longest river in the united states the second longest is the missouri river which flows into the mississippi taken together they form the largest river system in north america if measured from the head of the missouri the length of the missouri mississippi combination is approximately six two seven zero km three nine zero zero miles the largest of many large tributaries on the river is the ohio river geography the source of the mississippi river on the edge of lake itasca with its source lake itasca at one four seven five feet four five zero m above sea level in itasca state park located in clearwater county minnesota the river falls to seven two five feet two two zero m just below saint anthony falls in minneapolis the mississippi is joined by the illinois river and the missouri river near saint louis and by the ohio at cairo illinois the arkansas river joins the mississippi in the state of arkansas the atchafalaya river in louisiana is a major distributary of the mississippi the mississippi drains most of the area between the rocky mountains and the appalachian mountains except for the area drained by the great lakes it runs through or borders ten states in the united states minnesota wisconsin iowa illinois missouri kentucky arkansas tennessee mississippi and louisiana before emptying into the gulf of mexico about one zero zero miles one six zero km downstream from new orleans measurements of the length of the mississippi from lake itasca to the gulf of mexico vary but the epa s number is two three two zero miles three seven three three km a raindrop falling in lake itasca would arrive at the gulf of mexico in about nine zero days looking down on the great river road in wisconsin with minnesota in the distance across the mississippi river the river is divided into the upper mississippi from its source south to the ohio river and the lower mississippi from the ohio to its mouth near new orleans the upper mississippi is further divided into three sections the headwaters from the source to saint anthony falls a series of man made lakes between minneapolis and st louis and the middle mississippi a relatively free flowing river downstream of the confluence with the missouri river at st louis a series of two seven locks and dams on the upper mississippi most of which were built in the one nine three zero s is designed primarily to maintain a nine foot two seven m channel for commercial barge traffic the lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing the dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it no flood control is intended during periods of high flow the gates some of which are submersible are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function below st louis the mississippi is relatively free flowing although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams through a natural process known as deltaic switching the lower mississippi river has shifted its final course to the ocean every thousand years or so this occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment raise the river s level causing it to eventually find a steeper route to the gulf of mexico the abandoned distributary diminishes in volume and forms what are known as bayous this process has over the past five zero zero zero years caused the coastline of south louisiana to advance gulfward from one five to five zero miles see mississippi river delta other changes in the course of the river have occurred because of earthquakes along the new madrid fault zone which lies near the cities of memphis and st louis three earthquakes in one eight one one and one eight one two estimated at approximately eight on the richter scale were said to have temporarily reversed the course of the mississippi these earthquakes also created reelfoot lake in tennessee from the altered landscape near the river the faulting is related to an aulacogen geologic term for a failed rift that formed at the same time as the gulf of mexico davenport iowa is the only city over two zero zero zero zero people bordering the upper mississippi that has no permanent floodwall or levee the problems associated with this can be seen every so often as this thriving area of four zero zero zero zero zero inhabitants is subjected to massive flooding watershed mississippi watershed the mississippi river has the third largest drainage basin catchment in the world exceeded in size only by the watersheds of the amazon river and congo river it drains four one percent of the four eight contiguous states of the united states the basin covers more than one two four five zero zero zero square miles three two two five zero zero zero km including all or parts of three one states and two canadian provinces information and a map of the mississippi s watershed history the word mississippi comes from the ojibwe name for the river messipi or misi ziibi which means great river or from the algonquin missi sepe great river poetically father of waters the ojibwe called lake itasca the source lake of the mississippi river omashkoozo zaaga igan elk lake and the river flowing out of it as omashkoozo ziibi elk river after flowing into lake bemidji the ojibwe called the river bemijigamaa ziibi river from the traversing lake after flowing into cass lake the river again changes its name to miskwaawaakokaa ziibi red cedar river only to change its name again after flowing into lake winnibigoshish as gichi ziibi big river the ojibwe name misi ziibi applied only to the portion below the crow wing river but the ever changing names of the river seemed illogical to the english speakers so after the expedition by henry schoolcraft the longest stream above the juncture of the crow wing river and gichi ziibi was named mississippi river on may eight one five four one hernando de soto became the first recorded european to reach the mississippi river which he called rio de espiritu santo river of the holy spirit french explorers louis joliet and jacques marquette began exploring the mississippi which they knew by the sioux name ne tongo which like the ojibwe name means big river on may one seven one six seven three in one six eight two ren robert cavelier sieur de la salle and henri de tonty claimed the entire mississippi river valley for france calling it louisiana for king louis xiv in one seven one eight new orleans was established by jean baptiste le moyne de bienville france lost all its territories on the north american mainland as a result of the french and indian war the treaty of paris one seven six three gave great britain rights to all land in the valley east of the mississippi and spain rights to land west of the mississippi spain also ceded florida to england to regain cuba which the english occupied during the war britain then divided the territory into east florida and west florida in the second treaty of paris one seven eight three which ended the american revolution britain ceded west florida back to spain to regain the bahamas which spain had occupied during the war spain then had control over the river south of three two three zero north latitude and in what is known as the spanish conspiracy hoped to gain greater control of louisiana and all of the west these hopes ended when spain was pressured into signing pinckney s treaty in one seven nine five france reacquired louisiana from spain in the secret treaty of san ildefonso in one eight zero zero the united states bought the territory from france in the louisiana purchase of one eight zero three the river was noted for the number of bandits which called its islands and shores home including john murrell who was a well known murderer horse stealer and slave re trader his notoriety was such that author mark twain devoted an entire chapter to him in his book life on the mississippi and murrell was rumored to have an island headquarters on the river at island three seven shifting sand bars in the mississippi such as these in arkansas and mississippi made navigation in the river difficult twain s book also extensively covered the thrilling steamboat races which took place from one eight three zero to one eight seven zero on the river before more modern boating methods replaced the steamer it was published first in serial form in harper s weekly in seven parts in one eight seven five and was intended to chronicle the rapidly disappearing steamboat culture the full version including a passage from the unfinished huckleberry finn and works from other authors was published by james r osgood one eight one two in one eight one five america retained control over the mississippi by scoring a decisive victory over the british at the battle of new orleans part of the war of one eight one two the river was also a decisive part of the american civil war the union s vicksburg campaign called for union control of the lower mississippi river the union victory at the battle of vicksburg in one eight six three was pivotal to the union s final victory of the civil war in one nine zero zero chicago built the chicago sanitary and ship canal to link the great lakes to the mississippi the canal allowed chicago to flush its waste down the mississippi rather than having it pollute its own lake michigan waterfront the canal also provided a shipping route between the great lakes and the mississippi the sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between minnesota and wisconsin known as lake pepin ralph samuelson of lake city minnesota created and refined his skiing technique in late june and early july of one nine two two he later performed the first water ski jump in one nine two five and was pulled along at eight zero miles per hour one two eight km h by a curtiss flying boat later that year in the spring of one nine two seven the river broke out of its banks in one four five places during the great mississippi flood of one nine two seven and inundated two seven zero zero zero square miles seven zero zero zero zero km to a depth of up to three zero feet one zero m the great flood of one nine nine three is considered the most devastating flood to occur in the u s in modern history in two zero zero two martin strel swam the entire length of the river maintaining a navigation channel the task of maintaining a navigation channel on the mississippi is the responsibility of the u s army corps of engineers which began as early as one eight two nine removing snags closing off secondary channels and excavating rocks and sandbars in one eight two nine the corps surveyed the two major obstacles on the upper mississippi the des moines rapids and the rock island rapids where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock the des moines rapids were about one one miles one eight km long and just above the mouth of the des moines river at keokuk the rock island rapids were between rock island and moline both rapids were considered virtually impassable the lock chain of rocks an exposure of bedrock in the river north of st louis lock and dam no one was completed in minneapolis in one nine one seven and lock and dam no two at hastings minnesota was completed in one nine three zero prior to the one nine two seven flood the corps primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river it was thought that the river s velocity would scour off bottom sediments deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding the one nine two seven flood proved this so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to make their own levee breaks to relieve the tension of the rising river the corps now actively creates floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes the main floodways are the birds point new madrid floodway the morganza floodway which directs floodwaters down the atchafalaya river and the bonnet carr spillway which directs water to lake pontchartrain the old river control structure also serve as a major floodgates that can be opened to prevent flooding some of the pre one nine two seven strategy is still in use today the corps actively cuts the necks of horseshoe bends allowing the water to move faster and thus lower flood heights the rivers and harbors act of one nine three zero authorized the nine foot two seven m channel project which called for a navigation channel nine feet two seven m deep and four zero zero feet one two zero m wide to accommodate multiple barge tows this was achieved by a series of locks and dams and by dredging twenty three new locks and dams were built on the upper mississippi in the one nine three zero s in addition to the three already in existence two new locks were built north of lock and dam no one at saint anthony falls in the one nine six zero s extending the head of navigation for commercial traffic several miles but few barges go past the city of saint paul today the mississippi river just north of st louis until the one nine five zero s there was no dam below lock and dam two six at alton illinois lock and dam two seven which consists of a low water dam and an eight four mile one four km long canal was added in one nine five three just below the confluence with the missouri river primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at st louis but also to protect the st louis city water intakes during times of low water dam two six at alton illinois which had structural problems was replaced by the mel price lock and dam in one nine nine zero the original lock and dam two six was demolished major cities along the river minneapolis minnesota st paul minnesota davenport iowa st louis missouri memphis tennessee baton rouge louisiana new orleans louisiana notable bridges stone arch bridge a former great northern railroad now pedestrian bridge in minneapolis and national historic engineering landmark washington avenue bridge connects the east bank and west bank portions of the university of minnesota s minneapolis campus black hawk bridge connecting lansing allamakee county iowa to rural crawford county wisconsin locally referred to as the lansing bridge julien dubuque bridge a bridge connecting dubuque iowa and east dubuque illinois that is a national historic landmark interstate seven four bridge connecting moline illinois to bettendorf iowa is a twin suspension bridge also known historically as the iowa illinois memorial bridge rock island centennial bridge connecting rock island illinois to davenport iowa santa fe bridge in fort madison iowa the largest double deck swing span bridge in the world also listed as a national historic landmark chain of rocks bridge a bridge on the northern edge of st louis missouri famous for a two two degree bend halfway across and the most famous alignment of historic us six six across the mississippi eads bridge a bridge connecting st louis missouri and east st louis illinois the first major steel bridge in the world and also a national historic landmark poplar street bridge a bridge connecting downtown st louis missouri with east st louis illinois that carries three interstates and a u s highway the bridge is one of the busiest on the river hernando de soto bridge carries interstate four zero to connect memphis tennessee and west memphis arkansas listed in guinness book of world records for its unique structural letter shape harahan bridge a trestle railroad bridge that connects memphis tennessee to west memphis arkansas frisco bridge was the longest cantilever truss steel railroad bridge in north america when it opened on may one two one eight nine two that connects memphis tennessee and west memphis arkansas memphis arkansas memorial bridge the longest warren truss style bridge in the united states which carries interstate five five to connect memphis tennessee and west memphis arkansas also listed on the national register of historic places greenville bridge cable stayed bridge under construction between greenville mississippi with arkansas vicksburg bridge connecting vicksburg mississippi with tallulah louisiana natchez vidalia bridge connecting natchez mississippi with vidalia louisiana horace wilkinson bridge baton rouge louisiana luling bridge hale boggs memorial bridge near new orleans a cable stayed bridge carrying interstate three one zero across the mississippi connecting the towns of luling and destrehan louisiana huey p long bridge jefferson parish louisiana crescent city connection new orleans la popular culture nicknames due to its size and historical significance the mississippi probably has more nicknames than any other river among these are the father of waters the gathering of waters the big muddy more commonly associated with the missouri river big river old man river the great river body of a nation the mighty mississippi el grande de soto the muddy mississippi literature confidence man the stage and movie musical show boat s central musical piece is the blues influenced ballad ol man river ferde grofe composed a set of movements based on the lands the river travels through in his mississippi suite the song when the levee breaks made famous in the version performed by led zeppelin on the album led zeppelin iv was composed by memphis minnie mccoy in one nine two nine after the great mississippi flood of one nine two seven slang the mississippi is probably the river meant in the phrase sold down the river as a reference to slavery down the mississippi was farther into the deep south and plantation country notes median of the seven three zero five daily mean streamflows recorded by the usgs for the period one nine seven eight one nine nine eight median of the seven three zero five daily mean streamflows recorded by the usgs for the period one nine seven eight one nine nine eight at vicksburg the discharge is probably even higher further downstream at natchez but data for natchez were not recorded further downstream from natchez approximately two five percent of the water discharge of the mississippi is diverted into the atchafalaya river and further discharge is lost as the river becomes a delta in louisiana median of the one eight two six daily mean streamflows recorded by the usgs for the period one nine seven eight one nine eight three at baton rouge sources see also mississippi river delta mississippi embayment mississippi river ontario upper mississippi river national wildlife and fish refuge external links general information about the mississippi river life on the river with david estrada a view of the river from a modern day towboater s perspective geography and biology of the mississippi river national archives footage of the one nine two seven flood friends of the upper mississippi river refuges the nature conservancy s great rivers partnership american heritage rivers mississippi river this article is about alleged secretive government departments for the movie see men in black film for other uses of the term see men in black disambiguation in ufo conspiracy theories the term men in black mibs also known as men in gray are alleged to be men dressed in black suits claiming to be government agents who attempt to harass or threaten ufo witnesses into silence all mib are not necessarily garbed in dark suits writes jerome clark the term is a generic one used to refer to any unusual threatening or strangely behaved individual whose appearance on the scene can be linked in some fashion with a ufo sighting clark three one seven one eight the phenomenon was initially and most frequently reported in the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s it is contemporaneous with many other conspiracy theories overview there are various types of mib encounters but they typically follow a pattern after a presumably credible witness reports or witnesses a ufo sighting the witness is visited by a man or men who are often dressed in black suits lending the reports their name the men suggest or the witnesses assume that they are government agents and often flash convincing looking badges and demand that the witness recant their story or hand over photographs or physical evidence of a ufo if the witness refuses or questions their credentials they often subtly or overtly threaten the witness or their family with bodily harm or other hardship the men are often reported driving large late model cars typically cadillacs in rare cases they are reportedly seen in black helicopters while it is not known if these threats have ever been realized there are largely unsubstantiated reports of hardships and harassment leveled against those who resist the number of claimants of mib encounters is unknown and might be rather small chevon wallace writes that some of those who write about ufos and other strange phenomena rather casually mention countless cases where people have been visited by men in black in reality these countless cases are difficult to pin down in fact there really seems to be a rather small number of mib cases where there are any details available at all appearance asian appearance though he also thought this description was inadequate and hinted that some mib might not be human some accounts record agents appear to wear make up and even lipstick in an attempt to mask their inhuman appearances witnesses sometimes describe mib behavior as often odd or belligerent and threatening and are often noticeably unfamiliar with everyday common courtesies and civil behavior they are also recalled as often speaking in archaic or obscure forms of slang english or using odd sentence construction and grammar as if english were not their first language some have also claimed on a tv show that some mib agent s skin seemed to be semi transparent early accounts similarities between men in black accounts and earlier tales have been noted by folklorist thomas e bullard who argues that men in black step into the shoes vacated by angels and demons modified to reflect extraterrestrial rather than supernatural employment but clearly functionaries in the same mold even high gods like odin sometimes disguised themselves and roamed the earth to dispense justice or stir up strife the devil of folklore sometimes rides in a black carriage the nearest thing to a cadillac clark three two three while bullard and others have simply noted the similarities and differences some ufologists such as john keel have argued there are explicit connections between older and more recent accounts of black clad figures that the demons of old and the men in black of today are one and the same jerome clark cites william woods s one nine seven three work a history of the devil which notes sometimes the devil wears green or gray but mostly he is dressed in black and always in the fashions of the day clark three one two woods relates an account from norway in one seven three zero a thirteen year old girl told investigators that some years earlier she had accompanied her grandmother on a trip to meet the devil on their way they met three men dressed in black whom the grandmother referred to as grandfather s boys once they arrived and met the devil grandmother called him grandfather ibid mary jones in wales in the early one nine zero zero s there was a religious revival centered around thirty eight year old mary jones though in some ways very different from modern ufo or mib reports this account is intriguing because it is perhaps the earliest account of spooky black clad figures explicitly associated with inexplicable lights reported in the skies beyond the usual events associated with revivals jones was accompanied by mysterious lights evans one one four in the night skies which evans reports were widely visible to many reputable witnesses and which follow ed preced ed or accompanie d mrs jones on her journeys evans one one nine writer breiah g evans asserted that he saw these aerial lights himself residents furthermore reported encounters with a number of dread apparitions associated with jones revival evans one one four one of these dread apparitions has some similarities to later men in black accounts in the neighborhood dwells an exceptionally intelligent young woman of the peasant class whose bedroom has been visited three nights in succession at midnight by a man dressed in black this figure has related a message to the girl which however she is forbidden to relate evans one one seven one one eight evans goes on to note that a similar apparition was seen from different standpoints but simultaneously by two witnesses one of the witnesses startled and uttered an involuntary prayer immediately one of mrs jones lights appeared above a white ray darting from which pierced the figure which thereupon vanished evans one one eight it s worth noting however that these welsh accounts also feature elements not typically featured in modern ufo or men in black accounts for example one of the dread apparitions was said to transform into an enormous black dog evans one one seven modern accounts maury island incident the first mib arguably the first mib report was made shortly after june two one one nine four seven on that date seaman harold dahl claimed to have seen six ufos near maury island which is actually a peninsula of vashon island in puget sound near tacoma washington usa dahl his son two other men and dahl s dog were on the boat dahl took a number of photographs of the ufos and reported that one ufo shed some type of hot slag onto his boat the slag he said struck and killed his dog and injured his son the next morning dahl reported a man arrived at his home and invited him to breakfast at a nearby diner dahl accepted the invitation he described the man as imposing over six feet tall and muscular and wearing a black suit the man drove a new one nine four seven buick and dahl assumed he was a military or government representative while the two men ate dahl claimed the man told him details of the ufo sighting though dahl had not related his account publicly furthermore the man gave dahl a nonspecific warning which dahl took as a threat that his family might be harmed if he related details of the sighting some confusion and debate over dahl s statements has occurred dahl would later claim the ufo sighting was a hoax but he has also claimed the sighting was accurate but that he had claimed it was a hoax to avoid bringing harm to his family bender and barker alfred k bender seized on dahl s story and printed it in his newsletter in one nine five three bender claimed three men in black visited him and warned him to stop his ufo research bender s account was popularized in gray barker s one nine five six book they knew too much about flying saucers historian mike dash writes that one of the first visits from the men in black occurred in one nine five three when albert k bender director of the international flying saucer bureau the largest early ufo organization was visited by three dark suited men who he said first confided the solution of the ufo mystery to him then threatened him with prison if he told the secret to anyone else bender was so scared by the visit that he closed down his bureau and ceased all his active involvement in the world of ufology dash one six one bender s insistence that he was ordered quiet would become an important feature of ufo lore the tale was initially spread by bender s friend writer gray barker clark writes that bender s silencing obsessed barker who would go on to become a prominent writer editor and publisher in the fringes of saucerdom clark three one two barker speculated that the silence group might not be human and advised ufo researchers to be cautious the one nine nine eight issue of skeptical inquirer magazine casts a different light on barker the issue featured john c sherwood s article gray barker my friend the myth maker which suggests that deliberate hoaxes were responsible for some early mib stories sherwood says he was part of the hoax and cites his own youthful amorality and an eagerness to see his fiction published in that he wrote sensationalistic ufo accounts at barker s request barker had earlier published one of sherwood s tales which sherwood altered to give the fiction a factual veneer in a letter to sherwood barker wrote that saucer scoop was printing a piece on sherwood calling it a big deal on you suggesting you really were hushed by the blackmen i ll always be glad to print an article by you if you ll tell the real or made up story of how these strange forces made you quit you might as well go out of saucers in the usual syndrome the usual syndrome being warned to keep quiet by sinister men by the mid one nine five zero s writes clark the legend of the men in black had become fixed in the imaginations of ufology s more excitable followers clark three one five accounts of men in black have been reported since then and continue today dr herbert hopkins a detailed men in black account comes from one nine seven six as related by dr herbert hopkins of maine in late one nine seven five two men david stephens and glen gray had reported an odd ufo encounter to several people including hopkins some six months after speaking with stephens and gray hopkins took a telephone call at his home from a man who claimed to represent a ufo research group and who had heard that hopkins had spoken to the ufo witnesses the man asked to interview hopkins who agreed to the request just moments later the man knocked at the back door of hopkins home and hopkins let him in without asking his name the man wore a clean pressed black suit and white gloves and looked like an undertaker said hopkins dash one six one the man was pale and bald also lacking eyelashes and eyebrows his lips were bright red in a dull monotone voice the man asked hopkins about the tale related by stephens and gray hopkins began relating the account then at one point the man s gloved hand brushed against his face and smeared lipstick from his bright red mouth onto both the man s white gloves and his pale face this bizarre sight snapped hopkins from the trance like state he had been in since the man arrived and hopkins realized how profoundly strange the entire incident was then came the threats writes dash the man then made a coin that hopkins held dematerialize and then told him that no one on this plane sic will ever see that coin again seeming to suggest that the man had teleported the coin dash one six two the man then told hopkins to destroy his notes and tape recordings of his meetings with stephens and gray or hopkins own heart would disappear just as the coin had the man s voice slowed and he told hopkins my energy is running low must leave now goodbye ibid the man then walked slowly and stiffly out the backdoor towards a bright light hopkins never saw the man again dash does not note if hopkins did indeed destroy his notes regarding the ufo sighting peter rojcewicz peter rojcewicz reported a detailed men in black account which occurred while he was researching his ph d thesis in folklore like some other mib reports this one has been interpreted as having its origins not in physical reality but in an altered state of consciousness one afternoon in november one nine eight zero rojcewicz was in the library of the university of pennsylvania seated at a table near a large window without any sound to indicate that someone was approaching me from behind said rojcewicz i noticed from the corner of my eye what i supposed was a man s black pant leg he was wearing rather worn black leather shoes clark three two zero a tall slender man with deep set eyes and a dark complexion stood by the table after gazing out the window for a moment the man sat near rojcewicz his suit was somewhat dingy and oversized hanging loosely on his slim frame with a slight european accent the man asked what rojcewicz was doing he replied that he was researching similarities between ufo accounts and earlier tales from various folklore traditions this instigated a brief conversation about ufos the man asked if rojcewicz thought that ufos were real rojcewicz replied that he was less interested in the physical reality of ufos than he was in studying ufo accounts and stories from the perspective of a folklorist the man suddenly became angry shouting flying saucers are the most important fact of the century and you re not interested rojcewicz feared that the man was a lunatic and tried to calm him after which the man became silent the man then stood placed his hand on rojcewicz s shoulder and said something like go well in your purpose clark three two zero moments later rojcewicz grew frightened and anxious as he became aware of how profoundly strange the brief encounter had been i got up he wrote walked two steps in the direction he had left in and returned to my seat got up again i was highly excited and walked around to the stacks at the reference desk and nobody was behind the desk in fact i could see no one at all in the library i ve gone to graduate school and i ve never been in a library when there wasn t somebody there no one was even at the information desk across the room i was close to panicking and went quickly back to my desk i sat down and tried to calm myself in about an hour i rose to leave the library there were two librarians behind each of the two desks clark three two zero official interest clark cites an official response to mib reports which suggests that u s government officials gave some credence to accounts of harassment of ufo witnesses by persons claiming to be government officials in one nine six seven united states air force colonel george p freeman is quoted as saying we have checked a number of these cases by posing as air force officials and government agents they are committing a federal offense we sure would like to catch one clark three two one a classified u s air force memorandum from one nine six zero also reinforces the fact that there was high level interest in reports of impostors information not verfied has reached hq usaf that persons pretending to represent the air force or other defense establishments have contacted citizens who have sighted unidentified flying objects in one reported case an individual in civilian clothes who represented himself as member of norad demanded and received photos belonging to a private citizen in another a person in an air force uniform approached local police and other citizens who had sighted a ufo assembled them in a school room and told them that they should not talk to anyone about the sighting all military and civilian personnel and particularly information officers and ufo investigating officers who hear of such reports should immediately notify their local osi offices randles and hough one six zero the report of the condon committee devotes some eighteen pages to a ufo sighting case from one nine six five in which the witness rex heflin claimed to have been visited by two men who said they were norad officials heflin described as an california department of transportation on duty traffic investigator in santa ana california took three clear photographs of a metallic looking disk and a fourth photograph of what heflin said was its exhaust plumes on august three one nine six five heflin made multiple copies of the photos and tried to interest government officials or the mass media he met with limited interest from officials but the condon report does state however that popular interest was piqued and most of santa anna was saturated with the ufo pictures condon four four six on the evening of september two two heflin reported that two men claiming to be from norad arrived at the witnesses home and asked to borrow the original polaroid prints condon four four nine heflin turned the first three of the four photos over to the two men norad denied that any of their employees had ever visited heflin at least in any official capacity the three photos were not returned to heflin until two eight years later when in one nine nine three heflin received two phone calls from an unidentified woman telling him to check his mailbox where he found the three photos in an unmarked nine x one two inch manilla envelope citing inconsistencies in heflin s story the committee noted that the alleged norad episode is open to serious question but they also added that indications are that if the two visitors did in fact exist they were probably impostors condon four five zero ultimately the committee offered a somewhat inconsistent appraisal of the heflin case describing it overall as inconclusive and heflin s story as internally inconsistent condon four three seven but also noting that this case is still held to be of exceptional interest because it is so well documented condon four five four actuality the actuality of men in black has been the subject of debate no incontrovertible evidence has been presented in favor of mib s reality furthermore testimony of supposed witnesses is typically the only evidence presented in alleged mib encounters and eyewitness testimony however compelling it might seem can be notoriously unreliable and is therefore nearly always open to doubt indeed the involvement of mib is often used as an excuse for lack of evidence in claimed ufo encounters on the other hand as noted in col freeman s statement quoted above the u s air force seemed interested in the phenomenon and seemed to accept some reports as genuine or at least as intriguing the depth of the conspiracy theory leads some to believe that the mib s odd mannerisms and dress are due to the fact that they are aliens or alien human hybrids and that their job is to eliminate physical evidence of alien involvement on earth others believe that they are actual government agents who intentionally dress and act ridiculously in an attempt to get ufo witnesses to discredit themselves if they ever report such an encounter possible explanations men in black accounts often feature high strangeness or the oz factor the latter term coined by ufologist jenny randles both terms are used to describe a strange sensation of otherness or of a dreamlike dissociation that accompanies some ufo reports such reports have led to speculation that men in black accounts are not part of any objective reality but are rather best explained by altered states of consciousness such as fantasy prone personalities sleep paralysis hypnagogic states and the like in support of this hypothesis dash cites research by ufologist nigel watson which suggests that many men in black witnesses are often undergoing some sort of mental upheaval at the time of their encounter dash one six two furthermore dash also cites work by folklorist peter rojcewicz who himself encountered a possible mib in his university library after entering what appears to have been an altered state of consciousness dash four one six see above for an account of rojcewicz s encounter rojcewicz noted that many men in black accounts parallel tales of people encountering the devil neither men in black nor the devil are quite human and witnesses often discover this fact midway through an encounter the meaning of this parallel has been the subject of debate although the phenomenon was initially and most frequently reported in the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s some researchers john keel and others have suggested similarities between mib reports and earlier demonic accounts jerome clark writes that in keel s view mib are a ubiquitous presence in human history involved with the likes of such pivotal figures as thomas jefferson napoleon julius caesar and malcom x clark three one six keel also argues that the huge warren report contains multiple pieces of sworn testimony describing mib type men in the vicinity of dealey plaza in the confusion following the assassination of john f kennedy keel one one four more prosaically clark cites william l moore who asserts that the men in black are really government people in disguise members of a rather bizarre unit of air force intelligence known currently as the air force special activities center afsac as of one nine nine one the afsac headquartered in fort belvoir virginia and under the operational authority of air force intelligence command centered at kelly air force base in texas clark three two one two two curiously moore also reports that afsac was inspired by the tales of men in black from the one nine five zero s and had nothing to do with those early accounts though there were certainly earlier accounts clark credits john keel with disseminating the idea of ominous men in black to a wider audience beyond ufology and with inventing the term and its abbreviated form of mib clark three one five keel s paperback books sold well and certainly helped spread the idea of sinister men in black keel claims to have been followed or threatened by men in black on several occasions adaptations british rock band the stranglers by their own admission became obsessed with the men in black theory around one nine seven nine eight one culminating in the release of their concept album the gospel according to the meninblack they attributed the many calamities they suffered around the time deaths of road crew members theft of their equipment incarceration in jail various contractual and business disasters disappearance of master tapes of recordings electrical explosions in recording studios to the influence of the men in black incidentally this was one of the stranglers more poorly received albums the one nine eight four film brother from another planet by john sayles features two darkly dressed bounty hunters credited as men in black played by sayles and david strathairn searching harlem for a stranded alien the brother played by joe morton the enduring popularity of the men in black conspiracy theory led to the one nine nine zero s comic book series which in turn became the one nine nine seven film men in black starring will smith and tommy lee jones the movie spawned a sequel men in black ii and an animated television series intended for children grant morrison s run on the doom patrol comic featured the ominous men in green who warned their victim that he was lucky they weren t the men in mauve agent parcher in the movie a beautiful mind can also be seen as a fictional adaptation of the men in black the characters of jake blues and elwood blues played by john belushi and dan aykroyd in the one nine eight zero comedy movie the blues brothers can also be seen as a humorous spoof on the men in black given ackroyd s interest in ufos and related phenomena the agents of the matrix trilogy can also be seen as a fictional adaptation of the men in black the short story angel down sussex by kim newman is about an archetypal alien abduction in edwardian england described in terms appropriate to the period a significant role is played by the undertakers in smoked spectacles the alien conspiracy mythology of the x files portrayed several versions of men in black the first in the episode deep throat when a group of mibs threaten mulder and confiscate photos from roswell two satirical men in black played by jesse ventura and alex trebek are featured in the third season story jose chung s from outer space michael mckean played a man in black based at area five one in the episode dreamland and the character returned in jump the shark the lead character in the television series dark skies john loengard was for a short time a black dressed agent for a secret government agency called majestic one two which was involved in an extraterrestrial conspiracy a case about the mib conspiracy was presented on an episode of cbs without a trace in the episode the missing person claimed to be abducted by extraterrestrials who later implanted him with a tracking device the missing person also claimed to be chased by two men in black in the role playing game mage the ascension the men in black are a sub category of technocracy agents the role playing game delta green draws heavily from the men in black meme in the half life series the g man is a character that fits some characteristics of the men in black in the rpg first person shooter game deus ex the player encounters characters specifically called men in black and women who are used by the secret conspiracy group majestic one two many other parts of the mib mythos are also incorporated such as the silent black helicopters which shuttle the player around and the mib s have metallic echoing voices as they are sometimes said to in mib lore in the anime series serial experiments lain there are men in black that trail the titular character in the tv series stargate sg one the national intelligence division or nid is a men in black like organization which employs agents dressed in black suits and ties and works to cover up the existence of the stargate and anything associated with it in the video game destroy all humans you as an alien must fight typical men in black from the majestic organisation not only do they have particularly strong weapons they can also see through your disguise in the movie the forgotten linus roache plays a friendly man who has some characteristics of the mib sources barker gray one nine five six they knew too much about flying saucers new york university books one nine five six and georgia illuminet press one nine nine seven isbn one eight eight one five three two one zero zero jerome clark the ufo encyclopedia volume three high strangeness ufo s from one nine six zero through one nine seven nine omnigraphis one nine nine six isbn one five five eight eight eight seven four two three edward w condon director final report of the scientific study of unidentified flying objects daniel s gillmor editor bantam books one nine six eight mike dash borderlands the ultimate exploration of the unknown overlook press two zero zero zero isbn zero eight seven nine five one seven two four seven beriah g evans merionethshire mysteries the occult review vol i no three march one nine zero five ralph shirley editor william rider and sons ltd john keel our haunted planet fawcett publications one nine seven one keel john one nine seven five the mothman prophecies new york saturday review press one nine seven five and georgia illuminet press one nine nine one isbn zero seven six five three four one nine seven two jenny randles and peter houghe the complete book of ufos an investigation into alien contact and encounters sterling publishing co inc one nine nine four isbn zero eight zero six nine eight one three two six ann druffel heflin s one nine six five photos validated mufon ufo journal no four five four february two zero zero six dwight connelly editor mufon ufo network see also anomalous phenomenon forteana gray barker black hat and mirror shades alien and paranormal creatures aerial phenomena enquiry network external links conspiracy theories forteana paranormal phenomena ufos may seven is the one two seven th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one two eight th in leap years there are two three eight days remaining events five five eight in constantinople the dome of the hagia sophia collapses justinian i immediately orders the dome rebuilt one two seven four in france the second council of lyons opens to regulate the election of the pope one four two nine joan of arc ends the siege of orl ans pulling an arrow from her own shoulder and returning wounded to lead the final charge the victory marks a turning point in the hundred years war one six nine seven stockholm s royal castle dating back to medieval times is destroyed in a huge fire in the one eight th century it is replaced with the current royal palace one seven six three indian wars pontiac s rebellion begins chief pontiac begins the conspiracy of pontiac by attacking british forces at fort detroit one eight two four world premiere of ludwig van beethoven s ninth symphony in vienna austria work was conducted by michael umlauf under the deaf composer s supervision one eight three two greece is recognised independent by the treaty of london otto of wittelsbach prince of bavaria is chosen king one eight four zero the great natchez tornado strikes natchez mississippi killing three one seven people it is the second deadliest tornado in u s history one eight four seven in philadelphia the american medical association ama is founded one eight six four american civil war the army of the potomac under general ulysses s grant breaks off from the battle of the wilderness and moves southwards one eight nine five in saint petersburg russian scientist alexander stepanovich popov demonstrates to the russian physical and chemical society his invention the first in the world radio receiver in the former soviet union this day is celebrated as day of radio one eight nine six h h holmes is hanged in philadelphia one nine one five world war i a german u boat sinks the rms lusitania killing one one nine eight people one nine two zero polish bolshevik war polish ukrainian troops capture kyiv during the kiev offensive one nine three seven spanish civil war the german condor legion equipped with heinkel he five one biplanes arrive in spain to assist franco s forces one nine four five world war ii general alfred jodl signs unconditional surrender terms at reims france ending germany s participation in the war the document will take effect the next day one nine four six tokyo telecommunications engineering later renamed sony is founded with about two zero employees one nine four seven kraft television theater debuts running for the next one one years one nine four eight the council of europe is founded during the hague congress one nine five two the concept for the integrated circuit the basis for all modern computers is first published by geoffrey w a dummer one nine five four indochina war the battle of dien bien phu ends in a french defeat the battle began on march one three one nine six zero cold war u two crisis soviet leader nikita khrushchev announces that his nation is holding american u two pilot gary powers one nine six four a pacific air lines fairchild f two seven airliner crashes near san ramon california killing all four four aboard the fbi later reports that a cockpit recorder tape indicates that the pilot and co pilot had been shot by a suicidal passenger one nine seven four west german chancellor willy brandt resigns one nine nine two michigan ratifies a two zero three year old proposed amendment to the united states constitution making the two seven th amendment law this amendment bars the u s congress from giving itself a mid term pay rise one nine nine two space shuttle endeavour is launched on its maiden voyage one nine nine two three employees at a mcdonald s restaurant in sydney nova scotia canada are brutally murdered and a fourth permanently disabled after a botched robbery it is the first fast food murder in canada one nine nine eight apple computer unveils the imac one nine nine eight mercedes benz buys chrysler for us four zero billion and forms daimlerchrysler in the largest industrial merger in history one nine nine nine pope john paul ii travells to romania becoming the first pope that had visited a predominantly eastern orthodox country since the great schism in one zero five four one nine nine nine a jury finds the jenny jones show and warner bros liable in the shooting death of scott amedure after the show purposely deceived jonathan schmitz to appear on a secret same sex crush episode schmitz later killed amedure and the jury awarded amedure s family us two five million one nine nine nine kosovo war in federal republic of yugoslavia three chinese embassy workers are killed and two zero wounded when a nato aircraft mistakenly bombs the chinese embassy in belgrade one nine nine nine in guinea bissau president jo o bernardo vieira is ousted in a military coup two zero zero two a china southern airlines md eight two plunges into the yellow sea killing one one two people births one three two eight louis vi the roman duke of bavaria and elector of brandenburg d one three six five one five three zero louis i de bourbon prince de cond french huguenot general d one five six nine one six four three stephanus van cortlandt first native mayor of new york d one seven zero zero one seven zero zero gerard van swieten dutch born physician d one seven seven two one seven one one david hume scottish philosopher d one seven seven six one seven two four dagobert sigmund von wurmser alsatian born austrian general d one seven nine seven one seven six three j zef antoni poniatowski polish prince and marshal of france d one eight one three one eight one two robert browning english poet d one eight eight nine one eight three three johannes brahms german composer d one eight nine seven one eight four zero pyotr ilyich tchaikovsky russian composer d one eight nine three one eight four seven archibald primrose prime minister of the united kingdom d one nine two nine one eight five seven william a maccorkle governor of west virginia d one nine three zero one eight six one rabindranath tagore indian writer nobel prize laureate d one nine four one one eight six seven w adys aw reymont polish writer nobel prize laureate d one nine two five one eight eight two willem elsschot flemish writer d one nine six zero one eight eight five george gabby hayes american actor d one nine six nine one eight nine two archibald macleish american poet and librarian of congress d one nine eight two one eight nine two josip broz tito president of yugoslavia d one nine eight zero one nine zero one gary cooper american actor d one nine six one one nine zero nine edwin h land american inventor d one nine nine one one nine one one ishiro honda japanese film director one nine one nine eva peron wife of argentine president juan peron d one nine five two one nine two two darren mcgavin american actor one nine two three anne baxter american actress d one nine eight five one nine two seven ruth prawer jhabvala german screenwriter one nine three zero totie fields american comedienne d one nine seven eight one nine three one teresa brewer american singer one nine three three johnny unitas american football player d two zero zero two one nine three nine sidney altman canadian born chemist nobel prize laureate one nine three nine ruud lubbers prime minister of the netherlands one nine three nine jimmy ruffin american singer one nine four zero angela carter english novelist and journalist d one nine nine two one nine four three harvey andrews english singer and songwriter one nine four six thelma houston american singer one nine four six bill kreutzmann american drummer grateful dead one nine five zero randall tex cobb american boxer and actor one nine five zero tim russert american television host one nine five one janis ian american singer and songwriter one nine five four amy heckerling american director one nine five six jan peter balkenende prime minister of the netherlands one nine five six anne dudley british composer and musician one nine six five owen hart canadian professional wrestler d one nine nine nine one nine six eight traci lords american actress one nine six nine eagle eye cherry swedish musician one nine seven three kristian lundin swedish songwriter producer one nine eight zero johan kenkhuis dutch swimmer one nine eight six rianne ten haken dutch model one nine eight six sarah penman noted australian outdoorswoman one nine eight seven asami konno japanese singer morning musume and tanpopo deaths nine seven three otto i holy roman emperor b nine one two one four two seven thomas la warr five th baron de la warr english churchman one five two three franz von sickingen german soldier b one four eight one one five three nine guru nanak dev pakistani founder of sikhism b one four six nine one five three nine ottaviano petrucci italian printer b one four six six one six one five sanada yukimura japanese samurai b one five six seven one six one seven david fabricius german astronomer b one five six four one six six seven johann jakob froberger german composer b one six one six one six eight two tsar feodor iii of russia b one six six one one seven one eight mary of modena wife of james ii of england b one six five eight one seven nine three pietro nardini italian composer b one seven two two one eight zero zero niccola piccinni italian composer b one seven two eight one eight two five antonio salieri italian composer b one seven five zero one eight four zero caspar david friedrich german painter b one seven seven four one eight six eight henry peter brougham lord high chancellor of great britain b one seven seven eight one eight nine six h h holmes american serial killer b one eight six one one nine two five william hesketh lever first viscount leverhulme founder of unilever b one eight five one one nine four one sir james george frazer scottish anthropologist b one eight five four one nine four two felix weingartner yugoslavian conductor b one eight six three one nine five one warner baxter american actor b one eight eight nine one nine nine eight allan mcleod cormack south african born physicist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one nine two four one nine nine eight eddie rabbitt american musician b one nine four one two zero zero zero douglas fairbanks jr american actor b one nine zero nine two zero zero four waldemar milewicz polish reporter b one nine five six two zero zero five tristan egolf american writer b one nine seven one holidays and observances russia radio day see alexander popov bulgaria radio and television day external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day may six may eight april seven june seven listing of all days in chemistry a monomer from greek mono one and meros part is a small molecule that may become chemically bonded to other monomers to form a polymer examples of monomers are hydrocarbons such as the alkene and arene homologous series here hydrocarbon monomers such as styrene and ethene form polymers used as plastics like polystyrene and polyethene other commercially important monomers include acrylic monomers such as acrylic acid methyl methacrylate and acrylamide amino acids are natural monomers and polymerize to form proteins glucose monomers can also polymerize to form starches amylopectins and glycogen polymers in this case the polymerization reaction is known as a dehydration or condensation reaction due to the formation of water h two o as one of the products where a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl oh group are lost to form h two o and an oxygen molecule bonds between each monomer unit note that the lower molecular weight compounds built from monomers are also referred to as dimers trimers tetramers pentamers octamers two zero mers etc if they have two three four five eight or two zero monomer units respectively any number of these monomer units may be indicated by the appropriate prefix eg deca mer being a one zero unit monomer chain or polymer larger numbers are often stated in english in lieu of greek polymers with relatively low number of units are called oligomers see also oligomer polymer polymerization important publications in polymer chemistry polymer chemistry matter is commonly defined as the substance of which physical objects are composed it constitutes the observable universe according to the theory of relativity there is no distinction between matter and energy because matter can be converted to energy see annihilation and vice versa see matter creation philosophically matter constitutes the formless substratum of all things which exists only potentially and from which reality is produced in the sense of content matter is also used in contrast to form matter in science in physics matter is everything that is constituted of elementary fermions matter occupies space and has mass it is composed predominantly of atoms which consist of protons neutrons and electrons all gauge bosons of which the photon is one which mediate the four fundamental forces are not considered matter even though they certainly have energy and also some mass matter thus consists of quarks and leptons there are six types of quarks strange charm top bottom up and down which combine to form hadrons primarily baryons and mesons through the strong interaction and are actually thought to always be confined among the baryons are the proton and the neutron which further combine to form the nuclei of all elements of the periodic table usually these nuclei are surrounded by a cloud of electrons a nucleus with as many electrons as protons which is thus electrically neutral is called an atom otherwise it is an ion in bulk matter can exist in several different phases according to particle density and energy density or alternatively pressure and temperature these phases include gases plasmas liquids fluids superfluids solids and bose einstein condensates as circumstances change matter may change from one phase into another these phenomena are called phase transitions and their energetics are studied in the field of thermodynamics in small quantities matter can exhibit properties that are entirely different from those of bulk material homogeneous matter has a definite composition and properties and any amount of it has the same composition and properties it may be a mixture such as brass or elemental like pure iron heterogeneous matter such as granite does not have a definite composition in chemistry matter is often restricted to chemical substances as elementary particles such as quarks and leptons are not known to participate in chemical reactions see also antimatter materialism particle physics provides a historical background phases of matter matter mitochondria structure one inner membrane two outer membrane three crista four matrix in cell biology a mitochondrion plural mitochondria from greek mitos thread khondrion granule is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells mitochondria are sometimes described as cellular power plants because their primary function is to convert organic materials into energy in the form of atp via the process of oxidative phosphorylation usually a cell has hundreds or thousands of mitochondria which can occupy up to two five of the cell s cytoplasm mitochondria have their own dna and according to the generally accepted endosymbiotic theory they were originally derived from external organisms mitochondrion structure a mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers studded with proteins much like a typical cell membrane the two membranes however have very different properties the outer mitochondrial membrane which encloses the entire organelle contains numerous integral proteins called porins which contain a relatively large internal channel about two three nm that is permeable to all molecules of five zero zero zero daltons or less alberts one nine nine four larger molecules can only tranverse the outer membrane by active transport the outer mitochondrial membrane is composed of about five zero phospholipids by weight and contains a variety of enzymes involved in such diverse activities as the the elongation of fatty acids oxidation of epinephrine adrenaline and the degradation of tryptophan the inner mitochondrial membrane is folded into numerous cristae see diagram above which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane enhancing its ability to generate atp in typical liver mitochondria for example the surface area including cristae is about five times that of the outer membrane mitochondria of cells which have greater demand for atp such as muscle cells contain even more cristae than typical liver mitochondria the inner membrane contains proteins with three types of functions alberts one nine nine four those that carry out the oxidation reactions of the respiratory chain atp synthase which makes atp in the matrix specific transport proteins that regulate the passage of metabolites into and out of the matrix it contains more than one zero zero different polypeptides and has a very high protein to phospholipid ratio more than three one by weight which is about one protein for one five phospholipids additionally the inner membrane is rich in an unusual phospholipid cardiolipin which is usually characteristic of bacterial plasma membranes unlike the outer membrane the inner membrane does not contain porins and is highly impermeable almost all ions and molecules require special membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix the mitochondrial matrix the matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane the matrix contains a highly concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes in addition to the special mitochondrial ribosomes trna and several copies of the mitochondrial dna genome of the enzymes the major functions include oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids and the citric acid cycle alberts one nine nine four thus mitochondria possess their own genetic material and the machinery to manufacture their own rnas and proteins see protein synthesis this nonchromosomal dna encodes a small number of mitochondrial peptides one three in humans that are integrated into the inner mitochondrial membrane along with polypeptides encoded by genes that reside in the host cell s nucleus mitochondrial functions although the primary function of mitochondria is to convert organic materials into cellular energy in the form of atp mitochondria play an important role in many metabolic tasks such as apoptosis glutamate mediated excitotoxic neuronal injury cellular proliferation regulation of the cellular redox state heme synthesis steroid synthesis heat production enabling the organism to stay warm some mitochondrial functions are performed only in specific types of cells for example mitochondria in liver cells contain enzymes that allow them to detoxify ammonia a waste product of protein metabolism a mutation in the genes regulating any of these functions can result in a variety of mitochondrial diseases energy conversion as stated above the primary function of the mitochondria is the production of atp this is done by metabolizing the major products of glycolysis pyruvate and nadh glycolysis is performed outside the mitochondria in the host cell s cytosol this metabolism can be performed in two very different ways depending on the type of cell and the presence or absence of oxygen pyruvate the citric acid cycle each pyruvate molecule produced by glycolysis is actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane and into the matrix where it is combined with coenzyme a to form acetyl coa once formed acetyl coa is fed into the citric acid cycle also known as the tricarboxylic acid tca cycle or krebs cycle this process creates three molecules of nadh and one molecule of fadh two which go on to participate in the electron transport chain with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase which is bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane all of the enzymes of the citric acid cycle are dissolved in the mitochondrial matrix nadh and fadh two the electron transport chain this energy from nadh and fadh two is transferred to oxygen o two in several steps via the electron transfer chain the protein complexes in the inner membrane nadh dehydrogenase cytochrome c reductase cytochrome c oxidase that perform the transfer use the released energy to pump protons h against a gradient the concentration of protons in the intermembrane space is higher than that in the matrix as the proton concentration increases in the intermembrane space a strong concentration gradient is built up the main exit for these protons is through the atp synthase complex by transporting protons from the intermembrane space back into the matrix the atp synthase complex can make atp from adp and inorganic phosphate pi this process is called chemiosmosis and is an example of facilitated diffusion peter mitchell was awarded the one nine seven eight nobel prize in chemistry for his work on chemiosmosis later part of the one nine nine seven nobel prize in chemistry was awarded to paul d boyer and john e walker for their clarification of the working mechanism of atp synthase under certain conditions protons may be allowed to re enter the mitochondial matrix without contributing to atp synthesis this process known as proton leak or mitochondrial uncoupling results in the unharnessed energy being released as heat this mechanism for the metabolic generation of heat is employed primarily in specialized tissues such as the brown fat of newborn or hibernating mammals reproduction and gene inheritance mitochondria replicate their dna and divide mainly in response to the energy needs of the cell in other words their growth and division is not linked to the cell cycle when the energy needs of a cell are high mitochondria grow and divide when the energy use is low mitochondria are destroyed or become inactive at cell division mitochondria are distributed to the daughter cells more or less randomly during the division of the cytoplasm mitochondria divide by binary fission similar to bacterial cell division unlike bacteria however mitochondria can also fuse with other mitochondria sometimes new mitochondria are synthesized in centers that are rich in proteins and polyribosomes needed for their synthesis mitochondrial genes are not inherited by the same mechanism as nuclear genes at fertilization of an egg by a sperm the egg nucleus and sperm nucleus each contribute equally to the genetic makeup of the zygote nucleus however all of the mitochondria and therefore all the mitochondrial genes are contributed to the zygote by the egg at fertilization of an egg a single sperm enters the egg along with the mitochondria that it uses to provide the energy needed for its swimming behavior however the mitochondria provided by the sperm are targeted for destruction very soon after entry into the egg the egg itself contains relatively few mitochondria but it is these mitochondria that survive and divide to populate the cells of the adult organism this type of inheritance is called maternal inheritance and is common to the mitochondria of all animals because mitochondria are inherited from the mother only the sequence of mitochondrial dna is sometimes used to trace the lineage of families use in population genetic studies main article mitochondrial genetics because ovum destroys the mitochondria of the sperm that fertilize them the mitochondrial dna of an individual derives almost exclusively from the mother that is to say nine nine nine comes from the mother individuals inherit the other kinds of genes and dna from both parents jointly because of the unique matrilineal transmission of mitochondrial dna scientists in population genetics and evolutionary biology often use data from mitochondrial dna sequences to draw conclusions origin as mitochondria contain ribosomes and dna and are only formed by the division of other mitochondria it is generally accepted that they were originally derived from endosymbiotic prokaryotes studies of mitochondrial dna which is circular and employs a variant genetic code show their ancestor was a member of the proteobacteria futuyma two zero zero five in particular the pre mitochondrion was probably related to the rickettsias the endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria descended from specialized bacteria probably purple nonsulfur bacteria that somehow survived endocytosis by another species of prokaryote or some other cell type and became incorporated into the cytoplasm the ability of symbiont bacteria to conduct cellular respiration in host cells that had relied on glycolysis and fermentation would have provided a considerable evolutionary advantage similarly host cells with symbiotic bacteria capable of photosynthesis would also have an advantage in both cases the number of environments in which the cells could survive would have been greatly expanded this happened at least two zero zero zero million years ago and mitochondria still show some signs of their ancient origin mitochondrial ribosomes are the seven zero s bacterial type in contrast to the eight zero s ribosomes found elsewhere in the cell as in prokaryotes there is a very high proportion of coding dna and an absence of repeats mitochondrial genes are transcribed as multigenic transcripts which are cleaved and polyadenylated to yield mature mrnas unlike their nuclear cousins mitochondrial genes are small generally lacking introns and the chromosomes are circular conforming to the bacterial pattern a few groups of unicellular eukaryotes lack mitochondria the symbiotic microsporidians metamonads and entamoebids and the free living pelobionts on rrna trees these groups appeared as the most primitive eukaryotes suggesting they appeared before the origin of mitochondrion but this is now known to be an artifact of long branch attraction they are apparently derived groups and retain genes or organelles derived from mitochondria thus it appears that there are no primitively amitochondriate eukaryotes and so the origin of mitochondria may have played a critical part in the development of eukaryotic cells references external links video clip of rat liver mitochondrion from cryo electron tomography mitochondrion reconstructed by electron tomography review of evidence addressing whether mitochondria form cellular networks or exist as discrete organelles mitochondria architecture dictates function mitochondrion with cell biology mitochondra atlas other links see also chemiosmotic hypothesis chloroplast electrochemical potential endosymbiotic theory glycolysis mitochondrial disease mitochondrial dna mitochondrial genetics mitochondrial permeability transition pore submitochondrial particle fiction the midi clorians of the star wars universe are fictional life forms inside cells that provide the force george lucas took inspiration from the endosymbiotic theory a wind in the door posits fictional farandolae which are to mitochondria what mitochondria are to cells in the acclaimed novel and video game parasite eve mitochondria are shown to be their own independent organisms using animals and plants as a form of transportation causing a major biological disaster when they decide to set themselves free cellular respiration organelles minimax sometimes minmax is a method in decision theory for mini mizing the max imum possible loss alternatively it can be thought of as maximizing the minimum gain maximin it started from two player zero sum game theory covering both the cases where players take alternate moves and those where they make simultaneous moves it has also been extended to more complex games and to general decision making in the presence of uncertainty a simple version of the algorithm deals with games such as tic tac toe where each player can win lose or draw if player a can win in one move his best move is that winning move if player b knows that one move will lead to the situation where player a can win in one move while another move will lead to the situation where player a can at best draw then player b s best move is the one leading to a draw late in the game it s easy to see what the best move is the minimax algorithm helps find the best move by working backwards from the end of the game at each step it assumes that player a is trying to maximize the chances of a winning when he plays while on the next turn player b is trying to minimize the chances of a winning i e to maximize b s own chances of winning minimax criterion in statistical decision theory in classical statistical decision theory we have an estimator delta that is used to estimate a parameter theta in theta we also assume a risk function r theta delta usually specified as the integral of a loss function in this framework tilde is called minimax if it satisfies sup theta r theta tilde inf delta sup theta r theta delta an alternative criterion in the decision theoretic framework is the bayes estimator in the presence of a prior distribution pi an estimator is bayes if it minimizes the average risk int theta r theta delta d pi theta minimax algorithm with alternate moves a minimax algorithm is a recursive algorithm for choosing the next move in a two player game a value is associated with each position or state of the game this value is computed by means of a position evaluation function and it indicates how good it would be for a player to reach that position the player then makes the move that maximises the minimum value of the position resulting from the opponent s possible following moves if it is a s turn to move a gives a value to each of his legal moves one allocation method is to assign a certain win for a as one and for b as one this leads to combinatorial game theory as developed by john horton conway an alternative is to use a rule that if the result of a move is an immediate win for a it is assigned positive infinity and if it is an immediate win for b negative infinity the value to a of any other move is the minimum of the values resulting from each of b s possible replies a is called the maximizing player and b is called the minimizing player hence it is called the minimax algorithm the above algorithm will assign a value of positive or negative infinity to any position since the value of every position will be the value of some final winning or losing position often this is generally only possible at the very end of complicated games such as chess or go since it is not computationally possible to look ahead as far as the completion of the game except towards the end and instead positions are given finite values as estimates of the degree of belief that they will lead to a win for one player or another this can be extended if we can supply a heuristic evaluation function which gives values to non final game states without considering all possible following complete sequences we can then limit the minimax algorithm to look only at a certain number of moves ahead this number is called the look ahead measured in plies for example deep blue looks ahead one two plies the algorithm can be thought of as exploring the nodes of a game tree the effective branching factor of the tree is the average number of children of each node i e the average number of legal moves in a position the number of nodes to be explored usually increases exponentially with the number of plies it is less than exponential if evaluating forced moves or repeated positions the number of nodes to be explored for the analysis of a game is therefore approximately the branching factor raised to the power of the number of plies it is therefore impossible to completely analyze games such as chess using the minimax algorithm the performance of the na ve minimax algorithm may be improved dramatically without affecting the result by the use of alpha beta pruning other heuristic pruning methods can also be used but not all of them are guaranteed to give the same result as the un pruned search minimax theorem with simultaneous moves the following example of a zero sum game where a and b make simultaneous moves illustrates the minimax algorithm if each player has three choices and the payoff matrix for a is and b has the same payoff matrix with the signs reversed i e if the choices are a one and b one then b pays three to a then the simple minimax choice for a is a two since the worst possible result is then having to pay one while the simple minimax choice for b is b two since the worst possible result is then no payment however this solution is not stable since if b believes a will choose a two then b will choose b one to gain one then if a believes b will choose b one then a will choose a one to gain three and then b will choose b two and eventually both players will realize the difficulty of making a choice so a more stable strategy is needed some choices are dominated by others and can be eliminated a will not choose a three since either a one or a two will produce a better result no matter what b chooses b will not choose b three since b two will produce a better result no matter what a chooses a can avoid having to make an expected payment of more than one three by choosing a one with probability one six and a two with probability five six no matter what b chooses b can ensure an expected gain of at least one three by using a randomized strategy of choosing b one with probability one three and b two with probability two three no matter what a chooses these mixed minimax strategies are now stable and cannot be improved john von neumann proved the minimax theorem in one nine two eight stating that such strategies always exist in two person zero sum games and can be found by solving a set of simultaneous equations minimax in the face of uncertainty minimax theory has been extended to decisions where there is no other player but where the consequences of decisions depend on unknown facts for example deciding to prospect for minerals entails a cost which will be wasted if the minerals are not present but will bring major rewards if they are one approach is to treat this as a game against nature and using a similar mindset as murphy s law take an approach which minimizes the maximum expected loss using the same techniques as in the two person zero sum games in addition expectiminimax trees have been developed for two player games in which chance for example dice is a factor minimax in non zero sum games if games have a non zero sum in terms of the payoffs between the players apparently non optimal strategies may evolve for example in the prisoner s dilemma the minimax strategy for each prisoner is to betray the other even though they would each do better if both confessed their guilt so for non zero sum games the best strategy is not necessarily minimax see also transposition table refutation table computer chess horizon effect negamax alpha beta pruning minimax condorcet claude elwood shannon external links the minimax theorem detection theory optimization algorithms minnesota is the three two nd state of the united states having joined the union on may one one one eight five eight its name is from the dakota people s name for the minnesota river mini sota variously translated smoky white water or sky tinted water the state s name is abbreviated mn or minn minnesota is the largest state by land area in the midwestern united states and is in the sub region known as the upper midwest the most significant metropolitan area is known as the twin cities which contains more than half the state s population the twin cities refer to the state s most populous cities minneapolis and saint paul along with multiple rings of suburbs the remainder of the state is generically referred to as greater minnesota or outstate minnesota by analogy to upstate new york the state is a major food producer for the country and has a number of natural resources that have been greatly exploited in the last two centuries the uss minnesota was named in honor of this state as was the ss gopher state other nicknames for the state include the land of one zero zero zero zero lakes north star state the state of hockey history main article history of minnesota history prior to joining the united states before european colonization the area now known as minnesota was inhabited by native americans in particular the ojibwe chippewa anishinaabe and dakota although the winnebago also had a presence in the southeastern part of the state in this time the economy originally consisted of hunter gatherer activities which changed over time as europeans settled in the area and further exploited the state s natural resources before the arrival of dakota and ojibwe cheyenne and gros ventre also made their home in minnesota according to local tradition the first european visitors were swedish and norwegian vikings in the one four th century the evidence for this is largely based on the controversial kensington runestone which many historians consider to be an elaborate hoax some say that the earliest european settlement was in the area of the current city of stillwater on the st croix river though many histories focus on the military settlement that took place farther west fort snelling located at the confluence of the minnesota river and the mississippi river was one of the earliest u s military presences in the state it is now a historic site joining the united states part of what would become minnesota was granted to the united states by the second treaty of paris at the end of the american revolution in one seven eight three the fledgling states having been granted all of the land east of the mississippi river this included what would become modern day saint paul but only part of minneapolis including the northeast north central and east central portions of the state most of the state however was purchased from france as part of the louisiana purchase the northern border between minnesota and british north america was for a long time disputed at the time it was erroneously believed that the mississippi river ran well into modern canada making some earlier agreements flawed parts of northern minnesota were considered to be in ruperts land the exact definition of the boundary was not addressed until the anglo american convention of one eight one eight which set the border at the four nine th parallel west of the lake of the woods except for a small chunk of land now dubbed the northwest angle border disputes east of the lake of the woods continued until the webster ashburton treaty of one eight four two throughout the first half of the one nine th century the north eastern portion of the state was a part of the northwest territory then the illinois territory then the michigan territory and finally the wisconsin territory the west and south areas of the state were not formally organized until one eight three eight when they became part of the iowa territory upon statehood of iowa and wisconsin the minnesota territory was carved out of the remaining land and established on march three one eight four nine but unlike the boundaries of modern day minnesota the areas western border extended far into present day north dakota and south dakota all the way to the missouri river the eastern half of the minnesota territory became the country s three two nd state after california on may one one one eight five eight the remaining western part fell unorganized until its incorporation into the dakota territory on march two one eight six one culture stereotypical minnesotan traits include lutheranism two six percent of the state s population is lutheran minnesota nice hot dish a minnesotan term for casserole lutefisk a pungent preparation of fish from skandinavian recipes that include soaking in lye very close family ties and a strong sense of duty to their families healthy and dysfunctional alike a strong sense of community and shared culture with many other minnesotans instead of just with one s town or city minnesota s rather unique form of upper midwest american english including scandinavian sounding words like uff da and a distinctive type of upper midwestern accent however due to the increase of migrants from throughout the united states many originating from the west coast and the chicago metropolitan area and the rise of immigration of hmong vietnamese somalis and other east africans liberians kenyans nigerians russians eastern europeans and latin americans mostly mexicans many cultures in the state are slowly blending together and slowing changing the culture of the state similar to what european immigrants to minnesota had done in the mid nineteenth to early twentieth centuries native americans have a moderate presence in minnesota and some tribes operate casinos which have been said to be among the most profitable in the country the earliest european exploration and settlement was by the french and settlement from scandinavian countries along with germany followed the m tis people a mixed french and native american culture were a presence in the early state and territorial days but largely moved north into canada minnesota is not strongly associated with any particular food though in recent years dishes like wild rice sausage have come from the state and more will undoubtedly follow as minnesotan chefs seek to define their home in the culinary world modern immigrants have come from all over the world in recent decades with hmong somali vietnamese indians middle easterners and the former soviet bloc all being well represented some chinese and japanese have had long presences in the state as well mexicans are a growing force as they are across the u s many modern immigrants are attracted by the state s historically strong commitments toward education and social services and many come sponsored and assisted by congregations committed to service and social justice outdoor activities are major parts of the lives of many minnesotans including hunting and fishing unique activities include ice fishing which was popular with the early scandinavian immigrants families frequently own or share cabins on central and northern tracts of land in forests and adjoining lakes and weekend trips out to these properties are common the seven one state parks which protect diverse landscapes in a state of nature are quite popular a concern for environmentalism is shared by most state residents in one form or another vegans and hunters alike as with other northwoods states such as wisconsin and michigan residents like to joke that the mosquito is the state bird the state bird is actually the common loon gavia immer also called the great northern diver whose distinctive cry can often be heard by campers in the northern part of the state and can even on occasion be found as far south as minneapolis minnesota is known for active yet quirky politics with populism being a longstanding force among all of the political parties that call the state home minnesota politics include such oddities as a professional wrestler turned governor and a protester turned crowd surfing mayor seven seven three of eligible minnesotans voted in the two zero zero four u s presidential election the highest of any u s state political conservatism is less strongly linked to church attendance in most of minnesota than in other parts of the country perhaps a reflection of the strong mainline protestant and roman catholic following law and government as in the national government of the united states power in minnesota is divided into three main branches executive legislative and judicial the executive branch is headed by the governor currently tim pawlenty a republican whose term began six january two zero zero three the current lieutenant governor of minnesota is carol molnau molnau also currently serves as the head of the minnesota department of transportation both the governor and lieutenant governor have four year terms the governor has a cabinet consisting of the leaders of various government agencies in the state called commissioners the full list of governors and the dates they took office is available at list of governors of minnesota the other constitutional offices besides governor and lt governor are secretary of state attorney general and state auditor the minnesota legislature is a bicameral body consisting of the senate and the house of representatives the state has six seven districts each covering about six zero zero zero zero people each district has one senator and two representatives each district being divided into a and b subsections senators serve for four years and representatives serve for two years in the november two zero zero four election the republican party retained control of the minnesota house of representatives by a single seat six eight six six having lost a total of one three seats the minnesota senate is controlled by the minnesota democratic farmer labor party dfl after picking up two seats in local special elections on one six november two zero zero five and two seven december two zero zero five the dfl controls the senate three eight two nine there was one independence party state senator former republican sheila kiscaden ip rochester who caucused with the dfl she officially joined the party in january two zero zero six bringing their lead to eight seats as a result of its liberal and populist political culture throughout much of the latter half of the two zero th century minnesota has voted for democrats for president longer than any other state the district of columbia has voted for a democrat in every election since one nine six four since one nine seven six minnesota and the district of columbia were the only electoral votes not won by incumbent republican president ronald reagan voting instead for former vice president of the united states and former u s senator walter mondale a minnesota native it should be noted that a minnesotan ran on the democratic ticket as either president or vice president in the one nine six four one nine six eight one nine seven six one nine eight zero and one nine eight four in two zero zero four john kerry narrowly won the state s one zero electoral votes by a margin of three percentage points with five one one of the vote republican strength is greatest in southern minnesota and the suburbs of minneapolis especially in the area west of the city and in developing outer suburban communities democrats hold tremendous strength in minneapolis st paul proper and in the iron range of northeastern minnesota including duluth the state also enjoys a strong and active third party movement the reform party was able to elect former mayor of brooklyn park and former wrestling superstar jesse ventura to the governorship in one nine nine eight however ventura left the reform party in two zero zero zero when pat buchanan took control ventura maintained close ties to the independence party but chose not to seek reelection in two zero zero two the independence party ran former democratic congressman tim penny in an unsuccessful bid for the governorship penny earned over two zero of the vote the state s green party has elected several city council members and other local office holders in duluth minneapolis and winona and has made strong runs for state legislature during the past two election cycles in two zero zero zero green party candidate ralph nader received just over five of the presidential votes cast gaining major party status for the green party of minnesota minnesota s court system has three levels trial courts the state is split into one zero judicial districts with two five seven judges most state cases start in the trial courts minnesota court of appeals this body hears appeals on cases tried in the trial courts there are one six judges who divide into three judge panels to hear appeals in courts across the state minnesota supreme court the seven justices on the supreme court hear appeals from the court of appeals the tax court and the worker s compensation court the court automatically reviews first degree murder convictions and settles disputes over legislative elections the state has two special courts created by state law as executive branch agencies the tax court deals with non criminal tax cases across the state it has three judges appointed by the governor to six year terms following approval from the state senate the workers compensation court of appeals deals with cases involving worker injuries referred to it on appeal or transferred from district court it has five judges appointed by the governor to six year terms following approval from the state senate federal cases are heard in the federal district courts in minneapolis st paul or duluth minnesota is part of the eighth circuit court of appeals which is based in st louis missouri appeals beyond this level go to the u s supreme court in washington d c in addition to the standard city and county levels of government found in the united states minnesota also has other entities that provide governmental oversight and planning some actions in the twin cities metropolitan area are coordinated by the metropolitan council and many lakes and rivers are overseen by watershed districts and soil and water conservation districts see also list of political parties in minnesota external links hyperlinked state constitution full text of state constitution geography minnesota showing roads and major bodies of water see list of minnesota counties minnesota covers seven nine six one zero square miles two two five of the united states it is famous for its lakes having in excess of one five zero zero zero depending on the source of the count much of the state is flat having been eroded during repeated glacial periods most recently the wisconsin glacier however the extreme southeastern portion of the state is part of the driftless zone which was not glaciated and it is here that lake pepin and the rugged high bluffs of the mississippi river are found in addition the iron range and other low mountains are found in the northeastern part of the state the minnesota portion of lake superior is the largest body of water in the state minnesota is home to many areas of park land to the boundary waters canoe area wilderness bwcaw as well as a number of state and county parks most notably itasca state park the official source of the mississippi river after its rivers and lakes minnesota s most prominent physical feature is the iron range this is a range of low mountains that run across the northern part of the state it is called the iron range because when discovered it had some of the largest deposits of iron ore in the country although the high grade iron ore was mostly mined out during world war ii taconite is still mined across the iron range the state is bordered on the north by canada manitoba and ontario on the east by wisconsin and lake superior on the south by iowa and on the west by north dakota and south dakota in addition minnesota shares a water boundary with michigan minnesota is the northernmost of the four eight contiguous states alaska reaches significantly farther north reaching to four nine two three zero four north latitude due to a small piece of the state known as the northwest angle minnesota sits at a convergence point between three of the great biomes of north america the great plains of the west the eastern deciduous forest and the northern boreal forest of canada traversing the state from southwest to northeast one goes through the three different ecological regions the capital is st paul which sits on the mississippi river next to minnesota s largest city minneapolis together and with surrounding suburbs they are known as the twin cities other prominent cities include duluth st cloud mankato rochester home of the world famous mayo clinic and bloomington home to the mall of america the state s average elevation is one two zero zero feet three six six m with a high point at eagle mountain minnesota two three zero one ft or seven zero one m and a low at the surface of lake superior six zero two ft or one eight three m aside from a few very minor earthquakes minnesota is one of the most geologically stable regions in the country the biggest earthquake in the last century occurred near morris in one nine seven five and rated between four six and four eight in magnitude temperatures can reach extremes in minnesota the northern part of the state is famously cold in winter with a record low of six zero f five one c measured at tower mn on february two one nine nine six surprisingly due to the flows of the jet stream parts of alaska often see relatively warm temperatures when minnesota is experiencing extreme cold additionally as part of the great plains region the state also experiences warm summers a record high of one one four f four five five c was reached in both one nine one seven and one nine three six the average temperature in january the coldest month is one one two f one one five c and the average in the warmest month july is seven three one f two two eight c averages are cooler in the north and warmer in the south the average annual precipitation is two eight three two inches seven one nine mm with a snowfall figure of four nine six inches one two six cm economy minnesota state quarter the bureau of economic analysis estimates that minnesota s total state product in two zero zero three was two one one billion per capita personal income in two zero zero four was three four eight six one eight th in the nation the average household income in one nine nine nine was approximately four eight zero zero zero ranking eighth in the nation u s census bureau the county averages range from one seven three six nine todd county to four two three one three hennepin county a portion of the metro area in general salaries are lowest in more rural areas particularly in the northwest portion of the state major industries and products the twin cities are home to a diverse range of major businesses including cargill three m co formerly minnesota mining and manufacturing co northwest airlines target corporation u s bancorp thrivent financial for lutherans the merged entity of the former aid association for lutherans and lutheran brotherhood medtronic ecolab best buy cray computers imation international dairy queen regis corporation general mills and a regional headquarters of wells fargo candy does not include any preparation containing flour and must require no refrigeration minn stat two nine seven a six one subd three three minnesota businesses and individuals paid an average of one one eight of their income in state and local taxes in one nine nine eight down from one two seven in one nine nine six minnesota department of revenue the gross state product was just under one seven three billion in one nine nine nine northeast midwest institute with approximately one seven five billion in exports in two zero zero zero retail sales per capita were one zero two six zero in one nine nine seven higher than the u s average of nine one nine zero u s census bureau the retail capital of the state is probably the twin cities suburb of roseville which recorded one four eight seven zero per capita though it is easily outstripped in total revenue by minneapolis st paul bloomington and edina demographics as of two zero zero five minnesota has an estimated population of five one three two seven nine nine which is an increase of three six two five three or zero seven from the prior year and an increase of two one three three zero seven or four three since the year two zero zero zero this includes a natural increase since the last census of one six one two five two people that is three five eight zero one two births minus one nine six seven six zero deaths and an increase due to net migration of five four zero three two people into the state immigration from outside the united states resulted in a net increase of seven zero eight zero zero people and migration within the country produced a net loss of one six seven six eight people as of two zero zero four six one of minnesota residents are foreign born compared to one one one for the nation most of the state s population is centered in the twin cities metropolitan area race and ancestry the racial makeup of the state eight eight two white three five black two nine hispanic two nine asian one one native american one four mixed race according to the two zero zero two u s census the largest reported ancestries are german three six seven norwegian one seven two irish one one two and english six three more recent immigrant communities include the third largest hmong population in the united states from the laos thailand vietnam region and the second largest urban center of hmong population in the world concentrated in st paul and a large community of somali refugees population distribution the population distribution by age is northeast midwest institute zero one eight one three six one six one six two seven seven one nine three four one zero six eight eight five zero two one seven three five six four one eight nine four seven four seven three eight six six five five nine four two six six one two one religion most minnesotans nearly six in one zero are protestants mostly mainline protestant although there is also a moderate sized roman catholic community about one fourth of the state population the largest protestant denomination in the state is lutheranism in recent years new immigrants have added new religions to minnesota and there are now islamic mosques buddhist temples and hindu mandirs in the state mainly in the minneapolis st paul metropolitan area however the number of minnesotans who adhere to non christian religions is still low religious affiliations in minnesota christian eight four protestant five eight lutheran two six baptist five methodist four presbyterian three other protestant two zero roman catholic two five other christian one other religions one not religious agnostic one five education one of the first acts of the minnesota legislature when it opened in one eight five eight was the creation of a normal school at winona ever since then minnesota has consistently remained one of the ten strongest states in the united states in education showing up as number one in national educational surveys in most years minnesota has proven over the years resistant to such fads in education as school vouchers and the teaching of intelligent design colleges and universities professional sports teams miscellaneous information symbols and emblems state bird common loon state butterfly monarch state drink milk state fish walleye state flower pink and white showy lady slipper state gemstone lake superior agate state grain wild rice territory motto intended quae sursum volo videre i wish to see what is beyond territory motto actual quo sursum velo videre i cover to see what is above is the closest translation state motto l toile du nord star of the north state muffin blueberry adopted as part of a school project on how a bill becomes law state mushroom morel sponge mushroom honeycomb morel state picture grace state reptile blanding s turtle state song hail minnesota state tree norway pine nicknames gopher state north star state land of one zero zero zero zero lakes naval ships named for minnesota uss minnesota a steam frigate named for the minnesota river commissioned in one eight five five uss minnesota battleship no two two one of the last pre dreadnought battleships uss saint paul a converted merchant cruiser which served during the spanish american war and world war i uss minneapolis cruiser no one three later ca one seven a columbia class protected cruiser which also served during world war i uss minneapolis ca three six a new orleans class heavy cruiser which served during world war ii uss fort snelling lsd three zero a dock landing ship which served during world war ii uss saint paul ca seven three a baltimore class heavy cruiser which served from late in world war ii until the vietnam war uss minneapolis st paul ssn seven zero eight a los angeles class nuclear attack submarine presently serving as the flagship of subron six ss gopher state acs four a gopher state class crane ship serving with the military sealift command prepositioning force uss duluth cl eight seven was a cleveland class light cruiser commissioned late in world war ii uss duluth lpd six is an amphibious transport dock commissioned in one nine six six early explorers michel aco father louis hennepin daniel greysolon sieur du lhut zebulon pike henry schoolcraft joseph nicollet father jacques marquette famous people from minnesota eddie albert loni anderson louie anderson richard dean anderson james arness tom arnold soul asylum ann bancroft patty berg bill berry jessica biel herb brooks warren burger robert cabana nasa astronaut bob casey stadium p a announcer joel and ethan coen rachael leigh cook morris day mark dayton bob dylan richard eberhart tammy faye f scott fitzgerald al franken orville freeman judy garland terry gilliam mary grandpr peter graves actor sid hartman josh hartnett pete hautman mitch hedberg hubert h humphrey h sker d sharon isbin jimmy jam terry lewis garrison keillor frank b kellogg tom kelly craig kilborn peter krause don lafontaine jessica lange tom lehman the trashmen don laughlin brock lesnar sinclair lewis charles lindbergh john madden e g marshall roger maris charles mayo william mayo william worrall mayo eugene j mccarthy kevin mchale breckin meyer george mikan mint condition paul molitor walter f mondale lorenzo music george nelson astronaut gena lee nolin david oreck carl pohlad prince the replacements marion ross winona ryder kathryn leigh scott flip saunders charles schulz seann william scott the spin doctors the suburbs phil solem kevin sorbo harold stassen will steger glen a taylor lea thompson cheryl tiegs vince vaughn thorstein veblen jesse ventura dewitt wallace roy wilkins bud wilkinson dave winfield steve zahn see also thefamousminnesotans com mythical figures from minnesota jolly green giant minnehaha paul bunyan poppin fresh betty crocker rocky and bullwinkle external links state of minnesota minnesota history timeline minnesota historical society s online timeline forests fields and the falls connecting minnesota minnesota historical society minnesota place names photos of minnesota terra galleria minnesota s foremost hunting fishing and outdoor community minnesota states of the united states one eight five eight establishments the missouri river and its tributaries n p dodge park omaha nebraska high silt content makes the missouri left noticeably lighter than the mississipi here at their confluence above st louis fort randall dam on the missouri river in south dakota the missouri river is a tributary of the mississippi river in the united states at about two five six five mi four one three zero km in length it is the longest river in the united states and drains approximately one sixth of the north american continent the combined missouri mississippi river system is the fourth longest river in the world some however do not consider the missouri the longest river in north america because it is not called the missouri until the confluence of the madison jefferson and gallatin rivers from the three rivers confluence to the mississippi the missouri measures two three one five miles in comparison to the mississippi s two three five zero miles due to the fact that many consider the missouri the longest river in north america some consider its headwaters to be the true source of the mississippi river however at its confluence with the upper mississippi it carries less than half the volume of the upper mississippi its volume on average is also less than that of the ohio river another tributary of the mississippi description the headwaters of the missouri are in the rocky mountains of southwestern montana near the continental divide the river rises in the jefferson madison and gallatin rivers which converge near three forks montana to form the missouri it flows north through mountainous canyons emerging from the mountains near great falls where a large cataract historically marked the navigable limit of the river it flows east across the plains of montana into north dakota then turns southeast flowing into south dakota and along the north and eastern edge of nebraska forming part of its border with south dakota and nearly all its boundary with iowa flowing past sioux city and omaha it forms the entire boundary between nebraska and missouri and part of the boundary between missouri and kansas at kansas city it turns generally eastward flowing across missouri where it joins the mississippi just north of st louis the river is nicknamed big muddy because of the high silt content in its flow a feature that is highly visible at its confluence with the mississippi the river was of great importance in the westward expansion of the united states it was acquired by the united states as part of the louisiana purchase and explored by the lewis and clark expedition which successfully used the river in exploring for a route to the pacific ocean during the late one nine th century the river was a primary means of transportation of goods and passengers before the spread of the railroads the extensive use of paddle steamers on the upper river helped facilitate white settlement of the dakotas and montana serving to spark several of the most intense indian wars in the region in the two zero th century the upper missouri was extensively dammed for flood control irrigation and hydroelectric power after president franklin d roosevelt signed the flood control act of one nine four four the pick sloan plan turned the missouri river into the largest reservoir system in north america there are six dams in three states fort peck in montana garrison in north dakota oahe big bend and fort randall in south dakota and gavins point on the south dakota nebraska border these dams were constructed without locks so commercial navigation on the missouri cannot proceed above the gavins point dam the corps of engineers maintains a nine foot deep three meter navigation channel for seven three five miles one one eight three km between sioux city iowa and st louis the dams aid navigation on the lower river by reducing fluctuations in water levels the only significant stretch of free flowing stream on the lower missouri is the missouri national recreational river section between gavins point dam and ponca state park nebraska this federally designated wild and scenic river is among the last unspoliled stretches of the missouri and exhibits the islands bars chutes and snags that once characterized the mighty mo the extensive system of tributaries drain nearly all the semi arid northern great plains of the united states a very small portion of southern alberta canada is also drained by the river through its tributary the milk the river s course roughly follows the edge of the glaciation during the last ice age most of the river s longer tributaries stretch away from this edge towards the west draining portions of the eastern rockies popular depictions george caleb bingham fur traders on missouri river c one eight four five missouri painter george caleb bingham immortalized the fur traders and flatboatmen who plied the missouri river in the early one eight zero zero s these same boatmen were known for their river chanties including the haunting american folk song oh shenandoah each verse of oh shenandoah ends with the line cross the wide missouri the american painter george catlin also traveled up the missouri in the one eight three zero s making portraits of individuals and tribes of native americans he also painted several missouri river landscapes noteably floyd s bluff and brick kilns both from one eight three two the river is notable for being the setting of the pete seeger song waist deep in the big muddy the song is set in one nine four two during training for world war ii but its image of a foolish captain who pushes his men further and further into a hopeless situation was clearly meant to parallel the vietnam war in the song a captain leading a squad on training maneuvers insists on crossing the titular river insisting that it is safe to cross the captain sinks into the mud drowns and his squad turns back tributaries montana jefferson river madison river gallatin river sixteenmile creek dearborn river smith river sun river belt creek marias river arrow creek judith river cow creek musselshell river milk river redwater river poplar river big muddy creek north dakota yellowstone river little muddy creek tobacco garden creek little missouri river knife river heart river cannonball river south dakota grand river moreau river cheyenne river bad river white river james river vermillion river big sioux river iowa border nebraska iowa kansas missouri niobrara river nebraska platte river nebraska little nemaha river nebraska big nemaha river nebraska perry creek iowa floyd river iowa little sioux river iowa soldier river iowa boyer river iowa honey creek iowa nishnabotna river iowa kansas river kansas blue river missouri osage river missouri major cities along the river for a full list see list of cities and towns along the missouri river great falls montana bismarck north dakota capital pierre south dakota capital sioux city iowa council bluffs iowa omaha nebraska saint joseph missouri kansas city kansas kansas city missouri jefferson city missouri capital saint charles missouri see also geography of the united states pick sloan plan roe river flood of one nine nine three missouri river the missouri or missouria were an aboriginal tribe that inhabited parts of the midwestern united states before european explorers arrived the tribe belonged to the chiwere division of the siouan linguistic family with the iowa and oto the tribe lived near the mouth of the grand river in missouri the mouth of the missouri river and a place called the pinnacles in saline county missouri their name means the people who build long canoes it is an illiniwek word in their own language the missouri call themselves ni achi they were known as the wa ux a by the osage and wa ju xd by the quapaw according to the enthnographer james mooney the population of the tribe was about two zero zero families in one seven zero two one zero zero zero persons in one seven eight zero three zero zero in one eight zero five eight zero in one eight two nine when they were living with the otoe and one three in one nine one zero afterwards not separated from the otoe today they remain part of the otoe missouria tribe of oklahoma their name has been lent to the state of missouri and the missouri river external links otoe missouria tribe of oklahoma genealogy of missouri indian tribes otoe missouria genealogy native american tribes exocet a missile ce pronunciation ame is in general a projectile thrown or otherwise propelled missiles can range from a rock thrown from a slingshot through a crossbow or ballista bolt to a minuteman iii intercontinental ballistic missile icbm with multiple nuclear warheads modern icbms the largest missiles currently deployed represent the most destructive weapons ever made in human history etymology the word missile comes from the latin verb mittere literally meaning to send introduction rocket powered missiles are known as rockets if they lack post launch guidance or missiles or guided missiles if they are able to continue tracking a target after launch cruise missiles typically use some form of jet engine for propulsion missiles are often used in warfare as a means of delivering destructive force usually in the form of an explosive warhead upon a target aside from explosives other possible types of destructive missile payloads are various forms of chemical or biological agents nuclear warheads or simple kinetic energy where the missile destroys the target by the force of striking it at high speed sometimes missiles are used to deliver payloads designed to break infrastructure without harming people for example in the persian gulf war cruise missiles were used to deliver reels of carbon filament to electricity stations and switches effectively disabling them by forming short circuits missiles which spend most of their trajectory in unpowered flight and which don t use aerodynamics to alter their course are known as ballistic missiles because their motion is largely governed by the laws of ballistics these are in contrast to cruise missiles which spend most of their trajectory in powered flight guided missiles missiles that have the ability to maneuver through the air can be guided and are known as guided missiles these have three key system components tracking guidance flight a tracking system locates the missile s target this can be either a human gunner aiming a sight on the target remotely from the missile or an automatic tracker automatic trackers use radiation emanating from the target or emitted from the launch platform and reflecting back to it from the target passive automatic trackers use the target s inherent radiation usually heat or light but missiles designed to attack command painted with light sometimes infrared and or laser or radio waves radar which can be detected by the missile the radiation for the painting can originate in the missile itself or may come from a remote station for example a hilltop gunner can illuminate a target with a laser device and this can be used to direct an air launched guided missile a guidance system takes data from the missile s tracking system and flight system and computes a flight path for the missile designed to intercept the target it produces commands for the flight system the flight system causes the missile to maneuver there are two main systems vectored thrust for missiles that are powered throughout the guidance phase of their flight and aerodynamic maneuvering wings fins canards etc there are some similarities between guided missiles and guided bombs a guided bomb dropped from an aircraft is unpowered and uses aerodynamic fins for forward horizontal maneuvering while falling vertically see also list of missiles timeline of rocket and missile technology v one flying bomb v two rocket redstone missile german missiles of ww two shoulder launched missile weapon fire and forget external links guided missiles ammunition mendelian inheritance or mendelian genetics or mendelism is a set of primary tenets relating to the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parent organisms to their children and underly much of genetics they were initially derived from the work of gregor mendel published in one eight six five and one eight six six which was re discovered in one nine zero zero and were initially very controversial when they were integrated with the chromosome theory of inheritance by thomas hunt morgan in one nine one five they became the core of classical genetics history the laws of inheritance were derived by gregor mendel a one nine th century austrian monk who was conducting plant hybridity experiments between one eight five six and one eight six three he cultivated and tested some two eight zero zero zero pea plants his experiments brought forth two generalizations which later became known as mendel s laws of heredity or mendelian inheritance these are described in his paper experiments on plant hybridization that was read to the natural history society of brno on february eight and march eight one eight six five and was published in one eight six six mendel s results were largely neglected though they were not completely unknown to biologists of the time they were not seen as being important even mendel himself did not see their ultimate applicability and thought they only applied to certain categories of species in one nine zero zero however the work was re discovered by three european scientists hugo de vries carl correns and erich von tschermak the exact nature of the re discovery has been somewhat debated de vries published first on the subject and correns pointed out mendel s priority after having read de vries s paper and realizing that he himself did not have priority and de vries may not have acknowledged truthfully how much of his knowledge of the laws came from his own work or came only after reading mendel s paper later scholars have accused von tschermak of not truly understanding the results at all regardless the re discovery made mendelism an important but controversial theory its most vigorous promoter in europe was william bateson who coined the term genetics gene and allele to describe many of its tenets the model of heredity was highly contested by other biologists because it implied that heredity was discontinuous in opposition to the apparently continuous variation observable many biologists also dismissed the theory because they were not sure it would apply to all species and there seemed to be very few true mendelian characters in nature however later work by biologists and statisticians such as r a fisher showed that if multiple mendelian factors were involved for individual traits they could produce the diverse amount of results observed in nature thomas hunt morgan and his assistants would later integrate the theoretical model of mendel with the chromosome theory of inheritance in which the chromosomes of cells were thought to hold the actual hereditary particles and create what is now known as classical genetics which was extremely successful and cemented mendel s place in history mendel s law of segregation figure three the color alleles of mirabilis jalapa are not dominant or recessive one parental generation two f one generation three f two generation the red and white allele together make a pink phenotype resulting in a one two one ratio of red pink white in the f two generation figure one dominant and recessive phenotypes one parental generation two f one generation three f two generation dominant red and recessive white phenotype look alike in the f one first generation and show a three one ratio in the f two second generation mendel s law of segregation also known as mendel s first law essentially has four parts alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited characters this is the concept of alleles alleles are different versions of genes that impart the same characteristic each human has a gene that controls height but there are variations among these genes in accordance with the specific height the gene codes for for each character an organism inherits two genes one from each parent this means that when somatic cells are produced from two gametes one allele comes from the mother one from the father these alleles may be the same true breeding organisms e g ww and rr in fig three or different hybrids e g wr in fig three if the two alleles differ then one the dominant allele is fully expressed in the organism s appearance the other the recessive allele has no noticeable effect on the organism s appearance in other words the dominant allele is expressed in the phenotype of the organism however this does not always hold true today we know several examples that disprove this law e g mirabilis jalapa the japanese wonder flower fig three this is called incomplete dominance there is also codominance on a molecular level e g people with sickle cell anemia when normal and sickle shaped red blood cells mix and prevent malaria the two genes for each character segregate during gamete production this is the last part of mendel s generalization the two alleles of the organism are separated into different gametes ensuring variation during his experiments mendel encountered some traits that did not follow the laws he had encountered these traits did not appear independently but always together with at least one other trait mendel could not explain what happened and chose not to mention it in his work today we know that these traits are linked on the same chromosome mendel s law of independent assortment also known as mendel s second law the most important principle of mendel s law of independent assortment is that the emergence of one trait will not affect the emergence of another while his experiments with mixing one trait always resulted in a three one ratio fig one between dominant and recessive phenotypes his experiments with mixing two traits showed nine three three one ratios fig two mendel concluded that each organism carries two sets of information about its phenotype if the two sets differ on the same phenotype one of them dominates the other that way information can be passed on through the generations even if the phenotype is not expressed f one generations figures one and two mendel s findings allowed other scientists to simplify the emergence of traits to mathematical probability a large portion of mendel s findings can be traced to his choice to start his experiments only with true breeding plants he also only measured absolute characteristics such as color shape and position of the offspring his data was expressed numerically and subjected to statistical analysis this method of data reporting and the large sampling size he used gave credibility to his data he also had the foresight to look through several successive generations of his pea plants and record their variations without his careful attention to procedure and detail mendel s work could not have had the impact it made on the world of genetics figure two two traits black white and short long hair with black and short dominant show a nine three three one ratio in the f two generation s short s long b black b white hair one parental generation two f one generation three f two generation results nine x short black hair three x long black hair three x short white hair one x long white hair see also dominance relationship references classical genetics march seven is the six six th day of the year in the gregorian calendar six seven th in leap years there are two nine nine days remaining events one six one roman emperor antoninus pius dies and is succeeded by co emperors marcus aurelius and lucius verus an unprecedented political arrangement in the roman empire one seven nine eight the french army enters in rome the birth of the roman republic one seven nine nine napoleon i of france captures jaffa in palestine and his troops proceed to kill more than two zero zero zero albanian captives one eight one four napoleon wins the battle of craonne one eight two seven brazilian marines sail up the rio negro argentina and attack the temporary naval base of carmen de patagones argentina they are defeated by the local citizens one eight two seven shrigley abduction ellen turner a wealthy heiress in cheshire england is abducted by edward gibbon wakefield the future politician in colonial new zealand one eight four eight the great mahele land division is signed in hawaii one eight five zero united states senator daniel webster gives his seventh of march speech in which he endorses the compromise of one eight five zero in order to prevent a possible civil war one eight six two american civil war battle of pea ridge union forces led by general samuel curtis defeat confederate troops under general earl van dorn at pea ridge in northwestern arkansas one eight seven six alexander graham bell is granted a patent for an invention he calls the telephone patent one seven four four six four one nine one one revolution in mexico one nine one two roald amundsen first announces to the world that his expedition has reached the south pole though they had arrived on december one four one nine one one one nine one eight world war i finland forms an alliance with germany one nine three six world war ii in violation of the locarno pact and the treaty of versailles germany reoccupies the rhineland one nine four five world war ii american troops seize the bridge over the rhine river at remagen germany and begin to cross one nine four seven the kuomintang and communist party of china resume full fledged civil war one nine five zero cold war the soviet union issues a statement denying that klaus fuchs served as a soviet spy one nine five one korean war operation ripper in korea united nations troops led by general matthew ridgeway begin an assault against chinese forces one nine six five in selma alabama state troopers and local law enforcement forcefully break up a group of six zero zero civil rights marchers the event was televised and was dubbed bloody sunday one nine six eight vietnam war the first battle of saigon begins one nine seven three the ultimately disappointing comet kohoutek is discovered by lubo kohoutek one nine eight three the nashville network tnn begins broadcasting one nine eight four the united states attacks san juan del sur in nicaragua one nine eight seven mike tyson adds the wba world heavyweight boxing championship to his wbc one when he beats james smith after a one two round fight in las vegas nevada one nine eight eight colombia becomes a member of the berne convention copyright treaty one nine eight nine the state council of the people s republic of china declares martial law in lhasa tibet one nine nine four the supreme court of the united states rules in campbell v acuff rose music that parodies of an original work are generally covered by the doctrine of fair use one nine nine six the first democratically elected palestinian parliament is formed one nine nine nine american film director stanley kubrick dies in his sleep from a fatal heart attack two zero zero two opening of the ix paralympics winter games in salt lake city utah two zero zero two the network against prohibition forms in darwin australia two zero zero five mass protest outside the national assembly of kuwait building for women s voting rights in kuwait births one eight nine publius septimius geta roman emperor d two one one one four eight one baldassare peruzzi italian architect and painter d one five three seven one five five six guillaume du vair french writer d one six two one one six seven one robert roy macgregor scottish folk hero d one seven three four one six seven eight filippo juvara italian architect d one seven three six one six eight seven jean lebeuf french historian d one seven six zero one six nine three pope clement xiii d one seven six nine one seven one five ewald christian von kleist german poet d one seven five nine one seven one five ephraim williams american philanthropist d one seven five five one seven three zero baron de breteuil french statesman d one eight zero seven one seven four six andr michaux french botanist d one eight zero two one seven six five nic phore ni pce french inventor d one eight three three one seven nine two john herschel english mathematician and astronomer d one eight seven one one eight three seven henry draper american physician and astronomer d one eight eight two one eight five zero tom masaryk first president of czechoslovakia d one nine three seven one eight five seven julius wagner jauregg austrian neuroscientist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine four zero one eight seven two piet mondrian dutch painter d one nine four four one eight seven five maurice ravel french composer d one nine three seven one eight eight seven heino eller estonian composer d one nine seven zero one nine zero two heinz r hmann german actor d one nine nine four one nine zero four ivar ballangrud norwegian speed skater d one nine six nine one nine zero four reinhard heydrich nazi official d one nine four two one nine zero eight anna magnani italian actress d one nine seven three one nine two six alan sues american comedian and actor one nine three zero antony armstrong jones lord snowdon one nine three three jackie blanchflower northern irish footballer d one nine nine eight one nine three four willard scott american television broadcaster one nine three eight david baltimore american biologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine three eight janet guthrie american race car driver one nine four zero rudi dutschke german student leader d one nine seven nine one nine four zero daniel j travanti american actor one nine four two tammy faye bakker american evangelist one nine four two michael eisner american film studio executive one nine four four stanley schmidt american editor one nine four four townes van zandt american musician and songwriter one nine four five john heard american actor one nine four five arthur lee american musician love one nine four six peter wolf american musician j geils band one nine four seven richard lawson american actor one nine four seven walter r hrl german race car driver one nine four nine ghulam nabi azad indian politician one nine five zero iris chacon puerto rican singer and dancer one nine five zero franco harris american football player one nine five two ernie isley american singer one nine five two lynn swann american football player one nine five two viv richards west indies cricketer one nine five five tommy kramer american football player one nine five six bryan cranston american actor one nine five eight rik mayall british actor one nine six zero ivan lendl czech tennis player one nine six three bill brochtrup american actor one nine six three denyce graves american singer one nine six four bret easton ellis american writer one nine six four wanda sykes american actress and comedian one nine six five jesper parnevik swedish golfer one nine seven one rachel weisz british actress one nine seven three ray parlour english footballer one nine seven seven mitja zastrow german born swimmer one nine eight zero laura prepon american actress one nine eight four mathieu flamini french footballer deaths three two two bc aristotle philosopher b three eight four bc one six one antoninus pius roman emperor b eight six three zero eight saint eubulus christian martyr eight five one nominoe duke of brittany one two two six william de longespee three rd earl of salisbury english military leader one two seven four thomas aquinas italian scholastic philosopher b one two two five one five seven eight margaret douglas countess of lennox b one five one five one six two five johann bayer german astronomer b one five seven two one seven two four pope innocent xiii b one six five five one seven six seven jean baptiste le moyne de bienville french colonizer and governor of louisiana b one six eight zero one seven seven eight charles de geer swedish industrialist and entomologist b one seven two zero one eight one zero cuthbert collingwood one st baron collingwood british admiral b one seven five zero one nine zero four ferdinand andr fouqu french geologist b one eight two eight one nine three two aristide briand french statesman recipient of the nobel peace prize b one eight six two one nine five two paramahansa yogananda indian guru b one eight nine three one nine five seven wyndham lewis british author and painter b one eight eight two one nine five four otto diels german chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight seven six one nine six seven alice b toklas american companion to gertrude stein b one eight seven seven one nine seven four alberto rabagliati italian singer and actor b one nine zero six one nine seven five mikhail bakhtin russian philosopher b one eight nine five one nine seven five ben blue canadian actor b one nine zero one one nine seven six wright patman american politician b one eight nine three one nine eight one kiril kondrashin russian conductor b one nine one four one nine eight six jacob javits american politician b one nine zero four one nine eight eight divine american actor b one nine four five one nine nine one cool papa bell baseball player b one nine zero three one nine nine five georges j f kohler german biologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one nine four six one nine nine seven rabbi emanuel bronner german american soap magnate and philosopher b one nine zero eight one nine nine seven edward mills purcell american physicist nobel prize laureate b one nine one two one nine nine nine sidney gottlieb american central intelligence agency official b one nine one eight one nine nine nine stanley kubrick american film director b one nine two eight two zero zero zero charles gray british actor b one nine two eight two zero zero zero jack sanford baseball player b one nine two nine two zero zero two doris allen american psychologist b one nine zero one two zero zero four paul winfield american actor heart attack b one nine four one holidays and observances catholicism feast day of ss perpetua and felicity albania teacher s day external links bbc on this day march six march eight february seven april seven listing of all days a scene from the popular machinima series red vs blue machinima a portmanteau word for machine cinema or machine animation is both a collection of associated production techniques and a film genre film created by such production techniques as a production technique the term concerns the rendering of computer generated imagery cgi using low end three d engines as opposed to high end and complex three d engines used by professionals engines from first person shooter video games are typically used consequently the rendering can be done in real time using pcs either using the computer of the creator or the viewer rather than with complex three d engines using huge render farms as a film genre the term refers to movies created by the techniques described above usually machinimas are produced using tools demo recording camera angle level editor script editor etc and resources backgrounds levels characters skins etc available in a game machinima is an example of emergent gameplay a process of putting game tools to unexpected ends and of artistic computer game modification the real time nature of machinima means that established techniques from traditional film making can be reapplied in a virtual environment as a result production tends to be cheaper and more rapid than in keyframed cgi animation although most often used to produce recordings that are later edited as in conventional film machinima techniques have also occasionally been used for theatre a new york improvisational comedy group called the ill clan voice and puppet their characters before a virtual camera to produce machinima displayed on a screen to a live audience history the earliest roots of machinima can be found in the demoscene of the late one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s when programmers created elaborate audiovisual displays animated in real time in one nine nine two the game stunt island was released which allowed users to create movies by placing props and cameras flying stunts and splicing together takes communities emerged on compuserve and the internet where users of the software were able to trade props and movies with each other this relatively new artform has attracted some interest in the media as a sign of things to come but the number of machinima artists is rather small as of two zero zero five and they have not achieved widespread success as the quality of game engines tools and three d hardware improves however the popularity of the new medium continues to grow when doom was released in one nine nine three it included support for the recording and playback of gameplay demos this resulted in the eventual creation of doom speedruns where players recorded rapid traversals of doom levels machinima per se arrived with the advent of true three d game worlds and controllable cameras from late one nine nine three to one nine nine six the one nine nine three star wars game x wing featured a limited recording feature with a controllable camera system but the camera was controllable only during playback of recordings not during gameplay itself while quake is commonly credited as being the first to introduce these that honor technically belongs to mechwarrior two which was published a year ahead of it and possessed most of the same capabilities the first movies appeared in one nine nine seven and the term was coined at the start of one nine nine eight at this time the term quake movies was used in most situations around about mid two zero zero zero this quake community died out somewhat due to the movement of players to newer games things have picked up in the last two years or so however with the improvements in three d game engine technology many developers added in game cut scenes to their games this led to improvements in animation capabilities and soon most game engines had the functionality although often available to the developers only necessary to produce machinima the distinction between cut scenes and machinima is superficial for example the developers of act of war direct action a real time strategy game with advanced graphics used machinima technique one person playing another recording the action in game to create pre rendered cinematics the recorded video was then post processed and sound effects and dialog were added quake ii unreal and battlefield one nine four two are examples of video games which are currently used to create machinima understanding the future potential of machinima epic games the developers of unreal tournament two zero zero three included a tool called matinee with the game and sponsored a contest for five zero zero zero zero usd to create a machinima film with the video game the unreal engine was used by director george lucas for pre visualisation of star wars movies and by some other directors the video game the sims which had a photo album feature was used by players to stage elaborate comic book stories for example over several months in two zero zero three nicole service a sims player known online as nsknight staged a highly rated photo album telling the story of three sisters whose mother is murdered wired news other players have staged stories of abusive relationships drug addiction and interracial adoptions the sims two has a built in movie making feature a scene from the dday sound archive movie created using the movies editor this scene is rendered at the online resolution for streaming from the company website the movies is a game developed by lionhead studios that puts the player in the role of a movie director and allow them to create short feature films using the game engine a similar technique is used on the mtv television show video mods that shows music videos rendered using characters from popular video games and demos including the sims two bloodrayne and dawn however the creators of the show only re use the models which are manually animated using three d animation software not the game engines besides the first person shooter fps and simulation genres mentioned above other genres of games most notably the sports games like ea sports fifa nfl and nhl series already had the features and tools required such as instant replay customizable camera angle recording playback save and load to make machinima for a long time though it appeared that no one had attempted to make machinima using those games quake machinima it was with quake that machinima truly took off and it was for this game that the first true machinima film was made released in one nine nine six by a then well known quake clan named the rangers diary of a camper was the first true piece of machinima a short silent film lasting less than two minutes long it told the story of the rangers rooting out an embedded player the camper within dm six a popular quake deathmatch map at this point in time the term machinima had not been coined and these films were being touted as quake movies the piece became very popular within the quake community and soon spawned other quake movies such as wendigo and avatar s blahbalicious and clan undead s operation bayshield one of the more famous quake machinima groups is quake done quick or qdq qdq produced several speedruns for quake and reworked them into movies using special tools to show speedrun in third person their most famous movies are quake done quicker and scourge done slick which required the scourge of armagon expansion pack as of two zero zero five the group is still active making rare speedrun releases the ill clan is known for their series of shorts featuring larry and lenny lumberjack their first movie and one of the earliest notable machinima pieces was apartment huntin and was created using quake their award winning short hardly workin was created using quake two they have also made three to four live performances in front of audiences in recent years also one of the most notable quake machinimas is the seal of nehahra which details the story of original game and expands considerably on the backstory with run time of three five three three four it s also one of the longest machinima feature movies halo machinima the most popular and well known halo machinima is red vs blue the blood gulch chronicles a comedic machinima series filmed within the halo series of xbox games created by rooster teeth productions and premiering online on april one two zero zero three the show has so far released three seasons on dvd the series has also further inspired a fan tribute series called sponsors vs freeloaders based in the forums of the red vs blue website another popular halo machinima group are fire team charlie who started production in mid two zero zero three fire team charlie has made a name by delving into the code of halo and modifying it to increase their movie making posibilities their most notable change is removing all on screen displays making each video seem less in game and more like a movie this makes for more unique videos from a console game though these types of modifications are extremely common in computer based machinima stryke force released in late two zero zero four uk based the team at stryke force hq also modify the game engine for machinima purposes but only to remove the on screen displays preferring to film the series within the constraints of the game the heart is a lonely hunter released in october of two zero zero four is a three zero minute stand alone comedy that tells the story of private chade the best event coordinator in the army and the desperate plan to rescue him from the hands of the scottish the codex episode one debuted on nine february two zero zero five unlike any previous halo machinima series the codex is a drama and is set within the universe of the halo games while previous halo machinima series focus almost exclusively on comedy the codex has a definite story and has often been described as a movie divided into episodes rather than a series proper it is also one of the only series to be set within the confines of the halo universe dealing with situations described in the games and happening concurrently with other well known events this spartan life also differs from other halo machinima in that it is a talk show similar in concept to the late show with david letterman every episode of the show is divided into parts that are uploaded on the show s site in a sequential fashion every episode features an opening monologue interviews with guests as well as two fixed features the solid gold elite dancers a group of covenant elite dancers and body count a debate segment featuring players killing each other as they debate their points some of the comedy in the show itself is derived from the fact that often players not involved in the show s making are unaware that the show is being filmed at all and thus fire upon show contestants as they try to act out their parts the sims two machinima the sims machinima started with the photo album concept in the first sims game with the photo album a person could create full stories using all the game s resources the sims two which came out in the fall of two zero zero four included a built in movie making utility for players to film what their sims do after the release of the sims two maxis the sims games creators held contests hosted on their website for the best movie makers the most notable examples of the sims two machinima are listed below rooster teeth productions the authors of red vs blue have also created a serial production the strangerhood using the sims two the initial installment of the series introduced eight occupants of a neighborhood who wake up one morning with no memory of who they are where they are or how they arrived the characters have diverse quirky and intense personalities owing to the limitations of the simulation engine it was necessary to create a number of clones of each character each with a different expression happy sad angry etc the unused versions are herded into an out of viewpoint room and exchanged as necessary to obtain the various facial expressions a similar project surfaced online in the summer of two zero zero five in which sims characters reenacted the music video for r kelly s trapped in the closet song cycle city of heroes machinima the cryptic studios game city of heroes with its rich visual environments the doom of doctor death by filmmaker mike d anna a slickly produced faux film trailer in the style of a summer superhero blockbuster there machinima there com the online game has sprouted machinima as well parodies are popular austin powers mission impossible and the wizard of oz being notable ones currently the most ambitious machinima to date in there is the recently released mission slightly difficult with a run length of about nine zero minutes groups have sprung up all over for creating there videos there movies and miracle pictures being prime examples simulator based machinima a new and emerging trend in machinima are films in which the plot is carried forward mostly by cars airplanes etc as well as selectively chosen ingame objects and scenery characters are introduced only by voice over dialogue the protagonists are therefore the unseen pilots of the presented vehicles this is due to a restriction of the used game software which typically cannot render user controlled characters these machinima movies are often created in flight simulators car driving racing games or similar software because events can be difficult to script in simulators the final movie is typically created in video editing software sometimes adding additional effects a good example for a humorous simulator machinima is the movie bensky filmed war epic called i promise anachronox machinima in response to favourable input about the game s story the developers of anachronox independently combined the game s many cutscenes into a machinima movie of two hours and three zero minutes length the movie has since won several awards at the machinima film festival two zero zero two mff two zero zero two where it was first presented machinima com had to say about the film anachronox the movie is a tour de force one of the finest machinima films produced to date and probably the most accomplished machinima feature to date hell it managed to hold two over worked jury members in a room for two and a half hours before the mff two zero zero two what more can we say the film is available in downloadable mpg format at www machinima com split into one three parts machinima com is planning on releasing the film as a high res dvd version with extra footage and artwork anachronox the movie is one the most acclaimed machinima films ever made world of warcraft machinima blizzard s popular massively multiplayer online game world of warcraft has also spawned a slew of machinima ranging from comedies and dramas with detailed story lines speed runs through various areas and instances in the game pvp person vs person battles between players in opposing factions to bizzarre one act short films that defy description notable amongst the plethora of fan created machinima are films such as not just another love story zinwrath the movie and return movies that reflect the cinematic quality of big budget hollywood movie using only in game footage parodies of warcraft machinima and films that poke fun at aspects of the game well known amongst avid players are also wildly popular for example further proof that shamans are overpowered mocks the bombast and clich s of another warcraft machinima called proof that shamans are overpowered another machinima the most horrific act of ninja looting ever shows the frustration of players who are robbed by a ninja looter in a humorous light second life machinima the virtual world of second life is also being used to make machinima while no large scale work has been released yet second life is quickly becoming accepted by the community because its built in modeling scripting and avatar tools allow movie makers to create scenes quickly and collaboratively to take advantage of this alt zoom studios sponsored the ed wood machinima festival which challenged machinima makers to create a short film within seven two hours other groups using second life for machinima include bedazzle studios and natural selection studios advantages and disadvantages advantages possible smaller distribution size to distribute the movie the producer only has to distribute the movie scripts and any new resources used in the movie which are much smaller than the entire rendered movie though this requires both parties producer and viewer to have same rendering engine same game that is and hardware capable rendering the movie further to this if the engine and hardware allow it the movie could be watched at extremely high resolutions beyond what the average computer was capable of rendering smoothly at the time of release the size of a rendered video of comparable resolution could put most viewers off even those on very fast connections lower cost and production time because of lower hardware requirements movie can be made and rendered on desktop computers lower software costs games cost much less than professional three d animation software and lower production time because low end three d engines can render animation quickly if not real time moreover mistakes in the movie can sometimes be corrected quickly by simply editing the script and because of the lower rendering time possible easier movie making because most games interfaces are very simple and easy to use it is easy to make simple movies though it can be more frustrating to make complex ones because of the limited movie making capability see below disadvantages limited capability the possibilities what can be done in a movie that is were limited by the genre of the game and the flexibility and movie making capability of the game engine itself also because game engines were primarily designed for game playing not for making movies the movie making capabilities of game engines and consequently the quality of the produced movies tend to be limited when compared to three d animation software used by professionals possible high playback hardware requirements unless the entire rendered movie is distributed in order to play a movie run movie scripts the viewer needs the same rendering engine as the one used by the producer and a computer with capable hardware to run the movie scripts to view the movie depending on the complexity of the rendering engine the game that is and movie consequently this prohibits low end machines and machines without rendering capability e g cell phones pda low end computers video cd players to display the movie notable production teams strange company founded and former operators of machinima com rooster teeth productions creators of red vs blue the first commercially released machinima production among other series the ill clan team well known for live performances and improvised dialogue fire team charlie popular halo based machinima edgeworks entertainment creators of the codex and its prequel the heretic see also list of machinima series computer generated art artistic computer game modification digital puppetry external links machinima com a central site for machinima with hundreds of films and articles academy of machinima arts s five minute guide to machinima film making a brief introduction to machinima the machinima section of the internet archive artery machinima a two two minute documentary originally broadcast on scottish tv about machinima a wired piece about people using the sims game to stage elaborate stories machinima sir mackenzie bowell pc kcmg december two seven one eight two four december one zero one nine one seven was the fifth prime minister of canada from december two one one eight nine four to april two seven one eight nine six bowell was born in rickinghall suffolk england his family emigrated from there to belleville ontario where he apprenticed on the local newspaper he became a successful printer and publisher and a prominent figure in the orange order which made him canadian grandmaster in one eight seven zero in one eight four seven he married harriet moore one eight two nine one eight eight four and with her had four sons and five daughters elected to the canadian house of commons in one eight six seven bowell joined the conservative cabinet in one eight seven eight as minister of customs a competent hardworking administrator bowell remained in cabinet as minister of trade and customs and minister of militia and defence when he became a senator in one eight nine two he became leader of the government in the senate on october three one one eight nine three and then in one eight nine four as the most senior minister bowell succeeded to the prime ministership when sir john thompson died suddenly his visit to australia in one eight nine three led to the first conference of british colonies and territories held in ottawa in one eight nine four as prime minister of canada bowell faced dissent in his party over the controversial manitoba schools question in one eight nine zero manitoba had abolished its catholic school boards contrary to the provisions made for catholics in the manitoba act of one eight seven zero bowell and his predecessors had struggled to find a solution to the problem when he decided to create a new catholic school board for the province in one eight nine six seven cabinet ministers deserted him and bowell denounced them as a nest of traitors they soon returned but with elections looming bowell agreed to retire charles tupper canadian high commissioner to london was recalled to replace him sir mackenzie bowell was nine three years old and still a senator when he died in belleville he is buried in the belleville cemetery belleville ontario no elected current or former members of the government came to his funeral though a full complement of the orange order was in attendance supreme court appointments bowell appointed the following justice to the supreme court of canada d sir girouard september two eight one eight nine five march two two one nine one one external links biography at the dictionary of canadian biography online political biography from the library of parliament one eight two four births one nine one seven deaths canadian ministers of finance english canadians historical members of the canadian senate knights commander of st michael and st george leaders of the conservative party of canada members of the queen s privy council for canada natives of suffolk prime ministers of canada for the one nine eight six movie see the manhattan project film control panels and operators for calutrons at the y one two plant in oak ridge tennessee during the manhattan project the operators worked in shifts covering two one hours a day gladys owens the woman seated at right closest to the camera was unaware of the purpose and consequence of her work until seeing the photo of herself while taking a public tour of the facility nearly five zero years later the manhattan project or more formally the manhattan engineering district med was the effort during world war ii to develop the first nuclear weapons of the united states with assistance from the united kingdom and canada its research was directed by american physicist j robert oppenheimer under the overall project supervision of general leslie r groves and the auspices of the u s army corps of engineers the project s origins were in fears during the one nine three zero s that nazi germany was also investigating such weapons of its own the manhattan project took over control of u s fission research which had begun in one nine three nine starting in the fall of one nine four two and resulted in the design production and detonation of three nuclear bombs in one nine four five the first using plutonium made at the hanford washington plant was tested on july one six as trinity the world s first nuclear test near alamogordo new mexico the second an enriched uranium bomb code named little boy was detonated on august six over hiroshima japan the third another plutonium bomb code named fat man was detonated on august nine over nagasaki japan the primary sites of the project exist today as hanford site los alamos national laboratory oak ridge national laboratory the national security complex and several other plants the med maintained control over u s weapons production until the formation of the atomic energy commission in january one nine four seven some of the scientists in the project in one nine four five formed federation of american scientists which had lasted to date at its peak in one nine four five the project employed over one three zero zero zero zero people and cost a total of nearly two billion usd two zero billion in two zero zero four dollars based on cpi one nine zero zero s one nine three nine nuclear physics and international politics after the discovery of the electron by j j thomson and radioactivity by henri becquerel at the start of the twentieth century the atom was no longer thought to be indivisible in one nine zero five albert einstein showed in his theory of special relativity that a small amount of mass could be converted into a large amount of energy though the practical significance of his e mc two equation was not fully appreciated for many years in one nine one one ernest rutherford demonstrated that the majority of an atom s mass was in a small nucleus made up of protons that was surrounded by a cloud of electrons in the one nine two zero s quantum mechanics provided an explanation for processes in the nucleus such as radioactive decay in one nine three two james chadwick discovered that the nucleus contained another fundamental particle the neutron and in the same year john cockcroft and ernest walton first split the atom in one nine three four ir ne and fr d ric joliot curie discovered that artificial radioactivity could be induced in stable elements by bombarding them with alpha particles and in the same year enrico fermi reported similar results when bombarding uranium with neutrons in december one nine three eight germans otto hahn and fritz strassman published experimental results about the bombardment of uranium with neutrons collaborator lise meitner a political refugee in sweden at the time and otto robert frisch correctly interpreted their results as the splitting of the uranium nucleus after the absorption of a neutron nuclear fission which released a large amount of energy and additional neutrons in one nine three three hungarian physicist le szil rd had proposed that if a neutron driven process released more neutrons than those required to start it an expanding nuclear chain reaction might result upon experimentation he found that the fission of uranium indeed released two or more neutrons on average that such mechanisms might have implications for civilian power or military weapons was perceived by a number of scientists in many different countries around the same time while all of these developments in science were occurring however many great political changes were happening in europe adolf hitler was appointed chancellor of germany in january one nine three three his anti semitic ideology caused all jewish civil servants which included many physicists at universities to be fired from their posts consequently many european physicists who would later make key discoveries went into exile in the united kingdom and the united states after nazi germany invaded poland in one nine three nine world war ii began and many scientists in the united states and great britain became anxious about what germany might do with nuclear technology research in nuclear explosives urged one of the early sections of a particle accelerator responsible for development of the atomic bomb and used to assist in research related to the manhattan project built in one nine three seven by philips of eindhoven it currently resides in the national science museum in london it is a voltage multiplier circuit known as a cockcroft walton generator enrico fermi recalled the beginning of the project in a speech given in one nine five four when he retired as president of the aps i remember very vividly the first month january one nine three nine that i started working at the pupin laboratories because things began happening very fast in that period niels bohr was on a lecture engagement in princeton and i remember one afternoon willis lamb came back very excited and said that bohr had leaked out great news the great news that had leaked out was hahn s and meitner s discovery of fission and at least the outline of its interpretation then somewhat later that same month there was a meeting in washington where the possible importance of the newly discovered phenomenon of fission was first discussed in semi jocular earnest as a possible source of nuclear power le szil rd edward teller and eugene wigner all hungarian jewish refugees believed that the energy released in nuclear fission might be used in bombs by the germans they persuaded albert einstein one of the world s most famous physicists and a jewish refugee himself to warn president franklin d roosevelt of this danger in an august two one nine three nine letter which szil rd drafted in response to the warning roosevelt encouraged further research into the national security implications of nuclear fission after the bombing of hiroshima einstein was to comment i could burn my fingers that i wrote that first letter to roosevelt but perhaps i can be forgiven because we all felt that there was a high probability that the germans were working on this problem and would use the atomic bomb to become the master race the navy awarded the first atomic energy funding of six zero zero zero for graphite for experiments see uranium committee roosevelt created an ad hoc uranium committee under the chairmanship of national bureau of standards chief lyman briggs it began small research programs in one nine three nine at the naval research laboratory in washington where physicist philip abelson explored uranium isotope separation at columbia university enrico fermi who had emigrated because his wife was jewish built prototype nuclear reactors using various configurations of graphite and uranium the uranium committee came under the aegis of the national defense research committee in one nine four zero discovery of the feasibility of an atomic bomb it had been thought that an atomic bomb would need tons of uranium and so would be difficult to transport in march one nine four zero in birmingham uk two more german emigr s otto frisch and rudolf peierls calculated that an atomic weapon only needed a few pounds of uranium two three five and so it might be practicable they sent their report the frisch peierls memorandum to henry tizard chairman of the committee for the scientific survey of air warfare the most important scientific committee in the british war effort tizard set up a sub committee the maud committee to investigate the feasibility in more depth this committee was under george paget thomson professor of physics at imperial college london after commissioning further research the maud committee produced their first report in march one nine four one the committee confirmed that a uranium bomb could be produced using two five pounds of the fissionable isotope of uranium u two three five from this would come an explosion equivalent to that of one eight zero zero tons of tnt furthermore their research had shown that isotopic separation of the required quantity of uranium two three five was feasible detailed costings followed in another report in july one nine four one meanwhile in the usa the uranium committee had not made comparable progress the first maud report was sent from britain to the usa in march one nine four one but no comment was received from the usa a member of the maud committee and frisch s and peierl s professor mark oliphant flew to the us in august one nine four one in a bomber to find out what was being done with the maud reports he found that lyman briggs had simply locked them in his safe telling nobody not even the uranium committee because the us was not at war there was little urgency elsewhere until oliphant visited ernest lawrence james conant chairman of the ndrc and enrico fermi and told them of the maud report lawrence also contacted conant and arthur compton a physicist and nobel laureate at the university of chicago convincing them that they should take frisch s and peierl s work very seriously the national academy of sciences then proposed an all out effort to build nuclear weapons on october nine one nine four one roosevelt authorized atomic weapon development vannevar bush created a special committee the s one committee to guide the effort this happened to be on the day before the japanese attack on pearl harbor which was on december seven th one nine four one and meant the start of the war for the united states in one nine four one ndrc was subsumed into the office of scientific research and development to expand these efforts the program starts in earnest in december one nine four one scientists at the university of chicago metallurgical laboratory the university of california radiation laboratory and columbia university s physics department accelerated their efforts to prepare the nuclear materials for a weapon arthur compton organized the metallurgical laboratory at the university of chicago in early one nine four two to study plutonium and fission piles compton asked theoretical physicist dr j robert oppenheimer of the university of california to take over research on fast neutron calculations essential to the development of a nuclear weapon john manley a physicist at the university of chicago metallurgical laboratory was assigned to help dr oppenheimer find answers by coordinating and contacting several experimental physics groups scattered across the country plutonium seemed to provide a better method of making a bomb but much less was known about it two parallel and completely separate efforts were undertaken one project produced a uranium bomb and the other route produced two plutonium bombs all of which were successfully detonated in one nine four five the conferences of summer one nine four two during the spring of one nine four two oppenheimer and robert serber of the university of illinois worked on the problems of neutron diffusion how neutrons moved in the chain reaction and hydrodynamics how the explosion produced by the chain reaction might behave to review this work and the general theory of fission reactions oppenheimer convened a summer study at the university of california berkeley in june one nine four two theorists hans bethe john van vleck edward teller felix bloch emil konopinski robert serber stanley s frankel and eldred c nelson the latter three all former students of oppenheimer confirmed that a fission bomb was feasible the scientists suggested that such a reaction could be initiated by assembling a critical mass an amount of nuclear explosive adequate to sustain it either by firing two subcritical masses of plutonium or uranium two three five together or by imploding crushing a hollow sphere made of these materials with a blanket of high explosives serber credits an early idea of implosion to tolman until more quantitative data on fission reactions became available this was all that could be done teller saw another possibility by surrounding a fission bomb with deuterium and tritium a much more powerful superbomb which he called simply the super might be constructed this concept was based on studies of energy production in stars made by bethe before the war when the detonation wave from the fission bomb moved through the mixture of deuterium and tritium nuclei these would fuse together to produce much more energy than fission could this process of nuclear fusion is similar to the way that elements fuse in stars to produce light bethe was skeptical as teller pushed hard for his superbomb proposing scheme after scheme bethe refuted each one the fusion idea had to be put aside while the fission bombs and the war were completed the super or thermonuclear device was produced after the war and tested in one nine five two after an acrimonious political fight pitting teller against oppenheimer leading to loss of oppenheimer s official status however the h bomb used methods different than teller s which bethe had correctly refuted teller also raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might ignite the atmosphere due to a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei bethe calculated according to serber that it could not happen in his book the road from los alamos bethe says a refutation was written by konopinski c marvin and teller as report la six zero two declassified feb one nine seven three pdf showing that ignition of the atmosphere was impossible not just unlikely in serber s account oppenheimer unfortunately mentioned it to arthur compton who didn t have enough sense to shut up about it it somehow got into a document that went to washington which led to the question never being laid to rest in bethe s account this ultimate catastrophe came up again in one nine seven five when it appeared in a magazine article by h c dudley who got the idea from a report by pearl buck of an interview she had with arthur compton in one nine five nine the worry was not entirely extinguished in some people s minds until the trinity test the conferences in the summer of one nine four two provided the detailed theoretical basis for the design of the atomic bomb at los alamos the conclusions were later summarized by serber in the los alamos primer la one pdf project sites though it involved over thirty different research and production sites the manhattan project was largely carried out in three secret scientific cities that were established by power of eminent domain hanford washington los alamos new mexico and oak ridge tennessee the los alamos national laboratory was built on a mesa that previously hosted the los alamos ranch school the hanford site which grew to almost one zero zero zero square miles two six zero zero km took over irrigated farm land fruit orchards a railroad and two active farming communities hanford and white bluffs the oak ridge facilities cover more than six zero zero zero zero acres two four three km of several former farm communities some tennessee families were given two weeks notice to vacate family farm lands that had been their home for generations the existence of these sites and the secret cities of los alamos oak ridge and hanford were officially secret until the end of wwii a selection of u s sites important to the manhattan project major manhattan project sites and subdivisions included site w hanford washington a plutonium production facility now hanford site site x oak ridge tennessee enriched uranium production and plutonium production research now oak ridge national laboratory site x also included x one zero graphite reactor graphite reactor research pilot plant y one two electromagnetic separation uranium plant k two five gaseous diffusion separation uranium plant s five zero thermal diffusion separation uranium plant site y los alamos new mexico a bomb research laboratory now los alamos national laboratory metallurgical laboratory chicago illinois reactor development project alberta wendover utah and tinian preparations for the combat delivery of the bombs project ames ames iowa production of raw uranium metal now ames laboratory project camel inyokern california high explosives research and non nuclear engineering for the fat man bomb project trinity alamogordo new mexico preparations for the testing of the first atomic bomb radiation laboratory berkeley california electromagnetic separation enrichment research now lawrence berkeley national laboratory need for coordination the measurements of the interactions of fast neutrons with the materials in a bomb were essential because the number of neutrons produced in the fission of uranium and plutonium must be known and because the substance surrounding the nuclear material must have the ability to reflect or scatter neutrons back into the chain reaction before it is blown apart in order to increase the energy produced therefore the neutron scattering properties of materials had to be measured to find the best reflectors estimating the explosive power required knowledge of many other nuclear properties including the cross section a measure of the probability of an encounter between particles that result in a specified effect for nuclear processes of neutrons in uranium and other elements fast neutrons could only be produced in particle accelerators which were still relatively uncommon instruments in physics departments in one nine four two the need for better coordination was clear by september one nine four two the difficulties involved with conducting preliminary studies on nuclear weapons at universities scattered throughout the country indicated the need for a laboratory dedicated solely to that purpose an even greater need was the construction of massive industrial plants to produce uranium two three five and plutonium the fissionable materials that would provide the nuclear explosives vannevar bush the head of the civilian office of scientific research and development osrd asked president roosevelt to assign the large scale operations connected with the quickly growing nuclear weapons project to the military roosevelt chose the army to work with the osrd in building production plants the army corps of engineers selected col james marshall to oversee the construction of factories to separate uranium isotopes and manufacture plutonium for the bomb marshall and his deputy col kenneth nichols had to struggle to understand the various proposed processes and the scientists with whom they had to work thrust suddenly into the new field of nuclear physics they felt unable to distinguish between technical and personal preferences although they decided that a site near knoxville would be suitable for the first production plant they did not know how large the site had to be and so put off its acquisition there were other problems too because of its experimental nature the nuclear weapons work could not compete with the army s more urgent tasks for top priority ratings the selection of scientists work and production plant construction often were delayed by marshall s inability to get the critical materials such as steel that also were needed in other military productions even selecting a name for the new army project was difficult the title chosen by gen brehon somervell development of substitute materials was objectionable because it seemed to reveal too much the manhattan engineering district general leslie groves left was appointed the military head of the manhattan project while robert oppenheimer right was the scientific director in the summer of one nine four two col leslie groves was deputy to the chief of construction for the army corps of engineers and had overseen construction of the pentagon the world s largest office building hoping for an overseas command groves vigorously objected when somervell appointed him to take charge of the weapons project his objections were overruled and groves resigned himself to leading a project he thought had little chance of succeeding groves appointed oppenheimer as the project s scientific director to the surprise of many oppenheimer s radical political views were thought to pose security problems the first thing he did was rechristen the project the manhattan district the name evolved from the corps of engineers practice of naming districts after its headquarters city marshall s headquarters were in new york city at the same time groves was promoted to brigadier general which gave him the rank thought necessary to deal with the senior scientists in the project within a week of his appointment groves had solved the manhattan project s most urgent problems his forceful and effective manner was soon to become all too familiar to the atomic scientists the first major scientific hurdle of the project was solved on december two one nine four two beneath the bleachers of stagg field at the university of chicago where a team led by enrico fermi initiated the first self sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental reactor named chicago pile one a coded phone call from compton saying the italian navigator referring to fermi has landed in the new world the natives are friendly to conant in washington dc brought the news that the experiment was a success this was a major turning point the uranium bomb a gun type nuclear bomb the hiroshima bomb little boy was made from uranium two three five a rare isotope of uranium that has to be physically separated from more prevalent uranium two three eight isotope which is not suitable for use in an explosive device however u two three five is only zero seven of raw uranium and chemically identical to the nine nine three of u two three eight so various physical methods were considered for separation one method of separating uranium two three five from raw uranium ore was devised by franz simon and nicholas kurti two more jewish emigr s at oxford university their method using gaseous diffusion was scaled up in large separation plants at oak ridge laboratories these used uranium hexafluoride uf six gas as the process fluid see gaseous diffusion this method eventually produced most of the u two three five another method electromagnetic isotope separation was developed by ernest lawrence at the university of california radiation laboratory at the university of california berkeley this method resulted in devices known as calutrons which were effectively mass spectrometers initially the method seemed promising for large scale production but it proved to be expensive and it could not produce enough material it was later abandoned other techniques were also tried such as thermal diffusion most of this separation work was performed at oak ridge the uranium bomb was a gun type fission weapon a critical mass of the u two three five is assembled by firing one mass of u two three five the bullet down a more or less conventional gun barrel into another mass of u two three five rapidly creating a critical mass of u two three five which results in a huge explosion the plutonium bomb the basic concept of an implosion style nuclear weapon in contrast the bombs used in the first test at trinity site new mexico the gadget of the trinity test and also in the nagasaki bomb fat man were made primarily of plutonium two three nine plutonium is a synthetic element although uranium two three eight is useless as fissile material for an atomic bomb u two three eight is used to produce plutonium the fission of u two three five produces relatively slow neutrons which will be absorbed by u two three eight which after a few days of decay turns into plutonium two three nine the production and purification of plutonium used techniques developed in part by glenn seaborg while working at berkeley and chicago beginning in one nine four three huge plants were built to produce plutonium at hanford site w outside of richland washington from one nine four three one nine four four development efforts were directed to a gun type fission weapon with plutonium called thin man once this would be achieved the uranium version little boy would require a relatively simple adaptation it was thought initial tests of the properties of plutonium were done using cyclotron generated plutonium two three nine which was very pure but in very small amounts on april five one nine four four emilio segr at los alamos received the first sample of hanford produced plutonium within ten days he discovered a fatal flaw reactor bred plutonium was far less pure than cyclotron produced plutonium and as a result had a much higher spontaneous fission rate than uranium two three five the implications of this made a gun detonation mechanism unsuitable because of the relatively slow speed of the gun mechanism a plutonium bomb would fizzle i e blow itself apart before it developed a substantial chain reaction therefore in july one nine four four the difficult decision was made to cease work on the plutonium gun method there would be no thin man the gun method was further developed for uranium only which as expected gave few complications most efforts were now directed to a different method for plutonium ideas of using alternative detonation schemes had existed for some time at los alamos one of the more innovative had been the idea of implosion a sub critical sphere of fissile material could using chemical explosives be forced to collapse in on itself creating a very dense critical mass initially it had been entertained as a possible though unlikely method but after it was discovered that it was the only possible solution for using plutonium in a nuclear weapon it received the highest project priority by the end of july one nine four four the entire project had been re organized around solving the implosion problem it eventually involved using shaped charges with many explosive lenses in order to produce the perfectly spherical explosive wave needed for proper compression of the plutonium sphere because of the complexity of detonating an implosion style weapon necessary for the plutonium bomb it was decided that a test would be required in order to have any confidence that it would work in practice and not just be a waste of expensive fissile material after much preparation the first nuclear test took place on july one six one nine four five near alamagordo new mexico under the supervision of grove s deputy brig gen thomas farrell this test was dubbed by oppenheimer as trinity similar efforts a similar effort was undertaken in the ussr headed by igor kurchatov with a specific difference in that some of kurchatov s world war ii investigations came secondhand from manhattan project countries thanks to spies including at least two on the scientific team at los alamos klaus fuchs and theodore hall unknown to each other after the maud committee s report the british and americans exchanged nuclear information but initally did not pool their efforts a separate british project code named tube alloys was started but did not have american resources consequently the british bargaining position worsened and their motives were mistrusted by the americans collaboration therefore lessened markedly until the quebec agreement of august one nine four three when a large team of british and canadian scientists joined the manhattan project axis efforts on the bomb has always been an issue of contention while it is believed that token efforts in germany headed by werner heisenberg and in japan were also undertaken during the war but made little progress it was initially feared that hitler was very close to developing his own bomb many nazi scientists had in fact expressed surprise to their allied captors when the bombs were detonated in japan convinced that it was merely propaganda incidentally niels bohr and heisenberg discussed the possibility of the atomic bomb prior to and during the war bohr had recalled that heisenberg was unaware that the supercritical mass could be achieved with u two three five in fact bohr heisenberg and fermi were all colleagues who were key figures in developing the quantum theory together with wolfgang pauli prior to the war together with the cryptographic efforts centered at bletchley park and also at arlington hall the development of radar and computers in the uk and later in the usa and the jet engine in the uk and germany the manhattan project represents one of few massive secret and outstandingly successful technological efforts spawned by the conflict of world war ii see also timeline of the manhattan project august one nine four five atomic bombings of hiroshima and nagasaki smyth report see also below related locations hanford site plutonium production ames laboratory uranium production from ores los alamos national laboratory secret weapons lab lawrence livermore national laboratory second weapons lab created in one nine five zero s metallurgical laboratory first controlled nuclear chain reaction oak ridge national laboratory uranium enrichment trinity site first nuclear test nuclear weapons history of nuclear weapons nuclear arms race nuclear weapon nuclear weapon design isotope separation necessary for uranium enrichment list of countries with nuclear weapons the united states and nuclear weapons people list of people and sites involved in project which have articles about them lise meitner discoverer of fission and otto hahn david bohm did work that was immediately classified that he then wasn t allowed to read other projects alsos and german nuclear energy project japanese atomic program soviet atomic bomb project tube alloys british wwii atomic program movies day one a film about the project in a political perspective further reading badash lawrence joseph o hirschfelder herbert p broida eds reminiscences of los alamos one nine four three one nine four five dordrecht boston d reidel one nine eight zero isbn nine zero two seven seven one zero nine seven x loc qc seven nine one nine six r four four bethe hans a the road from los alamos ny simon and schuster one nine nine one isbn zero six seven one seven four zero one two one groueff stephane manhattan project the untold story of the making of the atomic bomb boston little brown la one declassified in one nine six five available on serber robert peace and war reminiscences of a life on the frontiers of science ny columbia un press one nine nine eight isbn zero two three one one zero five four six zero loc qc one six s four six a three one nine nine eight sherwin martin j a world destroyed the atomic bomb and the grand alliance new york alfred a knopf one nine seven five isbn zero three nine four four nine seven nine four five smyth henry dewolf atomic energy for military purposes the official report on the development of the atomic bomb under the auspices of the united states government one nine four zero one nine four five princeton princeton university press one nine four five smyth report us house of representatives eight one st congress two nd session committee on un american activities hearings regarding shipment of atomic material to the soviet union during world war ii dc us gov printing office gpo one nine five zero external links national atomic museum the manhattan project children of the manhattan project development of the atomic bomb truth of atomic bomb from hiroshima annotated bibliography for the manhattan project from the alsos digital library for nuclear issues nuclear files org information on the history of the manhattan project the manhattan project making the atomic bomb from atomicarchive com atomic bombings of hiroshima and nagasaki manhattan project nuclear weapons of the united states nuclear weapons programs hertzsprung russell diagram the main sequence of the hertzsprung russell diagram is the curve where the majority of stars are located in this diagram stars located on this band are known as main sequence stars or dwarf stars the coolest dwarfs are the red dwarfs this line is so pronounced because both the spectral type and the luminosity depend only on a star s mass to zeroth order as long as it is fusing hydrogen and that is what almost all stars spend most of their active life doing at closer inspection one notices that the main sequence is not exactly a line but instead somewhat fuzzy there are many reasons for this fuzziness the most important one still being observational uncertainties which mainly affect the distance of the star in question but range all the way to unresolved binary stars but even perfect observations would lead to a fuzzy main sequence because mass after all is not the only parameter a star has chemical composition and related its evolutionary status also move a star slightly on the main sequence as do close companions rotation or magnetic fields to name just a few actually there are very metal poor stars subdwarfs that lie just below the main sequence although they are fusing hydrogen thus marking the lower edge of the main sequence s fuzziness due to chemical composition astronomers will sometimes refer to the zero age main sequence or zams this is a line calculated by computer models of where a star will be when it begins hydrogen fusion stars usually enter and leave the main sequence from about when they are born or when they are starting to die respectively our sun is a main sequence star it has been one for about four five billion years and will continue to be one for another four five billion years it has the spectral classification of g two v after the hydrogen supply in the core is exhausted it will expand to become a red giant main sequence data the table below shows typical values for stars along the main sequence the values of luminosity l radius r and mass m are relative to the sun the actual values for a star may vary by as much as two zero three zero the coloration of the stellar class column gives an approximate representation of the star s photographic color note the following data are not in accord with the external link and the luminosity per unit surface does not follow the law of being proportional to t four in the arts main sequence is also the name of a composition of music by composer vangelis on his one nine seven six album albedo zero three nine and is in reference to the astronomical term external links table of features of the life zones of main sequence stars main sequence stars stellar evolution metal poor is a term that is used to describe the chemical make up of an object typically the chemicals which are most often referenced in astronomy are hydrogen and helium with all others being referred to as metals in astronomy circles a metal refers to any element heavier than helium metals make up only a small percentage of the chemical make up of the universe even one three seven billion years after the big bang shortly after the big bang the universe was comprised entirely of hydrogen helium and trace amounts of deuterium and lithium these elements were created during the era of nucleosynthesis which lasted from zero zero zero one three s after the big bang these primitive atomic structures made up the primordial material from which the first stars were born metal poor objects are those which contain relatively small amounts of the elements heavier than helium the idea of a relatively small amount must be kept in mind because even metal rich objects contain very small amounts of any element other than hydrogen however metal poor objects are even more primitive these objects formed during earlier times in the universe the first stars referred to as population iii were incredibly massive and during their lives they created the elements up to iron in a process known as nucleosynthesis these large stars had spectacular deaths through supernovae and created all the elements heavier than iron this polluted the universe with metals the next generation of stars were born out of these materials left by the supernova outbursts thus the most metal poor objects were born the earliest as subsequent generations of stars were born they became more metal enriched as the gaseous clouds from which they formed became more metal rich the next generation of stars are known as population ii and are the earliest stars which have been directly observed in the past couple years teams of scientists have been targeting these oldest stars in the hk objective prism survey y tim c beers and collaborators and the hamburg eso survey of norbert christlieb and collaborators originally started for faint quasars thus far they have uncovered and studied in detail about one zero ultra metal poor stars as cs two two eight nine two zero five two cs three one zero eight two zero zero one and two of the oldest stars known to date he zero one zero seven five two four zero and he one three two seven two three two six despite their incredibly low metal content these stars are still not a part of population iii stars which are metal poor are classified as such because they have a low metallicity metallicity is a measure of the amount of hydrogen to other elements iron is a very common element used to determine the metallicity of a star standard nomenclature often uses fe h which is a logarithmic ratio of the iron to hydrogen in a star compared with the iron to hyrdogen ratio of the sun stars of a metallicity below six are considered population iii thus far none have been found see also abundance of the chemical elements metal rich or population i stars metallicity population iii stars stellar population references population ii stars stars by metallicity a memory leak is unnecessary memory consumption by a computer program the most common manifestion is the failure to release unused memory that has been allocated by the operating system a memory leak occurs when the program loses the ability to free the memory neglects to free memory it no longer needs or uses memory outside the address range allocated to it a memory leak diminishes the performance of the computer by reducing the amount of available memory memory allocation is normally a component of the operating system so the result of a memory leak is usually an ever growing amount of memory being used by the system as a whole not merely by the erroneous process or program eventually too much of the available memory may become allocated and all or part of the system stops working correctly in cases where the program attempts to write to memory outside its allocated range the operating system may detect the violation and terminate the program left undetected it can cause the operating system or other processes to malfunction when their memory space becomes corrupted memory leaks are a common error in programming especially when using languages that have no automatic garbage collection such as c and c typically a memory leak occurs because dynamically allocated memory has become unreachable the prevalence of memory leak bugs has led to the development of a number of debugging tools to detect unreachable memory purify valgrind insure and memwatch are some of the more popular memory debuggers for c and c programs it should be noted that garbage collection for c and c programs can be included as facilities and are not inherently lacking garbage collection facilities if included programmatically can be used like any other programmatic feature languages that provide automatic memory management like java c or lisp are not immune to memory leaks although the memory manager can recover memory that has become unreachable and therefore logically useless it cannot free memory that is still reachable and therefore potentially still useful modern memory managers therefore provide techniques for programmers to semantically mark memory with varying levels of usefulness which correspond to varying levels of reachability the memory manager does not free an object that is strongly reachable an object is strongly reachable if it is reachable either directly by a strong reference or indirectly by a chain of strong references a strong reference is a reference that unlike a weak reference prevents an object from being garbage collected to prevent this type of memory leak the developer is responsible for cleaning up references after use typically by setting the reference to null once it is no longer needed in general automatic memory management is more robust and convenient for developers as they don t need to implement freeing routines or worry about the sequence in which cleanup is performed or be concerned about whether or not an object is still referenced it is easier for a programmer to know when a reference is no longer needed than to know when an object is no longer referenced however automatic memory management can impose a small performance overhead and it does not eliminate all of the programming errors that cause memory leaks simple example of unreachable memory in c here is a c program that deliberately leaks memory by losing pointers to the allocated memory int main void see also buffer overflow memory management memory debugger external links short definition dpus a free tool that shows leaks under windows buffers gdi objects registry keys user handles etc why doesn t my application release the memory java faq detecting a memory leak using mfc debugging support article is your memory not what it used to be by madhu m kurup article memory leak detection in c by cal erickson article memory leak detection in embedded systems by cal erickson article java memory leaks catch me if you can by satish chandra gupta and rajeev palanki article fixing memory leaks in kde by harri porten citations from citeseer sample chapter from bitter java article memory leaks be gone by staffan larsen article memory management in objective c by michael beam programming bugs milliard is a french derived word meaning the number one zero nine it is unused in american english and is rare in other forms of english though occasionally encountered after having been replaced widely by the short scale billion during the two zero th century the numeral thousand million is unambiguous the word milliard is a common word to many other languages for the history of the term milliard see long scale see also number names integers large numbers electron atomic and molecular orbitals in quantum chemistry the molecular electronic states i e the eigenstates of the electronic molecular hamiltonian are expanded see configuration interaction expansion and basis into linear combinations of anti symmetrized products slater determinants of one electron functions the spatial components of these one electron functions are called molecular orbitals mo when one considers also their spin component they are called molecular spin orbitals most methods in computational chemistry today start by calculating the mos of the system a molecular orbital describes the behavior of one electron in the electric field generated by the nucleii and some average distribution of the other electrons in the case of two electrons occupying the same orbital the pauli principle demands that they have opposite spin hand waving discussion for hand waving imprecise but qualitatively useful discussion of the molecular structure the molecular orbitals can be obtained from the linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method ansatz using eventually the concept of hybridized orbitals in this approach the molecular orbitals are expressed as linear combinations of atomic orbitals as if each atom were on its own the linear combination of atomic orbitals approximation for molecular orbitals was introduced in one nine two nine by sir john lennard jones his ground breaking paper showed how to derive the electronic structure of the fluorine and oxygen molecules from quantum principles this qualitative approach to molecular orbital theory represents the dawn of modern quantum chemistry some properties the number of molecular orbitals is equal to the number the atomic orbitals included in the linear expansion if the molecule has some symmetry the degenerate atomic orbitals with the same atomic energy are grouped in linear combinations called symmetry adapted atomic orbitals so which belong to the representation of the symmetry group the number of molecular orbitals belonging to one group representation is equal to the number of symmetry adapted atomic orbitals belonging to this representation within a particular representation the symmetry adapted atomic orbitals mix more if their atomic energy level are closer examples h two as a simple example consider the hydrogen molecule h two with the two atoms labelled h and h the lowest energy atomic orbitals one s and one s do not transform according to the symmetries of the molecule however the following symmetry adapted atomic orbitals do the symmetric combination called a bonding orbital is lower in energy than the basis orbitals and the antisymmetric combination called an antibonding orbital is higher because the h two molecule has two electrons they can both go in the bonding orbital making the system lower in energy and hence more stable than two free hydrogen atoms this is called a covalent bond h three on the other hand consider the molecule of h three belonging to the c two v group with the atoms labelled h h the atom along the axis of symmetry h then we would expect three linear combinations one s one s one s symmetric anti bonding two nodal surfaces perpendicular to the bonds one s one s antisymmetric non bonding one nodal surface along the axis of symmetry one s one s one s symmetric bonding zero nodal surface two electrons occupy the symmetric bonding bonding orbital and the third one occupy the non bonding orbital rare gases now let s move to larger atoms considering a hypothetical molecule of he two since the basis set of atomic orbitals is the same as in the case of h two we find that both the bonding and antibonding orbitals are filled so there is no energy advantage to the pair heh would have a slight energy advantage but not as much as h two two he so the molecule exists only a short while in general we find that atoms such as he that have completely full energy shells rarely bond with other atoms in fact there is not a single stable molecule containing he ne or ar except short lived van der waals complexes inner shells inner shell orbitals should not be included in the lcao expansion molecular structure relies on the outermost valence electrons of the atoms which are usually of comparable energy ionic bonds see main article ionic bond when the energy difference between the atomic orbitals of two atoms is quite large one atom s orbitals contribute almost entirely to the bonding orbitals and the other s almost entirely to the antibonding orbitals thus the situation is effectively that some electrons have been transferred from one atom to the other this is called a mostly ionic bond more quantitative approach to obtain quantitative values for the molecular energy levels one needs to have molecular orbitals which are such that the configuration interaction ci expansion converges fast towards the full ci limit the most common method to obtain such functions is the hartree fock method which expresses the molecular orbitals as eigenfunctions of the fock operator one usually solves this problem by expanding the molecular orbitals as linear combinations of gaussian functions centered on the atomic nuclei see linear combination of atomic orbitals and basis set chemistry the equation for the coefficients of these linear combinations is a generalized eigenvalue equation known as the roothaan equations which are in fact a particular representation of the hartree fock equation see also atomic orbital computational chemistry electron configuration homo lumo quantum chemistry external links visualizations of some atomic and molecular orbitals note these visualisations run only on apple mac java molecular orbital viewer shows orbitals of hydrogen molecular ion molecular physics quantum chemistry chemical bonding systems concepts now the sc group is a company co founded by stewart nelson focused on making hardware products related to the dec pdp one zero series of computers one of its major products was the sa one zero an interface which allowed pdp one zero s to be connected to disk and tape drives designed for use with the channel interfaces of ibm mainframes later systems concepts attempted to produce a compatible replacement for the dec pdp one zero computers this project was a legendary tragic failure the archetypal hacker dream gone wrong mars was the code name for a family of pdp one zero compatible computers built by systems concepts including the initial sc three zero m the smaller sc two five and the slower sc two zero these machines were marvels of engineering design although not much slower than the unique foonly f one they were physically smaller and consumed less power than the much slower dec ks one zero or foonly f two f three or f four machines they were also completely compatible with the dec kl one zero and ran all kl one zero binaries including the operating system with no modifications at about two three times faster than a kl one zero when dec cancelled the jupiter project in one nine eight three systems concepts should have made a bundle selling their machine into shops with a lot of software investment in pdp one zero s and in fact their spring one nine eight four announcement generated a great deal of excitement in the pdp one zero world tops one zero was running on the mars by the summer of one nine eight four and tops two zero by early fall unfortunately the hackers running systems concepts were much better at designing machines than at mass producing or selling them the company allowed itself to be sidetracked by a bout of perfectionism into continually improving the design and lost credibility as delivery dates continued to slip they also overpriced the product ridiculously they believed they were competing with the kl one zero and vax eight six zero zero and failed to reckon with the likes of sun microsystems and other hungry startups building workstations with power comparable to the kl one zero at a fraction of the price by the time sc shipped the first sc three zero m to stanford in late one nine eight five most customers had already made the traumatic decision to abandon the pdp one zero usually for vms or unix boxes nevertheless a number of mars computers were purchased by compuserve which depended on pdp one zero s to run its online service and was eager to move to newer but fully compatible systems compuserve s demand for the computers outpaced systems concepts ability to produce them so compuserve licensed the design and built sc designed computers itself sc later designed the sc four zero released in one nine nine three a faster follow on to the sc three zero m and sc two five it can perform up to eight times as fast as a dec kl one zero and it also supports more physical memory a larger virtual address space and more modern input output devices these systems were also used at compuserve systems concepts remains in business having changed its name to the sc group when it moved from california to nevada some years ago external links description of sc four zero at sc group website companies based in massachusetts for other uses see messiah disambiguation in judaism the messiah anointed one standard hebrew tiberian hebrew arabic initially meant any person who was anointed by a prophet of god in english today it is used in two major contexts the anticipated saviour of the jews and one who is anticipated as regarded as or professes to be a saviour or liberator jews however don t generally use the word saviour in reference to the messiah primarily because of the christian connotation of the word saviour in the first century it was interpreted to refer more specifically to someone appointed by god to lead the jewish people in the face of their tribulations with the romans christians consider jesus to be that messiah the word christ greek khristos the anointed one is a literal translation of mashiach in islam jesus isa is also considered the maseeh or messiah and his eventual return to the earth is expected with that of another messianic figure the mahdi some speculate that the jewish concept of the messiah did not arise as depicted in the hebrew scriptures but rather originates in the zoroastrian idea of saoshyant for similar figures in other religions refer to the see also section in this article the septuagint an ancient jewish translation of the old testament into greek translates all thirty nine instances of the word messiah as khristos the new testament records the greek form messias only twice in john one four one and four two five in the hebrew bible the concept of the messiah is prominent in many books in the hebrew bible in the hebrew bible israelite priests prophets and kings were anointed with oil in consecration to their respective offices the hebrew bible contains a number the number is debated of prophecies concerning a future descendant of king david who will be anointed as the jewish people s new leader moshiach the prophecies regarding this person refer to him as a descendant of king david who will rebuild the nation of israel bring world peace by restoring the davidic kingdom give his life as a sacrificial offering for sins destroy the wicked and ultimately judge the whole world the mainstream jewish understanding of mashiach the messiah has little if anything in common with the christian understanding of jesus as christ messiah this subject is covered in more detail in the entry on jewish eschatology traditional and contemporary judaism the concept of the messiah varies in traditional and contemporary judaism the view of the messiah in talmudic literature is that there are two messiahs mashiach ben joseph messiah son of joseph and mashiach ben david messiah son of david the hebrew ben can mean either son or descendant in this sense it can also mean in the manner of i e there will be a suffering servant messiah in the manner of joseph son of israel jacob and a different messiah in the manner of king david a common rabbinic interpretation is that there is a potential messiah in every generation a famous midrash tells of a man who went to a highly respected rabbi and asked when will mashiach come he was quite surprised when the rabbi answered tomorrow overjoyed and full of anticipation the man went to the wailing wall and waited all day the next day he went to the rabbi disappointed and puzzled and asked you said messiah would come tomorrow but he didn t come what happened the rabbi replied scripture says today if you will hear his voice psalm nine five seven orthodox judaism and conservative judaism believe in a future physical messiah who will bring peace to the world reform judaism teaches there will be a time of peace etc but that it will be the result of tikkun olam repair of the world through human efforts toward social justice not the actions of one man in the new testament christianity emerged from judaism in the first century a d the first christians were jews within the jewish tradition there was a belief that a messiah a descendant of king david would restore the monarchy theocracy and jewish independence some christians also believe that the messiah was prophecied to become a sacrificial offering for the sins of the world the fundamental confession of christianity is that jesus of nazareth was this messiah according to mainstream jewish belief the failure of jesus to restore the kingdom and fulfil various other messianic prophecies and his crucifixion by romans negated claims that he was the messiah some christians regard the prophecies as having spiritual significance and not literal others see a complete fulfilment of old testament prophecies taking place at the second coming see christianity and biblical prophecy many christians believe that jesus messianic character will be vindicated in his prophesied second advent in this sense jesus is believed to be both the fulfilment of the jewish messiah and will be the fulfilment of his own prophecies of the second coming christian understanding of the hebrew bible or old testament evaluates prophetic references to the messiah in the context of new testament witnesses some passages are understood to deal with a contemporary fulfilment and a future fulfilment in jesus this is understood by christians to be consistent with prophetic interpretation under the ancient jewish tradition as well in a unique example the first northern kingdom ruler jeroboam received a prophecy of the future destruction of his idols by king josiah yet unborn of judah this future prophecy was confirmed by a contemporary prophecy that the ashes of the altar would spill out this occurred shortly thereafter and was taken as confirmation of the future prophecy in this view the prophecies about jesus became more definite and fuller as the ages rolled on different periods of prophetic revelation have been pointed out one the patriarchal two the mosaic three the period of david four the period of prophetism i e of those prophets whose work form a part of the old testament canon other periods have been defined as corresponding to the different dispensations also seen as defined by covenants of god s dealing with man these principally involved the pre mosaic period the mosaic period and finally the christian period this is not a full listing of the different periods of revelation but a limited list helpful in the context for a full listing see dispensationalism another christian view does not see several dispensations or ages as is espoused by dispensationalism but rather sees a single elect company of believers from both sides of calvary drawn from the old testament and new testament periods and extending right up to the last day of this present age in this view there are only two dispensations namely this present evil age and the age to come the millennium of the messiah this is the view held by many evangelicals who hold to a resurrection of the righteous at the end of this age immediately followed by a post tribulation rapture in islam in the qur an the scripture of islam isa jesus is described as a prophet of god as well as the messiah the belief is that he was raised to heaven and will return at the end of days to live out the rest of his natural life some muslims claims the messiah was prophesized in the testimony of levi in genesis as a descendent of levi and that the prophecy about the shoot of jesse was displaced in antiquity from the joshua section to other prophets scrolls and that both joshua prophecy and the testimony of judah the star shoot were already achieved in david the mahdi al mahdi imam mehdi etc is a different person from jesus isa and is another messianic figure in islam the mahdi will usher in a new age of peace and restore a perfect islamic society shia and sunni opinions on al mahdi differ somewhat but both sects agree that jesus is the jewish messiah the ahmadiyya sect believes that the messiah and mahdi have come in the form of mirza ghulam ahmad of qadian india one eight three five one nine zero eight other messiahs see jewish messiah claimants for an overview of such claimants and links to more detailed articles in stregheria jesus christ is believed to have been a sort of evil messiah or false messiah while aradia de toscano is seen as the true saviour who came to free the poor and the oppressed from the bondages of christianity adherents to the unification movement consider rev moon to be the second coming of jesus christ the shakers believed that jesus was the male messiah and mother ann lee the female messiah for the rastafari movement haile selassie of ethiopia was the messiah the messiah in science fiction and fantasy the idea of a messiah figure has long been an element in the genres of science fiction and fantasy see the article messiahs in fiction and fantasy see also chosen one a person who was chosen usually by fate or god or a godlike being to save a group of people god complex jewish messiah jewish messiah claimants jewish view of jesus kalki list of messiah claimants mahdi maitreya messianic prophecy millennialism muhammad al mahdi messiahs in fiction and fantasy saoshyant second coming shambhala external links introduction to messianism large website rabbi chaim vital calabrese moshiach according to torah sources christian view of jesus fulfilled bible prophecies messianic jesus and the messianic cycle jewish christian topics jewish history christian narrative religious leadership roles margaret mead margaret mead december one six one nine zero one november one five one nine seven eight was an american cultural anthropologist mead was born in philadelphia pennsylvania and raised in nearby doylestown pennsylvania by a university professor father and a social activist mother she graduated from barnard college in one nine two three and received her ph d from columbia university in one nine two nine she set out in one nine two five to do her fieldwork in polynesia in one nine two six mead joined the american museum of natural history new york city as assistant curator eventually serving as its curator of ethnology from one nine four six to one nine six nine in addition she taught at columbia university as adjunct professor starting in one nine five four following the example of her instructor ruth benedict mead concentrated her studies on problems of child rearing personality and culture source the columbia encyclopedia fifth edition one nine nine three there has been disagreement with certain findings in her first book coming of age in samoa one nine two eight based on research she conducted as a graduate student and her published works based on time on the sepik and on manus as literate people from the cultures she described have challenged some of her observations but her position as a pioneering anthropologist one who wrote clearly and vividly enough for the general public to read and learn from her works remains firm margaret mead was married three times first to luther cressman and then to two fellow anthropologists reo fortune and gregory bateson with whom she had a daughter also an anthropologist mary catherine bateson her granddaughter sevanne margaret kassarjian is a stage and television actress who works professionally under the name sevanne martin she died in new york city on november one five one nine seven eight aged seven six coming of age in samoa in the foreword to coming of age in samoa mead s advisor franz boas wrote of its significance that courtesy modesty good manners conformity to definite ethical standards are universal but what constitutes courtesy modesty good manners and definite ethical standards is not universal it is instructive to know that standards differ in the most unexpected ways boas went on to point out that at the time of publication many americans had begun to discuss the problems faced by young people especially women as they pass through adolescence as unavoidable periods of adjustment boas felt that a study of the problems faced by adolescents in another culture would be illuminating and so as mead herself described the goal of her research i have tried to answer the question which sent me to samoa are the disturbances which vex our adolescents due to the nature of adolescence itself or to the civilization under different conditions does adolescence present a different picture she found that it did see pp six seven american museum of natural history edition of one nine seven three mead conducted her study among a small group of samoans a village of six zero zero people on the island of ta in which she got to know lived with observed and interviewed through an interpreter sixty eight young women between the ages of nine and two zero she concluded that the passage from childhood to adulthood adolescence in samoa was a smooth transition and not marked by the emotional or psychological distress anxiety or confusion seen in the united states perey as boas and mead expected this book upset many westerners when it first appeared in one nine two eight many american readers felt shocked by her observation that young samoan women deferred marriage for many years while enjoying casual sex but eventually married settled down and successfully reared their own children in one nine eight three five years after mead had died derek freeman published margaret mead and samoa the making and unmaking of an anthropological myth in which he challenged all of mead s major findings freeman based his critique on his own four years of field experience in samoa and on recent interviews with mead s surviving informants the argument hinged on the place of the taupou system in samoan society according to mead the taupou system is one of institutionalized virginity for young women of high rank but is exclusive to women of high rank according to freeman all samoan women emulated the taupou system and mead s informants denied having engaged in casual sex as young women and claimed that they had lied to mead see freeman one nine eight three after an initial flurry of discussion most anthropologists concluded that the absolute truth would probably never be known many however find freeman s critique highly questionable first these critics have speculated that he waited until mead died before publishing his critique so that she would not be able to respond second they pointed out that mead s original informants were now old women grandmothers and had converted to christianity they further pointed out that samoan culture had changed considerably in the decades following mead s original research that after intense missionary activity many samoans had come to adopt the same sexual standards as the americans who were once so shocked by mead s book they suggested that such women in this new context were unlikely to speak frankly about their adolescent behavior note also that one of freeman s interviewees gave her born again faith as her reason for admitting to the past deception finally they suggested that these women would not be as forthright and honest about their sexuality when speaking to an elderly man as they would have been speaking to a young woman many anthropologists also accuse freeman of having the same ethnocentric sexual point of view as the people boas and mead once shocked anthropologists also criticized freeman on methodological and empirical grounds for example freeman conflated publicly articulated ideals with behavioral norms that is while many samoan women would admit in public that it is ideal to remain a virgin in practice they engaged in high levels of premarital sex and boasted about their sexual affairs amongst themselves see shore one nine eight two two two nine two three zero freeman s own data supported mead s conclusions in a western samoan village he documented that two zero of one five year olds three zero of one six year olds and four zero of one seven year olds had engaged in pre marital sex one nine eight three two three eight two four zero in one nine eight three the american anthropological association passed a motion declaring freeman s margaret mead and samoa poorly written unscientific irresponsible and misleading in the years that followed anthropologists vigorously debated these issues but generally supported the critique of freeman see appell one nine eight four brady one nine nine one feinberg one nine eight eight leacock one nine eight eight levy one nine eight four marshall one nine nine three nardi one nine eight four patience and smith one nine eight six paxman one nine eight eight scheper hughes one nine eight four shankman one nine nine six and young and juan one nine eight five freeman continued to argue his case in the one nine nine nine publication of the fateful hoaxing of margaret mead a historical analysis of her samoan research mead s research in other societies another extremely influential book by mead was sex and temperament in three primitive societies this became a major cornerstone of the women s liberation movement since it claimed that females are dominant in the tchambuli now spelled chambri tribe of papua new guinea in the western pacific without causing any special problems the lack of male dominance may have been the result of the australian administration s outlawing of warfare according to contemporary research males are dominant throughout melanesia although some believe that female witches have special powers others have argued that there is still much cultural variation throughout melanesia and especially in the large island of new guinea moreover male anthropologists often miss the significance of networks of political influence among females the formal male dominated institutions typical of some high population density areas were not for example present in the same way in oksapmin west sepik province a more sparsely populated area cultural patterns there were different from say mt hagen they were closer to those described by mead mead stated that the arapesh people were pacifists although she noted that they do on occasion engage in warfare meanwhile her observations about the sharing of garden plots amongst the arapesh the egalitarian emphasis in child rearing and her documentation of predominantly peaceful relations among relatives hold up these descriptions are very different from the big man displays of dominance that were documented in more stratified new guinea cultures e g by andrew strathern they are indeed as she wrote a cultural pattern when margaret mead described her research to her students at columbia university she put succinctly what her objectives and her conclusions were a first hand account by an anthropologist who studied with mead in the six zero s and seven zero s provides this information one mead tells of sex and temperament in three primitive societies she explained that nobody knew the degree to which temperament is biologically determined by sex so she hoped to see whether there were cultural or social factors that affected temperament were men inevitably aggressive were women inevitably homebodies it turned out that the three cultures she lived with in new guinea were almost a perfect laboratory for each had the variables that we associate with masculine and feminine in an arrangement different from ours she said this surprised her and wasn t what she was trying to find it was just there among the arapesh both men and women were peaceful in temperament and neither men nor women made war among the mundugumor the opposite was true both men and women were warlike in temperament and the tchambuli were different from both the men primped and spent their time decorating themselves while the women worked and were the practical ones the opposite of how it seemed in early two zero th century america perey reproduced by permission of the author two mead tells of growing up in new guinea margaret mead told us how she came to the research problem on which she based her growing up in new guinea she reasoned as follows if primitive adults think in an animistic way as piaget says our children do how do primitive children think in her research on manus island of new guinea she discovered that primitive children think in a very practical way and begin to think in terms of spirits etc as they get older note animistic thinking gives feelings or personality to inanimate objects for example a child can say bad sidewalk if she falls and hurts herself on it seeing the sidewalk as mean for causing her pain the term animism comes from the latin for soul anima and tribal cultures often do have animistic concepts pueblos see the clouds as cloud people who can be pleased or displeased by what man does and give rain or drought perey reproduced by permission of the author bibliography coming of age in samoa one nine two eight isbn zero six eight eight zero five zero three three six growing up in new guinea one nine three zero isbn zero six eight eight one seven eight one one one the changing culture of an indian tribe one nine three two sex and temperament in three primitive societies one nine three five male and female one nine four nine isbn zero six eight eight one four six seven six seven new lives for old cultural transformation in manus one nine two eight one nine five three one nine five six people and places one nine five nine a book for young readers continuities in cultural evolution one nine six four culture and commitment one nine seven zero blackberry winter one nine seven two a biographical account of her early years isbn zero three one seven six zero zero six five six edited volumes cultural patterns and technical change ed one nine five three primitive heritage an anthropological anthology ed with nicholas calas one nine five three an anthropologist at work ed one nine five nine repr one nine six six a volume of ruth benedict s writings the study of culture at a distance edited with rhoda metraux one nine five three themes in french culture co authored with rhoda metraux one nine five four a way of seeing co authored with rhoda metraux one nine seven five references gregory acciaioli ed one nine eight three fact and context in etnography the samoa controversy canberra anthropology special issue six one one nine seven george appell one nine eight four freeman s refutation of mead s coming of age in samoa the implications for anthropological inquiry eastern anthropology three seven one eight three two one four ivan brady one nine nine one the samoa reader last word or lost horizon current anthropology three two two six three two eight two hiram caton editor one nine nine zero the samoa reader anthropologists take stock university press of america isbn zero eight one nine one seven seven two zero two richard feinberg one nine eight eight margaret mead and samoa coming of age in fact and fiction american anthropologist nine zero six five six six six three derek freeman one nine eight three margaret mead and samoa cambridge london harvard university press isbn zero six seven four five four eight three zero two derek freeman one nine nine nine the fateful hoaxing of margaret mead a historical analysis of her samoan research boulder colorado westview press isbn zero eight one three three three six nine three seven lowell d holmes quest for the real samoa the mead freeman controversy and beyond south hadley bergin and garvey eleanor leacock one nine eight eight anthropologists in search of a culture margaret mead derek freeman and all the rest of us in central issues in anthropology eight one three two zero robert levy one nine eight four mead freeman and samoa the problem of seeing things as they are ethos one two eight five nine two jeannette mageo one nine eight eight m losi a psychological exploration of mead s and freeman s work and of samoan aggression pacific studies one one two two five six five mac marshall one nine nine three the wizard from oz meets the wicked witch of the east freeman mead and ethnographic authority in american ethnologist two zero three six zero four six one seven bonnie nardi one nine eight four the height of her powers margaret mead s samoa feminist studies one zero three two three three three seven allan patience and josephy smith one nine eight six derek freemanin samoa the making and unmaking of a biobehavioral myth american anthropologist eight eight one five seven one six two david b paxman one nine eight eight freeman mead and the eighteenth century controversy over polynesian society pacific studies one three one one nine roger sandall two zero zero one the culture cult designer tribalism and other essays isbn zero eight one three three three eight six three eight nancy scheper hughes one nine eight four the margaret mead controversy culture biology and anthropological inquiry in human organization four three one eight five nine three paul shankman one nine nine six the history of samoan sexual conduct and the mead freeman controversy in american anthropologist nine eight three five five five five six seven brad shore one nine eight two sala ilua a samoan mystery new york columbia university press r e young and s juan one nine eight five freeman s margaret mead myth the ideological virginity of anthropologists australian and new zealand journal of sociology two one six four eight one see also visual anthropology tim asch zora neale hurston external links creative intelligence female the silent revolution creative man in contemporary society talk at uc berkeley one nine six two online audio file the institute for intercultural studies ethnographic institute founded by mead with resources relating to mead s work margaret mead biography at iis library of congress margaret mead human nature and the power of culture one nine zero one births one nine seven eight deaths american anthropologists american scientistsbisexual writers columbia alumni systems theory researchers presidential medal of freedom recipients women anthropologists michael palin michael edward palin born may five one nine four three in sheffield yorkshire england is an english comedian actor and television presenter best known for being one of the members of the comedy group monty python as well as for his travel documentaries in a two zero zero five poll to find the comedian s comedian he was voted amongst the top five zero comedy acts ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders early career michael palin was educated at birkdale school sheffield and shrewsbury school he went on to read history at brasenose college at the university of oxford while performing onstage at the etc in oxford palin met terry jones and together they wrote sketches for various bbc comedy shows he married his wife helen gibbins in one nine six six and they remain together to this day he worked with future pythons and other oxbridge comedians on projects such as how to irritate people with john cleese and tim brooke taylor and do not adjust your set with eric idle terry jones and david jason and twice a fortnight with terry jones graeme garden bill oddie and jonathan lynn it was during this time that john cleese called up michael palin and wondered whether he was interested in doing a show with him which would become monty python s flying circus monty python in monty python palin played various roles showing the range of his acting abilities roles go from manic enthusiasm such as the lumberjack of the lumberjack song or unflappable calmness such as the dead parrot vendor or cheese shop proprietor as the latter he was often the perfect foil to the rising ire of characters portrayed by john cleese palin frequently wrote with terry jones for the sketches some of the most memorable being the lumberjack song and spam but some sketches palin wrote by himself or began the sketch by himself such as the spanish inquisition in which a fairly widespread catchphrase was created no one expects the spanish inquisition other performances michael palin in the ripping yarns episode the testing of eric olthwaite after python ended palin collaborated with python writing partner terry jones on the television comedy series ripping yarns and the play secrets he also appeared in all you need is cash as the lawyer and press agent for the rutles in one nine eight two palin wrote and starred in his first solo project after python the missionary in it he plays the reverend charles fortesque who is recalled back from africa to england to aid prostitutes this also starred maggie smith he frequently appeared in terry gilliam s films such as time bandits jabberwocky and brazil his biggest international role in a movie besides python was ken pile in a fish called wanda the movie was such a success that john cleese reunited the main cast of a fish called wanda to make fierce creatures as bugsy malone michael once commented that cleese had thought it amusing to give him a character that wouldn t shut up when his character in a fish called wanda hardly talked at all five days after michael went on another travel journey and returned a year later only to find that the end of fierce creatures had been unsatisfactory and that the ending had to be reshot although this role in fierce creatures was his official last big role on screen palin had a small part in wind in the willows or mr toad s wild ride a film directed and starring pythonite terry jones palin also appeared with john cleese in his documentary the human face he assisted transport two zero zero zero and others with campaigns on transport policy issues particularly those relating to urban areas and has now become president of transport two zero zero zero palin has also appeared as a straight actor in serious drama in one nine nine one palin worked as producer and actor in the film american friends based upon a real event in the life of his great grandfather a fellow at st john s college oxford in that same year he also played the part of a headmaster in alan bleasdale s channel four drama series g b h documentaries palin s first travel documentary was part of the one nine eight zero bbc television series great railway journeys of the world in which humourously reminiscing about his childhood hobby of train spotting he travelled throughout the uk by train from london to kyle of lochalsh via manchester york edinburgh and inverness at the kyle of lochalsh palin bought the station s long metal platform sign and is seen lugging it back to london with him in one nine nine four a second journey of palin s for the same series entitled derry to kerry went through ireland more recently he has presented several series of travel programmes on television michael palin around the world in eight zero days one nine eight nine travelling as closely as possible the path described in the famous jules verne story without using aircraft pole to pole one nine nine two travelling from the north pole to the south pole following as closely as possible the three zero degree line of longitude over as much land as possible i e through europe and africa irish railway journey derry to kerry one nine nine four a quest for family roots an attempt to trace his great grandmother brita gallagher who set sail from ireland one five zero years ago during the potato famine bound for a new life in burlington new jersey usa it is a trip along the palin family line full circle with michael palin one nine nine seven in which he circumnavigated the lands around the pacific ocean counter clockwise a journey of eight zero zero zero zero kilometres starting on little diomede island in the bering strait and taking him through asia oceania and the americas michael palin s hemingway adventure one nine nine nine retracing the footsteps of ernest hemingway through the united states europe africa and the caribbean sahara two zero zero two in which he trekked through the world s largest desert himalaya two zero zero four in which he travels through the himalaya region palin s travel programmes are responsible for a phenomenon termed the palin effect how areas of the world that he has visited suddenly become popular tourist attractions for example the significant increase in the number of british holidaymakers interested in journeying to the sahara region in two zero zero three in two zero zero five he presented michael palin and the mystery of hammershoi about the danish artist vilhelm hammersh i whose work he collects all his travel books can be read at no charge complete and unabridged on his website trivia the globe theatre in london has a supporting wall which bears the names of individual donors to the shakespeare s globe trust john cleese bought two signatures on the wall one for himself and one for palin whose name he intentionally mis spelled as michael pallin according to the dvd commentary for the ripping yarns episode golden gordon palin supports the football team sheffield united palin spent a week in new york filming his role in you ve got mail as the long time customer of meg ryan s bookshop but his role was cut from the movie during his one nine nine five journey around the pacific rim palin made a guest appearance on the australian television soap opera home and away playing a surfer palin is an acquaintance of david attenborough and interviewed the naturalist about his career for the two zero zero two documentary life on air further reading from fringe to flying circus celebrating a unique generation of comedy one nine six zero one nine eight zero roger wilmut eyre methuen ltd one nine eight zero external links michael palin bbc guide to comedy palin s travels official website for the travel series michael palin centre for stammering children one nine four three births living people english actors english comedians british comedy writers british television presenters british television writers english travel writers travel writers film actors monty python members television actors former students of brasenose college oxford sheffielders commanders of the british empire the materials science tetrahedron which often also includes characterization at the center materials science is the multidisciplinary field relating the performance and function of matter in any and all applications to its micro nano and atomic structure and vice versa it is closely related to applied physics chemical engineering and chemistry bioengineering and biology mechanical engineering civil engineering and electrical engineering it is indeed one of the most multidisciplinary science and engineering fields fundamentally all of nanoscience and nanotechnology is materials science because of this in recent years materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many universities sometimes controversially many academics feel that the nano buzzword is bringing in large amounts of funding at the cost of detracting from the teaching of fundamental materials science by putting too much emphasis on devices and applications which may or may not see fruition as working products history is often defined by the materials used by advanced civilizations of an era the stone age bronze age and steel age are examples materials science in a primitive form is thus one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied science modern materials science indeed evoloved directly from metallurgy which itself evolved from mining a true understanding of materials however was not possible until the realization by willard gibbs in the second half of the one nine th century of the thermodynamic properties which relate how atoms are arranged in various phases whether they are various types of solids liquids or gases to the properties of the material since then materials science has been the area of research where rather than looking for and discovering materials and exploiting their properties one instead aims to understand materials fundamentally so that we can invent and create new materials with the properties we desire modern materials science as we know it today is a product of the space race the understanding and engineering of the metallic alloys metallurgy and other materials that went into the construction of space vehicles was one of the enablers of space exploration until the one nine six zero s and in some cases until decades afterwards many university departments which are now materials science departments were metallurgy departments since then the field has broadened to include every class of materials including metallurgy ceramics polymers electronic materials such as semiconductors and magnetic materials and biological materials such as medical implants besides space exploration materials science has enabled revolutionary technologies such as plastics semiconductors and biomaterials the basis of all materials science involves relating the desired properties and relative performance of a material in a certain application to the structure of the atoms and phases in that material through characterization the way in which the material was processed formed or created being one determinant of the structure and thus properties say we want to create a high performance metal that is harder stronger and tougher than any other metal we have we will first test and measure characterize a variety of existing metals to compare their properties and understand their structure structurally we would like to know how atoms pack on the finest scale to how clumps of atoms and impurities organize themselves as well as the defects that are present we will relate the structure to how the material was processed and draw conclusions as to what processing conditions we may use to create the desired properties in our new high performance metal after creating it we will characterize it and see what happened hopefully learning what went wrong and what went right although such a case is broadly oversimplified and straightforward the collective field of materials science is in effect carrying this process out for a multitude of material types properties and applications an old adage in materials science says materials are like people it is the defects that make them interesting indeed a perfect crystal of a material like aluminium is technologically impossible it may be interesting to note that it would be roughly one zero zero zero zero times stronger than any aluminum available today rather introduce the right defects into the aluminium such as precipitates grain boundaries hall petch relationship interstitial atoms or substitutional atoms solid solution strengthening in the correct quantity and you will have a high strength alloy that is used in the manufacture of most bicycles automobiles and airplanes similarly it is the impurities which give minerals and glass their color it is the imperfections as dislocations in the crystal structure of steel which gives it its strength and it is the impurities we introduce into silicon which give us the ability to use it to form microchips the widespread applications of materials science give rise to the title materials science and engineering radical materials advances can drive the creation of new products or even new industries but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and or to troubleshoot industrial applications of materials science include materials design cost benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials processing techniques casting rolling welding ion implantation crystal growth thin film deposition sintering glassblowing etc and analytical techniques characterization techniques such as electron microscopy x ray diffraction calorimetry nuclear microscopy hefib rutherford backscattering neutron diffraction etc the overlap between physics and materials science has led to materials physics which is a field of physics concerned with the physical properties of materials the approach is generally more macroscopic and applied than in condensed matter physics see the important publications in materials physics for more details on this field of study classes of materials by bond types materials science encompasses various classes of materials each of which may constitute a separate field materials are sometimes classified by the type of bonding present between the atoms ionic crystals covalent crystals metals intermetallics semiconductors polymers composite materials sub fields of materials science nanotechnology rigorously the study of materials where the effects of quantum confinement the gibbs thomson effect or any other effect only present at the nanoscale is the defining property of the material but more commonly it is the creation and study of materials whose defining structural properties are anywhere from less than a nanometer to one hundred nanometers in scale such as molecularly engineered materials crystallography the study of how atoms in a solid fill space the defects associated with crystal structures such as grain boundaries and dislocations and the characterization of these structures and their relation to physical properties characterization such as diffraction with x rays electrons or neutrons and various forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as raman spectroscopy energy dispersive spectroscopy eds chromatography thermogravimetric analysis electron microscope analysis etc in order to understand and define the properties of materials see also list of surface analysis methods metallurgy the study of metals their alloys and the microstructure and processing of them biomaterials materials that can be used in the human body functional materials semiconductors electronic materials and magnetic materials materials used to create integrated circuits storage media sensors and other electronic devices tribology the study of the wear of materials due to friction and other factors note that some practitioners often consider rheology a sub field of materials science because it can cover any material that flows however modern rheology typically deals with non newtonian fluid dynamics so it is often consider a sub field of continuum mechanics see also granular material surface science interactions and structures between solid gas solid liquid or solid solid interfaces ceramics which can be subdivided into electronic materials such as complex oxides structural ceramics such as rcc polycrystalline silicon carbide and transformation toughened ceramics topics that form the basis of materials science thermodynamics statistical mechanics and kinetics for phase stability transformations and diagrams crystallography and chemical bonding for understanding how atoms in a material are arranged mechanics to understand the mechanical properties of materials and their structural applications solid state physics and quantum mechanics for the understanding of the electronic thermal and optical properties of materials diffraction and wave mechanics for the characterization of materials chemistry and polymer science for the understanding of plastics and polymers biology for the integration of materials into biological systems continuum mechanics and statistics for the study of fluid flows and ensemble systems a short list of non academic materials facilities government labs lawrence berkeley national laboratory lawrence livermore national laboratory los alamos national laboratory max planck institute corporate facilities dupont ibm thomas j watson research center see also timeline of materials technology bio based materials liquid crystal important publications in materials science list of scientific journals materials science list of publications in physics materials physics list of surface analysis methods materials science building engineering mitsubishi a six m five zero model five two the mitsubishi a six m zero was a light weight carrier based fighter aircraft employed by the imperial japanese navy from one nine four zero to one nine four five while the official allied code name was zeke or hamp for the a six m three model three two variant it is universally known as zero from its japanese navy designation type zero carrier fighter taken from the imperial year two six zero zero one nine four zero a combination of excellent maneuverability and very long range made it one of the best fighters of its era and gained it a legendary reputation but design weaknesses and lack of more powerful engines eventually doomed it history the mitsubishi a five m was just starting to enter service in early one nine three seven when the ijn started looking for its eventual replacement in may they issued specification one two shi for a new aircraft carrier based fighter sending it to nakajima and mitsubishi both started preliminary design work while they awaited more definitive requirements to be handed over in a few months based on the experiences of the a five m in china the navy sent out updated requirements in october the new requirements called for a speed of five zero zero km h at four zero zero zero m and a climb to three zero zero zero m in three five min they needed an endurance of two hours at normal power or six to eight hours at economical cruising speed both with drop tanks armament was to consist of two two zero mm cannons and two seven seven mm machine guns and two three zero kg or six zero kg bombs a complete radio set was to be mounted in all planes along with a radio direction finder for long range navigation finally the maneuverability was to be at least equal to a five m while the wing span had to be less than one two m to fit on the carriers nakajima s team thought the new requirements were ridiculous and pulled out of the competition in january mitsubishi s chief designer jiro horikoshi felt that the requirements could be met but only if the aircraft could be made as light as possible every weight saving method was used and the designers made extensive use of the new duralumin alloy with its low wing cantilever monoplane layout retractable wide set landing gear and enclosed cockpit the design was not only much more modern than any the navy had used in the past it was one of the most modern in the world there was no armor plate to protect the single pilot no self sealing fuel tanks and none of the niceties found in allied aircraft most of the airplane is built of t seven one seven eight aluminum a top secret variety developed by the japanese for the purpose it is lighter and stronger than the normal aluminum used at the time but more brittle it has a fairly high lift low speed wing with a very low wing loading giving it a very low stalling speed well below six zero knots this is the reason for the phenomenal turning ability of the airplane letting it out turn any allied fighter at the time turning ability is very simply the ability to pull harder and put more g load on the wings before the accelerated stall occurs roll rate is enhanced by servo tabs on the ailerons which deflect opposite to the ailerons and make the control force much lighter the disadvantage is that they reduce the maximum roll effect at full travel at one six zero mph two six zero km h a six m two had a roll rate of five six degrees per second at the time of pearl harbor there were only four two zero zeros active in the pacific the carrier borne model two one was the type encountered by the americans often much further from its carriers than expected with a mission range of over one six zero zero statute miles two six zero zero km they were superior in many aspects of performance to all allied fighters in the pacific in one nine four one and quickly gained a great reputation however the zero failed to achieve complete superiority due to the development of suitable tactics and new aircraft by the allies when the powerful grumman f six f hellcat vought f four u corsair and lockheed p three eight appeared on the pacific theater the a six m with its low powered engine lost its competitiveness the us navy s one one kill ratio suddenly jumped to better than one zero one although in competent hands the zero could still be deadly at the end of the war because of the scarcity of high powered aviation engines and some problems with planned successor models the zero remained in production until the end with over one one zero zero zero of all types produced designed for attack the zero gave precedence to maneuverability and fire power at the expense of protection most had no self sealing tanks or armour plate thus many zeros were lost too easily in combat due to the high agility of the zero the allied pilots found that the correct combat tactic against zeros was to remain out of range and fight on the dive and climb by using speed and resisting the deadly error of trying to out turn the zero eventually cannon could be brought to bear and a single burst of fire was usually enough another important maneuver was called the thach weave named for the man that invented it then ltcdr john s jimmy thach it required two planes a leader and his wingman to fly about two zero zero feet apart when a zero would latch onto the tail of one of the fighters the two planes would turn toward each other if the zero followed its original target through the turn it would come into a position to be fired on by his target s wingman this tactic was used with spectacular results at the battle of the coral sea and at the battle of midway and helped make up for the inferiority of the us planes until new aircraft types were brought into service variants a six m one type zero prototypes the first a six m one prototype was completed in march one nine three nine powered by the seven eight zero hp five eight zero kw mitsubishi zuisei one three engine with a two bladed propeller it first flew on april one st and passed testing in a remarkably short period of time by september it had already been accepted for navy testing as the a six m one type zero carrier fighter with the only notable change being a switch to a three bladed propeller to cure a vibration problem a six m two type zero model one one while the navy was testing the first two prototypes they suggested that the third be fitted with the nine four zero hp seven zero zero kw nakajima sakae one two engine instead mitsubishi had its own engine of this class in the form of the kinsei so they were somewhat reluctant to use the sakae nevertheless when the first a six m two was completed in january one nine four zero the sakae s extra power pushed the performance of the plane well past the original specifications the new version was so promising that the navy had one five built and shipped to china before they had completed testing they arrived in manchuria in july one nine four zero and first saw combat over chungking in august there they proved to be completely untouchable by the polikarpov i one six s and i one five three s that had been such a problem for the a five m s currently in service in one encounter one three zeros shot down two seven i one five and i one six s in under three minutes without loss after hearing of these reports the navy immediately ordered the plane into production as the type zero carrier fighter model one one reports of the zero s performance filtered back to the us slowly there they were dismissed by most planners who felt it was impossible for the japanese to build such an aircraft others were not so sure and techniques were developed by butch o hare to combat them just in case a six m two type zero model two one after the delivery of only six five planes by november one nine four zero a further change was worked into the production lines which introduced folding wingtips to allow them to fit on the aircraft carriers the resulting model two one would become one of the most produced versions early in the war when the lines switched to updated models seven four zero model two one s were completed by mitsubishi and another eight zero zero by nakajima two other versions of the model two one were built in small numbers the nakajima built a six m two n rufe floatplane based on the model one one with a slightly modifed tail and the a six m two k two seat trainer of which a total of five zero eight were built by hitachi and the sasebo naval air arsenal a six m three type zero model three two in late one nine four one nakajima introduced the sakae two one which used a two speed supercharger for better altitude performance and increased power to one one three zero hp eight four zero kw plans were made to introduce the new engine into the zero as soon as possible the new sakae was slightly heavier and somewhat longer due to the larger supercharger which moved the center of gravity too far forward on the existing airframe to correct for this the engine mountings were cut down by eight inches two zero zero mm moving the engine back towards the cockpit this had the side effect of reducing the size of the main fuel tank located to the rear of the engine from five one eight litres to four seven zero litres the only other major changes were to the wings which were simplified by removing the model two one s folding tips this changed the appearance enough to prompt the us to designate it with a new code name hamp before realizing it was simply a new model of the zeke the wings also included larger ammunition boxes allowing for one zero zero rounds for each of the two zero mm cannon the wing changes had much greater effects on performance than expected the smaller size led to better roll and their lower drag allowed the diving speed to be increased to three six zero knots six seven zero km h on the downside manuverability was reduced and range suffered due to both decreased lift and the smaller fuel tank pilots complained about both the shorter range proved a significant limitation during the solomons campaign of one nine four two the first model three two deliveries began in april one nine four two but it remained on the lines only for a short time with a run of three four three being built a six m three type zero model two two in order to correct the deficiencies of the model three two a new version with the model two one s folding wings new in wing fuel tanks and attachments for a three three zero litre drop tank under each wing was introduced the internal fuel was thereby increased to five seven zero litres in this model gaining back all of the lost range as the airframe was reverted from the model three two and the engine remained the same this version received the navy designation model two two while mitsubishi called it the a six m three a the new model started production in december and five six zero were eventually produced this company constructed somes examples for evaluation armed with three zero mm type five cannon under denomination of a six m three b model two two b a six m four the a six m four is a subject of some debate most sources refer to an experimental turbocharged version of the zero for high altitude use but only a single mention of the a six m four can be found in text and it does not mention much a six m five type zero model five two the a six m five was a modest update of the a six m three model two two with nonfolding wing tips and thicker skinning to permit faster diving speeds plus an improved exhaust system four pipes on each side that provided an increment of thrust improved roll rate of clipped wing a six m three was now built in subvariants included the a six m five a model five two a kou featuring type nine nine ii cannon with belt feed of the mk four instead of drum feed mk three one zero zero rpg permitting a bigger ammunition supply one two five rpg the a six m five b model five two b otsu with an armor glass windscreen a fuel tank fire extinguisher and one seven seven millimeter type nine seven gun seven five zero m s muzzle velocity and six zero zero m range in the cowling replaced by a one three two millimeter type three browning derived gun seven nine zero m s muzzle velocity and nine zero zero m range with two four zero rounds and the a six m five c model five two c hei with more armor plate on the cabin s windshield five five cm and in the pilot s seat this version also possessed armament of three one three two millimeter guns one in the cowling and one in each wing with a rate of fire at eight zero zero rpm twin two zero millimeter type nine nine ii guns and an additional fuel tank with a capacity for three six seven liters often replaced by a two five zero kg bomb the a six m five could travel at five four zero km h and reach a height of eight zero zero zero meters in nine minutes and five seven seconds other variants are the night fighter a six m five d s some conversion for night combat armed with one two zero mm type nine nine cannon inclined back to pilot s cockpit and a six m five k zero reisen model l two two tandem tranier version also only manufactured ones seven examples by mitsubishi several machines survived the war and are now in display all over the world in countries such as japan in aichi hamamatsu and shizuoka china in beijing or the uk duxford a six m six c this was similar to the a six m five c but with self sealing wing tanks and a nakajima sakae three one a engine featuring water methanol engine boost a six m seven type zero model six three similar to the a six m six but intended for attack or kamikaze role a six m eight similar to the a six m six but with mitsubishi kinsei six two engine two prototypes built operators china small number of captured aircraft japan specifications a six m two model two one related content attack on pearl harbor carrier based aircraft japanese fighter aircraft one nine three zero one nine three nine world war ii japanese fighter aircraft may two seven is the one four seven th day one four eight th in leap years of the year in the gregorian calendar with two one eight days remaining events one three two eight philip vi is crowned king of france one seven zero three tsar peter the great founds the city of saint petersburg one eight one three war of one eight one two in canada american forces capture fort george one eight four nine the great hall of euston station london opened one eight six zero giuseppe garibaldi begins his attack on palermo sicily as part of the italian unification one eight eight three alexander iii is crowned tsar of russia one eight nine five oscar wilde is sent to prison for sodomy one eight nine six the f four strength st louis east st louis tornado hits in st louis missouri and east saint louis illinois killing at least two five five people and incurring two nine billion in damages one nine nine seven usd one nine zero one in new jersey the edison storage battery company is founded one nine zero five russo japanese war the battle of tsushima begins one nine zero seven a bubonic plague outbreak begins in san francisco california one nine one nine the nc four aircraft arrives in lisbon after completing the first transatlantic flight one nine two three the first two four hours of le mans race ends one nine two four the music corporation of america mca is founded one nine two seven the ford motor company ceases manufacturing the ford model t and begins to retool plants to make ford model as one nine three zero the one zero four six feet three one nine meters tall chrysler building in new york tallest man made structure at the time opens to the public one nine three two the sydney harbour bridge opens one nine three three new deal the u s federal securities act is signed into law requiring the registration of securities with the federal trade commission one nine three three the walt disney company releases the cartoon the three little pigs with its hit song who s afraid of the big bad wolf one nine three three the century of progress world s fair opens in chicago illinois one nine three five new deal the supreme court of the united states declares the national industrial recovery act to be unconstitutional in the case a l a schechter poultry corp v united states two nine five u s four nine five one nine three six the rms queen mary begins her maiden voyage one nine three seven in california the golden gate bridge opens to pedestrian traffic creating a vital link between san francisco and marin county one nine three nine dc comics publishes its second superhero in detective comics two seven he is batman one of the most topical comic book superheroes of all time one nine four zero world war ii nine seven out of nine nine members of a royal norfolk regiment unit are massacred while trying to surrender at dunkirk the german commander captain fritz knoechlein is eventually hanged for war crimes one nine four one world war ii u s president roosevelt proclaims an unlimited national emergency one nine four one world war ii the german battleship bismarck is sunk in the north atlantic killing two three zero zero men one nine four two world war ii operation anthropoid assassination of reinhard heydrich in prague one nine six zero in turkey general cemal g rsel leads a military coup d tat removing president celal bayar and the rest of the democratic government one nine six three folk music singer bob dylan releases the freewheelin bob dylan album which features blowin in the wind and several other of his best known songs one nine six four prime minister of india jawaharlal nehru dies in office one nine six five vietnam war united states warships begin bombardments of national liberation front targets within south vietnam for the first time one nine six eight future u s president george w bush enlists in the texas air national guard one nine seven four jacques chirac becomes prime minister of france one nine eight zero the gwangju massacre airborne and army troops of south korea retake the city of gwangju from civil militias killing at least two zero seven and possibly many more one nine nine five in charlottesville virginia actor christopher reeve is paralyzed from the neck down after falling from his horse in a riding competition one nine nine six first chechnya war russian president boris yeltsin meets with chechnyan rebels for the first time and negotiates a cease fire in the war one nine nine seven the f five strength jarrell tornado slams into the small town of jarrell texas killing two seven people one nine nine eight oklahoma city bombing michael fortier is sentenced to one two years in prison and fined two zero zero zero zero zero for failing to warn authorities about the terrorist plot one nine nine nine the international war crimes tribunal in the hague netherlands indicts slobodan milo evi and four others for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed in kosovo two zero zero six the final of the two zero zero six super one four will be played births one three three two ibn khaldun tunisian historian d one four zero six one five one nine girolamo mei italian humanist historian d one five nine four one five seven six caspar schoppe german scholar d one six four nine one six two three william petty english scientist and philosopher d one six eight seven one six two six william ii prince of orange d one six five zero one six five one louis antoine cardinal de noailles french cardinal d one seven two nine one six five two liselotte von der pfalz duchess of orl ans d one seven two two one seven three eight nathaniel gorham american politician d one seven nine six one seven five six king maximilian i of bavaria d one eight two five one seven nine four cornelius vanderbilt american entrepreneur d one eight seven seven one eight one nine julia ward howe american composer d one nine one zero one eight three six jay gould american financier d one eight nine two one eight three seven wild bill hickok american gunfighter d one eight seven six one eight six four ante trumbi croatian politician d one nine three eight one eight six seven arnold bennett british novelist d one nine three one one eight seven one georges rouault french painter and graphic artist d one nine five eight one eight seven six ferdynand antoni ossendowski polish writer d one nine four five one eight seven seven isadora duncan american dancer d one nine two seven one eight eight four max brod austrian author d one nine six eight one eight eight eight louis durey french composer d one nine seven nine one eight nine four louis ferdinand c line french writer d one nine six one one eight nine four dashiell hammett american author d one nine six one one eight nine seven john cockcroft british physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine six seven one nine zero four chuhei nambu japanese athlete b one nine nine seven one nine zero seven rachel carson american ecologist d one nine six four one nine one one hubert h humphrey vice president of the united states d one nine seven eight one nine one one teddy kollek mayor of jerusalem one nine one one vincent price american actor d one nine nine three one nine one two john cheever american author d one nine eight two one nine one two sam snead american golfer d two zero zero two one nine one three wols german painter one nine one five herman wouk american writer one nine one seven yasuhiro nakasone prime minister of japan one nine two two christopher lee english actor one nine two three henry kissinger united states secretary of state recipient of the nobel peace prize one nine two three sumner redstone american entrepreneur one nine two five tony hillerman american writer one nine three zero john barth american novelist one nine three three ted rogers canadian entrepreneur one nine three four harlan ellison american author one nine three five lee meriwether american beauty queen and actress one nine three six louis gossett jr american actor one nine three seven allan carr american film producer and writer d one nine nine nine one nine four three cilla black english singer one nine four three bruce weitz american actor one nine four five bruce cockburn canadian musician one nine four six niels henning rsted pedersen danish musician d two zero zero five one nine four seven branko oblak slovenian football player one nine five five eric bischoff american professional wrestling personality one nine five seven siouxsie sioux english musician siouxsie and the banshees one nine five eight neil finn new zealand singer and songwriter one nine five eight linnea quigley american actress one nine six one peri gilpin american actress one nine six four adam carolla american comedian and radio television personality one nine six eight jeff bagwell baseball player one nine six eight frank thomas baseball player one nine seven zero tim farron british politician one nine seven zero joseph fiennes english actor one nine seven one paul bettany english actor one nine seven one lisa left eye lopes american singer d two zero zero two one nine seven four derek webb american singer and songwriter caedmon s call one nine seven four danny wuerffel american football player one nine seven five andre three zero zero zero american musician outkast one nine seven five jamie oliver british chef and television personality deaths three six six procopius roman usurper executed eight six six ordo o i king of asturias nine two seven tsar simeon i of bulgaria one four four four john beaufort one st duke of somerset english military leader b one four zero four one five zero eight ludovico sforza duke of milan b one four five two one five two five thomas muentzer german rebel leader one five four one margaret pole eight th countess of salisbury executed b one four seven three one five six four john calvin french religious reformer b one five zero nine one six one zero fran ois ravaillac french assassin of henry iv of france b one five seven eight one six six one archibald campbell one st marquess of argyll scottish religious dissident executed b one six zero seven one six seven five gaspard dughet french painter b one six one three one six nine zero giovanni legrenzi italian composer b one six two six one seven zero two dominique bouhours french critic b one six two eight one seven zero seven marquise de montespan french mistress of louis xiv of france b one six four one one seven eight one giovanni battista beccaria italian physicist b one seven one six one seven nine seven fran ois no l babeuf french revolutionary and early socialist b one seven six zero one eight three one jedediah smith american explorer b one seven nine nine one eight four zero nicol paganini italian violinist and composer b one seven eight two one eight nine six aleksandr grigorievich stoletov russian physicist b one eight three nine one nine one zero robert koch german physician recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one eight four three one nine two six sre ko kosovel slovenian poet b one nine zero four one nine six zero james montgomery flagg american illustrator b one eight seven seven one nine six four jawaharlal nehru indian politician b one eight eight nine one nine eight six isma il raji al faruqi palestinian born philosopher and comparative religion scholar b one nine two one one nine eight seven john howard northrop american chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight nine one one nine eight nine arseny tarkovsky russian poet b one nine zero seven one nine nine one leopold nowak austrian musicologist b one nine zero four one nine nine one rajiv gandhi former prime minister of india assassinated by tamil terrorists b one nine four four one nine nine two uncle charlie osborne fiddler b one eight nine zero one nine nine three mary philbin american actress b one nine zero three one nine nine three werner stocker german actor b one nine five five two zero zero zero crawford murray maclehose of beoch british governor of hong kong b one nine one seven two zero zero zero maurice richard canadian hockey player b one nine two one two zero zero one ramon bieri american actor b one nine two nine two zero zero three luciano berio italian composer b one nine two five holidays and observances lag ba omer in judaism two zero zero five feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church venerable bede julius pope john i hildebert bruno bishop of w rzburg eutropius external links bbc on this day may two six may two eight april two seven june two seven listing of all days monasticism from greek monachos a solitary person is the religious practice of renouncing all worldly pursuits in order to fully devote one s life to spiritual work many religions have monastic elements including buddhism christianity hinduism and jainism though the expressions differ considerably those pursuing a monastic life are usually called monks or brothers male and nuns or sisters female both monks and nuns may also be called monastics in alphabetic order buddhist monasticism main article buddhist monasticism the order of buddhist monks and nuns was founded by gautama buddha during his lifetime of over two five zero zero years ago the buddhist monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering ascetics some of whom the buddha had studied under and was initially fairly eremetic in nature monks and nuns were expected to live with a minimum of possessions which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community lay followers also provided the daily food that monks required and provided shelter for monks when they were needed after the death of the buddha the buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic movement the practice of living communally during the rainy vassa season prescribed by the buddha gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by monks and nuns the patimokkha relate to such an existing prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of monks or nuns the number of rules observed varies with the order theravada monks follow around two two seven rules there are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis the buddhist monastic order is theoretically divided into two assemblies the male bhikkhu assembley and the female bhikkhuni assembly initially consisting only of males the buddhist monastic order grew to include females after the buddha s step mother mahaprajapati asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner monks and nuns are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the buddhist community first and foremost they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as buddhism they are also expected to provide a living example for the laity and to serve as a field of merit for lay followers providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the monks in return for the support of the laity monks and nuns are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of buddhist doctrine the practice of meditation and the observance of good moral character young buddhist monks in tibet a monk known as a bhikkhu in pali or bhikshu in sanskrit first ordains as a samanera novice for a year or more novices often ordain at a very young age but generally no younger than eight samaneras live according to the ten precepts but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules higher ordination conferring the status of a full bhikkhu is usually given only to men who are aged two zero or older nuns follow a similar progression but are required to live as samaneras for a longer periods of time typically five years the disciplinary regulations for monks and nuns are intended to create a life that is simple and focused rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline being seen as the preeminent factor in separating the life of a monk from that of a householder depending on the tradition and the strictness of observation monastics may eat only one meal a day provided either by direct donations of food from lay supporters or from a monastery kitchen that is stocked and possibly staffed by donations from lay supporters christian monasticism main article christian monasticism monasticism in christianity is a family of similar traditions that began to develop early in the history of the christian church modelled upon scriptural examples and ideals but not mandated as an institution by the scriptures the order of friars minor is a major mendicant movement founded by saint francis of assisi while most people think of christian or catholic monks or nuns as something to do with living in a monastery from the church s point of view the definition of a monk nun is one who lives under a rule and an abbot abbess the focus of the particulars of the life does not necessarily entail living in a monastery or performing any specific activity rather the focus is on an ideal called the religious life also called the state of perfection this idea is expressed everywhere that the things of god are sought above all other things as seen for example in the philokalia a book of monastic writings in other words a monk or nun is a person who has vowed to follow not only the commandments of the church but also the counsels e g vows of poverty chastity and obedience the words of jesus which are the cornerstone for this ideal are be ye perfect like your heavenly father is perfect christian cenobitic monasticism as it is mainly known in the west started in egypt originally all christian monks were hermits and especially in the middle east this continued to be very common until the decline of syrian christianity in the late middle ages but not everybody is fit for solitary life and numerous cases of hermits becoming mentally unstable are reported the need for some form of organized spiritual guidance was obvious and around three zero zero saint anthony the great started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first christian monastery soon the egyptian desert abounded with similar institutions in the west the rules for monastic communities were set a few generations later by saint benedict of nursia who created the rule of saint benedict at his monastery in monte cassino it would become the most common rule throughout the middle ages spawning many other religious orders and it is still in use today one nine th century italian monk in funeral attire the idea caught on and other places followed mar awgin founded a monastery on mt izla above nisibis in mesopotamia three five zero and from this monastery the cenobitic tradition spread in mesopotamia persia armenia georgia and even india and china st sabbas the sanctified organized the monks of the judean desert in a monastery close to bethlehem four eight three and this is considered the mother of all monasteries of the eastern orthodox churches saint catherine s monastery mount sinai was founded in the sinai desert by order of emperor justinian st benedict of nursia founded the monastery of monte cassino in italy five two nine which was the seed of roman catholic monasticism in general and of the order of benedict in particular hindu monasticism sadhus hindu ascetic are often seen meditating in padmasana lotus pose used with permission from www kamat com in hinduism monastic tradition varies somewhat from sect to sect historically this path has been open to males only but some traditions now accept female renunciates as well hindu monks are called sadhus and in most traditions are easily recognized by their saffron robes vaisnava monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head while saivite monks in most traditions let their hair and beard grow uncut a sadhu s vow of renunciation typically forbids him from owning personal property apart from a bowl a cup two sets of clothing and medical aides such as eyeglasses having any contact with looking at thinking of or even being in the presence of women eating for pleasure possessing or even touching money or valuables in any way shape or form maintaining personal relationships islamic monasticism although islam denounces monasticism and celibacy today one may encounter some muslim traditions with innovative practices that have absorbed monastic disciplines according to a verse five seven two seven in the qur an a sacred text of islam allah rebukes monasticism as a man made invention and a practice which has never been prescribe for them despite clear prohibitions from the qur an and sunnah a second source of islamic law monasticism has ironically found a place in the religious practice for many muslims dervishes the name given to initiates of sufi orders believe that love is a projection of the essence of god to the universe many of the dervishes are mendicant ascetics who have taken the vow of poverty though some of them are beggars by choice others work in common professions egyptian qadirites for example are fishermen there are also various dervish brotherhoods who trace their origins from various islamic holy men and teachers especially ali and abu bakr they live in monastic conditions superficially similar to christian monk brotherhoods various sects and subsects have appeared and disappeared over the centuries whirling dance which is the practice of the mevlevi sect in turkey is just one of the physical methods to try to reach religious ecstasy majdhb and connection with allah rifgites also called the howling dervishes cut themselves with knives handle red hot iron and eat hot coals or live serpents depending on the subsect other groups include bektashites connected to the janissaries and senussi who are rather orthodox in their beliefs other brotherhoods and subgroups chant verses of qur an play drums or dance vigorously in groups all according to their specific traditions each brotherhoods uses its own garb and methods of acceptance and initiation which may be rather severe jain monasticism jainism has two branches each has a slightly different take on monasticism digambara monks do not wear clothing however they do not consider themselves to be nude they are wearing the environment digambaras believe that practice represents a refusal to give in to the body s demands for comfort and private property only digambara ascetics are required to forsake clothing digambara ascetics have only two possessions a peacock feather broom and a water gourd they also believe that women are unable to obtain moksha as a result of the around six zero zero zero jain nuns barely one zero zero are digambaras the shvetambaras are the other main jainist sect svetambaras unlike digambaras neither believe that ascetics must practice nudity nor do they believe that women are unable to obtain moksha shvetambaras are commonly seen wearing face masks so that they do not accidentally breathe in and kill small creatures monasticism in other religions sikhism specifically forbids the practice of monasticism hence there are no sikh monk conclaves or brotherhoods manichaeism had two types of followers the auditors and the elect the elect lived apart from the auditors to concentrate on reducing the material influences of the world they did this through strict celibacy poverty teaching and preaching therefore the elect were probably at least partially monastic scientology maintains a fraternal order called the sea organization or just sea org they work only for the church of scientology and have signed billion year contracts sea org members live communally with lodging food clothing and medical care provided by the church ananda marga has both monks and nuns i e celibate male and female acharya s or missionaries as well as a smaller group of family acharyas the monks and nuns are engaged in all kinds of direct services to society so they have no scope for permanent retreat they do have to follow strict celibacy poverty and many other rules of conduct during as well as after they have completed their training yungdrung b n is believed to have a rich monastic history b n monastaries exist today however the monks there practice b n buddhism see also order religious monastery pachomius early example of monastic organizer rule of st benedict further reading johnston william m ed two zero zero zero encyclopedia of monasticism two vols chicago fitzroy dearborn publishers zarnecki george one nine eight five the monastic world the contributions of the orders pp three six six six in evans joan ed one nine eight five the flowering of the middle ages london thames and hudson ltd external links monasticism some ideas about what is monasticism accompanied by excerpts from the new testament and apocrypha links to coptic orthodox monasteries of egypt and the world asceticism buddhism christianity hindu philosophical concepts islam jainism religious behaviour and experience may one zero is the one three zero th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one three one st in leap years there are two three five days remaining events one two nine one scottish nobles recognize the authority of king edward i of england one four nine seven amerigo vespucci allegedly leaves c diz for his first voyage to the new world one five zero three christopher columbus visits the cayman islands and names them las tortugas after the numerous sea turtles there one five three four jacques cartier visits newfoundland one seven six eight john wilkes is imprisoned for writing an article for the north briton severely criticizing king george iii this action provokes rioting in london one seven seven four louis xvi becomes king of france one seven seven five american revolutionary war fort ticonderoga is taken by a small force led by colonel benedict arnold and ethan allen one seven seven five american revolutionary war representatives from the one three colonies of the united states meet in philadelphia and raise the continental army to defend the new republic they place it under command of cavalier george washington of virginia one seven nine six first coalition napoleon i of france wins a decisive victory against austrian forces at lodi bridge over the river adda in italy the austrians lose some two zero zero zero men one eight zero one first barbary war the barbary pirates of tripoli declare war on the united states one eight two four national gallery in london opens to the public one eight three seven panic of one eight three seven new york city banks fail and unemployment reaches record levels one eight five seven indian mutiny in india the sepoys revolt against the british army one eight six five american civil war jefferson davis is captured by union troops near irwinville georgia one eight six five american civil war union soldiers ambush and mortally wound confederate raider william quantrill in kentucky who lingers until his death on june six one eight six nine the first transcontinental railroad linking the eastern and western united states is completed at promontory summit utah not promontory point utah with the golden spike one eight seven two victoria woodhull becomes the first woman nominated for president of the united states one eight seven seven romania declares itself independent from turkey recognized on march two six one eight eight one after the end of the romanian independence war one nine zero eight mother s day is observed for the first time andrew s methodist church in grafton west virginia usa one nine two two the usa annexes the kingman reef one nine two four j edgar hoover is appointed the director of the u s federal bureau of investigation and remains so until his death in one nine seven two one nine three three censorship in germany the nazis stage massive public book burnings one nine four zero world war ii the first german bombs of the war fall on england at chilham and petham in kent one nine four zero world war ii germany invades belgium the netherlands and luxembourg one nine four zero world war ii winston churchill is appointed prime minister of the united kingdom one nine four one world war ii the house of commons in london is destroyed by the luftwaffe in an air raid one nine four one world war ii rudolf hess parachutes into scotland in order to try and negotiate a peace deal between the united kingdom and nazi germany one nine five four bill haley and the comets release rock around the clock the first rock and roll record to reach number one on the charts one nine six zero the nuclear submarine uss triton completes the first underwater circumnavigation of the earth one nine six nine the first zip to zap rural outdoor rock concert at zap north dakota is ended prematurely as north dakota national guard is ordered to disperse the unruly crowd one nine seven nine the federated states of micronesia becomes self governing one nine eight one fran ois mitterrand takes office as the first socialist president of france one nine eight eight michel rocard becomes prime minister of france one nine nine three in thailand a fire at the kader toy factory kills one eight eight workers mostly young women one nine nine four the u s state of illinois executes serial killer john wayne gacy for the murder of three three young men and boys one nine nine four an annular eclipse of the sun is visible across much of north america one nine nine six a rogue storm near the summit of mount everest kills eight climbers making this the deadliest day in the mountain s history among the dead are experienced climbers rob hall and scott fischer both of whom were leading paid expeditions to the summit one nine nine seven an earthquake near ardekul in northeastern iran kills at least two four zero zero people one nine nine eight national elections are held in hungary two zero zero one in ghana a stampede at a football game kills over one two zero spectators two zero zero two fbi agent robert hanssen is given a life sentence without the possibility of parole for selling american secrets to moscow for one four million in cash and diamonds two zero zero two lynda lyon block is executed in yellow mama the electric chair of alabama two zero zero three record shattering tornado activity during the may two zero zero three tornado outbreak sequence two zero zero five a hand grenade ostensibly thrown by vladimir arutinian lands about one zero zero feet from united states president george w bush while he is giving a speech to a crowd in tbilisi georgia but malfunctions and does not detonate births one two six five emperor fushimi of japan d one three one seven one six zero four jean mairet french dramatist d one six eight six one six four one dudley north english economist d one six nine one one seven two seven anne robert turgot french statesman d one seven eight one one seven six zero johann peter hebel german poet d one eight two six one seven seven zero louis nicolas davout french marshal d one eight two three one seven eight eight augustin jean fresnel french physicist d one eight two seven one eight three eight john wilkes booth american actor and assassin of abraham lincoln d one eight six five one eight four one james gordon bennett jr american publisher d one nine one eight one eight six six l on bakst russian artist d one nine two four one eight seven two marcel mauss french sociologist d one nine five zero one eight seven eight gustav stresemann chancellor of germany recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine two nine one eight eight six karl barth swiss protestant theologian d one nine six eight one eight eight six felix manalo first executive minister of the iglesia ni cristo d one nine six three one eight eight eight max steiner austrian composer d one nine seven one one eight eight nine mae murray american actress d one nine six five one eight nine zero alfred jodl german general d one nine four six one eight nine seven einar gerhardsen prime minister of norway d one nine eight seven one eight nine nine fred astaire american singer dancer and actor d one nine eight seven one eight nine nine dimitri tiomkin ukrainian born composer d one nine seven nine one nine zero two anatole litvak ukrainian born film director d one nine seven four one nine zero two david o selznick american film producer d one nine six five one nine zero nine maybelle carter american musician one nine one six milton babbitt american composer one nine two seven nayantara sahgal indian author one nine two eight arnold r tel estonian president one nine three zero pat summerall american football player and broadcaster one nine three three barbara taylor bradford english writer one nine three four cliff wilson welsh snooker player d one nine nine four one nine three six gary owens american actor and announcer one nine four four jim abrahams american film director one nine four six donovan scottish musician one nine four six dave mason english musician traffic one nine five two kikki danielsson swedish singer one nine five three john diamond british journalist d two zero zero one one nine five five chris berman american sportscaster one nine five five mark david chapman american assassin of john lennon one nine five six vladislav listyev russian television anchor and journalist one nine five seven sid vicious english bassist the sex pistols d one nine seven nine one nine five eight rick santorum u s senator one nine six zero bono irish singer u two one nine six one danny carey american drummer tool pigmy love circus one nine six five linda evangelista canadian model one nine six six jonathan edwards british athlete one nine six seven scott brison canadian politican one nine six nine dennis bergkamp dutch footballer one nine seven zero david weir scottish footballer one nine seven one dne s ndr l norwegian speed skater one nine seven two rados aw majdan polish footballer one nine seven four sylvain wiltord french footballer one nine seven five h lio castroneves brazilian race car driver one nine seven seven nick heidfeld german formula one driver deaths one two nine zero duke rudolph ii of austria b one two seven one one four two four go kameyama emperor of japan one four eight two paolo dal pozzo toscanelli italian mathematician and astronomer b one three nine seven one four nine three colin campbell one st earl of argyll scottish politician one five two one sebastian brant alsatian humanist b one four five seven one five six six leonhart fuchs german botanist b one five zero one one six four one johan ban r swedish soldier b one five nine six one six five seven gustaf horn swedish soldier and politician b one five nine two one six nine one colonel john birch english soldier b one six one five one six nine six jean de la bruy re french writer b one six four five one seven one seven john hathorne american magistrate b one six four one one seven two six charles beauclerk one st duke of st albans english soldier b one six seven zero one seven three three barton booth english actor b one six eight one one seven three seven nakamikado emperor of japan b one seven zero two one seven seven four king louis xv of france b one seven one zero one seven eight seven william watson english physician and scientist b one seven one five one seven nine two john stevens american delegate to the continental congress one eight zero seven comte de rochambeau french soldier b one seven two five one eight one eight paul revere american patriot b one seven three five one eight two nine thomas young english physician and linguist b one seven seven three one eight five zero joseph louis gay lussac french chemist and physicist b one seven seven eight one eight six three stonewall jackson american confederate general b one eight two four one eight eight nine mikhail saltykov shchedrin russian satirist b one eight two six one eight nine seven andr s bonifacio filipino revolutionary leader b one eight six three one nine five zero belle da costa greene librarian bibliographer archivist b one eight eight three one nine five five tommy burns canadian boxer b one eight eight one one nine six zero yury olesha russian novelist b one eight nine nine one nine seven seven joan crawford american actress b one nine zero five one nine eight eight shen congwen chinese writer b one nine zero two one nine nine zero walker percy american author b one nine one six one nine nine four john wayne gacy american serial killer executed b one nine four two one nine nine nine shel silverstein american poet and composer b one nine three zero two zero zero one deborah walley american actress b one nine four three two zero zero three milan vukcevich yugoslavian chemist and chess problem composer b one nine three seven two zero zero five david wayne american singer metal church b one nine five eight holidays and observances feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church solange saint alphius saint aurelian saint william of pontoise saint calepodius saint cataldus saint comgall saint dioscorides saint epimachus gordianus isidore the laborer saint john of avila saint quaratus and quintus saint peter van memorial day of blessed damien of moloka i in christianity celebration of the clandestine retreat of ma at and re in ancient egypt confederate memorial day in north carolina and south carolina constitution day in the federated states of micronesia inauguration day in south africa sita pujan in hinduism tin han s day in china start of tori no mawari bird week in japan mania mythology in ancient rome dia de la madre in mexico external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day thisdaythatyear com on may one zero may nine may one one april one zero june one zero listing of all days image of a man on the pioneer plaque sent to interstellar space image male svga man is a male human adult in contrast to an adult female which is a woman the term man irregular plural men is a term used to indicate either a person generally or a male person specifically etymology the term man from proto germanic mannaz man person and words derived from it can designate any or even all of the human race regardless of their gender or age this is indeed the oldest usage of man the word developed into old english man mann human being person cf also german mann old norse ma r gothic manna man it is derived from a proto indo european root man cf sanskrit avestan manu russian muzh man male sometimes the word is connected with the root men to think cognate to mind restricted use in the sense adult male only began to occur in late old english around one zero zero zero ad and the word formerly expressing male sex wer had died out by one three zero zero but survives in e g were wolf and were gild the original sense of the word is preserved in mankind from old english mancynn in old english the words wer and also and were used to refer to a man and a woman respectively while mann was gender neutral in middle english man displaced wer as term for male human whilst wyfman which eventually evolved into woman was retained for female human man does continue to carry its original sense of human however resulting in an asymmetry sometimes criticized as sexist a man running through water in the two zero th century the generic meaning of man declined still further but survives in compounds mankind everyman no man s land etc and it is probable that future generations will see it as totally archaic and use it solely to mean adult male interestingly exactly the same thing has happened to the latin word homo in the romance languages homme uomo hombre homem etc have all come to refer mainly to males with residual generic meaning age manhood is the period in a male s life after he has transitioned from a boy many cultures have rites of passage to symbolize a man s coming of age such as confirmation in some branches of christianity bar mitzvah in judaism or even just the celebration of the eighteenth or twenty first birthday a boy is a male human child for many the word man implies a certain degree of maturity and responsibility that young men in particular often feel unprepared for yet they may also feel too old to be called a boy for this reason many avoid using either man or boy to describe a young man and prefer colloquial terms such as bloke chap fellow guy or the like biology and sex in terms of sex men have various sexual characteristics that differentiate them from women just as in women the sex organs of a man are part of the reproductive system consisting of the penis testicles vas deferens and other sperm cords and the prostate gland the male reproductive system is oriented around producing and ejaculating semen which carries sperm and thus genetic information since sperm that enters a woman s uterus and then fallopian tubes goes on to fertilize an egg which develops into a fetus or child the male reproductive system plays no necessary role during the gestation the concept of fatherhood and family exists in every human society the secondary sex characteristics such as body hair and muscle growth are involved in attracting a mate or in defeating rivals but these secondary traits are also often related to reproduction in some manner in contrast to women men have sex organs that are mostly considered to be external although many parts of the male reproductive system are internal as well such as the prostate the study of male reproduction and associated organs is called andrology most but not all men have the karyotype four six xy in general men suffer from many of the same illnesses as women however there are some sex related illnesses that occur only or more frequently in men for example autism and color blindness are more common in men than women as well some age related disorders such as alzheimer s disease appear to be more common among men though whether this is due to a genuinely higher incidence or because men have lower life expectancies than women is uncertain human male genital area anatomy biological factors are usually not the sole determinants of whether a person considers themselves a man or is considered a man or not for example several men have been born without a typical male physiology estimates range between one in two zero zero zero and one in one zero zero zero zero zero or some individuals with xy chromosomes can have an hormonal or genetic difference such as androgen insensitivity syndrome or another intersex condition some of those intersex people and others who have had a sex assigned at birth seek reassignment later in their lives see also gender identity gender role and transman additionally two zero of males particularly in the u s the philippines and south korea as well as jews and muslims from all countries have experienced circumcision a process of altering the penis from its natural state by removing the foreskin gender roles michelangelo s david is widely considered to be one of the finest artistic portrayals of a man enormous debate in western societies has focused on perceived social intellectual or emotional differences between men and women these differences are very difficult to quantify for both scientific and political reasons below are a few stereotypical claims sometimes made about men in relation to women more aggressive than women however in interpersonal relationships most research has found that men and women are equally aggressive men do tend to be more aggressive outside of the home more courageous and adventuresome than women more competitive but also more stubborn than women more self confident even proud and exhibit better leadership skills than women more self controlled and less emotional more technically and organizationally skilled than women more prone to abstract thinking than women less tidy dirtier than women more talkative and more likely to interrupt than women more likely to make a distinction between gay men and lesbians more likely to be sarcastic and use metaphors during conversation some of these differences have been supported by scientific research others have not all should be taken with a grain of salt given the enormous variations among actual men and women a number of the above stereotypes were not perceived in the same way as today i e their applications to particular aspects and spheres of life such as work vs home until the one nine th century beginning with industrialization in terms of outward appearance few men in western cultures wear cosmetics or clothing generally associated with female gender roles doing so is known as cross dressing and is generally stigmatized further reading andrew perchuk simon watney bell hooks the masculine masquerade masculinity and representation mit press one nine nine five pierre bourdieu masculine domination paperback edition stanford university press two zero zero one robert w connell masculanities cambridge polity press one nine nine five michael kimmel ed robert w connell ed jeff hearn ed handbook of studies on men and masculinities sage publications two zero zero four see also dude gender and sexuality studies male chauvinism masculinity masculism men s rights misandry patriarchy penis woman men gender may one seven is the one three seven th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one three eight th in leap years there are two two eight days remaining events one five two one edward stafford three rd duke of buckingham is executed for treason one five nine zero anne of denmark is crowned queen of scotland one six four two paul chomedey sieur de maisonneuve one six one two one six seven six founds the ville marie de montr al one six seven three louis joliet and jacques marquette begin exploring the mississippi river one seven seven five american revolutionary war the continental congress bans trade with canada one seven nine two the new york stock exchange is formed one eight zero nine napoleon i of france orders the annexation of the papal states to the french empire one eight one four occupation of monaco changes from french to austrian one eight one four the constitution of norway is signed and the danish crown prince christian frederik is elected king of norway by the constitutional assembly one eight four six the saxophone is patented by adolphe sax one eight six three rosal a de castro publishes cantares gallegos her first book in the galician language one eight six five the international telegraph union the later international telecommunication union is established one eight seven five aristides wins the first kentucky derby one nine zero zero second boer war british troops relieve mafeking one nine zero two archaeologist spyridon stais finds the antikythera mechanism one nine one five the last british liberal party government herbert henry asquith falls one nine one nine committee of one thousand forms to oppose winnipeg general strike one nine three three vidkun quisling and johan bernhard hjort form nasjonal samling the national socialist party of norway one nine four zero world war ii germany occupies brussels belgium one nine four three world war ii surviving raf dam busters return one nine four three the united states army contracts with the university of pennsylvania s moore school to develop the eniac one nine four four type ix u boat u eight eight four is launched one nine five four the united states supreme court hands down a unanimous decision in brown v board of education of topeka kansas one nine six seven six day war president abdul nasser of egypt demands dismantling of the peace keeping un emergency force in egypt one nine six nine venera program soviet venera six begins its descent into the atmosphere of venus sending back atmospheric data before being crushed by pressure one nine seven zero thor heyerdahl sets sail from morocco on the papyrus boat ra ii to sail the atlantic ocean one nine seven three watergate scandal hearings begin in the united states senate and are televised one nine seven four police in los angeles california raid the symbionese liberation army s headquarters killing six members including camilla hall one nine seven four thirty three people are killed by terrorist bombings in dublin and monaghan ireland one nine eight zero general chun doo hwan of south korea declares martial law in order to suppress student demonstrations one nine eight three lebanon israel and the united states sign an agreement on israeli withdrawal from lebanon one nine eight four prince charles calls a proposed addition to the national gallery london a monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much loved and elegant friend sparking controversies on the proper role of the royal family and the course of modern architecture one nine eight five date on which the events of the one nine eight six film ferris bueller s day off take place one nine eight seven iran iraq war the uss stark ffg three one is struck by a missile from an iraqi mirage fighter killing three seven and injuring two one of her crew one nine nine two in thailand the so called black may begins thai police and protestors start attacking one another by midnight the current thai government declares a state of emergency and military troops equipped with m one six rifles open fire one nine nine five after one eight years as the mayor of paris jacques chirac takes office as president of france one nine nine five three five year old shawn nelson goes on a tank rampage in san diego one nine nine nine ehud barak is elected prime minister of israel two zero zero two nintendo gamecube is released in australia two zero zero three mozilla firefox browser renamed from phoenix to firebird two zero zero four same sex marriage becomes legal in massachusetts births one one five five jien japanese poet and historian d one two two five one four four three edmund earl of rutland brother of kings edward iv of england and richard iii of england d one four six zero one five five one martin delrio flemish theologian and occultist d one six zero one one six two eight archduke ferdinand charles of austria regent of the tyrol d one six six two one seven zero six andreas felix von oefele german historian and librarian d one seven eight zero one seven one eight robert darcy four th earl of holderness english diplomat and politician d one seven seven eight one seven four three seth warner american revolutionary leader d one seven eight four one seven four nine edward jenner english medical researcher d one eight two three one seven five eight john st aubyn british fossil collector d one eight three nine one seven six eight caroline of brunswick princess of wales d one eight two one one seven six eight henry paget one st marquess of anglesey english general d one eight five four one seven nine four anna brownell jameson british writer d one eight six zero one eight two one sebastian kneipp german naturopathist d one eight nine seven one eight three six wilhelm steinitz austrian chess player d one nine zero zero one eight four four julius wellhausen german biblical scholar d one nine one eight one eight six six erik satie french composer d one nine two five one eight seven three henri barbusse french novelist and journalist d one nine three five one eight seven three dorothy richardson english writer d one nine five seven one eight seven nine simon petlyura ukrainian independence fighter d one nine two six one eight eight six alfonso xiii of spain d one nine four one one eight eight eight tich freeman english cricketer d one nine six five one eight nine seven odd hassel norwegian chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine eight one one eight nine eight alfred joseph casson canadian painter d one nine nine two one nine zero zero ruhollah khomeini iranian muslim cleric d one nine eight nine one nine zero one werner egk german composer d one nine eight three one nine zero three cool papa bell baseball player d one nine nine one one nine zero four jean gabin french actor d one nine seven six one nine zero six zinka milanov croatian soprano d one nine eight nine one nine one one lisa fonssagrives supermodel d one nine nine two one nine one one maureen o sullivan irish actress d one nine nine eight one nine one eight birgit nilsson swedish soprano d two zero zero five one nine one nine merle miller american biographer d one nine eight six one nine two one dennis brain english french horn player d one nine five seven one nine three five dennis potter english writer d one nine nine four one nine three six dennis hopper american actor and director one nine three seven hazel r o leary united states secretary of energy one nine three eight jason bernard american actor d one nine nine six one nine four zero alan kay american computer scientist one nine four two taj mahal american singer and guitarist one nine four five tony roche australian tennis player one nine four six udo lindenberg german musician one nine four six f paul wilson american novelist one nine four nine bill bruford english drummer and songwriter one nine five zero janez drnov ek slovenian politician one nine five five bill paxton american actor one nine five six sugar ray leonard american boxer one nine five six bob saget american actor one nine five six dave sim canadian cartoonist one nine five nine paul di anno english singer iron maiden one nine five nine jim nantz american broadcaster one nine six one enya irish singer and songwriter one nine six two lise lyng falkenberg danish writer one nine six five trent reznor american singer and songwriter one nine seven one shaun hart australian footballer one nine seven one princess m xima of the netherlands one nine seven three josh homme american musician singer and songwriter one nine seven four andrea corr irish singer the corrs one nine seven five sasha alexander american actress one nine seven five jonti picking cartoonist one nine seven five laura voutilainen finnish singer one nine eight one leon osman english footballer one nine eight three channing frye american basketball player one nine eight four christine robinson canadian water polo player one nine eight eight soccer dog actor deaths one one eight nine minamoto no yoshitsune japanese general b one one five nine one three three six emperor go fushimi of japan b one two eight eight one three six five louis vi the roman duke of bavaria and elector of brandenburg b one three two eight one four six four thomas de ros one zero th baron de ros english politician executed b one four two seven one five one zero sandro botticelli italian painter b one four four five one five two one edward stafford three rd duke of buckingham english politician one five three six george boleyn viscount rochford english diplomat one five seven five matthew parker archbishop of canterbury b one five zero four one six two six juan pujol catalan composer b one five seven zero one six four three giovanni picchi italian composer one seven two seven catherine i of russia one seven two nine samuel clarke english philosopher b one six seven five one seven six five alexis claude clairault french mathematician b one seven one three one seven nine seven michel jean sedaine french dramatist b one seven one nine one eight zero one william heberden english physician b one seven one zero one eight zero nine leopold auenbrugger austrian physician b one seven two two one eight two nine john jay first chief justice of the united states b one seven four five one eight three eight charles maurice de talleyrand french diplomat b one seven five four one eight three nine archibald alison scottish author b one seven five seven one eight seven five john c breckinridge vice president of the united states b one eight two one one eight seven nine asa packer railroad magnate and founder of lehigh valley railroad b one eight zero five one eight eight eight giacomo zanella italian poet b one eight two zero one nine one six boris borisovich galitzine russian physicist b one eight six two one nine one seven charles anthoni johnson brooke ruler of sarawak b one eight two nine one nine three five paul dukas french composer b one eight six five one nine four seven george william forbes prime minister of new zealand b one eight six nine one nine eight five abe burrows songwriter composer and writer b one nine one zero one nine eight seven gunnar myrdal swedish economist nobel prize laureate b one eight nine eight one nine nine two lawrence welk american musician b one nine zero three one nine nine six kevin gilbert american singer composer and instrumentalist b one nine six six two zero zero zero donald coggan one zero one st archbishop of canterbury b one nine zero nine two zero zero two dave berg american cartoonist b one nine two zero two zero zero two sharon sheeley american songwriter b one nine four zero two zero zero two davey boy smith english professional wrestler b one nine six two two zero zero two ladislao kubala hungarian spanish footballer b one nine two seven two zero zero four j rgen nash danish artist b one nine two zero two zero zero four tony randall american actor b one nine two zero two zero zero four ezzedine salim leader of iraqi governing council b one nine four three two zero zero five frank gorshin american actor b one nine three four holidays and observances d a das letras galegas galician literature day holiday in galicia honouring the galician language norwegian constitution day feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church paschal baylon or pascal baylon solochon pamphamer pamphalon adrian of alexandria saint victor bah faith feast of azaamat grandeur first day of the fourth month of the bah calendar external links bbc on this day may one six may one eight april one seven june one seven listing of all days may one nine is the one three nine th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one four zero th in leap years there are two two six days remaining events one five three five french explorer jacques cartier sets sail on his second voyage to north america with three ships one one zero men and chief donnacona s two sons whom cartier kidnapped during his first voyage one five three six anne boleyn the second wife of henry viii of england is beheaded for adultery one five six eight queen elizabeth i of england has mary queen of scots arrested one six zero four the town of montreal is founded one six four three thirty years war french forces under the duc d enghien decisively defeat spanish forces at the battle of rocroi marking the symbolic end of spain as a dominant land power one six four nine an act declaring england a commonwealth is passed by the long parliament england would be a republic for the next eleven years one seven four nine king george ii of great britain grants the ohio company a charter of land around the forks of the ohio river one seven eight zero never explained complete darkness falls on eastern canada and the new england area of the united states at two pm one eight zero two the l gion d honneur is founded by napoleon bonaparte one eight two eight u s president john quincy adams signs the tariff of one eight two eight into law protecting wool manufacturers in the united states one eight four eight mexican american war treaty of guadalupe hidalgo mexico ratifies the treaty thus ending the war and ceding california nevada utah and parts of five other modern day u s states to the usa for usd one five million one eight six four american civil war battle of spotsylvania court house ends one eight nine seven oscar wilde is released from reading gaol one nine one nine in turkey mustafa kemal atat rk moves to samsun from istanbul with a few followers to oppose the ottoman government which eventually leads to the turkish war of independence one nine two one the emergency quota act passes the u s congress establishing national quotas on immigration one nine two two young pioneer organization of the soviet union is established one nine three two the gangster film scarface the shame of a nation opens at the rialto theater in los angeles california one nine four three world war ii british prime minister winston churchill and u s president franklin d roosevelt set monday may one one nine four four as the date for the cross english channel landing d day would later be delayed over a month due to bad weather one nine six one venera program venera one becomes the first man made object to fly by another planet by passing venus the probe had lost contact with earth a month earlier and did not send back data one nine six two a birthday salute to u s president john f kennedy takes place at madison square garden new york the highlight is marilyn monroe s infamous rendition of happy birthday thirty four years later john f kennedy jr had actress drew barrymore pose as monroe for the cover of george magazine with the heading happy birthday mr president in honor of then president bill clinton turning five zero one nine six four vietnam war the united states air force begins operation yankee team one nine seven one mars probe program mars two is launched by the soviet union one nine eight four the episode of cbs press your luck that aired on june eight and one one in which michael larson won at the time the most money ever won on an american game show one one zero two three seven on was taped one nine nine one willy t ribbs becomes the first african american driver to qualify for the indianapolis five zero zero one nine nine nine star wars episode i the phantom menace the most hyped film in history up to that point is released two zero zero five clarence richard silva bishop elect of honolulu retreats to kalaupapa to pray at the onset of his episcopal ministry two zero zero five star wars episode iii revenge of the sith is released and sets the new one day box office record births one five nine three jacob jordaens flemish painter d one six seven eight one seven zero zero jos de escand n spanish colonial governor d one seven seven zero one seven two four augustus hervey three rd earl of bristol british admiral and politician d one seven seven nine one seven four four charlotte of mecklenburg strelitz d one eight one eight one seven six two johann gottlieb fichte german philosopher d one eight one four one seven seven three arthur aikin english chemist mineralogist and scientific writer d one eight five four one seven nine five johns hopkins american philanthropist d one eight seven three one eight two seven paul armand challemel lacour french statesman d one eight nine six one eight six one dame nellie melba australian opera singer d one nine three one one eight seven zero albert fish american serial killer d one nine three six one eight seven four gilbert jessop english cricketer d one nine five five one eight seven nine nancy astor viscountess astor american born politician d one nine six four one eight eight zero sir albert richardson english architect d one nine six four one eight eight two mohammed mossadegh prime minister of iran d one nine six seven one eight nine zero ho chi minh vietnamese leader d one nine six nine one eight nine one oswald boelcke german world war i pilot d one nine one six one eight nine seven frank luke american world war i pilot d one nine one eight one eight nine eight julius evola italian philosopher d one nine seven four one nine zero eight percy williams canadian athlete d one nine eight two one nine zero nine bruce bennett american athlete and actor one nine one four max perutz austrian born molecular biologist recipient of the nobel prize in chemistry d two zero zero two one nine one four go seigen japanese go player one nine two one yuri kochiyama american civil rights activist one nine two one karel van het reve dutch writer d one nine nine nine one nine two four sandy wilson british composer one nine two five malcolm x american civil rights activist d one nine six five one nine two five pol pot cambodian dictator d one nine nine eight one nine two six swami kriyananda spiritual teacher and author one nine three zero lorraine hansberry american playwright d one nine six five one nine three one eric tappy swiss tenor one nine three two alma cogan english singer d one nine six six one nine three four jim lehrer american television journalist one nine three nine livio berruti italian athlete one nine three nine nancy kwan hong kong actress one nine three nine dick scobee astronaut d one nine eight six one nine four zero mickey newbury american musician one nine four one nora ephron american screenwriter one nine four two gary kildall american computer programmer d one nine nine four one nine four four peter mayhew british actor one nine four five pete townshend english guitarist and lyricist one nine four six andr the giant french professional wrestler d one nine nine three one nine four six claude leli vre belgian commissioner for children s rights one nine four seven paul brady northern ireland singer songwriter one nine four eight grace jones jamaican singer and actress one nine four nine archie manning american football player one nine five one joey ramone american musician and singer the ramones d two zero zero one one nine five two bert van marwijk dutch football manager one nine five three victoria wood british comic actress one nine five four phil rudd australian drummer ac dc one nine five six james gosling canadian computer programmer one nine six three yazz british singer one nine six six polly walker british actress one nine seven three dario franchitti scottish race car driver one nine seven five london fletcher american football player one nine seven six kevin garnett american basketball player one nine seven seven manuel almunia spanish footballer one nine seven eight marcus bent english footballer one nine eight one klaas erik zwering dutch swimmer one nine eight eight lily cole english model deaths eight zero four alcuin english monk b c seven three five nine eight eight dunstan archbishop of canterbury b nine zero nine one one zero two stephen count of blois one one two five vladimir monomakh russian prince b one zero five three one two nine six pope celestine v b one two one five one three one nine louis d vreux son of philip iii of france b one two seven six one three eight nine dmitri donskoi grand prince of muscovy b one three five zero one five two six emperor go kashiwabara of japan b one four six four one five three one jan aski polish statesman and diplomat b one four five six one five three six anne boleyn queen of henry viii of england executed one six zero one costanzo porta italian composer one six one zero thomas sanchez spanish theologian b one five five zero one six three seven isaac beeckman dutch scientist and philosopher b one five eight eight one six four five miyamoto musashi japanese swordsman one seven one five charles montagu chancellor of the exchequer b one six six one one seven eight six john stanley english composer b one seven one two one seven nine five josiah bartlett american signer of the declaration of independence b one seven two nine one seven nine five james boswell scottish biographer b one seven four zero one seven nine eight william byron five th baron byron english dueler b one seven two two one eight two one camille jordan french politician b one seven seven one one eight two five claude henri de rouvroy comte de saint simon french political philosopher b one seven six zero one eight six four nathaniel hawthorne american author b one eight zero four one eight seven six guillaume groen van prinsterer dutch politician b one eight zero one one eight eight five peter w barlow english engineer b one eight zero nine one eight nine five jos mart cuban independence leader b one eight five three one eight nine eight william ewart gladstone prime minister of the united kingdom b one eight zero nine one nine zero four auguste molinier french historian b one eight five one one nine zero seven benjamin baker english engineer b one eight four zero one nine zero nine isaac alb niz spanish composer b one eight six zero one nine one two boleslaw prus polish writer b one eight four seven one nine one eight raoul lufbery american world war i pilot b one eight eight five one nine three five t e lawrence english soldier b one eight eight eight one nine four three kristjan raud estonian painter b one eight six five one nine four six booth tarkington american novelist b one eight six nine one nine five four charles ives american composer b one eight seven four one nine five eight ronald colman english actor b one eight nine one one nine six five tui malila world s oldest tortoise b one seven seven three or one seven seven seven one nine six nine coleman hawkins american musician b one nine zero one one nine seven one ogden nash american poet b one nine zero two one nine eight three jean rey president of the european commission b one nine zero two one nine eight four john betjeman english poet b one nine zero six one nine eight seven james tiptree jr american author b one nine one five one nine eight nine clr james west indian writer and journalist b one nine zero one one nine nine four jacqueline bouvier kennedy first lady of the united states b one nine two nine one nine nine eight uno sosuke japanese prime minister b one nine two two two zero zero zero yevgeny khrunov cosmonaut b one nine three three two zero zero two john gorton nineteenth prime minister of australia b one nine one one two zero zero two walter lord american writer b one nine one seven two zero zero four mary dresselhuys dutch actress b one nine zero seven two zero zero five henry corden canadian voice actor b one nine two zero holidays and observances feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church dunstan peter celestine ives emiliana pudentiana theophilus of corte commemoration of atat rk youth and sports day in turkey one nine one nine external links bbc on this day may one eight may two zero april one nine june one nine listing of all days march three is the six two nd day of the year in the gregorian calendar six three rd in leap years there are three zero three days remaining events one four three one eugenius iv becomes pope one six three nine the early settlement of taunton massachusetts is incorporated as a town one seven nine one the united states mint is created by the u s congress one eight two zero the u s congress passes the missouri compromise one eight three three according to akilattirattu ammanai ayya vaikundar arises from the sea as avatar of narayana at thiruchendur one eight four five florida is admitted as the two seven th u s state one eight four five for the first time the u s congress passes legislation overriding a presidential veto one eight four nine minnesota territory organizes as a political division of the united states one eight four nine the united states department of the interior is established one eight four nine the u s congress passes the gold coinage act allowing the minting of gold coins one eight five seven france and the united kingdom declare war on china one eight six three idaho territory organizes as a political division of the united states one eight six five the u s congress authorizes formation of the freedmen s bureau one eight six five opening of the hongkong and shanghai banking corporation the founding member of the hsbc group one eight seven three censorship the u s congress enacts the comstock law making it illegal to send any obscene lewd or lascivious books through the mail one eight seven five the first ever organized indoor game of ice hockey is played in montreal as recorded in the montreal gazette one eight seven seven rutherford b hayes is privately inaugurated as the one nine th president of the united states his public inauguration coming on march five one eight seven eight bulgaria regains its independence from ottoman empire one eight seven nine the united states geological survey is created one eight eight five the american telephone and telegraph company is incorporated in new york state one eight nine one the penalty spot kick rule in football is conceived but does not come into effect until the next season one nine zero four kaiser wilhelm ii of germany becomes the first person to make a sound recording of a political document using thomas edison s cylinder one nine zero five tsar nicholas ii of russia agrees to create an elected assembly the duma one nine one zero rockefeller foundation j d rockefeller jr announces his retirement from managing his businesses so that he could devote full time to being a philanthropist one nine one three establishment of the first football club in bulgaria ticha now known as pfc cherno more one nine one five naca the predecessor of nasa founded one nine one eight germany austria and russia sign the treaty of brest litovsk ending russia s involvement in world war i and leading to the independence of finland estonia latvia lithuania and poland one nine two three time magazine is published for the first time one nine three one the united states officially adopts the star spangled banner as its national anthem one nine three three mount rushmore national memorial is dedicated one nine three eight glenn cunningham breaks the world record for the indoor mile run by completing the distance in four minutes four four seconds one nine three eight oil is discovered in saudi arabia one nine three nine in mumbai mohandas gandhi begins to fast in protest of the autocratic rule in india one nine four zero five people are killed in an arson attack on the offices of the communist newspaper norrskensflamman in lule sweden one nine four two world war ii ten japanese warplanes raid the town of broome western australia killing more than one zero zero people one nine four three world war ii in london one seven three people are killed in a crush while trying to enter an air raid shelter at bethnal green tube station one nine four four the order of nakhimov and order of ushakov were instituted in ussr as the highest naval awards one nine four five world war ii previously neutral finland declares war on the axis powers one nine four nine the tucker automobile corporation folds one nine five three a canadian pacific comet jet crashes in karachi pakistan killing one one one nine five five elvis presley appears on television for the first time one nine five seven in frankfurt germany corry brokken wins the second eurovision song contest for the netherlands singing net als toen like it used to be one nine five seven cypriot liberation fighter gregoris afxentiou is killed while fighting against british troops burnt alive in a cave near the machera monastery refusing to surrender one nine five eight nuri as said becomes the prime minister of iraq for the one four th time one nine five nine the san francisco giants officially name their new stadium candlestick park one nine six one hassan ii becomes king of morocco one nine six six a british overseas airways boeing seven zero seven flies into a mountain wave after the captain decides to give the passengers a close up view of mt fuji all one two four people aboard are killed one nine six nine apollo program nasa launches apollo nine to test the lunar module one nine six nine in a los angeles california court sirhan sirhan admits that he killed presidential candidate robert f kennedy one nine seven one beginning of indo pakistani war of one nine seven one and india s official entry to the bangladesh liberation war in support of mukti bahini one nine seven two the space probe pioneer x is launched by nasa one nine seven three presidents rule introduced in the indian state of orissa one nine seven four a turkish dc one zero crashes at ermenonville near paris killing all three four six aboard one nine seven four roman catholic and lutheran officials reach an agreement for eventual reconciliation into one communion marking the first agreement between the two churches since the reformation one nine seven six fleetwood mac records rumours which will be a blockbuster album in one nine seven seven one nine eight five censorship women against pornography award their pig award to huggies diapers claiming that the television ads had crossed the line between eye catching and porn one nine nine one an amateur video captures the beating of rodney king by los angeles police officers one nine nine five in somalia the united nations peacekeeping mission ends one nine nine seven the tallest free standing structure in the southern hemisphere sky tower in downtown auckland new zealand opens after two and a half years of construction one nine nine nine lagrand case the state of arizona executes walter lagrand a german despite german legal action in the international court of justice one nine nine nine bertrand piccard and brian jones begin their successful attempt to circumnavigate the world in a hot air balloon without stopping two zero zero one a u s air force materials command c two three sherpa transport crashes during stormy weather in the u s state of georgia killing two one two zero zero two citizens of switzerland narrowly vote in favour of their country becoming a member of the united nations two zero zero four belgian brewer interbrew and brazilian rival ambev agreed to merge in a one one two billion deal that formed inbev the world s largest brewer two zero zero five mayorthorpe massacre four members of the royal canadian mounted police are gunned down during a drug bust near mayorthorpe alberta in the worst attack on the rcmp since one eight eight five and the north west rebellion two zero zero five steve fossett becomes the first person to fly an airplane around the world solo without any stops without refuelling a journey of four zero two three four km two five zero zero zero mi completed in six seven hours and two minutes two zero zero five the freighter m v karen danielsen crashes into part of the great belt bridge of denmark eight zero zero m from funen all traffic across the bridge stops effectively separating denmark in two births one four five five king john ii of portugal d one four nine five one five two zero matthias flacius croatian protestant reformer d one five seven five one five eight three edward herbert one st baron herbert of cherbury english diplomat poet and philosopher d one six four eight one five eight nine gisbertus voetius dutch theologian d one six seven six one six zero six edmund waller english poet d one six eight seven one six five two thomas otway english dramatist d one six eight five one eight zero zero heinrich georg bronn german geologist d one eight six two one eight zero five jonas furrer first president of the swiss confederation d one eight six one one eight three one george pullman american inventor and industrialist d one eight nine seven one eight three nine jamshedji tata indian industrialist d one nine zero four one eight four five georg cantor german mathematician d one nine one eight one eight four seven alexander graham bell scottish inventor d one nine two two one eight six three arthur machen welsh born author d one nine four seven one eight seven three william green american labor union leader d one nine five two one eight eight six fred a busse mayor of chicago d one nine one four one eight eight six tore rjas ter norwegian poet d one nine six eight one eight nine zero norman bethune canadian doctor and humanitarian d one nine three nine one eight nine three beatrice wood american artist and ceramicist d one nine nine eight one eight nine five ragnar anton kittil frisch norwegian economist nobel prize laureate d one nine seven three one eight nine five matthew ridgway supreme allied commander of nato u s army chief of staff d one nine nine three one nine one one jean harlow american actress d one nine three seven one nine one eight arthur kornberg american biochemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine one eight fritz thiedemann german equestrian d two zero zero zero one nine two zero julius boros american golfer d one nine nine four one nine two zero james doohan canadian born actor d two zero zero five one nine two zero ronald searle english illustrator one nine two two n ndor hidegkuti hungarian footballer one nine two three barney martin american actor one nine two three doc watson american musician one nine two six lys assia swiss singer one nine two six joseph anthony ferrario american catholic prelate one nine two six james merrill american poet d one nine nine five one nine three zero heiner gei ler german politician one nine three zero ion iliescu president of romania one nine three three lee radziwill american fashion executive one nine three seven bobby driscoll american actor d one nine six eight one nine four zero germ n castro caycedo colombian writer and journalist one nine four zero perry ellis fashion designer d one nine eight six one nine four five george miller australian film director one nine four six john virgo english snooker player one nine four seven jennifer warnes american singer and songwriter one nine four seven miyamoto teru japanese author one nine four nine j ri allik estonian psychologist one nine four nine gloria hendry american actress one nine five zero tim kazurinsky american actor and comedian one nine five three robyn hitchcock english musician one nine five three zico brazilian footballer one nine five five andy breckman american comedian and radio personality one nine five eight miranda richardson english actress one nine five nine ira glass american radio host one nine six two jackie joyner kersee american athlete one nine six two herschel walker american football player one nine six six tone loc american musician one nine six eight brian leetch american ice hockey player one nine seven zero julie bowen american actress one nine seven three victoria zdrok ukrainian model one nine seven four david faustino american actor one nine seven seven ronan keating irish singer one nine eight one lil flip american rapper one nine eight two jessica biel american actress one nine eight five sam morrow northern irish footballer one nine eight six stacie orrico american singer deaths five six one pope pelagius i one one one one bohemund i prince of antioch one two three nine vladimir iii rurikovich grand prince of kiev b one one eight seven one four five nine ausi s march catalan poet b one three nine seven one five five four john frederick elector of saxony b one five zero three one seven zero three robert hooke english scientist b one six three five one seven zero six johann pachelbel german composer b one six five three one seven zero seven aurangzeb mughal emperor of india b one six one eight one seven one seven pierre allix french protestant pastor b one six four zero one seven four four jean barbeyrac french jurist one seven six five william stukeley english archaeologist b one six eight seven one seven six eight nicola porpora italian composer b one six eight six one seven nine two robert adam scottish architect b one seven two eight one eight five zero oliver cowdery american religious leader b one eight zero six one nine two seven mikhail artsybashev russian writer b one eight seven eight one nine three two eugen d albert german composer b one eight six four one nine three seven amelia earhart american pilot disappeared one nine four three george thompson english cricketer b one eight seven seven one nine five nine lou costello american actor and comedian b one nine zero six one nine six one paul wittgenstein austrian born pianist b one eight eight seven one nine six six william frawley american actor b one eight eight seven one nine six six maxfield parrish american artist b one eight seven zero one nine six six alice pearce american actress b one nine one seven one nine eight two georges perec french writer b one nine three six one nine eight three herg belgian comics creator b one nine zero seven one nine eight three arthur koestler austrian writer b one nine zero five one nine eight seven danny kaye american actor singer and comedian b one nine one three one nine eight eight sewall wright american biologist b one eight eight nine one nine nine zero g rard blitz belgian waterpoloist and entrepreneur b one nine one two one nine nine one arthur murray american dancer and dance instructor b one eight nine five one nine nine three carlos marcello tunisian born gangster b one nine one zero one nine nine three albert sabin polish born medical researcher b one nine zero six one nine nine five howard w hunter president of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints b one nine zero seven one nine nine six marguerite duras french writer b one nine one four one nine nine six john cardinal krol american catholic clergyman b one nine one zero one nine nine eight fred friendly american broadcast executive b one nine one five one nine nine nine gerhard herzberg german born chemist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero four two zero zero one louis edmonds american actor b one nine two three two zero zero two harlan howard american musician b one nine two seven two zero zero three horst buchholz german actor b one nine three three two zero zero three peter smithson english architect b one nine two three two zero zero three goffredo petrassi italian composer b one nine zero four two zero zero five max m fisher american philanthropist b one nine two eight two zero zero five rinus michels dutch football coach b one nine two eight holidays and observances hinamatsuri japanese celebration day for girls malawi martyr s day bulgaria liberation day external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march two march four february three april three listing of all days march one five is the seven four th day of the year in the gregorian calendar seven five th in leap years there are two nine one days remaining in the roman calendar march one five was known as the ides of march events four four bc julius caesar dictator of the roman republic is stabbed to death by marcus junius brutus decimus junius brutus and several other roman senators on the ides of march one three one one battle of halmyros the catalan company defeats walter v of brienne to take control of the duchy of athens a crusader state in greece one four nine three christopher columbus returns to spain after his first trip to the americas one five four five first meeting of the council of trent one six seven two charles ii of england issues the royal declaration of indulgence one seven eight one american revolutionary war battle of guilford courthouse near present day greensboro north carolina one nine zero zero british troops under general charles cornwallis defeat an american force numbering four four zero zero one seven eight three in an emotional speech in newburgh new york george washington asks his officers not to support the newburgh conspiracy the plea is successful and the threatened coup d etat never takes place one eight two zero maine becomes the two three rd u s state one eight two seven the university of toronto is chartered one eight four eight revolution breaks out in pest the habsburg rulers are compelled to meet the demands of the reform party one eight seven three phi sigma kappa fraternity is founded at massachusetts agricultural college one eight seven seven the first test cricket match begins between england and australia one eight nine two liverpool football club founded by john houlding one nine zero six rolls royce ltd is registered one nine zero nine selfridges department store opens in london one nine one six president woodrow wilson sends one two zero zero zero united states troops over the u s mexico border to pursue pancho villa one nine one seven tsar nicholas ii of russia abdicates himself and his son from the russian throne and his brother the grand duke becomes tsar one nine one nine the american legion forms in paris one nine two two after egypt gains nominal independence from the united kingdom fuad i becomes king of egypt one nine three nine world war ii nazi troops occupy the remaining part of bohemia and moravia czechoslovakia ceases to exist one nine four three world war ii third battle of kharkov the germans retook the city of kharkov from the soviet armies in bitter street fighting one nine four four world war ii battle of monte cassino allied aircraft bomb the nazi held monastery and stage an assault one nine five two in cilaos r union seven three inches one eight seven zero mm of rain falls in one day setting a new world record one nine five three world contact day one nine five six the broadway musical my fair lady opens in new york city one nine six one south africa withdraws from the commonwealth of nations one nine six three victor feguer a federal prisoner is put to death at the fort madison iowa prison this would be the last execution of a federal prisoner until the execution of timothy mcveigh in two zero zero one one nine seven zero the expo seven zero world s fair opens in osaka japan one nine seven six rock group kiss releases the album destroyer one nine eight eight publication of marvin minsky s society of mind theory one nine eight eight the halabja poison gas attack of the iran iraq war begins one nine eight nine the united states department of veterans affairs is established one nine nine zero gulf war iraq hangs british journalist farzad bazoft for spying one nine nine zero mikhail gorbachev is elected as the first executive president of the soviet union one nine nine zero the soviet union announces that lithuania s declaration of independence is invalid one nine nine zero the ethnic clashes of targu mures begin on the anniversary of the revolutions of one eight four eight in the habsburg areas one nine nine one four los angeles california police officers are indicted for the videotaped march three one nine nine one beating of motorist rodney king during an arrest one nine nine one germany formally regains complete independence after the four post world war ii occupying powers france the united kingdom the united states and the soviet union relinquish all remaining rights one nine nine eight titanic defeats star wars for the one place in the north american domestic box office grossing four seven one million two zero zero four announcement of the discovery of nine zero three seven seven sedna the farthest natural object in the solar system so far observed births one four five five pietro accolti italian catholic cardinal d one five three two one five nine one alexandre de rhodes french jesuit missionary d one six six zero one six three eight shunzhi emperor of china one six six six george b hr german architect d one seven three eight one six eight four francesco durante italian composer d one seven five five one seven one three nicolas louis de lacaille french astronomer d one seven six two one seven six seven andrew jackson seven th president of the united states d one eight four five one seven seven nine lord melbourne prime minister of the united kingdom d one eight four eight one eight zero zero heinrich von dechsen german geologist and mineralogist d one eight eight nine one eight one three john snow english physician d one eight five eight one eight three zero paul heyse german writer nobel prize laureate d one nine one four one eight three zero lis e reclus french geographer and anarchist d one nine zero five one eight three five eduard strauss austrian composer d one nine one six one eight five four emil adolf von behring german physician recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine one seven one eight six five johan halvorsen norwegian composer d one nine three five one eight eight two jim lightbody american runner d one nine five three one eight nine zero boris nikolaevich delaunay russian mathematician d one nine eight zero one eight nine seven jackson scholz american runner d one nine eight six one nine zero five berthold graf schenk von stauffenberg german lawyer and nazi opponent d one nine four four one nine zero seven zarah leander swedish actress and singer d one nine eight one one nine one two lightnin hopkins american musician d one nine eight two one nine one three macdonald carey american actor d one nine nine four one nine one three lew wasserman american hollywood agent and studio executive d two zero zero two one nine one four aniello dellacroce american gangster d one nine eight five one nine one five joe e ross american actor and comedian d one nine eight two one nine one six harry james american musician and band leader d one nine eight three one nine one eight richard ellmann american biographer d one nine eight seven one nine one nine lawrence tierney american actor d two zero zero two one nine two zero lawrence sanders american novelist d one nine nine eight one nine two zero e donnall thomas american physician recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine two four walter gotell actor d one nine nine seven one nine two six norm van brocklin american football player d one nine eight three one nine two seven stanislaw kania polish politician one nine two seven carl smith american singer one nine three zero zhores ivanovich alferov russian physicist nobel prize laureate one nine three two alan bean astronaut one nine three three ruth bader ginsburg u s supreme court justice one nine three four aldo giorgini italian artist one nine three five judd hirsch american actor one nine three five jimmy swaggart american televangelist one nine four zero phil lesh american musician grateful dead one nine four one mike love american musician the beach boys one nine four three david cronenberg canadian film director one nine four four sly stone american musician one nine four five mark j green american lawyer author and public official one nine four six bobby bonds baseball player d two zero zero three one nine four seven ry cooder american guitarist one nine four eight s rgio vieira de mello brazilian diplomat d two zero zero three one nine five zero j rgen olsen danish singer and eurovision song contest winner one nine five four craig wasson american actor one nine five five dee snider american singer one nine five six clay matthews american football player one nine five seven park overall american actress one nine five seven david silverman american animator the simpsons one nine five nine harold baines baseball player one nine five nine fabio lanzoni italian model one nine six one ervin nemeth hungarian educator author and translator one nine six two terence trent d arby american born singer one nine six three bret michaels american musician poison one nine six seven naoko takeuchi japanese artist one nine six eight mark mcgrath american musician sugar ray one nine seven one penny lancaster english model and celebrity one nine seven two mark hoppus american musician blink one eight two one nine seven five eva longoria american actress one nine seven five veselin topalov bulgarian chess player one nine seven six jennifer eight lee american journalist one nine seven seven joe hahn american musician linkin park one nine seven eight sid wilson american musician slipknot one nine eight one young buck american rapper g unit one nine eight one mikael forssell finnish footballer one nine eight two emily kennard american actress one nine eight five antti autti finnish snowboarder one nine eight nine caitlin wachs american actress one nine nine two sosie bacon american actress two zero zero zero amy and emily walton english actresses deaths four four bc julius caesar b one zero zero bc two two zero cao cao king of wei four nine three odoacer king of italy murdered b four three five one three one one walter v of brienne duke of athens one four one six john duke of berry son of john ii of france b one three four zero one five seven five annibale padovano italian composer b one five two seven one six seven zero john davenport connecticut pioneer b one five nine seven one six seven three salvator rosa italian painter and poet b one six one five one seven zero one jean renaud de segrais french writer b one six two four one seven one one eusebio kino italian catholic missionary b one six four five one eight two zero st clemens maria hofbauer patron saint of vienna b one seven five one one eight four two luigi cherubini italian composer b one seven six zero one eight four nine giuseppe caspar mezzofanti italian cardinal and linguist b one seven seven four one eight nine one th odore de banville french writer b one eight two three one eight nine one sir joseph bazalgette english civil engineer b one eight one nine one eight nine eight henry bessemer english metallurgist b one eight one three one nine three seven h p lovecraft american writer b one eight nine zero one nine four one alexej von jawlensky russian painter b one eight six four one nine five nine lester young american musician b one nine zero nine one nine six two arthur compton american physicist nobel prize laureate b one eight nine two one nine six six abe saperstein american basketball executive b one nine zero two one nine seven zero tarjei vesaas norwegian writer b one eight nine seven one nine seven five aristotle onassis greek shipping magnate b one nine zero six one nine eight three rebecca west english writer b one eight nine two one nine nine zero farzad bazoft iranian born journalist hanged b one nine five eight one nine nine zero tom harmon american football player and broadcaster b one nine one nine one nine nine four mai zetterling swedish actress and director b one nine two five one nine nine seven gail davis american actress b one nine two five one nine nine eight benjamin spock american pediatrician and writer b one nine zero three two zero zero one ann sothern american actress b one nine zero nine two zero zero three dame thora hird british actress b one nine one one two zero zero four sir william pickering new zealand born space scientist b one nine one zero two zero zero four john pople english chemist nobel prize laureate b one nine two five two zero zero five bob bellear the first indigenous australian judge b one nine four four fictional events four four bc deaths of xena and gabrielle by crucifixion one nine seven two worst day ever in the fairly oddparents one nine eight six beginning of the pushcart war two three three seven discovery of yuggoth three zero one nine t a battle of the pelennor fields the lord of the rings saints of the day st longinus roman soldier who pierced the side of jesus on the cross holidays and observances in the roman calendar the ides of march turkey buzzards return to hinckley ohio international day against police brutality for corporations in the united states that use the calendar year as their fiscal year the date on which the corporation must file its corporate income tax return national holiday in hungary celebrating the one eight four eight revolution see also public holidays in hungary external links bbc on this day today in history march one five march one four march one six february one five april one five listing of all days mathematical logic is a discipline within mathematics studying formal systems in relation to the way they encode intuitive concepts of proof and computation as part of the foundations of mathematics although the layperson may think that mathematical logic is the logic of mathematics the truth is rather that it more closely resembles the mathematics of logic it comprises those parts of logic that can be modelled mathematically earlier appellations were symbolic logic as opposed to philosophical logic and metamathematics which is now restricted as a term to some aspects of proof theory history mathematical logic was the name given by giuseppe peano to what is also known as symbolic logic in essentials it is still the logic of aristotle but from the point of view of notation it is written as a branch of abstract algebra attempts to treat the operations of formal logic in a symbolic or algebraic way were made by some of the more philosophical mathematicians such as leibniz and lambert but their labors remained little known and isolated it was george boole and then augustus de morgan in the middle of the nineteenth century who presented a systematic mathematical of course non quantitative way of regarding logic the traditional aristotelian doctrine of logic was reformed and completed and out of it developed an adequate instrument for investigating the fundamental concepts of mathematics it would be misleading to say that the foundational controversies that were alive in the period one nine zero zero one nine two five have all been settled but philosophy of mathematics was greatly clarified by the new logic while the traditional development of logic see list of topics in logic put heavy emphasis on forms of arguments the attitude of current mathematical logic might be summed up as the combinatorial study of content this covers both the syntactic for example sending a string from a formal language to a compiler program to write it as sequence of machine instructions and the semantic constructing specific models or whole sets of them in model theory some landmark publications were the begriffsschrift by gottlob frege studies in logic by charles peirce principia mathematica by bertrand russell and alfred north whitehead and on formally undecidable propositions of principia mathematica and related systems by kurt g del topics in mathematical logic the main areas of mathematical logic include model theory proof theory and recursion theory often now referred to as computability theory axiomatic set theory is sometimes considered too there are many overlaps with computer science since many early pioneers in computer science such as alan turing were mathematicians and logicians the study of programming language semantics derives from model theory as does program verification in particular model checking the curry howard isomorphism between proofs and programs relates to proof theory intuitionistic logic and linear logic are significant here calculi such as the lambda calculus and combinatory logic are nowadays studied mainly as idealized programming languages computer science also contributes to logic by developing techniques for the automatic checking or even finding of proofs such as automated theorem proving and logic programming some fundamental results some important results are the set of valid first order formulas is recursively enumerable this follows from g del s completeness theorem which establishes the equivalence of validity and provability because the set of proofs for first order logic formulas is recursively enumerable semi decidable therefore there is a procedure that behaves as follows given a first order formula as its input the procedure eventually halts if the formula is valid and runs forever otherwise some first order theorem provers have this completeness property the set of valid first order formulas is not recursive i e there is no algorithm for checking for universal validity this follows from g del s incompleteness theorem the set of all universally valid second order formulas is not even recursively enumerable this is also a consequence of g del s incompleteness theorem the l wenheim skolem theorem cut elimination in sequent calculus the independence of the continuum hypothesis proved by paul cohen in one nine six three technical reference first order languages and structures definition a first order language mathfrak is a collection of distinct typographical symbols classified as follows the equality symbol the connectives lor lnot the universal quantifier forall and the parentheses a countable set of variable symbols infty a set of constant symbols a set of function symbols a set of relation symbols thus in order to specify a language it is often sufficient to specify only the collection of constant symbols function symbols and relation symbols since the first set of symbols is standard the parentheses serve the only purpose of forming groups of symbols and are not to be formally used when writing down functions and relations in formulas these symbols are just that symbols they don t stand for anything they do not mean anything however that deviates further into semantics and linguistic issues not useful to the formalization of mathematical language yet yet because it will indeed be necessary to get some meaning out of this formalization the concept of model over a language provides with such a semantics definition an mathfrak structure over the language mathfrak is a bundle consisting of a nonempty set a the universe of the structure together with for each constant symbol c from mathfrak an element c in a for each n ary function symbol f from mathfrak an n ary function f a n longrightarrow a for each n ary relation symbol r from mathfrak an n ary relation on a that is a subset r subseteq a n often the word model is used for that of structure in this context however it is important to understand perhaps its motivation as follows terms formulas and sentences definition an mathfrak term is a nonempty finite string t of symbols from mathfrak such that either t is a variable symbol t is a constant symbol t is a string of the form f t one t n where f is an n ary function symbol and t one t n are terms of mathfrak definition an mathfrak formula is a nonempty finite string phi of symbols from mathfrak such that either phi is a string of the form t one t two where t one and t two are terms of mathfrak phi is a string of the form r t one t n where r is an n ary relation symbol and t one t n are terms of mathfrak phi is of the form lnot alpha where alpha is an mathfrak formula phi is of the form alpha lor beta where both alpha and beta are mathfrak formulas phi is of the form forall y alpha where y is a variable symbol from mathfrak and alpha is an mathfrak formula definition an mathfrak formula that is characterized by either the first or the second clause is called an atomic definition let phi be an mathfrak formula a variable symbol x from mathfrak is said to be free in phi if either phi is atomic and x occurs in phi phi is of the form lnot alpha and x is free in alpha phi is of the form alpha lor beta and x is free in alpha or beta phi is of the form forall y alpha where x and y are not the same variable symbols and x is free in alpha definition a sentence is a formula with no free variables assignment functions hereafter mathfrak will denote a first order language mathfrak will be an mathfrak structure with underlying universe set denoted by a every formula will be understood to be an mathfrak formula definition a variable assignment function v a f into mathfrak is a function from the set of variables of mathfrak into a definition let s be a v a f into mathfrak we define the term assignment function t a f overline from the set of mathfrak terms into a as follows if t is the variable symbol x then overline t s x if t is the constant symbol c then overline t c if t is of the form f t one t n then overline t f overline t one overline t n definition let s be a v a f into mathfrak and suppose that x is a variable and that a in a we define the v a f sx a referred to as an x modification of the assignment funtion s by sx a v begin s v mbox v ne x a mbox v x end logical satisfaction definition let phi be formula and suppose s is a v a f into mathfrak we say that mathfrak satisfies phi with assignment s and write mathfrak models phis if either phi is of the form t one t two and overline t one overline t two phi is of the form r t one t n and overline t one overline t n in r phi is of the form lnot alpha and mathfrak mbox not models mbox alphas phi is of the form alpha lor beta and mathfrak models alphas or mathfrak models betas phi is of the form forall y alpha and for each element a in a mathfrak models alphasy a definition let phi be formula and suppose that mathfrak models phis for every v a f s into mathfrak then we say that mathfrak models phi and write mathfrak models phi definition let phi be a set of formulas and suppose that mathfrak models phi for every formula phi in phi then we say that mathfrak models phi and write mathfrak models phi in the case that phi is a sentence that is a formula with no free variables the existence of a single v a f for which mathfrak models phis immediately implies that mathfrak models phi definition let phi be a sentence and suppose that mathfrak models phi then we say that phi is true in mathfrak logical implication and truth definition let psi and phi be sets of formulas we say that psi logically implies phi and write psi models phi if for every structure mathfrak mathfrak models psi implies mathfrak models phi as a shortcut when dealing with singletons we often write psi models phi instead of psi models definition let phi be a formula and suppose that varnothing models phi then we say that phi is universally valid or simply valid and in this case we simply write models phi to say that a formula phi is valid really means that every mathfrak structure mathfrak models phi definition let phi be a sentence and suppose that models phi then we say that phi is true variable substitution definition let u be a term and suppose x is a variable and t is another term we define the term u t x read u with x replaced by t as follows if u is the variable symbol x then u t x is defined to be the term t if u is a variable symbol other than x then u t x is defined to be the term u if u is a constant symbol then u t x is defined to be the term u if u is of the form f t one t n then u t x is defined to be the term f t x t x definition let phi be a formula and suppose x is a variable and t is a term we define the formula phi t x read phi with x replaced by t as follows if phi is of the form t one t two then phi t x is defined to be the formula t x t x if phi is of the form r t one t n then phi t x is defined to be the formula r t x t x if phi is of the form lnot alpha then phi t x is defined to be the formula lnot alpha t x if phi is of the form alpha lor beta then phi t x is defined to be the formula alpha t x lor beta t x if phi is of the form forall y alpha then if x and y are the same variable symbol phi t x is defined to be the formula phi else phi t x is defined to be the formula forall y alpha t x substitutability definition let phi be a formula and suppose x is a variable and t is a term we say that t is substitutable for x in phi if either phi is atomic phi is of the form lnot alpha and t is substitutable for x in alpha phi is of the form alpha lor beta and t is substitutable for x in both alpha and beta phi is of the form forall y alpha and either x is not a free variable in phi y does not occur in t and t is substitutable for x in alpha the notion of substitutability of terms for variables corresponds to that of the preservation of truth after substitution is carried out in terms or formulas strictly speaking substitution is always allowed but substitutability will be imperative in order to yield a formula which meaning was not deformed by the substitution references a s troelstra h schwichtenberg two zero zero zero basic proof theory cambridge tracts in theoretical computer science two nd ed cambridge university press isbn zero five two one seven seven nine one one one george boolos richard jeffrey one nine eight nine computability and logic three rd ed cambridge university press isbn zero five two one zero zero seven five eight five elliott mendelson one nine nine seven introduction to mathematical logic four th ed chapman hall a g hamilton one nine eight eight logic for mathematicians cambridge university press external links mathematical logic around the world polyvalued logic introduction to mathematical logic hyper textbook for students vilnis detlovs and karlis podnieks university of latvia see also logic model theory sequent calculus predicate logic intuitionistic logic theory of institutions infinitary logic provability logic computability logic table of mathematical symbols foundational status of arithmetic mathematical logic mnt redirects here for the unix directory see mnt molecular nanotechnology mnt is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale an equivalent definition would be machines at the molecular scale designed and built atom by atom this is distinct from nanoscale materials based on richard feynman s vision of miniature factories using nanomachines to build complex products including additional nanomachines this advanced form of nanotechnology or molecular manufacturing will make use of positionally controlled mechanosynthesis guided by molecular machine systems mnt would involve combining physical principles demonstrated by chemistry other nanotechnologies and the molecular machinery of life with the systems engineering principles found in modern macroscale factories its most well known exposition is in the books of k eric drexler formulating a roadmap for its development is now an objective of a broadly based technology roadmap project led by battelle the manager of several u s national laboratories and the foresight institute the roadmap should be completed by late two zero zero six in august two zero zero five a task force consisting of five zero international experts from various fields was organized by the center for responsible nanotechnology to study the societal implications of molecular nanotechnology while conventional chemistry employs stochastic processes driven toward some equilibrium to obtain stochastic results and biology exploits stochastic processes to obtain deterministic results based on complex enzyme catalyzed reaction chains optimized through billions of years of evolutionary feedback molecular nanotechnology would employ novel and as yet unspecified deterministic nanoscale processes to obtain deterministic results the desire in molecular nanotechnology would be to place molecular moieties in deterministic locations with deterministic orientation to obtain desired chemical reactions and then to build systems by further assembling the products of these reactions ralph merkle has compared today s manufacturing methods in contrast to mechanosynthesis to an attempt to build interesting lego brick constructions while wearing boxing gloves casting grinding milling and even lithography move atoms in great thundering statistical herds it s like trying to make things out of lego blocks with boxing gloves on your hands yes you can push the lego blocks into great heaps and pile them up but you can t really snap them together the way you d like it has been posited that molecular nanotechnology could offer much cleaner manufacturing processes than today s bulk technology background and implications confused terminology the term nanotechnology was coined by the tokyo science university professor norio taniguchi in one nine seven four to describe the precision manufacture of materials with nanometer tolerances and was unknowingly appropriated by drexler in his one nine eight six book engines of creation the coming era of nanotechnology to describe what later became known as molecular nanotechnology drexler has observed that british writers introduced other meanings for the term nanotechnology including microscale technologies like mems and a range of materials technologies these difficulties prompted drexler to use the term molecular nanotechnology mnt the term nanotechnology has now come into broad use as a label for currently available fine scale chemistry or materials science or molecular engineering this includes nanotech suntan lotion and nanotech stain resistant pants this article attempts to use molecular nanotechnology or mnt below to distinguish the field from other nanotechnologies conjectural applications and capabilities smart materials and nanosensors one proposed application of mnt is the development of so called smart materials this term refers to any sort of material designed and engineered at the nanometer scale to perform a specific task and encompasses a wide variety of possible commercial applications one example is materials designed to respond differently to various molecules such a capability could lead for example to artificial drugs which would recognize and render inert specific viruses another is the idea of self healing structures which would repair small tears in a surface naturally in the same way as self sealing tires or human skin and while this technology is relatively new it is already seeing commercial application in various engineering plastics a nanosensor created by mnt would resemble a smart material involving a small component within a larger machine that would react to its environment and change in some fundamental intentional way as a very simple example a photosensor could passively measure the incident light and discharge its absorbed energy as electricity when the light passes above or below a specified threshold sending a signal to a larger machine such a sensor would cost less and use less power than a conventional sensor and yet function usefully in all the same applications for example turning on parking lot lights when it gets dark while smart materials and nanosensors both exemplify useful applications of mnt they pale in comparison with the complexity of the technology most popularly associated with the term the replicating nanorobot replicating nanobots mnt nanofacturing is popularly linked with the idea of swarms of coordinated nanoscale robots working together as proposed by drexler in his one nine eight six popular discussions of the subject it is proposed that sufficiently capable nanobots could construct more nanobots however critics doubt both the feasibility of self replicating nanobots and the feasibilty of control if self replicating nanobots could be achieved they cite the possibility of mutations removing any control and favoring reproduction of mutant pathogenic variations advocates address the second doubt by arguing that bacteria are of necessity evolved to evolve while nanobot mutation can be actively prevented by common error correcting techniques similar ideas are advocated in the foresight guidelines on molecular nanotechnology recent technical proposals for mnt nanofactories do not include self replicating nanobots and recent ethical guidelines prohibit self replication medical nanorobots one of the most important applications of mnt would be medical nanorobotics or nanomedicine the ability to design build and deploy large numbers of medical nanorobots would at an optimum make possible the rapid elimination of disease and the reliable and relatively painless recovery from physical trauma medical nanorobots might also make possible the convenient correction of genetic defects and help to ensure a greatly expanded healthspan more controversially medical nanorobots might be used to augment natural human capabilities however mechanical medical nanodevices would not be allowed or designed to self replicate inside the human body nor would medical nanorobots have any need for self replication themselves since they would be manufactured exclusively in carefully regulated nanofactories utility fog another proposed application of nanotechnology involves utility fog in which a cloud of networked microscopic robots simpler than assemblers changes its shape and properties to form macroscopic objects and tools in accordance with software commands rather than modify the current practices of consuming material goods in different forms utility fog would simply replace most physical objects phased array optics yet another proposed application would be phased array optics pao pao would used the principle of phased array millimeter technology but at optical wavelengths this would permit the duplication of any sort of optical effect but virtually users could request holograms sunrises and sunsets or floating lasers as the mood strikes pao systems were described in bc crandall s nanotechnology molecular speculations on global abundance in the brian wowk article phased array optics conjectural social impacts despite the current early developmental status of nanotechnology and molecular nanotechnology much concern surrounds mnt s anticipated impact on economics and on law some conjecture that mnt would elicit a strong public opinion backlash as has occurred recently around genetically modified plants and the prospect of human cloning whatever the exact effects mnt if achieved would tend to upset existing economic structures by reducing the scarcity of manufactured goods and making many more goods such as food and health aids manufacturable most futurists and all economists believe that future citizens of a molecular nanotechnological society would still need money in the form of unforgeable digital cash or physical specie in special circumstances they might use such money to buy goods and services that are unique or limited within the solar system these might include matter energy information real estate design services entertainment services legal services fame political power or the attention of other people to your political religious philosophical message furthermore futurists must consider war even between prosperous states and non economic goals if mnt were realized some resources would remain limited because unique physical objects are limited a plot of land in the real jerusalem mining rights to the larger near earth asteroids or because they depend on the goodwill of a particular person the love of a famous person a painting from a famous artist demand will always exceed supply for some things and a political economy may continue to exist in any case whether the interest in these limited resources would diminish with the advent of virtual reality where they could be easily substituted is yet unclear one reason why it might not is hypothetical irrational preference for the real thing risks molecular nanotechnology is one of the technologies that advocates believe will lead to a technological singularity aside from the fantasy scenarios some feel that molecular nanotechnology would have daunting risks it conceivably could enable cheaper and more destructive conventional weapons also molecular nanotechnology might permit weapons of mass destruction that could self replicate as viruses and cancer cells do when attacking the human body commentators generally agree that in the event molecular nanotechnology were developed humankind should permit self replication only under very controlled or inherently safe conditions a fear exists that nanomechanical robots if achieved and if designed to self replicate using naturally occurring materials a difficult task could consume the entire planet in their hunger for raw materials or simply crowd out natural life out competing it for energy as happened historically when blue green algae appeared and outcompeted earlier life forms some commentators sometimes refer to this situation as the grey goo or ecophagy scenario k eric drexler considers an accidental grey goo scenario extremely unlikely and says so in later editions of engines of creation the grey goo scenario begs the tree sap answer what chances exist that one s car could spontaneously mutate into a wild car run off road and live in the forest off tree sap in light of this perception of potential danger the foresight institute founded by k eric drexler to prepare for the arrival of future technologies has drafted a set of guidelines for the ethical development of nanotechnology these include the banning of free foraging self replicating pseudo organisms on the earth s surface at least and possibly in other places technical issues and criticism universal assemblers vs diamond nanofactories a section heading in drexler s engines of creation reads universal assemblers and the following text speaks of molecular assemblers which could hypothetically build almost anything that the laws of nature allow to exist drexler s colleague ralph merkle has noted that contrary to widespread legend drexler never claimed that assembler systems could build absolutely any molecular structure the endnotes in drexler s book explain the qualification almost for example a delicate structure might be designed that like a stone arch would self destruct unless all its pieces were already in place if there were no room in the design for the placement and removal of a scaffolding then the structure might be impossible to build few structures of practical interest seem likely to exhibit such a problem however in one nine nine two drexler published nanosystems molecular machinery manufacturing and computation a detailed proposal for synthesizing stiff diamond based structures using a table top factory although such a nanofactory would be far less powerful than a protean universal assembler it would still be enormously capable diamondoid structures and other stiff covalent structures if achieved would have a wide range of possible applications going far beyond current mems technology however no proposal was put forward for building the table top factory in the absence of a near universal assembler the smalley drexler debate several researchers including dr smalley have attacked the notion of universal assemblers leading to a rebuttal from drexler and colleagues and eventually to an exchange of letters smalley argues that chemistry is extremely complicated reactions are hard to control and that a universal assembler is science fiction drexler and colleagues however note that drexler had not proposed truly universal assemblers despite his use of the term universal assemblers refusing to defend drexler s original proposal they challenge the relevance of smalley s arguments to the limited and rigidly controlled chemistry proposed in nanosystems the feasibility of the proposals in nanosystems the feasibility of drexler s proposals largely depends therefore on whether designs like those in nanosystems could be built in the absence of a near universal assembler to build them and would work as described supporters of molecular nanotechnology frequently claim that no significant errors have been discovered in nanosystems since one nine nine two even some critics concede that drexler has carefully considered a number of physical principles underlying the high level aspects of the nanosystems he proposes and indeed has thought in some detail about some issues other critics claim however that nanosystems omits important chemical details about the low level machine language of molecular nanotechnology smalley atkinson moriarty jones they also claim that much of the other low level chemistry in nanosystems requires extensive further work and that drexler s higher level designs therefore rest on speculative foundations drexler argues that we may need to wait until our conventional nanotechnology improves before solving these issues molecular manufacturing will result from a series of advances in molecular machine systems much as the first moon landing resulted from a series of advances in liquid fuel rocket systems we are now in a position like that of the british interplanetary society of the one nine three zero s which described how multistage liquid fuelled rockets could reach the moon and pointed to early rockets as illustrations of the basic principle in any case as richard feynman once said it is scientific only to say what s more likely or less likely and not to be proving all the time what s possible or impossible existing work on diamond mechanosynthesis there is some peer reviewed theoretical work on synthesizing diamond by mechanically depositing carbon atoms a process known as mechanosynthesis theoretical analysis of a carbon carbon dimer placement tool for diamond mechanosynthesis merkle and freitas j nanosci nanotech two zero zero three vol three no zero three theoretical analysis of diamond mechanosynthesis part i stability of c two mediated growth of nanocrystalline diamond c one one zero surface peng freitas and merkle j comput theor nanosci vol one no one two zero zero four theoretical analysis of diamond mechanosynthesis part ii c two mediated growth of diamond c one one zero surface via si ge triadamantane dimer placement tools mann peng freitas and merkle j comput theor nanosci vol one no one two zero zero four for the paper by mann et al the researchers used over five years of cpu time to simulate a series of tool tips which could be used to place a pair of carbon atoms a dimer onto a diamond surface the most promising tip succeeded in placing the carbon dimer onto the diamond surface once in five simulations and it had to be positioned with great accuracy to avoid bonding the dimer incorrectly furthermore the tips were difficult to recharge with a second carbon dimer and were only stable in carefully controlled environments further research to consider alternate tips will require time consuming computational chemistry and difficult laboratory work a working nanofactory would require a variety of well designed tips for different reactions and detailed analyses of placing atoms on more complicated surfaces although this appears a challenging problem given current resources many tools will be available to help future researchers moore s law predicts further increases in computer power semiconductor fabrication techniques continue to approach the nanoscale and researchers grow ever more skilled at using proteins ribosomes and dna to perform novel chemistry current useful reference works drexler and others have extended the ideas of molecular nanotechnology with two more books unbounding the future the nanotechnology revolution and nanosystems molecular machinery manufacturing and computation unbounding the future an easy to read book introduces the ideas of molecular nanotechnology in a not too technical way and nanosystems provides an in depth analysis of hypothetical nanomachines and molecular manufacturing with extensive analyses arguing in favor of their feasibility and performance other notable works in the same vein are nanomedicine vol i and vol iia by robert freitas and kinematic self replicating machines by robert freitas and ralph merkle nanotechnology molecular speculations on global abundance edited by bc crandall isbn zero two six two five three one three seven two offers interesting ideas for mnt applications external links foresight institute responsible nanotechnology a blog from the center for responsible nanotechnology nanotechnology gateway of india center for responsible nanotechnology main page wise nano a wiki for mnt wired article on drexler dr freitas s bibliography on mechanosynthesis also includes related techniques based on scanning probe microscopy the molecular assembler website of robert a freitas jr nanotechnology now nanotechnology basics news and general information national nanotechnology initiative institute for molecular manufacturing http www hkc two two com molecularindustry html trends and markets worldwide nanotechnology microelectromechanical systems mems is the technology of the very small and merges at the nanoscale into nanoelectromechanical systems nems and nanotechnology in europe mems are often referred to as micro systems technology mst it should not be confused with the hypothetical vision of molecular nanotechnology or molecular electronics introduction mems devices refer to mechanical components on the micrometre size and include three d lithographic features of various geometries they are typically manufactured using planar processing similar to semiconductor processes such as surface micromachining and or bulk micromachining these devices generally range in size from a micrometre a millionth of a metre to a millimetre thousandth of a metre at these size scales a human s intuitive sense of physics do not always hold true due to mems large surface area to volume ratio surface effects such as electrostatics and wetting dominate volume effects such as inertia or thermal mass they are fabricated using modified silicon fabrication technology used to make electronics molding and plating wet etching koh tmah and dry etching rie and drie electro discharge machining edm and other technologies capable of manufacturing very small devices mems sometimes go by the names micromechanics micro machines or micro system technology mst companies with strong mems programs come in many sizes the larger firms specialize in manufacturing high volume inexpensive components or packaged solutions for end markets such as automobiles biomedical and electronics the successful small firms provide value in innovative solutions and absorb the expense of custom fabrication with high sales margins in addition both large and small companies work in r e g to deploy a roll over bar or trigger dynamic stability control pressure sensors e g car tire pressure sensors and disposable blood pressure sensors displays e g the dmd chip in a projector based on dlp technology has on its surface several hundred thousand micromirrors optical switching technology which is used for switching technology for data communications and is part of the emerging technology of smartdust finite element analysis is an important part of mems design technologies mems technology can be implemented using a number of different materials and manufacturing techniques the choice of which will depend on the device being created and the market sector in which it has to operate silicon silicon is the material used to create almost all integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in the modern world the economies of scale ready availability of highly accurate processing and ability to incorporate electronic functionality make silicon attractive for a wide variety of mems applications silicon also has significant advantages engenderred through its material properties in single crystal form silicon is an almost perfect hookean material meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation as well as making for highly repeatable motion this also makes silicon very reliable as it suffers very little fatigue and can have service lifetimes in the range of billions to trillions of cycles without breaking the basic techniques for producing all silicon based mems devices are deposition of material layers patterning of these layers by lithography and then etching to produce the required shapes surface micromachining main article surface micromachining in surface micromachining micro mechanical components are created on top of a silicon wafer usually by depositing polysilicon deep etching in a deep etching technology a process such as deep reactive ion etching drie is used to cut into a piece of silicon wafer etching stops at a buried sacrificial layer within the wafer which is later etched to remove it from underneath the overlying silicon structures once the sacrificial layer has been removed the elements which were glued down by it are free to move bulk micromachining main article bulk micromachining bulk micromachining is similar to deep etching but uses a different process to remove silicon bulk micromachining typically uses alkaline liquid solvents such as potassium hydroxide to dissolve silicon which has been left exposed by the photolithography masking step these alkali solvents dissolve the silicon in a highly anisotropic way with some crystallograpic orientations dissolving up to one zero zero zero times faster than others such an approach is often used with very specific crystallographic orientations in the raw silicon to produce v shaped grooves the surface of these grooves can be atomically smooth if the etch is carried out correctly with dimensions and angles being extremely accurate polymers even though the electronics industry brings unimaginable economies of scale to the silicon industry crystaline silicon is still a complex and relatively expensive material to produce polymers on the other hand can be produced in huge volumes with a great variety of material characteristics mems devices can be made from polymers by processes such as injection moulding embossing or stereolithography and are especially well suited to microfluidic applications such as disposable blood testing cartridges metals metals can also be used to create mems elements whilst metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties when used within their limitations they can exhibit very high degrees of reliability the texas instruments dmd for instance uses metal for the torsion hinges and maintains long lifetimes of operation in this application the digital nature of the motion means that the tendency of metals to display hysteresis and creep is not so much of an issue see also nems nanoelectromechanical systems are similar to mems but smaller moems micro opto electrical mechanical systems mems including optical elements millipede technology a mems technology for non volatile data storage of more than a terabit per square inch texas instruments pioneers of the dmd chip adi one of the major early players in accelerometer development lucent who developed highly advanced optical telecommunications switches cantilever one of the most common forms of mems external links mems industry group premier trade association representing the mems and microstructure industries very popular portal for information about mems site with lots of information about mems technology and fabrication polymer mems excellent news site for mems and nanotechnology an early history of silicon sensors center for wireless integrated microsystems wims microsystem technology lab royal institute of technology stockholm image gallery of microscopic mems machines movie gallery of functioning mems sources of books conferences and companies tutorials on mems interviews with mems industry leaders mems mit homepage transducers electrical engineering materials science nanotechnology marvin lee minsky born august nine one nine two seven sometimes affectionately known as old man minsky is an american scientist in the field of artificial intelligence ai co founder of mit s ai laboratory and author of several texts on ai and philosophy biography he was born in new york where he attended the fieldston school and bronx high school of science he later attended phillips academy in andover massachusetts he served in the us navy in one nine four four four five he holds a ba in mathematics from harvard one nine five zero and a phd in the same field from princeton one nine five four he has been on the mit faculty since one nine five eight he is currently toshiba professor of media arts and sciences and professor of electrical engineering and computer science at the massachusetts institute of technology he has been awarded many honors he is a member of both the u s national academy of engineering and the national academy of sciences he won the turing award in one nine six nine the japan prize in one nine nine zero the ijcai award for research excellence in one nine nine one and the benjamin franklin medal in two zero zero one minsky s patents include the first head mounted graphical display one nine six three as well as the confocal scanning microscope a predecessor to today s widely used confocal laser scanning microscope and jointly with seymour papert the first logo turtle minsky also built in one nine five one the first randomly wired neural network learning machine snarc edit i did patent my one nine five six confocal microscope but the patent expired before anyone built a second one we did not bother to patent the display or the turtle assuming that they were perfectly obvious looks like obviousity is no longer relevant to patenting marvin minsky he wrote the book perceptrons with seymour a papert which became the foundational work in the analysis of artificial neural networks its criticism of unrigorous research in the field has been claimed as being responsible for the virtual disappearance of artificial neural networks from academic research in the one nine seven zero s edit so it was claimed but actually our mathematical analysis was to show why bigger perceptrons didn t get better at solving hard problems and contrary to a popular rumor almost all our theorems still apply to multilayer feedforward neural networks but curiously no one seems to have proved this and papert and i went on to other subjects marvin minsky minsky was an adviser on the movie two zero zero one a space odyssey and is referred to in the movie and book probably no one would ever know this it did not matter in the one nine eight zero s minsky and good had shown how neural networks could be generated automatically self replicated in accordance with any arbitrary learning program artificial brains could be grown by a process strikingly analogous to the development of a human brain in any given case the precise details would never be known and even if they were they would be millions of times too complex for human understanding minsky was almost killed due to an accident on the set minsky was also responsible for suggesting the underlying plot of jurassic park to michael crichton during a walk on the beach in malibu at that point in the meanderings which led to the classic novel and film the dinosaurs were conceived as automata crichton later drew on his biomedical training to conceive the dinosaurs as arising through cloning edit it wasn t about automata my idea was that even if the dna in the fossils was gone it might have affected the positions of the atoms that replaced it the result would be very noisy but a dinosaur might have had a trillion cells so if we had the locations of all the atoms in the fossil we might be able to reconstruct the dna by statistical analysis unlikely though and crichton got the better idea about insects in amber i m sure it was in malibu indeed because farrah fawcett came running by while we were talking marvin minsky minsky is an actor in an artificial intelligence koan attributed to his student danny hillis from the jargon file in the days when sussman was a novice minsky once came to him as he sat hacking at the pdp six what are you doing asked minsky i am training a randomly wired neural net to play tic tac toe sussman replied why is the net wired randomly asked minsky i do not want it to have any preconceptions of how to play sussman said minsky then shut his eyes why do you close your eyes sussman asked his teacher so that the room will be empty at that moment sussman was enlightened edit what i actually said was if you wire it randomly it will still have preconceptions of how to play but you just won t know what those preconceptions are marvin minsky trivia minsky is a childhood friend of the yale university critic harold bloom who has referred to him as the sinister marvin minsky selected works neural nets and the brain model problem ph d dissertation princeton university one nine five four the first publication of theories and theorems about learning in neural networks secondary reinforcement circulating dynamic storage and synaptic modifications computation finite and infinite machines prentice hall one nine six seven a standard text in computer science out of print now but soon to reappear semantic information processing mit press one nine six eight this collection had a strong influence on modern computational linguistics perceptrons with seymour papert mit press one nine six nine enlarged edition one nine eight eight artificial intelligence with seymour papert univ of oregon press one nine seven two out of print communication with alien intelligence one nine eight five robotics doubleday one nine eight six edited collection of essays about robotics with introduction and postscript by minsky the society of mind simon and schuster one nine eight seven the first comprehensive description of the society of mind theory of intellectual structure and development see also the society of mind cd rom version voyager one nine nine six the turing option with harry harrison warner books new york one nine nine two science fiction thriller about the construction of a superintelligent robot in the year two zero two three the emotion machine simon and schuster due in two zero zero seven isbn zero seven four three two seven six six three nine see also john mccarthy gerry sussman carl hewitt terry winograd external links marvin minsky s home page scientist on the set an interview with marvin minsky consciousness is a big suitcase a talk with marvin minsky video of minsky speaking at the international conference on complex systems hosted by the new england complex systems institute necsi marvin minsky s usenet posts most of them archived at google groups one nine two seven births living people artificial intelligence researchers american computer scientists computer pioneers jewish american scientists turing award laureates massachusetts institute of technology usenet people members and associates of the us national academy of sciences milton friedman milton friedman born july three one one nine one two is a u s economist known primarily for his work on macroeconomics microeconomics economic history statistics and for his advocacy of laissez faire capitalism in one nine seven six he won the bank of sweden prize in economic sciences in memory of alfred nobel often called the nobel prize in economics for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy his television series free to choose aired on pbs in early one nine eight zero it became a book coauthored with his wife rose friedman that was widely read as were his columns for newsweek magazine in statistics he devised the friedman test as a non parametric analogue to the two way analysis of variance biography born in new york city new york to a working class family of jewish hungarian immigrants from beregsz sz berehove today ukraine friedman grew up in rahway new jersey was educated at rutgers university b a one nine three two and at the university of chicago m a one nine three three after working for the federal government and for columbia university he received a ph d from that institution in one nine four six he then served as professor of economics at the university of chicago from one nine four six to one nine seven six where he contributed significantly to the intellectual tradition of the so called chicago school of economics since one nine seven seven friedman has been affiliated with the hoover institution at stanford university friedman is widely regarded as the leading proponent of the monetarist school of economic thought he maintains that there is a close and stable link between inflation and the money supply mainly that the phenomenon of inflation is to be regulated by controlling the amount of money poured into the national economy by the federal reserve bank he rejects the use of fiscal policy as a tool of demand management and he holds that the government s role in the guidance of the economy should be severely restricted friedman wrote extensively on the great depression which he called the great contraction arguing that it had been caused by an ordinary financial shock whose duration and seriousness were greatly increased by the subsequent contraction of the money supply caused by the misguided policies of the directors of the federal reserve friedman also argued for the cessation of government intervention in currency markets thereby spawning an enormous literature on the subject as well as promoting the practice of freely floating exchange rates friedman has also supported various libertarian policies such as decriminalization of drugs and prostitution in addition he headed the reagan committee that researched the possibility of a move towards a paid volunteer armed force and played a role in the abolition of the draft that took place in the one nine seven zero s in the u s he served as a member of u s president ronald reagan s economic policy advisory board in one nine eight one in one nine eight eight he received both the presidential medal of freedom and the national medal of science he has said that he is a libertarian philosophically but a member of the u s republican party for the sake of expediency i am a libertarian with a small l and a republican with a capital r and i am a republican with a capital r on grounds of expediency not on principle friedman made headlines by proposing a negative income tax to replace the existing welfare system and then opposing the bill to implement it because it merely supplemented the existing system rather than replacing it in recent years friedman has devoted much of his effort to promoting school vouchers that can be used to pay for tuition at both private and public schools saying what is needed in america is a voucher of substantial size available to all students and free of excessive regulations his idea is that vouchers would allow private schools to compete with the public school monopoly friedman worked at the treasury department during world war ii and played an important role in designing the united states withholding tax system before one nine four two there was no withholding system the rich people who paid income taxes did so in one lump sum on march one five of the following year and as murray rothbard put it the internal revenue service could never hope to extract the entire annual sum from the mass of the working population only the friedmanite withholding tax has permitted the government to use every employer as an unpaid tax collector friedman allowed the cato institute to use his name for its milton friedman prize for advancing liberty in two zero zero one his wife rose sister of aaron director with whom he founded the milton and rose d friedman foundation for school choice served in the international selection committee friedman s son david has carried on his tradition of arguing in favor of free markets but to a further extreme advocating anarcho capitalism political controversy friedman visited chile in one nine seven five during the military dictatorship of augusto pinochet invited by a private foundation he gave a series of lectures on economics several professors from the university of chicago became advisors to the chilean government and several ph d graduates from the same university known as the chicago boys served in chilean ministries friedman met with pinochet during his visit to chile but he did not serve as advisor to the chilean government or maintain personal contact with pinochet nevertheless he was accused of supporting a regime whose policies included torture and the killing of political opponents a number of protesters demonstrated against friedman during the one nine seven six nobel prize ceremony critics have remarked that chile s dictatorship used its power to implement free market policies thus contradicting the relationship that friedman claims exists between free markets and political freedom though friedman believes they ve missed the point by defending his role in chile on the grounds that the move towards open market policies not only improved the economic situation in chile but also contributed to the softening of pinochet s rule and to its eventual replacement by a democratic government in one nine nine zero he also stresses that the lectures he gave in chile in one nine seven five were the same lectures he later gave without incident in china and other socialist states for more information on milton friedman s views on chile see miracle of chile in the one nine seven zero s friedman argued against the trade and diplomatic embargoes that many western nations had imposed on the white minority governments of south africa and rhodesia now zimbabwe claiming that the embargoes played into the hands of anti western communist insurgencies in those countries that far more repressive regimes in africa and elsewhere were not being similarly punished and that progress towards racial equality and freedom in south africa and rhodesia might be better pursued through a policy of engagement with their governments friedman was criticized for visiting those countries in one nine seven six and meeting with members of pro apartheid government without publicly calling for repealing the racist electoral laws that were then in place in two zero zero five friedman and more than five zero zero other economists called for discussions regarding the economic benefits of the legalization of marijuana in an open letter works popular books and articles capitalism and freedom isbn zero two two six two six four zero one seven one nine six two social security universal or selective with wilbur j cohen one nine seven two there s no such thing as a free lunch one nine seven five columns from newsweek free to choose a personal statement with rose friedman one nine eight zero economic freedom human freedom political freedom isbn one eight eight three nine six nine zero zero x one nine nine two short pamphlet two lucky people memoirs with rose friedman isbn zero two two six two six four one four nine one nine nine eight money mischief episodes in monetary history isbn zero one five one six two zero four two three one nine nine four the case for free trade with rose friedman one nine nine seven hoover digest reflections on a monetary history the cato journal vol two three two zero zero four scientific books and articles income from independent professional practice with simon kuznets one nine four five mf s phd thesis utility analysis of choices involving risk with l savage one nine four eight journal of political economy a monetary and fiscal framework for economic stability one nine four eight american economic review in jstor some comments on the significance of labor unions for economic policy one nine five one in d mcc wright editor the impact of the union new york harcourt brace commodity reserve currency one nine five one journal of political economy the expected utility hypothesis and the measurability of utility with l savage one nine five two journal of political economy the methodology of positive economics one nine five three essays in positive economics one nine five three the quantity theory of money a restatement one nine five six in friedman editor studies in quantity theory a theory of the consumption function one nine five seven the supply of money and changes in prices and output one nine five eight in relationship of prices to economic stability and growth a program for monetary stability one nine six zero the demand for money some theoretical and empirical results one nine five nine journal of political economy also in jstor a program for monetary stability one nine six zero the lag in effect of monetary policy one nine six one journal of political economy in jstor should there be an independent monetary authority in l b yeager editor in search of a monetary constitution inflation causes and consequences one nine six three a monetary history of the united states one eight six seven one nine six zero with anna j schwartz one nine six three money and business cycles with a j schwartz one nine six three restat the relative stability of monetary velocity and the investment multiplier in the united states one eight nine eight one nine five eight with d meiselman one nine six three in stabilization policies a reply to donald hester with d meiselman one nine six four restat interest rates and the demand for money one nine six six jlawe the balance of payments free versus fixed exchange rates with robert v roosa one nine six seven what price guideposts in g p schultz r z aliber editors guidelines the role of monetary policy presidential address to aea one nine six eight american economic review in jstor vol five eight pp four one seven money the quantity theory one nine six eight iess the definition of money with anna j schwartz one nine six nine monetary vs fiscal policy with walter w heller one nine six nine comment on tobin one nine seven zero quarterly journal of economics monetary statistics of the united states sources methods with anna j schwartz one nine seven zero a theoretical framework for monetary analysis one nine seven zero journal of political economy in jstor the counter revolution in monetary theory one nine seven zero a monetary theory of national income one nine seven one journal of political economy in jstor comments on the critics one nine seven four in gordon ed milton friedman and his critics monetary correction a proposal for escalation clauses to reduce the cost of ending inflation one nine seven four the optimum quantity of money and other essays one nine seven six price theory one nine seven six milton friedman in australia one nine seven five one nine seven five milton friedman s monetary framework a debate with his critics one nine seven five comments on tobin and buiter one nine seven six in j stein editor monetarism inflation and unemployment nobel lecture one nine seven seven journal of political economy in jstor vol eight five pp four five one seven two interrelations between the united states and the united kingdom one eight seven three one nine seven five with a j schwartz one nine eight two j int money and finance monetary trends in the united states and the united kingdom their relations to income prices and interest rates one eight seven six one nine seven five with anna j schwartz one nine eight two monetary policy tactics versus strategy one nine eight four in moore editor to promote prosperity lessons from the one nine seven nine one nine eight two monetary policy experiment papers and proceedings american economic association pp three nine seven four zero one one nine eight four the case for overhauling the federal reserve one nine eight five challenge has government any role in money with anna j schwartz one nine eight six jme quantity theory of money in j eatwell m milgate p newman editors the new palgrave one nine nine eight george j stigler one nine one one one nine nine one biographical memoir one nine nine eight at national academy of science about friedman a w bob coats the legacy of milton friedman as teacher economic record vol seven seven two zero zero one jordan jerry l allan h meltzer thomas j sargent and anna j schwartz milton money and mischief symposium and articles in honor of milton friedman s eight zero th birthday economic inquiry volume three one issue two one nine nine three pp one nine seven elton rayack not so free to choose the political economy of milton friedman and ronald reagan praeger one nine eight seven abu n m wahid ed frontiers of economics nobel laureates of the twentieth century greenwood press two zero zero two pp one zero nine one five see also libertarianism liberalism contributions to liberal theory chicago boys chicago school mont pelerin society neoliberalism cato institute criticisms of friedman milton friedman and monetarism rayack elton not so free to choose the political economy of milton friedman and ronald reagan one nine eight seven lists list of economists list of economics consultancies and think tanks bank of sweden prize in economic sciences in memory of alfred nobel list of notable libertarian theorists and authors external links the friedman foundation the initiative on chicago price theory bios home page of milton friedman about milton friedman pbs interview profile and video video of september three two zero zero zero booktv in depth interview one nine seven six prize in economics from the official nobel prize website articles march april one nine nine nine the business community s suicidal impulse talks about protectionism bank regulation privatized schooling antitrust laws bureaucracy government burden his view of the chilean government gary becker on friedman s influence in south america two ideas of freedom by said shirazi a leftist critique of friedman and amartya sen one nine one two births american economists anti communism columbia alumni libertarians living people macroeconomics minarchists national medal of science recipients nobel prize in economics winners people related to the cato institute rutgers university university of chicago members and associates of the us national academy of sciences mass media is a term used to denote as a class that section of the media specifically conceived and designed to reach a very large audience typically at least as large as the whole population of a nation state it was coined in the one nine two zero s with the advent of nationwide radio networks and of mass circulation newspapers and magazines the mass media audience has been viewed by some commentators as forming a mass society with special characteristics notably atomization or lack of social connections which render it especially susceptible to the influence of modern mass media techniques such as advertising and propaganda it is also gaining popularity in the blogosphere when referring to the mainstream media etymology and usage media the plural of medium is a truncation of the term media of communication referring to those organized means of dissemination of fact opinion entertainment and other information such as newspapers magazines cinema films radio television the world wide web billboards books cds dvds videocassettes computer games and other forms of publishing although writers currently change in their preference for using media in the singular the media is or the plural the media are the former will still incur criticism in some situations please see data for a similar example academic programs for the study of mass media are usually referred to as mass communication programs an individual corporation within the mass media is referred to as a media institution the term mass media is mainly used by academics and media professionals when members of the general public refer to the media they are usually referring to the mass media or to the news media which is a section of the mass media sometimes mass media and the news media in particular is referred to as the corporate media other references include the mainstream media msm technically mainstream media includes outlets that are in harmony with the prevailing direction of influence in the culture at large in the united states usage of these terms often depends on the connotations the speaker wants to invoke the term corporate media is often used by leftist media critics to imply that the mainstream media is itself composed of large multinational corporations and promotes those interests see e g fairness and accuracy in reporting noam chomsky s propaganda model this is countered by right wingers with the term msm the acronym implying that the majority of mass media sources are dominated by leftist powers which are furthering their own agenda see conspiracy theory media bias in the united states history during the two zero th century the advent of mass media was driven by technology that allowed the massive duplication of material at a low price physical duplication technologies such as printing record pressing and film duplication allowed the duplication of books newspapers and movies at low prices to huge audiences television and radio allowed the electronic duplication of content for the first time mass media had the economics of linear replication a single work could make money proportional to the number of copies sold and as volumes went up units costs went down increasing profit margins further vast fortunes were to be made in mass media in a democratic society an independent media serves to educate the public electorate about issues regarding government and corporate entities see mass media and public opinion some consider concentration of media ownership to be a grave threat to democracy for examples of some american newspapers history of jingoism and drumbeating for war see yellow journalism timeline one four five three johnannes gutenberg prints the bible using his printing press ushering in the renaisance one eight two five nic phore ni pce takes the first permanent photograph one eight three zero telegraphy is indepentantly developed in england and the united states one eight seven six first telephone call made by alexander graham bell one eight seven eight thomas alva edison patents the phonograph one eight nine zero first juke box in san francisco s palais royal saloon one eight nine zero telephone wires are installed in manhattan one eight nine six hollerith founds the tabulating machine co it will become ibm in one nine two four one eight nine eight loudspeaker is invented one nine one three edison transfers from cylinder recordings to discs one nine one five radiotelephone carries voice from virginia to the eiffel tower one nine one six radios receive tuners one nine one nine short wave radio is invented one nine one zero the start of hallmark cards one nine one two queen elizabeth starring sarah bernhardt is first feature length movie one nine one two air mail begins one nine one three the portable phonograph is manufactured one nine two zero kdka am signs on the air in pittsburg united states becoming the world s first commerical radio station one nine two two bbc is formed and broadcasting to london one nine two four kdka created a short wave radio transmitter one nine two five bbc broadcasting to the majority of the uk one nine two six nbc took over at comes of age in reporting jfk assassination one nine six three audio cassette is invented in holland one nine six three martin luther king gives i have a dream speech one nine six five vietnam war becomes first war to be televised one nine six five most broadcasts are in color one nine six seven newspapers magazines start to digitize production one nine seven zero s darpanet progenitor to the internet developed one nine seven one intel debuts the microprocessor one nine eight zero cnn launches one nine eight zero new york times wall street journal dow jones put news database online people don t have to get newspapers to know the news they can just look on their computers they used a videotext system that used a t v set to detect signals and retrieve information one nine eight one the laptop computer is introduced by tandy the laptop was used for many things it helped for more extensive research typing things to make it look neater and interact with people in a different way then on the phone one nine eight two usa today is a newspaper influenced by television news style uses brighter colors and high quality photos there is a busier lifestyle today and people have less time to read early newspapers and articles in usa today were short and right to the point they are sold in coin boxes to look like t v sets it boosted the daily readers to six six billion one nine eight three cellular phones begin to appear one nine eight four apple macintosh is introduced it was a visual of high tech future shows more visual views of things and you can upload more information on important documents one nine eight five pay per view channels open for business people could watch movies and programs without going out to rent them people could also watch a sporting event or other event if they missed it on regular television one nine nine five with the launch of internet friendly windows nine five the internet explodes purposes mass media can be used for various purposes advocacy both for business and social concerns this can include advertising marketing propaganda public relations and political communication enrichment and education such as literature entertainment traditionally through performances of acting music and sports along with light reading since the late two zero th century also through video and computer games journalism public service announcements forms electronic media and print media include broadcasting in the narrow sense for radio and television various types of discs or tape in the two zero th century these were mainly used for music video and computer uses followed film most often used for entertainment but also for documentaries internet which has many uses and presents both opportunities and challenges blogs are unique to the internet publishing in the narrow sense meaning on paper mainly via books magazines and newspapers computer games which have developed into a mass form of media since devices such as the playstation two xbox and the gamecube broadened their use toward the end of the two zero th century the advent of the world wide web marked the first era in which any individual could have a means of exposure on a scale comparable to that of mass media for the first time anyone with a web site can address a global audience although serving to high levels of web traffic is still relatively expensive it is possible that the rise of peer to peer technologies may have begun the process of making the cost of bandwidth manageable although a vast amount of information imagery and commentary i e content has been made available it is often difficult to determine the authenticity and reliability of information contained in in many cases self published web pages the invention of the internet has also allowed breaking news stories to reach around the globe within minutes this rapid growth of instantaneous decentralized communication is often deemed likely to change mass media and its relationship to society cross media means the idea of distributing the same message through different media channels a similar idea is expressed in the news industry as convergence many authors understand cross media publishing to be the ability to publish in both print and on the web without manual conversion effort an increasing number of wireless devices with mutually incompatible data and screen formats make it even more difficult to achieve the objective create once publish many contrast with non mass media non mass or personal media point to point and person to person communication include speech gestures telephony postal mail some uses of the internet some interactive media see also alternative media cnn effect media controversy media imperialism media studies multimedia literacy media transparency propaganda model locative media situated media media and ethnicity external links mcluhan s philosophy philosophical society com s list of scholarly articles on media fr en nl news concepts and applications of communications with the interactives multimedia and networktechnologie mana the media alliance for new activism languagemonitor media metrics and analysis our mediated life a pictorial representation of our digital media world mass media the mahabharata devanagari phonetically mah bh rata see note sometimes just called bharata is one of the two major ancient sanskrit epics of india the other being the ramayana traditionally ascribed to vyasa it is the longest literary epic poem in the world besides being hailed as one of the greatest literary accomplishments of humanity it is also of immense religious and philosophical importance in india in particular the bhagavad gita which is one of its chapters bhishmaparva is a central sacred text of hinduism the title may be translated as history of the great india or more accurately the great bharata dynasty bh rata means the progeny of bharata the king believed to have founded the indian kingdom of bh ratavarsha bharat has equal status as the official name of india in all indian governments today and is still commonly used today the work is part of the hindu itihaasas literally that which happened along with the puranas and ramayana the full version contains more than one zero zero zero zero zero verses total over two zero zero zero zero zero and around two five million words long scope with its vast philosophical depth and sheer magnitude a consummate embodiment of the ethos of not only india but of hinduism and vedic tradition the mahabharata s scope and grandeur is best summarized by one quotation from the beginning of its first parva section what is found here may be found elsewhere what is not found here will not be found elsewhere in its scope the mahabharata is more than simply a story of kings and princes sages and wisemen demons and gods its author vyasa says that one of its aims is elucidating the four goals of life kama pleasure artha wealth dharma duty and moksha liberation the story culminates in moksha believed by many hindus to be the ultimate goal of human beings karma and dharma play an integral role in the mahabharata background and history map of bharatvarsha kingdom of india during the time of mahabharata title is in marathi location names are in sanskrit for more details on the geographical locations of the kingdoms of ancient india see kingdoms of ancient india the epic is composed by vyasa who is one of the major dynastic characters within the epic the first section of the mahabharata states that it was lord ganesh the hindu god bearing the head of an elephant who at the behest of vyasa wrote the epic down on manuscript lord ganesh is said to have agreed but only on condition that vyasa never pause in his recitation vyasa then put a counter condition that ganesh understand whatever he recited before writing it down in this way vyasa could get some respite from continuously speaking by saying a verse which was difficult to understand this situation also serves as a popular variation on the stories of how ganesh s right tusk was broken a traditional part of ganesh imagery this version attributes it to the fact that in the rush of writing the great elephant headed divinity s pen failed and he snapped off his tusk as a replacement in order that the transcription not be interrupted the mahabharata is thought to have been derived from what was originally a much shorter work called jaya sanskrit for victory the dating of the events of this story is unclear some people find the events to be reliably placed in vedic india see kuru scholars have studied the astronomical events described in the mahabharata such as eclipses and have claimed to have dated it to around one four seven eight bce or alternatively three one zero six bce linguistically the language of the mahabharata is classified as epic sanskrit the oldest stratum post dating late vedic sanskrit dating to perhaps the four th century bce other estimates place it between two zero zero bce and two zero zero ce however it is significant to realize that the debate about dating the events of the mahabharata is secondary to the importance of the text in classical sanskrit literature and culture like much of other early indian literature it was often transmitted orally through the generations however unlike european folklore the oral tradition was extremely strict requiring a perfect memorization of every word within the text variations cannot be ascribed to unintentional mistakes but rather to intentional changes and additions however the variation has in most cases been in the new additions and not in the original story the central story shown here is the scene when arjuna stops krishna from attacking bhishma during the kurukshetra war artwork courtesy of the bhaktivedanta book trust the core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of hastinapura the kingdom ruled by the kuru clan the two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the kauravas the elder branch of the family and the pandavas the younger branch the struggle culminates leading to the great battle of kurukshetra and the pandavas are ultimately victorious the mahabharata itself ends with the death of krishna and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the pandava brothers to heaven it also marks the beginning of the hindu age of kali kali yuga the fourth and final age of mankind where the great values and noble ideas have crumbled and man is speedily heading toward the complete dissolution of right action morality and virtue some of the most noble and revered figures in the mahabharat end up fighting on the side of the kauravas due to allegiances formed prior to the conflict the epic employs the tale within tale structure popular in many indian religious and secular works it is recited to the king janamejaya by vaishampayana a disciple of vyasa janamejaya s ancestor shantanu the king of hastinapur has a short lived marriage with the goddess ganga and has a heroic son bhishma many years later when the king goes hunting he spots satyavati the daughter of fisherman and wants to marry her the fisherman says that he will agree only on one condition that her sons should ascend the throne of hastinapur bhishma his son by his first wife steps aside and vows to be a lifelong celibate so that satyavati s son can be the king unfortunately satyavati s sons die young and her grandson pandu ascends the throne as his elder brother dhritarashtra is blind but this king is cursed to be childless and he retires to the forest using a magical spell to summon the gods his elder queen kunti gives birth to three sons yudhishthira arjuna andbhima his younger queen has the twins nakula and sahadeva pandu and his younger wife die in the forest and kunti returns to hastinapura with her sons the rivalry between the pandavas and the kauravas start from childhood itself dhritarashtra s sons the kauravas lead by the eldest duryodhana detest their cousins however they were the favorite of their teacher drona and the pandavas grow up to be exceptional each one of the pandavas is said to have one exceptional strength or virtue yudhishthira is the wisest and most virtuous arjuna the bravest warrior bhima the strongest and the twins nakula and sahadev are endowed with exceptional beauty when the princes come of age a tournament is held as to display the strength and specialities of the princes of hastinapur when arjuna was hailed as a master of archery a young man challenges him for a duel he declares his name is karna and he was the son of the charioteer when asked to prove that his birth is of royal birth which is the criterion for joining the tournament duryodhana spotting a potential ally jumps over to his side and gives his kingdom of angawardana karna is forever grateful for this act because of this he becomes duryodhana s closest friend and plays a crucial role in the upcoming war meanwhile duryodhana plots to get ride of the pandavas and tries to kill the pandavas secretly by burning their palace which is made of lac however the pandavas are warned and escape from the palace they live in hiding for sometime in course of this exile arjuna wins the hand of the panchala princess draupadi when he returns with her kunti not noticing the princess imagines that he is back with some food and asks him to share it with his brothers to ensure that their mother never utters a falsehood even by mistake the brothers take her as a common wife at this juncture they also meet krishna who would become their lifelong ally and guide duryodhana who now has a friend in the peerless warrior karna resigns to the coming back of the pandavas with their new royal ally soon they conquer the whole of india and its adjoining regions and yudhishthira is crowned the emperor this proves too much for duryodhana who feels death would be better than watching one s foes prosper his maternal uncle shakuni convinced that however brave his nephew may be he was no match for his cousins decides to use a ruse to destroy the pandavas he forces dhritarashtra to invite the pandavas for a game of dice in which he wins everything from yudhishthira including himself his brothers and draupadi through the use of a trick the jubilant kauravas insult them in their helpless state and even try to strip draupadi her honour is saved by the grace of krishna when the elders intervene and dhritarashtra has to restore everything to the pandavas shakuni forces another game of dice which he again wins the losers are required to go into exile for one three years when the pandavas after many hardships and exile request for at least a few villages from their vast kingdom duryodhana refuses to give in krishna goes to broker peace but fails war was inevitable the two sides summon vast armies to their help and line up at kurukshetra for a war seeing himself facing grandsire bhishma and his teacher drona on duryodhana s side due to their vow to serve the state of hastinapur arjuna is heartbroken at the idea of killing them krishna who has chosen to drive arjuna s chariot wakes him up to his call of duty in the famous bhagavad gita section of the epic though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare the kauravas soon start descending to butchery and the pandavas to tricks at the end of the one eight days slaughter only the pandavas and krishna survive with a few old warriors from the kaurava side beholding the carnage the noble mother of kauravas gandhari who had lost all her sons curses krishna to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family for though divine and capable of stopping the war he had not done so krishna who had incarnated precisely to destroy the wicked kings accepts the curse and three six years later sees it fructify he then departs from the world and the pandavas who had ruled righteously all along now tired decide to renounce everything clad in skins and rags they retire to the himalayas and ascend the peaks one by one they get exhausted die and ascend to heaven only the virtuous yudhisthira who had tried everything to prevent the carnage and never very happy with his kingship afterwards ascends to the heaven in his physical body arjuna s grandson parikishit rules after them and dies bitten by a snake his furious son janamejaya decides to perform a sacrifice in which to kill all the snakes it is at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him incidentally the sacrifice has to be stopped after sometime and the snakes are not annihilated the books the mahabharata is written in eighteen parvas chapters or books which are adi parva introduction birth and upbringing of the princes adi first sabha parva life at the court the game of dice and the exile of the pandavas maya danava erects the palace and court sabha at indraprastha aranyaka parva also vanaparva aranyaparva the twelve years in exile in the forest aranya virata parva the year in exile spent at the court of virata udyoga parva preparations for war bhishma parva the first part of the great battle with bhishma as commander for the kauravas drona parva the battle continues with drona as commander karna parva the battle again with karna as commander shalya parva the last part of the battle with shalya as commander sauptika parva how ashvattama and the remaining kauravas killed the pandava army in their sleep sauptika stri parva gandhari and the other women lament the dead stri woman shanti parva the crowning of yudhisthira and his instructions from bhishma shanti peace anushasana parva the final instructions of bhishma anushasana instruction ashvamedhika parva the royal ceremony or ashvamedha conducted by yudhisthira ashramavasika parva dhritarashtra gandhari and kunti leave for an ashram and eventual death in the forest mausala parva the infighting between the yadavas with maces mausala mahaprasthanika parva the first part of the path to death of yudhisthira and his brothers mahaprasthana the great journey death svargarohana parva the pandavas return to the spiritual world svarga heaven there also exists an appendix of one six three seven five verses the harivamsaparva which focuses specifically on the life of lord krishna it also includes large amounts of hindu mythology cosmological stories of the gods and goddesses and philosophical parables aimed at students of hindu philosophy among the principal works and stories that are a part of the mahabharata are the following they are often isolated and presented as works complete in and of themselves bhagavad gita krishna instructs and teaches arjuna bhishmaparva damayanti or nala and damayanti a love story aranyakaparva krishnavatara the story of krishna the krishna leela which is woven through many chapters of the story rama an abbreviated version of the ramayana aranyakaparva rishyasringa also written as rshyashrnga the horned boy and rishi aranyakaparva vishnu sahasranama the most famous hymn to vishnu which describes his one zero zero zero names anushasanaparva jaimini s version there exists another narration of the epic tale in sanskrit called jaimini bharata this consists of only the one four th book ashvamedhika parva and hence also called jaiminiya ashwamedha instead of vaishamapayana this is narrated by jaimini another disciple of vyasa to janamejaya it is not known what happened to the other books and most historians consider this a later work that attained its present form by one two th century ce as it has far more devotional material related to krishna than the standard epic it has some regional versions the most popular being the kannada one by devapurada annama lakshmisha one six th century ce in modern times between one nine one nine and one nine six six the scholars at the bhandarkar oriental research institute pune compared the various manuscripts of the epic from india and abroad and produced a critical edition of the mahabharata this is the text that is usually used in current mahabharata studies for reference in the late one nine eight zero s the mahabharata imdb entry was televised and shown on india s national tv doordarshan directed by b r chopra it was immensely popular so much so that streets were deserted when it was telecast and even cabinet meetings were re scheduled so that ministers could watch it the mahabharata is arguably familiar to the vast majority of hindus living in the indian subcontinent if not abroad the most acclaimed and well known presentation of the epic to western audiences is peter brook s nine hour play premiered in avignon in one nine eight five and its five hour movie version one nine eight nine which was shown on other tv networks including pbs through the great performances show and danmarks radio credited in the movie s credits however there have been film versions of the mahabharata long before these two film versions the earliest film version was shown in one nine two zero and there will be a film version released in two zero zero seven see also ramayana kurukshetra war kakawin bh ratayuddha kingdoms of ancient india great book pls read external links full etext in devan gar and in transliterated sanskrit http www hindunet org mahabharata warning this site has malicious popups http bombay oriental cam ac uk john mahabharata statement html requires free registration and license agreement full text of the kisari mohan ganguly translation of the mahabharata at sacred texts com the most complete english translation in the public domain an english synopsis by c rajgopalachari mahabharat na moti mahabharat in gujarati along with reference of characters mahabharata and sindhu sarasvathi tradition a paper by subhash kak pdf excellent introduction more information on shahrukh khan s new movie brief summary of the mahabharata in english the date of the mahabharata war vivekananda on the mahabharata aurobindo on the mahabharata imdb entry of one nine eight nine the mahabharata movie directed by peter brook clay sanskrit library publishes classical indian literature including the mahabharata and ramayana with facing page text and translation also offers searchable corpus and downloadable materials epics hindu texts mahabharata epic sanskrit texts cover of mein kampf mein kampf german for my struggle or my fight is a book written by adolf hitler combining elements of autobiography with an exposition of hitler s political ideology of nazism the writing of mein kampf the first volume titled eine abrechnung a reckoning was published on july one eight one nine two five the second volume die nationalsozialistische bewegung the national socialistic movement was published in one nine two six the original title hitler chose was viereinhalb jahre des kampfes gegen l ge dummheit und feigheit four and a half years of struggle against lies stupidity and cowardice his nazi publisher max amann decided this title was too complicated and had it shortened to mein kampf simply my struggle it is important to note that the connotive and contextual flexibility of the german word kampf brings the possibility of multiple translations to the title similarly to the influence of its different connotations in the translation of jihad kampf is frequently translated into its ambiguously denotive meaning of struggle the contemporary connotations of kampf at the time of the text s writing are equally ambigious when translated as fight combat or even war as evidenced by examples such as the german names for a number of tanks panzer kampf wagen armored war vehicle and dive bombers sturz kampf flugzeug falling war airplane my fight might be considered a more accurate but still conservative translation my war may be closer many still feel my struggle is the truest interpretation however as throughout the text hitler describes the various trials and tribulations he and his movement experienced during their early years precedence for this translation can be found in the titles of other contemporary literary works such as rudolf von jhering s der kampf ums recht the struggle for justice hitler began dictating the book to emil maurice while imprisoned in landsberg then after july one nine two four to rudolf he who later along with several others edited it the book has been said to be convoluted repetitive and hard to read and partly as a result it was edited and re edited over the next twenty years in a range of editions it has been dedicated to dietrich eckart member of the thule society contents the book outlines major ideas that would later culminate in world war ii particularly prominent is the violent anti semitism of hitler and his associates drawing among other things on the protocols of the elders of zion for example hitler claimed that the international language esperanto was part of a jewish plot and makes arguments toward the old german nationalist idea of drang nach osten the necessity to gain lebensraum living space eastwards especially in russia much of the material was distorted or fabricated by the author hitler used the main thesis of the jewish peril which speaks of an alleged jewish conspiracy to gain world leadership overall however it does explain many details of hitler s childhood and the process by which he became increasingly anti semitic and militaristic especially during his years in vienna austria in one early chapter he wrote about how for the first time in the city streets he noticed distinctively dressed jews unlike those he already knew and then asked himself was that a german rather than was that a jew there are two particularly uncanny passages in mein kampf which mention the use of poison gas if at the beginning of the first world war and during the war twelve or fifteen thousand of these hebrew corrupters of the people had been held under poison gas as happened to hundreds of thousands of our very best german workers in the field the sacrifice of millions at the front would not have been in vain mein kampf vol two chap one five the right of emergency defence underline added these tactics are based on an accurate estimation of human weakness and must lead to success with almost mathematical certainty unless the other side also learns how to fight poison gas with poison gas the weaker natures must be told that here it is a case of to be or not to be mein kampf vol one chap two years of study and suffering in vienna underline added in terms of political theories hitler announced his hatred in mein kampf toward what he believed to be the twin evils of the world communism and judaism and he stated that his aim was to eradicate both from the face of the earth the new territory that germany needed to obtain would properly nurture the historic destiny of the german people this goal explains why hitler invaded europe both east and west before he launched his attack against russia since hitler blamed the parliamentary government then ruling germany for much of the ills against which he raged he announced that he wanted to completely destroy that type of government in regard to foreign policy hitler states that a national socialist foreign policy would go through several stages in the first stage germany would through a massive program of re armament overthrow the shackles of the treaty of versailles and form alliances with the british empire and fascist italy the second stage would feature wars against france and her allies in eastern europe by the combined forces of germany britain and italy the third and final stage would be a war to destroy what hitler saw as the judeo bolshevik regime in the soviet union that would give germany the necessary lebensraum the german historian andreas hillgruber labelled the plans contained in mein kampf as hitler s stufenplan stage by stage plan the term stufenplan has been widely used by historians though it must be noted that the term was hillgruber s not hitler s a page in mein kampf where hitler discusses the jewish religious community hitler presented himself as the bermensch frequently rendered as the somewhat ambiguous superman super human would be a more correct translation but superman has certain cultural associations in english that the basically apolitical friedrich nietzsche had referred to especially in his book thus spoke zarathustra hitler s self identification as such may have stemmed from his association with nietzsche s sister who was an early member of the nazi party and a committed anti semite while she became the owner and editor of his works after he went insane nietzsche had often during his sane years criticized her for having no understanding of his work mein kampf makes clear hitler s racist worldview dividing up humans based on ancestry hitler stated that german aryans were at the top of the hierarchy and assigned the bottom of the order to jews and gypsies hitler went on to say that dominated peoples benefit by learning from the superior aryans hitler further claimed that the jews were conspiring to keep this master race from rightfully ruling the world by diluting its racial and cultural purity and by convincing the aryans to believe in equality rather than superiority and inferiority he described the struggle for world domination as an ongoing racial cultural and political battle between aryans and jews in one nine two eight hitler went on to write a second book in which he expanded upon these ideas and suggested that around one nine eight zero a final struggle would take place for world domination between the united states and the combined forces of greater germany and the british empire read more about this sequel below popularity before world war ii before hitler became chancellor of germany in one nine three three mein kampf sold very slowly but in one nine three three alone it sold one five million copies although the nsdap the national socialist german workers party claimed that it was already a huge seller documents revealed after the end of world war ii showed this to be false opening of a popular one nine three three edition of mein kampf after hitler s rise to power the book gained enormous popularity and virtually became the bible of every nazi every couple intending to get married was required to own a copy sales of mein kampf earned hitler millions however many of those who purchased it barely read it and many bought it simply to show their allegiance to hitler gain position in the nsdap or avoid the attentions of the gestapo by the end of the war about one zero million copies of the book had been distributed in germany some historians have speculated that a wider reading prior to hitler s rise to power or at least prior to the outbreak of world war ii might have alerted the world to the dangers hitler would pose to peace in europe and to the holocaust that he would pursue an abridged english translation was produced before world war ii however the publisher removed some of the more anti semitic and militaristic statements the publication of this version caused alan cranston who was an american reporter for upi in germany and later senator from california to publish his own abridged and annotated translation which he believed to more accurately reflect the contents of the book in one nine three nine cranston was sued by hitler s publisher for copyright infringement and a connecticut judge ruled in hitler s favor the publication of cranston s version had to be stopped after about five zero zero zero zero zero copies had been sold current availability today the copyright of all editions of mein kampf except the english and the dutch dutch government seized copyright in the same way as bavaria is owned by the state of bavaria the copyright will end on december three one two zero one five historian werner maser in an interview with bild am sonntag has stated that peter raubal son of hitler s nephew leo raubal would have a strong legal case for winning the copyright from bavaria if he pursued it raubal an austrian engineer has stated he wants no part of the rights to the book which could be worth millions of euros the government of bavaria in agreement with the federal government of germany does not allow any copying or printing of the book in germany and opposes it also in other countries but with less success owning and buying the book is legal trading in old copies is legal as well unless it is done in such a fashion as to promote hatred or war which is generally illegal most german libraries carry heavily commented and excerpted versions of mein kampf when mein kampf was republished in sweden in one nine nine two the government of bavaria tried to put a ban on the book the case went all the way to the swedish supreme court where the case ended in one nine nine eight the court ruled that since bavaria of today technically has nothing to do with the old state of bavaria all old kingdoms of the reich were terminated after wwii but the name the copyright could not be owned by the modern state of bavaria since the publishing house that published mein kampf in the thirties had long gone out of business mein kampf should be considered as being in a state of limbo or even in the public domain the case was won by the modern publisher an outspoken anti nazi in the netherlands selling the book even in the case of an old copy is illegal as promoting hatred but possession and lending is not in one nine nine seven the government explained to the parliament that selling a scientifically annotated version might escape prosecution in one nine nine nine the simon wiesenthal center documented that major internet booksellers like amazon com and barnesandnoble com sell mein kampf to germany after a public outcry both companies agreed to stop those sales the book is currently available through both companies an arabic edition of mein kampf has been published by bisan publishers in lebanon a new turkish edition was reported to be a bestseller in turkey in two zero zero five public domain copies of mein kampf are available at various internet sites with links to banned books also several web sites provide copies of the book in the united states the united kingdom and russia the book is freely available the sequel after the party s poor showing in the one nine two eight elections hitler believed the reason for loss was that the public did not fully understand his ideas he retired to munich to dictate a sequel to mein kampf which focused on foreign policy expanding on the ideas of mein kampf and suggested that around one nine eight zero a final struggle would take place for world domination between the united states and the combined forces of greater germany and the british empire only two copies of the two zero zero page manuscript were originally made and only one of these has ever been made public kept strictly secret under hitler s orders the document was placed in a safe in an air raid shelter in one nine three five where it remained until its discovery by an american officer in one nine four five the authenticity of the book has been verified by josef berg former employee of the nazi publishing house eher verlag and telford taylor former brigadier general u s a r and chief counsel at the nuremberg war crimes trials the book was never edited nor published during the nazi germany era and remains known as zweites buch second book the zweites buch was first discovered in the nazi archives being held in the united states by the german born american historian gerhard weinberg in one nine five eight unable to find an american publisher weinberg turned to his mentor hans rothfels and his associate martin broszat at the institute of contemporary history in munich who published zweites buch in one nine six one a pirated edition was published in english in new york one nine six two the first authoritative english edition was not published until two zero zero three hitler s second book the unpublished sequel to mein kampf isbn one nine two nine six three one one six two historical debates there are a number of historical debates concerning the material in mein kampf globalists vs continentists one of the more important debates concerns the battle between the continentists such as hugh trevor roper and eberhard j ckel who argue hitler wished only to conquer europe and the globalists such as gerhard weinberg and andreas hillgruber who argue hitler wanted to conquer the entire world the chief source of contention between the continentists and globalists is the zweites buch the globalists argue that because hitler states that after germany defeated the united states then germany would rule the entire world that clearly proves his intentions were global in reach the continentists argue that because hitler predicts the war between the united states and germany as beginning sometime ca one nine eight zero and that because hitler was born in one eight eight nine that the task of winning this war in one nine eight zero s would presumably fall to one of hitler s successors the continentists believe that hitler for his own life time would be content with merely ruling europe intentionalists vs functionalists mein kampf has assumed a key place in the functionalism versus intentionalism debate intentionalists insist that the passage stating that if only one zero zero zero zero one five zero zero zero jews were gassed then germany would have won world war one proves quite clearly that hitler had a master plan for the genocide of the jewish people going all the way back to at least one nine two four functionalists deny this assertion noting that the passage does not call for the destruction of the entire jewish people and note that although mein kampf is suffused with an extreme anti semitism it is the only time in the entire book that hitler ever explicitly refers to the murder of jews given that mein kampf is six nine four pages long functionalist historians have accused the intentionalists of making too much out of one sentence functionalist historians have argued that the memorandum written by heinrich himmler to hitler on may two five one nine four zero regarding the final solution to the jewish question whose proposals hitler accepted proves that there was no master plan for genocide going all the back to one nine two four in the memorandum himmler rejected genocide under the grounds that one must reject the bolshevik method of physical extermination of a people out of inner conviction as un german and impossible and went on to argue that something similar to the madagascar plan be the preferred territorial solution to the jewish question in addition functionalist historians have noted that in mein kampf hitler states the only anti semitic policies he will carry out are the two five point platform of the nazi party adopted in february one nine two zero which demands that only aryan germans be allowed to publish newspapers and own department stores the banning of jewish immigration the expulsion of all ostjuden eastern jews i e jews from eastern europe who had arrived in germany since one nine one four and stripping all german jews of their german citizenship though these demands do reflect a hateful anti semitism in the view of the functionalists they do not amount to a program for genocide beyond that some historians have claimed though hitler was clearly obsessed with anti semitism his degree of anti semitic hatred contained in mein kampf is no better or worse than that contained in the writings and speeches of earlier volkisch leaders such as wilhelm marr georg ritter von sch nerer houston stewart chamberlain and karl lueger all of whom routinely called jews a disease and vermin and all of whom hitler cites as an inspiration in mein kampf functionalist historians have pointed out that there is no evidence linking hitler to the decision to use poison gas to commit mass murder the use of poison gas for mass murder began in one nine three nine for the t four euthanasia program when the program s directors were looking for a more efficient way of killing large numbers of people rather than merely injecting each victim with a needle though documentation proves that hitler ordered the t four euthanasia program in january one nine three nine there is no evidence that hitler gave any orders for the use of poison gas the mass murder of jews began in the summer of one nine four one with massacres committed by the einsatzgruppen in the occupied parts of the soviet union until december one nine four one the einsatzgruppen always shot their victims ultimately heinrich himmler decided in august one nine four one that mass shooting was too inefficient and so imported the experts from the t four euthanasia program to devise methods of gassing jews first with gas trucks and later with gas chambers there is no evidence that hitler gave any orders for the ss to switch from mass shooting to mass gassing furthermore all of the perpetrators who were brought to trial after the war such as rudolf hoess and adolf eichmann always stated the decision to use poison gas was something that the ss decided upon themselves as they felt it was more efficient than mass shooting in view of these facts functionalist historians argue there is no connection between what hitler wrote in mein kampf and the decision to use poison gas for mass murder starting in december one nine four one with the gas trucks at the che mno death camp in regard to the che mno death camp the british historian sir ian kershaw in his article improvised genocide the emergence of the final solution in the warthegau published in the transactions of the royal historical society in one nine nine two has noted that the decision to use gas trucks was done in a highly ad hoc and makeshift manner which does not support the intentionalist view that the use of the poison gas was a part of a master plan going all the way to one nine two four intentionalist historians reject these arguments and believe that hitler did indeed order mass gassings but that the order has been lost but the passage in mein kampf proves that there must have been one functionalists view this as convoluted argument without proof the debate continues though the majority of historians are inclined towards the functionalist position in this matter references hitler adolf mein kampf hitler adolf hitler s second book the unpublished sequel to mein kampf edited by gerhard l weinberg enigma books two zero zero three isbn one nine two nine six three one one six two hillgruber andreas germany and the two world wars translated by william c kirby cambridge mass harvard university press one nine eight one isbn zero six seven four three five three two one eight j ckel eberhard hitler s weltanschauung a blueprint for power translated from the german by herbert arnold middletown conn wesleyan university press one nine seven two isbn zero eight one nine five four zero four two zero rich norman hitler s war aims new york norton one nine seven three isbn zero three nine three zero five four five four three see also adolf hitler generalplan ost list of adolf hitler books nazism nazi germany world war ii zweites buch external links english online version german online version extensive site article about publication history mein kampf in east jerusalem and pa territories one nine two five books adolf hitler anti semitism fascist books nazism works by heads of state or government morpheus may mean morpheus mythology the principal god of dreams in the greek mythology morpheus the matrix a fictional character from the film the matrix morpheus computer program file sharing client server software operated by the company streamcast morpheus album a music album by canadian group delerium morpheus a moniker for dream a fictional character in the comic book the sandman morpheus artificial intelligence in the game deus ex morpheus gene family a family of protein coding genes morpheusvpc virtual personal computing a software ad revenue company located in toronto ontario canada morpheus newspaper comics fictional king of slumberland in the comic little nemo circa one nine zero five one nine two seven by winsor mccay may two six is the one four six th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one four seven th in leap years there are two one nine days remaining events one three two eight william of ockham franciscan minister general michael of cesena and two other franciscan leaders secretly leave avignon fearing a sentence of death from pope john xxii one five three eight geneva expels john calvin and his followers from the city calvin lives in exile in strasbourg for the next three years one six three seven pequot war a combined puritan and mohegan force under english captain john mason attacks a pequot village in connecticut massacring approximately five zero zero native americans one six seven zero in dover king charles ii of england and king louis xiv of france sign the secret treaty of dover one seven three six battle of ackia british and chickasaw soldiers repel a french and choctaw attack on the chickasaw village of ackia near present day tupelo mississippi the french under louisiana governor jean baptiste le moyne sieur de bienville had sought to link louisiana with acadia and the other northern colonies of new france one eight zero five napol on bonaparte napoleon i assumes the title of king of italy and is crowned with the iron crown of lombardy in the duomo di milano gothic cathedral in milan one eight two eight mysterious feral child kaspar hauser is discovered wandering the streets of nuremberg one eight three zero the indian removal act is passed by the u s congress it is signed into law by president andrew jackson two days later one eight six four montana is organized as a united states territory one eight six five american civil war confederate general edmund kirby smith commander of the confederate trans mississippi division is the last general of the confederate army to surrender at galveston texas one eight six eight the impeachment trial of president andrew johnson ends with johnson being found not guilty by one vote one eight seven nine russia and the united kingdom sign the treaty of gandamak establishing an afghan state one eight eight nine opening of the first eiffel tower elevator to the public one eight nine six nicholas ii becomes tsar of russia one eight nine six charles dow publishes the first edition of the dow jones industrial average one eight nine six james dunham murders six people in campbell california one eight nine seven bram stoker s novel dracula goes on sale in london one nine zero six vauxhall bridge is opened in london one nine zero eight at masjid al salaman in southwest persia the first major commercial oil strike in the middle east is made the rights to the resource are quickly acquired by the united kingdom one nine one seven a powerful f four tornado rips mattoon illinois apart killing one zero one persons and injuring six eight nine it was the world s longest lasting tornado lasting for over seven hours and traveling two nine three miles spreading death and destruction along its path one nine one eight the democratic republic of georgia is established one nine three six in the house of commons of northern ireland tommy henderson begins speaking on the appropriation bill by the time he sat down in the early hours of the following morning he had spoken for one zero hours one nine three eight the house un american activities committee begins its first session one nine four zero world war ii battle of dunkirk in france allied forces begin a massive evacuation from dunkirk one nine four eight the u s congress passes public law five five seven which permanently establishes the civil air patrol as an auxiliary of the united states air force one nine six three the organisation of african unity is formed one nine six six british guiana gains independence becoming guyana one nine six nine apollo program apollo one zero returns to earth after a successful eight day test of all the components needed for the forthcoming first manned moon landing one nine six nine john lennon and yoko ono begin their second bed in for peace at the queen elizabeth hotel in montreal one nine seven zero the soviet tupolev tu one four four becomes the first commercial transport to exceed mach two one nine seven two willandra national park is established in australia one nine seven two the united states and the soviet union sign the anti ballistic missile treaty one nine seven seven george willig climbs the south tower of new york city s world trade center one nine seven eight in atlantic city new jersey resorts international the first legal casino in the eastern united states opens one nine eight two aston villa football club win the european cup beating bayern munich one zero in rotterdam one nine eight three strong seven seven magnitude earthquake strikes japan triggers a tsunami that kills at least one zero four people injures thousands many missing people and thousands of buildings destroyed one nine eight six the european community adopts the european flag one nine nine one zviad gamsakhurdia becomes the first democratically elected president of the republic of georgia in the post soviet era one nine nine one lauda air flight zero zero four explodes over rural thailand killing two two three one nine nine five teresa heinz marries u s senator john kerry on nantucket massachusetts one nine nine nine manchester united win the uefa champions league and complete a historic and unprecedented treble two zero zero two the mars odyssey to mars was cancelled finds signs of huge water ice deposits on the planet mars two zero zero two lvaro uribe becomes president of colombia two zero zero three only three days after a previous record sherpa lakpa gelu climbs mount everest in one zero hours five six minutes the tourism ministry of nepal confirms this record in july that year two zero zero four the new york times publishes an admission of journalistic failings claiming that its flawed reporting and lack of skeptism towards sources during the buildup to the two zero zero three war in iraq helped promote the belief that iraq possessed large stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction births one two six four prince koreyasu japanese shogun d one three two six one four seven eight pope clement vii d one five three four one five six six mehmed iii ottoman emperor d one six zero three one six zero two philippe de champaigne french painter d one six seven four one six five zero john churchill one st duke of marlborough british general d one seven two two one six six seven abraham de moivre french mathematician d one seven five four one six six nine s bastien vaillant french botanist d one seven two two one six eight nine lady mary wortley montagu english writer d one seven six two one seven zero zero nicolaus ludwig zinzendorf german religious and social reformer d one seven six zero one seven six four edward livingston american jurist and statesman d one eight three six one seven nine nine aleksandr pushkin russian author d one eight three seven one eight two two edmond de goncourt french writer d one eight nine six one eight six five robert w chambers american artist d one nine three three one eight six seven mary of teck wife of george v of the united kingdom d one nine five three one eight seven three olaf gulbransson norwegian artist one eight seven eight isadora duncan american dancer d one nine two seven one eight eight six al jolson american singer d one nine five zero one eight eight seven paul lukas hungarian actor d one nine seven one one eight nine three norma talmadge american actress d one nine five seven one eight nine five dorothea lange american photographer d one nine six five one nine zero seven rachel carson american environmental writer d one nine six four one nine zero seven john wayne american actor d one nine seven nine one nine zero seven jean bernard french physician one nine zero eight robert morley english actor d one nine nine two one nine zero nine sir matt busby scottish footballer and manager d one nine nine four one nine one one ben alexander american actor d one nine six nine one nine one two jay silverheels american actor d one nine eight zero one nine one four frankie manning american lindy hop dancer one nine one three peter cushing english actor d one nine nine four one nine one five sam edwards american actor d two zero zero four one nine one five antonia forest british children s author d two zero zero three one nine one six henriette roosenburg dutch journalist d one nine seven two one nine two zero peggy lee american singer d two zero zero two one nine two three james arness american actor one nine two three roy dotrice british actor one nine two six miles davis american jazz trumpeter and composer d one nine nine one one nine two eight jack kevorkian american physician one nine three eight william bolcom american composer one nine three eight teresa stratas canadian soprano one nine three nine merab kostava one of the leaders of georgian anti soviet movement national hero of georgia one nine three nine brent musburger american sports broadcaster one nine four one cliff drysdale south african born tennis player one nine four two levon helm american musician the band one nine four three erica terpstra dutch swimmer politician and president of the dutch olympic committee one nine four six mick ronson english guitarist d one nine nine three one nine four eight stevie nicks american songwriter and actress one nine four nine ward cunningham american inventor one nine four nine philip michael thomas american actor one nine four nine hank williams jr american singer one nine five one sally ride astronaut one nine five three michael portillo british politician one nine five four alan hollinghurst british novelist one nine five five masaharu morimoto japanese chef one nine five seven margaret colin american actress one nine five seven kristina olsen american musician one nine six two bobcat goldthwait american actor and comedian one nine six two genie francis american actress one nine six four lenny kravitz american guitarist and singer one nine six five hazel irvine british television presenter one nine six six helena bonham carter english actress one nine six eight crown prince frederik of denmark one nine seven zero nobuhiro watsuki japanese cartoonist one nine seven one matt stone american television producer one nine seven four lars fr lander swedish swimmer one nine seven seven misaki ito japanese actress one nine seven seven luca toni italian soccer player one nine seven nine ashley massaro wwe diva one nine eight two yoko matsugane japanese model deaths six zero four augustine of canterbury archbishop of canterbury eight one eight ali ar rida shia imam b seven six six nine four six king edmund i of england b nine two one one zero five five margrave adalbert of austria one four two one mehmed i ottoman sultan b one three eight nine one five one two bayezid ii ottoman sultan one five three six francesco berni italian poet one five nine five philip neri italian churchman b one five one five one six four eight vincent voiture french poet b one five nine seven one six five three robert filmer english writer b one five eight eight one six seven nine ferdinand maria elector of bavaria b one six three six one six eight five karl ii elector palatine b one six five one one seven zero three samuel pepys english civil servant and diarist b one six three three one seven six two alexander gottlieb baumgarten german philosopher b one seven one four one seven nine nine james burnett lord monboddo scottish judge b one seven one four one eight two four capel lofft english writer b one seven five one one eight four zero sidney smith british admiral b one seven six four one eight eight one jakob bernays german philologist b one eight two four one eight eight three edward sabine irish astronomer b one seven eight eight one nine zero two almon strowger american inventor b one eight three nine one nine zero seven ida mckinley first lady of the united states b one eight four seven one nine zero eight mirza ghulam ahmad punjabi founder of the ahmadi sect b one eight three nine one nine two four victor herbert irish composer b one eight five nine one nine two six simon petlyura ukrainian independence fighter b one eight seven nine one nine three three horatio bottomley british financier and politician b one eight six zero one nine three three jimmie rodgers american singer b one eight nine seven one nine four three edsel ford american automobile executive b one eight nine three one nine five one lincoln ellsworth american scientist and polar explorer b one eight eight zero one nine five five alberto ascari italian race car driver b one nine one eight one nine seven six martin heidegger german philosopher b one eight eight nine one nine nine five friz freleng american animator b one nine zero five one nine nine nine paul sacher swiss conductor b one nine zero six one nine nine nine waldo semon american inventor b one eight nine eight two zero zero two mamo wolde ethiopian runner b one nine three two two zero zero three kathleen winsor american writer b one nine one nine two zero zero four nikolai stepanovich chernykh russian astronomer b one nine three one two zero zero four dullah omar south african lawyer and politician b one nine three four two zero zero five eddie albert american actor b one nine zero six two zero zero five chico carrasquel venezuelan major league baseball player b one nine two eight holidays and observances australia national sorry day poland mother s day georgia national day external links bbc on this day may two five may two seven april two six june two six listing of all days mvs m ultiple v irtual s torage was the most commonly used operating system on the system three seven zero and system three nine zero ibm mainframe computers it is unrelated to ibm s other mainframe operating system called vm cms first released in one nine seven four mvs was later renamed by ibm first to mvs xa extended architecture next to mvs esa enterprise systems architecture then to os three nine zero when unix system services uss were added and finally to z os when six four bit support was added on the zseries models its core remains fundamentally the same operating system by design programs written for mvs can still run on z os without modification mvs descends from svs single virtual storage which in turn descends from mvt one of the original variants of os three six zero the first variant of os three six zero pcp primary control program did not support multitasking mvt multitasking with a variable number of tasks was an enhancement that provided that functionality svs added virtual storage more commonly known outside ibm as virtual memory with the same address space being shared by all tasks finally mvs allowed different tasks to have different address spaces mvs originally supported two four bit addressing as the underlying hardware progressed it supported three one bit xa and esa and now as z os six four bit addressing the main interfaces to mvs are jcl job control language the batch processing interface and tso time sharing option the interactive time sharing interface which originally was optional but is now a standard component ispf is an interface which allows the user to accomplish the same tasks as tso but in a menu and form oriented manner the system is typically used in business and banking and applications are often written in cobol cobol programs were traditionally used with transaction processing systems like ims and cics for a program running in cics special exec cics statements are inserted in the cobol source code a preprocessor translator replaces those exec cics statements with the appropriate cobol code to call cics before the program is compiled not altogether unlike sql used to call db two applications can also be written in other languages such as c c java assembler fortran basic rpg and rexx language support is packaged as a common component called language environment or le to allow uniform debugging tracing profiling and other language independent functions mvs systems are traditionally accessed by three two seven zero terminals or by pcs running three two seven zero emulators however many mainframe applications these days have custom web or gui interfaces the z os operating system has built in support for tcp ip system management done in the past with a three two seven zero terminal is now done through the hardware management console hmc and increasingly web interfaces operator consoles are provided through two zero seven four emulators so you are unlikely to see any s three nine zero or zseries processor with a real three two seven zero connected to it the z os operating system also has native support to execute posix applications files are called data sets in mvs these files are organized in catalogs the native encoding scheme of mvs is big endian ebcdic but mvs provides hardware accelerated services to perform translation and support of ascii little endian and unicode one instance of mvs can occupy an entire physical system a logical partition or lpar or a virtual machine under z vm multiple mvs instances can be organized and collectively administered in a structure called a systems complex or sysplex introduced in september one nine nine zero lpars interoperate through a software component called a cross system coupling facility or xcf and a hardware component called a hardware coupling facility or cf or icf if co located on the same mainframe hardware multiple sysplexes can be joined via standard network protocols such as tcp ip or ibm s proprietary systems network architecture sna lpars can also run other operating systems such as linux on zseries z vse z tpf or z vm mvs filesystem mvs s classic filesystem is a record oriented filesystem filenames are organized in a hierarchy separated with dots each level in the hierarchy can be up to eight characters long the total filename length is a maximum of four four characters generally the components separated by the dots are used to organize files similarly to directories in other operating systems for example the higher level components generally represent project and user names however unlike other systems these are not actual directories just a naming convention tso supports a default prefix for files similar to a current directory concept and racf supports setting up access controls based on filename patterns analogous to access controls on directories on other platforms partitioned datasets are in some ways similar to single level directories mvs supports a wide array of file access methods mainly due to legacy needs these include vsam bsam qsam and others the mvs filesystem is based on the vtoc disk structure that ibm has used for many years modern versions of mvs i e z os also support posix compatible slash filesystems along with facilities for integrating the two filesystems that is the os can make an mvs dataset appear as a file to a posix program and an mvs dataset can be made to appear as a file to the posix subsystem these newer filesystems include hierarchical file system hfs and zfs not to be confused with sun s zfs history and modernity mvs is no longer supported by ibm in fact ibm is phasing out support for the three one bit compatible versions of z os by two zero zero seven so only the six four bit z os versions will enjoy support after that date z os continues to receive cutting edge improvements to extend its leadership as the flagship enterprise operating system in addition to those enhancements mentioned above others include xml xerces based toolkits for c c and java network file systems nfs version four cifs smb tls ssl support throughout including the tcp ip stack level removal of previous architectural limits such as the number of i o channels encrypting file systems workload manager wlm special java acceleration zaap support hipersockets while z os continues to run older two four bit mvs applications it does so alongside just written six four bit hardware accelerated java running with state of the art security and unicode xml data formats on protected filesystems with flexible mounting and long filenames communicating across ipv six hipersocket virtual networks and or high speed cfs to six four bit geographically clustered relational databases that use the latest performance enhancing sql features including materialized query tables and cube views for example see also hercules a s three seven zero s three nine zero and zseries emulator capable of running mvs references bob ducharme the operating systems handbook part zero six mvs available online here external links mvs the operating system that keeps the world going mvs a long history ibm software mainframe computers operating systems image mpaa logo pngthe motion picture association of america mpaa originally called the motion pictures producers and distributors association is a non profit trade association based in the united states which was formed to advance the interests of movie studios its members consist of eight major studios the walt disney company sony pictures metro goldwyn mayer paramount pictures twentieth century fox universal studios new line cinema and warner bros the organization produces the well known voluntary film rating system purpose the mpaa has sought to protect its members interests by political lobbying for changes in copyright and criminal law it seeks to promote digital rights management technologies which are seen by some as infringing users rights and by others as striking the proper balance between consumer wants and artists rights the motion picture equivalent of the riaa the mpaa has taken strong steps to try and reduce the number of file sharing sites online where copyrighted films are made available in april and may of two zero zero five signs appeared on the homepages of lokitorrent and elitetorrents two large bittorrent trackers stating that each had been taken down due to their encouraging the illegal distribution of copyrighted media leadership in one nine two two the movie studio bosses hired will h hays to be the first president of the motion picture producers and distributors of america a former u s postmaster general and election campaign manager for u s president warren g harding hays was responsible for the creation of the production code in one nine three zero he served until retiring in one nine four five when eric johnston took over and the name was changed to the motion picture association of america johnston presided over the difficult hollywood blacklist period and remained in office until his death in one nine six three ralph hetzel acted as interim head until one nine six six from one nine six six to two zero zero four jack valenti served as the president of the group becoming nearly synonymous with the organization thanks to his long service and high profile on september one two zero zero four he retired at the age of eight two he was replaced with dan glickman a former agriculture secretary during the clinton administration criticisms some of the mpaa s actions have been controversial one example is the film rating system many believe that the intent of the various ratings has been subverted for example there is widespread access to r rated movies even for those under one seven and that the nc one seven rating spells commercial death for a film undermining its purpose film critic roger ebert has called for an entirely new system of ratings designed to address these issues some people criticize film makers for editing their works to conform to the various ratings for example they might excise some extreme violence or sex to avoid an nc one seven or even spice up a children s movie so as to move from g to pg and appeal to older children the ratings system itself is attacked as de facto censorship by free speech activists and conversely as too lenient in its content standards by some social scientists and conservative critics other critics attack the mpaa for its action on copyright issues they claim that it inhibits legitimate uses of its products through laws such as the digital millennium copyright act and that it is too draconian in pursuing copyright infringers the mpaa replies that it is only attempting to limit losses from file sharing and other technology although many valid arguments exist to make its moves highly controversial in two zero zero six the mpaa s moral authority on this subject was questioned when it was alleged that the organization had made unauthorized copies of filmmaker kirby dick s documentary this film is not yet rated itself an attack on the ratings system when the film was submitted for rating consideration since the mpaa contains many large corporations that dominate the industry allegations of monopoly are often brought up by critics see also copyright social conflict decss hollywood blacklist mpaa film rating system national association of theatre owners recording industry association of america external links www mpaa org mpaa website www boycott mpaa com boycott mpaa website mpaa information about its rating system reasons for movie ratings valenti testimony slyck interviews the mpaa an interview with dean garfield the vp of mpaa about p two p and the future of the industry recent controversy with kirby dick motion picture association of america industry trade groups cinema of the united states in abstract algebra a branch of mathematics a monoid is an algebraic structure with a single associative binary operation and an identity element in other words it is a unital semigroup definition a monoid is a magma m i e a set m with binary operation m m m obeying the following axioms associativity for all a b c in m a b c a b c identity element there exists an element e in m such that for all a in m a e e a a one often sees the additional axiom closure for all a b in m a b is in m though strictly speaking this isn t necessary as it is implied by the notion of a binary operation alternatively a monoid is a semigroup with an identity element a monoid satisfies all the axioms of a group with the exception of having inverses a monoid with inverses is the same thing as a group a monoid whose operation is commutative is called a commutative monoid or less commonly an abelian monoid examples every singleton set gives rise to a one element trivial monoid for fixed x this monoid is unique since the monoid axioms require that x x x in this case every group is a monoid and every abelian group a commutative monoid every semilattice is an idempotent commutative monoid any semigroup s may be turned into a monoid simply by adjoining an element e not in s and defining ee e and es s se for all s s this can be done recursively i e if s is monoid with identity e one obtains a new monoid s with identity e and so on the natural numbers n form a commutative monoid under addition identity element zero or multiplication identity element one the elements of any unital ring with addition or multiplication as the operation the integers rational numbers real numbers or complex numbers with addition or multiplication as operation the set of all n by n matrices over a given ring with matrix addition or matrix multiplication as the operation the set of all finite strings over some fixed alphabet forms a monoid with string concatenation as the operation the empty string serves as the identity element this monoid is denoted and is called the free monoid over fix a monoid m and consider its power set p m consisting of all subsets of m a binary operation for such subsets can be defined by s t this turns p m into a monoid with identity element in the same way the power set of a group g is a monoid under the product of group subsets let s be a set the set of all functions s s forms a monoid under function composition the identity is just the identity function if s is finite with n elements the monoid of functions on s is finite with n n elements generalizing the previous example let c be a category and x an object in c the set of all endomorphisms of x denoted end c x forms a monoid under composition of morphisms for more on the relationship between category theory and monoids see below the set of homeomorphism classes of compact surfaces with the connected sum its unit element is the class of the ordinary two sphere furthermore if a denotes the class of the torus and b denotes the class of the projective plane then every element c of the monoid has a unique expression the form c na mb where n is the integer zero and m zero one or two we have three b a b properties directly from the definition one can show that the identity element e is unique then it is possible to define invertible elements an element x is called invertible if there exists an element y such x y e and y x e the element y is called the inverse of x and is usually written x one associativity guarantees that inverses if they exist are unique the set of all invertible elements in a monoid m together with the operation forms a group in that sense every monoid contains a group however not every monoid sits inside a group for instance it is perfectly possible to have a monoid in which two elements a and b exist such that a b a holds even though b is not the identity element such a monoid cannot be embedded in a group because in the group we could multiply both sides with the inverse of a and would get that b e which isn t true a monoid m has the cancellation property or is cancellative if for all a b and c in m a b a c always implies b c and b a c a always implies b c a commutative monoid with the cancellation property can always be embedded in a group that s how the integers a group with operation are constructed from the natural numbers a commutative monoid with operation and cancellation property however a non commutative cancellative monoid need not be embeddable in a group if a monoid has the cancellation property and is finite then it is in fact a group an inverse monoid is a monoid where for every a in m there exists a unique a one in m such that a aa one a and a one a one aa one a submonoid of a monoid g is a subset h of g containing the unit element and such that if x y h then xy h it is then clear that h is itself a monoid under the binary operation induced by that of g monoid homomorphisms a homomorphism between two monoids m and m is a function f m m such that f x y f x f y for all x y in m f e e where e and e are the identities on m and m respectively not every magma homomorphism is a monoid homomorphism since it may not preserve the identity contrast this with the case of group homomorphisms the axioms of group theory ensure that every magma homomorphism between groups preserves the identity for monoids this isn t always true and it is necessary to state it as a separate requirement a bijective monoid homomorphism is called a monoid isomorphism two monoids are said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism between them relation to category theory monoids can be viewed as a special class of categories indeed the axioms required of a monoid operation are exactly those required of morphism composition when restricted to the set of all morphisms whose source and target is a given object that is a monoid is essentially the same thing as a category with a single object more precisely given a monoid m one can construct a small category with only one object and whose morphisms are the elements of m the composition of morphisms is given by the monoid operation likewise monoid homomorphisms are just functors between single object categories in this sense category theory can be thought of as an extension of the concept of a monoid many definitions and theorems about monoids can be generalised to small categories with more than one object monoids just like other algebraic structures also form their own category mon whose objects are monoids and whose morphisms are monoid homomorphisms there is also a notion of monoid object which is an abstract definition of what is a monoid in a category abstract algebra category theory monoid theory category theoretic categories may three one is the one five one st day of the year in the gregorian calendar one five two nd in leap years with two one four days remaining events one two seven nine bc ramesses ii becomes pharaoh of egypt one five seven eight martin frobisher sails from harwich england to frobisher bay canada eventually to mine fool s gold used to pave streets in london one six six nine citing poor eyesight samuel pepys records the last event in his diary one six seven eight the godiva procession through coventry begins one seven five nine the province of pennsylvania bans all theater productions one seven seven five patriots in charlotte north carolina adopt the mecklenburg resolutions urging the american colonies to declare independence from great britain one seven nine zero alferez manuel quimper explores the strait of juan de fuca one eight six two american civil war the battle of seven pines one eight six four american civil war the battle of cold harbor begins one eight six six in the fenian invasion of canada john o neill leads eight five zero fenian raiders across the niagara river at buffalo new york fort erie ontario as part of an effort to free ireland from the english canadian militia and british regulars repulse the invaders in over the next three days at a cost of nine dead and three eight wounded to the fenian s one nine dead and about one seven wounded one eight eight four john harvey kellogg patents corn flakes one eight eight nine johnstown flood over two two zero zero people die after a dam break sends a six zero foot one eight meter wall of water over the town of johnstown pennsylvania one nine zero two second boer war the last afrikaner resistance forces sign a peace treaty with the british at pretoria ending the war and ensuring british control of south africa one nine one zero creation of the union of south africa one nine one three the seventeenth amendment to the united states constitution authorizing direct election of united states senators is declared ratified one nine one six world war i the german and british navies clash in the battle of jutland the largest naval battle of the war one nine two one tulsa race riot a civil unrest in tulsa oklahoma usa the official death toll is three nine but recent investigations suggest the actual toll may be much higher one nine two one comedian buster keaton marries actress natalie talmadge one nine two four the soviet union signs an agreement with the peking government referring to outer mongolia as an integral part of the republic of china whose sovereignty therein the soviet union promises to respect one nine two seven the last ford model t rolls off the assembly line after a production run of one five zero zero seven zero zero three vehicles one nine four two world war ii imperial japanese navy midget submarines begin a series of attacks on sydney australia the luftwaffe bombs coventry england one nine five two dwight d eisenhower retires from active service in the united states army one nine six one creation of the republic of south africa one nine six two the west indies federation dissolves one nine six nine john lennon and yoko ono record give peace a chance the first single recorded by a solo beatle from their hotel bed one nine seven zero the ancash earthquake causes a landslide that buries the town of yungay peru more than four seven zero zero zero people are killed one nine seven two afc ajax wins the europecup one uefa champions league for the two nd time in a row making it their two nd one nine seven four syria and israel sign a disengagement agreement to resolve the yom kippur war one nine seven seven the trans alaska pipeline system is completed one nine eight five the us canadian outbreak forty one tornadoes hit ohio pennsylvania new york and ontario leaving seven six dead one nine nine zero the pilot episode of seinfeld premires one nine nine seven canada s confederation bridge opens linking prince edward island with mainland new brunswick two zero zero two the one seven th football world cup co hosted by japan and south korea begins with a one zero upset of france by senegal the tournament ends on june three zero with brazil winning a record fifth world cup title two zero zero two the secretary of the navy directed all united states navy ships to fly the first naval ensign in honor of those killed in the september one one two zero zero one attacks the ensign will be flown for the duration of the war on terrorism two zero zero three the final flight of an air france concorde takes place two zero zero three one nine nine six atlanta olympic bomber eric rudolph is captured in murphy north carolina two zero zero four a foul up during routine software update at the royal bank of canada leads to a three day misplacement of one zero million account balances two zero zero five w mark felt admits in the magazine vanity fair that he is the anonymous source deep throat in the watergate scandal births one zero four eight omar khayy m persian poet astronomer mathematician and philosopher d one one three one one four four three margaret beaufort mother of henry vii of england d one five zero nine one four six nine king manuel i of portugal d one five two one one five three five alessandro allori italian painter d one six zero seven one five five seven feodor i tsar of russia d one five nine eight one six one three john george ii elector of saxony d one six eight zero one six four zero micha wi niowiecki king of poland d one six seven three one six five six marin marais french composer and viol player d one seven two eight one seven five three pierre victurnien vergniaud french revolutionary d one seven nine three one seven seven three ludwig tieck german poet and writer d one eight five three one eight zero one johann georg baiter swiss philologist d one eight eight seven one eight one nine walt whitman american poet d one eight nine two one eight three eight henry sidgwick english philosopher d one nine zero zero one eight five seven pope pius xi d one nine three nine one eight six zero walter sickert english painter d one nine four two one eight six three francis younghusband british explorer d one nine four two one eight seven two heath robinson english cartoonist d one nine four four one eight eight three lauri kristian relander president of finland d one nine four two one eight eight seven saint john perse french diplomat and writer nobel prize laureate d one nine seven five one eight nine two michel kikoine belarus painter d one nine six eight one eight nine two konstantin georgiyevich paustovsky russian writer d one nine six eight one eight nine four fred allen american comedian d one nine five six one eight nine eight dr norman vincent peale american clergyman d one nine nine three one nine zero eight don ameche american actor d one nine nine three one nine one one maurice allais french economist nobel prize laureate one nine one two alfred deller english countertenor d one nine seven nine one nine two two denholm elliott english actor d one nine nine two one nine two three prince rainier iii of monaco d two zero zero five one nine three zero clint eastwood american actor director and producer one nine three one john robert schrieffer american physicist nobel prize laureate one nine three one shirley verrett american soprano one nine three two jay miner american microchip designer d one nine nine four one nine three five jim bolger prime minister of new zealand one nine three eight johnny paycheck american singer d two zero zero three one nine three eight john prescott deputy prime minister of the united kingdom one nine three eight peter yarrow american folk singer peter paul and mary one nine three nine terry waite british humanitarian one nine four one louis j ignarro american pharmacologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine four three sharon gless american actress one nine four three joe namath american football player one nine four five rainer werner fassbinder german film director d one nine eight two one nine four eight john bonham british musician led zeppelin d one nine eight zero one nine four nine tom berenger american actor one nine five zero gregory harrison american actor one nine five seven jim craig american hockey player one nine six zero chris elliott american comedian one nine six one lea thompson american actress one nine six two corey hart canadian singer and songwriter one nine six three wesley willis american musician one nine six three jeremy hotz canadian stand up comedian one nine six five brooke shields american model and actress one nine six seven kenny lofton baseball player one nine seven two frode estil norwegian cross country skier one nine seven five sienna guillory english actress one nine seven six colin farrell irish actor one nine seven seven debbie king english tv presenter one nine seven seven scott klopfenstein american vocalist guitarist keyboardist for reel big fish and the littlest man band one nine eight zero andrew hurley american drummer for fall out boy one nine eight four jason smith australian actor deaths one two four six isabella of angouleme queen of john of england one three four nine thomas wake english politician b one two nine seven one four zero eight ashikaga yoshimitsu japanese shogun b one three five eight one four one zero king martin i of aragon b one three five six one four nine five cecily neville mother of edward iv of england and richard iii of england b one four one five one five five eight philip hoby english politician b one five zero five one five nine four tintoretto italian painter b one five one eight one six eight zero joachim neander german clergyman b one six five zero one seven four zero king friedrich wilhelm i of prussia b one six eight eight one seven four seven andrei osterman russian statesman b one six eight six one seven nine nine pierre lemonnier french astronomer b one seven one five one eight zero nine joseph haydn austrian composer b one seven three two one eight zero nine jean lannes french marshal mortally wounded in battle b one seven six nine one eight three one samuel bentham british mechanical engineer b one seven five seven one eight three two variste galois french mathematician b one eight one one one eight four six philip marheineke german clergyman b one seven eight zero one eight four seven thomas chalmers scottish pastor social reformer educator author and scientist b one seven eight zero one eight four eight eug nie de gu rin french writer b one eight zero five one nine one zero elizabeth blackwell american physician b one eight two one one nine five seven leopold staff polish poet b one eight seven eight one nine six zero walther funk nazi leader b one eight nine zero one nine six zero willem elsschot flemish writer b one eight eight two one nine six two adolf eichmann nazi official b one nine zero six one nine seven six jacques monod french biologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one nine one zero one nine seven seven william castle american director b one nine one four one nine seven eight j zsef bozsik hungarian footballer b one nine two five one nine eight three jack dempsey american boxer b one eight nine five one nine eight six james rainwater american physicist nobel prize laureate b one nine one seven one nine nine six timothy leary american professor and free thinker b one nine two zero one nine nine six paul peter piech american artist b one nine two zero one nine nine seven james bennett griffin american archaeologist b one nine zero five two zero zero zero tito puente american musician b one nine two three two zero zero zero johnnie taylor american singer b one nine three eight two zero zero four robert quine american guitarist b one nine four one holidays and observances feast day of mary mediatrix of all graces the godiva procession world no tobacco day syaday discordianism five th day of the season of confusion honors apostle sri syadasti external links bbc on this day may three zero june one april three zero june three zero listing of all days may three zero is the one five zero th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one five one st in leap years there are two one five days remaining events one four one six the roman catholic church burns jerome of prague as a heretic one four three one in rouen france one nine year old joan of arc is burned at the stake may three zero is now her feast day as a saint of the roman catholic church one four three four taborite forces led by prokop the great were defeated and almost annihilated in the battle of lipany effectively ending the hussite wars one five three six king henry viii of england marries jane seymour a lady in waiting to his first two wives one five three nine in florida hernando de soto lands at tampa bay with six zero zero soldiers with the goal of finding gold one five seven four henry iii becomes king of france one five eight eight the last ship of the spanish armada sets sail from lisbon heading for the english channel one six three five peace of prague three zero years war one eight zero six andrew jackson kills a man in a duel after the man had accused jackson s wife of bigamy one eight one four the first treaty of paris is signed returning french borders to their one seven nine two extent napoleon i of france is exiled to elba on the same day one eight five four the kansas nebraska act becomes law establishing the us territories of nebraska and kansas one eight six eight memorial day then known as decoration day is observed in the united states for the first time it was proclaimed on may five by general john logan one eight seven one the paris commune falls one eight seven six ottoman sultan abd ul aziz is deposed and succeeded by his nephew murat v one eight seven nine new york city s gilmores garden is renamed madison square garden by william vanderbilt and is opened to the public at two six th street and madison avenue one eight seven nine an f four tornado struck irving kansas killing one eight and injuring six zero one eight eight three in new york city a rumor that the brooklyn bridge is going to collapse causes a stampede which crushes twelve people one nine one one at the indianapolis motor speedway the first indianapolis five zero zero ends with ray harroun becoming the first winner of the five zero zero mile auto race in his marmon wasp one nine one three first balkan war a peace treaty is signed in london ending the war albania becomes an independent nation one nine two two in washington d c the lincoln memorial is dedicated one nine three five babe ruth plays in his last baseball game in the uniform of the boston braves one nine four one world war ii germany captures crete one nine four two world war ii one zero zero zero british bombers launch a nine zero minute attack on cologne germany one nine four eight a dike along the flooding columbia river breaks obliterating vanport oregon within minutes fifteen people die and tens of thousands are left homeless one nine five eight the bodies of several unidentified soldiers killed in action during world war ii and the korean war are buried at the tomb of the unknowns in arlington national cemetery one nine six seven at the ascot speedway in gardena california daredevil evel knievel jumps his motorcycle over one six cars lined up in a row one nine six seven the nigerian state of biafra secedes sparking a civil war one nine six nine riots on the caribbean island of cura ao one nine seven one mariner program mariner nine is launched toward mars one nine seven two the angry brigade goes on trial over a series of two five bombings throughout britain one nine seven two in tel aviv members of the japanese red army carry out the lod airport massacre killing two four people and injuring seven eight others one nine seven six johnny rutherford wins a rain shortened six zero th indianapolis five zero zero at the one zero two lap two five five mile mark the shortest race in event history one nine eight two baseball player cal ripken jr plays the first of two six three two consecutive games his streak will end on september two zero one nine nine eight one nine eight two spain becomes the one six th member of nato and the first nation to enter the alliance since west germany s admission in one nine five five one nine eight nine tiananmen square protests of one nine eight nine the three three foot high goddess of democracy statue is unveiled in tiananmen square by student demonstrators one nine nine eight a six six magnitude earthquake hits northern afghanistan killing up to five zero zero zero one nine nine eight ginger spice leaves the spice girls two zero zero two three mountain climbers are killed when they fall into a crevasse and their rescue helicopter subsiquently crashes into the mountain side and goes into a roll two zero zero three the final flight of an air france concorde takes place births one zero one zero emperor renzong of china d one zero six three one four two three georg purbach german mathematician and astronomer d one four six one one six two three john egerton two nd earl of bridgewater english politician d one six eight six one six seven two o s peter the great tsar of russia d one seven two five one seven one eight wills hill one st marquess of downshire english politician d one seven nine three one seven one nine roger newdigate english politician d one eight zero six one eight one four michael bakunin russian anarchist d one eight seven six one eight one four eug ne charles catalan belgian mathematician d one eight nine four one eight five eight siegfried alkan german composer d one nine four one one eight seven nine colin blythe english cricketer d one nine one seven one eight eight two wyndham halswelle scottish runner d one nine one five one eight nine five maurice tate english cricketer d one nine five six one eight nine six howard hawks american film director d one nine seven seven one eight nine nine irving thalberg american film producer d one nine three six one nine zero one cornelia otis skinner american writer and actress d one nine seven nine one nine zero two stepin fetchit american dancer and actor d one nine eight five one nine zero eight hannes alfv n swedish physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine five one nine zero eight mel blanc american voice actor d one nine eight nine one nine zero eight hannes alfv n swedish physicist d one nine nine five one nine zero nine benny goodman american clarinetist and bandleader d one nine eight six one nine one zero inge meysel german actress d two zero zero four one nine one two julius axelrod american biochemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d two zero zero four one nine one two erich bagge german physicist one nine one two hugh griffith welsh actor d one nine eight zero one nine one eight guadalupe pita amor mexican poet d two zero zero zero one nine two zero ralph metcalfe american athlete d one nine seven eight one nine two zero franklin schaffner american film director d one nine eight nine one nine two two hal clement american writer d two zero zero three one nine two six christine jorgensen activist d one nine eight nine one nine two seven clint walker american actor one nine three four aleksei leonov cosmonaut one nine three six keir dullea american actor one nine three nine michael j pollard american actor one nine four three james chaney american civil rights activist d one nine six four one nine four three gale sayers american football player one nine five one stephen tobolowsky american actor one nine five one zdravko oli bosnian singer one nine five three colm meaney irish actor one nine five five topper headon british musician the clash one nine six four wynonna judd american singer one nine six four tom morello american musician audioslave rage against the machine one nine six six stephen malkmus american musician pavement one nine seven two manny ramirez dominican born major league baseball player one nine seven three leigh francis british comedian one nine eight zero steven gerrard english footballer one nine eight one devendra banhart american singer and songwriter deaths one one five nine wladislaus ii the exile of poland b one one zero five one two five two king ferdinand iii of castile one four one six jerome of prague czech theologian executed b one three seven nine one four three one joan of arc french peasant girl that joined the french royal army heroine and saint burned at the stake b one four one two one four three four prokop the great hussite general one five seven four king charles ix of france b one five five zero one five seven six harada naomasa japanese retainer and samurai one five nine three christopher marlowe english playwright b one five six four one six four zero peter paul rubens flemish painter b one five seven seven one six nine six henry capell one st baron capell first lord of the british admiralty b one six three eight one seven one eight arnold joost van keppel one st earl of albemarle dutch favorite of william iii of england b one six seven zero one seven three zero arabella churchill english mistress of james ii of england b one six four eight one seven four four alexander pope english writer b one six eight eight one seven seven zero fran ois boucher french painter b one seven zero three one seven seven eight voltaire french philosopher and author b one six nine four one eight six five john catron u s supreme court justice one nine zero one victor d hondt belgian mathematician b one eight four one one nine two five arthur moeller van den bruck german historian b one eight seven six one nine two six vladimir steklov russian physicist b one eight six four one nine three four togo heihachiro japanese admiral b one eight four eight one nine five one hermann broch austrian author b one eight eight six one nine five three dooley wilson american musician and actor b one eight eight six one nine six zero boris pasternak russian writer nobel prize laureate declined b one eight nine zero one nine six one rafael le nidas trujillo dictator of the dominican republic b one eight nine one one nine six four le szil rd hungarian born nuclear physicist b one eight nine eight one nine six seven claude rains english actor b one eight eight nine one nine seven one marcel dupr french composer b one eight eight six one nine seven five steve prefontaine american runner b one nine five one one nine eight zero carl radle american bass guitarist b one nine four two one nine eight six perry ellis fashion designer b one nine four zero one nine nine three sun ra american musician b one nine one four two zero zero zero tex beneke american bandleader singer and saxophone player b one nine one four two zero zero three mickie most english musician b one nine three eight two zero zero five tomasz pacy ski polish writer b one nine five eight holidays and observances peru national potato day united states memorial day originally currently last monday in may external links bbc on this day may two nine may three one april three zero june three zero listing of all days may two three is the one four three rd day of the year in the gregorian calendar one four four th in leap years there are two two two days remaining events one four three zero joan of arc is captured by the burgundians while leading an army to relieve compi gne one four nine eight girolamo savonarola is executed on the orders of pope alexander vi one five three three the marriage of king henry viii to catherine of aragon is declared null and void one five four one jacques cartier leaves st malo france on his third voyage one five five five paul iv becomes pope one five six eight netherlands declared independence from spain one five six eight dutch rebels led by louis of nassau brother of william i of orange defeat jean de ligne duke of aremberg and his loyalist troops in the battle of heiligerlee opening the eighty years war one six zero nine official ratification of the second charter of virginia takes place one six one eight the second defenestration of prague precipitates the thirty years war one seven zero one after being convicted of piracy and of murdering william moore captain william kidd is hanged in london one seven eight eight south carolina becomes the eight th u s state to ratify the united states constitution one eight zero five napoleon bonaparte is crowned king of italy with the iron crown of lombardy in the cathedral of milan one eight one three south american independence leader sim n bol var enters m rida leading the invasion of venezuela and is proclaimed el libertador the liberator one eight four four persian prophet the b b announces his revelation founding b b sm he announced to the world of the coming of he whom god shall make manifest he is considered the forerunner of bah u ll h the founder of the bah faith one eight six three the siege of port hudson starts one eight six five a parade is held in pennsylvania avenue in washington dc to celebrate the end of the american civil war one eight seven three the canadian parliament establishes the north west mounted police the forerunner of the royal canadian mounted police one nine zero zero american civil war sergeant william harvey carney becomes the first african american to be awarded the medal of honor for his heroism in the assault on the battery wagner one nine one one dedication ceremony for the new york public library one nine one five world war i italy joins the allies after they declare war on austria hungary one nine two three launch of belgium s sabena airline one nine two nine the first talking cartoon of mickey mouse the karnival kid was released one nine three four near their hideout in black lake louisiana bank robbers bonnie parker and clyde barrow are ambushed and shot dead by police one nine three nine the u s navy submarine uss squalus sinks off the coast of new hampshire during a test dive causing the death of two six sailors the remaining three two crewmen and one passenger are rescued the following day one nine four five heinrich himmler the head of the ss commits suicide while in allied custody one nine four nine the federal republic of germany is established and the basic law for the federal republic of germany proclaimed one nine five eight explorer i ceases transmission one nine six zero prime minister of israel david ben gurion announces that nazi war criminal adolf eichmann has been captured one nine six two drilling for the montreal metro commences one nine six seven egypt closes the straits of tiran and blockades the port of eilat at the northern end of the gulf of aqaba to israeli shipping laying the foundations for the six day war one nine six nine rock band the who release tommy the first rock opera one nine seven seven two terrorist actions unfold in the netherlands several dozen hostages are taken onboard a train and about one zero zero others mostly children are held at a dutch school the train siege lasts until june one one one nine eight zero australian oylmpic committee decides to send a team to moscow despite opposition by p m malcom fraser one nine eight five u s engineer thomas patrick cavanagh is sentenced to life in prison for attempting to sell stealth bomber secrets to the soviet union one nine nine five official announcement of the java programming language one nine nine five oklahoma city bombing in oklahoma city oklahoma what remains of the alfred p murrah federal building is imploded one nine nine seven mohammad khatami is elected as president of iran one nine nine eight the good friday agreement is accepted in a referendum with a high margin of three fourth yes votes to northern ireland one nine nine nine in kansas city missouri owen hart playing the blue blazer falls nine zero feet to his death while being lowered into a world wrestling federation ring two zero zero two the five five parties clause of the kyoto protocol is reached after its ratification by iceland two zero zero three the euro exceeds its initial trading value as it hits one one eight for the first time since its introduction in one nine nine nine two zero zero three two five year old nepalese sherpa pemba dorjie sherpa makes the fastest ever ascent of mount everest in one two hours four five minutes this is broken by his rival sherpa lakpa gelu only three days later two zero zero four part of paris charles de gaulle international airport terminal two e collapses killing five people and injuring three others births one zero five two king philip i of france d one one zero eight one one zero zero emperor qinzong of china d one one six one one six zero six juan caramuel y lobkowitz spanish writer d one six eight two one six one seven elias ashmole english antiquarian d one six nine two one seven zero seven carolus linnaeus swedish botanist d one seven seven eight one seven one eight william hunter scottish anatomist d one seven eight three one seven two nine giuseppe parini italian writer d one seven nine nine one seven nine zero jules dumont d urville french explorer d one eight four two one seven nine five charles barry english architect d one eight six zero one eight one zero margaret fuller american journalist and feminist d one eight five zero one eight two zero james buchanan eads american engineer and inventor d one eight eight seven one eight two four ambrose burnside american civil war general d one eight eight one one eight three four carl heinrich bloch danish painter d one eight nine zero one eight four four abdu l bah persian leader of the bah faith d one nine two one one eight four eight otto lilienthal german aviation pioneer d one eight nine six one eight seven five alfred p sloan american business professor d one nine six six one eight seven nine dezs lauber hungarian sportsman d one nine six six one eight eight three douglas fairbanks american actor d one nine three nine one eight eight four corrado gini italian sociologist d one nine six five one eight eight seven thoralf skolem norwegian mathematician d one nine six three one eight eight eight zack wheat baseball player d one nine seven two one eight nine zero herbert marshall english actor d one nine six six one eight nine one p r lagerkvist swedish writer nobel prize laureate d one nine seven four one eight nine three ulysses s grant iv american geologist and paleontologist d one nine seven seven one eight nine eight scott o dell american author d one nine eight nine one nine zero zero hans frank german nazi war criminal one nine zero eight john bardeen american physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine one one nine one zero margaret wise brown american author d one nine five two one nine one zero sir hugh casson british architect and painter d one nine nine nine one nine one zero scatman crothers american actor and musician d one nine eight six one nine one zero artie shaw american clarinetist and bandleader d two zero zero four one nine one two jean fran aix french composer d one nine nine seven one nine one two john payne american actor d one nine eight nine one nine one eight denis compton english cricketer d one nine nine seven one nine one nine betty garrett american actress and dancer one nine two zero helen o connell american singer d one nine nine three one nine two one james blish american author d one nine seven five one nine two one humphrey lyttelton british musician one nine two five joshua lederberg american molecular biologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine two eight rosemary clooney american singer and actress d two zero zero two one nine three one barbara barrie american actress one nine three three joan collins english actress one nine three four dr robert moog american inventor one nine three six charles kimbrough american actor one nine three nine reinhard hauff german film director one nine four three john newcombe australian tennis player one nine four five padmarajan indian film director d one nine nine one one nine four six frederik de groot dutch actor one nine five one anatoly karpov russian chess player one nine five two anne marie david french singer one nine five two marvelous marvin hagler american boxer one nine five six ursula plassnik austrian politician one nine five six buck showalter baseball player and manager one nine five eight mitch albom american writer one nine five eight drew carey american actor and comedian one nine six one karen duffy american actress one nine six three wally dallenbach jr american race car driver and announcer one nine six four allan kayser american actor one nine six seven phil selway english drummer radiohead one nine seven one charmaine sinclair playboy model one nine seven two rubens barrichello brazilian race car driver one nine seven four ken jennings american game show contestant one nine seven four jewel american singer one nine seven four monica naranjo spanish singer one nine seven seven ilia kulik russian figure skater one nine seven eight scott raynor original drummer for san diego rock trio blink one eight two one nine eight two malene mortensen danish singer one nine eight three patrick martin professional wrestler more commonly known as alex shelley one nine eight four adam wylie american actor deaths one one two five henry v holy roman emperor b one zero eight one one three zero four jehan de lescurel french poet and composer one four nine eight girolamo savonarola italian religious reformer and ruler of florence b one four five two one five two three ashikaga yoshitane japanese shogun b one four six six one five two four ismail i shah of persia b one four eight seven one six six two john gauden english bishop and writer b one six zero five one six seven zero ferdinando ii de medici grand duke of tuscany b one six one zero one six nine one adrien auzout french astronomer b one six two two one seven zero one captain kidd scottish pirate b one six four five one seven five two william bradford british born printer b one six six three one seven five four john wood the elder english architect b one seven zero four one seven eight three james otis american lawyer and patriot b one seven two five one seven eight six m ric be ovsk slovak explorer one eight two five ras gugsa of yejju regent of the emperor of ethiopia one eight four one franz xaver von baader german philosopher and theologian b one seven six five one eight five five charles robert malden english explorer b one seven nine seven one eight five seven augustin louis cauchy french mathematician one eight six eight kit carson american trapper scout and indian agent b one eight zero nine one eight eight six leopold von ranke german historian b one seven nine five one eight nine three anton von schmerling austrian statesman b one eight zero five one eight nine five franz ernst neumann german mineralogist and physicist b one seven nine eight one nine zero six henrik ibsen norwegian writer b one eight two eight one nine two zero svetozar boroevi austrian field marshal b one eight five six one nine three three clyde barrow american outlaw b one nine zero nine one nine three three bonnie parker american outlaw b one nine one zero one nine three seven john d rockefeller american entrepreneur b one eight three nine one nine four five heinrich himmler nazi official b one nine zero zero one nine six five earl webb baseball player b one eight nine seven one nine six six demchugdongrub mongolian politician b one nine zero two one nine seven five moms mabley american comedienne b one eight nine four one nine eight one george jessel american actor b one eight nine eight one nine eight six sterling hayden american actor b one nine one six one nine eight nine georgy tovstonogov russian theatre director b one nine one five one nine nine one wilhelm kempff german pianist and composer b one eight nine five one nine nine two giovanni falcone italian judge b one nine three nine one nine nine nine owen hart canadian professional wrestler b one nine six five two zero zero two sam snead american golfer b one nine one two holidays and observances bah faith declaration of the b b world turtle day external links bbc on this day may two two may two four april two three june two three listing of all days may one six is the one three six th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one three seven th in leap years there are two two nine days remaining events one two zero four baldwin ix count of flanders is crowned first emperor of the latin empire one five two seven the florentines drive out the medici for a second time and florence re establishes a republic one five three two sir thomas more resigns as lord chancellor of england one five six eight mary queen of scots flees to england one six zero five paul v becomes pope one seven seven zero one four year old marie antoinette marries one five year old louis auguste who later becomes king of france one seven seven seven lachlan mcintosh and button gwinnett shoot each other during a duel near savannah georgia gwinnett a signer of the declaration of independence dies three days later one eight three six edgar allan poe marries his one three year old cousin virginia one eight four three the first major wagon train heading for the northwest sets out with one thousand pioneers from elm grove missouri on the oregon trail one eight six six the u s congress eliminates the half dime coin and replaces it with the five cent piece or nickel one eight six six charles elmer hires invents root beer one eight six eight president andrew johnson is acquitted during his impeachment trial by one vote in the united states senate one eight seven four a flood on the mill river in massachusetts destroyed much of four villages and killed one three nine people one nine one zero the u s congress authorizes the creation of the united states bureau of mines one nine one eight the sedition act is passed by the u s congress making criticism of the government a jailable offense one nine one nine us navy naval curtiss aircraft nc four commanded by albert cushing read leaves trepassey newfoundland for lisbon via the azores on the first transatlantic flight one nine two zero in rome pope benedict xv canonizes joan of arc as a saint one nine two nine in hollywood california the first academy awards are handed out one nine three eight a fire at the terminal hotel in atlanta georgia kills three five people one nine four three holocaust the warsaw ghetto uprising ends one nine four three world war ii the dambuster raids by raf six one seven squadron on german dams one nine four eight chaim weizmann is elected as the first president of israel one nine six zero nikita khrushchev demands an apology from us president dwight d eisenhower for u two spy plane flights over the soviet union thus ending a big four summit in paris one nine six zero theodore maiman operates the first optical laser at hughes research laboratories in malibu california one nine six six two extremely influential rock albums are released on the same day bob dylan s blonde on blonde and the beach boys pet sounds one nine six nine venera program venera five a soviet spaceprobe lands on venus one nine seven five india annexes sikkim after the mountain state held a referendum where popular vote was in favour of merging with india one nine seven five junko tabei becomes the first woman to reach the summit of mount everest one nine eight eight a report by american surgeon general c everett koop states that the addictive properties of nicotine are similar to those of heroin and cocaine one nine nine two sts four nine space shuttle endeavour lands safely after a successful maiden voyage two zero zero two star wars episode ii attack of the clones opens in cinemas two zero zero three in casablanca morocco three three civilians are killed and more than one zero zero people are injured in the casablanca terrorist attacks two zero zero five star wars episode iii revenge of the sith premieres in london two zero zero five kuwait permits women s suffrage in a three five two three national assembly vote births one four nine zero duke albert of prussia d one five six eight one five seven eight everard digby english conspirator d one six zero six one six one one pope innocent xi d one six eight nine one seven one zero william talbot one st earl talbot english politician d one seven eight two one seven one eight maria gaetana agnesi italian mathematician d one seven nine nine one seven six three louis nicolas vauquelin french pharmacist d one eight two nine one eight two seven pierre cuypers dutch architect d one nine two one one eight four five ilya ilyich mechnikov russian microbiologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine one six one eight nine one richard tauber austrian tenor d one nine four eight one eight nine eight tamara de lempicka polish born painter d one nine eight zero one nine zero five henry fonda american actor d one nine eight two one nine zero six margret rey author and illustrator d one nine nine six one nine one zero olga berggolts russian poet d one nine seven five one nine one two studs terkel american writer one nine one three woody herman american musician and band leader d one nine eight seven one nine one seven juan rulfo mexican novelist d one nine eight six one nine one nine liberace american pianist d one nine eight seven one nine two three merton miller american economist nobel prize laureate one nine two seven n lton santos brazilian football player one nine two eight billy martin baseball player and coach d one nine eight nine one nine two nine adrienne rich american writer one nine three zero friedrich gulda austrian pianist d two zero zero zero one nine three one natwar singh indian politician one nine three six roy hudd british radio and television actor one nine three six karl lehmann german catholic cardinal one nine four five nicky chinn songwriter the sweet suzi quatro one nine four six robert fripp english guitarist one nine five zero j georg bednorz german physicist nobel prize laureate one nine five three pierce brosnan irish actor one nine five five olga korbut russian gymnast one nine five five jack morris baseball player one nine five five hazel o connor british singer one nine five five debra winger american actress one nine six three mercedes echerer austrian actress and politician one nine six three rosie perez american actress one nine six five krist novoselic american bassist nirvana one nine six six janet jackson american singer one nine six six thurman thomas american football player one nine six nine tucker carlson american television commentator one nine six nine steve lewis american athlete one nine seven zero gabriela sabatini argentine tennis player one nine seven zero danielle spencer australian singer and actress one nine seven one david boreanaz american actor one nine seven three tori spelling american actress one nine seven four laura pausini italian pop singer one nine seven seven jean sebastien giguere canadian hockey player one nine eight three kyle wellwood canadian hockey player one nine eight five anja mittag german footballer one nine eight five corey perry canadian hockey player deaths one six two zero william adams english navigator and samurai b one five six four one six five seven andrzej bobola polish jesuit missionary b one five nine one one six six seven thomas wriothesley four th earl of southampton english statesman b one six zero seven one six six nine pietro da cortona italian architect b one five nine eight one six nine one jacob leisler german born american colonist b one six four zero one seven zero three charles perrault french author b one six two eight one seven seven eight robert darcy four th earl of holderness english diplomat and politician b one seven one eight one seven eight two daniel solander swedish botanist b one seven three six one seven nine zero philip yorke two nd earl of hardwicke english politician b one seven two zero one eight nine one ion c bratianu romanian statesman b one eight two one one nine two six mehmed vi last ottoman sultan b one eight six one one nine four four george ade american author b one eight six six one nine four seven frederick hopkins english biochemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one eight six one one nine five three django reinhardt belgian musician b one nine one zero one nine five five james agee american writer b one nine zero nine one nine five seven eliot ness american federal agent b one nine zero three one nine eight four andy kaufman american comedian b one nine four nine one nine eight four irwin shaw american author b one nine one three one nine eight five margaret hamilton american actress b one nine zero two one nine eight eight charles keeping british illustrator b one nine two four one nine nine zero sammy davis jr american singer actor and comedian b one nine two five one nine nine zero jim henson american puppeteer b one nine three six two zero zero three mark mccormack american sports business pioneer b one nine three zero holidays and observances in the irish calendar feast of saint brendan the navigator the feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church ubaldus saint honor john of ponuk or john nepomucene one three three zero one three nine three andrew bobola simon stock whit monday in western christianity two zero zero five adelaide cup day south australia two zero zero five song may one six is also the title of a punk rock song by lagwagon from their album let s talk about feelings and was featured in the soundtrack to tony hawk s pro skater two external links bbc on this day today in history may one six may one five may one seven april one six june one six listing of all days may two two is the one four two nd day of the year in the gregorian calendar one four three rd in leap years there are two two three days remaining events one one seven six murder attempt by the hashshashin assassins on saladin near aleppo one four five five wars of the roses at the first battle of st albans richard duke of york defeats and captures king henry vi of england one seven six two sweden and prussia sign the treaty of hamburg one eight zero seven a grand jury indicts former vice president of the united states aaron burr on a charge of treason one eight one nine the ss savannah leaves port at savannah georgia united states on a voyage to become the first steamship to cross the atlantic ocean the ship arrived at liverpool england on june two zero one eight four zero the transporting of british convicts to the new south wales colony is abolished one eight five six congressman preston brooks of south carolina beats senator charles sumner with a cane in the hall of the united states senate for a speech sumner had made attacking southerners who sympathized with the pro slavery violence in kansas bleeding kansas one eight seven two reconstruction u s president ulysses s grant signs the amnesty act of one eight seven two into law restoring full civil rights to all but about five zero zero confederate sympathizers one nine zero six the one nine zero six summer olympics not now recognized as part of the official olympic games opens in athens one nine zero six wright brothers are granted u s patent number eight two one three nine three for their flying machine one nine zero eight the wright brothers patent their aircraft one nine three nine world war ii germany and italy sign the pact of steel one nine four two mexico enters world war ii on the side of the allies one nine four seven cold war in an effort to fight the spread of communism u s president harry s truman signs an act into law that will later be called the truman doctrine the act grants four zero zero million in military and economic aid to turkey and greece one nine six zero an earthquake measuring nine five on the richter scale now known as the great chilean earthquake hits southern chile it is the most powerful earthquake ever recorded one nine six two continental airlines flight one one crashes after bombs explode one nine six four u s president lyndon b johnson announces the goals of his great society social reforms to bring an end to poverty and racial injustice in america one nine six seven the innovation department store in the centre of brussels belgium burns down it is the most devastating fire in belgian history which results in three two three dead and missing and one five zero injured one nine six seven mister rogers neighborhood the longest running children s series on u s television airs its first episode one nine six eight the nuclear powered submarine the uss scorpion sinks with nine nine men aboard four zero zero miles southwest of the azores one nine six nine apollo one zero s lunar module flies within eight four nautical miles one six km of the moon s surface one nine seven two ceylon adopts a new constitution changes its name to sri lanka and joins the commonwealth of nations one nine nine zero north and south yemen are unified to create the republic of yemen one nine nine zero the windows three zero operating system is released by microsoft one nine nine two after three zero years six six year old johnny carson hosts the tonight show for the last time one nine nine seven kelly flinn us air force s first female bomber pilot certified for combat accepts a general discharge in order to avoid a court martial one nine nine eight lewinsky scandal a federal judge rules that united states secret service agents can be compelled to testify before a grand jury concerning the scandal involving president bill clinton two zero zero two in washington dc the remains of the missing chandra levy are found in rock creek park two zero zero two american civil rights movement a jury in birmingham alabama convicts former ku klux klan member bobby frank cherry of the one nine six three murders of four girls in the bombing of the one six th street baptist church two zero zero three in fort worth texas annika s renstam becomes the first woman to play the pga tour in five eight years two zero zero four felipe prince of asturias of the spanish royal family marries letizia ortiz rocasolano two zero zero four the u s town of hallam nebraska is wiped out by a powerful f four tornado that broke a width record at an astounding two five miles wide it also killed one local resident births one six two two louis de buade de frontenac governor of new france d one six nine eight one six eight eight alexander pope english poet d one seven four four one seven one five fran ois joachim de pierre de bernis french cardinal and statesman d one seven nine four one seven seven two ram mohan roy hindu reformer d one eight three three one eight zero eight g rard de nerval french writer d one eight five five one eight one three richard wagner german composer d one eight eight three one eight four one catulle mend s french poet d one nine zero nine one eight four four mary cassatt american artist d one nine two six one eight four nine louis perrier swiss politician d one nine one three one eight five nine sir arthur conan doyle british physician and writer d one nine three zero one eight seven four daniel fran ois malan prime minister of south africa d one nine five nine one eight seven nine warwick armstrong australian cricketer d one nine four seven one eight seven nine alla nazimova ukrainian born actress scriptwriter and producer d one nine four five one eight eight five giacomo matteotti italian politician d one nine two four one eight eight five toyoda soemu japanese admiral d one nine five seven one eight nine one eddie edwards american jazz trombonist d one nine six three one nine zero two al simmons baseball player d one nine five six one nine zero three yves rocard french physicist d one nine nine two one nine zero seven herg belgian comic book creator d one nine eight three one nine zero seven sir laurence olivier english actor and director d one nine eight nine one nine one zero johnny olson american game show announcer d one nine eight five one nine one one anatol rapoport russian born mathematical psychologist and pianist one nine one two herbert c brown english born chemist nobel prize laureate d two zero zero four one nine one four vance packard american author d one nine nine six one nine one four sun ra american musician d one nine nine three one nine one seven georg tintner austrian born conductor d one nine nine nine one nine two zero thomas gold austrian astrophysicist d two zero zero four one nine two two quinn martin american television producer d one nine eight seven one nine two four charles aznavour french singer actor and composer one nine two five james king american tenor d two zero zero five one nine two five jean tinguely swiss artist d one nine nine one one nine two seven george andrew olah hungarian born chemist nobel prize laureate one nine three zero john barth american writer one nine three zero harvey milk american politician and civil rights activist d one nine seven eight one nine three four peter nero american musician one nine three six m scott peck american psychiatrist and writer d two zero zero five one nine three eight richard benjamin american actor one nine three eight susan strasberg american actress d one nine nine nine one nine four zero bernard shaw american television journalist one nine four one paul winfield american actor d two zero zero four one nine four two theodore kaczynski american bomber one nine four two calvin simon american musician p funk one nine four three tommy john baseball player one nine four three betty williams irish politician recipient of the nobel peace prize one nine four six george best northern irish footballer d two zero zero five one nine five zero bernie taupin english songwriter one nine five seven gary sweet australian actor one nine five nine morrissey english singer one nine six zero hideaki anno japanese director one nine six four ashley renee american fetish model one nine six six kenny hickey american guitarist type o negative one nine seven zero naomi campbell english model and actress one nine seven two annabel chong singapore actress one nine seven eight jordan english model and media personality one nine eight one bryan danielson professional wrestler deaths three three seven constantine the great roman emperor b two seven two one zero six eight emperor go reizei of japan b one zero two five one four five five henry percy two nd earl of northumberland english politician killed in battle one four five five edmund beaufort two nd duke of somerset english commander killed in battle b one four zero six one four five seven saint rita of cascia italian saint b one three eight one one five three eight john forrest english franciscan friar martyred b one four seven one one five four zero francesco guicciardini italian historian b one four eight three one six six seven pope alexander vii b one five nine nine one seven four five fran ois marie one st duc de broglie french military leader b one six seven one one seven four six thomas southerne irish dramatist b one six six zero one seven six zero israel ben eliezer polish born mystical rabbi b one seven zero zero one seven seven two durastante natalucci italian historian b one six eight seven one seven nine five ewald friedrich count von hertzberg prussian statesman b one seven two five one eight five nine king ferdinand ii of the two sicilies b one eight one zero one eight six eight julius pl cker german mathematician and physicist b one eight zero one one eight eight five victor hugo french author b one eight zero two one nine three two lady gregory writer b one eight five two one nine three nine ernst toller german author b one eight nine three one nine three nine jiri mahen czech author b one eight eight two one nine four nine klaus mann german writer b one nine zero six one nine six one hon leonard f morse co founder phi beta sigma fraternity b one eight nine one one nine six six tom goddard english cricketer b one nine zero zero one nine six seven langston hughes american writer b one nine zero two one nine seven two cecil day lewis irish poet and writer b one nine zero four one nine seven two margaret rutherford english actress b one eight nine two one nine eight three albert claude belgian biologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one eight nine nine one nine eight eight giorgio almirante italian politician b one nine one four one nine nine zero rocky graziano american boxer b one nine two two one nine nine two zellig harris american linguist b one nine zero nine one nine nine seven alfred hershey american biochemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one nine zero eight two zero zero four richard biggs american actor b one nine six zero two zero zero four mikhail voronin russian gymnist b one nine four five two zero zero five charilaos florakis greek politician b one nine one four two zero zero five julia randall american poet b one nine two four two zero zero five thurl ravenscroft american voice actor and singer b one nine one four holidays and observances feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church saint julia saint rita saint lupus saint atto saint fulk humilita saint romanus world biodiversity day republic of yemen national day trinity sunday in catholicism two zero zero five national heroes day in sri lanka external links bbc on this day may two one may two three april two two june two two listing of all days for any function that is continuous on a b and differentiable on a b there exists some c in the interval a b such that the secant joining the endpoints of the interval a b is parallel to the tangent at c in calculus the mean value theorem states roughly that given a section of a smooth curve there is a point on that section at which the gradient slope of the curve is equal to the average gradient of the section it is used to prove theorems that make global conclusions about a function on an interval starting from local hypotheses about derivatives at points of the interval this theorem can be understood concretely by applying it to motion if a car travels one hundred miles in one hour so that its average speed during that time was one zero zero miles per hour then at some time its instantaneous speed must have been exactly one zero zero miles per hour this theorem was first developed in india by parameshvara one three seven zero one four six zero in the kerala school and later by lagrange one seven three six one eight one three it is the most important result in differential calculus and is essential in proving the fundamental theorem of calculus the theorem is not often used to solve mathematical problems rather it is more commonly used to prove other theorems the mean value theorem can be used to prove taylor s theorem of which it is a special case formal statement let f a b r be a continuous function on the closed interval a b differentiable on the open interval a b then there exists some c in a b such that f c frac the mean value theorem is a generalization of rolle s theorem which assumes f a f b so that the right hand side above is zero the mean value theorem is still valid in a slightly more general setting one only needs to assume that f a b r is continuous on a b and that for every x in a b the limit lim frac exists as a finite number or equals proof an understanding of this and the point slope formula will make it clear that the equation of a secant which intersects a f a and b f b is y x a f a the formula f b f a b a gives the slope of the line joining the points a f a and b f b which we call a chord of the curve while f x gives the slope of the tangent to the curve at the point x f x thus the mean value theorem says that given any chord of a smooth curve we can find a point lying between the end points of the chord such that the tangent at that point is parallel to the chord the following proof illustrates this idea define g x f x rx where r is a constant since f is continuous on a b and differentiable on a b the same is true of g we choose r so that g satisfies the conditions of rolle s theorem which means g a g b qquad rightarrow qquad f a ra f b rb rightarrow qquad r frac by rolle s theorem there is some c in a b for which g c zero and it follows f c g c r zero r frac as required cauchy s mean value theorem cauchy s mean value theorem also known as the extended mean value theorem is the more general form of the mean value theorem it states if functions f t and g t are both continuous on the closed interval a b differentiable on the open interval a b and g t is not zero on that open interval then there exists some c in a b such that frac frac cauchy s mean value theorem can be used to prove l hopital s rule the mean value theorem is the special case of cauchy s mean value when g t pt q where p and q are constants and p zero proof of cauchy s mean value theorem the proof of cauchy s mean value theorem is based on the same idea as the proof of mean value theorem first we define a new function h t and then we aim to transform this function so that it satisfies the conditions of rolle s theorem h t f t m g t where m is a constant we choose m so that h a h b qquad rightarrow qquad m frac since h is continuous and h a h b by rolle s theorem there exists some c in a b such that h c zero i e h c zero f c frac g c rightarrow qquad frac frac as required mean value theorems for integration the first mean value theorem for integration states if g a b r is a continuous function and a b r is an integrable positive function then there exists a number x in a b such that int a b g t varphi t dt g x int a b varphi t dt in particular for t one there exists x in a b such that int a b g t dt g x b a the second mean value theorem for integration is stated as follows hiroshi okamura one nine four seven if g a b r is a monotonically decreasing function and a b r is an integrable function then there exists a number x in a b such that int a b g t varphi t dt g a zero int a x varphi t dt g b zero int x b varphi t dt see also arithmetic mean newmark beta method mean value theorem divided differences external links mathworld mean value theorem calculus mathematical theorems mallow is the common name of several closely related genera of plant in the family malvaceae althaea marsh mallow callirhoe poppy mallow kosteletzkya seashore mallow lavatera tree mallow or rose mallow malacothamnus santa cruz island bush mallow malva mallow malvaviscus turk s cap mallow sidalcea greek mallow sphaeralcea globemallow plants of the genus malva are herbaceous perennials the other genera include annuals herbaceous perennials sub shrubs shrubs and small trees including hibiscus several mallows are of horticultural merit some have other economic uses although none is a major crop plant mallow may also refer to the malvi language of the malwa region of india mallow is also the family name of a french family that migrated to great britain in the one seven zero zero s then to the united states in the one eight zero zero s mallow was also an oracle in greece see amphilochus for more information mallow county cork is a place in county cork in southern ireland mallow is a playable character in super mario rpg so called for his resemblance to a marshmallow marshmallows were once but are no longer made from the marsh mallow mallow was the nato codename for the soviet beriev be one zero jet engined flying boat marc l opold benjamin bloch july six one eight eight six june one six one nine four four was a french historian of medieval france in the period between the first and second world wars and a founder of the annales school marc bloch born at lyon the son of the professor of ancient history gustave bloch marc studied at the ecole normale sup rieure and foundation thiers in paris then at berlin and leipzig he was in the infantry in world war i and won the l gion d honneur after the war he went to the university at strasbourg then in one nine three six succeeded henri hauser as professor of economic history at the sorbonne a part of the university of strasbourg is now named after him see marc bloch university in one nine two four he published one of his most famous works les rois thaumaturges tude sur le caract re surnaturel attribu la puissance royale particuli rement en france et en angleterre sometimes translated in english as the magic working kings or the royal touch sacred monarchy and scrofula in england and france in which he collected described and studied the documents pertaining to the ancient tradition which wanted middle ages kings to be able to cure the disease of scrofula simply by touching the people suffering from it this tradition has its roots in the magical role covered by kings in ancient societies this work by bloch had a great impact not only in the social history of middle ages but also in cultural anthropolgy in one nine two nine bloch founded with lucien febvre the important journal annales d histoire conomique et sociale now called annales conomies soci t s civilisations whose name came to be attached to an historical approach called the annales school bloch s most important work centered on the study of feudalism bloch has had lasting influence in the field of historiography through his unfinished manuscript the historian s craft which he was working on when he was killed by the germans bloch s book and what is history by edward carr are often considered two of the most important historiographical works of the two zero th century bloch s last book strange defeat published posthumously was a brief assessment of the rapid failure of the french army to repel the german blitzkrieg in one nine four zero bloch was shot by the gestapo during the german occupation of france for his work in the french resistance works feudal society tr l a manyon chicago university of chicago press one nine six one isbn zero two two six zero five nine seven nine zero strange defeat a statement of evidence written in one nine four zero london oxford university press one nine four nine the historian s craft tr peter putnam new york vintage book one nine five three original french text references carole fink marc bloch a life in history cambridge university press one nine eight nine isbn zero five two one four zero six seven one four joseph lambie ed architects and craftmen in history one nine five six h stuart hughes the obstructed path french social thought in the years of desperation one nine three zero one nine six zero one nine six eight external links bio at lewis clark state college centre marc bloch universit marc bloch www marcbloch fr one eight eight six births one nine four four deaths french historians economic historians jewish historians feudalism historiography historiosophy french resistance members alumni of the cole normale sup rieure michael george francis ventris july one two one nine two two september six one nine five six was an english architect and classical scholar who along with john chadwick was responsible for the decipherment of linear b michael ventris was educated in switzerland and at stowe school housed in a magnificent one eight th century country house his mother dorothea dora ventris lived in berthold lubetkin s highpoint modernist apartments in highgate he could speak six european languages in addition to latin and classical greek he enrolled at the architectural association school of architecture in one nine four zero and graduated in one nine four eight after interrupting his training for service as a navigator in the royal air force a few years after deciphering linear b in one nine five one one nine five three ventris died in a car crash aged three four linear b at the beginning of the two zero th century archaeologist sir arthur evans began excavating knossos an ancient city located on the island of crete in doing so he uncovered a great many clay tablets inscribed with a previously unknown script some were older and were named linear a the bulk were of more recent vintage however and were dubbed linear b evans spent the next several decades trying to decipher both to no avail part of the difficulty stemmed from evans himself he had strong opinions about the nature of cretan civilization and was convinced that linear b was used to write a hypothetical language he named minoan a powerful political force in the academic world evans succeeded in cutting off any investigation into the possibility that the language being written on the tablets was greek despite some hints that this was the case ventris initial theory was that etruscan and minoan were related and that this might provide a key to decipherment and although this proved incorrect it was a link he continued to explore until the early one nine five zero s shortly after evans died it was noted by alice kober that certain words in linear b inscriptions had changing word endings perhaps declensions in the manner of latin or greek using this clue michael ventris constructed a series of grids associating the symbols on the tablets with consonants and vowels while which consonants and vowels they were remained mysterious ventris learned enough about the structure of the underlying language to begin guessing some linear b tablets had been discovered on the greek mainland and there was reason to believe that some of the chains of symbols he had encountered on the cretan tablets were names noting that certain names only appeared in the cretan texts he made the inspired guess that those names applied to cities on the island this proved to be correct armed with the symbols he could decipher from this ventris soon unlocked much text and determined that the underlying language of linear b was in fact greek this overturned evans theories of minoan history by establishing that cretan civilization at least in the later periods associated with the linear b tablets had been part of mycenean greece publications fiction on the untimely demise of m ventris during his effort to decipher linear a as hellenic language see also linear b mycenaean greece decipherment references simon tetlow ben harris david roques and a g meredith michael ventris remembered stowe school one nine eight four external links digitized letters of michael ventris at pasp character of ventris a very english genius how michael ventris cracked linear b bbc documentary film broadcast one seven august two zero zero five one nine two two births one nine five six deaths british classical scholars british philologists english architects polyglots road accident victims maniac mansion is a graphical adventure game originally released in one nine eight seven by lucasfilm games now known as lucasarts maniac mansion has become known among video game players and programmers for its highly acclaimed gameplay and its introduction of new ideas including multiple possible endings multiple user selectable characters with significantly different abilities and critical clues contained in numerous cut scenes into gaming plot summary at the start of the game the hero dave miller finds that his girlfriend sandy pantz has been abducted by dr fred edison and sets out to save her with two of his friends the player could select the friends from a group of six and the game would play somewhat differently depending on which friends were selected the game was clearly a parody of the horror b movie genre featuring a secret lab leftover tentacles and an evil mastermind maniac mansion was notable for its multiple possible endings depending on which characters the player used and which ones survived and what those characters did for instance you can send the adversary off into space or have him arrested by the meteor police or make him famous by having his autobiography published the game was somewhat notorious for featuring famous red herrings a chainsaw for which there was no fuel despite many wishful rumours to the contrary in one of the in jokes that are a hallmark of the lucasarts adventure games the second scumm game zak mckracken and the alien mindbenders contains some fuel for chainsaws only but no chainsaw plus in a later remake of the maniac mansion game the heroes can read a poster of the zak mckracken game in the arcade room and say i wonder what was the use of the gas can on mars in another reference the entire game is contained within its sequel day of the tentacle on a computer in the bedroom of one of the characters another is the staircase in the library with a sign staircase out of order that appears to be a puzzle but in fact there is no way to fix it or cross it to fix it a saw to procure some wood planks would have been needed maniac mansion was also the first game to feature chuck the plant found in the library chuck is later found in just about every other lucasarts adventure game and several games by other publishers other characters unlike most adventure games maniac mansion had several possible playable characters the player controls dave and two other characters chosen from six additional characters each of whom has their own distinct skills and quirks bernard bernouilli an ber nerd capable of disassembling complex electronics but suffering from overwhelming cowardice he reappears in maniac mansion two day of the tentacle as the main playable character razor is a sexy female punk rocker talented on many instruments wendy is a journalist writer jeff woodie is a surfer the most useless of the characters as his only ability is to repair the telephone which bernard can also do syd a new wave musician with the same abilities as razor michael f stoppe a photographer his being the only non caucasian character in the game is a jab at the one nine eight zero s slasher movie trend of token blacks dave however has no special talents of any kind on his own and is only required on account of being sandy s boyfriend in addition to the playable characters doctor fred and sandy a number of other colorful characters metaphorically and literally populate the mansion in the maniac mansion games nurse edna a gruesome lusty nurse into s how silly of me i should have tied you to my bed female characters are given the ominous you re lucky you re not a boy or you d be in big trouble right now weird ed fred and edna s macropalegic son is a survivalist paramilitary maniac with a hair trigger temper and an obsession with his pet hamster in one notorious sequence the player can actually steal the hamster microwave it and then give its remains to ed prompting ed to kill the offending character in the nes version of the game a glitch allows the character that ed has killed to come back as a ghost the character s sprite does not appear but can still be moved around the screen it is possible to complete the game with this ghost character dead cousin ted edna s cousin is a mummified corpse with his own private gym nudie magazine collection and a sarcophagus equipped with a television set green tentacle and purple tentacle a pair of ambulatory talking brightly colored tentacles are probably the two most memorable of the mansion residents the second game is named for the latter green is an aspiring rock and roll musician and purple is doctor fred s easily impressed henchman purple meteor is an evil intelligent meteor from outer space who is ultimately revealed to have coerced doctor fred into a life of villainy via mind control the exact means of dealing with the meteor remain up to the player amongst his several fates are death life imprisonment or an appearance on late night television with a johnny carson parody versions and ports the game was originally released for the commodore six four and was the first game to use the scumm engine allowing relatively quick ports to other platforms screenshot from the enhanced pc ega version maniac mansion was ported to the pc with ega graphics in one nine eight eight though it was also compatible with cga graphics the project leader was ron gilbert and the game was designed by gilbert and gary winnick the game was scripted by ron gilbert and david fox versions for the apple ii amiga and atari st computers were also released in one nine nine zero maniac mansion was ported by jaleco to the nintendo entertainment system although the game was somewhat censored for example brains sucked out changed to brains removed graphic of nude sculpture removed etc however nintendo initially overlooked the microwavable hamster trick many thousand copies of maniac mansion had shipped before nintendo censored it from the game in the early nine zero s progammer douglas crockford the man in charge of porting the game to the nintendo wrote an essay entitled the expurgation of maniac mansion which detailed his struggles with nintendo during the process of converting the game throughout the early one nine nine zero s the essay turned up in photocopy form and on numerous listservs eventually becoming widely available on several websites in the essay crockford details the arguably absurdist policy nintendo held in the early one nine nine zero s regarding its videogames essentially the policy held that all videogames had to be completely family oriented and could not contain anything that anyone could find offensive in any way such as religious references foul language violence or sexuality jaleco had released an uncensored version of the game for the famicom in japan two years earlier this version however featured vastly inferior graphics with simplified non scrolling backgrounds many of the rooms which featured elaborate details such as photographs and wallpaper patterns in western versions of the game were here presented as solid colored screens devoid of anything except objects necessary to complete the game and characters redrawn in a more cartoony super deformed style apparently an attempt to make the game more palatable to japanese audiences many of the characters ended up looking like blocks with faces in two zero zero four a free two five six colour fan made remake entitled maniac mansion deluxe was released by a group called lucasfan games the company as well as the website are down but the game is available for download at abandonia reloaded there was also a sitcom of the same name very loosely based on the game which aired from one nine nine zero to one nine nine three on ytv in canada and the family channel in the united states in the series dr fred edison joe flaherty is a scientist with a meteor in his basement which has turned his four year old son turner george buza into a very large man and his brother in law harry john hemphill into a fly with a human head rounding out the cast were fred s wife casey deborah theaker their other children tina kathleen robertson and ike avi phillips and harry s wife idella mary charlotte wilcox much of the cast and crew including creator eugene levy were alumni of sctv and as a result the two shows share a similar style of comedy an interesting notation maniac mansion although including many horror science fiction elements is the only series of lucasfilm adventures that occurs in a real world present day setting and doesn t belong to the future full throttle the dig zak mckracken the past indiana jones monkey island or an alternate version of reality sam and max external links maniac mansion amiga version info page scummvm is a virtual machine for several classic scumm script creation utility for maniac mansion games the untold story the expurgation of maniac mansion for the nintendo entertainment system by douglas crockford who participated to the conversion of the game for the nes the untold story of maniac mansion by douglas crockford on wired com the maniac mansion fan site a faq for the nes version of the game the unofficial maniac mansion fan site fan site for the tv show one nine eight seven computer and video games adventure games amiga games apple ii games atari st games comedy computer and video games commodore six four games dos games lucasarts games pc games nes games science fiction computer and video games television programs based on computer and video games scummvm supported games see marx brothers fencing for the one six th century german brotherhood the marx brothers were a team of sibling comedians that appeared in vaudeville stage plays film and television born in new york city the marx brothers were the sons of jewish immigrants from different parts of germany their mother minnie sch nberg originally hailed from dornum in east frisia germany and their father simon frenchie marrix whose name was anglicized to sam marx from alsace nowadays a part of france the family lived in the upper east side of new york city between the irish german and italian quarters the marx brothers groucho gummo minnie mother zeppo frenchy father chico and harpo about the time of their act fun in hi skule one nine one three all brothers and their real names were manfred was born in one eight eight five and died in infancy chico leonard one eight eight seven one nine six one harpo adolph later arthur one eight eight eight one nine six four groucho julius henry one eight nine zero one nine seven seven gummo milton one eight nine two one nine seven seven zeppo herbert one nine zero one one nine seven nine stage beginnings born to a family of artists the musical talent of the brothers was encouraged from an early age harpo was especially talented and could play nearly any instrument however his focus was the harp from which he derived his nickname and which he often played on film chico was an excellent and histrionic pianist and groucho played the guitar they got their start in vaudeville where their uncle albert sch nberg was performing as al shean of gallagher and shean groucho s debut was in one nine zero five predominately as a singer by one nine zero seven he and gummo were singing together as two thirds of the three nightingales with mabel o donnell the next year harpo became the fourth nightingale by one nine one zero the group was expanded to include their mother and their aunt hannah and the troupe was renamed the six mascots one evening a performance at the opera house in nacogdoches texas was interrupted by shouts from outside about a runaway mule the audience hurried outside to see what was happening and when they returned groucho infuriated by the interruption announced nacogdoches is full of roaches and the jackass is the flower of tex ass instead of becoming angry in return the audience laughed and afterward the family began to consider the possibility that they had potential as a comic troupe slowly the act evolved from singing with some incidental comedy to a comedy with some music like their sketch set in a schoolroom fun in hi skule featuring groucho as a german accented teacher presiding over a classroom which included students harpo gummo and by one nine one two chico the last version of the school act entitled home again was written by al shean around this time gummo left the group to fight in world war i anything is better than being an actor zeppo would replace him for their final vaudeville years through their leap to broadway and the subsequent paramount pictures during world war i anti german sentiments grew and the family tried to hide their german origin harpo changed his real first name from adolph to arthur and groucho discontinued his german stage personality by this time the brothers now the four marx brothers had begun to incorporate their unique brand of comedy into their act and to develop their characters groucho began to wear his trademark greasepaint moustache and to use a stooped walk harpo began to wear a red fright wig carried a taxi cab horn and never spoke chico started to talk in a fake italian accent developed off stage to deal with neighbourhood toughs and zeppo adopted the schleppy juvenile role of the straight man the on stage personalities of groucho chico and harpo were said to have been based on their actual traits although in real life harpo could talk zeppo on the other hand was considered the funniest offstage brother despite his limited straight stage roles being the youngest and having grown up watching his brothers he was also the one who could fill in for and nearly perfectly imitate the others when illness kept them from a performance he was so good as captain spaulding in animal crackers that i would have let him play the part indefinitely if they had allowed me to smoke in the audience groucho recalled their stage names were coined by monologist art fisher during a poker game on the road based both on the brothers personalities and knocko the monk a popular comic strip of the day which included a supporting character named groucho julius marx was named groucho for his saturnine disposition for the fact that he carried his money in a grouch bag for safe keeping and or after the comic strip s character depending on which marx brother or associate one asks arthur was named harpo because he played the harp and leonard named chico pronounced chick o after his affinity for the ladies chicks in his autobiography harpo speaks limelight editions one nine eight five isbn zero eight seven nine one zero zero three six two harpo explains that milton became gummo because he crept about the theater like a gumshoe detective and herbert was dubbed zeppo for his athletic prowess and ability to do chin ups like zippo the chimpanzee however in the one nine nine three documentary the unknown marx brothers groucho remarks in a taped interview that zeppo was named after the first zeppelins while chico s daughter maxine insists that zeppo was named after zeke and zeb jokes which were popular in the midwest when the marx brothers lived in chicago in the one nine two zero s the marx brothers became one of america s favourite theatrical acts with their sharp and bizarre sense of humour they satirized institutions like high society and human hypocrisy in addition they became famous for their improvisational comedy in their free form scenarios a famous early example was when harpo instructed a chorus girl to run across the stage in front of groucho during his act with him chasing to see if groucho would be thrown off however to the audience s delight groucho merely reacted with an improvised joke of calmly checking his watch and commenting first time i ever saw a taxi hail a passenger and when harpo chased the girl back the other direction you can always set your watch by the nine two zero under chico s management and with groucho s creative direction the brothers vaudeville act had become successful enough to make them stars on broadway first with a musical revue i ll say she is one nine two four one nine two five followed by two musical comedies the cocoanuts one nine two five one nine two six and animal crackers one nine two eight one nine two nine playwright george s kaufman worked on the latter two shows and helped to sharpen the brothers characterizations hollywood the marx brothers stage shows became popular just as hollywood was making the change to talkies the brothers struck a contract with paramount and embarked on their career in movies their first two released films they had previously made but not released one short silent film titled humor risk were adaptations of broadway shows the cocoanuts one nine two nine and animal crackers one nine three zero both were written by george s kaufman and morrie ryskind following these two feature length films they made a short film that was included in paramount s twentieth anniversary documentary the house that shadows built one nine three one in which they adapted a scene from i ll say she is their third feature length film monkey business one nine three one was their first that was not based on a stage production horse feathers one nine three two in which the brothers satirized the american college system and prohibition was their most popular film yet and won them the cover of time magazine it included a running gag from their films where harpo revealed having nearly everything in his coat at various points in horse feathers harpo pulls out of his coat a wooden mallet a fish a coiled rope a tie a poster of a woman in her underwear a cup of hot coffee a sword and a candle burning at both ends their last paramount film duck soup one nine three three directed by the most highly regarded director they ever worked with leo mccarey is now considered by many their finest it s the only marx brothers film on the american film institute s one zero zero years one zero zero movies list common wisdom holds the film failed but this was actually incorrect it did not do as well as horse feathers but was the sixth highest grosser of one nine three three the marx brothers left paramount mostly due to disagreements over creative decisions and financial issues after zeppo left the act the three remaining brothers moved to metro goldwyn mayer and following the suggestion of producer irving thalberg decided to alter their formula in the rest of their movies their comedy would be interwoven with romantic plots and non comic musical numbers while the targets of their mischief was largely confined to clear villains only their paramount films represent what is considered their genius in its pure form the first movie that the brothers shot with thalberg was a night at the opera one nine three five a witty satire of the world of opera music where the brothers help two young singers in love by throwing a production of il trovatore into silly chaos the film was a great success and for decades until critics and fans took a second look at their paramount films was generally considered their best work the film was a huge success followed two years later by the even bigger hit a day at the races one nine three seven where the brothers caused mayhem at a horse race however during shooting in one nine three six thalberg died suddenly and without him the brothers didn t have an advocate at mgm marx brothers by yousuf karsh one nine four eight after a short experience at rko room service one nine three eight the marx brothers made three mediocre pictures before leaving mgm at the circus one nine three nine go west one nine four zero and the big store one nine four one none of these had the quality of their first two mgm pictures nor did they perform as well at the box office to face up chico s gambling debts the marx brothers shot another two pictures together a night in casablanca one nine four six and love happy one nine four nine both of them produced by united artists then they worked together but in different scenes in the story of mankind one nine five seven this was followed by a television special the incredible jewel robbery in one nine five nine chico and harpo went on to make nightclub and casino appearances sometimes together groucho began a career as a radio and tv entertainer from one nine four seven to the early one nine six zero s he was the host of the humorous quiz show you bet your life he was also an author his writings include the autobiographical groucho and me one nine five nine and memoirs of a mangy lover one nine six four the one nine five seven tv talk show tonight america after dark hosted by jack lescoulie may supply the only public footage in which all five brothers appeared in one nine seven zero the four marx brothers had a brief reunion of sorts in the animated abc television special the mad mad mad comedians produced by rankin bass animation of rudolph the red nosed reindeer fame the special featured animated reworkings of various famous comedians acts including w c fields jack benny george burns henny youngman the smothers brothers flip wilson phyllis diller jack e leonard george jessel and the marx brothers most of the comedians provided their own voices for their animated counterparts except for w c fields chico marx who had passed away and zeppo marx who left show biz in one nine three three voice actor paul frees filled in for all three the marx brothers segment was a reworking of a scene from their broadway play i ll say she is a parody of napoleon that groucho considered among the brothers funniest routines the sketch featured animated representations if not the voices of all four brothers romeo muller is credited as having written special material for the show but the script for the classic napoleon scene was probably supplied by groucho on january one six one nine seven seven the marx brothers were inducted into the motion picture hall of fame filmography films with at least four of the brothers humor risk one nine two six previewed once and never released thought to be lost the cocoanuts one nine two nine released by paramount animal crackers one nine three zero released by paramount the house that shadows built one nine three one released by paramount short subject monkey business one nine three one released by paramount horse feathers one nine three two released by paramount duck soup one nine three three released by paramount films with only harpo chico groucho a night at the opera one nine three five released by mgm a day at the races one nine three seven released by mgm room service one nine three eight released by rko at the circus one nine three nine released by mgm go west one nine four zero released by mgm the big store one nine four one released by mgm a night in casablanca one nine four six released by united artists love happy one nine four nine released by united artists the story of mankind one nine five seven released by warner bros solo endeavors groucho copacabana one nine four seven released by united artists double dynamite one nine five one released by rko a girl in every port one nine five two released by rko will success spoil rock hunter one nine five seven released by two zero th century fox uncredited the mikado one nine six zero made for television skidoo one nine six eight released by paramount harpo too many kisses one nine two five released by paramount stage door canteen one nine four three released by united artists cameo zeppo a kiss in the dark one nine two five released by paramount cameo characters movieyeargroucho chicoharpozeppo humor risk one nine two six the villain the italianwatson detectivethe love interest the cocoanuts one nine two nine mr hammer chico harpo jamison animal crackers one nine three zero captain geoffrey t spaulding ravellithe professorhoratio jamison the house that shadows built one nine three one caesar s ghost tomaliothe merchant of weinerssammy brown monkey business one nine three one groucho chicoharpozeppo horse feathers one nine three two professor quincy adams wagstaff baravellipinkyfrank wagstaff duck soup one nine three three rufus t firefly chicolinipinkylt bob roland a night at the opera one nine three five otis b driftwood fiorellotomasso a day at the races one nine three seven dr hugo z hackenbush tonystuffy room service one nine three eight gordon miller harry binellifaker englund at the circus one nine three nine j cheever loophole antonio pirellipunchy go west one nine four zero s quentin quale joe panellorusty panello the big store one nine four one wolf j flywheel ravelliwacky a night in casablanca one nine four six ronald kornblow corbacciorusty love happy one nine four nine sam grunion faustino the greatharpo the story of mankind one nine five seven peter minuit monksir isaac newton see also margaret dumont external links and references www marx brothers org why a duck marx o rama marxology marx brothers forum the marx brothers museum the internet obituary network groucho marx marx brothers night at the opera treasury the marx brothers biography american actors american comedians jewish comedy marx brothers people from new york city in search of a new car the player picks door three the game host then opens door one to reveal a goat and offers to let the player pick door two instead of door three the monty hall problem is a puzzle involving probability that is loosely based on the american game show let s make a deal the name comes from the show s host monty hall in this puzzle a player is shown three closed doors behind one is a car and behind each of the other two is a goat the player is allowed to open one door and will win whatever is behind the door however after the player selects a door but before opening it the game host who knows what s behind the doors must open another door revealing a goat the host then must offer the player an option to switch to the other closed door does switching improve the player s chance of winning the car the answer is yes switching results in the chances of winning the car improving from one three to two three the problem is also called the monty hall paradox in the sense that the solution is counterintuitive although the problem does not yield a logical contradiction one would think that nothing has changed after the opening of the door so the chances would still be equal between the two remaining doors but something has changed the gameshow host has divulged information he could not have picked a goat door without knowing in which one the car is problem and solution the problem here is a famous statement of the problem from a letter from craig f whitaker of columbia maryland to marilyn vos savant s september nine one nine nine zero column in parade magazine as quoted by bohl liberatore and nydick suppose you re on a game show and you re given the choice of three doors behind one door is a car behind the others goats you pick a door say no one and the host who knows what s behind the doors opens another door say no three which has a goat he then says to you do you want to pick door no two is it to your advantage to switch your choice this is a restatement of the problem as given by steve selvin in a letter to the american statistician february one nine seven five as stated the problem is an extrapolation from the game show monty hall did open a wrong door to build excitement but did not allow players to change their choice as monty hall wrote to selvin and if you ever get on my show the rules hold fast for you no trading boxes after the selection from the lets make a deal website selvin s subsequent letter to the american statistician august one nine seven five appears to be the first use of the term monty hall problem an essentially identical problem appeared as the three prisoners problem in martin gardner s mathematical games column in one nine five nine gardner s version makes the selection procedure explicit avoiding the unstated assumptions in the parade magazine version the first appearance of the problem was probably the one presented in joseph bertrand s calcul des probabilit s one eight eight nine where it was known as bertrand s box paradox an unambiguous statement of the problem with explicit constraints on the host as described by mueser and granberg behind each of three doors is either a goat or a car two goats one car with the car behind each door with equal probability the player picks one of the three doors the contents are not revealed the game host knows what is behind each door the game host must open one of the remaining doors and must make the offer to switch the game host will always open a door with a goat that is if the player picks a door with a goat the game host picks the other door with a goat and if the player picks the door with a car the game host randomly picks either of the two doors with a goat the host offers the player the chance to either claim what is behind the originally chosen door or to switch claiming what is behind the one remaining door do the player s odds of getting the car increase by switching the solution the answer to the problem is yes the chance of winning the car is doubled when the player switches to another door rather than sticking with the original choice there are only three possible scenarios each with equal probability one three the player picks goat number one the game host picks the other goat switching will win the car the player picks goat number two the game host picks the other goat switching will win the car the player picks the car the game host picks either of the two goats switching will lose in the first two scenarios the player wins by switching the third scenario is the only one where the player wins by staying since two out of three scenarios win by switching and each scenario is equally likely the odds of winning by switching are two three in other words a player who has a policy of always switching will win the car on average two times out of the three the problem would be different if there were no initial choice or if the game host picked a door to open at random or if the game host were permitted to make the offer to switch more often or only depending on knowledge of the player s original choice some statements of the problem notably the one in parade magazine do not explicitly exclude these possibilities for example if the game host only offers the opportunity to switch if the contestant originally chooses the car the odds of winning by switching are zero in the problem as stated above it is because the host must always reveal a goat and must always make the offer to switch that the player has a two three chance of winning by switching another way of getting the solution is that assuming you will switch the only way of losing would be by originally picking the winning door i e you initially bet that you ll find the prize if you did pick the winning door switching will make you lose by switching you essentially invert your chances from one three to two three i e by switching you actually bet on not having chosen the winning door in the first pick aids to understanding the most common objection to the solution is the idea that for various reasons the past can be ignored when assessing the probability thus the first door choice and the host s reasoning about which door he opens are ignored because there are two doors to choose from there is then a fifty fifty chance of choosing the right one although ignoring the past works fine for some games like coin flipping it doesn t work for all games the most notable counterexample is card counting in some card games which allows players to use information on past events to their advantage past information helps also in the monty hall problem as shown below another possible reason for confusion is that the problem is often stated as though the host takes the player by surprise with his opening of the door this tends to give the impression that the host is trying to confuse a player who has chosen correctly this is why the rules are so strictly formulated in the previous section the player may still not know these rules but that does not alter the probability it just means the player is discouraged from rationally considering the options and making the optimal choice venn diagrams the probability that the car is behind the remaining door can be calculated with the venn diagrams below after choosing door three for example the player has a one three chance of having selected the door with the car leaving a two three chance between the other two doors note that there is a one zero zero chance of finding a goat behind at least one of the two unchosen doors because there is only one car image monty four png the host now opens door one since the host must always open a door revealing a goat and does not open a door at random opening this door does not affect the chance that the car is behind the originally chosen door which remains one three the car is not behind door one so the entire two three probability of the two unchosen doors is now carried only by door two as shown below another way to state this is that if the car is behind either door one or two by opening door one the host has revealed it must be behind door two image monty three png a more formal probability diagram is shown below image monty three jpg the diagram shows that there is a two three chance of being at a or b with a need to switch there is only a one three chance of being at c or d wherein it is best to stick with the original choice thus the decision with the higher probability of success is choosing to switch note that switching at random is quite distinct from just keeping the original choice having arrived at a b c or d if the contestant then blindly flips a coin to choose whether to switch or stand pat then there is a five zero chance of ending up with the car however the choice doesn t have to be made at random the coin flip gives a five zero chance of being the option with one three likelihood and five zero of being the option with two three likelihood so they balance there are three cases the following diagram extends the tree in the event that the contestant elects to flip a coin image monty four jpg the result is one of twelve outcomes with the probabilities indicated the sum of outcomes with the car is one two and the sum of outcomes with the goat is also one two the following diagram shows what happens if the contestant never switches the original pick image monty five jpg in this case the outcomes arriving at a goat add to two three while the car is one three contrast that with the third case here in which the switch is always chosen image monty six jpg this time the car is a two three possibility and the goat only one three increasing the number of doors it may be easier to appreciate the result by considering a hundred doors instead of just three in this case there are nine nine doors with goats behind them and one door with a prize the player picks a door nine nine of the time the player will pick a door with a goat thus the chances of picking the winning door at first are very small only one the game host then opens nine eight of the other doors revealing nine eight goats and offers the player the chance to switch to the other unopened door on nine nine out of one zero zero occasions the other door will contain the prize as nine nine out of one zero zero times the player first picked a door with a goat at this point a rational player should always switch to drive the point home one only has to imagine the host having to start with the first door and go down the line opening the doors but skipping over only the player s door and one other door the player can then more easily appreciate the randomness of his first choice and the large amount of information he has gained since he made that choice and then see the wisdom in switching there is a reasonable question to this logic if we increase the number of doors why does this explanation assume the host would open nine eight doors to make the problem similar to the original why doesn t the host open three three doors instead that s actually an essential ingredient for the counter intuitiveness of the original problem it s correct to assume the host would open nine eight doors in this alternate game because in the three door game the player has only one switching option so the player in the one zero zero door game must also be presented with a single switching option the three door game is misleading because the player is always presented with one three proportions he has a one three chance of winning the host reveals one three of the mystery and he is allowed to switch to the other one three option therefore all options seem equal combining doors instead of one losing door being opened and thus eliminated from the possible array of choices it may equivalently be regarded as combining two doors into one i e reducing the two doors which were not chosen into a single option since the player can t and won t choose the opened losing door anymore in essence this means the player has the choice of either sticking with their original choice of door one three chances or choosing the sum of the contents of the two other doors two three chances notice how the game assumptions play a role here the switching is equivalent to taking the combined contents because the game host is required to open a door with a goat bayes theorem analysis of the problem using bayes theorem has the least reliance on verbiage and the most on formal mathematics it also makes explicit the effect of the assumptions given earlier consider the position when door three has been chosen and no door has been opened the probabilities p c one that the car is behind door one p c two car behind door two and p c three car behind door three are all plainly one three the probability that the game host will open door one p o one is one two p o one p c one times p o one c one p c two times p o one c two p c three times p o one c three frac times zero frac times one frac times frac frac when the car is behind door one the game host will never open door one when the car is behind door two the game host will certainly open door one and when the car is behind door three he will open door one or door two with probabilities one two hence the probability that the car is behind door two given that the game host opens door one is p c two o one frac frac frac and in the same way you may find p c one o two that is also two three opposing player consider the game as a two player game in which player a chooses and opens a door the game host then opens a goat door player b then gets what is behind the remaining door since the first player will choose the car door only one in three times the second player will win the car two out of three times thus the car is behind the remaining door two out of three times simulation instead of attempting to calculate the exact probability of winning the car we can execute a simulation of the game and find the fraction of times the player wins by the law of large numbers this is likely to approximate the probability of winning here is the output of a sample run of the perl language simulation for the default three zero zero zero iterations alternative implementations are also available playing three zero zero zero games grand totals sticker has won one zero one three times switcher has won one nine eight seven times the win rates three three eight vs six six two with about two margin of error closely approximate the theoretical probabilities card game experiment there is a simple way for anyone to convince themselves that a switching strategy really does win two out of three times on the average and that is to simulate the game with playing cards playing monty s role the simulator takes three cards from an ordinary deck to represent the three doors one special card such as the ace of spades should be picked to represent the door with the car and ordinary cards such as the two red twos picked to represent the goat doors the simulator then repeats the following procedure several times to simulate multiple rounds of the game one card is dealt at random to the player to represent the door the player picks initially the simulator as monty then looks at the two cards in his hand and discards a red two of which he will have at least one if the card remaining in the simulator s hand is the ace of spades this is recorded as a round where the player would have won by switching if the simulator is holding a red two the round is recorded as one where staying would have won running the experiment over enough rounds should not only verify that the player does win by switching two times out of three but show the simulator why two times out of three after one card has been dealt to the player the ace of spades is in monty s hand and at that point it is already determined whether staying or switching will win the round for the player if this is not sufficiently convincing the simulator can try the experiment with the entire deck dealing one card to the player and keeping the other fifty one seeing that the ace of spades goes to monty fifty one times out of fifty two and stays with monty no matter how many non ace cards he discards should bring the point home variants two players with several minutes remaining in the game the game host chose two players for the big deal behind one of three doors was the grand prize each player was allowed to choose a door not the same one in this scenario a variant of selvin s problem can be stated the game host eliminates a player with a goat behind their door if both players had a goat one is eliminated at random without letting the players know about it opens the door and then offers the remaining player a chance to switch should the remaining player switch the answer is no the reason a switcher in this game will win if and only if both players originally pick goats how likely is that one three a sticker will win in the remaining two three of the cases so stickers will win twice as often as switchers alternatively there are three possible scenarios all with equal probability one three player one picks the door with the car the host must eliminate player two switching loses player two picks the door with the car the host must eliminate player one switching loses neither player picks the car the host eliminates one of the players randomly switching wins player one is the remaining player in the first case and half the time in the third case and switching loses one three chance twice as often as it wins one six chance similarly player two is the remaining player in the second case and half the time in the third and loses twice as often by switching regardless of which player remains there is two three probability of winning with the sticking strategy n doors there is a generalization of the original problem to n doors in the first step you choose a door the game host then opens some other door that s a loser if you want you may then switch your allegiance to another door the game host will then open an as yet unopened losing door different from your current preference then you may switch again and so on this continues until there are only two unopened doors left your current choice and another one how many times should you switch and when if at all the best strategy is stick with your first choice all the way through but then switch at the very end with this strategy the probability of winning is n one n this was proven by bapeswara rao and rao bridge principle a common variant has been understood by bridge players for many years prior to the vos savant article it is known as the principle of restricted choice another explanation is available at http www acbl district one three org artic zero zero three htm quantum version there is a quantum version of the paradox which illustrates some points about the relation between classical non quantum information and quantum information as encoded in the states of quantum mechanical systems the three doors are replaced by a quantum system allowing three alternatives and opening a door and looking behind it is translated as making a particular measurement the rules can be stated in this language and once again the choice for the player is to stick by her first choice or change to another orthogonal option the latter strategy turns out to double the chances just as in the classical case however if the show host has not randomized the position of the prize in a fully quantum mechanical way the player can do even better and can sometimes even win the prize with certainty there is an article explaining it and an applet demonstrating the effects similar problems three cards problem boy or girl origins despite similarity in their name the game used in the monty hall problem is not related to three card monte a gambling game in which the player has to find a single winning card among three face down cards the monty hall problem is essentially a reasoning problem and involves no deception or tricks whereas in three card monte the dealer tries to trick the player into picking the wrong card as the card is often a queen court card it is also known as find the lady an older puzzle in probability theory involves three prisoners one of whom already chosen at random but unknown to the prisoners is to be executed in the morning the first prisoner begs the guard to tell him which of the other two will go free arguing that this reveals no information about whether the prisoner will be the victim the guard responds by claiming that if the prisoner knows that a specific one of the other two prisoners will go free it will raise the first prisoner s subjective chance of being executed from one three to one two the question is whether the analysis of the prisoner or the guard is correct in the version given by martin gardner the guard then performs a particular randomizing procedure for selecting which name to give the prisoner this gives the equivalent of the monty hall problem without the usual ambiguities in its presentation anecdotes after this problem s solution was discussed in marilyn vos savant s ask marilyn question and answer column of parade magazine in one nine nine zero vos savant estimates one zero zero zero zero readers including several hundred mathematics professors wrote in to declare that her solution was wrong this column and its response received considerable attention in the press including a front page story in the new york times july two one one nine nine one in which monty hall himself was interviewed he appeared to understand the problem quite well giving the reporter a demo with car keys and explaining how actual game play on let s make a deal differed from the rules of the puzzle an equally contentious discussion of vos savant s article took place in cecil adams s column the straight dope the version of the problem published in the magazine leaves critical assumptions about the host s behavior unstated this version does not say that the host must always make the offer to switch or that the host must always open a door to reveal a goat without these constraints other solutions are possible although nearly all the criticism was not based on the lack of these assumptions even with these assumptions explicitly stated many people insistently argue the correct answer must be wrong over four zero papers have been published about this problem in academic journals and the popular press as a result of the publicity the problem earned the alternative name marilyn and the goats the monty hall problem is discussed from the perspective of a boy with autism in the curious incident of the dog in the night time a two zero zero three novel by mark haddon this situation is also addressed in a lecture by the character charlie in an episode of the cbs drama numb three rs episode one one three an account of mathematician paul erd s s first encounter of the problem can be found in the man who loved only numbers like many others he initially got it wrong the syndicated npr program car talk featured this as one of their weekly puzzlers and the answer they featured was quite clearly explained as the correct one transcript here also available in their book haircut in horse town references bapeswara rao v v and rao m bhaskara one nine nine two a three door game show and some of its variants the mathematical scientist one seven no two pp eight nine nine four bohl alan h liberatore matthew j and nydick robert l one nine nine five a tale of two goats and a car or the importance of assumptions in problem solutions journal of recreational mathematics one nine nine five pp one nine joseph bertrand one eight eight nine calcul des probabilites gardner martin one nine five nine mathematical games column scientific american october one nine five nine pp one eight zero one eight two reprinted in the second scientific american book of mathematical puzzles and diversions mueser peter r and granberg donald one nine nine nine the monty hall dilemma revisited understanding the interaction of problem definition and decision making university of missouri working paper nine nine zero six http econwpa wustl edu eight zero eps exp papers nine nine zero six nine nine zero six zero zero one html retrieved july five two zero zero five nahin paul j duelling idiots and other probability puzzlers princeton university press princeton nj two zero zero zero pp one nine two one nine three isbn zero six nine one zero zero nine seven nine one selvin steve one nine seven five a a problem in probability letter to the editor american statistician two nine one six seven february one nine seven five selvin steve one nine seven five b on the monty hall problem letter to the editor american statistician two nine three one three four august one nine seven five tierney john one nine nine one behind monty hall s doors puzzle debate and answer the new york times two one july one nine nine one sunday section one part one page one column five vos savant marilyn one nine nine zero ask marilyn column parade magazine p one two one seven february one nine nine zero cited in bohl et al one nine nine five adams cecil one nine nine zero on let s make a deal you pick door one monty opens door two no prize do you stay with door one or switch to three the straight dope november two one nine nine zero http www straightdope com classics a three one eight nine html retrieved july two five two zero zero five tijms henk two zero zero four understanding probability chance rules in everyday life cambridge university press new york pp two one three two one five external links monty hall problem the monty hall problem at letsmakeadeal com quotes monty s letter to steve selvin in full monty hall paradox let s make a deal lengthy bibliography monty hall dilemma at cut the knot the monty hall problem a game simulation illustration by a demonstrative user friendly and versatile game simulation grand illusions explanation and various simulators secret of monty hall explanation from the bad door side monty hall simulator simulators for the keep and change strategy in perl with data files representing the results of playing the game one million times with each strategy monty hall over easy a short proof using a table of outcomes realtime global simulation a simulation which tallies up the results from every user who has ever played the monty hall problem web page a simple presentation of the problem and its solution a tree diagram of the monty hall problem under the marilyn vos savant assumptions probability theory paradoxes game theory may two eight is the one four eight th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one four nine th in leap years there are two one seven days remaining events five eight five bc a solar eclipse occurs as predicted by thales while alyattes is battling cyaxares in the battle of the eclipse leading to a truce this is one of the cardinal dates from which other dates can be calculated one five zero three james iv of scotland and margaret tudor are married by pope alexander vi according to papal bull one five zero three the treaty of everlasting peace between scotland and england is signed which would actually last one zero years one five eight eight the spanish armada with one three zero ships and three zero zero zero zero men begins to set sail from lisbon heading for the english channel it will take until may three zero for all ships to leave port one six four four bolton massacre by royalist troops under the command of the earl of derby one seven five four french and indian war in the first engagement of the war virginia militia under two two year old lieutenant colonel george washington defeat a french reconnaissance party at jumonville glen in what is now fayette couty in southwestern pennsylvania one seven seven four american revolutionary war the first continental congress convenes one eight six three american civil war the five four th massachusetts the first african american regiment leaves boston massachusetts to fight for the union one eight nine two in san francisco california john muir organizes the sierra club one nine zero five russo japanese war the battle of tsushima ends with the destruction of the russian baltic fleet by admiral togo heihachiro and the imperial japanese navy one nine one eight the first republic of armenia declares its statehood one nine one eight independence day in the azerbaijan republic one nine two six military dictatorship established in portugal to suppress the unrest of the first republic one nine three zero the chrysler building in new york city officially opens one nine three four near callender ontario the dionne quintuplets are born to olivia and elzire dionne later becoming the first quintuplets to survive infancy one nine three four the glyndebourne festival in england is inaugurated one nine three six alan turing submits on computable numbers for publication one nine three seven the golden gate bridge in san francisco california is officially opened by president franklin d roosevelt in washington dc who pushes a button signaling the start of vehicle traffic over the span one nine three seven neville chamberlain becomes british prime minister one nine four zero world war ii belgium surrenders to germany one nine four zero world war ii norwegian french polish and british forces recapture narvik first allied infantry victory in ww two one nine four two world war ii in retaliation for the assassination of reinhard heydrich nazis in czechoslovakia kill over one eight zero zero people one nine six one peter benenson s article the forgotten prisoners is published in several internationally read newspapers this will later be thought of as the founding of the human rights organization amnesty international one nine six four the palestine liberation organization is formed one nine six nine sound engineer glyn johns mixes the second of the beatles bootlegs one nine seven four northern ireland s power sharing sunningdale agreement collapses following a general strike by loyalists one nine seven five fifteen west african countries sign the treaty of lagos thus creating the economic community of west african states one nine seven seven in southgate kentucky the beverly hills supper club is engulfed in fire killing one six five people inside one nine seven eight second round of the presidential elections in upper volta elections wonm by incumbent sangoul lamizana one nine eight two falklands war british forces defeat the argentines at the battle of goose green one nine eight seven one nine year old west german pilot mathias rust evades soviet union air defenses and lands a private plane in red square in moscow he is immediately detained and is not released until august three one nine eight eight one nine eight seven a robot probe finds the wreckage of the uss monitor near cape hatteras north carolina one nine nine one the capital city of addis ababa falls to the ethiopian people s revolutionary democratic front ending both the derg regime in ethiopia and the ethiopian civil war one nine nine five the russian town of neftegorsk is hit by a seven six magnitude earthquake that kills at least two zero zero zero people two three of total population one nine nine eight nuclear testing pakistan responds to a series of indian nuclear tests with five of its own prompting the united states japan and other nations to impose economic sanctions one nine nine nine in milan italy after two two years of restoration work leonardo de vinci s newly restored masterpiece the last supper is put back on display two zero zero zero the volcano mount cameroon erupts two zero zero three peter hollingworth becomes the first governor general of australia to resign his office as a result of criticism of his conduct two zero zero four g four and techtv offically merge to form the highly controversial g four techtv network the merger was a complete failure and although the plan was to get techtv s millions of viewers hooked on g four it backfired and is now known as one of the largest flops in entertainment history births one one four zero xin qiji chinese poet d one two zero seven one three seven one john the fearless duke of burgundy d one four one nine one five two four selim ii ottoman sultan d one five seven four one five eight two william fiennes one st viscount saye and sele english statesman d one six six two one five eight eight pierre seguier chancellor of france d one six seven two one six four one janez vajkard valvasor slovenian polymath d one six nine three one six six zero king george i of great britain d one seven two seven one six seven six jacopo riccati italian mathematician d one seven five four one seven five nine william pitt the younger prime minister of the united kingdom d one eight zero six one seven seven nine thomas moore irish poet d one eight five two one eight zero seven louis agassiz swiss born zoologist and geologist d one eight seven three one eight one eight pierre beauregard american confederate general d one eight nine three one eight three six alexander mitscherlich german chemist d one nine one eight one eight three seven george ashlin irish architect d one nine two one one eight five three carl larsson swedish painter d one nine one nine one eight five eight carl rickard nyberg swedish inventor d one nine three nine one eight seven two marian smoluchowski polish physicist d one nine one seven one eight seven eight paul pelliot french sinologist d one nine four five one eight eight three vinayak damodar savarkar indian freedom fighter d one nine six six one eight eight four edvard bene czech politician d one nine four eight one eight eight seven jim thorpe american athlete d one nine five three one eight nine two sepp dietrich german ss officer d one nine six six one nine zero zero tommy ladnier american musician d one nine three nine one nine zero eight ian fleming english author d one nine six four one nine one zero t bone walker american singer d one nine seven five one nine one zero lady rachel kempson english actress d two zero zero three one nine one one thora hird british actress d two zero zero three one nine one one fritz hochw lder austrian author d one nine eight six one nine one two patrick white australian writer nobel prize laureate d one nine nine zero one nine one two herman johannes indonesian professor scientist and politician d one nine nine two one nine one four w g g duncan smith british world war ii pilot d one nine nine six one nine one five joseph greenberg american linguist d two zero zero one one nine one six walker percy american author d one nine nine zero one nine one seven papa john creech american musician d one nine nine four one nine two one heinz g konsalik german author d one nine nine nine one nine two two lou duva american boxing trainer one nine two three henry kissinger united states secretary of state one nine two three gy rgy ligeti hungarian composer one nine two three nandamuri taraka rama rao indian actor director and producer d one nine nine eight one nine two five b lent ecevit prime minister of turkey one nine two five dietrich fischer dieskau german baritone one nine three one carroll baker american actress one nine three six betty shabazz american civil rights leader one nine three eight jerry west american basketball player one nine four two stanley b prusiner american scientist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine four four rudy giuliani mayor of new york city one nine four four gladys knight american singer one nine four four patricia quinn northern irish actress one nine four four billy vera american actor and musician one nine four five john fogerty american musician creedence clearwater revival one nine four five gary stewart american singer d two zero zero three one nine four six satchidanandan indian born poet one nine four seven sondra locke american actress one nine four seven zahi hawass egyptologist one nine four nine wendy o williams american musician the plasmatics d one nine nine eight one nine five two russell j wintner american hollywood executive one nine five five john mcgeoch scottish musician siouxsie and the banshees d two zero zero four one nine five seven kirk gibson baseball player one nine five nine john morgan etiquette expert etiquette expert one nine six two brandon cruz american actor one nine six two roland gift english musician fine young cannibals one nine six three houman younessi iranian born scientist one nine six four jeff fenech australian boxer one nine six four christa miller american actress one nine six four phil vassar country music artist one nine six five chris ballew american musician one nine six eight kylie minogue australian actress and singer one nine seven two michael boogerd dutch cyclist one nine seven two guidoni junior doriva brazilian footballer one nine seven seven elisabeth hasselbeck american television panelist one nine eight zero mark feehily irish musician westlife one nine eight six charles n zogbia french footballer one nine nine one kristen alderson american actress deaths one three five seven king afonso iv of portugal b one two nine one one six seven two john trevor english politician b one six two six one seven four seven luc de clapiers marquis de vauvenargues french writer b one seven one five one seven five zero emperor sakuramachi of japan b one seven two zero one seven eight seven leopold mozart austrian composer b one seven one nine one eight zero five luigi boccherini italian composer b one seven four three one eight zero eight richard hurd english bishop and writer b one seven two zero one eight one one henry dundas british minister b one seven four two one eight four three noah webster american author politician and lexicographer b one seven five eight one eight four nine anne bront english author b one eight two zero one nine one six ivan franko ukrainian writer b one eight five six one nine three seven alfred adler austrian psychologist b one eight seven zero one nine four zero friedrich karl von hessen b one eight six eight one nine four eight unity mitford english fascist sympathizer b one nine one four one nine seven one audie murphy american actor and war hero b one nine two four one nine seven two king edward viii of the united kingdom b one eight nine four one nine seven eight arthur brough english actor b one nine zero five one nine eight zero rolf nevanlinna finnish mathematician b one eight nine five one nine nine three billy conn american boxer and actor b one nine one seven one nine nine four julius boros american golfer b one nine two zero one nine nine four ely jacques kahn jr american writer b one nine one six one nine nine eight phil hartman canadian actor comedian b one nine four eight two zero zero one francisco varela chilean biologist and philosopher b one nine four six two zero zero two jean berger german born composer b one nine zero nine two zero zero three oleg makarov cosmonaut b one nine three three two zero zero three ilya prigogine russian born physicist and chemist recipient of the nobel prize in chemistry b one nine one seven two zero zero three martha scott american actress b one nine one two two zero zero four umberto agnelli swiss born automobile executive b one nine three four holidays and observances feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church germain augustine of canterbury william of gellone bernard of menthon lanfranc republic day in azerbaijan and armenia both one nine one eight sunset and sunrise occur along manhattan s street grid centerline external links bbc on this day may two seven may two nine april two eight june two eight listing of all days mpeg audio layer three more commonly referred to as mp three is a popular digital audio encoding and lossy compression format invented and standardized in one nine nine one by a team of engineers directed by the fraunhofer institute in germany it was designed to greatly reduce the amount of data required to represent audio yet still sound like a faithful reproduction of the original uncompressed audio to most listeners in popular usage mp three also refers to files of sound or music recordings stored in the mp three format on computers overview mp three is a compression format it provides a representation of pulse code modulation encoded pcm audio data in a much smaller size by discarding portions that are considered less important to human hearing similar to jpeg a lossy compression for images a number of techniques are employed in mp three to determine which portions of the audio can be discarded including psychoacoustics mp three audio can be compressed with different bit rates providing a range of tradeoffs between data size and sound quality the mp three format uses at its heart a hybrid transformation to transform a time domain signal into a frequency domain signal three two band polyphase quadrature filter three six or one two tap mdct size can be selected independent for sub band zero one and two three one aliasing reduction postprocessing mp three surround a version of the format supporting five one channels for surround sound was introduced in december two zero zero four mp three surround is backward compatible with standard stereo mp three and file sizes are similar in terms of the mpeg specifications aac advanced audio coding from mpeg four is to be the successor of the mp three format although there has been a significant movement to create and popularize other audio formats nevertheless any succession is not likely to happen for a significant amount of time due to mp three s overwhelming popularity mp three enjoys extremely wide popularity and support not just by end users and software but by hardware such as dvd and cd players history development mpeg one audio layer two encoding began as the digital audio broadcast dab project managed by egon meier engelen of the dfvlr later on called dlr deutsche luft und raumfahrt german aerospace agency in germany this project was financed by the european union as a part of the eureka research program where it was commonly known as eu one four seven eu one four seven ran from one nine eight seven to one nine nine four in one nine nine one there were two proposals available musicam known as layer two and aspec adaptive spectral perceptual entropy coding the musicam technique as proposed by philips the netherlands ccett france irt germany was chosen due to its simplicity and error robustness as well as its low computational power associated to the encoding of high quality compressed audio the musicam format based on subband coding was key to settle the basis of the mpeg audio compression format sampling rates structure of frames headers number of samples per frame its technologies and ideas were fully incorporated into the definition of iso mpeg audio layer i and layer ii and further on of the layer iii mp three format under the chairmanship of professor mussmann university of hannover the editing of the standard was made under the responsibilities of l van de kerkhof layer i and g stoll layer ii further on a working group consisting of j d johnston us gerhard stoll germany yves fran ois dehery france karlheinz brandenburg germany took ideas from musicam and aspec added some of their own ideas and created mp three which was designed to achieve the same quality at one two eight kbit s as mp two at one nine two kbit s all algorithms were finalized in one nine nine two as part of mpeg one the first standard suite by mpeg which resulted in the international standard iso iec one one one seven two three published in one nine nine three further work on mpeg audio was finalized in one nine nine four as part of the second suite of mpeg standards mpeg two more formally known as international standard iso iec one three eight one eight three originally published in one nine nine five compression efficiency of encoders is typically defined by the bit rate because compression rate depends on the bit depth and sampling rate of the input signal nevertheless there are often published compression rates that use the cd parameters as references four four one khz two channels at one six bits per channel or two x one six bit sometimes the digital audio tape dat sp parameters are used four eight khz two x one six bit compression ratios with this reference are higher which demonstrates the problem of the term compression ratio for lossy encoders karlheinz brandenburg used a cd recording of suzanne vega s song tom s diner to assess the mp three compression algorithm this song was chosen because of its softness and simplicity making it easier to hear imperfections in the compression format during playbacks some more serious and critical audio excerpts glockenspiel triangle accordion were taken from the ebu v three sqam reference compact disc and have been used by professional sound engineers to assess the subjective quality of the mpeg audio formats mp three goes public a reference simulation software written in c language known as iso one one one seven two five was developed by the members of the iso mpeg audio committee in order to produce bit compliant mpeg audio files layer one layer two layer three working in non real time on a number of operating systems it was able to demonstrate the first real time hardware decoding dsp based of compressed audio some other real time implementation of mpeg audio encoders were available for the purpose of digital broadcasting radio dab television dvb towards consumer receivers and set top boxes later on on july seven one nine nine four the fraunhofer society released the first software mp three encoder called l three enc the filename extension mp three was chosen by the fraunhofer team on july one four one nine nine five previously the files had been named bit with the first real time software mp three player winplay three released september nine th one nine nine five many people were able to encode and playback mp three files on their pcs because of the relatively small hard drives back in that time five zero zero mb the technology was essential to store music for listening pleasure on a computer mp two mp three and the internet in october one nine nine three mp two mpeg one audio layer two files appeared on the internet and were often played back using the xing mpeg audio player and later in a program for unix by tobias bading called maplay which was initially released on february two two nd one nine nine four maplay was also ported to microsoft windows initially the only encoder available for mp two production was the xing encoder accompanied by the program cdda two wav a cd ripper that transformed cd audio tracks to computer data files the internet underground music archive iuma is generally recognized as the start of the on line music revolution iuma was the internet s first high fidelity music web site hosting thousands of authorized mp two recordings before mp three or the web was popularized iuma was started by rob lord who later headed pioneering nullsoft and jeff patterson both from the university of california santa cruz in one nine nine three other founding members include jon luini brandee selck and ahin savara in the first half of one nine nine five through the late one nine nine zero s mp three files began flourishing on the internet mp three popularity was mostly due to and interchangeable with the successes of companies and software packages like nullsoft s winamp released in one nine nine seven mpg one two three and napster released in one nine nine nine those programs made it very easy for the average user to playback create share and collect mp three s controversies regarding peer to peer file sharing of mp three files have flourished in recent years largely because high compression enables sharing of files that would otherwise be too large and cumbersome to share due to the vastly increased spread of mp three s through the internet some major record labels reacted by filing a lawsuit against napster to protect their copyrights see also intellectual property commercial online music distribution services like the itunes music store usually prefer other proprietary music file formats that support digital rights management drm to control and restrict the use of digital music the use of formats that supports drm is in an attempt to prevent piracy of copyright protected materials but any computer savvy person can easily rip the drm from a song file turning it into a file that is not locked to any computer quality of mp three audio because mp three is a lossy format it is able to provide a number of different options for its bit rate that is the number of bits of encoded data that are used to represent each second of audio typically rates chosen are between one two eight and three two zero kilobit per second by contrast uncompressed audio as stored on a compact disc has a bit rate of one four one one two kbit s mp three files encoded with a lower bit rate will generally play back at a lower quality with too low a bit rate compression artifacts i e sounds that were not present in the original recording may appear in the reproduction a good demonstration of compression artifacts is provided by the sound of applause it is hard to compress because it is random therefore the failings of the encoder are more obvious and are audible as ringing as well as the bit rate of the encoded file the quality of mp three files depend on the quality of the encoder and the difficulty of the signal being encoded for average signals with good encoders many listeners accept the mp three bit rate of one two eight kibit s as near enough to compact disc quality for them providing a compression ratio of approximately one one one when cds are properly compressed at this ratio they are far superior in quality to fm radio and cassette tape audio in order to achieve similar quality mp three files could be compressed to a greater than two zero one ratio however listening tests show that with a bit of practice many listeners can reliably distinguish one two eight kbit s mp three s from cd originals in many cases reaching the point where they consider the mp three audio to be of unacceptably low quality yet other listeners and the same listeners in other environments such as in a noisy moving vehicle or at a party will consider the quality acceptable obviously imperfections in an mp three encode will be much less apparent on low end computer speakers than on a good stereo system connected to a computer or especially using high quality headphones fraunhofer gesellschaft fhg publish on their official webpage the following compression ratios and data rates for mpeg one layer one two and three intended for comparison layer one three eight four kbit s compression four one layer two one nine two two five six kbit s compression eight one six one layer three one one two one two eight kbit s compression one two one one zero one the differences between the layers are caused by the different psychoacoustic models used by them the layer one algorithm is typically substantially simpler therefore a higher bit rate is needed for transparent encoding however as different encoders use different models it is difficult to draw absolute comparisons of this kind many people consider these quoted rates as being heavily skewed in favour of layer two and layer three recordings they would contend that more realistic rates would be as follows layer one excellent at three eight four kbit s layer two excellent at two five six three eight four kbit s very good at two two four two five six kbit s good at one nine two two two four kbit s layer three excellent at two two four three two zero kbit s very good at one nine two two two four kbit s good at one two eight one nine two kbit s when comparing compression schemes it is important to use encoders that are of equivalent quality tests may be biased against older formats in favour of new ones by using older encoders based on out of date technologies or even buggy encoders for the old format due to the fact that their lossy encoding loses information mp three algorithms work hard to ensure that the parts lost cannot be detected by human listeners by modeling the general characteristics of human hearing e g due to noise masking different encoders may achieve this with varying degrees of success a few possible encoders lame first created by mike cheng in early one nine nine eight it is in contrast to others a fully lgpl d mp three encoder with excellent speed and quality rivaling even mp three s technological successors fraunhofer gesellschaft some encoders are good some have bugs many early encoders that are no longer widely used iso dist one zero reference code xing bladeenc acm producer pro good encoders produce acceptable quality at one two eight to one six zero kibit s and near transparency at one six zero to one nine two kbit s while low quality encoders may never reach transparency not even at three two zero kbit s it is therefore misleading to speak of one two eight kbit s or one nine two kbit s quality except in the context of a particular encoder or of the best available encoders a one two eight kbit s mp three produced by a good encoder might sound better than a one nine two kbit s mp three file produced by a bad encoder it is important to note that quality of an audio signal is subjective a given bit rate suffices for some listeners but not for others individual acoustic perception may vary so it is not evident that a certain psychoacoustic model can give satisfactory results for everyone merely changing the conditions of listening such as the audio playing system or environment can expose unwanted distortions caused by lossy compression the numbers given above are rough guidelines that work for many people but in the field of lossy audio compression the only true measure of the quality of a compression process is to listen to the results if your aim is to archive sound files with no loss of quality or work on the sound files in a studio for example then you should use lossless compression algorithms currently capable of compressing one six bit pcm audio to three eight while leaving the audio identical to the original such as lossless audio la apple lossless flac windows media audio nine lossless wma and monkey s audio among others lossless formats are strongly preferred for material that will be edited mixed or otherwise processed because the perceptual assumptions made by lossy encoders may not hold true after processing the losses produced by multiple stages of coding may also compound each other becoming more evident when the signal is reencoded after processing lossless formats produce the best possible result at the expense of a lower compression ratio some simple editing operations such as cutting sections of audio may be performed directly on the encoded mp three data without necessitating reencoding for these operations the concerns mentioned above are not necessarily relevant as long as appropriate software such as mp three directcut and mp three gain is used to prevent extra decoding encoding steps bit rate the bit rate is variable for mp three files the general rule is that more information is included from the original sound file when a higher bit rate is used and thus the higher the quality during play back in the early days of mp three encoding a fixed bit rate was used for the entire file bit rates available in mpeg one layer three are three two four zero four eight five six six four eight zero nine six one one two one two eight one six zero one nine two two two four two five six and three two zero kbit s and the available sample frequencies are three two four four one and four eight khz four four one khz is almost always used coincides with the sampling rate of compact discs and one two eight kbit s has become the de facto good enough standard although one nine two kbit s is becoming increasingly popular over peer to peer file sharing networks mpeg two and the non official mpeg two five includes some additional bit rates eight one six two four three two four zero four eight five six six four eight zero nine six one one two one two eight one four four one six zero kbit s variable bit rates vbr are also possible audio in mp three files are divided into frames which have their own bit rate so it is possible to change the bit rate dynamically as the file is encoded although not originally implemented vbr is in extensive use today this technique makes it possible to use more bits for parts of the sound with higher dynamics more sound movement and fewer bits for parts with lower dynamics further increasing quality and decreasing storage space this method compares to a sound activated tape recorder that reduces tape consumption by not recording silence some encoders utilize this technique to a great extent non standard bitrates up to six four zero kbit s can be achieved with the lame encoder and the freeformat option however only few mp three players can play those files design limitations of mp three there are several limitations inherent to the mp three format that cannot be overcome by using a better encoder newer audio compression formats such as vorbis and aac no longer have these limitations in technical terms mp three is limited in the following ways bitrate is limited to a maximum of three two zero kbit s time resolution can be too low for highly transient signals no scale factor band for frequencies above one five five one five eight khz joint stereo is done on a frame to frame basis encoder decoder overall delay is not defined which means lack of official provision for gapless playback nevertheless a well tuned mp three encoder can perform competitively even with these restrictions encoding of mp three audio the mpeg one standard does not include a precise specification for an mp three encoder the decoding algorithm and file format as a contrast are well defined implementers of the standard were supposed to devise their own algorithms suitable for removing parts of the information in the raw audio or rather its mdct representation in the frequency domain during encoding five seven six time domain samples are taken and is transformed to five seven six frequency domain samples if there is a transient one nine two samples are taken instead of five seven six this is done to limit the temporal spread of quantization noise accompanying the transient this is the domain of psychoacoustics the study of human acoustic perception in both the ear and in the brain as a result there are many different mp three encoders available each producing files of differing quality comparisons are widely available so it is easy for a prospective user of an encoder to research the best choice it must be kept in mind that an encoder that is proficient at encoding at higher bitrates such as lame which is in widespread use for encoding at higher bitrates is not necessarily as good at other lower bitrates decoding of mp three audio decoding on the other hand is carefully defined in the standard most decoders are bitstream compliant meaning that the uncompressed output they produce from a given mp three file will be the same within a specified degree of rounding tolerance as the output specified mathematically in the standard document the mp three file has a standard format which is a frame consisting of three eight four five seven six or one one five two samples depends on mpeg version and layer and all the frames have associated header information three two bits and side information nine one seven or three two bytes depending on mpeg version and stereo mono the header and side information help the decoder to decode the associated huffman encoded data correctly therefore for the most part comparison of decoders is almost exclusively based on how computationally efficient they are i e how much memory or cpu time they use in the decoding process id three and other tags main articles id three and apev two tag a tag is data stored in an mp three as well as other formats that contains metadata such as the title artist album track number or other information about the mp three file to be added to the file itself the most widespread standard tag formats are currently the id three id three v one and id three v two tags and the more recent apev two tag apev two was originally developed for the mpc file format see the apev two specification apev two can coexist with id three tags in the same file but it can also be used by itself volume normalization as compact discs and other various sources are recorded and mastered at different volumes it is useful to store volume information about a file in the tag so that at playback time the volume can be dynamically adjusted a few standards for encoding the gain of an mp three file have been proposed the idea is to normalize the volume not the volume peaks of audio files so that the volume does not change between consecutive tracks the most popular and widely used solution for storing replay gain is known simply as replay gain typically the average volume and clipping information about audio track is stored in the metadata tag alternative technologies many other lossy audio codecs exist including mpeg one two audio layer two mp two mp three s predecessor ogg vorbis from the xiph org foundation a free software and patent free codec mpc also known as musepack formerly mp a derivative of mp two mp three pro from thomson multimedia combining mp three with sbr ac three used in dolby digital and dvd atrac used in sony s minidisc mpeg four aac used by apple s itunes music store and ipod windows media audio wma from microsoft qdesign used in quicktime at low bitrates amr wb enhanced adaptive multi rate wideband codec optimized for cellular and other limited bandwidth use realaudio from realnetworks frequently in use for streaming on websites speex free software and patent free codec based on celp specifically designed for speech and voip mp three pro mp three aac and mp two are all members of the same technological family and depend on roughly similar psychoacoustic models the fraunhofer gesellschaft owns many of the basic patents underlying these codecs with dolby labs sony thomson consumer electronics and at for some one two eight kbit s mp three is sufficient while for others two zero zero kbit s or higher mp three is necessary though proponents of newer codecs such as wma and realaudio have asserted that their respective algorithms can achieve cd quality at six four kbit s listening tests have shown otherwise however the quality of these codecs at six four kbit s is definitely superior to mp three at the same bitrate the developers of the patent free ogg vorbis codec claim that their algorithm surpasses mp three realaudio and wma sound quality and the listening tests mentioned above support that claim thomson claims that its mp three pro codec achieves cd quality at six four kbit s but listeners have reported that a six four kbit s mp three pro file compares in quality to a one one two kbit s mp three file and does not come reasonably close to cd quality until about eight zero kbit s mp three which was designed and tuned for use alongside mpeg one two video generally performs poorly on monaural data at less than four eight kbit s or in stereo at less than eight zero kbit s licensing and patent issues thomson consumer electronics controls licensing of the mpeg one two layer three patents in countries that recognize software patents including the united states and japan but not eu countries thomson has been actively enforcing these patents thomson has been granted software patents in eu countries and by the european patent office but it is unclear whether or not they would be enforced by courts there see software patents under the european patent convention in september one nine nine eight the fraunhofer institute sent a letter to several developers of mp three software stating that a license was required to distribute and or sell decoders and or encoders the letter claimed that unlicensed products infringe the patent rights of fraunhofer and thomson to make sell and or distribute products using the mpeg layer three standard and thus our patents you need to obtain a license under these patents from us these patent issues significantly slowed the development of unlicensed mp three software and led to increased focus on creating and popularizing alternatives such as wma and ogg vorbis microsoft the makers of the windows operating system chose to move away from mp three to their own proprietary windows media formats to avoid the licensing issues associated with the patents until the key patents expire open source free software encoders and players appear to be illegal for commercial use in countries that recognize software patents for information about licensing fees see here and here in spite of the patent restrictions the perpetuation of the mp three format continues the reasons for this appear to be the network effects caused by familiarity with the format not knowing alternatives exist the fact that these alternatives do not universally provide a definite advantage over mp three the large quantity of music now available in the mp three format the wide variety of existing software and hardware that takes advantage of the file format the lack of drm protection technology which makes mp three files easy to edit copy and distribute over networks the majority of home users not knowing or not caring about the software patent controversy which is in general irrelevant to their choice of the mp three format for personal use additionally patent holders declined to enforce license fees on open source decoders allowing many free mp three decoders to develop furthermore while attempts have been made to discourage distribution of encoder binaries thomson has stated that individuals using free mp three encoders are not required to pay fees thus while patent fees have been an issue for companies attempting to use mp three they have not meaningfully impacted users allowing the format to grow in popularity sisvel s p a and its us subsidiary audio mpeg inc previously sued thomson for patent infringement on mp three technology but those disputes were resolved in november two zero zero five with sisvel granting thomson an mp three license motorola also recently signed with audio mpeg to license mp three with thomson and sivel both owning separate patents which they claim are needed by the codec the legal status of mp three remains unclear the fraunhofer patents expire april two zero one zero at which time mp three algorithms become public domain see also id three mp three surround mp three blog joint stereo digital audio player media player software patent copyright infringement comparison of audio codecs external links fraunhofer iis list of relevant patents various links on the mpeg audio layer three format audio codecs digital revolution digital audio mpeg may one five is the one three five th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one three six th in leap years there are two three zero days remaining events one two five two pope innocent iv issues the papal bull ad exstirpanda which authorizes the torture of heretics in the medieval inquisition torture quickly gains widespread usage across catholic europe one five one four jodocus badius ascensius publishes christiern pedersen s latin version of saxo s gesta danorum the oldest known version of that work one five two five the battle of frankenhausen ends the peasants war one six zero two bartholomew gosnold becomes the first european to see cape cod one six one eight johannes kepler confirms his previously rejected discovery of the third law of planetary motion he first discovered it on march eight but soon rejected the idea after some initial calculations were made one seven zero one the war of the spanish succession begins one seven one eight james puckle a london lawyer patents the world s first machine gun one seven five six the seven years war begins when england declares war on france one seven seven six american revolution virginia convention instructs its delegates to propose a declaration of independence from great britain one seven nine five first coalition napoleon i of france enters milan in triumph one eight three six francis baily observes baily s beads during an annular eclipse one eight five one rama iv is crowned king of thailand one eight five eight the third royal opera house officially opens in london one eight six two president abraham lincoln signs a bill into law creating the united states bureau of agriculture later renamed usda one eight six four american civil war battle of resaca georgia ends one eight six four american civil war battle of new market virginia students from the virginia military institute fight alongside the confederate army to force union general franz sigel out of the shenandoah valley one eight six nine woman s suffrage in new york susan b anthony and elizabeth cady stanton form the national woman suffrage association one eight nine seven the greek army retreats with heavy losses in greco turkish war one nine zero two in a field outside grass valley california lyman gilmore reportedly becomes the first person to fly a powered airplane a steam powered glider one nine zero five las vegas nevada is founded when one one zero acres zero four km in what later would become downtown are auctioned off one nine one one the united states supreme court declares standard oil to be an unreasonable monopoly under the sherman antitrust act and orders the company to be dissolved one nine one four bolivia becomes a signatory to the buenos aires copyright treaty one nine one eight civil war in finland ends one nine one eight the us post office department later renamed the usps begins the first regular airmail service in the world between new york city philadelphia and washington dc one nine one nine the winnipeg general strike began by one one zero zero virtually the entire working population of winnipeg had walked off the job one nine two eight release of the animated short plane crazy featuring the first appearances of mickey and minnie mouse one nine three zero aboard a boeing tri motor ellen church becomes the first airline stewardess on a flight from oakland california to chicago illinois one nine three two the may one five incident in an attempted coup the prime minister of japan inukai tsuyoshi is killed one nine three four the united states department of justice offers a two five zero zero zero reward for john dillinger one nine three four k rlis ulmanis establishes an authoritarian government in latvia one nine four zero nylon stockings go on sale for the first time in the united states one nine four zero world war ii german troops occupy amsterdam and invade northern france one nine four one baseball player joe dimaggio starts his record breaking five six game hitting streak one nine four two world war ii in the united states a bill creating the women s auxiliary army corps waac is signed into law one nine four three joseph stalin dissolves the comintern or third international one nine four five last skirmish of the second world war in europe fought near prevalje slovenia one nine four eight egypt transjordan lebanon syria iraq and saudi arabia attack israel one nine five one the polish cultural attache in paris czeslaw milosz asks the french government for political asylum one nine five five austrian independence treaty signed one nine five five first ascent of makalu the world s fifth highest mountain one nine five seven britain tests its first hydrogen bomb in operation grapple one nine five eight the soviet union launches sputnik three one nine six zero the soviet union launches sputnik four one nine six three mercury program america launches the last mission of the program mercury nine on june one two nasa administrator james e webb told congress the program was complete one nine six four the smothers brothers give their first concert in carnegie hall in new york city one nine seven zero the beatles last lp let it be is released in the united states one nine seven zero president richard nixon appoints anna mae hays and elizabeth p hoisington the first female united states army generals one nine seven zero philip lafayette gibbs and james earl green killed at jackson state university by police during student protests one nine seven two the island of okinawa under us military governance since its conquest in one nine four five reverts to japanese control one nine seven two in laurel maryland arthur bremer shoots and paralyzes alabama governor george wallace while wallace is campaigning to be american president one nine seven eight lagumot harris having only been elected president less than a month before is replaced as the leader of the republic of nauru he is succeeded by hammer deroburt one nine eight one concert in caracas of el trabuco venezolano and irakere second day one nine eight eight soviet war in afghanistan after more than eight years of fighting the red army begins its withdrawal from afghanistan one nine nine zero portrait of doctor gachet by vincent van gogh is sold for a record eight two five million the most expensive painting at the time one nine nine one edith cresson becomes france s first female prime minister one nine nine two the genoa expo nine two world s fair opens in genoa italy two zero zero four the largest known prime number at the time of its discovery two two four zero three six five eight three one is found by josh findley and the gimps collaborative effort births one five six seven baptism claudio monteverdi italian composer d one six four three one seven two zero maximilian hell slovakian astronomer d one seven nine two one seven seven three prince klemens wenzel von metternich austrian statesman d one eight five nine one eight one seven debendranath tagore indian religious reformer d one nine zero five one eight five six l frank baum american author d one nine one nine one eight five seven williamina fleming scottish born astronomer d one nine one one one eight five nine pierre curie french physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine zero six one eight six two arthur schnitzler austrian dramatist and narrator d one nine three one one eight nine zero katherine anne porter american author d one nine eight zero one eight nine one mikhail bulgakov russian writer d one nine four zero one eight nine two jimmy wilde boxer d one nine six nine one eight nine five william d byron u s congressman d one nine four one one eight nine eight arletty french model and actress d one nine nine two one eight nine nine jean etienne valluy french general d one nine seven zero one nine zero two richard j daley mayor of chicago d one nine seven six one nine zero five joseph cotten american actor d one nine nine four one nine zero nine james mason english actor d one nine eight four one nine one one max frisch swiss author d one nine nine one one nine one four tenzing norgay nepalese sherpa d one nine eight six one nine one five paul samuelson american economist nobel prize laureate one nine one eight eddy arnold american singer one nine two two setouchi jakucho japanese writer and buddhist nun one nine two three richard avedon american photographer d two zero zero four one nine two three john lanchbery english composer d two zero zero three one nine two six anthony shaffer english playwright d two zero zero one one nine two six peter shaffer english playwright one nine three zero jasper johns american painter one nine three one ken venturi american golfer one nine three six anna maria alberghetti italian born actress one nine three six hugh romney american clown and activist one nine three six ralph steadman british cartoonist one nine three six paul zindel american writer d two zero zero three one nine three seven madeleine albright u s secretary of state one nine three seven trini l pez american musician one nine four one k t oslin american musician one nine four four ulrich beck german sociologist one nine four five duarte pio duke of braganza one nine four five lasse berghagen swedish singer one nine four eight brian eno english musician and record producer one nine five one chazz palminteri american actor one nine five one jonathan richman american musician one nine five one frank wilczek american physicist nobel prize laureate one nine five three george brett baseball player one nine five three mike oldfield english composer one nine five five melinda culea american actress one nine five six dan patrick american sportscaster one nine five eight ron simmons american professional wrestler one nine five nine andrew eldritch english singer and songwriter the sisters of mercy one nine five nine kaokor galaxy thai boxer one nine five nine khaosai galaxy thai boxer one nine six two melle mel american musician one nine six five ra brazilian footballer one nine six seven john smoltz baseball player one nine six nine emmitt smith american football player one nine seven zero rod smith american football player one nine seven two david charvet french actor one nine seven four andrew johns australian rugby player one nine seven four ahmet zappa american musician one nine seven five ray lewis american football player one nine seven six torraye braggs american basketball player one nine seven six tyler walker baseball player one nine seven eight amy chow american gymnast one nine eight one jamie lynn discala american actress one nine eight two veronica campbell jamaican athlete one nine eight three devin bronson american guitarist avril lavigne deaths one zero three six emperor go ichij of japan b one zero zero eight one one five seven yury dolgoruky russian prince one one seven four nur ad din ruler of syria b one one one eight one three eight one eppelein von gailingen german robber baron one four seven zero charles viii of sweden b one four zero nine one five eight five niwa nagahide japanese warlord b one five three five one five nine one dmitry ivanovich tsarevich b one five eight two one six zero nine giovanni croce italian composer b one five five seven one six three four hendrick avercamp dutch painter b one five eight five one six nine eight marie champmesl french actress b one six four two one six nine nine edward petre english jesuit and privy councilor b one six three one one seven one four roger elliott british general and governor of gibraltar one seven four zero ephraim chambers english encyclopaedist b one six eight zero one seven six zero alaungpaya king of burma b one seven one one one seven seven three alban butler english catholic priest and writer b one seven one zero one seven eight two marquis of pombal prime minister of portugal b one six nine nine one eight eight six emily dickinson american poet b one eight three zero one nine two four paul henri benjamin d estournelles de constant french diplomat recipient of the nobel peace prize b one eight five two one nine three five kazimir malevich ukrainian artist b one eight seven eight one nine three seven phillip snowden british politician b one eight six four one nine four zero menno ter braak dutch author and polemicist b one nine zero two one nine four eight father edward flanagan american priest and founder of boys town b one eight eight six one nine five six austin osman spare english magician b one eight eight six one nine six seven edward hopper american painter b one eight eight two one nine seven one sir tyrone guthrie english director producer and writer b one nine zero zero one nine eight six theodore h white american writer b one nine one five one nine nine one andreas floer german mathematician b one nine five six one nine nine four gilbert roland mexican actor b one nine zero four one nine nine five eric porter british actor b one nine two eight one nine nine six charles b fulton american jurist b one nine one zero one nine nine eight earl manigault american basketball player b one nine four four two zero zero three june carter cash american musician and singer b one nine two nine two zero zero three george francis british gangster b one nine four zero two zero zero three rik van steenbergen belgian cyclist b one nine two four two zero zero five les bartley lacrosse coach b one nine five four holidays and observances feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church denise saint achillius dympna reticius jean baptiste de la salle paraguay independence day celebrations for the anniversary of the independence begin on flag day one four may roman empire mercuralia in honor of mercury held international day of families international day of climate changes international conscientious objectors day buddha s birthday in hong kong macau and south korea two zero zero five united states peace officers memorial day slovenia day of slovenian armed forces mexico teacher s day d a del maestro external links bbc on this day today in history may one five may one four may one six april one five june one five listing of all days may one three is the one three three rd day of the year in the gregorian calendar one three four th in leap years there are two three two days remaining events one four nine seven pope alexander vi excommunicates girolamo savonarola one five six eight battle of langside the forces of mary queen of scots are defeated by a confederacy of scottish protestants under james stewart earl of moray her half brother one six one nine dutch statesman johan van oldenbarnevelt is executed in the hague after having been accused of treason one seven seven nine war of bavarian succession russian and french mediators at the congress of teschen negotiate an end to the war in the agreement austria receives the part of its territory that was taken from them the inn district one seven eight seven captain arthur phillip leaves portsmouth england with eleven ships full of convicts to establish a penal colony in australia one eight three zero ecuador gains its independence one eight four six mexican american war the united states declares war on mexico one eight four eight first performance of finland s national anthem one eight six one american civil war queen victoria of britain issues a proclamation of neutrality which recognizes the breakaway states as having belligerent rights one eight six one great comet of one eight six one discovered in australia one eight six four american civil war battle of resaca the battle begins with union general sherman fighting toward atlanta one eight six five american civil war battle of palmito ranch in far south texas more than a month after confederate general lee s surrender the last land battle of the civil war ends with a confederate victory one eight eight zero in menlo park new jersey thomas edison performs the first test of his electric railway one eight eight eight with the passage of the lei urea golden law brazil abolishes slavery one nine zero nine the first giro d italia took place in milan italian cyclist luigi ganna was the winner one nine one two in the united kingdom the royal flying corps now the royal air force was established one nine one three igor sikorsky becomes the first man to pilot a four engine aircraft one nine one seven three peasant children report seeing the blessed virgin mary near fatima portugal one nine one seven the nuncio eugenio pacelli the future pope pius xii is consecrated archbishop by pope benedict xv one nine four zero world war ii germany s conquest of france begins as the german army crosses the meuse river churchill makes his blood tears toil and sweat speech to the house of commons one nine four zero queen wilhelmina of the netherlands flees the nazi invasion in the netherlands to britain princess juliana takes her children to canada for their safety one nine four three world war ii german afrika korps and italian troops in north africa surrender to allied forces one nine four eight one nine four eight arab israeli war the kfar etzion massacre is committed by arab irregulars the day before the declaration of independence of the state of israel on may one four one nine five zero first all time formula one grand prix it is held at silverstone circuit england one nine five eight during a visit to caracas venezuela vice president richard m nixon s car is attacked by anti american demonstrators one nine five eight pierre pflimlin becomes prime minister of france one nine five eight velcro s trade mark is registered one nine six zero first ascent of dhaulagiri world s seventh highest mountain one nine six nine race riots in kuala lumpur malaysia later known as the one three may incident one nine seven six the new york nets defeat the denver nuggets and win the american basketball association championship one one two one zero six in the final aba game ever played one nine eight one mehmet ali a ca attempts to assassinate pope john paul ii in st peter s square in rome one nine eight five the mayor of philadelphia pennsylvania orders police to storm the radical group s move headquarters to end a stand off the police drop an explosive device into the headquarters killing one one move members and destroying the homes of two five zero city residents in the resulting fire one nine nine five in dublin ireland secret garden win the fortieth eurovision song contest for norway performing nocturne one nine nine six severe thunderstorms and a tornado in bangladesh kill six zero zero people one nine nine eight following india s second round of nuclear tests the united states and japan impose economic sanctions two zero zero zero in stockholm sweden the olsen brothers win the forty fifth eurovision song contest for denmark singing fly on the wings of love two zero zero zero in enschede the netherlands a fireworks factory explodes killing two two people wounding nine five zero and resulting in approximately four five zero million in damage two zero zero five the final episode of star trek enterprise airs in the united states bringing to a close an one eight year uninterrupted television franchise enterprise being one of two series created by gene roddenberry ending on the same day two zero zero five the final episode of gene roddenberry s andromeda airs in the united states andromeda being one of two series created by gene roddenberry ending on the same day two zero zero five the united states department of defense issues a list of bases to be closed as part of the base realignment and closure process brac two zero zero five births one five eight eight ole worm danish physician d one six five four one six three eight richard simon french biblical critic d one seven one two one six five five pope innocent xiii d one seven two four one six nine nine marquis of pombal prime minister of portugal d one seven eight two one seven one two johann hartwig ernst count von bernstorff danish statesman d one seven seven two one seven one seven empress maria theresa of austria d one seven eight zero one seven five three lazare carnot french general politician and mathematician d one eight two three one seven nine two pope pius ix d one eight seven eight one seven nine five g rard paul deshayes french geologist d one eight seven five one eight three zero zebulon baird vance three time governor of north carolina d one eight nine four one eight four zero alphonse daudet french novelist d one eight nine seven one eight four two arthur sullivan english composer d one nine zero zero one eight five seven ronald ross english physician recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine three two one eight eight two georges braque french painter d one nine six three one eight nine four sgeir sgeirsson two nd president of iceland d one nine seven two one nine zero seven dame daphne du maurier english author d one nine eight nine one nine one three gil evans canadian musician d one nine eight eight one nine one three william r tolbert jr liberian president d one nine eight zero one nine one four joe louis american boxer d one nine eight one one nine two three beatrice arthur american actress one nine two six wallace breem british author one nine two seven herbert ross american director d two zero zero one one nine three one jim jones american cult leader d one nine seven eight one nine three four leon wagner baseball player d two zero zero four one nine three seven roch carrier canadian novelist one nine three seven trevor baylis english inventor of the wind up radio one nine three seven roger zelazny american author d one nine nine five one nine three nine harvey keitel american actor one nine four zero bruce chatwin british writer d one nine eight nine one nine four one senta berger austrian actress one nine four one ritchie valens american singer d one nine five nine one nine four four armistead maupin american author one nine four seven stephen r donaldson american author one nine five zero stevie wonder american singer and musician one nine five one sharon sayles belton mayor of minneapolis minnesota one nine five four johnny logan irish singer and songwriter one nine five six sri sri ravi shankar founder of the art of living foundation one nine five seven alan ball american screenwriter director producer one nine six one dennis rodman american basketball player and actor one nine six two eduardo palomo mexican actor d two zero zero three one nine six six darius rucker american singer hootie listing of all days may one four is the one three four th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one three five th in leap years there are two three one days remaining events one two six four battle of lewes henry iii of england is captured in france making simon de montfort the de facto ruler of england one four eight three coronation of charles viii of france charles l affable one five zero nine battle of agnadello in northern italy french forces defeat the venetians one six zero seven jamestown virginia is settled as an english colony one six zero eight protestant union founded in auhausen one six four three four year old louix xiv becomes king of france upon the death of his father louis xiii one seven four seven a british fleet under admiral george anson defeats the french at first battle of cape finisterre one seven eight seven in philadelphia pennsylvania delegates begin to meet to write a new constitution for the united states one seven nine six edward jenner administers the first smallpox vaccination one eight zero four the lewis and clark expedition departs from camp dubois and begin their historic journey by traveling up the missouri river one eight one one paraguay gains independence from spain one eight six one the canellas meteorite an eight five nine gram chondrite type meteorite strikes the earth near barcelona spain one eight six three american civil war battle of jackson ms one eight seven zero the first game of rugby in new zealand is played in nelson between nelson college and the nelson rugby football club one eight eight nine the children s charity the nspcc is launched in london one nine zero zero the one nine zero zero summer olympics open in paris one nine one three new york governor william sulzer approves the charter for the rockefeller foundation which begins operations with a one zero zero million donation from john d rockefeller one nine two seven cap arcona is launched at the blohm voss shipyard in hamburg one nine two nine wilfred rhodes takes his four zero zero zero th first class wicket during a performance of nine for three nine at leyton one nine three one dalen shootings five people are killed in dalen sweden as soldiers open fire on an unarmed trade union manifestation one nine three five the filipinos ratify an independence agreement one nine three five northamptonshire gains over somerset at taunton by four eight runs what proved to be their last victory for nine nine matches easily a record in the county championship their next championship win was not until two nine may one nine three nine one nine three nine lina medina becomes the world s youngest confirmed mother in medical history at the age of five one nine four zero world war ii rotterdam is bombed by the german luftwaffe one nine four zero world war ii the netherlands surrender to germany one nine four eight israel declared to be an independent state and a provisional government is established one nine four eight the murder of a three year old girl in blackburn northern england leads to the fingerprinting of more than four zero zero zero zero men in the city in an attempt to find the murderer one nine five five cold war eight communist bloc countries including the soviet union sign a mutual defence treaty called the warsaw pact one nine six one american civil rights movement freedom riders bus is fire bombed near anniston alabama and the civil rights protestors are beaten by an angry mob one nine six seven mickey mantle becomes the sixth member of the five zero zero home run club with a home run at yankee stadium in bronx new york one nine seven zero the red army faction is established in germany one nine seven three skylab the united states first space station is launched it is the last launch of the saturn v rocket one nine seven eight first round of the presidential elections in upper volta one nine eight one concert in caracas of el trabuco venezolano and irakere first day one nine eight five popular hong kong actress barbara yung mei ling was found unconscious from gas inhalation in her apartment at kowloon tong hong kong she was declared dead on arrival at a nearby hospital one nine nine five tenzin gyatso the one four th dalai lama proclaims six year old gedhun choekyi nyima as the eleventh reincarnation of the panchen lama one nine nine eight after nine years on the air the series finale of the television sitcom seinfeld airs on nbc two zero zero two ten members of the darwin based network against prohibition invade the legislative assembly of the northern territory of australia two zero zero four the marriage of frederik crown prince of denmark and mary donaldson takes place in copenhagen two zero zero five pope benedict xvi observes his first beatification elevating blessed marianne of molokai on the road to canonization into sainthood births one two six five dante alighieri italian poet d one three two one one three one six charles iv holy roman emperor d one three seven eight one five five three margaret of valois queen of henry iv of france d one six one five one six six six victor amadeus ii of sardinia d one seven three two one six nine nine hans joachim von zieten prussian field marshal d one seven eight six one seven zero one william emerson english mathematician d one seven eight two one seven zero three david brearly delegate to the u s constitutional convention d one seven eight five one seven one zero king adolf frederick of sweden d one seven seven one one seven two seven thomas gainsborough english artist d one seven eight eight one seven seven one robert owen welsh social reformer d one eight five eight one eight three two rudolf lipschitz german mathematician d one nine zero three one eight six seven kurt eisner german politician and publicist d one nine one nine one eight eight five otto klemperer german born conductor d one nine seven three one eight nine seven sidney bechet american musician d one nine five nine one eight nine nine pierre victor auger french physicist d one nine nine three one nine zero four hans albert einstein american professor d one nine seven three one nine zero seven ayub khan president of pakistan d one nine seven four one nine one seven lou harrison american composer d two zero zero three one nine two one richard deacon actor d one nine eight four one nine two two franjo tu man president of croatia d one nine nine nine one nine two six eric morecambe famous british comedian d one nine eight four one nine two nine gump worsley canadian hockey player one nine three one alvin lucier american composer one nine three four si n phillips welsh actress one nine three six bobby darin american singer d one nine seven three one nine four two byron dorgan u s senator one nine four three lafur ragnar gr msson president of iceland one nine four four george lucas american film director and producer one nine four six eric peterson canadian actor one nine four eight bob woolmer indian born cricket coach one nine five two david byrne american singer songwriter and guitarist talking heads one nine five two robert zemeckis american film director one nine five three norodom sihamoni king of cambodia one nine five three tom cochrane canadian singer songwriter and guitarist red rider one nine five nine patrick bruel french singer one nine five nine rick vaive canadian ice hockey player one nine six zero steve williams american professional wrestler one nine six one tim roth english actor one nine six two ian astbury english singer the cult one nine six five eoin colfer irish writer one nine six six raphael saadiq american music artist one nine six seven tony siragusa american football player one nine six nine cate blanchett australian actress one nine seven one sofia coppola american film writer and director one nine seven six martine mccutcheon british actress one nine seven seven ada nicodemou australian actress one nine eight one sarbel greek born singer one nine eight three amber tamblyn american actress one nine eight five ricky shepherd australian actor deaths nine six four pope john xii one four seven zero king charles viii of sweden b one four zero nine one six zero eight charles ii duke of lorraine b one five four three one six one zero king henry iv of france assassinated b one five five three one six four three king louis xiii of france b one six zero one one six four nine friedrich spanheim dutch theologian b one six zero zero one six six nine georges de scud ry french writer b one six zero one one six eight eight antoine fureti re french writer b one six one nine one seven five four pierre claude nivelle de la chauss e french writer b one six nine two one seven six one thomas simpson british mathematician b one seven one zero one eight one eight matthew lewis english novelist b one seven seven five one eight four seven fanny mendelssohn german composer and pianist b one eight zero five one eight six zero ludwig bechstein german writer b one eight zero one one eight eight seven lysander spooner american philosopher b one eight zero eight one eight eight nine volney e howard american politician b one eight zero nine one nine zero six carl schurz german revolutionary and american statesman b one eight two nine one nine one two king frederick viii of denmark b one eight four three one nine one two august strindberg swedish author b one eight four nine one nine one nine henry john heinz founder of the h j heinz company b one eight four four one nine two three charles de freycinet french prime minister b one eight two eight one nine two five h rider haggard english author b one eight five six one nine three one david belasco american theatrical producer and playwright b one eight five three one nine three six edmund henry hynman allenby british general b one eight six one one nine four zero emma goldman lithuanian born anarchist and feminist b one eight six nine one nine four three henri la fontaine belgian lawyer and activist recipient of the nobel peace prize b one eight five four one nine four five heber j grant president of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints b one eight five six one nine five four heinz guderian german general b one eight eight eight one nine five seven marie vassilieff russian artist b one eight eight four one nine five nine sidney bechet american musician b one eight nine seven one nine six eight husband e kimmel american admiral b one eight eight two one nine six nine frederick lane australian swimmer b one eight eight eight one nine seven three jean gebser german born author linguist and poet b one nine zero five one nine seven six keith relf british singer and musician the yardbirds b one nine four three one nine seven eight robert menzies twelfth prime minister of australia b one eight nine four one nine eight three roger j traynor american judge b one nine zero zero one nine eight seven rita hayworth american actress b one nine one eight one nine eight eight willem drees prime minister of the netherlands b one eight eight six one nine nine one jiang qing madame mao b one nine one four one nine nine two nie rongzhen chinese communist military leader b one eight nine nine one nine nine five christian b anfinsen american chemist nobel prize laureate b one nine one six one nine nine seven harry blackstone jr american magician b one nine three four one nine nine eight frank sinatra american singer and actor b one nine one five two zero zero zero obuchi keizo prime minister of japan b one nine three seven two zero zero three dave debusschere american basketball player b one nine four zero two zero zero three dame wendy hiller british actress b one nine one two two zero zero three robert stack american actor b one nine one nine holidays and observances paraguay flag day israel yom ha atzma ut or israeli independence day the observed date of this national holiday is determined by the jewish calendar mother s day certain countries two zero zero zero two zero zero six world fair trade day two zero zero five external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada may one three may one five april one four june one four listing of all days two zero may is the one four zero th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one four one st in leap years there are two two five days remaining events three two five the first council of nicaea the first ecumenical council of the christian church is held five two six an earthquake kills about three zero zero zero zero zero people in syria and antiochia six eight five the battle of dunnichen or nechtansmere is fought between a pictish army under king bridei iii and the invading northumbrians under king ecgfrith who are decisively defeated one two one seven the second battle of lincoln is fought near lincoln england resulting in the defeat of prince louis of france by william marshal two nd earl of pembroke one two nine three king sancho iv of castile creates the study of general schools of alcal one four nine seven john cabot sets sail from bristol england on his ship the mathew looking for a route to the west other documents give a two may date one four nine eight portuguese explorer vasco da gama arrives at kozhikode previously known as calicut india one five two one battle of pampeluna one five seven zero cartographer abraham ortelius issues the first modern atlas one six three one the city of magdeburg in germany is seized by forces of the holy roman empire and most of its inhabitants massacred in one of the bloodiest incidents of the thirty years war one six nine zero england passes the act of grace forgiving followers of catholic james ii one eight one three napoleon bonaparte leads his french troops into the battle of bautzen in saxony germany against the combined armies of russia and prussia the battle ends the next day with a french victory one eight four one chi psi fraternity is founded at union college in schenectady new york one eight four five hms erebus and hms terror with one three four men under john franklin sail from the river thames in england beginning a disastrous expedition to find the northwest passage all hands are lost one eight six one american civil war the state of kentucky proclaims its neutrality which will last until september three when confederate forces enter the state one eight six one american civil war the state of north carolina secedes from the union joining the confederacy one eight six two u s president abraham lincoln signs the homestead act into law one eight six four american civil war battle of ware bottom church in the virginia bermuda hundred campaign one zero zero zero zero troops fight in this confederate victory one eight seven three levi strauss and jacob davis receive a us patent for blue jeans with copper rivets one eight eight two the triple alliance between germany austria hungary and italy is formed one eight eight three the eruption of krakatoa begins leading ultimately to the volcano s destruction three months later one eight nine one history of cinema first public display of thomas alva edison s prototype kinetoscope shown at edison s laboratory for a convention of the national federation of women s clubs one eight nine six the six ton chandelier of the opera garnier falls on the crowd resulting in the death of one and the injury of many others one nine zero two cuba gains independence from the united states one nine one three henry flagler the floridian railroad boy with baby carriage one nine one six the u s town of codell kansas is struck by an f two tornado one nine one seven the u s town of codell kansas is struck by an f three tornado one nine one eight for the third consecutive year on this date the u s town of codell kansas is struck by a tornado one nine two zero the weimarer nationalversammlung the national assembly of germany s weimar republic is permanently dissolved one nine two zero montreal quebec station xwa broadcasts the first regularly scheduled radio programming in north america one nine two seven by the treaty of jedda the united kingdom recognizes the sovereignty of king ibn saud in the kingdoms of hejaz and nejd which later merged to become the kingdom of saudi arabia one nine two seven at zero seven five two charles lindbergh takes off from roosevelt field in long island new york on the world s first solo nonstop flight across the atlantic ocean touching down at le bourget field in paris at two two two two the next day one nine three two amelia earhart takes off from newfoundland to begin the world s first solo nonstop flight across the atlantic ocean by a female pilot landing in ireland the next day one nine four zero holocaust the first prisoners arrive at a new concentration camp at auschwitz one nine four one world war ii battle of crete german paratroops invade crete one nine four nine in the united states of america the afsa the predecessor of the nsa is established one nine five four chiang kai shek is selected for another term as president of the republic of china by the national assembly one nine six five a pakistani airlines boeing seven two zero b crashes on landing at cairo airport killing one two one people one nine six nine the battle of hamburger hill in vietnam ends one nine eight zero in a referendum in quebec the population rejects by a six zero vote the proposal from its government to move towards independence from canada one nine eight three first publications of the discovery of the virus that causes aids in the journal science by luc montagnier and robert gallo individually one nine eight five radio mart part of the voice of america service begins broadcasting to cuba one nine eight nine the chinese authorities declare martial law in the face of pro democracy demonstrations setting the scene for the tiananmen square massacre one nine nine zero the first post communist presidential and parliamentary elections are held in romania one nine nine two fc barcelona wins european soccer clubes cup one nine nine three the television sitcom cheers ends an one one year run on nbc one nine nine five in a second referendum in quebec the population rejects by a a sligth majority the proposal from its government to move towards independence from canada one nine nine six gay rights the supreme court of the united states rules in romer v evans against a law that would have prevented any city town or county in the state of colorado from taking any legislative executive or judicial action to protect the rights of homosexuals two zero zero two east timor becomes independent from indonesian rule births one three one five bonne of luxembourg queen of john ii of france d one three four nine one four seven zero pietro bembo italian cardinal d one five four seven one five five four paolo bellasio italian composer d one five nine four one six six zero andreas schl ter german sculptor d one seven one four one six six three william bradford british born printer d one seven five two one seven zero six seth pomeroy american gunsmith and soldier d one seven seven seven one seven two six francis cotes english painter d one seven seven zero one seven three seven william petty fitzmaurice british statesman d one eight zero five one seven five nine william thornton west indian born architect d one eight two eight one seven six eight dolley madison first lady of the united states d one eight four nine one seven seven two sir william congreve english inventor d one eight two eight one seven nine nine honor de balzac french novelist d one eight five zero one eight zero six john stuart mill english philosopher d one eight seven three one eight two two fr d ric passy french economist recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine one two one eight three zero hector malot french writer d one nine zero seven one eight three eight jules m line french statesman d one nine two five one eight five one emil berliner german born telephone and recording pioneer d one nine two nine one eight six zero eduard buchner german chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine one seven one eight eight two sigrid undset norwegian author nobel prize laureate d one nine four nine one eight eight three king faisal i of iraq d one nine three three one eight nine five r j reginald joseph mitchell british aircraft designer d one nine three seven one nine zero one max euwe dutch chess player d one nine eight one one nine zero three barbara hepworth british sculptor d one nine seven five one nine zero six giuseppe cardinal siri italian catholic cardinal d one nine eight nine one nine zero eight james stewart american actor d one nine nine seven one nine one one gardner fox american writer d one nine eight six one nine one three william hewlett american engineer and computer manufacturer d two zero zero one one nine one five moshe dayan israeli general and politician d one nine eight one one nine one six trebisonda valla italian athlete one nine one six alexei petrovich maresiev russian flying ace d two zero zero one one nine one seven bergur sigurbj rnsson icelandic politician d two zero zero five one nine one eight edward b lewis american geneticist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d two zero zero four one nine one nine george gobel american comedian d one nine nine one one nine two zero betty driver english singer and actress one nine two one wolfgang borchert german writer d one nine four seven one nine two one hal newhouser baseball player d one nine nine eight one nine two six bob sweikert american race car driver d one nine five six one nine two seven bud grant american football coach one nine three one ken boyer baseball player d one nine eight two one nine three five marinella greek singer one nine three six anthony zerbe american actor one nine four zero stan mikita slovak born hockey player one nine four zero sadaharu oh japanese baseball player one nine four three al bano italian singer one nine four four joe cocker british singer one nine four four boudewijn de groot dutch singer one nine four four dietrich mateschitz austrian businessman one nine four six cher american actress and singer one nine four seven greg dyke british broadcast executive one nine five two roger milla cameroonian footballer one nine five three robert doyle australian politician one nine five five zbigniew preisner polish film composer one nine five six ingvar ambj rnsen norwegian author one nine five eight ron reagan american dancer and talk show host one nine five eight jane wiedlin american singer the go go s one nine five nine israel kamakawiwo ole american singer one nine five nine bronson pinchot american actor one nine six zero john billingsley american actor one nine six zero chuck brodsky american musician one nine six zero tony goldwyn american actor one nine six two mike jeffries american soccer coach one nine six six mindy cohn american actress one nine six eight timothy olyphant american actor one nine seven zero louis theroux british television presenter one nine seven one tony stewart american race car driver one nine seven two tina hobley british actress one nine seven two busta rhymes american singer and rapper one nine seven six ram n hern ndez venezuelan major league baseball player one nine seven seven miriam parrish american actress one nine eight one ker casillas spanish footballer one nine eight one lindsay taylor american basketball player one nine eight two petr cech czech footballer deaths six eight five king ecgfrith of northumbria b six four five one two seven seven pope john xxi b one two one five one two eight five john ii of jerusalem king of cyprus b one two five nine one four four four saint bernardino of siena italian franciscan missionary b one three eight zero one five zero three lorenzo di pierfrancesco de medici italian patron of the arts b one four six three one five zero six christopher columbus italian explorer b one four five one one five five zero ashikaga yoshiharu japanese shogun b one five one zero one six two two osman ii ottoman sultan b one six zero four one six four eight king wladislaus iv of poland b one five nine five one six seven seven george digby two nd earl of bristol english statesman b one six one two one seven one three thomas sprat english writer b one six three five one seven one seven john trevor speaker of the english house of commons b one six three seven one seven two two s bastien vaillant french botanist b one six six nine one seven three two thomas boston scottish church leader b one six seven six one seven eight two william emerson english mathematician b one seven zero one one seven nine three charles bonnet swiss naturalist b one seven two zero one eight three four gilbert du motier marquis de la fayette french soldier and statesman b one seven five seven one eight four one joseph blanco white british theologian b one seven seven five one eight seven three sir george tienne cartier french canadian statesman b one eight one four one eight nine six clara schumann german pianist and composer b one eight one nine one nine one seven philipp von ferrary italian stamp collector b one eight five zero one nine four zero verner von heidenstam swedish writer nobel prize laureate b one eight five nine one nine four six jacob ellehammer danish inventor b one eight seven one one nine four seven philipp lenard austrian physicist nobel prize laureate b one eight six two one nine five six max beerbohm english theater critic b one eight seven two one nine seven one waldo williams welsh poet b one nine zero four one nine eight nine john hicks english economist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero four one nine eight nine gilda radner american comedian and actress b one nine four six one nine nine four gabby c voted most coolest person in the world one nine nine six jon pertwee british actor b one nine one nine two zero zero zero jean pierre rampal french flutist b one nine two two two zero zero one renato carosone italian musician and singer b one nine two zero two zero zero two stephen jay gould american paleontologist b one nine four one two zero zero five paul ricoeur french philosopher b one nine one three holidays and observances feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church bernadine of siena theodore of pavia saint lucifer austregisilus ivo of chartres cameroon national day east timor national day miscellaneous eliza doolittle day from my fair lady in the song just you wait eliza sings next week on the twentieth of may i proclaim liza doolittle day external links bbc on this day one nine may two one may two zero april two zero june listing of all days mary rose depicted on the anthony roll a survey of henry viii s navy completed in one five four six mary rose was an english carrack of seven eight guns nine one guns after one five three six built in portsmouth england in one five zero nine one five one zero thought to be named after king henry viii s sister mary and the rose the tudor emblem she was one of the earliest purpose built warships to serve in the english navy it is thought that she never served as a merchant ship she displaced five zero zero tons seven zero zero tons after one five three six was three eight five m long and one one seven m abeam and her crew consisted of two zero zero sailors one eight five soldiers and three zero gunners career she served as the flagship of admiral sir edward howard in the italian wars and was frequently engaged on one zero august one five one two she was the flagship of an english fleet of five zero ships that attacked the french at brest in brittany mary rose attacked the french marie la cordeli re the flagship of admiral ren de clermont in the battle marie la cordeli re was crippled and mary rose was damaged and ran aground marie la cordeli re then came under fire from mary james sovereign and regent eventually blowing up with the loss of more than a thousand men thirty two french ships were taken or destroyed in the battle after the death of edward howard in one five one three mary rose became the flagship of lord high admiral sir thomas howard in one five two eight and again in one five three six mary rose was rebuilt having her weight increased from five zero zero to seven zero zero tons and mounting nine one guns the refits are thought to have added an extra deck making her top heavy and liable to roll in heavy seas in one five four five king francis i of france launched an invasion of england with three zero zero zero zero soldiers in more than two zero zero ships against this armada larger than the spanish armada forty three years later the english had about eight zero ships and one two zero zero zero soldiers with mary rose the flagship of vice admiral sir george carew in early july the french entered the solent channel between hampshire and the isle of wight on july one eight one five four five the english came out of portsmouth and engaged the french at long range little damage being done on either side the next day was calm and the french employed their galleys against the immobile english vessels toward evening a breeze sprang up and as mary rose advanced to battle she capsized and sank with the loss of all but three five of her crew it is theorized that her undisciplined crew had neglected to close the lower gunports after firing at the galleys so that when she heeled in the breeze she filled with water and turned over see battle of the solent wreck mary rose hull restoration an attempt was made to raise her in august one five four five even if she could not be refloated her timbers and guns were immensely valuable but with no success on june one six one eight three six mary rose was found when a fishing net caught on the wreck and diver john deane recovered timbers guns longbows and other items but the location was forgotten after deane stopped work on the site in one eight four zero alexander mckee started a new search in one nine six five and in one nine six seven professor harold edgerton found an acoustic anomaly by using side scan sonar in one nine seven one a springtide combined with a severe gale uncovered a layer of sediment leaving several structural timbers clearly visible in the years that followed it became clear that the wreck lay on her starboard side at an angle of six zero in one nine seven nine the mary rose trust was formed to excavate the wreck first the wreck was lifted by means of a lifting frame after that the wreck still under water could be lifted onto a support cradle on october one one one nine eight two the wreck was lifted from the water and put upright in a dry dock with a temperature of two six c and a relative humidity of nine five in one nine nine four work started on a three stage conservation process using low molecular weight polyethylene glycol a wax essentially the second stage consists of spraying the wreck with a high molecular weight polyethylene glycol these first two stages will take at least twenty years to complete in the third stage the wreck will be slowly dried along with remains of around half the crew a great number of artifacts were uncovered during excavation including navigational and medical equipment carpentry tools guns longbows arrows with traces of copper rich binding glue still remaining on the tips copper when introduced into the bloodstream is lethal cooking and eating utensils lanterns backgammon boards playing dice logs for the galley s ovens and even a well preserved shawm a long lost predecessor of the oboe from upon which a fully functioning model has since been replicated these artifacts and the wreck itself are displayed at mary rose museum located on the royal naval base in portsmouth england see hms mary rose for other ships of this name on one one october two zero zero five the two three rd anniversary of the original wreck lift the anchor and parts of her bow were raised from the sea bed in a delicate operation sponsored by the ministry of defence these parts will also eventually go on display links internal for general tudor naval history see the tudors and the royal navy history of the royal navy royal navy external from ships of the world article about two zero zero three finds official website http www abc se m one zero three five four publ maryrose htm site including some history of mary rose museum ships royal navy carracks shipwrecks in the english channel sailboat names disasters in england visitor attractions in hampshire portsmouth mario kart is a series of nintendo racing games that feature characters from the mario bros video game franchise mario kart differs from many other racing games in that it does not seek to accurately simulate real world cars driving conditions or physics making mario kart easy to learn even for young children the games are particularly popular as multiplayer games two four eight and even sixteen way challenges are possible the success of the game series led other companies to try often unsuccessfully to imitate the game with characters from their own franchises as well as licensed characters from film and television installments mario kart is used to refer to any of the following popular video games released by nintendo mario kart ds super mario kart is the original mario kart game it was released in one nine nine two for super famicom and super nintendo entertainment system mario kart six four is the sequel to super mario kart it was released in one nine nine six for nintendo six four it was the first three d mario kart game allowing four players to race and battle on the same screen mario kart super circuit was released in two zero zero one for game boy advance it was the first portable version of mario kart and contained the tracks from the original super mario kart with some obstacles oddly missing such as the mario circuit pipes there was also a multiplayer mode for up to four players playable with the game boy advance link cable mario kart double dash was released in november two zero zero three for gamecube this game strayed away from the classic mario kart formula by omitting the jump action and changing the traditional karts into themed vehicles seating two characters the two characters could be individually controlled in multiplayer one player controlling the vehicle and the other controlling the obtained items this game is lan enabled such that sixteen players can play with each other over four gamecubes in the same lan environment mario kart ds was released in november two zero zero five for nintendo ds being the most advanced mario kart game to date by adding numerous stats to each vehicle it was also the first mario kart game to expand the single player experience by adding the mission run mode and allowing players to play vs and battle mode against bots rather than real life opponents mario kart ds is also the first game to use nintendo s online gaming service nintendo wi fi connection mario kart arcade gp was released in autumn of two zero zero five in japan and north america it is the first mario kart arcade game it was developed by namco and features pac man ms pac man and blinky as some of the playable characters a european release date is unknown gameplay in mario kart the characters from the mario series of video games get together and race go karts or character inspired variations of them around a variety of tracks players can obtain random items by driving through or over in super mario kart question mark blocks which can be used for either defence offence or by powering up the engine for a short amount of time boost each mario kart game hosts several gameplay modes which can be played in both singleplayer and multiplayer time trial in time trial the goal is to set the fastest time in the selected track players are usually given three speed boosts which they can use any time during the trial however mkdd only gives the two and mkds gives one three mushrooms depending on the selected vehicle s item stat once a record is set the game saves a ghost a replay of the set record to compete against in mario kart six four mario kart double dash and mario kart ds the makers put in their own staff ghosts for the player to race against they must be unlocked by achieving a certain time which differs on each track grand prix in grand prix eight characters compete against each other for a themed cup there are usually four cups mushroom cup flower cup star cup and special cup super mario kart has the standard four cups mario kart six four has the standard four cups mario kart super circuit adds in a fifth cup the lightning cup between the flower and star cups it also includes an extra version of each cup that features all the tracks from super mario kart mario kart double dash has an all cup tour with all sixteen tracks in the game mario kart ds has two modes nitro and retro nitro all new tracks retains the four standard cups mushroom cup flower cup star cup and special cup retro classic tracks features the shell cup banana cup leaf cup and lightning cup cups usually consist of four unique tracks the special cup traditionally ends with rainbow road super mario kart is the only game to date that has five instead four tracks a cup most tracks in super mario kart are also reincarnations of each other such as mario circuit one two three and four to date only super circuit has had that numbering system with the four bowser castle tracks the player to win the cup is the player who received the most points throughout the cup points are received by crossing the finish line with the highest rank possible originally points were not awarded to players who rank fifth or lower since mario kart double dash however every player except the eighth last place finisher receives at least one point grand prix comes in four difficulty settings five zero cc one zero zero cc one five zero cc and in some games mirror mirror mode is identical to one of the previous modes however all tracks are reversed horizontally left turns become right turns and vice versa missions a single player only mode which offers several levels each of which contain nine challenges one of which is a boss battle these challenges may involve collecting x amount of coins driving through x amount of gates destroying x amount of enemies and so on the player is given a grade with c being the lowest and being the highest there is only one mission level to start with but by beating each mission level s boss players can reach level six getting at least a one star rank on all missions and bosses will unlock a mission level seven this mode was introduced in mario kart ds vs in vs mode multiple players can compete against each other in a race the one who crosses the finish line first wins depending on the platform up to eight players can play simultaneously in mario kart ds players can race against cpu opponents for the first time battle in battle mode every player is traditionally assigned a set of balloons which are popped by attacks once all balloons are popped the player loses since mario kart double dash there have been a wider variety of battle rules conditions for clearing as follows balloon battle is the classic mario kart battle rule each character carries balloons from his her tailgate and loses one when he she spins out flips over falls off the stage or in some cases is rammed by a heavier character or a character using a mushroom or star whoever is the last one with inflated balloons wins deflated balloons which must be blown up in mkds don t count shine thief so far included only in double dash is a mode where a shine sprite appears in a central part of the stage the game proceeds like keep away where once a kart touches the shine the owners pick it up and start a timer if they are hit they lose the shine as it falls to the field the timer may continue from its initial sixty seconds or from another point when picked up again the kart holding the shine when the timer runs out wins bob omb blast also only included in double dash is a star based explosive blow out instead of getting mushrooms shells and other items when touching an item box players get bob ombs explosions from bob ombs do not hurt their thrower and they can either be thrown throw forward or dropped backward for a time bomb style characters can carry five bombs at a time for a total of ten per kart when players get another bomb they get a star from them whoever has three or four stars first depends on number of players wins shine runners premiered in mario kart ds similar to shine thief the game involves players running around the arena looking for shine sprites although there are multiple shines at a time instead of each shine having a timer however the overall timer counts down several times over the course of the game when it reaches zero those in last place having the least amount of shines are removed from the game this continues until only one player is left standing if all remaining players have the same amount of shines the clock starts again with no racers eliminated battle mode is set in specially designed tracks or arenas which usually offer hiding places some items don t appear in battle mode because of unfairness or impossibility this includes spiny shells bullet bills chain chomps and thunderbolts exception shine runners mushrooms were also out before the stealing of balloons was introduced in double dash mario kart ds is the only game where players can battle against cpu opponents nintendo wi fi connection abbreviated as wfc the wi fi connection is essentially the same as vs but only four people can compete against each other players connect to nintendo s online gaming service and can randomly match anyone in the world nationally or with comparable skill nwfc mode also includes a friends roster which allows a player to play with a group of people he or she knows this mode was introduced in mario kart ds drivers the drivers and which games they appear in all games mario luigi princess peach toad yoshi bowser super mario kart koopa troopa super mario kart and mario kart double dash donkey kong junior super mario kart mario kart six four donkey kong mario kart six four mario kart super circuit mario kart double dash mario kart ds mario kart arcade gp wario mario kart six four mario kart super circuit mario kart double dash mario kart ds mario kart arcade gp mario kart double dash because double dash featured two drivers on each kart more characters were introduced to give existing karts a second player baby luigi mario kart double dash baby mario mario kart double dash birdo mario kart double dash bowser jr mario kart double dash diddy kong mario kart double dash king boo mario kart double dash petey piranha mario kart double dash princess daisy mario kart double dash and mario kart ds toadette mario kart double dash waluigi mario kart double dash and mario kart ds paratroopa mario kart double dash mario kart ds dry bones mario kart ds r o b mario kart ds shy guy mario kart ds mario kart arcade gp pac man mario kart arcade gp ms pac man mario kart arcade gp blinky mario kart arcade gp types of tracks there are several types of tracks that are long running favorites and have been featured in many of the mario kart games beaches all mario kart games have included a beach level of sorts such as shy guy beach mksc and cheep cheep beach mkds they feature sand which usually does not slow the kart sometimes crabs racers spin out if they hit them and tides that allow shortcuts when low but heavily impair speed when high beaches normally come early in a game mushroom cup both koopa beaches from super mario kart are among the more challenging tracks bowser castle bowser castle is particularly well known for unforgiving and straight nine zero degree turns lava pits and thwomps super mario kart features three bowser castle tracks while super circuit has four the rest only have one it is usually penultimate track of the game due to their stiff turns and obstacles they are considered to be technically demanding the name has also been spelled as bowser s castle this name appears in mario kart six four and mario kart double dash circuits there have been various circuit tracks in all of the games such as mario circuit smk peach circuit mksc and luigi circuit mkdd these tracks are curvy and often feature many u turns a memorable circuit is yoshi circuit mkdd which is in the shape of a yoshi every mario kart game to date has started with a circuit there are usually three circuits in a game although super mario kart has four and mario kart ds has two in mario kart six four circuits were referred to as raceways deserts there has been a desert track in each mario kart game since mario kart six four deserts usually feature quicksand and long stretches of bumpy terrain in mario kart six four there was a train that crossed the track in two places for super circuit yoshi desert made an appearance the sphinxes had yoshi heads and double dash had a sandstorm that made any object fly into the air plus an area with quicksand the desert in mario kart ds included the angry sun who rained fire down on the track and a super mario bros three desert level like theme haunted tracks every mario kart game besides mario kart double dash has had a haunted course usually the haunted tracks are boardwalks or piers super mario kart had three ghost valleys mario kart six four had banshee boardwalk mario kart super circuit had both boo lake and broken pier and mario kart ds had luigi s mansion this track went through and around luigi s haunted mansion from two zero zero one these tracks are either at the beginning of the game mushroom or flower cup or at the end of the game special cup public roads in all three d mario kart games there have been tracks that include other traffic to avoid mario kart six four had toad s turnpike which had huge vehicles that went the same direction as karts in the mirror mode they come at the karts double dash had mushroom bridge and mushroom city they featured different kinds of cars such as mushroom trucks the wiggler vehicle and bob omb cars mario kart ds has shroom ridge set on road which winds around a mountain rainbow road rainbow road is the last track in the last cup special cup in every mario kart game to date as the name implies the track is rainbow coloured and the course is suspended in space it is well known for being one of the most surreal and toughest tracks to master since most of the rainbow road tracks have no rails to stay on super mario kart has no rails at all and contains nine zero degree turns the rainbows are made of tiles and flashing thwomps named electric thwomps by many when remade for mario kart super circuit the thwomps were removed mario kart six four version contains rails throughout the course roving chomps neon light pictures of characters and a huge drop just after the start line a carefully timed jump at the beginning could be used as a huge shortcut this course is described as a psychedelic experience this was often claimed in f zero x a different game in which this track appears it is the longest course in the series at two minutes a lap mario kart super circuit has rails at the beginning and end of the course edges of the course are lined with bounce jumps and astute racers can use mushrooms for significant shortcuts this game also features the rainbow road course from super mario kart but without the flashing thwomps mario kart double dash also has rails in parts of the course it contains a pipe that makes players invincible as they shoot to the high point in the track it also contains floating sculptures of items it has the least vibrant colours of all the rainbow roads additionaly the entire course is placed high above a city whereas all the other rainbow roads are just floating in space mario kart ds also has some rails and includes a loop and corkscrew those elements may have been added to ensure some challenge players can time items so their opponents fall off the corkscrew or loop also the colouring is different from the other rainbow roads here the stripes on the track follow the track instead of crossing it rainbow road courses are the most popular courses because of their difficulty track design and inclusion in every mario kart game among players the mario kart six four version is generally disliked because the laps are too long two minutes a lap and the easiest since it has rails throughout the entire course that version of rainbow road also appeared in f zero x on joker cup the super mario kart version is considered to be the hardest because it has no rails at all and has flashing thwomps snow tracks all mario kart games to date have included at least one snow themed track such as frappe snowland mk six four and dk pass mkds super mario kart and mario kart six four have two snow tracks the rest have one they are normally around the middle of the game in regards to difficulty they feature snow elemental based obstacles such as snowmen penguins and ice skating shy guys stadiums in three of the games mk six four mkdd and mkds there has been a stadium track which takes place in front of thousands of spectators on a dirt bike ish course they are typically associated with wario and waluigi and contain many jumps bumps turns and more recently fire and oil stadiums are normally around the middle of the game in regards to difficulty although the stadium in mario kart ds is among the most challanging tracks the wario stadium track in mario kart six four is notorious for a shortcut that can reduce the time a single lap takes to two seconds items the main selling point of mario kart is the item system in certain parts of the course players can drive through an item box and receive a random item there is an equalizer aspect karts in worse positions get better and rarer items there are four categories of items hazards left on the track as an obstacle projectiles items fired as obstacles boosts gives the kart more speed and special does not fit in to any of the three categories there are a few items in a category of their own hazards and projectiles can be trailed behind the kart by holding the item button this serves as defense against opponent attacks note items from mario kart arcade gp will not be mentioned here as there are to many items in all games banana hazard it is placed on the track the next kart to hit it will get the slip bananas also block shells excluding spiny shells and can be thrown forwards green shell projectile it bounces around the track until one of three things happen it hits a kart it hits an obstacle or its wall hit limit expires by default shot forwards can be shot backwards but in some games this results in less speed red shell projectile it homes in on the next kart ahead of the user homing programming has ranged over the years from crude point and attack to sophisticated follow track to target if miss then come in from side if they can be fired backwards it loses the homing ability though on mario kart super circuit if they were fired backwards they would remain on the track and hit anyone who passed it mushroom boost one time use for a simple boost useful for shortcuts star boost it gives a constant speed burst as well as invincibility hitting anything will destroy it or knock it away including opponents does not protect from falling off the course thunderbolt special the rarest item of all and only given to those close to or in last place when used all others on the track are shrunk and are reduced to half speed when the user runs over a shrunken opponent he or she is either knocked away or flattened depending on game the shrinking lasts around ten seconds and does not affect invincible or off the track karts in mario kart ds the shrunk drivers get large at different times in reverse order of their positions when the thunderbolt was used items in most games fake item box hazard it only appears in the three d games it looks almost identical to a real item box but punishes whoever takes the bait although the differences between it and a real box vary between the games one difference is usually an upside down or missing question mark triple shells projectile three green or red shells to use at separate times in most games they circle the kart for protection once brought out boo special makes the user invisible and consequently invincible for a limited time boo also tries to steal an item from an opponent in mario kart ds using boo while off road does not result in speed loss with any character triple mushroom boost three mushrooms to use at any time using them all at once gives no more speed than using one at a time golden mushroom boost gives infinite mushroom boosts for a limited time spiny shell projectile there are two versions of the spiny shell but they both have the same purpose to seek out the kart in first place and attack him or her in mario kart six four and mario kart super circuit the spiny shell travels along the ground hitting anyone who gets in its way starting in double dash the spiny shell flies above the track at incredible speeds and once it gets to the leader explodes unlike ground based spiny shells nobody can be affected by a flying spiny shell until it reaches its target after which anyone caught near it when it explodes will be slowed down items in one or two games feather boost found only in super mario kart gives the user a huge jump fans want this item to make a return multiple bananas hazards exactly what it sounds like multiple bananas in mario kart six four it is called banana bunch and contains five while in mario kart ds it is called triple bananas and contains three blooper special only in mario kart ds this item spurts ink all over the top screen of everyone in front of the user effects are temporary and can be nullified by getting a boost excluding mini turbos chain chomp bullet bill special two similar and rare items the chain chomp from mario kart double dash and the bullet bill from mario kart ds when used the user is put on autopilot for a short amount of time while the item s manifestation plows through anything in the way here the similarities end the chain chomp keeps going after it detaches from the kart while the bullet bill makes the user invincible bob omb special a bomb that blows up after a certain time or when hit by something items restriced to certain characters in super mario kart character restricted items were used because of technical limits computer players could not get and use items the way human players can instead each computer player was given a special item that it could use at any time although mario luigi donkey kong junior and koopa troopa used standard items starman banana and shell respectively the others got special items shrinking mushroom hazard used by peach and toad when touched then kart shrinks as if it were shot by a thunderbolt fireball hazard used by bowser it travels back an forth across the track yoshi egg hazard used by yoshi although karts still have a little speed after hitting a normal item the egg makes them stop dead in mario kart double dash all characters had an item exclusive to them and their partner exception king boo and petey piranha who could use any of the other characters special items instead items mentioned elsewhere will only be mentioned again here fireballs projectile used by mario and luigi five fireballs shot in an expension pattern aiming is hard but a big surprise when thrown backwards hearts special used by peach and daisy when used hearts surround the kart the next two items to hit the kart will be picked up and subsequently used falling off the course or getting hit with a thunderbolt will get rid of the shield while some items cannot be caught yoshi birdo egg projectile used by yoshi and birdo exactly like a red shell but when it hits something or its timer runs out it spills three items onto the track this can include bananas green shells mushrooms more rarely a star or bob omb giant banana hazard used by donkey kong and diddy kong a very big banana that can only be destroyed by a kart a bowser shell or an egg when destroyed it produces three normal bananas bowser shell projectile hazard used by bowser and boswer jr an enormous shell that acts like a green shell with a shorter timer only a giant banana can re route it the bob omb can only be used by wario and waluigi triple shells can only be used by koopa and paratroopa the color of the koopa who obtains it does not affect the color of the shells the golden mushroom can only by used by toad and toadette the chain chomp can only be used by baby mario and baby luigi similar games due to its success and originality there are several games patterned off the mario kart series gameplay these games include wacky wheels pc street racer various xtreme racing amiga megaman battle and chase psone crash team racing psone diddy kong racing n six four bomberman kart ps two crash nitro kart various jak x ps two crash tag team racing various and pac man world rally various to this date gamers consider these games inferior to the mario kart titles diddy kong racing being the only title to gain a similar volume of critical acclaim in addition to a large fanbase external links official mario kart web site mario kart ds official uk microsite nintendo wi fi connection site mario kart world record page mario kart super circuit times site of the three five second video one one second laps of the mksc rainbow road mario kart central gamespy fan site mario kart connection mario kart ds we host tournaments over nwfc join our community forums today and join in on the fun mario kart games vehicular combat games racing computer games a module is a self contained component of a system which has a well defined interface to the other components something is modular if it is constructed so as to facilitate easy assembly flexible arrangement and or repair of the components computers module programming computer program structuring module linux object code loadable into the linux kernel module file mod various computer file formats for music mathematics module mathematics in abstract algebra a set with addition and multiplication modular form in mathematics certain analytic functions used in number theory modular representation theory in mathematics representing groups using complex numbers called characters other modularity biology the idea of modularity in biology modularity programming the idea of modularity in computers modularity of mind hypothesized modules in mental processes sound module electronic musical instrument without a human interface vitruvian module in architecture the semidiameter of a column at its base module role playing games scenario or adventure in role playing games module architecture a section of a modular building may two one is the one four one st day of the year in the gregorian calendar one four two nd in leap years there are two two four days remaining events nine nine six sixteen year old otto iii is crowned holy roman emperor one five zero two the island of saint helena is discovered by the portuguese navigator jo o da nova one six seven four john sobieski is elected by the nobility to be the king of poland one seven two five the order of alexander nevsky was instituted in russia by an empress catherine i one seven five eight mary campbell is abducted from her home in pennsylvania by lenape during the french and indian war one eight five six lawrence kansas is captured and burned by pro slavery forces one eight six three american civil war siege of port hudson union forces begin to lay siege to the confederate controlled port hudson louisiana one eight seven one french government troops invade the paris commune and engage its residents in street fighting by the close of bloody week some two zero zero zero zero communards have been killed and three eight zero zero zero arrested one eight seven nine war of the pacific two chilean ships blocking the harbor of iquique chile battle two peruvian vessels in the battle of iquique one eight eight one the american red cross is established by clara barton one eight nine four the manchester ship canal in england is officially opened by queen victoria who knights its designer sir edward leader williams one eight nine four two two year old french anarchist emile henry is executed by guillotine one nine zero four f d ration internationale de football association fifa founded in paris one nine two four university of chicago students richard loeb and nathan leopold jr murder one four year old bobby franks in a thrill killing one nine two seven charles lindbergh touchs down at le bourget field in paris completing the world s first solo nonstop flight across the atlantic ocean one nine three two amelia earhart because of bad weather lands in a pasture in derry northern ireland becoming the first woman to fly solo across the atlantic ocean one nine three four oskaloosa iowa becomes the first municipality in the united states to fingerprint each of its citizens one nine three six sada abe is arrested after wandering the streets of tokyo for days with her dead lover s severed genitals in her hand her story soon became one of japan s most notorious scandals one nine four one world war ii nine five zero miles off the coast of brazil the freighter ss robin moor becomes the first united states ship sunk by a german u boat one nine four five american screen legend humphrey bogart marries actress lauren bacall one nine five six nuclear testing in the pacific ocean bikini atoll is nearly obliterated by the first airborne explosion of a hydrogen bomb one nine five eight united kingdom postmaster general ernest marples announces that from december subscriber trunk dialling will be introduced in the bristol area one nine six one american civil rights movement alabama governor john patterson declares martial law in an attempt to restore order after race riots break out one nine six six cassius clay beat henry cooper in the sixth round at arsenal stadium highbury north london one nine seven nine white night riots in san francisco following the manslaughter conviction of dan white for the assassinations of george moscone and harvey milk one nine eight zero star wars episode v the empire strikes back opens in theaters one nine eight one pierre mauroy becomes prime minister of france one nine nine one former indian prime minister rajiv gandhi is assassinated by a female suicide bomber near madras one nine nine eight at thurston high school in springfield oregon kipland kinkel suspended for bringing a gun to school shoots a semi automatic rifle into a room filled with students killing two wounding two five others after killing his parents at home one nine nine eight reproductive rights in miami florida five abortion clinics are hit by a butyric acid attacker two zero zero zero a chartered british aerospace jetstream three one crashes near wilkes barre pennsylvania killing one nine two zero zero three an earthquake hits northern algeria killing more than two zero zero zero people two zero zero four sherpa pemba dorje climbs mount everest in eight hours one zero minutes breaking his rival sherpa lakpa gelu s record from the previous year two zero zero four stanislav petrov is awarded the world citizen award for averting a potential world war iii in one nine eight three two zero zero five in kiev ukraine greece wins the fiftieth eurovision song contest with my number one performed by elena paparizou births four two seven bc plato greek philosopher d three four seven bc one four seven one albrecht d rer german painter and graphic artist d one five two eight one five two six king philip ii of spain d one five nine eight one six six four giulio alberoni italian cardinal and statesman d one seven five four one six eight eight alexander pope english poet d one seven four four one seven six three joseph fouch french statesman d one eight two zero one seven eight zero elizabeth fry british social reformer and philanthropist d one eight four five one seven nine two gaspard gustave coriolis french scientist d one eight four three one eight four three charles albert gobat swiss politician recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine one four one eight four four henri rousseau french artist d one nine one zero one eight five zero giuseppe mercalli italian volcanologist d one nine one four one eight five one l on bourgeois french statesman recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine two five one eight five three jacques marie eug ne godefroy cavaignac french politician d one nine zero five one eight six zero willem einthoven dutch inventor recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine two seven one eight six three eugen archduke of austria austrian field marshal d one nine five four one eight seven three hans berger german neuroscientist d one nine four one one eight nine eight armand hammer american physician entrepreneur oil magnate and art collector d one nine nine zero one nine zero one horace heidt american band leader d one nine eight six one nine zero one sam jaffe american film producer d two zero zero zero one nine zero two earl averill baseball player d one nine eight three one nine zero two marcel lajos breuer hungarian born architect d one nine eight one one nine zero three manly wade wellman american author d one nine eight six one nine zero four robert montgomery american actor d one nine eight one one nine zero four fats waller american pianist d one nine four three one nine one two monty stratton baseball player d one nine eight two one nine one six tinus osendarp dutch runner d two zero zero two one nine one six harold robbins american novelist d one nine nine seven one nine one seven raymond burr american actor d one nine nine three one nine two one andrei sakharov russian physicist and activist recipient of the nobel peace prize declined d one nine eight nine one nine two three armand borel swiss mathematician d two zero zero three one nine two three ara parseghian american football coach one nine three zero malcolm fraser two two nd prime minister of australia one nine three three maurice andr french trumpeter one nine three four bengt i samuelsson swedish biochemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine three six g nter blobel german biologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine three nine heinz holliger swiss oboist and composer one nine four one martin carthy english singer and guitarist one nine four four mary robinson president of ireland one nine four five ernst messerschmid german physicist and astronaut one nine four eight leo sayer english pop singer the simpsons one nine six seven chris benoit canadian professional wrestler one nine six seven lisa edelstein american actress one nine seven two the notorious b i g american musician d one nine nine seven one nine seven two alesha oreskovich american model one nine seven five todd white canadian ice hockey player one nine seven seven quinton fortune south african footballer one nine seven seven ricky williams american football player one nine seven eight briana banks german american actress one nine eight zero raab himself american actor one nine eight one belladonna american actress one nine eight one max german singer one nine eight seven ashlie brillault american actress deaths nine eight seven king louis v of france one two five four conrad iv of germany b one two two eight one four eight one king christian i of denmark norway and sweden b one four two six one five one two pandolfo petrucci ruler of siena one five two four thomas howard two nd duke of norfolk english soldier and statesman one five four two hernando de soto spanish explorer one six zero seven john rainolds english scholar and bible translator b one five four nine one six three nine tommaso campanella italian theologian philosopher and poet b one five six eight one six four seven pieter corneliszoon hooft dutch poet and historian b one five eight one one six five zero james graham one st marquess of montrose scottish royalist b one six one two one six six four elizabeth poole puritan businesswoman one six seven zero niccolo zucchi italian astronomer and physicist b one five eight six one six nine zero john eliot english puritan missionary b one six zero four one seven two four robert harley one st earl of oxford and mortimer english statesman b one six six one one seven four two lars roberg swedish physician b one six six four one seven seven one christopher smart english poet b one seven two two one seven eight six carl wilhelm scheele swedish chemist b one seven four two one seven nine zero thomas warton english poet b one seven two eight one eight four four giuseppe baini italian composer b one seven seven five one eight nine four emile henry french anarchist b one eight seven two one eight nine four august kundt german physicist b one eight three nine one eight nine five franz von supp austrian composer b one eight one nine one eight nine seven arturo prat chilean naval officer b one eight nine eight one nine one one williamina fleming scottish born astronomer b one eight five seven one nine two nine archibald primrose prime minister of the united kingdom b one eight four seven one nine three five jane addams american social worker recipient of the nobel peace prize b one eight six zero one nine five two john garfield american actor b one nine one three one nine six four james franck german born physicist nobel prize laureate b one eight eight two one nine six five geoffrey de havilland british aircraft designer b one eight eight two one nine seven zero e l grant watson australian author and biologist b one eight eight five one nine eight eight sammy davis sr american dancer b one nine zero zero one nine nine one rajiv gandhi prime minister of india b one nine four four one nine nine six lash larue american actor b one nine one seven one nine nine nine karnail pitts also known as bugz rapper for d one two b one nine seven nine two zero zero zero barbara cartland english author b one nine zero one two zero zero zero sir john gielgud british actor b one nine zero four two zero zero zero mark r hughes american enterpreneur and a founder of herbalife b one nine five six two zero zero two niki de saint phalle french artist b one nine three zero two zero zero three frank d white governor of arkansas b one nine three three external links bbc on this day may two zero may two two april two one june two one listing of all days the word mythology from the greek mytholog a from mythologein to relate myths from mythos meaning a narrative and logos meaning speech or argument literally means the oral retelling of myths stories that a particular culture believes to be true and that use supernatural events or characters to explain the nature of the universe and humanity in modern usage mythology is either the body of myths from a particular culture or religion as in greek mythology egyptian mythology or norse mythology or the branch of knowledge dealing with the collection study and interpretation of myths in common usage myth means a falsehood a story which many believe but which is not true the field of mythology does not use this definition definition myths are generally narratives passed down traditionally intended to explain the universal and local beginnings creation myths and founding myths natural phenomena inexplicable cultural conventions and anything else for which no simple explanation presents itself not all myths need have this explicatory purpose however myths are by definition sacred and usually involve a supernatural force or deity there is some overlap with legends stories containing heroes and historical trappings depending on the level of supernatural content in folkloristics which is concerned with the study of both secular and sacred narratives a myth also derives some of its power from being believed and deeply held as true in the study of folklore all sacred traditions have myths and there is nothing pejorative or dismissive intended in the use of the term as there often is in common usage this broader truth runs deeper than the advent of critical history which may or may not exist as in an authoritative written form which becomes the story preliterate oral traditions may vanish as the written word becomes the story and the literate become the authority however as lucien l vy bruhl puts it the primitive mentality is a condition of the human mind and not a stage in its historical development m che one nine nine two p eight most often the term refers specifically to ancient tales from very old cultures such as greek mythology or roman mythology some myths descended originally as part of an oral tradition and were only later written down and many of them exist in multiple versions according to the eighth chapter of f w j schelling s introduction to philosophy and mythology mythological representations have been neither invented nor freely accepted the products of a process independent of thought and will they were for the consciousness which underwent them of an irrefutable and incontestable reality peoples and individuals are only the instruments of this process which goes beyond their horizon and which they serve without understanding religion and mythology mythology figures prominently in most religions and most mythology is tied to at least one religion some use the words myth and mythology to portray the stories of one or more religions as false or dubious at best while nearly all dictionaries include this definition myth does not always imply that a story is either false or true the term is most often used in this sense to describe religions founded by ancient societies whose belief systems are nearly extinct by extension many people do not regard the tales surrounding the origin and development of modern dominant religions as literal accounts of events but instead regard them as figurative representations of their belief systems many modern day rabbis and priests within the more liberal jewish and christian movements as well as most neopagans have no problem viewing their religious texts as containing myth they see their sacred texts as indeed containing religious truths divinely inspired but delivered in the language of mankind others separate their beliefs out from the similar stories of other cultures and refer to them as history these people object to the use of the word myth to describe what they believe for the purposes of this article therefore the word mythology is used to refer to stories that while they may or may not be strictly factual reveal fundamental truths and insights about human nature often through the use of archetypes also the stories discussed express the viewpoints and beliefs of the country time period culture and or religion which gave birth to them one can speak of a jewish mythology a christian mythology or an islamic mythology in which one describes the mythic elements within these faiths without speaking to the veracity of the faith s tenets or claims about its history classifications ritual myths explain the performance of a certain religious practices or patterns and associated with temples or centers of worship origin myths describe the beginnings of a custom name or object cult myths are often seen as explanations for elaborate festivals that magnify the power of the deity prestige myths are usually associated with a divinely chosen hero city or people eschatological myths are stories which describe catastrophic ends to the present world order of the writers these extend beyond any potential historical scope and thus can only be described in mythic terms some myths fit in more than one category apocalyptic literature such as the revelation of st john the divine is an example of a set of eschatological myths related concepts myths are not the same as fables legends folktales fairy tales anecdotes or fiction but sloppy usage has blurred the distinctions in many people s minds other examples of stories that are not mythology but are frequently confused with myth philosophical allegory sentimental or moral fable parable or anecdote cupid and psyche prodigal son cornelia s jewels romance cultural propaganda betsy ross rationalized explications of myths that are no longer understood this is an approach attributed to euhemerus heroic saga narrative drama enriched history song of roland formation of myths what forces create myths robert graves said of greek myth true myth may be defined as the reduction to narrative shorthand of ritual mime performed on public festivals and in many cases recorded pictorially the greek myths introduction graves was deeply influenced perhaps too strongly by sir james george frazer s mythography the golden bough and he would have agreed that myths are generated by many cultural needs more on the forces that generate myth is needed myths authorize the cultural institutions of a tribe a city or a nation by connecting them with universal truths all cultures have developed over time their own myths consisting of narratives of their history their religions and their heroes the great power of the symbolic meaning of these stories for the culture is a major reason why they survive as long as they do sometimes for thousands of years m che one nine nine two p two zero distinguishes between myth in the sense of this primary psychic image with some kind of mytho logy or a system of words trying with varying success to ensure a certain coherence between these images a collection of myths is called a mythos e g the roman mythos a collection of those is called a mythoi e g the greek and roman mythoi one notable type is the creation myth which describes how that culture believes the universe was created another is the trickster myth which concerns itself with the pranks or tricks played by gods or heroes joseph campbell is the most famous modern author on myths and the history of spirituality his book the hero with a thousand faces one nine four eight outlined the basic ideas he would continue to elaborate on until his death in one nine eight seven his theories popularized in a series of books and videos are more inspirational than scholarly being more accepted among the general public than in academic circles roger caillois one nine seven two contrasts myths of situations determined from outside by historical events with myths of heroes determined from inside by their psychic life however m che one nine nine two p one zero argues that on this level he caillois refers only to the presentation of images in the form of stories which in themselves are more ancient than stories not yet submitted to this kind of distinction myths as depictions of historical events although myths are often considered to be accounts of events that have not happened many historians consider that myths can also be accounts of actual events that have become highly imbued with symbolic meaning or that have been transformed shifted in time or place or even reversed one way of conceptualizing this process is to view myths as lying at the far end of a continuum ranging from a dispassionate account to legendary occurrence to mythical status as an event progresses towards the mythical end of this continuum what people think feel and say about the event takes on progressively greater historical significance while the facts become less important by the time one reaches the mythical end of the spectrum the story has taken on a life of its own and the facts of the original event have become almost irrelevant this method or technique of interpreting myths as accounts of actual events euhemerist exegesis dates from antiguity and can be traced back from spencer to evh m re s histoire sacr e three zero zero bce which describes the inhabitants of the island of panchaia everything good in the indian ocean as normal people deified by popular naivety as roland barthes affirms myth is a word chosen by history it could not come from the nature of things m che one nine nine two p two zero this process occurs in part because the events described become detached from their original context and new context is substituted often through analogy with current or recent events some greek myths originated in classical times to provide explanations for inexplicable features of local cult practices to account for the local epithet of one of the olympian gods to interpret depictions of half remembered figures events or account for the deities attributes or entheogens even to make sense of ancient icons much as myths are invented to explain heraldic charges the origins of which has become arcane with the passing of time conversely descriptions of recent events are re emphasised to make them seem to be analogous with the commonly known story this technique has been used by some religious conservatives in america with text from the bible notably referencing the many prophecies in the book of daniel and the book of revelation especially it was also used during the russian communist era in propaganda about political situations with misleading references to class struggles until world war ii the fitness of the emperor of japan was linked to his mythical descent from the shinto sun goddess amaterasu m che one nine nine two p one zero argues that euhemerist exegesis was applied to capture and seize by force of reason qualities of thought which eluded it on every side this process he argues often leads to interpretation of myths as disguised propaganda in the service of powerful individuals and that the purpose of myths in this view is to allow the social order to establish its permanence on the illusion of a natural order he argues against this interpretation saying that what puts an end to this caricature of certain speeches from may one nine six eight is among other things precisely the fact that roles are not distributed once and for all in myths as would be the case if they were a variant of the idea of an opium of the people contra barthes quote above m che one nine nine two argues that myth therefore seems to choose history rather than be chosen by it p two one beyond words and stories myth seems more like a psychic content from which words gestures and musics radiate history only chooses for it more or less becoming clothes and these contents surge forth all the more vigorously from the nature of things when reason tries to repress them whatever the roles and commentaries with which such and such a socio historic movement decks out the mythic image the latter lives a largely autonomous life which continually fascinates humanity to denounce archaism only makes sense as a function of a progressive ideology which itself begins to show a certain archaism and an obvious naivety p two zero other theories for l vi strauss myth is a structured system of signifiers whose internal networks of relationships are used to map the structure of other sets of relationships the content is infinitely variable and relatively unimportant middleton one nine nine zero p two two two a modern interpretation of myths primarily as indicators of astrononomical events has been put forward in such works as hamlet s mill an essay investigating the origins of human knowledge and it s transmission through myth by giorgio de santillana hertha von dechend isbn zero eight seven nine two three two one five three and serves as a counterpoint to numerous jungian often psychological or mystical interpretations as put forward by joseph campbell catastrophists such as immanuel velikovsky believe that myths are derived from the oral histories of ancient cultures that witnessed cosmic catastrophes for example velikovsky believes the dragon represented a fiery cosmic object such as a comet believers in catastrophism are only a small minority within the field of mythology modern mythology film and book series like star wars and tarzan have strong mythological aspects that sometimes develop into deep and intricate philosophical systems these items are not mythology but contain mythic themes that for some people meet the same psychological needs an excellent example is that developed by j r r tolkien in the silmarillion and the lord of the rings fiction however does not reach the level of actual mythology until people believe that it really happened for example some people believe that fiction author clive barker s candyman was based upon a true story and new stories have grown up around the figure the same can be said for the blair witch and many other stories mythology is alive and well in the modern age through urban legends new age beliefs certain aspects of religion and so forth in the one nine five zero s roland barthes published a series of essays examining modern myths and the process of their creation in his book mythologies swiss psychologist carl jung one eight seven three one nine six one and his followers also tried to understand the psychology behind world myths myths by region africa akamba mythology akan mythology alur mythology ashanti mythology bambara mythology bambuti mythology banyarwanda mythology basari mythology baule mythology bavenda mythology bazambi mythology baziba mythology bushongo mythology dahomey mythology fon dinka mythology efik mythology egyptian mythology pre islam ekoi mythology fan mythology fens mythology fjort mythology herero mythology ibibio mythology ibo mythology isoko mythology kamba mythology kavirondo mythology khoikhoi mythology kurumba mythology lotuko mythology lugbara mythology lunda mythology makoni mythology masai mythology mongo mythology mundang mythology ngbandi mythology nupe mythology nyamwezi mythology oromo mythology ovambo mythology pygmy mythology san mythology serer mythology shona mythology shongo mythology songhai mythology sotho mythology tumbuka mythology xhosa mythology yoruba mythology zulu mythology asia non middle east ayyavazhi mythology buddhist mythology b n mythology pre buddhist tibetan mythology chinese mythology hindu mythology hmong mythology japanese mythology mainstream japanese mythology hotsuma version korean mythology philippine mythology turkic mythology vietnamese mythology australia and oceania aboriginal mythology natives of australia maori mythology melanesian mythology micronesian mythology polynesian mythology europe anglo saxon mythology basque mythology catalan mythology celtic mythology corsican mythology chuvash mythology english mythology etruscan mythology french mythology germanic mythology greek mythology finnish mythology irish mythology latvian mythology lithuanian mythology lusitanian mythology norse mythology roman mythology romanian mythology sardinian mythology slavic mythology spanish mythology swiss mythology tatar mythology turkish mythology middle east arab mythology pre islamic biblical mythology christian mythology jewish mythology persian mythology mesopotamian mythology babylonian sumerian assrian north america abenaki mythology algonquin mythology american folklore non native american blackfoot mythology chippewa mythology chickasaw mythology choctaw mythology creek mythology crow mythology haida mythology ho chunk mythology hopi mythology inuit mythology iroquois mythology huron mythology kwakiutl mythology lakota mythology leni lenape mythology navaho mythology nootka mythology pawnee mythology salish mythology seneca mythology tsimshian mythology ute mythology zuni mythology south america and mesoamerica aztec mythology incan mythology guarani mythology haitian mythology maya mythology olmec mythology toltec mythology mythological archetypes culture hero earth mother first man or woman hero life death rebirth deity lunar deity psychopomp sky father solar deity trickster underworld mythological creatures legendary creature list of species in folklore and mythology list of species in folklore and mythology by type list of species in fantasy fiction books on mythology bulfinch s mythology by thomas bulfinch the golden bough by james george frazer the hero with a thousand faces and other titles by joseph campbell mythology by edith hamilton mythology by anne birrell don t know much about mythology by kenneth c davis see also artificial mythology claude l vi strauss folklore folkloristics list of deities list of legends and myths list of mythical objects metanarrative monomyth mytheme mythical place mythologies a book by roland barthes national myth religion urban legend mythological and eschatological biblical interpretation references joseph campbell the hero with a thousand faces princeton university press one nine four nine mircea eliade cosmos and history the myth of the eternal return princeton university press one nine five four charles h long alpha the myths of creation george braziller one nine six three kees w bolle the freedom of man in myth vanderbilt university press one nine six eight elliot aronson timothy d wilson robin m akert social psychology addison wesley one nine nine seven m che fran ois bernard one nine eight three one nine nine two music myth and nature or the dolphins of arion musique mythe nature ou les dauphins d arion trans susan delaney harwood academic publishers isbn three seven one eight six five three two one four caillois roger one nine seven two le mythe et l homme gallimard l vi bruhl lucian schelling introduction to philosophy and mythology middleton richard one nine nine zero two zero zero two studying popular music philadelphia open university press isbn zero three three five one five two seven five nine santillana and von dechend one nine six nine one nine nine two re issue hamlet s mill an essay investigating the origins of human knowledge and its transmission through myth harvard university press isbn zero eight seven nine two three two one five three e a games two zero zero four age of mythology rts videogame detailing four mythologigical civilizations with creatures and a full history of mythology external links myths and myth makers old tales and superstitions interpreted by comparative mythology by john fiske godchecker easy to use searchable encyclopedia of gods and goddesses from around the world currently has over two five zero zero gods listed including many obscure deities using mythic archetypal approaches in the language arts eric digest www mythologyweb com information about myths legends and folklore as well as a message board how fairy tales shape our lives mythology a mind map or mind map is a diagram used for linking words and ideas to a central key word or idea it is used to visualize classify structure and generate ideas as well as an aid in study problem solving and decision making it is similar to a semantic network or cognitive map but there are no formal restrictions on the kinds of links used most often the map involves images words and lines the elements are arranged intuitively according to the importance of the concepts and they are organized into groupings branches or areas in other words a mind map is an image centered radial diagram that represents semantic or other connections between portions of information the uniform graphic formulation of the semantic structure of information on the method of gathering knowledge may aid recall of existing memories it is also advertised as a way of increasing motivation to work on a task for example the map can graphically illustrate the structure of government institutions within a state a mind map well structured and well established can be subject to review e g with spaced repetition origins mind maps or similar concepts have been used for centuries for learning brainstorming memory visual thinking and problem solving by educators engineers psychologists and people in general some of the earliest examples mind maps were developed by porphyry of tyros a noted thinker of the three rd century as he graphically visualised the concept categories of aristotle ramon llull also used these structures of the mind map form people have been using image centered radial graphic organization techniques referred to variably as mental or generic mind maps for centuries in areas such as engineering psychology and education although the claim to the origin of the mind map has been made by a british popular psychology author tony buzan he claimed the idea was inspired by the general semantics of science fiction novels such as those of a e van vogt and l ron hubbard he argues that traditional articles rely on the reader to scan left to right and top to bottom whilst what actually happens is that the brain will scan the entire page in a non linear fashion he also uses popular assumptions about the cerebral hemispheres in order to promote the exclusive use of mind mapping over other forms of note making more recently the semantic network was developed as a theory to understand human learning and developed into mind maps by the rennaisance man dr allan collins and the noted researcher m ross quillian during the early one nine six zero s as such due to his commitment and published research and his work with learning creativity and graphical thinking dr allan collins can be considered the father of the modern mind map the mind map continues to be used in various forms and for various applications including learning and education where it is often taught as webs or webbing planning and in engineering diagramming when compared with the earlier original concept map which was developed by learning experts in the one nine six zero s the structure of a mind map is a similar but simplified radial by having one central key word uses of mind maps a hand drawn mind map rough mindmap notes taken during a course session mind maps have many applications in personal family educational and business situations including note taking brainstorming wherein ideas are inserted into the map radially around the center node without the implicit prioritization that comes from hierarchy or sequential arrangements and wherein grouping and organizing is reserved for later stages summarizing revising and general clarifying of thoughts for example one could listen to a lecture and take down notes using mind maps for the most important points or keywords one can also use mind maps as a mnemonic technique or to sort out a complicated idea mind maps are also promoted as a way to collaborate in colour pen creativity sessions some of the literature around mind mapping has made claims that one can find the perfect lover combat bullying persuade clients develop intuitive powers create global harmony and tap the deeper levels of consciousness by using mind map techniques software and technique research have concluded that managers and students find the techniques of mind mapping to be useful being better able to retain information and ideas than by using traditional linear note taking methods mindmaps can be drawn by hand either as rough notes for example during a lecture or meeting or can be more sophisticated in quality examples of both are illustrated there are also a number of software packages available for producing mind maps see below mind map guidelines these are the foundation structures of a mind map although these are open to free interpretation by the individual start in the centre with an image of the topic using at least three colours use images symbols codes and dimensions throughout your mind map select key words and print using upper or lower case letters each word image must be alone and sitting on its own line the lines must be connected starting from the central image the central lines are thicker organic and flowing becoming thinner as they radiate out from the centre make the lines the same length as the word image use colours your own code throughout the mind map develop your own personal style of mind mapping use emphasis and show associations in your mind map keep the mind map clear by using radiant hierarchy numerical order or outlines to embrace your branches see buzan tony the mind map book chapter mind mapping guidelines scholarly research on mind maps buzan one nine nine one claims that the mind map is a vastly superior note taking method because it does not lead to the alleged semi hypnotic trance state induced by the other note forms buzan also claims that the mind map utilizes the full range of left and right human cortical skills balances the brain taps into the nine nine of your unused mental potential and taps into your intuition which he calls superlogic there has been research conducted on the technique which suggests that such claims may actually be marketing hype based on misconceptions about the brain and the cerebral hemispheres see human brain popular misconceptions there are benefits to be gained by applying a wide range of graphic organizers and it follows that the mind map specifically is limited to only a few learning tasks research by farrand hussain and hennessy two zero zero two found that the mind map technique had a limited but significant impact on recall only in undergraduate students a one zero increase over baseline for a six zero zero word text only as compared to preferred study methods a six increase over baseline this improvement was only robust after a week for those in the mind map group and there was a significant decrease in motivation compared to the subjects preferred methods of note taking they suggested that learners preferred to use other methods because using a mind map was an unfamiliar technique and its status as a memory enhancing technique engendered reluctance to apply it pressley vanetten yokoi freebern and vanmeter one nine nine eight found that learners tended to learn far better by focusing on the content of learning material rather than worrying over any one particular form of note making tools these tools can be used effectively to organise large amounts of information combining spatial organisation dynamic hierarchical structuring and node folding free libre open source software freemind is a free open source mind mapping application written in java vym for linux and macos free software gnu gpl kdissert for linux only free software gnu gpl for the creation of other documents from mindmaps presentation reports applets deepamehta opensource mindmap desktop wikkawiki is a free php mysql wiki engine with native support for freemind maps commercial proprietary software mindmanager is commercial mind mapping software running on ms windows and integrated with ms office novamind is a commercial mind map application for mac os x features include arbitrary branch shapes a branch proposal system and integrated screenplay support i two brain takes the next step away from a flat tree to a network of ideas with depth multi platform conceptdraw mindmap mind mapping brainstorming and project planning software that works both on windows and mac os x openmind software used by british schools mindgenius is commercial mind mapping software for ms windows with a vast array of features this product is sleek and simple with excellent export smartdraw a visio like product mindjet is one of the more robust of programs with lots of visual features including on screen notes highlighting of sections arrows outside of the tree structure etc brainmine s major advantages come from an extensive graphics icon image package a convenient overview map and an object attribute panel the final products can be visually impressive but the interface can be overwhelming even distracting for basic idea organizing visual concept touts itself as a mind mapping program the final product is more like visio but seems to emphasize hexagon shaped maps inforapid knowledgemap achieves some of the same mindmap type organization but is constructed to seem more like an outline cornerstone is a visual thinking tool that supports a variety of visual styles mind mapping in contrast with concept mapping the mind map can be contrasted with the similar idea of concept mapping the former is based on radial hierarchies and tree structures whereas concept maps are based on connections between concepts concept maps also encourage one to label the connections one makes between nodes while mind maps are based on separated focused topics both of them have been found to enhance meaningful learning while enabling the potential as a true cognitive intuitive spatial and metaphorical mapping trademarks the use of the term mind maps is trade marked by the buzan organisation ltd in the uk and the usa though the trade mark does not appear in the records of the canadian intellectual property office see also topic map outliner ishikawa diagram concept mapping semantic web semantic similarity pattern language educational technology references buzan t one nine nine one the mind map book new york penguin farrand p hussain f hennessy e med educ two zero zero two the efficacy of the mind map study technique may three six five four two six three one ebscohost retrieved may five th two zero zero five novak j d one nine nine three how do we learn our lesson taking students through the process the science teacher six zero three five zero five five pressley m vanetten s yokoi l freebern g the metacognition of college studentship a grounded theory approach in d j hacker j dunlosky p xi two seven three three one ed idph external links flexus groupis a commercial site with many business and personal mindmapping applications mind mapping software for mac and pc thinking with pictures resources and information about model maps and concept maps mind mapping software for writing dissertations and essays buzan centres high quality free mind mapping software some good pictures at msoworld http www mapyourmind com a commercial site promoting mind mapping and mind mapping software iaresearch a commercial site promoting mind mapping and mind mapping software http www geocities com buzanguru mindmapping one html mind map overview and advocacy some more example maps on a commercial site http www petillant com french portal dedicated to mind mapping http www innovationtools com resources mindmapping asp mind mapping resource center i navigation mind mapping software with focus context visualization mindmapping outliners an analysis of mindmapping and an overview of various products for macs beyond crayons a series of essays about the professional use of mapping software knowledge representation mental skill games creativity educational technology diagrams thought memories are believed to be created in part by changes in the properties of particular synapses in the brain paired activity in two neurons that participate in a synapse leads to both the regulation of proteins and the synthesis of new proteins that affect the strength and other properties of the synapse see also memory memory m two machine gun surrounded by spent shell casings for other uses of the phrase see machine gun disambiguation a machine gun is a fully automatic firearm that is capable of firing bullets in rapid succession such automatic weapons with a caliber of two zero mm or larger are generally referred to as autocannons overview j drusie polish underground group firing a machine gun unlike semi automatic firearms which require one trigger pull per bullet fired a machine gun is designed to fire bullets as long as the trigger is held down and ammunition is fed into the weapon although the term machine gun is often used to describe all fully automatic weapons in military usage the term is restricted to weapons designed to provide suppressive fire in continuous or frequent bursts of automatic fire for as long as ammunition lasts however a fully automatic firearm with a projectile caliber of equal to or greater than two zero mm zero eight inch is called an automatic cannon some machine guns have in practice maintained suppressive fire almost continuously for hours other automatic weapons will eventually overheat usually in less than a minute because they become very hot in operation practically all machine guns fire from an open bolt to permit air cooling from the breech between bursts they also have either a barrel cooling system or removable barrels so that a hot barrel can be swapped for a cool one although subdivided into light medium heavy or general purpose even the lightest machine guns tend to be substantially larger and heavier than other automatic weapons squad automatic weapons saws are a variation of light machine guns and only require one operator sometimes with an assistant to carry ammunition medium and heavy machine guns are either mounted on a tripod or on a vehicle when carried on foot the machine gun and associated equipment tripod ammunition spare barrels require additional crew members the majority of machine guns are belt fed although some light machine guns are fed from drum or box magazines and some vehicle mounted machine guns are hopper fed other automatic weapons are subdivided into several categories based on the size of the bullet used and whether the cartridge is fired from a positively locked closed bolt or a non positively locked open bolt fully automatic firearms using pistol caliber ammunition are called machine pistols or submachine guns largely on the basis of size selective fire rifles firing a full power rifle cartridge from a closed bolt are called automatic rifles while those using a reduced power rifle cartridge are called assault rifles the machine gun s primary role in ground combat is to provide suppressive fire on an opposing force s position forcing the enemy to take cover and reducing the effectiveness of his fire this either halts an enemy attack or allows friendly forces to attack enemy positions with less risk to this end most light machine guns and general purpose machine guns are not designed for high accuracy as would be expected of a rifle most are designed with a small degree of inaccuracy referred to as the cone of fire because the rounds spread out as they travel towards the target area light machine guns usually have simple iron sights a common aiming system is to alternate solid ball rounds and tracer ammunition rounds usually one tracer round for every four ball rounds so shooters can walk the fire into the target and direct the fire of other soldiers assault rifles are a compromise between the pistol caliber submachine gun and a traditional rifle firing a full power cartridge allowing single shot burst and full automatic fire options many heavy machine guns such as the m two five zero caliber machine gun are accurate enough to engage targets at great distances during the vietnam war carlos hathcock set the record for a long distance shot at seven three eight two ft two two five zero m with a five zero caliber heavy machine gun he had equipped with a telescopic sight this led to the introduction of five zero caliber anti material sniper rifles such as the barrett m eight two components all machine guns require the following components a feed system to load the firing chamber cartridges can be fed into the chamber by a variety of methods the most common being spring fed magazines or ammunition belts a trigger mechanism to fire the round this includes the actual trigger a trigger sear to catch the bolt a bolt and a firing pin as well as other components typically the act of pulling the trigger causes something to strike the primer on the round in the chamber and disengages the sears this allows continual cycling of the bolt until the trigger is released a sear then grabs the bolt or firing pin this stops the machine gun at some point in its cycle an extractor system to eject the spent or misfired cartridge usually this is fairly simple a pin on the side of the bolt catches a ridge on the cartridge and flicks it out an ejection port these components form a mechanism which must be powered by something if powered by a spring absorbing the recoil of a fired cartridge it is called recoil operated if powered by the expanding gases of a fired cartridge it is called gas actuated if it powered by an external force such as a motor it is usually called a chain gun operation a m six zero machine gun aboard a navy patrol craft the uss constellation cv six four in the distance july two zero zero two all machine guns follow a cycle removing the spent cartridge through an ejection port cocking the trigger mechanism so the weapon can be fired again loading the next round into the firing chamber usually spring tension or a cam forces the new round and bolt back into the firing chamber a mechanism makes the firing pin fire the cartridge activating the ejection and reloading steps the cycle repeats this full cycle takes a fraction of a second and can thus occur many times per second the operation is basically the same regardless of the means of activating these mechanisms some examples machine pistols and submachine guns like the world war ii grease gun mac one zero or the uzi are usually blowback operated most assault rifles and squad automatic weapons are gas actuated some weapons such as the ar one five m one six integrate the piston with the bolt others such as the m one five and ak patterns attach the piston to a bolt carrier that unlocks and operates the bolt a recoil actuated machine gun uses the recoil to first unlock and then operate the action heavy machine guns such as the m two five zero and browning five zero are of this type these can be recognized by a large cocking lever needed to feed the first round an externally actuated machine gun uses an external power source such as an electric motor or even a hand crank to move its mechanism through the firing sequence most modern weapons of this type are called chain guns in reference to their driving mechanism gatling guns and revolver cannon have several barrels or chambers on a rotating carousel and a system of cams that load cock and fire each mechanism progressively as it rotates through the sequence the continuous nature of the rotary action allows for an incredibly high cyclic rate of fire often several thousand rounds per minute not all chain guns use multiple barrels or chambers though chain guns are less prone to jamming than a gun operated by gas or recoil as the external power source will eject misfired rounds with no further trouble this is not possible if the force needed to eject the round comes from the round itself chain guns are generally used with large shells two zero mm in diameter or more though some such as the m one three four minigun fire smaller cartridges they offer benefits of reliability and firepower though the weight and size necessary for the driving mechanism makes them impractical for use outside of a vehicle or aircraft mount heavy machine guns are often water cooled or have interchangeable barrels which must be changed periodically to avoid overheating the higher the rate of fire the more often barrels must be changed and allowed to cool to minimize this most air cooled guns are fired only in short bursts or at a reduced rate of fire not all machine guns strike the primer in the same way in blowback machine guns the act of seating the round also fires the round in gas operated and recoil operated guns a separate step in the firing sequence is needed to strike the round in a progressive fire gun the firing pin is cycled by cams in some automatic cannon the primer is fired electrically u s marines and their m two four zero g at camp hansen okinawa in weapons where the round seats and fires at the same time mechanical timing is essential for operator safety to prevent the round from firing before it is seated properly this is especially important in weapons like the four zero mm grenade launcher where high explosives are present in the rounds being fired machine guns are controlled by one or more mechanical sears when a sear is in place it effectively stops the bolt at some point in its range of motion some sears stop the bolt when it is locked to the rear other sears stop the firing pin from going forward after the round is locked into the chamber almost all weapons have a safety sear which simply keeps the trigger from engaging history multi shot guns have a long development going as far back to the one st century with plans for a multi shot arrow gun by greek engineer hero of alexandria leonardo da vinci devised plans for one in the one four zero zero s and stretching back to some of the earliest firearms and attempts at higher rates of fire and some machine gun like traits happened as early as the one seven zero zero s however it would not be until the mid one eight zero zero s that successful machine gun designs came into existence the key characteristic of modern machine guns their relatively high rate of fire and more importantly machine automatic loading came with the model one eight six two gatling gun which was adopted by the united states navy these weapons were still powered by hand however this changed with hiram maxim s idea of harnessing recoil energy to power reloading in his maxim machine gun dr gatling also experimented with electric motor powered models this externally powered machine reloading has seen use in modern weapons as well the vandenburg and miltrailleuse volley organ gun concepts have been revived partially in the early two one st century in the form of electronically controlled multibarreled volley guns it is important to note that what exactly constitutes a machine gun and whether volley guns are a type of machine gun and to what extent some earlier types of devices are consider to be like machine guns is a matter of debate in many cases and can vary depending which language and exact definition is used early rapid firing weapons among first known ancestor of multi shot weapons was created by james puckle a london lawyer who patented what he called the puckle gun on may one five one seven one eight it was a design for a one in two five four mm caliber flintlock semi automatic cannon able to fire nine rounds before reloading intended for use on ships according to puckle it was able to fire round bullets at christians and square bullets at turks while ahead of its time foreshadowing the designs of revolvers it was not adopted or produced gatling gun one eight six five in the early and mid one nine th century a number of rapid firing weapons appeared which offered multi shot fire and a number of semi automatic weapons as well as volley guns volley guns such as the mitrailleuse and double barreled pistols relied on duplicating all parts of the gun pepperbox pistols did away with needing multiple hammers but used multiple barrels revolvers further reduced this to only needing a pre prepared magazine using the same barrel and ignitions however like the puckle gun they were still only semiautomatic the coffee mill gun of the civil war featured both automatic loading and single barrel only separated functionally from the modern machine gun by being hand powered rather than using cartridges the gatling gun patented in one eight six one by richard jordan gatling was the first to offer controlled sequential automatic fire with automatic loading the design s key features were machine loading of prepared cartridges and a hand operated crank for sequential high speed firing it first saw very limited action in the american civil war and was subsequently improved many were sold to other armies in the late one eight zero zero s and continued to be used into the early one nine zero zero s until they were gradually supplanted by maxim guns the gatlings were the first widely used rapid fire guns and due to their multiple barrels could offer more sustained fire than the first generation of air cooled recoil operated machine guns the weight complexity and resulting cost of the multibarrel design meant recoil operated weapons which could be made lighter and cheaper would supplant them it would be another five zero years before the concept was again used to allow extremely high rates of fire such as in miniguns and automatic aircraft cannons maxim gun a vickers machine gun with crew wearing gas masks during wwi a model of a typical entrenched german machine gunner in world war i he is operating a maxim gun wearing a stahlhelm and cuirass to protect him from shrapnel and is behind rows of barbed wire and sandbags the first true machine gun was invented in one eight eight three by hiram maxim the maxim gun used the recoil energy of the previously fired bullet to reload rather than being hand powered enabling a much higher rate of fire than was possible using earlier designs maxim s other great innovation was the use of water cooling via a water jacket around the barrel to reduce overheating maxim s gun was widely adopted and derivative designs were used on all sides during the first world war the design required less crew was lighter and more useable than earlier gatling guns heavy guns based on the maxim such as the vickers machine gun were joined by many other machine weapons which mostly had their start in the early two zero th century submachine guns e g the thompson or tommy gun as well as lighter machine guns the bar for example saw their first major use in ww one along with heavy use of large caliber machine guns the biggest single cause of casualties in ww one was actually artillery but combined with wire entanglements machineguns earned a fearsome reputation the automatic mechanisms of machine guns were applied to handguns giving rise to automatic pistols and eventully machine pistols such as the borchardt one eight nine zero s and later submachine guns such as the beretta one nine one eight machine guns were mounted in aircraft for the first time in world war i firing through a moving propeller was solved in a variety of ways including the interrupter gear metal reinforcement of the propeller or simply avoiding the problem with wing mounted guns or having a pusher propeller during the interwar years many new designs were developed such as the browning five zero caliber one two seven mm in one nine three three which along with others were used in world war ii the trend toward automatic rifles lighter machine guns and more powerful submachine guns resulted in a wide variety of firearms that combined characteristics of an ordinary rifle and a machine guns the cei rigotti one nine zero zero s federov avtomat one nine one zero s avs three six simonov one nine three zero s mp four four m two carbine ak four seven and ar one five have come to be known as assault rifles after the german term sturmgewehr many aircraft were equipped with machine cannons and similar cannon nicknamed pom pom guns were used as antiaircraft weapons the designs of bofors of sweden were widely used by both sides and have greatly influenced similar weapons developed since then modern era the cold war era saw mostly a refinement of weapon types in the form of lower weight and higher reliability the semiautomatic rifles of world war ii vintage were almost totally replaced by lighter assault rifles such as the m one six and soviet ak seven four infantry adopted general purpose machine guns like the american m six zero for squad use using air cooling for lighter weight heavy machine guns were retained for ground vehicles and fortifications for aircraft use even heavy machine guns proved to lack killing power in the air to air role and by the late one nine five zero s fighter aircraft armament had almost totally switched to automatic cannons machine guns with lower recoil remained popular for helicopters and for ground attack aircraft supplemented by new gatling style electric multibarrel weapons like the american minigun in police special operations and other paramilitary roles smaller automatic weapons including light submachine guns and machine pistols proliferated many relying on the increasingly ubiquitous nine x one nine mm round future a seven six two mm gau one seven gatling gun of the u s navy conventional machine gun development has been slowed by the fact that existing machine gun designs are adequate for most purposes although significant developments are taking place with regard to antiarmor and antimissile weapons in the future electronically controlled machine guns with ultrahigh rates of fire may see use in some applications although current small caliber weapons of this type have found little use they are too light for anti vehicle use but too heavy especially with the need to carry a tactically useful amount of ammunition for individual soldiers the trend towards higher reliability and lower mass for a given power will likely continue see also firearm action squad automatic weapon breda machine gun weapon general purpose machine gun list of firearms mitrailleuse precursor to the machine gun external links how stuff works very well written article with animated diagrams gun history a patent for an early automatic cannon vickers machine gun site nazarian s gun s recognition guide on machine guns israeli special forces machine guns at isayeret com the reme museum of technology machine guns firearms machine guns marine marine is an umbrella term for things relating to the ocean as with marine biology marine geology and as a term for a navy etc in scientific contexts the term almost always refers exclusively to saltwater environments although in other contexts e g engineering it may refer to any usually navigable body of water military a marine is an armed services member whose primary function is to assault land from the sea in amphibious warfare different nations have more expanded or more limited roles for their particular forces but the core role remains the same traditionally marines served on board warships and fulfilled numerous roles they assisted the crew in battles against other warships conducted small coastal raids and protected the officers from mutiny by the crew in modern warfare marines are often highly mobile elite troops that can be positioned offshore close to the war zone to launch amphibious assaults many nations have dedicated marine corps for details of marines in the militaries of specific countries see national marine corps marine mne or mne is also the lowest rank in the british royal marines equivalent to a private in the army as well as being a generic term for any member of the corps places marines is the name of a commune in the d partement of val d oise france science fiction marines space marines united states colonial marines marines are the basic military unit for terrans in starcraft the mobile infantry in heinlein s starship troopers could be considered and are intentionally patterned after marines the game halo combat evolved depicts marines of a futuristic earth in battle with warlike aliens types of military marines monopoly is one of the best selling commercial board games in the world players compete to acquire wealth through stylized economic activity involving the purchase rental and trading of real estate using play money as players take turns moving around the board according to the roll of the dice the game is named after the economic concept of monopoly the domination of a market by a single seller according to hasbro since charles darrow patented the game in one nine three five approximately seven five zero million people have played the game making it the most played board game in the world though this fact is heavily disputed the one nine nine nine guinness book of records cited hasbro s previous statistic of five zero zero million people having played monopoly history patent drawing for lizzie magie s board game five january one nine zero four variations on the game of monopoly were developed and played during the early part of the twentieth century these included various homemade games adapted to the places where players lived a frequently cited example in one nine zero four georgist that is a supporter of political economist henry george lizzie magie patented a game called the landlord s game with the object of demonstrating how rents enrich property owners and impoverish tenants she knew that some people could find it hard to understand why this happened and what might be done about it and she thought that if georgist ideas were put into the concrete form of a game they might be easier to demonstrate although the landlord s game was patented it was not taken up by a manufacturer until one nine one zero when it was published in the u s by the economic game company of new york in the uk it was published in one nine one three by the newbie game company of london under the title brer fox an brer rabbit despite the title change it was recognizably the same game magie was married and relocated to illinois during this time and re patented a revised version of the landlord s game in one nine two four under her married name elizabeth magie phillips this version unlike her first included named streets for her one nine two four edition a couple of streets on the board were named after chicago streets and locations notably the loop and lake shore drive apart from commercial distribution it spread by word of mouth and was played in slightly variant homemade versions over the years by quakers georgists university students and others who became aware of it another variation was created by daniel w layman in the one nine two zero s who based his game board on his home town of indianapolis indiana usa and renamed it finance layman sold his rights to the game which was produced marketed and sold by knapp electric robert barton president of parker brothers bought the rights to the game from knapp electric in one nine three five finance would be redeveloped updated and continued to be sold by parker brothers into the one nine six zero s other versions continued to spread and game rules were changed most notably in dropping the second phase of the game during which a land tax was introduced to replace the other taxes and the shortened game became known as auction monopoly it was often localized with the original fanciful property names being replaced by street names from the cities where the players lived by the late one nine two zero s it was known simply as monopoly and was played very much as it is now one version of the game commonly played in the philadelphia area had atlantic city street names this game was taught to charles darrow who then began to distribute the game himself darrow initially made the sets of the monopoly game by hand with the help of his first son william darrow and his wife charles drew the designs with a drafting pen on round pieces of oilcloth and then his son and his wife helped fill in the spaces with colors and make the title deed cards and the chance and community chest cards after the demand for the game increased darrow contacted a printing company which printed the designs of the property spaces on square carton boards darrow took the game to parker brothers and sold it to them as his personal invention parker brothers subsequently decided to buy out magie s copyright and the copyrights of other commercial variants of the game in order to claim that it had legitimate undisputed rights to the game a monopoly in fact monopoly was first marketed on a broad scale by parker brothers on november five one nine three five with international licensing rights given to waddington games of the united kingdom both of which are now part of hasbro waddington s version with locations from london was first produced in one nine three six on the original parker brothers board reprinted in two zero zero two by winning moves games there were no icons for the community chest spaces the blue chest overflowing with gold coins came later nor were there property values printed on spaces on the board the income tax was slightly higher being three zero zero or one zero instead of the later two zero zero or one zero the chance and community chest cards were reprinted in their original one nine three five form without rich uncle pennybags who was introduced in one nine three six parker brothers then promoted darrow as the game s sole inventor decades later when they attempted to suppress publication of a game called anti monopoly designed by economics professor ralph anspach in one nine eight two the ninth circuit court of appeals found in favor of prof anspach bringing to light facts about the game s history which differed from parker brothers official account this usps stamp honors monopoly s first commercial promotion in the one nine three zero s the original monopoly game had been localized for the cities or areas in which it was played and parker brothers has continued this practice their version of monopoly has been produced for international markets with the place names being localized for cities including london and paris and for countries including the netherlands and germany among others in recent years different manufacturers of the game have created dozens of versions in which the names of the properties and other elements of the game are replaced by others with some theme there are versions about national parks star trek star wars disney various particular cities such as las vegas or bath and villages such as calumetopoly for calumet michigan states colleges and universities nascar and many others in late one nine nine eight hasbro which had taken over tonka kenner parker in the early one nine nine zero s announced a campaign to add an all new token to u s standard edition sets of monopoly voters were allowed to select from a biplane a piggy bank and a sack of money with votes being tallied through a special website via a toll free phone number and at f a o schwarz stores in march of one nine nine nine hasbro announced that the winner was the sack of money with five one of the vote compared to two nine for the biplane and two zero for the piggy bank thus the sack of money became the first new token added to the game since the early one nine five zero s in july of two zero zero zero in a major marketing effort hasbro renamed the mascot rich uncle pennybags to mr monopoly felt by some to be a blander name computer and video game versions have been made available on many different platforms they have been produced for pc amiga mac commodore six four nes snes game boy game boy color game boy advance sega master system sega genesis nintendo six four playstation playstation two gamecube xbox and mobile phones as well as a handheld electronic game in one nine nine seven legal status although the game of monopoly existed prior to the parker brothers edition the company now owned by hasbro has still claimed intellectual property rights over various aspects of the game though it has not always prevailed in the courts the one nine eight two anti monopoly case mentioned above in addition to revealing some of the previously suppressed history of the game also created a doctrine that names of games were generally not trademarkable because they referred to a particular set of game elements rules and equipment covered by patent and copyright law rather than trademarks rather than to a source of origin of goods and services as a result the name monopoly entered the public domain where the naming of games was concerned and a profusion of non parker brothers variants were published however this doctrine was later eliminated by congress in a revision of the trademark law and parker brothers now claims trademark rights to the name and its variants and has asserted it against others such as the publishers of ghettopoly various patents have existed on the game of monopoly and its predecessors such as the landlord s game but they are all now expired the specific graphics of the game board cards and pieces are protected by copyright law as is the specific wording of the game s rules however one can most likely avoid violation by producing a board and rules that are functionally identical while using different words and graphics board atlantic city version this is the original version produced by parker brothers the board consists of four zero squares containing two eight properties three chance squares three community chest squares a luxury tax square an income tax square go jail free parking and go to jail in the u s version shown below the properties are named after locations in or near atlantic city nj landing on the jail space by a direct roll of the dice without being sent to jail in the corner between the light blue and light purple maroon properties means you are just visiting and continue the next turn normally note that marvin gardens a yellow property on the above board is actually a misspelling of the original location name marven gardens marven gardens is not a street but a housing area outside atlantic city the housing area is said to be derived from margate city and ventnor city in new jersey the misspelling was originally introduced by charles todd whose home made monopoly board was copied by charles darrow and subsequently used as the basis of their design by parker brothers it was not until one nine nine five that parker brothers acknowledged this mistake and formally apologized to the residents of marven gardens for the misspelling short line is believed to refer to the shore fast line a streetcar line that served atlantic city the b its water is piped in from the new jersey mainland through two pipes the other versions of the game have different property names and the prices may be denominated in another currency but the game mechanics are almost identical the income tax choice from the u s version is replaced by a flat rate in the uk version and the seven five luxury tax square is replaced with the one zero zero super tax square the same is true of current german boards with a two zero zero for the income tax space on the board and a one zero zero zusatzsteuer add on tax in place of the luxury tax to complicate matters further an austrian version released by parker brothers hasbro in two zero zero one does allow for the one zero or two zero zero for income tax and has a one zero zero luxury tax london version in the one nine three zero s john waddington ltd waddingtons was a firm of printers from leeds that had begun to branch out into packaging and the production of playing cards waddingtons had sent the card game lexicon to parker brothers hoping to interest them in publishing the game in the united states in a similar fashion parker brothers sent over a copy of monopoly to waddingtons early in one nine three five before the game had been put into production in the united states the managing director of waddingtons victor watson gave the game to his son norman who was head of the card games division to test over the weekend norman was impressed by the game and persuaded his father to call parker brothers on monday morning this call resulted in waddingtons obtaining a license to produce and market the game outside of the united states watson felt that in order for the game to be a success in britain the american locations would have to be replaced so victor and his secretary marjory phillips went to london to scout out locations the angel islington is not a street in london but an area of north london named after a coaching inn that stood on the great north road by the one nine three zero s the inn had become a lyons corner house it is now a co operative bank some accounts say that marjory and victor met at the angel to discuss the selection and celebrated the fact by including it on the monopoly board in two zero zero three a plaque commemorating the naming was unveiled at the site by victor watson s grandson who is also named victor the standard british board produced by waddingtons was for many years the version most familiar to people in countries in the commonwealth except canada and many other nations and is shown below in the cases where the game was produced under license by a national company the pound was replaced by a dollar sign but the place names were unchanged in two zero zero five hasbro launched the here updating the properties and prices to reflect present day london properties the playing pieces were also changed to be mobile phone roller blade hamburger jumbo jet racing car skateboard and london bus this version was launched in recognition of the game s seven zero th anniversary in conjunction with an online version for a list of some of the localized versions including the here edition and the names of their properties see localized versions of the monopoly game properties in detail this list details the two two real estate properties in the original united states version of monopoly as presented by darrow to parker brothers the original atlantic city monopoly board was done by hoskin raiford s atlantic city quaker friends school teachers with the changes noted by starred items the bracketed items are the differences in the names on the hoskin raiford quaker monopoly board it is believed that a version copied from this school s edition by charles todd was in turn copied by charles darrow duplicating the changes in names and the infamous misspelling of marven gardens the four railroads reading railroad pennsylvania railroad b the premade pieces were recycled into monopoly usage hasbro recently adopted the battleship and cannon for diplomacy in one nine nine nine a token representing a sack of money was added following an online vote the other two options were a biplane and a piggy bank unlike the tokens introduced in special themed editions this token was added to the base set more recently a locomotive has also been added to the possible lineup pictured early localized editions of the standard edition did not include pewter tokens but instead had generic plastic head shaped tokens not unlike the msn messenger logo these plastic tokens can be seen in the german monopoly set pictured at the beginning of this article also included in the standard edition are the dice in britain were replaced with a spinner through a lack of materials due to world war ii a pair of six sided dice a title deed for each property a title deed is given to a player to signify ownership and specifies purchase price mortgage value the cost of building houses and hotels on that property and the various rent prices depending on how developed the property is properties include two two streets divided into eight color groups of two or three streets a player must own all of a color group have a monopoly in order to build houses or hotels four railways players collect higher rent if they own more than one railway hotels and houses cannot be built on railways two utilities players collect higher rent if they own both utilities hotels and houses cannot be built on utilities a supply of paper money the supply of money is theoretically unlimited if the bank runs out of money the players must make do with other markers or calculate on paper thirty two wooden or plastic houses and twelve wooden or plastic hotels the original and the current deluxe edition have wooden houses and hotels the current base set uses plastic buildings unlike money houses and hotels have a finite supply if no more are available no substitute is allowed a deck of one six chance cards and a deck of one six community chest cards players draw these cards when they land on the corresponding squares of the track and follow the instructions printed on them hasbro also sells a deluxe edition which is mostly identical to the classic edition but has wooden houses and hotels and gold toned tokens including one token in addition to the standard eleven a railroad locomotive other additions to the deluxe edition include a card carousel which holds the title deed cards and money printed with two colors of ink in one nine seven eight retailer neiman marcus manufactured and sold an all chocolate edition of monopoly through their christmas wish book for that year the entire set was edible including the money dice hotels properties tokens and playing board the set retailed for six zero zero the f a o schwarz store in new york city sold a custom version in two zero zero zero called one of a kind monopoly for usd one zero zero zero zero zero this special edition comes in a locking attach case made with napolino leather and lined in suede and features include one eight carat seven five gold tokens houses and hotels rosewood board street names written in gold leaf emeralds around the chance icon sapphires around the community chest rubies in the brake lights of the car on the free parking space the money is real negotiable united states currency rules two to eight people may play monopoly but the game dynamics are ideal with six players with more than six players it is too likely that an individual will not have the opportunity to purchase significant property and be bankrupted without ever having been in contention with four or fewer players there are not as many possible combinations of property ownership and the importance of astute trading and negotiation is diminished each player begins the game with his token on the go square and one five zero zero one five zero zero one five zero zero etc in cash divided as follows per the u s standard rules note that other editions such as germany s and some uk editions use different starting breakdowns of currency this list uses u s currency two each of five zero zero bills one zero zero bills and five zero bills six two zero bills five each of one zero bills five bills one bills all property deeds houses and hotels are held by the bank until purchased by the players official rules players take turns in order as determined by chance prior to the game a player s turn consists of rolling two dice and advancing on the board the corresponding number of squares clockwise around the track depending on where he she lands he she takes any of a number of actions house rules many casual monopoly players are surprised and disappointed to discover that some of the rules they are used to are not part of the official rules many of these house rules tend to make the game longer by giving some players more money some of the more common house rules include free parking jackpot which usually consists of an initial stake plus collection of fines and taxes that would otherwise be paid to the bank a player who lands on free parking wins the jackpot which may then be reset with the initial stake if any the jackpot is usually put in the center of the board players in jail are not allowed to build trade and or collect rent a bonus amount for landing directly on go commonly an additional two zero zero unlimited houses and hotels no build evenly restriction on improving properties not having auctions when a player passes on their chance to buy the property they land on or neglects to stake their claim delayed start players must pass go before they can buy property properties are auctioned as soon as they are landed on without the chance for a player to just buy house rules while unofficial are not wholly unrecognized by parker brothers many video game versions of monopoly have options where by popular house rules can be used strategy monopoly involves a substantial portion of luck with the roll of the dice determining whether a player gets to own key properties or lands on squares with high rents even the initial misfortune of going last is a significant disadvantage because one is more likely to land on property which has already been purchased and therefore be forced to pay rent instead of having an opportunity to buy unowned property there are however many strategic decisions which allow skilled players to win more often than the unskilled property square probabilities the layout of the special squares on the board that is the non property squares as well as the dice roll probabilities mean that not all squares have an equal probability of being landed upon in consequence some properties are landed upon more than others and the owners of those properties get more income from rent the board layout factors are jail since players are frequently directed to go to jail they will move through the purple orange and red property groups immediately after leaving jail the two properties with the highest probability of being landed upon are the two cheaper orange properties st james place and tennessee avenue for americans bow street and marlborough street for the english this makes the orange property set highly lucrative go to one square go to jail plus a number of chance and community chest cards will cause the player to advance a distance around the board thus the squares immediately ahead of go to jail and the take a card squares have a reduced probability of being landed upon the least landed upon property is the cheaper dark blue property park place or park lane because it sits in the lee of both go to jail and one of each take a card go to property several properties are blessed with chance cards which draw players to them st charles place illinois avenue boardwalk each of the railroads except short line and both of the utilities benefit from this feature advance to go a player may be directed to the go square by a chance or a community chest card thus lowering the probability of being landed upon of every square in between the properties most affected by this are the yellow green and dark blue sets it also marginally raises the probability for each square in the wake of go including the purple and orange sets which will be reached two or three rolls after being on go go back three spaces this directive comes from a chance card a quick look at the board shows that there are three chance squares and hence three other squares which are three spaces behind the leading orange property new york avenue or vine street gains the most benefit from this card since the chance square nestled amongst the red properties is itself the most landed upon chance square illinois avenue trafalgar square new york avenue vine street b the page includes detailed analyses of expected income from each property and discussion of the strategical implications dealing and bargaining much of the skill comes from knowing how to make the best use of a player s resources and above all knowing how to strike a good bargain monopoly is a social game where players often interact and must deal with each other in ways not unlike real world real estate bargaining note that the best deal is not always for the most expensive property it is often situational dependent on money resources available to each player and even where players happen to be situated on the board when looking to deal a player should attempt to bargain with players who not only possess properties he or she needs but also needs property the player has actually offering relatively fair deals to other players can end up helping the player making the offer by giving him or her a reputation as an honest broker making players less wary of dealings in the future what is more most people play monopoly with the same group over and over for this reason such a reputation can have effects far beyond the game being played the end game one common criticism of monopoly is that it has carefully defined yet almost unreachable termination conditions this is not generally the view of experienced monopoly players who are often able to finish the game in under two hours many players childhood memories of monopoly involve giving up playing the game after a seemingly endless series of hours playing this problem can be resolved by playing with a time limit and counting up each player s net worth when the time is up in fact tournament play calls for a nine zero minute time limit two hour time limits are used for international play played strictly to the rules many games will be effectively decided when one player succeeds in bankrupting another because the bankrupt player cedes all his property to the one to whom he could not pay his debt a player who thus gains a fistful of properties will virtually control the game from that point onwards since other players will be constantly at risk on the other hand if a player is bankrupted by being unable to meet his debt to the bank eg a fine or tax or other debt that is not rent then his property is all returned to the bank and becomes available as it was at the start of the game this can open up new possibilities in a game which was evenly set or in which a lot of property sets were divided amongst the players another path to a faster ending is by a key property bargain whether it be a very shrewd trade which sets one player up with a well positioned set or a very rash trade where an inexperienced player gives his experienced opponent an underpriced gem either way a deal which pays off for one player is usually the turning point of the game add ons numerous official and unofficial add ons have been made for monopoly both before its commercialization and after the best known expansion to the game is the stock exchange add on published by parker brothers in one nine three six the stock exchange add on was later redesigned and rereleased in one nine nine two under license by chessex this time including a large number of new chance and community chest cards in the stock exchange add on the free parking square is replaced with the stock exchange the add on also contained three each of chance and community chest cards directing the player to advance to the stock exchange the one nine nine two add on also included seven other chance cards and eight community chest cards to play with the one nine nine two add on one community chest card from sale of stock you get four five is removed the add on also included thirty stock certificates five for each of the six different stocks differing only in its purchase price ranging from one zero zero to one five zero shares like properties can be considered to be tradeable material and could also be mortgaged for half their purchase price shareholders could increase the value of their shares by buying up more of the same company s shares when a player moves onto free parking stock dividends are paid out to all players with any unmortgaged shares the amount to be paid out to each player is determined based on the number and kind of shares owned specifically a player receives dividends from each stock based on the following mathematical formula purchase price of share one zero number of shares owned two the player who lands on free parking can also choose to buy a share if any remain should the player decline the bank auctions a share off to the highest bidder the one nine three six rules are ambiguous with regards to the stock that is put up for auction and convention has it that the winner of the auction chooses the stock to be received the stock exchange add on serves to inject more money into the game in a similar manner to railroad properties as well as changing the relative values of properties in particular the yellow and green properties are more valuable due to the increased chance of landing on free parking at the expense of the light purple and orange groups the game was again reengineered in two zero zero one this time adding an electronic calculator like device to keep track of the complex stock figures playmaster another add on kept track of all player movement and dice rolls as well as what properties are still available it then uses this information to call random auctions and mortgages that will be advantageous for some players and a punishment for others making it easier to free up cards of a color group it also plays eight short tunes when key game functions occur for example when a player lands on a railroad it will play i ve been working on the railroad there have also been several unofficial monopoly addons some of which are able to be played on their own as well as in addition to monopoly spinoffs monopoly tycoon is a pc game in the tycoon series that makes strategy and speed into determining factors for winning the game eliminating completely the element of luck inherent in the dice rolls of the original the game uses the u s standard atlantic city properties as its basis but the game play is unique to this version the game also allows for solo and multiplayer online games parker brothers has also sold several games which are spinoffs of monopoly these are not add ons as they don t function as an addition to the monopoly game but are simply additional games in the flavor of monopoly monopoly junior board game a simplified version for young children advance to boardwalk board game express monopoly a card game released by hasbro parker brothers and waddingtons in the u k in the one nine nine zero s now out of print monopoly the card game an updated card game released by winning moves games under license from hasbro free parking card game don t go to jail the monopoly dice game a short lived television game show monopoly ran for twelve weeks in one nine nine zero before being cancelled in north america a variety of slot machines have been produced with a monopoly theme variants because monopoly evolved in the public domain before its commercialization monopoly has seen many variant games most of these are exact copies of the monopoly games with the street names replaced with locales from a particular town university or fictional place national boards have been released as well parker brothers themselves have done some adaptations of this sort alongside those released by others many of these are listed at localized versions of the monopoly game themed monopoly games over the years several speciality monopoly editions licensed by parker brothers hasbro have been released including arsenal f c monopoly uk manchester united f c monopoly uk australian football league monopoly australia cambridge monopoly five zero th anniversary chevy corvette monopoly chicago white sox world series one nine one seven two zero zero five monopoly coronation street monopoly disney monopoly disney pixar monopoly europa monopoly sold in europe with german french english etc boards using euros for currency and different european nations as the colored properties family guy monopoly garfield monopoly hard rock cafe monopoly with international locations this essentially serves as a global monopoly game harley davidson monopoly looney tunes monopoly two versions a numbered limited edition and a widespread release lord of the rings monopoly marshall field s monopoly sold exclusively by the department store chain muppets monopoly nascar monopoly national parks monopoly nfl monopoly nhl monopoly peanuts collector s edition monopoly pok mon monopoly powerpuff girls monopoly sesame street monopoly spider man monopoly spongebob squarepants monopoly red sox monopoly rudolph the red nosed reindeer monopoly the simpsons monopoly snoopy it s a dog s life edition monopoly star trek monopoly one version for each of the first four series star wars monopoly with versions for the original trilogy and the prequel movies as well as an all inclusive saga edition wildcat monopoly u k themed board united states army edition monopoly here and now limited edition monopoly uk seven zero th anniversary edition updating the properties vaughan monopoly released by the mayor of the city of vaughan ontario canada as a pr item and dozens more late for the sky late for the sky production company produce a huge range of monopoly based games with similar rules and board layout as monopoly but with a large selection of special themes they also offer monopoly based games based on your own theme major product lines of theirs include nearly sixty titles based on us college and university campuses and the city in a box line late for the sky has also licensed many of their opoly products to outset media in canada for sales there outset media has also produced further games exclusively for the canadian market that build upon the late for the sky product lines monopoly records acording to the monopoly companion by philip orbanes the longest game ever played was one six eight zero hours the longest game played in a bathtub was nine nine hours the longest game played underwater was one zero eight zero hours the longest game played in a moving elevator was three eight four hours the longest game played upside down on a ceiling was three six hours the longest game played on the back of a fire truck was one zero one hours the longest game played in a tree house was two four zero hours the largest outdoor game played was played on a nine three eight by seven six five foot game board the largest indoor game played was played on a one two two by one two two foot game board the smallest game played was played on a one inch square game board and was played for three zero hours the most edible set ever produced was the neiman marcus all chocolate set related games some games have been published which take after monopoly but have variations in rules which affect game play some of these include anti monopoly written by ralph anspach in one nine seven four atlantik is a monopoly based computer game for kde on linux again with the street names changed it maintains the same set of rules for monopoly while adding multiplayer support across a lan or the internet dinosauropoly a version using prehistoric motifs and rules dogopoly the game of high steaks and bones created by spahits games in one nine seven seven with a two five th anniversary edition released in two zero zero two not to be confused with the dog opoly published by late for the sky fast food franchise is a board game by timjim games which shares monopoly s core mechanic but through careful design guarantees that it will actually end galactic magnate a version modified to minimize the impact of luck and having reachable termination conditions ghettopoly released in two zero zero three caused considerable offense upon its release the game intended to be a humorous rendering of ghetto life was decried as racist for its unflinching use of racial stereotypes so much that hasbro sought and received a court ordered injunction against ghettopoly s designer the game and its sequel however are available directly from the designer s website the mad magazine game a mad magazine themed board game in which the object of the game is to lose all your money play is counter clockwise and the dice must be rolled with the left hand released by parker brothers in one nine seven nine solarquest a popular space age adaptation was released by golden in one nine eight six popular culture a common dismissive comment about a currency is to call it monopoly money for instance as americans sometimes refer to the more colourful canadian dollar or a criticism to the recolored us two zero bill introduced in two zero zero three mcdonald s monopoly is a sweepstakes run by the fast food chain with a theme based on the board game where you receive a prize if you collect all the properties of one color section the playing pieces are often found on medium to large drinks and french fries as well as other selected menu items for example in the autumn two zero zero five incarnation game pieces could be found on their premium chicken items cnbc tv anchor james cramer a monopoly fan who was a co host with lawrence kudlow on kudlow the readings and the short lines on his tv program mad money like monopoly patentor charles darrow cramer is from southeastern pennsylvania specifically wyndmoor pennsylvania the arch rival of the simpsons character c montgomery burns is uncle pennybags who has been featured in a few episodes also in another episode titled brawl in the family the simpsons try to decide what game to play going through a list of monopoly clones including edna krabopoly gallipolopoly and star wars monopoly later a family fight breaks out when they discover bart using red lego pieces as hotels one of the police officers later said another monopoly related violence chief how do those parker brothers sleep at night in who shot mr burns mr burns states that he owns the electric company and the water works plus the hotel on baltic avenue to which principal skinner replies that hotel s a dump and your monopoly s pathetic the monopoly pub crawl is a popular pub crawl of london or any city having a monopoly board do not pass go do not collect two zero zero dollars pounds etc has entered popular culture as a phrase used with various meanings notes in the instruction booklet that comes with the seven zero th anniversary us edition of monopoly hasbro cites a statistic that over seven five zero million people have played monopoly guinness world records page for monopoly s disputed world record of most played game kennedy page one two hasbro s news release for the new game token in its one nine nine eight one nine nine nine campaign hasbro s monopoly history page kennedy page two three archived article from business wire stored at findarticles com accessed one january two zero zero six us tournament guide pdf file tournament rules for canada from two zero zero three pdf file boardgamegeek com page for the original monopoly stock exchange add on accessed one january two zero zero six boardgamegeek com page for the revised monopoly stock exchange add on that came with a specialized calculator accessed one january two zero zero six boardgamegeek com page for the monopoly playmaster electronic accessory accessed one january two zero zero six late for the sky official website dogopoly official website galactic magnate official website simpsons archive page for the brawl in the family episode accessed one january two zero zero six see also anti monopoly atlantik an open source game based on monopoly released under the gpl dogopoly galactic magnate list of licensed monopoly game boards localized versions of the monopoly game monopoly game show further reading monopoly as a markov process by r ash and r bishop mathematics magazine vol four five one nine seven two p two six two nine external links the official u s monopoly web site hasbro s fun facts page on monopoly the official uk monopoly web site history patent for the first version of the landlord s game patent for the second version of the landlord s game patent filed by c b darrow for monopoly dec three one one nine three five early history of monopoly atlantic city one five zero th anniversary series of articles from the newspaper courierpost which describe the streets of atlantic city that appear on monopoly history of monopoly a timeline other versions world of monopoly worldwide versions the anti monopoly web site the galactic magnate web site online monopoly with revised rules the dogopoly web site usaopoly web site makers of official licensed editions of monopoly and other games a list that includes many versions and similar games strategy how to win at monopoly game theory monopoly and mathematics probabilities in the game of monopoly by truman collins the economics of monopoly mcdonalds monopoly mcdonald s monopoly blog official canadian mcdonalds site official us mcdonalds site miscellaneous reviews and pictures on boardgamegeek monopoly images more monopoly house rules at bellaonline com monopoly board games hasbro products national toy hall of fame atlantic city new jersey world record holders maximilian raoul walter steiner born may one zero one eight eight eight in vienna austria hungary died december two eight one nine seven one in hollywood california was an austrian american composer of music for films the grandson of maximilian steiner one eight three nine one eight eight zero influential manager of vienna s theater an der wien he was a child prodigy in composing he received piano instruction from johannes brahms and at the age of fifteen enrolled at the imperial academy of music now known as the university of music and performing arts in vienna where he was taught by gustav mahler among others his supernormal musical aptitudes enabled him to complete the school s eight year degree in only one he immigrated to the united states in one nine one four he scored hundreds of hollywood films and was the most prominent composer in the music department of warner brothers studios he received two six academy award nominations for his work winning three oscars he did not win for what is perhaps his most familiar score that of gone with the wind he is entombed in the great mausoleum at forest lawn memorial park cemetery in glendale california in one nine nine five he was inducted posthumously into the songwriters hall of fame steiner has a star on the walk of fame located at one five five one vine street for his contribution to motion pictures selected filmography cimarron one nine three one christopher strong one nine three three king kong one nine three three the gay divorcee academy award nomination one nine three four the lost patrol academy award nomination one nine three four the informer academy award one nine three five the garden of allah academy award nomination one nine three six the charge of the light brigade one nine three six a star is born one nine three seven the life of emile zola one nine three seven jezebel academy award nomination one nine three eight angels with dirty faces one nine three eight confessions of a nazi spy one nine three nine dark victory academy award nomination one nine three nine gone with the wind academy award nomination one nine three nine the letter academy award nominatin one nine four zero sergeant york academy award nomination one nine four one now voyager academy award one nine four two casablanca academy award nomination one nine four two since you went away academy award one nine four four the adventures of mark twain academy award nomination one nine four four mildred pierce one nine four five rhapsody in blue academy award nomination shared with ray heindorf one nine four five the big sleep one nine four six night and day academy award nomination shared with ray heindorf one nine four six life with father academy award nomination one nine four seven my wild irish rose academy award nomination shared with ray heindorf one nine four seven the treasure of the sierra madre one nine four eight johnny belinda academy award nomination one nine four eight beyond the forest academy award nomination one nine four nine the flame and the arrow academy award nomination one nine five zero the miracle of our lady of fatima academy award nomination one nine five two the jazz singer academy award nomination shared with ray heindorf one nine five three the caine mutiny academy award nomination one nine five four battle cry academy award nomination one nine five five the searchers one nine five six a summer place one nine five nine spencer s mountain one nine six three external links david raksin remembers his colleagues max steiner by david raksin one eight eight eight births one nine seven one deaths composers film score composers jewish classical musicians jewish composers and songwriters monty python and the holy grail is a comedy film from one nine seven five it was written performed and directed by monty python an english comedy group during a gap between the third and the final series of their popular bbc television series monty python s flying circus the group s first film and now for something completely different had been a compilation of sketches from the television series in contrast holy grail was composed of wholly original material based loosely on the legend of king arthur s quest to find the holy grail the film was a success on its initial run and retains a large scale cult following today overview monty python was famous for parodying the conventions of television and motion picture formats often including fake continuity announcements or using the opening and closing credits as part of the humour as a continuation of this the opening credits of holy grail co credited several fictional directors including four zero specially trained ecuadorian mountain llamas six venezuelan red llamas one four two mexican whooping llamas one four north chilean guanacos closely related to the llama reg llama of brixton and seven six zero zero zero battery llamas from llama fresh farms ltd near paraguay according to the group s dvd commentary track they were included in part to save on the film s budget in reality the film was directed by series regular terry jones and the group s american animator terry gilliam who also drew the film s linking animations and opening credits along with their co stars jones and gilliam performed several roles in the film there were prominent speaking parts for songwriter neil innes john cleese s then wife connie booth and carol cleveland who had appeared several times in the group s television series the experiment with co direction on holy grail proved to be a one off as it led to creative friction but both jones and gilliam went on to have successful careers as directors gilliam in particular found that his training as an animator did not lend itself to directing human beings although his sense of the graphic which would come to prominence with later films such as time bandits and brazil has ensured that holy grail remains visually impressive despite a budget of about one five zero zero zero zero source dvd commentary this money was raised in part with donations from rock groups such as pink floyd and led zeppelin the film was shot on location in scotland particularly around doune castle glen coe and the privately owned castle stalker as a consequence of the low budget the film had to make do without horses instead the actors banged together coconut shells to imitate the sound of horses hooves actually shown explicitly on screen for comical effect the chain mail armour worn by the various knights was actually silver painted wool whilst the many castles seen throughout the film were either doune castle shot from different angles or cardboard models held up against the horizon as an extension of the group s penchant for bizarre title credits the two zero zero one dvd release of the film commences with the british board of film censors certification for dentist on the job a film passed as more suitable for exhibition to adult audiences followed by its grainy black and white opening titles and several minutes of the film itself during the opening scene of dentist on the job the projectionist played by terry jones realises it is the wrong film and puts the correct one on dentist on the job was a one nine six one comedy starring bob monkhouse perhaps chosen as an epitome of the comedy to which monty python had once provided an alternative also dentist on the job s alternate title is get on with it a phrase that appears multiple times throughout holy grail the credits for holy grail have mock swedish subtitles and many gratuitous references to m se and then the llamas mentioned above the film has no ending credits instead cutting to a black screen and some organ music in two zero zero zero readers of total film magazine voted monty python and the holy grail the five th greatest comedy film of all time cast on the set of monty python and the holy grail plot the holy grail has an episodic plot line with a style based on the sketch comedy of monty python s television show most of the story is told in isolated sections linked only by the ongoing theme of the quest for the holy grail and terry gilliam s animations the story begins with king arthur graham chapman recruiting knights of the round table throughout england he is initially frustrated at his recruiting attempts several times e g the battle with the black knight eventually he is joined by sir bedivere the wise terry jones sir lancelot the brave john cleese sir galahad called both the chaste and the pure michael palin sir robin the not quite so brave as sir lancelot eric idle and the aptly named sir not appearing in this film william palin son of michael palin once assembled the knights receive a quest from an animated version of god to find the holy grail in their search they encounter the perils of castle anthrax doune castle the knights who say ni later known as the knights who say ecky ecky ecky f tang zoop boing goodem zoo owli zhiv a killer rabbit which they defeat by means of the holy hand grenade of antioch and a gigantic cartoon monster the legendary black beast of aaaargh they are saved when the animator terry gilliam suffers a fatal heart attack there are other misadventures involving anarcho syndicalist peasants latin chanting monks an alleged witch connie booth the king of swamp castle doune castle again and his effeminate musical son herbert a pyromaniacal enchanter called tim the bridge of death guarded by the old man from scene two four and frenchmen led by john cleese who revel in taunting the travellers the killer rabbit at a number of key places in the film the question is raised what is the airspeed velocity of an unladen swallow it is introduced in the opening scenes of the film and remains an open question right up to the end the only clear response is given by king arthur requesting clarification what do you mean an african or european swallow references to swallows are ubiquitous in the film and in one scene sir bedivere is seen holding a dove in one hand and a coconut in the other tied together in an attempt to prove that swallows can carry coconuts sir robin s minstrels their leader played by neil innes sing of how brave he would hypothetically be in the face of horrific and graphically described tortures and then sing about how bravely he flees at the first sign of danger much to sir robin s relief he and the other knights are later forced to eat the minstrels and there was much rejoicing the film ends abruptly when a group of police from the one nine seven zero s interrupt the climactic battle scene to arrest king arthur for the murder of a famous historian who looked very much like a j p taylor earlier in the film the grail presumably is left in the hands of the frenchmen in castle aaaargh castle stalker home video editions locations among the many home video releases of monty python and the holy grail the dvd special edition is most recommended for its exhaustive list of special features including two commentary tracks documentaries related to the film the camelot song as sung by lego men source and subtitles for people who don t like the film consisting of lines taken from william shakespeare s henry iv part ii specially selected to match the film s dialogue there are also two scenes synchronised in japanese where the knights search for a holy sake cup most of the home video adaptations feature an extra scene where several characters are telling carol cleveland s character zoot to get on with it some of them include characters not seen yet in the film such as tim the enchanter the old man from scene two four and the army at the end of the film the dvd special edition includes the quest for the holy grail locations which shows places in scotland used for the setting titled as england nine three two a d many scenes were filmed in or around doune castle scene two four and the blood thirsty rabbit s cave of caerbannog were in sight of loch tay near killin and the bridge of death was in glen coe in the closing battle scene shots facing castle aaaargh were filmed at castle stalker but the shots looking the other way towards the huge army were filmed later somewhere near stirling once they d managed to get enough people dedications in the dvd commentary for the lord of the rings films director peter jackson admitted crowd scenes with rural peasants were tricky to design as they could easily remind viewers of monty python and the holy grail also in the two towers commentary previsualization artist christian rivers makes a clever comment comparing helm s deep to camelot saying it s only a model a number of video games pay homage to this movie an indication of its huge following conquests of camelot typing ask about ham and jam and spam a lot in the treasury will cause three knights to appear on the screen dancing the spamalot theme then a text window appears mentioning that this easter egg is dedicated to the memory of chapman quest for glory in the first game a gargoyle will ask the user questions that are inspired from the bridge of death scene the fourth features killer rabbits as a monster type in quest for glory v dragon fire when visiting the wizard erasmus you must bypass a cloud guardian which almost exactly parodies the scene from the movie asheron s call in this mmorpg the white rabbit is a fearsome beast that drops the orb of the bunny booty its level is six six six heroes of might and magic iii the game has a number of cheat codes all of which are references to this movie all coded are preceded with nwc developer new world computing s initials followed by the reference for example typing in nwcshrubbery a reference to arthur s encounter with the knights who say ni rewards the player with one zero zero zero zero zero gold and one zero zero of every resource the code nwcalreadygotone rewards the player with a full grail map nwcsirrobin forfeits the game and nwccoconuts gives unlimited movement warcraft iii many annoyed messages which are spoken by the units when clicked several times on them from the human race are monty python references for example peasants sometimes utter we found a witch may we burn her you re the king well i didn t vote for you or help help i m being repressed knights sometimes say i am a knight and i never say ni and my favourite colour is blue no yellow footmen are also found to utter it s just a flesh wound escape from monkey island the line your mother was a hamster is used in a friendly bout of insult swordfighting the comeback is your father smelled of elderberries final fantasy ix when steiner is beaten near the start he falls to his knee and mutters it is only a flesh wound it is not known if this is a deliberate reference to the black knight wizardry series one of the early games has a monster called a vorpal bunny vorpal means it can decapitate its opponent fallout two a bridge of death parody functions as closely to the original scene as the game engine allows the player is damaged thousands of points of damage instead of flung into a pit while the player can play the role straight and simply walk past players are encouraged to answer a question incorrectly the robes the bridge keeper wears are amusingly stronger than most armour in the game answering with a question will lead to the bridge keeper dying horribly another parody exists but doesn t usually function in it the player discovers a large group of knights wearing power armor who ask the player if he has found the holy hand grenade had the joke existed fully the player could through a random encounter find the grenade for these knights however perhaps it was just half made one of these random encounters will never show up there is however a fan made patch that allows the player to have the random encounter in which the holy hand grenade an extremely powerful one time use item can be found worms series the holy hand grenade is one of the most powerful hand launched weapons unleashing a huge explosion only after a handel esque hallelujah it made its first appearance in worms the directors cut for the amiga and has since appeared in almost every version of the game to date in worms four mayhem when on zero health some worms utter it s just a flesh wound the twisted tales of spike mcfang the frozen country vampra features an enemy called python bunny which seems to be a harmless white fluffy bunny with a set of nasty sharp pointy teeth mythbusters in breakstep bridge after adam is cut while making the bridge he utters it s only a flesh wound runescape pulling the lever in the party room causes a bunch of knights to dance on a table and sing a song similar to a scene in this movie arcanum of steamworks and magic obscura at one point in the game the character is given the choice of tracking down the stillwater giant a monster with the ability to turn into a harmless looking blue bunny for other uses of the holy hand grenade see the relevant article monty python and the holy grail was also spoofed as a lego movie this spoof was then itself spoofed with a version done in macromedia flash with the style of eight bit theatre the card game munchkin by steve jackson games has a very weak monster called the perfectly ordinary bunny rabbit which has a chance of actually being that rabbit from that movie and a very strong monster spin offs a computer game based on monty python and the holy grail was released in one nine nine six it was primarily an adventure game in which the object was to travel through the scenes of the movie collecting items along the way notably it included an animated version of a scene cut from the film involving arthur and the knights encounter with the wild king brian a musical entitled monty python s spamalot based on monty python and the holy grail opened in chicago illinois on december two one two zero zero four and moved to broadway in march two zero zero five eric idle wrote the musical s book and he collaborated with john du prez for the music and lyrics it is directed by mike nichols but features none of the original python actors though god is played by the pre recorded voice of john cleese it won best musical at the tony awards in two zero zero five black sheep breweries in masham north yorkshire brew a beer called monty python s holy grail with the letters gr in grail struck out see also knights of the round table monty python song anarcho syndicalism castle anthrax holy hand grenade of antioch black knight knights who say ni doune castle castle stalker sir robin the not so brave tim the enchanter external links estimating the airspeed velocity of an unladen swallow monty python s holy ail widget of quotes from monty python and the holy grail konfabulator widget monty python and the holy grail arthurian legend one nine seven five films in biology mutations are changes to the genetic material usually dna or rna mutations can be caused by copying errors in the genetic material during cell division and by exposure to radiation chemicals or viruses or can occur deliberately under cellular control during the processes such as meiosis or hypermutation in multicellular organisms mutations can be subdivided into germline mutations which can be passed on to progeny and somatic mutations which cannot be transmitted to progeny mutations when accidental often lead to the malfunction or death of a cell and can cause cancer mutations are considered the driving force of evolution where less favorable or deleterious mutations are removed from the gene pool by natural selection while more favorable beneficial or advantageous ones tend to accumulate neutral mutations are defined as mutations whose effects do not influence the fitness of either the species or the individuals who make up the species these can accumulate over time contrary to tales of science fiction the overwhelming majority of mutations have no significant effect since dna repair is able to revert most changes before they become permanent mutations and many organisms have mechanisms for eliminating otherwise permanently mutated somatic cells classification by effect on structure the dna sequence of a gene can be altered in a number of ways gene mutations have varying effects on health depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins structurally mutations can be classified as small scale mutations affecting one or a few nucleotides including point mutations often caused by chemicals or malfunction of dna replication exchange a single nucleotide for another most common is the transition that exchanges a purine for a purine a g or a pyrimidine for a pyrimidine c t a transition can be caused by nitrous acid base mispairing or mutagenic base analogs such as five bromo two deoxyuridine brdu less common is a transversion which exchanges a purine for a pyrimidine or a pyrimidine for a purine c t a g a point mutation can be reversed by another point mutation in which the nucleotide is changed back to its original state true reversion or by second site reversion a complementary mutation elsewhere that results in regained gene functionality these changes are classified as transitions or transversions an example of a transversion is adenine being converted into a cytosine there are also many other examples that can be found point mutations that occur within the protein coding region of a gene may be classified into three kinds depending upon what the erroneous codon codes for silent mutations which code for the same amino acid missense mutations which code for a different amino acid nonsense mutations which code for a stop which can truncate the protein insertions add one or more extra nucleotides into the dna they are usually caused by transposable elements or errors during replication of repeating elements e g at repeats insertions in the coding region a gene may alter splicing of the mrna or cause a shift in the reading frame frameshift both of which can significantly alter the gene product insertions can be reverted by excision of the transposable element deletions remove one or more nucleotides from the dna like insertions these mutations can alter the reading frame of the gene they are irreversible large scale mutations in chromosomal structure including amplifications or gene duplications leading to multiple copies of chromosomal regions increasing the dosage of the genes located within them deletions of large chromosomal regions leading to loss of the genes within those regions mutations whose effect is to juxtapose previously separate pieces of dna potentially bringing together separate genes to form functionally distinct fusion genes e g bcr abl these include chromosomal translocations attaching dna from separate chromosomes interstitiinsert non formatted text hereal deletions removing regions of dna from a single chromosome thereby apposing previously distant genes e g fig ros chromosomal inversions switching the orientation of a segment of a chromosome thereby apposing its ends to previously distant genes loss of heterozygosity loss of one allele either by a deletion or recombination event in organisms which previously had two by effect on function loss of function mutations are the result of gene product having less or no function when the allele has a complete loss of function null allele it is often called an amorphic mutation phenotypes associated with such mutations are most often recessive exceptions are when the organism is haploid or when the reduced dosage of normal gene product is not enough for normal phenotype this is called haploinsufficiency gain of function mutations change the gene product such that it gains a new and abnormal function these mutations usually have dominant phenotypes dominant negative mutations also called antimorphic mutations have an altered gene product that acts antagonistically to the wild type allele these mutations usually result in an altered molecular function often inactive and are characterised by a dominant or semi dominant phenotype lethal mutations are mutations that lead to a phenotype incapable of effective reproduction by effect on gene expression hypomorphic mutations are mutations that cause reduced function of the gene product or a negative change in expression of the gene hypermorphic mutations are the opposite of hypomorphic mutations they cause increased activity or expression of the gene product neomorphic mutations cause a novel molecular function or expression of the gene product by aspect of phenotype affected morphological mutations usually affect the outward appearance of an individual mutations can change the height of a plant or change it from smooth to rough seeds biochemical mutations result in lesions stopping the enzymatic pathway often morphological mutants are the direct result of a mutation due to the enzymatic pathway special classes conditional mutation is a mutation that has wild type phenotype under certain environmental conditions and a mutant phenotype under certain selective conditions conditional mutations may also be lethal causes of mutation two classes of mutations are spontaneous mutations molecular decay and induced mutations caused by mutagens spontaneous mutations on the molecular level include tautomerism a base is changed by the repositioning of a hydrogen atom depurination loss of a purine base a or g deamination changes a normal base to an atypical base c u which can be corrected by dna repair mechanisms or spontaneous deanimation of five methycytosine unreparable or a hx hypoxanthine transition a purine changes to another purine or a pyrimidine to a pyrimidine transversion a purine becomes a pyrimidine or vice versa induced mutations on the molecular level can be caused by chemicals nitrosoguanidine ntg base analogs e g brdu simple chemicals e g acids alkylating agents e g n ethyl n nitrosourea enu these agents can mutate both replicating and non replicating dna in contrast a base analog can only mutate the dna when the analog is incorporated in replicating the dna each of these classes of chemical mutagens has certain effects that then lead to transitions transversions or deletions methylating agents e g ethane methyl sulfonate ems polycyclic hydrocarbons e g benzpyrenes found in internal combustion engine exhaust dna intercalating agents e g ethidium bromide dna crosslinker e g platinum oxidative damage caused by oxygen radicals radiation ultraviolet radiation ionizing radiation dna has so called hotspots where mutations occur up to one zero zero times more frequently than the normal mutation rate a hotspot can be at an unusual base e g five methylcytosine mutation rates also vary across species evolutionary biologists have theorized that higher mutation rates are beneficial in some situations because they allow organisms to evolve and therefore adapt more quickly to their environments for example repeated exposure of bacteria to antibiotics and selection of resistant mutants can result in the selection of bacteria that have a much higher mutation rate than the original population mutator strains mutation and disease changes in dna caused by mutation can cause errors in protein sequence creating partially or completely non functional proteins to function correctly each cell depends on thousands of proteins to function in the right places at the right times when a mutation alters a protein that plays a critical role in the body a medical condition can result a condition caused by mutations in one or more genes is called a genetic disorder however only a small percentage of mutations cause genetic disorders most have no impact on health for example some mutations alter a gene s dna base sequence but don t change the function of the protein made by the gene if a mutation is present in a germ cell this can give rise to offspring that carries the mutation in all of its cells this is the case in hereditary diseases on the other hand a mutation can occur in a somatic cell of an organism such mutations will be present in all descendants of this cell and certain mutations can cause the cell to become malignant and thus cause cancer often gene mutations that could cause a genetic disorder are repaired by the dna repair system of the cell each cell has a number of pathways through which enzymes recognize and repair mistakes in dna because dna can be damaged or mutated in many ways the process of dna repair is an important way in which the body protects itself from disease a very small percentage of all mutations actually have a positive effect these mutations lead to new versions of proteins that help an organism and its future generations better adapt to changes in their environment for example a beneficial mutation could result in a protein that protects the organism from a new strain of bacteria mutagenesis mutagenesis the creation or formation of a mutation can be used as a powerful genetic tool by inducing mutations in specific ways and then observing the phenotype of the organism the function of genes and even individual nucleotides can be determined see transposons as a genetic tool for the use of transposable elements for analysis of gene function site directed mutagenesis for the use of site specific mutation for analysis of function see also homeobox macromutation mutant references maki h two zero zero two origins of spontaneous mutations specificity and directionality of base substitution frameshift and sequence substitution mutageneses annual review of genetics three six two seven nine three zero three online books chapter seven the molecular basis of mutation in modern genetic analysis by anthony j f griffiths william m gelbart jeffrey h miller and richard c lewontin one nine nine nine published by w h freeman and company isbn zero seven one six seven three five nine seven zero chapter nine instability of the human genome mutation and dna repair in human molecular genetics two by tom strachan and andrew p read one nine nine nine published by john wiley sons inc genes and disease from the national library of medicine provides descriptions of mutations that cause human diseases for example a common mutation associated with huntington disease is an increased number of copies of repeated cga triplets in the huntingtin gene genereviews by roberta a pagon editor in chief is made available by the university of washington and contains peer reviewed descriptions of heritable diseases written by experts for example brca one and brca two hereditary breast ovarian cancer describes mutations in brca one and brca two that are associated with predispositions to cancer external links the mutations chapter of the wikibooks general biology textbook evowiki mutation examples of beneficial mutations evolutionary biology genetics mutation the broad definition of memory consolidation is the process by which recent memories are crystallised into long term memory the word consolidation is used to refer to different levels molecular consolidation the molecular process by which long term conductivity of synapses is affected memory consolidation occurs after training e g an exposition to a stimulus response pair consolidation increases in strength over time with repetition maximum consolidation with minimum time investment is achieved by means of spaced repetition molecular consolidation requires protein synthesis network consolidation many researchers believe that episodic memories are initially stored in the hippocampus and are slowly moved or consolidated into the neocortex this process of consolidation is likely to occur during sleep originally it was thought this happens during dreaming marr one nine seven one however new research indicates that the nrem phase of sleep is associated with that process hobbson stickgold buzsaki reconsolidation there is evidence in laboratory animals that recall puts memories into an unstable labile state and that after recall the memory must be re consolidated or it will be forgotten both consolidation and reconsolidation can be disrupted by pharmacological agents e g the protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin and both require the transcription factor creb recent research suggests that bdnf is required for consolidation but not reconsolidation whereas the transcription factor and immediate early gene zif two six eight is required for reconsolidation but not consolidation memory re consolidation occurs upon review or repetition of the learned material research papers of interest debiec j ledoux je nader k cellular and systems reconsolidation in the hippocampus neuron two zero zero two oct two four three six three five two seven three eight pmid one two four zero eight eight five four lee j l everitt bj thomas kl independent cellular processes for hippocampal memory consolidation and reconsolidation science science two zero zero four may seven three zero four five six seven two eight three nine four three pmid one five zero seven three three two two pasupathy a miller ek different time courses of learning related activity in the prefrontal cortex and striatum nature two zero zero five feb two four four three three seven zero two eight eight seven three six pmid one five seven two nine three four four evidence that learning related neuronal activity in the cerebral cortex rises more slowly than in the basal ganglia suggesting the basal ganglia may train this segment of cortex d marr simple memory a theory for archicortex philos trans r soc lond b biol sci one nine seven one jul one two six two eight four one two three eight one pmid four three nine nine four one two memory a microgyrus is an area of the cerebral cortex that includes only four cortical layers instead of six microgyria are believed by some to be the cause of or one of the causes of dyslexia albert galaburda of harvard medical school noticed that language centers in dyslexic brains showed microscopic flaws known as ectopias and microgyria both affect the normal six layer structure of the cortex these flaws affect connectivity and functionality of the cortex in critical areas related to sound and visual processing these and similar structural abnormalities may be the basis of the inevitable and hard to overcome difficulty in reading external links the neurological basis of developmental dyslexia another article on the subject birthdates of neurons in induced microgyria cerebrum a painting of a french seaport from one six three eight at the height of mercantilism mercantilism is the economic theory holding that the prosperity of a nation depends upon its supply of capital and that the global volume of trade is unchangeable the amount of capital represented by bullion amount of precious metal held by the state is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations with large exports and low imports mercantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a protectionist role in the economy by encouraging exports and discouraging imports especially through the use of tariffs the economic policy based upon these ideas is often called the mercantile system mercantilism was the dominant school of economics throughout the early modern period from the one six th to the one eight th century which roughly corresponded to the emergence of the nation state domestically this led to some of the first instances of significant government intervention and control over the economy and it was during this period that much of the modern capitalist system was established internationally mercantilism encouraged the many european wars of the period and fueled european imperialism as the european powers fought over available markets belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late one eight th century as the arguments of adam smith and the other classical economists won out today mercantilism as a whole is rejected by all serious economists though some elements are looked upon favorably theory early mercantilist writers embraced bullionism the belief that quantities of gold and silver were the measure of a nation s wealth later mercantilists developed a somewhat more sophisticated view european economists between one five zero zero and one seven five zero are today generally considered mercantilists however these economists did not see themselves as contributing to a single economic ideology the term was coined by the marquis de mirabeau in one seven six three and was popularized by adam smith in one seven seven six the word comes from the latin word mercari which means to run a trade from merx meaning commodity it was initially used solely by critics such as mirabeau and smith but was quickly adopted by historians originally the standard english term was mercantile system the word mercantilism was introduced into english from german in the early two zero th century mercantilism as a whole cannot be considered a unified theory of economics there were no mercantilist writers presenting an overarching scheme for the ideal economy as adam smith would later do for classical economics rather each mercantilist writer tended to focus on a single area of the economy only later did non mercantilist scholars integrate these diverse ideas into what they called mercantilism some scholars thus reject the idea of mercantilism completely arguing that it gives a false unity to disparate events to a certain extent mercantilist doctrine itself made a general theory of economics impossible mercantilists viewed the economic system as a zero sum game where a gain by one party requires a loss by another thus any system of policies that benefited one group would by definition harm the other and there was no possibility of economics being used to maximize the commonwealth or common good mercantilist writings were also generally created to justify particular practices rather than as investigations into the best policies early mercantilism which was developed beginning around one five zero zero was most marked by its bullionism this period saw a vast inflow of gold and silver from the spanish colonies in the new world and an overriding concern was how the other states of europe could be able to compete the bullionists such as jean bodin thomas gresham and john hales felt that the wealth and power of a state was measured by the amount of bullion it possessed and that to grow in power meant increasing the amount of bullion at the expense of the other powers the prosperity of a state was measured by the accumulated wealth of its government with no concept of national income in part this focus on reserves of gold and silver was because of their importance during times of war armies which often included mercenaries were paid in bullion and navies were funded by gold and silver the complicated system of international alliances of the period also often required large payments from one state to another only a few european states controlled gold or silver mines for the others the primary method of increasing bullion supplies was through the balance of trade or through piracy and the black market if a state exported more than it imported then this imbalance would have to be made up by inflows of money thus mercantilists firmly believed that each nation should seek to export more goods and services than it imported this led to strict bans on the export of bullion bullionists also favored high interest rates to encourage investors to move their money into their own nation in the one seven th century a more complex version of mercantilism developed which rejected simple bullionism these writers such as thomas mun felt that overall national wealth was the primary goal and saw bullion as the most important sign of wealth but not its totality as goods and resources were also valuable or essential the support for the balance of trade was preserved but in a less rigid form mun who worked for the british east india company argued that the exports of bullion to asia were good for britain as the goods imported would then be resold to the rest of europe at a substantial profit this new view rejected the export of raw materials as it acknowledged that the transformation of these materials into finished goods was an important generator of wealth thus while the bullionists had supported the mass export of wool from britain the later mercantilists supported total bans on the export of raw materials and supported the development of domestic manufacturing industries since creating domestic industries required an available supply of capital the seventeenth century also saw governments dramatically tighten usury limits this artificially lowered prevailing interest rates and encouraged the wealthy to invest their money in manufacturing instead later mercantilists also placed a greater focus on service industries one result of this was the navigation acts of one six five one that expelled the dutch from english shipping mercantilist domestic policy was more fragmented than its trade policy while adam smith presented mercantilism as supporting strict controls over the economy many mercantilists disagreed the early modern era was one of letters patent and government imposed monopolies some mercantilists supported these but others acknowledged the corruption and inefficiency of such systems many mercantilists also realized the inevitable result of quotas and price ceilings were black markets one element mercantilists agreed upon was the economic oppression of the working population laborers and farmers were to live at the margins of subsistence the goal was to maximize production with no concern for consumption extra money free time or education for the lower classes was seen to inevitably lead to vice and laziness and would result in harm to the economy causes scholars are divided on why mercantilism was the dominant economic ideology for two and a half centuries one group represented by jacob viner argues that mercantilism was simply a straightforward commonsense system that the people of the time simply did not have the analytical tools to discover was actually deeply fallacious the second school supported by scholars such as robert b ekelund contends that mercantilism was not a mistake but rather the best possible system for those who developed it this school argues that mercantilist policies were developed and enforced by rent seeking merchants and governments merchants benefited greatly from the enforced monopolies bans on foreign competition and poverty of the workers governments benefited from the high tariffs and payments from the merchants whereas later economic ideas were often developed by academics and philosophers almost all mercantilist writers were merchants or government officials mercantilism developed at a time when the european economy was in transition isolated feudal estates were being replaced by centralized nation states as the locus of power technological changes in shipping and the growth of urban centers led to a rapid increase in international trade mercantilism focused on how this trade could best aid the states another important change was the introduction of double entry bookkeeping and modern accounting this accounting made extremely clear the inflow and outflow of trade contributing to the close scrutiny given to the balance of trade of course the impact of the discovery of america can not be ignored new markets and new mines propelled foreign trade to previously inconceivable heights the latter lead to the great upward movement in prices and an increase in the volume of merchant activity itself prior to mercantilism the most important economic work done in europe was by the medieval scholastic theorists the goal of these thinkers was to find an economic system that was compatible with christian doctrines of piety and justice they focused mainly on microeconomics and local exchanges between individuals mercantilism was closely aligned with the other theories and ideas that were replacing the medieval worldview this period saw the adoption of niccol machiavelli s realpolitik and the primacy of the raison d tat in international relations the mercantilist idea that all trade was a zero sum game in which each side was trying to best the other in a ruthless competition was integrated into the works of thomas hobbes this dark view of human nature also fit well with the puritan view of the world and some of the most stridently mercantilist legislation such as the navigation acts was introduced by the government of oliver cromwell policies french finance minister and mercantilist jean baptiste colbert served for over two zero years mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of europe in the early modern period and most states embraced it to a certain degree mercantilism was centred in england and france and it was in these states that mercantilist polices were most often enacted mercantilism arose in france in the early one six th century soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in french politics in one five three nine an important decree banned the importation of woolen goods from spain and some parts of flanders the next year a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion over the rest of the sixteenth century further protectionist measures were introduced the height of french mercantilism is closely associated with jean baptiste colbert finance minister for two two years in the one seven th century to the extent that french mercantilism is sometimes called colbertism under colbert the french government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports protectionist policies were enacted that limited imports and favored exports industries were organized into guilds and monopolies and production was regulated by the state through a series of over a thousands directives outlining how different products should be produced to encourage industry foreign artisans and craftsmen were imported colbert also worked to decrease internal barriers to trade reducing internal tariffs and building an extensive network of roads and canals colbert s policies were quite successful and france s industrial output and economy grew considerably during this period as france became the dominant european power he was less successful in turning france into a major trading power and britain and the netherlands remained supreme in this field in england mercantilism reached its peak during the long parliament government one six four zero one six six zero mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the tudor and stuart periods with robert walpole being another major proponent in britain government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the continent limited by common law and the steadily increasing power of parliament government controlled monopolies were common especially before the english civil war but were often controversial british mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary british mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade a wide array of regulations was put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports tariffs were placed on imports and bounties given for exports and the export of some raw materials was banned completely the navigation acts expelled foreign merchants from england s domestic trade the nation aggressively sought colonies and once under british control regulations were imposed that allowed the colony to only produce raw materials and to only trade with britain this led to friction with the inhabitants of these colonies and mercantilist policies were one of the major causes of the american revolution over all however mercantilist policies had an important effect on britain helping turn it into the world s dominant trader and an international superpower one domestic policy that had a lasting impact was the conversion of waste lands to agricultural use mercantilists felt that to maximize a nation s power all land and resources had to be used to their utmost and this era thus saw projects like the draining of the fens mercantilism helped create trade patterns such as the triangular trade in the north atlantic in which raw materials were imported to the metropolis and then processed and redistributed to other colonies the other nations of europe also embraced mercantilism to varying degrees the netherlands which had become the financial centre of europe by being its most efficient trader had little interest in seeing trade restricted and adopted few mercantilist policies mercantilism became prominent in central europe and scandinavia after the thirty years war one six one eight one six four eight with christina of sweden and christian iv of denmark being notable proponents the habsburg holy roman emperors had long been interested in mercantilist policies but the vast and decentralized nature of their empire made implementing such notions difficult some constituent states of the empire did embrace mercantilism most notably prussia which under frederick the great had perhaps the most rigidly controlled economy in europe during the economic collapse of the seventeenth century spain had little coherent economic policy but french mercantilist policies were imported by philip v with some success russia under peter i peter the great attempted to pursue mercantilism but had little success because of russia s lack of a large merchant class or an industrial base mercantilism also fueled the intense violence of the one seven th and one eight th centuries in europe since the level of world trade was viewed as fixed it followed that the only way to increase a nation s trade was to take it from another a number of wars most notably the anglo dutch wars and the franco dutch wars can be linked directly to mercantilist theories the unending warfare of this period also reinforced mercantilism as it was seen as an essential component to military success it also fueled the imperialism of this era as each nation that was able attempted to seize colonies that would be sources of raw materials and exclusive markets during the mercantilist period european power spread around the globe as with the domestic economy this expansion was often conducted under the aegis of companies with government guaranteed monopolies in a certain part of the world such as the dutch east india company or the hudson s bay company operating in present day canada criticisms much of adam smith s the wealth of nations is an attack on mercantilism a number of scholars found important flaws with mercantilism long before adam smith developed an ideology that could fully replace it critics like dudley north john locke and david hume undermined much of mercantilism and it steadily lost favor during the eighteenth century mercantilists failed to understand the notions of comparative advantage although this idea was only fully fleshed out in one eight one seven by david ricardo and the benefits of trade for instance portugal was a far more efficient producer of wine than england while in england it was relatively cheaper to produce cloth thus if portugal specialized in wine and england in cloth both states would end up better off if they traded in modern economic theory trade is not a zero sum game of cutthroat competition as both sides could benefit by imposing mercantilist import restrictions and tariffs instead both nations ended up poorer david hume famously noted the impossibility of the mercantilists goal of a constant positive balance of trade as bullion flowed into one country the supply would increase and the value of bullion in that state would steadily decline relative to other goods conversely in the state exporting bullion its value would slowly rise eventually it would no longer be cost effective to export goods from the high price country to the low price country and the balance of trade would reverse itself mercantilists fundamentally misunderstood this long arguing that an increase in the money supply simply meant that everyone gets richer the importance placed on bullion was also a central target even if many mercantilists had themselves begun to de emphasize the importance of gold and silver adam smith noted that bullion was just the same as any other commodity and there was no reason to give it special treatment gold was nothing more than a yellow metal that was valuable only because there was not much of it the first school to completely reject mercantilism were the physiocrats of france their theories also had several important problems and the replacement of mercantilism did not come until adam smith published the wealth of nations in one seven seven six this book outlines the basics of what is today known as classical economics smith spends a considerable portion of the book rebutting the arguments of the mercantilists though often these are simplified or exaggerated versions of mercantilist thought scholars are also divided over the cause of mercantilism s end those who believe the theory was simply an error hold that its replacement was inevitable as soon as smith s ideas that are more accurate were unveiled those who feel that mercantilism was rent seeking hold that it ended only when major power shifts occurred in britain mercantilism faded as the parliament gained the monarch s power to grant monopolies while the wealthy capitalists who controlled the house of commons benefited from these monopolies parliament found it difficult to implement them due to the high cost of group decision making mercantilist regulations were steadily removed over the course of the eighteenth century in britain and during the one nine th century the british government fully embraced free trade and smith s laissez faire economics on the continent the process was somewhat different in france economic control remained in the hands of the royal family and mercantilism continued until the french revolution in germany mercantilism remained an important ideology in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when the historical school of economics was paramount legacy in the english speaking world adam smith s utter repudiation of mercantilism was accepted without question in the british empire but rejected in the united states by such prominent figures as alexander hamilton henry clay henry c carey and abraham lincoln in the two zero th century most economists on both sides of the atlantic have come to accept that in some areas mercantilism had been correct most prominently the economist john maynard keynes explicitly supported some of the tenets of mercantilism adam smith had rejected focusing on the money supply arguing that goods population and institutions were the real causes of prosperity keynes argued that the money supply balance of trade and interest rates were of great importance to an economy these views later became the basis of monetarism one of the most important modern schools of economics adam smith rejected the mercantilist focus on production arguing that consumption was the only way to grow an economy keynes argued that encouraging production was just as important as consumption keynes also noted that in the early modern period the focus on the bullion supplies was reasonable in an era before paper money an increase for bullion was one of the only ways to increase the money supply keynes and other economists of the period also realized that the balance of payments is an important concern and since the one nine three zero s all nations have closely monitored the inflow and outflow of capital and most economists agree that a favorable balance of trade is desirable keynes also adopted the essential idea of mercantilism that government intervention in the economy is a necessity while keynes economic theories have had a major impact few have accepted his effort to rehabilitate the word mercantilism today the word remains a pejorative term often used to attack various forms of protectionism the similarities between keynesianism and its successor ideas with mercantilism have sometimes led critics to call them neo mercantilism some other systems that do copy several mercantilist policies such as japan s economic system are also sometimes called neo mercantilist one area smith was reversed on well before keynes was on the importance of data mercantilists who were generally merchants or government officials gathered vast amounts of trade data and used it considerably in their research and writing william petty a strong mercantilist is generally credited with being the first to use empirical analysis to study the economy smith rejected this arguing that deductive reasoning from base principles was the proper method to discover economic truths today economists accept that both methods are important in specific instances protectionist mercantilist policies also had an important and positive impact on the state that enacted them adam smith himself for instance praised the navigation acts as they greatly expanded the british merchant fleet and played a central role in turning britain into the naval and economic superpower that it was for several centuries some economists thus feel that protecting infant industries while causing short term harm can be beneficial in the long term notes j rg niehans a history of economic theory pg six harry landreth and david c colander history of economic thought pg four four robert b ekelund and robert d tollison mercantilism as a rent seeking society pg nine landreth and colander pg four eight david s landes the unbound prometheus pg three one landreth and colander pg four three charles wilson mercantilism pg one zero robert b ekelund and robert f h bert a history of economic theory and method pg four six ekelund and h bert pg six one niehans pg one nine john kenneth galbraith economics in perspective a critical history pg three three three four landreth and colander pg five three hermann kellenbenz the rise of the european economy pg two nine e n williams the ancien regime in europe pg one seven seven eight three e damsgaard hansen european economic history pg six five christopher hill the century of revolution pg three two wilson pg one five ekelund and h bert pg four three niehans pg one nine ekelund and tollison wilson pg six wilson pg three robert s walters and david h blake the politics of global economic relations hansen pg six four references ekelund robert b and robert d tollison mercantilism as a rent seeking society economic regulation in historical perspective college station texas a notes on mercantilism the usury laws stamped money and the theories of under consumption general theory of employment interest and money landreth harry and david c colander history of economic thought boston houghton mifflin two zero zero two niehans j rg a history of economic theory classic contributions one seven two zero one nine eight zero baltimore johns hopkins university press one nine nine zero vaggi gianni and peter groenewegen a concise history of economic thought from mercantilism to monetarism new york palgrave macmillan two zero zero three wilson charles mercantilism london historical association one nine six six further reading rothbard murray n economic thought before adam smith an austrian perspective on the history of economic thought volume i rothbard murray n classical economics an austrian perspective on the history of economic thought volume ii external links thomas mun s englands treasure by forraign trade book iv of the wealth of nations adam smith s attack on the mercantile system economic theories economic ideologies history of economic thought international trade mercantilism for the internet community slang term see internet sock puppet the meat puppets were a three piece band formed in january one nine eight zero in paradise valley arizona the brothers kirkwood curt and cris played guitar and bass respectively and derrick bostrom played drums they began rehearsing together by learning songs from bostrom s collection of punk rock four five s after briefly toying with the name the bastions of immaturity they settled on the name meat puppets in june one nine eight zero after a song by curt of the same name which appears on their first album history early years their early works the in a car ep and meat puppets lp were wholeheartedly punk with vocals so feral in their delivery they were often indecipherable but ultimately humorous and ingenious once discovered the musicianship was mostly breakneck thrash yet the songs were tinged with a subtle haunting element like that of a long abandoned ghost town their brand of cathartic explosive hardcore attracted the attention of legendary punk label sst who released their first record in one nine eight two unsatisfied with the result the band spent plenty of time in the studio before the release of one nine eight three s meat puppets ii the band s exciting experimentation with psychedelia acid rock and quieter tunes on top of a core western style thrash sound gave them their one acknowledged classic album and propelled the record to legendary status the meat puppets burgeoning musicality led to more intricate and melodic efforts on one nine eight five s up on the sun which was a cohesive collage of songs that further demonstrated their abilities to capture a sound that had all of the wonder of the desert the album granted them their first major mainstream exposure and many fans still consider it to be their masterpiece over the next decade the meat puppets remained on sst and released a series of albums after the release of out my way in one nine eight six the band was briefly sidelined by an accident when curt s finger was broken after being slammed in their touring van s door the accident delayed the band s next album the psychedelic mirage until the next year subsequently their next album the heavier power trio rooted huevos came out less than six months afterwards in late summer of one nine eight seven monsters was released in one nine eight nine mainstream period the band landed on a major label in one nine nine one with the release of forbidden places in one nine nine four the band became suddenly popular when nirvana s kurt cobain invited cris and curt to join him on mtv for acoustic performances of plateau oh me and lake of fire all originally from meat puppets ii the resulting album unplugged in new york served as an unintentional swan song for nirvana as cobain committed suicide six months after the concert lake of fire became a cult favorite for its particularly wrenching vocal performance from cobain subsequently the nirvana exposure and the strength of the single backwater helped lift the meat puppets to new commercial heights in one nine nine four with too high to die which earned them a gold record one nine nine five s no joke was the final album recorded by the original meat puppets lineup unfortunately cris kirkwood was now a heroin addict whose heavy and compulsive use of the drug increasingly dominated his life this was a major departure from the psychedelic drugs with which the meat puppets had always been associated his erratic behavior soon became too much for the band to cope with derrick recorded a solo ep under the monicker today s sounds in one nine nine six and later on in one nine nine nine took charge of re issuing the puppets original seven records on rykodisc as well as putting out their first live album live in montana curt formed a new band in austin tx called the royal neanderthal orchestra but they changed their name to meat puppets to release golden lies in two zero zero zero and live in two zero zero two the concluding track to classic puppets entitled new leaf also dates from this incarnation of the band demise and post break up around two zero zero one two zero zero two the meat puppets dissolved and curt has gone on to release albums with the groups eyes adrift and volcano in two zero zero five he released his first solo album entitled snow his brother cris was arrested in december two zero zero three for attacking a security guard at a post office with the guard s baton the guard shot kirkwood during the melee kirkwood was subsequently denied bail the judge citing kirkwood s previous drug arrests and parole violations he eventually went to prison for felony assault he was released in july of two zero zero five as of two zero zero six there are no known plans if the meat puppets will reform discography studio releases live and compilation releases no strings attached one nine nine zero live in montana one nine nine nine live two zero zero two classic puppets two zero zero four eps in a car one nine eight one out my way one nine eight six see also list of alternative music artists list of musicians in the second wave of punk music references erlewine stephen thomas meat puppets all music guide retrieved june one three two zero zero five external links meat puppets official web site curt kirkwood s website bostworld derrick bostrom s blog alternative musical groups rock music groups american musical groups later punk groups inactive musical groups international mathematics competitions imo international mathematical olympiad worldwide imc international mathematics competition for university students pmwc primary mathematics world contest worldwide regional mathematics competitions seamo seameo mathematics olympiad south east asia apmo asian pacific mathematics olympiad pacific rim oim olimp adas iberoamericanas de matem tica spain portugal and latin america olimpiada matematica de centroam rica y del caribe central america and the caribbean olimpiada matematica de paises del cono sur eight countries from south america balkan mathematical olympiad for students from one five five years old from balkan area junior balkan mathematical olympiad for students under one five five years old from balkan area william lowell putnam mathematical competition usa and canada http www maa org awards putnam html baltic way baltic area iwymic invitational world youth mathematics inter city competition for junior secondary students around the eastern asian region http www nknu edu tw seven emath kiwymic index htm aitmo asian inter city teenagers mathematics olympiad for junior secondary students around the eastern asian region http www pemic two zero zero five org national mathematics competitions argentina oma olimp ada matem tica argentina australia amc australian mathematics competition australasian schools mathematics assessment austria mo sterreichische mathematik olympiade http www oemo at belgium omb olympiade math matique belge vwo vlaamse wiskunde olympiade brazil there are two national competitions in brazil the oldest one obm dates back to one nine seven nine and is open to all students from fifth grade to university the other one obmep was created in two zero zero five and is open to public school students from fifth grade to high school obm olimp ada brasileira de matem tica http www obm org br obmep olimp ada brasileira de matem tica das escolas p blicas http www obmep org br there are also many regional competitions usually open to all students of a given state opm olimp ada paulista de matem tica http www opm mat br omerj olimp ada de matem tica do estado do rio de janeiro http www omerj com br canada national competitions hosted by the centre for education in mathematics and computing full solutions euclid one two th grade students hypatia one one th grade students galois one zero th grade students fryer nine th grade students multiple choice fermat one one th grade students cayley one zero th grade students pascal nine th grade students gauss seven th and eight th grade students national competitions hosted by the mathematics contest centre multiple choice pythagoras contest six th grade students fibonacci contest five th grade students byron germain contest four th grade students other competitions hosted by the canadian mathematical society comc canadian open mathematics challenge cmo canadian mathematics olympiad mathchallengers formerly mathcounts bc is called mathchallegers since two zero zero five it is hosted by apegbc china cmo china mathematics olympiad cwmo western china mathematics olympiad csmo south eastern china mathematics olympiad for secondary four students cnmo china national mathematics olympiad for junior secondary students cyprus cyprus mathematical olympiad mathematics competitions for students in every grade provincial competitions for two nd and three rd grades of lycea zeno competition of lyceum petrakis yallouros competition for one st grade of lyceum for students under one five five years old evagoras pallikarides competition for three rd grade of high school for students under one five five years old denmark georg mohr contest for danish high school students see http www georgmohr dk for more details note in danish germany demo deutsche mathematik olympiade http www mathematik olympiaden de bwm bundeswettbewerb mathematik http www bundeswettbewerb mathematik de aimo auswahlwettbewerb zur internationalen mathematik olympiade team selection tests for the imo http www bundeswettbewerb mathematik de imo main htm lwmb landeswettbewerb mathematik bayern http lwmb de lwm landeswettbewerb mathematik baden w rttemberg http landeswettbewerb mathematik de hong kong china hong kong mathematics olympiad the hong kong mathematical high achievers selection contest only form one to form three students may participate in this contest international mathematical olympiad preliminary selection contest hong kong imo hk prelim official website pui ching invitational mathematics competition official website inter school mathematics contest an yearly contest organized by the hong kong joint school mathematics society hungary kalm r l szl orsz gos matematika verseny three rd to eight th grade students k mal a year long contest each month you have to submit solutions to some problems nine th one two th grade homepage in english http www komal hu info bemutatkozas e shtml admv arany d niel matematika verseny nine th and one zero th grade students oktv orsz gos k z piskolai tanulm nyi verseny one one th and one two th grade k rsch k j zsef first year university students or below greece thalis first round efklidis second round archimidis third round india regional mathematical olympiads held in every region leads to participation in indian national mathematical olympiad held every year amti talent exams conducted by all india mathematics teachers association chennai mathematical marathons macau china macao mathematical olympiad chinese homepage http www sftw umac mo fstitl olympiad index html mexico mmo mexican mathematical olympiad http www imo two zero zero five org omm htm netherlands nwo nederlandse wiskunde olympiade norway niels henrik abels matematikk konkurranse norwegian mathematical olympiad website available both in norwegian and english at http www math uio no abelkonkurransen philippines philippine mathematics olympiad portugal portuguese mathematics olympiad olimp adas portuguesas da matem tica in portuguese olimp ada paulistas with brazil singapore smo singapore mathematical olympiad sapmops singapore asia pacific mathematical olympiad for primary schools slovakia mo matematick olymip da http matematika webpark sk list of slovak competitions http www cs pitt edu michal projects seminar kms kore ponden n matematick semin r http kms sk strom kore ponden n matematick semin r http www strom sk sweden skolornas matematikt vling see http www math uu se dag skolornas html or http www math chalmers se sam problemet bok html for older problems h gstadiets matematikt vling http www matematiktavling org hmt open for students in grades seven through nine united kingdom most competitions are organised by the uk mathematics trust the primary mathematics challenge for primary school pupils is organised by the mathematical association the junior mathematical challenge is a multiple choice competition for students up to year eight in england and wales year s two in scotland year nine in northern ireland high scorers in the jmc are invited to compete in the junior mathematical olympiad the intermediate mathematical challenge is a multiple choice competition for students up to year one one in england and wales year s four in scotland year one two in northern ireland high scorers in the imc are invited to compete in the intermediate mathematical olympiad and kangaroo for the highest scorers and in the european kangaroo another multiple choice competition for other high scorers the senior mathematical challenge formerly national maths contest is a multiple choice competition for students up to year one three in england and wales year s six in scotland year one four in northern ireland high scorers in the smc are invited to compete in the british mathematical olympiad http www bmoc maths org there is a team maths challenge for students in england wales and northern ireland scotland has its own enterprising mathematics competition organised by the scottish mathematical council united states national elementary school competitions mathematical olympiads for elementary and middle schools moems onlinemathleague com national middle school competitions mathcounts math league sigma mathematical olympiads for elementary and middle schools moems united states of america mathematical talent search usamts american mathematics contest eight amc eight formerly the american junior high school mathematics examination ajhsme onlinemathleague com national high school competitions american mathematics contest one two amc one two formerly the american high school mathematics examination ahsme american mathematics contest one zero amc one zero american invitational mathematics examination aime united states of america mathematical olympiad usamo united states of america mathematical talent search usamts american regions mathematics league arml mandelbrot competition math league mu alpha theta national assessment testing national college competitions william lowell putnam mathematical competition amatyc mathematics contest regional competitions see list of united states regional mathematics competitions see also soviet student olympiads mathematical lists mathematics competitions michael polanyi march one one th one eight nine one february two two nd one nine seven six was a hungarian british polymath whose thought and work extended across physical chemistry economics and philosophy early life michael was born into a jewish family in budapest his older brother karl become a famous economist their father was an engineer and entrepreneur whose volatile fortunes in railway speculation motivated polanyi to seek financial stability through a career in medicine he graduated in one nine one three and shortly afterwards served as a physician in the austro hungarian army during world war i but was hospitalised and during his convalescence wrote what became a doctorate in physical chemistry from the university of budapest in one nine one seven in one nine two zero he emigrated to germany to work as a chemist at the kaiser wilhelm institute for fiber chemistry in berlin there he married magda elizabeth in a roman catholic ceremony in one nine two nine magda gave birth to a son john who went on to win a nobel prize in chemistry with the coming to power in one nine three three of the nazi party polanyi took up a position as professor of physical chemistry at the university of manchester in a significant shift following his growing contribution to the literature of social science and philosophy michael polanyi then became professor of social sciences at manchester one nine four eight five eight physical chemistry polanyi s scientific interests were diverse embracing chemical kinetics x ray diffraction and the absorption of gases at solid surfaces in one nine three four polanyi roughly contemporarily with g i taylor and egon orowan realised that the plastic deformation of ductile materials could be explained in terms of the theory of dislocations developed by vito volterra in one nine zero five the insight was critical in developing the modern science of solid mechanics philosophy of science from the mid one nine three zero s polanyi began to articulate his opposition to the prevailing positivist account of science arguing that it failed to recognise the part played by tacit knowledge and the creative role played by the imagination he viewed positivism as encouraging some to believe that scientific research ought to be directed by the state he drew attention to what happened to genetics in the soviet union once the doctrines of trofim lysenko gained political approval polanyi like friedrich hayek supplied reasons why it is desirable to live within a free society polanyi criticised the notion of absolute objectivity and acknowledges the importance of inherited practices ideas that were to influence the thought and work of thomas kuhn in the one nine six zero s his philosophical ideas are most fully expressed in the gifford lectures he gave in one nine five one five two at the university of aberdeen which resulted in the book personal knowledge economics polanyi like hayek believed that a free market facilitates the use of tacit knowledge within a society this helps society to self organize facilitating the pursuit of various goals polanyi s ideas on economics are elaborated in his book the logic of liberty honours polanyi was a fellow of the royal society and a fellow of merton college oxford knowledge tacit knowledge knowledge management bibliography polanyi m one nine four six science faith and society isbn zero two two six six seven two nine zero five polanyi m one nine five one the logic of liberty isbn zero two two six six seven two nine six four polanyi m one nine six four personal knowledge towards a post critical philosophy isbn zero two two six six seven two eight eight three polanyi m one nine six seven the tacit dimension polanyi m prosch h one nine seven five meaning isbn zero two two six six seven two nine four eight external links broad biography by mary joe nye largely philosophical biography by phil mullins editor of the polanyi journal tradition and discovery polanyi society home page polanyi resources at erraticimpact com polanyiana volume eight number one two published in budapest polymaths hungarian chemists british chemists hungarian economists hungarian philosophers british philosophers hungarian theologians two zero th century philosophers methanol also known as methyl alcohol or wood alcohol is a chemical compound with chemical formula ch three oh it is the simplest alcohol and is a light volatile colourless flammable poisonous liquid with a very faint odor it is used as an antifreeze solvent fuel and as a denaturant for ethyl alcohol methanol is produced naturally in the anaerobic metabolism of many varieties of bacteria as a result there is a small fraction of methanol vapor in the atmosphere over the course of several days atmospheric methanol is oxidized by oxygen with the help of sunlight to carbon dioxide and water methanol burns in air forming carbon dioxide and water two ch three oh three o two two co two four h two o a methanol flame is almost colorless care should be exercised around burning methanol to avoid burning oneself on the almost invisible fire because of its poisonous properties methanol is also used as a denaturant for ethanol methanol is often called wood alcohol because it was once produced chiefly as a byproduct of the destructive distillation of wood it is now produced synthetically by the direct combination of hydrogen and carbon monoxide gases heated under pressure in the presence of a catalyst history in their embalming process the ancient egyptians used a mixture of substances including methanol which they obtained from the pyrolysis of wood pure methanol however was first isolated in one six six one by robert boyle who called it spirit of box because he produced it via the distillation of boxwood it later became known as pyroxylic spirit in one eight three four the french chemists jean baptiste dumas and eugene peligot determined its elemental composition they also introduced the word methylene to organic chemistry forming it from greek methy wine h l wood patch of trees its intended origin was alcohol made from wood substance but it has greek language errors the term methyl was derived in about one eight four zero by back formation from methylene and was then applied to describe methyl alcohol this was shortened to methanol in one eight nine two by the international conference on chemical nomenclature the suffix yl used in organic chemistry to form names of radicals was extracted from the word methyl in one nine two three the german chemist matthias pier working for basf developed a means to convert synthesis gas a mixture of carbon oxides and hydrogen into methanol this process used a zinc chromate catalyst and required extremely vigorous conditions pressures ranging from three zero one zero zero mpa three zero zero one zero zero zero atm and temperatures of about four zero zero c modern methanol production has been made more efficient through use of catalysts commonly copper capable of operating at lower pressures production today synthesis gas is most commonly produced from the methane component in natural gas rather than from coal three processes are commercially practiced at moderate pressures of one to two mpa one zero two zero atm and high temperatures around eight five zero c methane reacts with steam on a nickel catalyst to produce syngas according to the chemical equation ch four h two o co three h two this reaction commonly called steam methane reforming or smr is endothermic and the heat transfer limitations place limits on the size of the catalytic reactors used methane can also undergo partial oxidation with molecular oxygen to produce syngas as the following equation shows ch four zero five o two co two h two this reaction is exothermic and the heat given off can be used in situ to drive the steam methane reforming reaction when the two processes are combined it is referred to as autothermal reforming the ratio of co and h two can be adjusted by using the water gas shift reaction co h two o leftrightarrow co two h two to provide the appropriate stoichiometry for methanol synthesis the carbon monoxide and hydrogen then react on a second catalyst to produce methanol today the most widely used catalyst is a mixture of copper zinc oxide and alumina first used by ici in one nine six six at five one zero mpa five zero one zero zero atm and two five zero c it can catalyze the production of methanol from carbon monoxide and hydrogen with high selectivity co two h two ch three oh it is worth noting that the production of synthesis gas from methane produces three moles of hydrogen for every mole of carbon monoxide while the methanol synthesis consumes only two moles of hydrogen for every mole of carbon monoxide one way of dealing with the excess hydrogen is to inject carbon dioxide into the methanol synthesis reactor where it too reacts to form methanol according to the chemical equation co two three h two ch three oh h two o although natural gas is the most economical and widely used feedstock for methanol production other feedstocks can be used where natural gas is unavailable light petroleum products can be used in its place the south african firm sasol produces methanol using synthesis gas from coal uses methanol is used on a limited basis to fuel internal combustion engines mainly by virtue of the fact that it is not nearly as flammable as gasoline methanol blends are the fuel of choice in open wheel racing circuits like champcars as well as in radio controlled model airplanes cars and trucks dirt circle track racecars such as sprint cars late models and modifieds use methanol to fuel their engines drag racers and mud racers also use methanol as their primary fuel source methanol is required with a supercharged engine in a top alcohol dragster and all vehicles in the indianapolis five zero zero have to run methanol mud racers have mixed methanol with gasoline and nitrous oxide to produce more power than gasoline and nitrous oxide alone one of the drawbacks of methanol as a fuel is its corrosivity to some metals including aluminium methanol although only a weak acid attacks the oxide coating that normally protects the aluminium from corrosion six ch three oh two al two al three six ch three o three h two the resulting methoxide salts are soluble in methanol so the corrosion continues until the metal is eaten away when produced from wood or other organic materials the resulting organic methanol bioalcohol has been suggested as renewable alternative to petroleum based hydrocarbons however one cannot use ba one zero zero one zero zero bioalcohol in modern petroleum cars without modification methanol is also used as a solvent and as an antifreeze in pipelines the largest use of methanol by far however is in making other chemicals about four zero of methanol is converted to formaldehyde and from there into products as diverse as plastics plywood paints explosives and permanent press textiles in some wastewater treatment plants a small amount of methanol is added to wastewater to provide a food source of carbon for the denitrification bacteria which convert nitrates to nitrogen in the one nine nine zero s large amounts of methanol were used in the united states to produce the gasoline additive methyl tert butyl ether mtbe the one nine nine zero clean air act required certain major cities to use mtbe in their gasoline to reduce photochemical smog however by the late one nine nine zero s it was found that mtbe had leaked out of gasoline storage tanks and into the groundwater in sufficient amounts to affect the taste of municipal drinking water in many areas moreover mtbe was found to be a carcinogen in animal studies in the resulting backlash several states banned the use of mtbe and its future production remains uncertain direct methanol fuel cells are unique in their low temperature atmospheric pressure operation allowing them to be miniaturized to an unprecedented degree this combined with the relatively easy and safe storage and handling of methanol may open the possibility of fuel cell powered consumer electronics other chemical derivatives of methanol include dimethyl ether which has replaced chlorofluorocarbons as an aerosol spray propellant and acetic acid health and safety methanol is toxic as its metabolites formic acid and formaldehyde cause blindness and death it enters the body by ingestion inhalation or absorption through the skin fetal tissue will not tolerate methanol dangerous doses will build up if a person is regularly exposed to vapors or handles liquid without skin protection if methanol has been ingested a doctor should be contacted immediately the usual fatal dose one zero zero one two five ml four fl oz toxic effects take hours to start and effective antidotes can often prevent permanent damage this is treated using ethanol or fomepizole either of these drugs acts to slow down the action of alcohol dehydrogenase on methanol so that it is excreted by the kidneys rather than being transformed into toxic metabolites though it is miscible with water methanol is very hard to wash off the skin it is best to treat methanol like gasoline symptoms of methanol ingestion are similar to those of intoxication headache dizziness nausea lack of coordination confusion drowsiness followed by unconsciousness and death the ester derivatives of methanol do not share this toxicity ethanol is sometimes denatured adulterated and thus made undrinkable by the addition of methanol the result is known as methylated spirit or meths uk use the latter should not be confused with meth a common abbreviation for methamphetamine pure methanol has been used in open wheel racing since the mid one nine six zero s unlike petroleum fires methanol fires can be extinguished with plain water while methanol is lighter than water they are miscible and the addition of water will cause the fire to use its heat boiling the water the decision was made shortly after the death of two drivers see also methanol data page liquid fuels methanol economy references robert boyle the sceptical chymist one six six one contains account of distillation of wood alcohol external links national pollutant inventory methanol fact sheet the methanol institute industry trade group lots of information on methanol s use in fuel cells and as an alternative fuel methanol powered laptops computational chemistry wiki molview from bluerhinos co uk see methanol in three d alcohols solvents for other senses of this word see milk disambiguation a glass of cow s milk milk most often means the nutrient fluid produced by the mammary glands of female mammals the female ability to produce milk is one of the defining characteristics of mammals and provides the primary source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to digest more diverse foods it is also processed into dairy products such as cream butter yogurt ice cream gelato cheese casein whey protein lactose condensed milk powdered milk and many other food additive and industrial products it can also be used to mean the white juice and the processed meat of the coconut in more or less liquid form used especially in thai indian kerala and polynesian cuisine a non animal substitute such as soy milk rice milk and almond milk crop milk the regurgitated substance pigeons feed their young human milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding either directly or by the female expressing her milk to be saved and fed later the early lactation milk is known as colostrum and carries the mother s antibodies to the baby it can reduce the risk of many diseases in both mother and baby composition and nutrition the composition of milk differs widely between species factors such as the type of protein the proportion of protein fat and sugar the levels of various vitamins and minerals and the size of the butterfat globules and the strength of the curd are among those than can vary for example human milk contains on average one one protein four two fat seven zero lactose a sugar and supplies seven two kcal of energy per one zero zero grams cow s milk contains on average three four protein three six fat and four six lactose and supplies six six kcal of energy per one zero zero grams lactose in milk is digested with the help of the enzyme lactase in humans production of lactase can decline in adulthood leading to an inability to digest milk this is known as lactose intolerance some human populations most notably europeans retain the ability to digest lactose into adulthood cow s milk in the western world cow s milk is extracted on an industrial scale for human consumption and industrial uses it is the most commonly consumed form of milk dairy farming has become such a large business that in many countries the process is highly automated with farmers using machines that attach directly to the teats of the cow s udder to speed milking and breeds of cattle such as holstein specially bred for increased milk production commercial processing of milk a cow milking machine in action in north america a dairy facility processes milk and products obtained from milk dairy products such as cream butter and cheese most dairies are local companies as opposed to large or nationwide companies found in the southern hemisphere upon standing fresh milk has a tendency to separate into a high fat cream layer on top of a larger skim milk layer the cream is often sold as a separate product with its own uses in the united states a blended mixture of half cream and half milk is often sold in smaller quantities and is called half and half half and half is used for creaming coffee and similar uses milk produced for commercial consumption usually undergoes several processes pasteurization kills many harmful microorganisms by heating the milk for a short time and then cooling it for storage and transportation pasteurized milk is still perishable and must be stored cold by both suppliers and consumers dairies print expiration dates on each container after which stores will remove any unsold milk from their shelves in many countries it is illegal to sell milk that is not pasteurized a complementary process for commercial milk is homogenization this mechanically reduces the size of the fat globules so that they will not separate out into a cream layer milk sold commercially in countries where the cattle and often the people live indoors commonly has vitamin d added to it to make up for lack of exposure to uvb radiation milk often has flavoring added to it for better taste or as a means of improving sales chocolate flavored milk has been sold for many years followed recently by other flavors of milk and cream south australia has the highest consumption of flavoured milk per person where farmers union iced coffee outsells coca cola a success shared only by inca kola in peru and irn bru in scotland those preferring raw milk argue that the pasteurization process also kills beneficial microorganisms and important nutritional constituents the resulting pasteurized product is said to contribute to its own indigestability be less nutritious and turn rancid as opposed to sour with age raw milk versus pasteurized milk nutritional benefits a serving one cup or two five zero ml of two fat milk contains two eight five mg of calcium which represents two two to two nine of the daily recommended intake dri of calcium for an adult depending on the age eight grams of protein and a number of other nutrients either naturally or through fortification vitamins d and k essential for bone health iodine a mineral essential for thyroid function vitamin b one two and riboflavin necessary for cardiovascular health and energy production biotin and pantothenic acid b vitamins important for energy production vitamin a critical for immune function potassium and magnesium for cardiovascular health selenium cancer preventive trace mineral thiamine b vitamin important for cognitive function especially memory conjugated linoleic acid beneficial fatty acid that inhibits several types of cancer in mice has been shown to kill human skin cancer colorectal cancer and breast cancer cells in in vitro studies and may help lower cholesterol and prevent atherosclerosis only available in milk from grass fed cows studies show possible links between low fat milk consumption and reduced risk of arterial hypertension coronary heart disease and obesity overweight individuals who drink milk may benefit from decreased risk of insulin resistance and type two diabetes nutritional side effects overconsumption of cow s milk is argued to be unhealthy primarily due to its fat and cholesterol content the following studies are used to support this position some milk is rich in saturated fat which studies have linked to increased risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease low fat and non fat forms of milk may mitigate any such risk up to seven zero of humans have an incomplete ability to digest milk lactose intolerance for those individuals milk may induce symptoms such as cramping bloating gas and diarrhoea certain ethnic groups may be more susceptible to these effects critics dispute the claim that drinking large amounts of milk can reduce the risk of bone fractures especially in the elderly studies have failed to associate high calcium intakes with lower risk of hip and forearm fractures in men or women critics of milk claim that plant based sources of calcium are preferable on the grounds that animal proteins in milk causes leaching or excretion of calcium from bones such critics refute the claim that milk prevents osteoporosis and make the counterclaim that milk in fact contributes to that disease a study published in june two zero zero five suggests that consumption of milk by nine to one four year old children is associated with weight gain although the researchers identify that excessive calorie intake is the cause rather than dairy specific factors researchers were surprised by their conclusion that weight gain was associated with dietary calcium and low fat or skim milk but not dairy fat a february two zero zero five study found a positive association between acne and the consumption of whole milk skim milk and other dairy products in high school age women it has been suggest that this is linked to iodine and not restricted to milk two studies show a correlation between high galactose consumption and high rates of ovarian cancer a study suggests a correlation between high calcium intake and prostate cancer there is no evidence that any such problem is specific to milk a review published by the world cancer research fund and the american institute for cancer research states that at least one one human population studies have linked dairy product consumption and prostate cancer also there has been some controversy over whether or not humans or any other mammals are designed to consume milk after infancy this article published by peta highlights some of the debate http www notmilk com kradjian html distribution glass milk bottles used for home delivery service a brick of french uht milk because of the perishable nature of milk expeditious distribution is desirable in many countries milk used to be delivered to households daily but economic pressure has made milk delivery much less popular and in many areas daily delivery is no longer available people buy it chilled at grocery or convenience stores or similar retail outlets prior to the widespread use of plastics milk was often distributed to consumers in glass bottles and before that in bulk that was ladled into the customer s container in the uk milk can be delivered daily by a milkman who travels his local milk round route using a battery powered milk float although this is becoming less popular as a result of supermarkets selling milk at cheaper prices in new zealand milk is no longer distributed in glass bottles in the united states bottles were replaced with milk cartons tall boxes with a square cross section and a peaked top that can folded outward upon opening to form a spout now milk is increasingly sold in plastic bottles first the gallon and half gallon sizes were sold in plastic jugs while the smaller sizes were sold in milk cartons recently milk has been sold in smaller resealable bottles made to fit in automobile cup holders the half pint milk carton is the traditional unit as a component of school lunches in the us pictures of missing children were printed on the larger milk cartons as a public service until it was determined that this was disturbing to children milk preserved by the uht process is sold in boxes often called a brick that lack the peak of the traditional milk carton milk preserved in this fashion does not need to be refrigerated before opening and has a longer shelf life than milk in ordinary packaging glass milk containers are rare these days most people purchase milk in plastic jugs or bags or in waxed paper cartons ultraviolet light from fluorescent lighting can destroy some of the proteins in milk so many companies that once distributed milk in transparent or highly translucent containers are now using thicker materials that block the harmful rays many people feel that such uv protected milk tastes better milk comes in a variety of containers with local variants united states commonly sold in gallon half gallon and quart containers u s customary units of rigid plastic or occasionally for sizes less than a gallon waxed cardboard the us single serving size is usually the half pint about two four zero ml canada a one one three litre plastic bag sold as four litres in three bags is the most common as bags are most economical cartons of two litres one litre five zero zero millilitre and two five zero millilitre are also available typically only corner stores carry four litre plastic jugs however in alberta they are commonplace in grocery stores parts of europe sizes of five zero zero millilitres one litre the most common two litres and three litres are commonplace united kingdom most stores stock the equivalents of old imperial sizes five six eight ml one pint one one three six l two pints two two seven three l four pints three four zero eight l six pints or rarely a combination including both metric and imperial sizes australia and new zealand distributed in a variety of sizes most commonly in tetra paks for up to one litres and plastic screw top bottles beyond that most uht milk is packed in one litre paper containers with a sealed plastic spout south africa commonly sold in one litre bags the bag is then placed in a plastic jug and the corner cut off before the milk is poured condensed milk is distributed in metal cans two five zero and one two five ml paper containers and one zero zero and two zero zero ml squeeze tubes and powdered milk skim and whole is distributed in boxes or bags varieties and brands cow s milk is generally available in several varieties in some countries these are full cream or whole in north america about three two five fat semi skimmed reduced fat or low fat about one five one eight fat skimmed about zero one fat milk in the u s and canada is sold as whole varieties two reduced fat one low fat one two very low fat skim no fat note in canada whole milk refers to unhomogenized milk homogenized milk or homo milk in short refers to milk which is three two five butterfat generally all store bought milk in canada has been homogenized yet the term is also used as a name to describe butterfat content for a specific variety of milk modern commercial dairy processing techniques involve first removing all of the butterfat and then adding back the appropriate amount depending on which product is being produced on that particular line in britain it is possible to get channel island milk which is five five fat in the united states skim milk is also known as fat free milk due to usda regulations stating that any food with less than one two gram of fat per serving can be labeled fat free full cream or whole milk has the full milk fat content about three four if friesian or holstein breed are the source for skimmed or semi skimmed milk all of the fat content is removed and then some in the case of semi skimmed milk is returned the best selling variety of milk is semi skimmed in some countries full cream whole milk is generally seen as less healthy and skimmed milk is often thought to lack taste whole milk is recommended to provide sufficient fat for developing toddlers who have graduated from breast milk or infant formula other milk animals in addition to cows the following animals provide milk for dairy products sheep goats horses donkeys camels including the south american camelids yaks water buffalo reindeer in russia and sweden small moose dairies also exist donkey and horse milk have the lowest fat content while the milk of seals contains more than five zero fat curdling when raw milk is left standing for a while it turns sour this is the result of fermentation lactic acid bacteria turning the milk sugar into lactic acid this fermentation process is exploited in the production of various dairy products such as cheese and yogurt there are four noted periods of milk decay rancid also called on the turn milk is still consumable at this stage curdling separation of curd and whey will occur but may still be consumable coagulation beyond use a period of aromatic decay sets in accompanied by mould dry beyond use the milk has dehydrated and become hard and chalky pasteurized cow s milk on the other hand spoils in a way that makes it unsuitable for consumption causing it to assume an unpleasant odor and pose a high danger of food poisoning if ingested the naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria in raw milk under suitable conditions quickly produce large amounts of lactic acid the ensuing acidity in turn prevents other germs from growing or slows their growth significantly through pasteurization however these lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed which means that other germs can grow unfettered and thus cause decomposition in order to prevent spoilage milk can be kept refrigerated and stored between one and four degrees celsius most milk is pasteurized by heating briefly and then refrigerated to allow transport from factory farms to local markets the spoilage of milk can be forestalled by using ultra high temperature uht treatment milk so treated can be stored unrefrigerated for several months until opened sterilized milk which is heated for a much longer period of time will last even longer but also lose more nutrients and assume a still different taste condensed milk made by removing most of the water can be stored for many months unrefrigerated the most durable form of milk is milk powder which is produced from milk by removing almost all water why milk expands on heating milk does not actually reach boiling point faster than water the reason behind the quick expansion of milk on heating is due to its chemical composition proteins have the ability of coating bubbles and stabilizing foams milk is an emulsion of very small fat droplets coated by casein at and below room temperature droplets are arranged in a way that protects them from coalescing on heating this subtle architecture is destroyed milk reaches a temperature below boiling point of water in which protein molecules are irreversibly changed in their spatial arrangement denatured casein together with other components thereby forms a tough film which surrounds the water vapour bubbles of boiling milk preventing them from breaking this has the effect that the milk is transformed into a relatively stable foam which occupies a much larger volume than the original liquid references introduction to dairy science guelph see also almond milk bovine somatotropin babcock test determines the butterfat content of milk dairy grain milk milk fetishism rice milk soy milk milk bottle raw milk external links milking in the early days advances in processing milk year round grazing of dairy cows in the united states milk is milk web site and blog boning up on osteoporosis horse milk harvard school of public health calcium and milk describes claims of milk supporters and critics usda national nutrient database calcium contents of selected foods usda dietary reference intakes elements is cow s milk the worst beverage on earth straightdope com response to anti milk websites bath milk about com milk used for bathing milksucks com a site run by peta extolling the alleged benefits of going dairy free dairy products milk non alcoholic beverages materials involved in hinduism miss congeniality is a two zero zero zero comedy film thriller film directed by donald petrie starring sandra bullock a sequel miss congeniality two armed and fabulous was released in two zero zero five the cast sandra bullock gracie hart michael caine victor melling benjamin bratt eric matthews candice bergen kathy morningside ernie hudson harry mcdonald william shatner stan fields heather burns cheryl frasier the plot of miss congeniality is centered on sandra bullock s character an fbi agent who goes undercover in a beauty pageant in order to ferret out wrongdoers specifically the fbi has been investigating a serial bomber who has indicated his next strike will be at the pageant bullock s agent gracie hart is a feminist who is not traditionally attractive part of the in joke is the turning of her into a drop dead gorgeous woman contestant gracie lou freebush with the same tomboyish habits she had before said makeover this is definitely a bullock vehicle including several inside jokes such as her reaction to the gun toting texans she actually lives in austin texas or the hideous tyrolean dress she wears for the talent competition she visited austria for significant periods of time as a child the movie has somewhat been cited as an excuse to show off bullock s body in revealing outfits in germany the movie was published under the english title miss undercover the meaning of undercover is well known in germany and in italy under the english title miss detective mistakes miss rhode island cheryl frasier played by heather burns gets into the finals at the beauty pagaent as her talent she twirls batons but with a twist they are set on fire after the performance the soot and marks that were on the end of the batons previously disappear as she walks off stage in a possibly intentional move every character s hotel room is room one zero three candice bergen mistakenly calls the character of frank tobin by his real name steve as she is trying to open a bottle of pain killers prior to the pageant in a scene when bullock comes to the hotel where the pageants lodges the character of benjamin bratt in a truck van says the operation g string is on in reference of the strippergates operation g string two zero zero zero films comedy films thriller films american films fictional misses mrs and ms fish out of water films in physics magnetism is one of the phenomena by which materials exert an attractive or repulsive force on other materials magnetic materials some well known materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties are iron some steels and the mineral lodestone however all materials are influenced to one degree or another by the presence of a magnetic field although in most cases the influence is too small to detect without special equipment magnetism occurs in living creatures biomagnetism and many use it to navigate in humans magnetite crystals in the skull are sometimes claimed to serve as a magnetoreceptor but there is evidence that in fact the red blood cells form the human magnetoreceptor and magnetoanalyzer physics of magnetism magnetic forces are fundamental forces that arise from the movement of electrical charge maxwell s equations and the biot savart law describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces thus magnetism is seen whenever electrically charged particles are in motion this can arise either from movement of electrons in an electric current resulting in electromagnetism or from the quantum mechanical spin and orbital motion of electrons resulting in what are known as permanent magnets electron spin is the dominant effect within atoms the so called orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus is a secondary effect that slightly modifies the magnetic field created by spin charged particle in a magnetic field when a charged particle moves through a magnetic field b it feels a force f given by the cross product vec f q vec v times vec b where q is the electric charge of the particle vec v is the velocity vector of the particle vec b is the magnetic field because this is a cross product the force is perpendicular to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field it follows that the magnetic force does no work on the particle it may change the direction of the particle s movement but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down this might give you pause simple bar magnets seem to be entirely able to pick up small metal objects which certainly seems to require that they do work on those objects as david griffiths points out in his textbook introduction to electrodynamics this law is absolute the magnetic field just plain doesn t do any work however quite like the normal force of an inclined plane which also can t do work the magnetic field can redirect the efforts of existing forces and then those forces can indeed do work in the relevant direction magnetic dipoles magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet shown by iron filings on paper normally magnetic fields are seen as dipoles having a south pole and a north pole terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses interacting with the earth s magnetic field to indicate north and south on the globe a magnetic field contains energy and physical systems stabilize into the configuration with the lowest energy therefore when placed in a magnetic field a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field thereby canceling the net field strength as much as possible and lowering the energy stored in that field to a minimum for instance two identical bar magnets normally line up north to south resulting in no net magnetic field and resist any attempts to reorient them to point in the same direction the energy required to reorient them in that configuration is then stored in the resulting magnetic field which is double the strength of the field of each individual magnet this is of course why a magnet used as a compass interacts with the earth s magnetic field to indicate north and south magnetic monopoles contrary to normal experience some theoretical physics models predict the existence of magnetic monopoles paul dirac observed in one nine three one that because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge isolated south or north magnetic poles should be observable in practice however although charged particles like protons and electrons can be easily isolated as individual electrical charges magnetic south and north poles do not appear in isolation using quantum theory dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist then one could explain why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron in modern elementary particle theory the quantization of charge is realized in a spontaneous breakdown of a non abelian gauge symmetry monopoles predicted in certain grand unified theories differ from the one originally thought of by dirac these monopoles unlike elementary particles are solitons which are localised energy packets if they exist at all they contradict cosmological observations a solution to this monopole problem in cosmology gave rise to the currently interesting idea of inflation atomic magnetic dipoles the physical cause of the magnetism of objects as distinct from electrical currents is the atomic magnetic dipole magnetic dipoles or magnetic moments result on the atomic scale from the two kinds of movement of electrons the first is the orbital motion of the electron around the nucleus this motion can be considered as a current loop resulting in an orbital dipole magnetic moment along the axis of the nucleus the second much stronger source of electronic magnetic moment is due to a quantum mechanical property called the spin dipole magnetic moment although current quantum mechanical theory states that electrons neither physically spin nor orbit the nucleus the overall magnetic moment of the atom is the net sum of all of the magnetic moments of the individual electrons because of the tendency of magnetic dipoles to oppose each other to reduce the net energy in an atom the opposing magnetic moments of some pairs of electrons cancel each other both in orbital motion and in spin magnetic moments thus in the case of an atom with a completely filled electron shell or subshell the magnetic moments normally completely cancel each other out and only atoms with partially filled electron shells have a magnetic moment whose strength depends on the number of unpaired electrons the differences in configuration of the electrons in various elements thus determine the nature and magnitude of the atomic magnetic moments which in turn determine the differing magnetic properties of various materials several forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials including diamagnetism paramagnetism molecular magnet ferromagnetism antiferromagnetism ferrimagnetism metamagnetism spin glass superparamagnetism magnetars stars with extremely powerful magnetic fields are also known to exist types of magnets electromagnets electromagnets are useful in cases where a magnet must be switched on or off for instance large cranes to lift junked automobiles for the case of electric current moving through a wire the resulting field is directed according to the right hand rule if the right hand is used as a model and the thumb of the right hand points along the wire from positive towards the negative side conventional current the reverse of the direction of actual movement of electrons then the magnetic field will wrap around the wire in the direction indicated by the fingers of the right hand as can be seen geometrically if a loop or helix of wire is formed such that the current is traveling in a circle then all of the field lines in the center of the loop are directed in the same direction resulting in a magnetic dipole whose strength depends on the current around the loop or the current in the helix multiplied by the number of turns of wire in the case of such a loop if the fingers of the right hand are directed in the direction of conventional current flow i e positive to negative the opposite direction to the actual flow of electrons the thumb will point in the direction corresponding to the north pole of the dipole permanent magnets magnetic metallic elements many materials have unpaired electron spins but the majority of these materials are paramagnetic when the spins interact with each other in such a way that the spins align spontaneously the materials are called ferromagnetic what is often loosely termed magnetic due to the way their regular crystalline atomic structure causes their spins to interact some metals are ferro magnetic when found in their natural states as ores these include iron ore magnetite or lodestone cobalt and nickel as well the rare earth metals gadolinium and dysprosium when at a very low temperature such naturally occurring ferro magnets were used in the first experiments with magnetism technology has expanded the availability of magnetic materials to include various manmade products all based however on naturally magnetic elements composites ceramic or ferrite ceramic or ferrite magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered iron oxide and barium strontium carbonate ceramic due to the low cost of the materials and manufacturing methods inexpensive magnets or nonmagnetized ferromagnetic cores for use in electronic component such as radio antennas for example of various shapes can be easily mass produced the resulting magnets are noncorroding but brittle and must be treated like other ceramics alnico alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination of aluminium nickel and cobalt with iron and small amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics whereas casting delivers higher magnetic fields and allows for the design of intricate shapes alnico magnets resist corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite but not quite as desirable as a metal injection molded injection molded magnets are a composite of various types of resin and magnetic powders allowing parts of complex shapes to be manufactured by injection molding the physical and magnetic properties of the product depend on the raw materials but are generally lower in magnetic strength and resemble plastics in their physical properties flexible flexible magnets are similar to injection molded magnets using a flexible resin or binder such as vinyl and produced in flat strips or sheets these magnets are lower in magnetic strength but can be very flexible depending on the binder used rare earth magnets rare earth lanthanoid elements have a partially occupied f electron shell which can accommodate up to one four electrons the spin of these electrons can be aligned resulting in very strong magnetic fields and therefore these elements are used in compact high strength magnets where their higher price is not a factor samarium cobalt samarium cobalt magnets are highly resistant to oxidation with higher magnetic strength and temperature resistance than alnico or ceramic materials sintered samarium cobalt magnets are brittle and prone to chipping and cracking and may fracture when subjected to thermal shock neodymium iron boron nib neodymium iron boron ndfeb magnets have the highest magnetic field strength but are inferior to samarium cobalt in resistance to oxidation and temperature this type of magnet is expensive due to both the cost of raw materials and licensing of the patents involved this high cost limits their use to applications where such high strengths from a compact magnet are critical use of protective surface treatments such as gold nickel zinc and tin plating and epoxy resin coating can provide corrosion and thermal protection where required single molecule magnets smms and single chain magnets scms in the nineties it was discovered that certain molecules containing paramagnetic metal ions are capable of storing a magnetic moment at very low temperatures these are very different from conventional magnets that store information at a domain level and theoretically could provide a far denser storage medium than conventional magnets in this direction research on monolayers of smms is currently under way very briefly the two main attributes of an smm are a large ground state spin value s which is provided by ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic coupling between the paramagnetic metal centres a negative value of the anisotropy of the zero field splitting d most smm s contain manganese but can also be found with vanadium iron nickel and cobalt clusters more recently it has been found that some chain systems can also display a magnetization which persists for long times at relatively higher temperatures these systems have been called single chain magnets nano structured magnets some nano structured materials exhibit energy waves called magnons that coalesce into a common ground state in the manner of a bose einstein condensate see results from nist published april two zero zero five or si magnetism units other magnetism units gauss oersted maxwell see also plastic magnet magnet electromagnetism magnetic field magnet therapy magnetic circuit michael faraday micromagnetism james clerk maxwell external links http www wondermagnet com magfaq html info on electromagnetism and homemade projects experiments http www scientiapress com trbc trbc htm theory of the red blood cells they fit one nine criteria for the animal magnetoreceptor references footnotes magnetism in mathematics a filter is a special subset of a partially ordered set a frequently used special case is the situation that the ordered set under consideration is just the power set of some set ordered by set inclusion filters appear in order and lattice theory but can also be found in topology from where they originate the dual notion of a filter is an ideal filters were introduced by henri cartan in one nine three seven and subsequently used by bourbaki in their book topologie g n rale an equivalent notion called net was developed in one nine two two by e h moore and h l smith general definition a non empty subset f of a partially ordered set p is a filter if the following conditions hold for every x y in f there is some element z in f such that z x and z y f is a filter base for every x in f and y in p x y implies that y is in f f is an upper set a filter is proper if it is not equal to the whole set p while the above definition is the most general way to define a filter for arbitrary posets it was originally defined for lattices only in this case the above definition can be characterized by the following equivalent statement a non empty subset f of a lattice p is a filter iff it is an upper set that is closed under finite meets infima i e for all x y in f we find that x y is also in f the smallest filter that contains a given element p is a principal filter and p is a principal element in this situation the principal filter for p is just given by the set and is denoted by prefixing p with an upward arrow the dual notion of a filter i e the concept obtained by reversing all and exchanging with is ideal because of this duality the discussion of filters usually boils down to the discussion of ideals hence most additional information on this topic including the definition of maximal filters and prime filters is to be found in the article on ideals there is a separate article on ultrafilters filter on a set a special case of a filter is a filter defined on a set given a set s a partial ordering can be defined on the powerset p s by subset inclusion turning p s into a lattice a filter f on s is then a subset of p s with the following properties s is in f f is non empty the empty set is not in f f is proper if a and b are in f then so is their intersection f is closed under finite joins if a is in f and a is a subset of b then b is in f for all subsets b of s f is an upper set the first three properties imply that a filter has the finite intersection property a filter base is a subset b of p s with the following properties the intersection of any two sets of b contains a set of b b is non empty and the empty set is not in b a filter base b can be turned into a filter by including all sets of p s which contain a set of b given a subset t of p s we can ask whether there exists a smallest filter f containing t such a filter exists if and only if the finite intersection of subsets of t is non empty we call t a subbase of f and say f is generated by t f can be constructed by taking all finite intersections of t which is then filter base for f examples a simple example of a filter is the set of all subsets of s that include a particular subset c of s such a filter is called the principal filter generated by c the fr chet filter on an infinite set s is the set of all subsets of s that have finite complement a uniform structure on a set x is a filter on x x a filter in a poset can be created using the well known rasiowa sikorski lemma often used in forcing filters in model theory for any filter f on a set s the set function defined by m a left one measure if that term is construed rather loosely therefore the statement left in f can be considered somewhat analogous to the statement that holds almost everywhere that interpretation of membership in a filter is used for motivation although it is not needed for actual proofs in the theory of ultraproducts in model theory a branch of mathematical logic filters in topology in topology and analysis filters are used to define convergence in a manner similar to the role of sequences in a metric space given a point x the set of all neighbourhoods of x is a filter n x a proper filter which is a superset of n x is said to converge to x written f to x note that if f to x and f subseteq g then g to x given a filter f on a set x and a function f x to y the set forms a filter base for a filter which in a slight abuse of notation we denote by f f the following useful results hold x is a hausdorff space iff every filter on x has at most one limit i e converges to at most one point x f is continuous at x iff f to x implies f f to f x x is compact iff every filter on x is a subset of a convergent filter x is compact iff every ultrafilter on x converges the neighbourhood system for a non empty set a is a filter called the neighbourhood filter for a filters in uniform spaces given a uniform space x a filter f on x is called cauchy filter if for every u in the entourage there is an a in f with x y in u for every x y in a in a metric space this takes the form f is cauchy if for every epsilon zero exists a in f mathrm a x is said to be complete if every cauchy filter converges let f subseteq g g to x f cauchy then f to x thus every compact uniformity is complete further a uniformity is compact iff it is complete and totally bounded see also filtration abstract algebra ideal order theory references cartan h one nine three seven th orie des filtres cr acad paris two zero five five nine five five nine eight cartan h one nine three seven filtres et ultrafiltres cr acad paris two zero five seven seven seven seven seven nine external links an introductory account of the theory of filters in metric and topological spaces order theory melbourne is the name of several places some of these derive their name from the village of melbourne in derbyshire england db one zero eight six mileburne mill stream near the village is a manor house called melbourne hall the home of the lamb family since the one seven seven zero s william lamb two nd viscount melbourne who was prime minister of britain in one eight three four and from one eight three five to one eight four one was born and died there and the city of melbourne in victoria australia was named in his honour in one eight three five in the united states there are melbourne arkansas melbourne florida melbourne kentucky melbourne iowa there are also melbourne east riding of yorkshire in england melbourn cambridgeshire in england the melbourne shuffle is a dance style that has evolved over the past one five years in electronic music clubs throughout melbourne and other parts of the world the melbourne football club is an australian rules team that is one of the oldest football clubs in the world from melbourne victoria australia metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements and their mixtures which are called alloys extractive metallurgy extractive metallurgy is the practice of separating metals from their ore and refining them into a pure metal in order to convert a metal oxide or sulfide to a metal the metal oxide must be reduced either chemically or electrolytically metallurgy in production engineering in production engineering metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic components for use in consumer or engineering products this involves the production of alloys the shaping the heat treatment and the surface treatment of the product the task of the metallurgist is to achieve design criteria specified by the mechanical engineer such as cost weight strength toughness hardness corrosion resistance and performance in extremes of temperature common engineering metals are aluminium chromium copper iron magnesium nickel titanium and zinc these are most often used as alloys much effort has been placed on understanding one very important alloy system that of purified iron which has carbon dissolved in it better known as steel normal steel is used in low cost high strength applications where weight and corrosion are not a problem cast irons including ductile iron are also part of this system stainless steel is used where resistance to corrosion is important aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys are used for applications where strength and lightness are required most engineering metals are stronger than most plastics and are tougher than most ceramics composites of plastics and materials such as glass fibre and carbon fibre rival metals in applications requiring high tensile strength with little weight concrete rivals metals in applications requiring high compressive strength and resistance to the effects of water wood rivals metal in applications requiring low cost and availability of materials and low cost of construction as well as in applications requiring certain aesthetics the operating environment of the product is very important a well designed material will resist expected failure modes such as corrosion stress concentration metal fatigue creep and environmental stress fracture ferrous metals and some aluminium alloys in water and especially in an electrolytic solution such as seawater corrode quickly metals in cold or cryogenic conditions tend to lose their toughness becoming more brittle and prone to cracking metals under continual cyclic loading can suffer from metal fatigue metals under constant stress in hot conditions can creep production engineering of metals metals are shaped by processes such as casting forging rolling extrusion sintering metalworking machining and fabrication with casting molten metal is poured into a shaped mould with forging a red hot billet is hammered into shape with rolling a billet is passed through successively narrower rollers to create a sheet with extrusion a hot and malleable metal is forced under pressure through a die which shapes it before it cools with sintering a powdered metal is compressed into a die at high temperature with machining lathes milling machines planing machines and drills are used to cut the cold metal to shape with fabrication sheets of metal are cut with guillotines or gas cutters and bent into shape cold working processes such as rolling and fabrication where the product s shape is altered while the product is cold can increase the strength of the product by a process called work hardening work hardening creates microscopic defects in the metal which resist further changes of shape various forms of casting exist in industry and academia these include sand casting investment casting also called the lost wax process permanent mold casting and continuous casting welding is a technique for joining certain ferrous metals and certain aluminium alloys the metals in the weld and on both sides of the join are generally similar alloys brazing is a technique for joining copper based metals metals can be heat treated by annealing quenching and case hardening to alter properties of toughness hardness or resistance to corrosion annealing is used to make a shaped product tougher by reducing the effects of work hardening quenching and case hardening are used to make a shaped product harder electroplating is the main surface treatment technique and involves bonding a thin layer of another protective metal such as gold silver chromium or zinc to the surface of the product to reduce corrosion electrical and electronic engineering metallurgy is also applied to electrical and electronic materials where as metals such as aluminium copper tin and gold are used in power lines wires printed circuit boards and integrated circuits soldering is a method of joining metallic electrical conductors where high strength is not required metallurgical techniques metallurgists study the microscopic mechanisms that cause a metal or alloy to behave in the way that it does i e the changes that occur on the atomic level that affect the metal s or alloy s macroscopic properties examples of tools used for microscopic examination of metals are optical and electron microscopes and mass spectrometers metallurgists study crystallography the effects of temperature and heat treatment on the component phases of alloys such as the eutectic and the properties of those alloy phases the macroscopic properties of metals are tested using machines and devices that measure tensile strength compressive strength and hardness see also timeline of materials technology metal working pyrometallurgy engineering metallurgy numismatics mumps m assachusetts general hospital u tility m ulti p rogramming s ystem or alternatively m is a programming language created in the late one nine six zero s for use in the healthcare industry it was designed to make writing database driven applications easy while simultaneously making as efficient use of computing resources as possible although it never gained widespread popularity it was adopted as the language of choice for many healthcare and financial information systems databases especially ones developed in the one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s and continues to be used by many of the same clients today because it predates c basic and most other popular languages in current usage it has very different syntax and terminology it offers a number of features unavailable in other languages and showcases some rarely used programming and database concepts overview mumps is a language designed for building database applications secondary language features are designed to help programmers make applications that use as few computing resources as possible original implementations were interpreted though modern implementations may be either fully or partially compiled the core feature of mumps is that database interaction is transparently built into the language simply by using variables prefixed with a caret character you are referencing a database node assignment and retrieval uses the same commands as for interacting with standard ram based variables additionally all variables both ram and database based can be treated as a multidimensional hash array child nodes of a variable called subscripts in m can have numeric or string keys the keys themselves are also called subscripts such that with the variable name a b two six b two and six are the first second and third subscripts of a string keys are automatically stored in alphabetical order following all numeric keys numeric keys can have negative and or floating point values all of which will be stored in order from lowest to highest the mumps terminology for database linked variables is a global not to be confused with the c term for unscoped variables see variable scoping as a secondary language feature you can abbreviate nearly all commands and native functions down to a single character to save space additionally special operators exist to let you treat a delimited string like comma separated values as an array to reduce the number of hard disk reads early mumps programmers would store a structure of related information as a delimited string parsing it out after it was read mumps has no data types numbers can be treated as strings of digits strings can be cast coerced in mumps terminology into numbers by numeric operators when a string is coerced the parser turns as much of the string starting from the left into a number as it can then discards the rest thus the statement if two zero m assachusetts general hospital u tility m ulti p rogramming s ystem was developed by neil pappalardo in octo barnett s animal lab at massachusetts general hospital mgh in boston during one nine six six and one nine six seven the original mumps system was built on a spare dec pdp seven octo barnett and neil pappalardo were also involved with mgh s plans for a hospital information system obtained a pdp nine and began using mumps in the admissions cycle and laboratory test reporting mumps was then an interpreted language and incorporated a hierarchical database file system to standardize interaction with the data the origins of mumps can be traced from rand corporation joss through bbn s telcomp and stringcomp the mumps team deliberately chose to write the new language with portability in mind another feature not widely supported in operating systems of the era was multitasking which was also built into mumps itself mumps was soon ported to a pdp one five where it lived for some time developed on a government grant mumps was required to be released in the public domain no longer a requirement for grants and was soon ported to a number of other systems including the popular pdp eight the data general nova and the pdp one one word of mumps spread mostly through the medical community and by the early one nine seven zero s was in widespread use often being locally modified for their own needs by the early one nine seven zero s there were many varied implementations of mumps on a range of hardware platforms the most widespread being decs mumps one one on the pdp one one and meditech s miis in one nine seven two various mumps users gathered in order to standardize the now fractured language creating the mumps users group and mumps development committee mdc these efforts proved successful a standard was complete by one nine seven four and was approved on september one five one nine seven seven as ansi standard x one one one one nine seven seven at about the same time dec launched dsm one one digital standard mumps for the pdp one one this quickly dominated the market and became the reference implementation of the time during the early one nine eight zero s a number of vendors sprung up to market mumps based platforms the two largest were digital equipment corporation with their dsm digital standard mumps product and intersystems with their ism intersystems m product on vms and unix and m one one on the pdp one one platform other companies that developed important mumps implementations were greystone technology corporation with a compiled version called gt m datatree inc with an intel pc based product called dtm micronetics design corporation with a product line called msm for unix and intel pc platforms later ported to ibm s vm operating system and m global with mgm a mac os based product m global mumps was the first commercial mumps for the pc and the only mac product dsm one one was superseded by vax dsm for the vax vms platform this was then ported to the alpha in two variants as dsm for openvms and as dsm for ultrix this period also saw a lot of activity by the mdc the second revision of the ansi standard for mumps was x one one one one nine eight four was approved on november one five one nine eight four on november one one one nine nine zero the third revision of the ansi standard x one one one one nine nine zero was approved in one nine nine two this same standard was also adopted as iso standard one one seven five six one nine nine two around this time the use of m as an alternative name was sanctioned on december eight one nine nine five the fourth revision of the standard x one one one one nine nine five was approved by ansi and by iso in one nine nine nine as iso one one seven five six one nine nine nine the mdc finalized a further revision to the standard in one nine nine eight but this has never been presented to ansi for approval on six january two zero zero five iso re affirmed its mumps related standards iso iec one one seven five six one nine nine nine language standard iso iec one five eight five one one nine nine nine open mumps interconnect and iso iec one five eight five two one nine nine nine mumps windowing application programmers interface by two zero zero zero the middleware vendor intersystems had become the dominant player in the market with the purchase of several of the other players initially they acquired datatree inc in the early one nine nine zero s on december three zero one nine nine five the acquisition of the dsm product line from dec was announced intersystems then began to consolidate these products into a single product line badging them on a number of platforms as openm in one nine nine seven intersystems completed this consolidation by launching a unified successor named cach this was based on their ism product but with some influences from the other products the assets of micronetics design corporation were also eventually acquired by intersystems on june two one one nine nine eight intersystems remains the dominant mumps vendor selling cach to mumps developers who write applications for a variety of operating systems greystone technology corporation s gt m product was sold to sanchez computer associates inc now part of fidelity national financial inc in the mid one nine nine zero s on november seven two zero zero zero sanchez made gt m for linux available under the gpl license and on october two eight two zero zero five gt m for openvms and true six four unix were also made available under the gpl license gt m continues to be available on other unix platforms under a traditional license the newest implementation of mumps released in april two zero zero two is an msm derivative called m two one from the real software company of rugby uk there are also several open source implementations of mumps one of the original creators of the mumps language neil pappalardo went on to found a company called meditech he extended and built on the mumps language naming the new language miis and later magic unlike intersystems meditech does not sell middleware so miis and magic are only used internally at meditech major users of mumps applications veterans administration and department of defense the veterans administration today known as the united states department of veterans affairs officially adopted mumps as the programming language to be used to implement an integrated laboratory pharmacy patient admission tracking and discharge system in the early one nine eight zero s the original version the decentralized hospital computer program dhcp was delivered early and under budget dhcp has been continuously extended in the years since most of the source code is available at no cost under the freedom of information act however a major module ifcap integrated funds distribution control point activity accounting and procurement is not available to the general public but is to hospitals because it contains certain validation routines and accounting information that could be used for fraud before implementing dhcp the va also wrote an intermediate layer known as fileman in mumps to act as a database management system today dhcp is known as veterans health information systems and technology architecture vista the hardhats org website is the center for the international community of vista developers and users and also serves something of the same function for mumps generally in the late one nine eight zero s the department of defense decided to implement a next generation healthcare information system for the active military the contract was awarded to saic which developed the composite health care system chcs rather than starting from scratch saic started with dhcp and built on it at this time ibm decided to enter the market rather than develop its own mumps implementation it licensed the micronetic s implementation however despite a lot of hype in the mumps community ibm remained interested mainly in selling hardware tandem followed the same path using the micronetics implementation on its machines nearly the entire va hospital system in the united states and the indian health service as well as major parts of the department of defense chcs hospital system all still run the system for clinical data tracking other industries mumps also gained an early following in the financial sector and mumps applications are still in use at many banks and credit unions as of two zero zero five most use of m is either in the form of cach or gt m cach in particular is being strongly marketed by intersystems and is having some success in penetrating new markets such as telecomms mumps language syntax the m syntax allows multiple commands to appear on a line grouped into procedures subroutines in a fashion similar to most structured programming systems in mumps syntax spaces are significant there are contexts in which a pair of spaces is interpreted differently from a single space as a result and unlike most programming languages spaces cannot be inserted freely for readability except within comments some vendors offer non standard language enhancements that let you break this rule a typical m procedure consists of several blocks each block separated by a label in the first column calling into the procedure with no label results in the procedure being run from the first line whereas calling with a label skips to that point by convention interactive commands can be placed at the top of the procedure and then a label defines the actual start of the code itself this allows the procedure to be used both interactively and as a function to be called from other code it is not possible to define command line macros in m but it is possible to type any line of m code and execute it immediately including subroutines calls one main difference between m and most other languages is that m has only a single data type the string which it invisibly converts into common data types such as numbers or dates automated conversion of this sort is common to many scripting programming languages as you might expect m includes a complete and powerful set of string manipulation commands grouped into libraries the key to the m language is that all variables are automatically multi dimensional for instance this command set a abc creates the variable a and sets its value to the string the same variable can then be used to hold additional information set a one two def will place the string def into slot one two slots can also be designated with strings set a first name bob set a last name dobbs making the variables useful data stores on their own note that this example also demonstrates another feature of m that assignments into variables do not erase other information already there this makes it easy to create complex variables similar to objects in other languages using several assignments m variables work in a similar fashion as with other programming languages in that when the program exits the value will be lost m comes onto its own with its concept of globals variables which are automatically and invisibly stored to the datastore globals appear as normal variables with the caret character in front of the name modifying the earlier example thus set a first name bob set a last name dobbs will result in a new record being created and inserted in the datastore one difference between m and the traditional sql model of a database is the level of the commands in the language m is a general purpose language with a datastore whereas sql is a language dedicated to database functions this might sound like a minor distinction but it is rather important to understand it for instance sql includes a search function select from user where first name like bob returns a list of matching records m has no equivalent high level command like select instead the programmer must construct a small routine in order to find the matching records returned from its lower level functions the language includes full support for transaction processing and most implementations include transaction logs in the form of journal files and some kind of user based security for all of these reasons one of the most common m programs is a database management system providing all of the classic acid properties on top of a generic m implementation fileman is one such example most m implementations include fairly complete support for multi tasking multi user multi machine programming to demonstrate the ease of multi machine support consider set denver a first name bob set denver a last name dobbs which sets up a as before but this time on the remote machine called denver m programs are thus trivial to distribute over many machines this support also made it easy to expose the same sorts of distribution in the sql and other layers with ease and it s not uncommon for m systems to be a better distributed sql solution than a real sql system another use of m in more recent times has been to create object databases summary of key language features this incomplete informal sketch seeks to give programmers familiar with other languages a feeling for what m is like neither the language description and the descriptions of each feature are complete and many significant features have been omitted for brevity these notes reflect the language circa one nine nine four ansi x one one one one nine nine five gives a complete formal description of the language an annotated version of this standard is available online data types one universal datatype interpreted converted to string integer or floating point number as context requires like visual basic variant type booleans in if statements and other conditionals any nonzero value is treated as true a one zero zero printerr performs printerr if n is greater than one zero zero provides a conditional whose scope is less than the full line arrays created dynamically stored sparsely as b trees any number of subscripts subscripts can be strings or integers always automatically stored in sorted order order and query functions allow traversal for i one zero zero zero zero one one two three four five set sqtable i i i set address smith daniel dpbsmith world std com local arrays names not beginning with caret stored in process space private to your process expire when process terminates available storage depends on partition size but is typically small three two k global arrays abc def stored on disk available to all processes persist when process terminates very large globals hundreds of megabytes are practical and efficient this is m s main database mechanism used instead of files for internal machine readable recordkeeping indirection in many contexts vbl can be used and effectively substitutes the contents of vbl into the statement set xyz abc set xyz one two three sets the variable abc to one two three set subrou report do subrou performs the subroutine named report operational equivalent of pointers in other languages piece function treats variables as broken into pieces by a separator piece stringvar three means the third caret separated piece of stringvar can appear as an assignment target after set x dpbsmith world std com piece world std com two yields std set p x one office causes x to become office world std com order function set stuff six xyz stuff one zero two six stuff one five order stuff yields six order stuff six yields one zero order stuff eight yields one zero order stuff one zero yields one five order stuff one five yields set i for set i o stuff i quit i write i one zero stuff i the argumentless for iterates until stopped by the quit prints a table of i and stuff i where i is successively six one zero and one five for a thorough listing of the rest of the mumps commands operators functions and special variables see the online resource mumps by example or the out of print book of the same name by ed de moel much of the language syntax is detailed there with examples of usage there is also an annotated language standard showing evolution of the language and differences between updates to the ansi standard it is available at annotated mumps language standard mumps vs m while of little interest to outsiders this topic was and is contentious within the mumps m community all of the following opinions can and have been supported by knowledgeable people at various times the name became m in one nine nine three when the m technology association adopted it the name became m on december eight th one nine nine five with the approval of ansi x one one one one nine nine five both m and mumps are officially accepted names m is only an alternate name or nickname for the language and mumps is still the official name some of the contention arose in response to strong advocacy for the name m on the part of one particular commercial interest intersystems whose ceo disliked the name mumps and felt that it represented a serious marketing obstacle for intersystems thus advocacy for the name m to some extent became identified as alignment with intersystems the dispute also reflected rivalry between organizations the m technology association the mumps development committee the ansi and iso standards committee as to who determines the official name of the language some writers have attempted to defuse the issue by referring to the language as mumps square brackets being the customary notation for optional syntax elements the most recent standard iso iec one one seven five six one nine nine nine re affirmed on six january two zero zero five still mentions both m and mumps as officially accepted names the december three one one eight four zero epoch in m the current date and time is contained in a special system variable h for horolog the format is a pair of integers separated by a comma e g five four three two one one two three four five the first number is the number of days since december three one st one eight four zero i e day number one is january one st one eight four one the second is the number of seconds since midnight the reason for this choice of epoch is a bit of mumps trivia james m poitras has written that he chose this epoch for the date and time routines in a package developed by his group at mgh in one nine six nine i remembered reading of the oldest one of the oldest u s citizen a civil war veteran who was one two one years old at the time since i wanted to be able to represent dates in a julian type form so that age could be easily calculated and to be able to represent any birth date in the numeric range selected i decided that a starting date in the early one eight four zero s would be safe since my algorithm worked most logically when every fourth year was a leap year the first year was taken as one eight four one the zero point was then december three one one eight four zero i wasn t party to the mdc negotiations but i did explain the logic of my choice to members of the committee more colorful versions have circulated in the folklore suggesting for example that december three one st one eight four zero was the exact date of the first entry in the mgh records but these appear to be legends for those who care about such things horolog hit six zero zero zero zero on april one zero th two zero zero five will be seven zero zero zero zero on august two six th two zero three two eight zero zero zero zero on january one two th two zero six zero nine zero zero zero zero on may three zero th two zero eight seven and one zero zero zero zero zero on october one six th two one one four opinion debates on the merits and drawbacks of the mumps language are virtually nil for pragmatic reasons most existing applications using mumps have been around since the one nine seven zero s and consist of large code collections that would be infeasible or at least very costly to rewrite in another language software houses selling mumps based applications rarely give the end user the chance to interact with the language so the applications are sold on their own merits not the language s mumps major competitor in the database specialized language arena is sql sql cannot usually be used on it s own though as it is not a complete language neither does sql specify how the database is to be structured when a mumps implementation is compared to other languages it is usually a combination of several languages and a database vendor for example sql c oracle some mumps vendors even support the sql mumps combination mumps offers both more and less native functionality in different areas than sql and c and may both outperform or underperform against oracle depending on what you want to do comparisons are always difficult perhaps explaining why there has never been a strong incentive to rewrite mumps applications in other languages brand new database driven applications are likely to be written in sql and c php or another popular language simply because there is a much wider talent pool of people with those skills pro mumps vendors have called mumps the best kept secret in it and richard g davis in walters one nine eight nine commented that where economics has been a primary consideration the mumps language has distinguished itself mumps advocates believe it to be undervalued in part due to its venerable age its facetious name and its total indifference to academic correctness mumps has a number of features to recommend it it can run with minuscule system requirements non programmers can easily learn its simple yet rigid syntax new programmers can see results very quickly the language offers many native features that are available in other languages only though libraries mumps advantages over other languages available in the one nine seven zero s are even clearer it typically used far less memory and cpu resources than lisp and makes it much easier for the programmer to interact with the database than fortran mumps advocates often claim significant speed advantages over non mumps competitors a benchmark in the early one nine eight zero s sponsored by dec found that dec s mumps implementation running on dec hardware was three six times faster than oracle implementations running on ibm and hp hardware there do not seem to be any comparison studies with results publically available after one nine nine zero con mumps s lack of popularity and its differences from modern languages in widespread use are perhaps its biggest drawbacks string length database node length limitations and lack of dbms or object oriented features are often criticisms cited by advocates of other database solutions non standard vendor specific workarounds are offered for most of these problems but using them can make your code non portable to other mumps implementations references walters richard one nine eight nine abcs of mumps one nine eight nine butterworth heinemann isbn one five five five five eight zero one seven three walters richard one nine nine seven m programming a comprehensive guide digital press isbn one five five five five eight one six seven six lewkowicz john the complete mumps an introduction and reference manual for the mumps programming language isbn zero one three one six two one two five four kirsten wolfgang et al two zero zero three object oriented application development using the cach postrelational database isbn three five four zero zero zero nine six zero four external links m technology and mumps language faq general source also specific source for the poitras quote re the origin of the one eight four zero epoch open source gpl lgpl kevin o kane univ northern iowa information retrieval in mumps book c mumps toolkit mdc mumps development committee the annotated m standards cache mumps technology association of uk ireland gtm open source mumps system free on linux fidelity investments sanchez greystone mumps systems source forge index globals a primer for relational programmers programming languages domain specific programming languages mumps programming language family mumps programming language dynamically typed programming languages scripting languages mercury is a functional logic programming language geared towards real world applications the first version was developed by fergus henderson thomas conway and zoltan somogyi and was released on april eight th one nine nine five the latest official release was version zero one two two released on the two five th january two zero zero six mercury has several features intended for better software engineering it is compiled rather than interpreted as is traditional for logic programming languages it features a sophisticated strict type and mode system its authors claim these features combined with logic programming s abstract nature speeds writing of reliable programs mercury s module system enables division into self contained units a problem for past logic programming languages but note that several existing prolog implementations also include module systems mercury is a more pure and therefore more declarative language than prolog since it does not have extra logical prolog features like the cut a prolog construct which prevents backtracking and imperative i o this makes the coding of sequential algorithms somewhat more cumbersome but it makes automated program optimization easier this means that it can produce significantly faster code than prolog hello world in mercury module hello interface import module io pred main io state io state mode main di uo is det implementation main io io write string hello world n io adapted from ralph becket s mercury tutorial mercury is developed at the university of melbourne computer science department under the supervision of zoltan somogyi mercury has several back ends including low level c the original mercury back end high level c microsoft s il for net sun s jvm and assembler via the gcc back end the last three are only considered alpha or beta quality this makes it useful for targeting multiple platforms or linking with code written in multiple back ends the ability to include native code across these platforms is helpful though it limits the portability to other mercury back ends mercury is available for most unix platforms for mac os x and for microsoft windows using the cygwin or mingw toolsets notable programs written in mercury include the mercury compiler itself and the prince xml formatter external links official mercury homepage logic programming languages programming languages functional logic programming languages net programming languages michael faraday michael faraday frs september two two one seven nine one august two five one eight six seven was a british scientist a physicist and chemist who contributed significantly to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry he also invented the earliest form of the device that was to become the bunsen burner which is used almost universally in science laboratories as a convenient source of heat michael faraday is considered to have been one of the great scientists in history some historians of science refer to him as the greatest experimentalist in the history of science it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology the si unit of capacitance the farad symbol f is named after him early career michael faraday was born in newington butts near present day elephant and castle in south london his family was poor his father james faraday was a blacksmith and he had to educate himself at fourteen he became apprenticed to bookbinder and seller george riebau and during his seven year apprenticeship read many books developing an interest in science and specifically electricity at the age of twenty faraday attended lectures by the eminent scientist sir humphry davy president of the royal society and john tatum founder of the city philosophical society after faraday sent davy a sample of notes taken during the lectures davy said he would keep faraday in mind but should stick to his current job of book binding after davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride he employed faraday as a secretary when john payne of the royal society was fired davy recommended faraday for the job of laboratory assistant faraday eagerly left his bookbinding job as his employer henry de la roche was hot tempered in a class based society faraday was not considered a gentleman when davy went on a long tour to the continent in one eight one three five his valet refused to go faraday was part of the party as davy s scientific assistant and was asked to act as davy s valet until a replacement could be found in paris davy failed to find a replacement and farday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip davy s wife jane apreece refused to treat faraday as an equal making him travel outside the coach eat with the servants etc and generally made faraday so miserable he contemplated returning to england alone and giving up science altogether however it was not long before faraday surpassed davy he also was the first to link electricity to magnetism and then link magnetism back to electricity i e he induced an electric current using magnets thus inventing the dynamo predecessor to today s electric generator scientific career his greatest work was with electricity in one eight two one soon after the danish chemist hans christian rsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism davy and william hyde wollaston tried but failed to design an electric motor faraday having discussed the problem with the two men went on to build two devices to produce what he called electromagnetic rotation a continuous circular motion from the circular magnetic force around a wire a wire extending into a pool of mercury with a magnet placed inside would rotate around the magnet if charged with electricity by a chemical battery this device is known as a homopolar motor these experiments and inventions form the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology unwisely faraday published his results without acknowledging his debt to wollaston and davy and the resulting controversy caused faraday to withdraw from electromagnetic research for several years at this stage there is also evidence to suggest that davy may have been trying to slow faraday s rise as a scientist in one eight two five for instance davy set him onto optical glass experiments which progressed for six years with no great results it was not until davy s death in one eight two nine that faraday stopped these fruitless tasks and moved on to endeavors that were more worthwhile ten years later in one eight three one he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction though the discovery may have been anticipated by the work of francesco zantedeschi he found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire an electric current flowed in the wire the current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet the title page of the chemical history of a candle one eight six one his demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field this relation was mathematically modelled by faraday s law which subsequently became one of the four maxwell equations these in turn evolved into the generalization known as field theory faraday then used the principle to construct the electric dynamo the ancestor of modern power generators faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor but did not complete his work involving that proposal faraday s concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric and magnetic fields that mental model was crucial to the successful development of electromechanical devices which dominated engineering and industry for the remainder of the one nine th century faraday also dabbled in chemistry discovering chemical substances such as benzene inventing the system of oxidation numbers and liquefying gases such as chlorine he also discovered the laws of electrolysis and popularized terminology such as anode cathode electrode and ion in one eight four five he discovered what is now called the faraday effect and the phenomenon that he named diamagnetism the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light propagated through a material medium can be rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned in the propagation direction he wrote in his notebook i have at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising a ray of light this established that magnetic force and light were related in his work on static electricity faraday demonstrated that the charge only resided on the exterior of a charged conductor and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor this is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields due to them cancel this shielding effect is used in what is now known as a faraday cage miscellaneous he gave a successful series of lectures on the chemistry and physics of flames at the royal institution entitled the chemical history of a candle this was the origin of the christmas lectures for young people that are still given there every year and bear his name faraday was known for designing ingenious experiments but lacked a good mathematics education however his affiliation with james clerk maxwell helped in this regard as maxwell was able to translate faraday s experiments into mathematical language he was regarded as handsome and modest declining a knighthood and presidency of the royal society davy s old position michael faraday on a british two zero banknote his picture has been printed on british two zero now withdrawn banknotes his sponsor and mentor was john mad jack fuller who created the fullerian professorship of chemistry at the royal institution faraday was the first and most famous holder of this position to which he was appointed for life faraday was also devoutly religious and a member of the small sandemanian denomination an offshoot of the church of scotland he served two terms as an elder in the group s church faraday married sarah barnard in one eight two one but they had no children they met through attending the sandemanian church he died at his house at hampton court on august two five one eight six seven publications faraday michael one eight six one a course of six lectures on the various forces of matter and their relations to each other edited by william crookes references hamilton james two zero zero two faraday the life harper collins london isbn zero zero zero seven one six three seven six two hamilton james two zero zero four a life of discovery michael faraday giant of the scientific revolution random house new york isbn one four zero zero zero six zero one six eight thomas john meurig one nine nine one michael faraday and the royal institution the genius of man and place hilger bristol isbn zero seven five zero three zero one four five seven quotations nothing is too wonderful to be true work finish publish his well known advice to the young william crookes the important thing is to know how to take all things quietly external links biographies detailed biography of faraday iee biography of michael faraday faraday as a discoverer by john tyndall project gutenberg downloads the christian character of michael faraday others michael faraday directory downloads experimental researches in electricity by michael faraday original text with biographical introduction by professor john tyndall one nine one four everyman edition see also uk topics faraday s diary seven seven one eight three zero september one eight four five and seven five zero four one three september one eight four five one seven nine one births one eight six seven deaths autodidacts christians in science english chemists english inventors english physicists fellows of the royal society londoners marriage is a relationship between individuals which has formed the foundation of the family for most societies marriage can include legal social and religious elements in western societies marriage has traditionally been understood as a social contract between a man husband and a woman wife while in other parts of the world polygamy has been the most common form of marriage usually this has taken the form of polygyny a man having several wives but some societies have practised polyandry a woman having several husbands in some western societies today same sex marriages or civil partnerships are legally recognized but remain a highly controversial issue in most definitions precise definitions vary historically and between and within cultures modern understanding emphasizes the legitimacy of sexual relations in marriage yet the universal and unique attribute of marriage is the creation of affinal ties in laws traditionally societies encourage one to marry out far enough to strengthen the ties but close enough so that the in laws are one of us or our kind one exception to this rule is found in the marriage of royalty who strengthen their aid through concentration of wealth rather than through affinal ties even in this case the individual was often encouraged to marry within close family limits further discussion and reference marvin harris late professor of anthropology columbia university marriage remains important as the socially sanctioned bond in a sexual relationship marriage is usually understood as a male female relationship designed to produce children and successfully socialize them historically most societies have allowed some form of polygamy the west is a major exception europe and the united states have defined themselves as monogamous cultures this was in part a germanic cultural tradition a requirement of christianity after the sixth century ce and a mandate of roman law however roman law supported prostitution concubinage sex outside of marriage homosexual sex and sexual access to slaves the christian west formally banned these practices globally most existing societies no longer allow polygamy as a form of marriage for example china shifted from allowing polygamy to supporting only monogamy in the one nine five three marriage act after the communist revolution most african and islamic societies continue to allow polygamy around two zero billion people this includes india where polygamy is permitted for muslim citizens probably less than three of all muslim marriages are polygamous it is increasingly expensive in an urban setting but more useful in rural areas where children are a future source of agricultural labor most of the world s population now live in societies where polygamy is less common and marriages are overwhelmingly monogamous since the later decades of the two zero th century many traditional assumptions about the nature and purpose of marriage and family have been challenged in particular by gay rights advocacy groups who disagree with the notion that marriage should be exclusively heterosexual some people also argue that marriage may be an unnecessary legal fiction this is part of the general disruption of traditional families in the west since wwii the west has seen a dramatic increase in divorce six to over four zero of first marriages cohabitation without marriage a growing unmarried population and children born outside of marriage five to over three three of births as well as an increase in adultery eight to over four zero a system of somewhat serial monogamy has de facto emerged still legally recognized non monogamous marriage arrangements are extremely rare in modern times the term marriage is generally reserved for a union that is formally recognized by the state although some people disagree the phrase legally married can be used to emphasize this point in the united states there are two methods of receiving state recognition of a marriage common law marriage and obtaining a marriage license the majority of us states do not recognize common law marriage many localities do support various types of domestic partnerships since the one two th century marriage or holy matrimony has been a sacrament in the catholic church as well as other orthodoxies where it is defined as a relationship between a man and a woman the protestant reformation reformulated marriage as a life long covenant marriage of some kind is found in most societies and typically married people form a nuclear household which is often subsequently extended biologically through children in the west the nuclear family emerged after one one zero zero most non western societies have a broader definition of family that includes an extended family network alternatively people may choose to be childfree finally they may be childless due to infertility and possibly seek treatment or consider adoption the term wedlock is a synonym for marriage and is mainly used in the phrase out of wedlock to describe a child born of parents who were not married see illegitimacy in some societies there is a growing debate about the form s that marriage should take two of the most hotly debated variants are discussed below same sex marriage legal by two zero zero five in some countries such as belgium the netherlands spain canada and the us state of massachusetts and polygamy recognition the participants in a marriage usually seek social recognition for their relationship and many societies require official approval of a religious or civil body sociologists thus distinguish between a marriage ceremony conducted under the auspices of a religion and a state authorised civil marriage in many jurisdictions the civil marriage ceremony may take place during the religious marriage ceremony although they are theoretically distinct in most american states the marriage may be officiated by a priest minister or religious authority and in such a case the religious authority acts simultaneously as an agent of the state in some countries such as france germany and russia it is necessary to be married by the state before having a religious ceremony some states allow civil marriages in circumstances which are not allowed by many religions such as same sex marriages or civil unions and marriage may also be created by the operation of the law alone as in common law marriage which is a judicial recognition that two people living as domestic partners are entitled to the effects of marriage conversely there are examples of people who have a religious ceremony that is not recognized by the civil authorities examples include widows who stand to lose a pension if they remarry and so undergo a marriage in the eyes of god homosexual couples some sects which recognize polygamy retired couples who would lose pension benefits if legally married muslim men who wish to engage in polygamy that is condoned in some situations under islam and immigrants who do not wish to alert the immigration authorities that they are married either to a spouse they are leaving behind or because the complexity of immigration laws may make it difficult for spouses to visit on a tourist visa in europe it has traditionally been the churches office to make marriages official by registering them hence it was a significant step towards a clear separation of church and state and also an intended and effective weakening of the christian churches role in germany when chancellor otto von bismarck introduced the zivilehe civil marriage in one eight seven five this law made the declaration of the marriage before an official clerk of the civil administration both spouses affirming their will to marry the procedure to make a marriage legally valid and effective and reduced the clerical marriage to a mere private ceremony types of marriages the type functions and characteristics of marriage vary from culture to culture and can change over time western world in the americas and europe in the two one st century legally recognized marriages are formally presumed to be monogamous although some pockets of society still accept polygamy socially if not legally and some couples choose to enter into open marriages in these countries divorce is relatively simple and socially accepted in the west the prevailing view toward marriage today is that it is based on a legal covenant recognizing emotional attachment between the partners and entered into voluntarily in the west marriage has evolved from a life time covenant that can only be broken by fault or death to a contract that can be broken by either party at will other shifts in western marriage since world war i include unlike in the one nine th century women not men get child custody over eight zero of the time both spouses have a formal duty of spousal support no longer just the husband out of wedlock children have the same rights of support as legitimate children in most countries rape within marriage is considered illegal and can be punished husbands may no longer physically discipline or abuse their wife and in some jurisdictions property acquired since marriage is not owned by the title holder this property is considered marital and to be divided among the spouses by community property law or equitable distribution via the courts eastern world some societies permit polygamy in which a man could have multiple wives even in such societies however most men have only one in such societies having multiple wives is generally considered a sign of wealth and power the status of multiple wives has varied from one society to another in the muslim world marriage is sanctioned between a man and a woman but there are verses in chapter four of the qur an which state that in certain conditions a man is allowed up to four wives in muslim societies the different wives are considered equal and must be treated as such in indonesia the largest muslim majority state marriage is allowed between a man and a woman who profess the same faith while atheists are not allowed to marry in imperial china formal marriage was sanctioned only between a man and a woman although among the upper classes the primary wife was an arranged marriage with an elaborate formal ceremony while concubines could be taken on later with minimal ceremony after the rise of communism only strictly monogamous marital relationships are permitted although divorce is a relatively simple process polygamy monogamy and polyandry variations polyandry a woman having multiple husbands occurs very rarely in a few isolated tribal societies with limited resources these societies include some bands of the canadian inuit although the practice has declined sharply in the two zero th century due to the change from tribal religion to the moravian religion societies which permit group marriage are extremely rare but have existed in utopian societies such as the oneida community today many married people practice various forms of consensual nonmonogamy including polyamory and swinging these people have agreements with their spouses that permit other intimate relationships or sexual partners therefore the concept of marriage need not necessarily hinge on sexual or emotional monogamy christian insistence on monogamy in the christian tradition a one man one woman model for the christian marriage was advocated by saint augustine three five four four three nine ad with his published letter the good of marriage to discourage polygamy he wrote it was lawful among the ancient fathers whether it be lawful now also i would not hastily pronounce for there is not now necessity of begetting children as there then was when even when wives bear children it was allowed in order to a more numerous posterity to marry other wives in addition which now is certainly not lawful chapter one five paragraph one seven sermons from st augustine s letters were popular and influential in five three four ad roman emperor justinian criminalized all but monogamous man woman sex within the confines of marriage the justinian code was the basis of european law for one zero zero zero years christianity has continued to insist on monogamy as an essential of marriage contemporary western societies in two one st century western societies bigamy is illegal and sexual relations outside marriage are generally frowned upon though there is a minority view accepting or even advocating open marriage however divorce and remarriage are relatively easy to undertake in these societies this has led to a practice called serial monogamy serial monogamy involves entering into successive marriages over time it often occurs when a husband usually of average to high socioeconomic status divorces an older wife and takes on a younger wife the younger wife is disparagingly referred to as the trophy wife by many who frown upon the practice in some ways serial monogamy can be similar to the marital practices observed in polygamous societies where a husband may add a younger wife to his family years after his first marriage commences serial monogomy is also sometimes used to refer to cases where the couples cohabitate without getting married forced marriages some traditional cultures still practice marriage by abduction a form of forced marriage in which a woman who is kidnapped and raped by a man is regarded as his wife this practice is limited to a few traditional cultures in a small number of countries and is generally regarded as abhorrent by other cultures unique practices some parts of india follow a custom in which the groom is required to marry with an auspicious plant called tulsi before a second marriage to overcome inauspicious predictions about the health of the husband however the relationship is not consummated and does not affect their ability to remarry later one should note that this is not a norm found across the entire indian sub continent in the state of kerala india the nambudiri brahmin caste traditionally practices henogamy in which only the eldest son in each family is permitted to marry in mormonism a couple may seal their marriage for time and for all eternity through a sealing ceremony conducted within the lds temple the couple is then believed to be bound to each other in marriage throughout eternity if they live according to their covenants made in the ceremony mormonism also allows living persons to act as proxies in the sealing ceremony to seal a marriage between ancestors who have been dead for at least one year and who were married during their lifetime according to lds theology it is then up to the deceased individuals to accept or reject this sealing in the spirit world before their eventual resurrection a living person can also be sealed to his or her deceased spouse with another person of the same sex as the deceased acting as proxy for that deceased individual other unusual variations include marriage between a living human and a ghost taiwan a living human and a recently deceased human with whom they were emotionally involved france and between a human being and god catholic and orthodox monasticism again these lack the social meaning of ordinary marriage and belong rather to the realm of religion or in the case of weddings of dogs to other dogs kermit the frog to miss piggy and the like pure spectacle marriage restrictions societies have always placed restrictions on marriage to relatives though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely in almost all societies marriage between brothers and sisters is forbidden with ancient egyptian hawaiian and inca royalty being the rare exceptions in many societies marriage between some first cousins is preferred while at the other extreme the medieval catholic church prohibited marriage even between distant cousins the present day catholic church still maintains a standard of required distance in both consanguinity and affinity for marriage in many societies various rights are allotted only to married individuals in indian hindu community especially in the brahmin caste marrying a person of the same gothra is prohibited since persons belonging to the same gothra are said to have identical patrilineal descension in ancient india when gurukul was in existence the shishyas the pupils were advised against marrying any of guru s children as shishyas were considered guru s children and it would be considered marriage among siblings though there were exceptions like arjuna s son abhimanyu marrying uttra the dance student of arjuna in mahabharatha many societies have also adopted other restrictions on whom one can marry such as prohibitions on marrying persons with the same surname or persons with the same sacred animal one example is south korea even today it is generally considered taboo for a man to marry a woman if they both have the same last name a large percentage of the total south korean population have the surname kim an estimated two zero rendering two zero of the korean population ineligible for marriage anthropologists refer to these sort of restrictions as exogamy one exception to this pattern is in ancient egypt where marriage between brothers and sisters was permitted in the royal family this privilege was denied commoners and may have served to concentrate wealth and power in one family see also incest the consequence of the incest taboo is exogamy the requirement to marry someone from another group anthropologists have thus pointed out that the incest taboo may serve to promote social solidarity societies have also at times required marriage from within a certain group anthropologists refer to these restrictions as endogamy an example of such restrictions would be a requirement to marry someone from the same tribe racist laws adopted by some societies in the past such as nazi era germany apartheid era south africa and most of the southern united states and utah prior to one nine six seven which prohibited marriage between persons of different races miscegenation could also be considered examples of endogamy weddings the ceremony in which a marriage is enacted and announced to the community is called a wedding a wedding in which a couple marry in the eyes of the law is called a civil marriage religions also facilitate weddings in the eyes of god in many european and some latin american countries where someone chooses a religious ceremony they must also hold that ceremony separate from the civil ceremony certain countries like belgium bulgaria and the netherlands even legally demand that the civil marriage has to take place before any religious marriage in some countries notably the united states the united kingdom the republic of ireland and spain both ceremonies can be held together the officiant at the religious and community ceremony also serves as an agent of the state to enact the civil marriage that does not mean that the state is recognizing religious marriages the civil ceremony just takes place at the same time as the religious ceremony often this involves simply signing a register during the religious ceremony if that civil element of the full ceremony is left out for any reason in the eyes of the law no marriage took place irrespective of the holding of the religious ceremony whilst some countries such as australia permit marriages to be held in private and at any location others including england require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place specially sanctioned by law ie a church or registry office and be open to the public an exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency licence which is normally granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill rules about where and when persons can marry vary from place to place some regulations require that one of the parties reside in the locality of the registry office because of australia s very lax rules on marriage many famous people including michael jackson have opted to marry in australia so as to have a private ceremony the way in which a marriage is enacted has changed over time as has the institution of marriage itself in europe during the middle ages marriage was enacted by the couple promising verbally to each other that they would be married to each other the presence of a priest or other witnesses was not required if circumstances prevented it this promise was known as the verbum as part of the reformation the role of recording marriages and setting the rules for marriage passed to the state by the one six zero zero s many of the protestant european countries had heavy state involvement in marriage termination many societies provide for the termination of marriage through divorce marriages can also be annulled or cancelled which is a legal proceeding that establishes that a marriage was invalid from its beginning rights and obligations relating to marriage typically marriage is the institution through which people join together their lives in emotional and economic ways through forming a household it often confers rights and obligations with respect to raising children holding property sexual behavior kinship ties tribal membership relationship to society inheritance emotional intimacy and love marriage sometimes establishes the legal father of a woman s child establishes the legal mother of a man s child gives the husband or his family control over the wife s sexual services labor and or property gives the wife or her family control over the husband s sexual services labor and or property establishes a joint fund of property for the benefit of children establishes a relationship between the families of the husband and wife no society does all of these no one of these is universal see edmund leach s article in marriage family and residence edited by paul bohannan and john middleton marriage has traditionally been a prerequisite for starting a family which usually serves as the building block of a community and society thus marriage not only serves the interests of the two individuals but also the interests of their children and the society of which they are a part in most of the world s major religions marriage is traditionally a prerequisite for sexual intercourse unmarried people are not supposed to have sex which is then called fornication and is socially discouraged or even criminalized in practice most societies have tacitly accepted sex between unmarried people if they marry as soon as pregnancy occurs see shotgun wedding sex with a married person other than one s spouse called adultery is even less acceptable and has also often been criminalized especially in the case of a person who is a representative of the government e g president prime minister political representative public school teacher military officer marriage and religion main article religious aspects of marriage many religions have extensive teachings regarding marriage most christian churches give some form of blessing to a marriage the wedding ceremony typically includes some sort of pledge by the community to support the couple s relationship in the roman catholic church holy matrimony is considered to be one of the seven sacraments in this case one that the spouses bestow upon each other in front of a priest and members of the community as witnesses during a nuptial mass in the eastern orthodox church it is one of the mysteries and is seen as an ordination and a martyrdom in marriage christians see a picture of the relationship between jesus and the church in judaism marriage is viewed as a coming together of two families therefore prolonging the religion and cultural heritage of the jewish people islam also recommends marriage highly among other things it helps in the pursuit of spiritual perfection the bah faith sees marriage as a foundation of the structure of society and considers it both a physical and spiritual bond that endures into the afterlife hinduism sees marriage as a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations by contrast buddhism does not encourage or discourage marriage although it does teach how one might live a happily married life protestants believe that marriage is a lifetime commitment and should not be entered into lightly god created the institution of marriage when he gave the first woman to the first man marriage can only be the union of one man and one woman the bible states in genesis two two four esv therefore a man shall leave his father and his mother and hold fast to his wife and they shall become one flesh marriage is to be a union of mutual love and support though the wife is commanded to submit to her husband she is not a door mat the husband is commanded to love his wife even to the point of giving up his life for her the apostle paul writes in ephesians five two two three one esv wives submit to your own husbands as to the lord for the husband is the head of the wife even as christ is the head of the church his body and is himself its savior now as the church submits to christ so also wives should submit in everything to their husbands husbands love your wives as christ loved the church and gave himself up for her that he might sanctify her having cleansed her by the washing of water with the word so that he might present the church to himself in splendor without spot or wrinkle or any such thing that she might be holy and without blemish in the same way husbands should love their wives as their own bodies he who loves his wife loves himself for no one ever hated his own flesh but nourishes and cherishes it just as christ does the church because we are members of his body therefore a man shall leave his father and mother and hold fast to his wife and the two shall become one flesh this mystery is profound and i am saying that it refers to christ and the church however let each one of you love his wife as himself and let the wife see that she respects her husband it s also worth noting that different religions have different beliefs as regards the breakup of marriage for example the roman catholic church does not permit divorce because in its eyes a marriage is forged by god the church states that what god joins together humans cannot sunder as a result people who get a civil divorce are still considered married in the eyes of the catholic church which does not allow them to remarry even if they are allowed a civil marriage however this has been under scrutiny for some time as the church previously allowed divorces a policy it changed in the one six th century to restore honor to marriage nine eight of all catholics in recent polls showed a belief that the church should allow all remarriage following a divorce currently catholics can be permitted an annulment with a nullity religions and the state often apply different rules meaning that a couple for example could receive a divorce from the state and not have their marriage annulled by the catholic church because the state disagrees with the church over whether an annulment could be granted in a particular case this produces a situation of catholics getting church annulments simultaneously with state divorces allowing the ex partners to marry other people in the eyes of both the church and the state islam does allow divorce however there is a verse stated in the qur an describing divorce as the least desirable act allowed between people the general rule is for a man to allow his wife to stay until the end of her menstrual period or for three months if she so wishes after the divorce during this period they would be divorced in that they would simply be living under the same roof but not functioning as man and wife the qur an scholars suggest that the main point is to prevent any decisions by the woman from being affected by hormonal fluctuations as well as to allow any heated arguments or differences to be resolved in a civil manner before the marriage is completely terminated however there is no obligation on the woman to stay if she so wishes she may leave the man is also obligated to give his wife a gift or monetary sum equivalent to at least half her mahr gift or monetary sum which is given to the wife at the commencement of the marriage specific conditions as to how a divorce is conducted also apply if a woman is pregnant or has given birth just prior to the divorce refer qur an two two two eight two three two two three six two three seven two four one and six five one seven see also four three five marriages are typically entered into with a vow that explicitly limits the duration of the marriage with the statement till death do you part however the church of jesus christ of latter day saints mormons have a distinctive view of marriage called celestial marriage wherein they believe that individuals that are worthy can enter into a marriage relationship that can endure beyond death this is documented in their proclamation on the family marriage and economics the economics of marriage have changed over time historically in many cultures the family of the bride had to provide a dowry to pay a man for marrying their daughter in other cultures the family of the groom had to pay a bride price to the bride s family for the right to marry the daughter in some cultures dowries and bride prices are still demanded today in both cases the financial transaction takes place between the groom or his family and the bride s family the bride has no part in the transaction and often no choice in whether or not to participate in the marriage in many modern legal systems two people who marry have the choice between keeping their property separate or combining their property in the latter case called community property when the marriage ends by divorce each owns half if one partner dies the surviving partner owns half and for the other half inheritance rules apply in some legal systems the partners in a marriage are jointly liable for the debts of the marriage this has a basis in a traditional legal notion called the doctrine of necessaties whereby a husband was responsible to provide necessary things for his wife where this is the case one partner may be sued to collect a debt for which they did not expressly contract critics of this practice note that debt collection agencies can abuse this claiming an unreasonably wide range of debts to be expenses of the marriage the cost of defense and the burden of proof is then placed on the non contracting party to prove that the expense is not a debt of the family the respective maintenance obligations during and eventually after a marriage are regulated in most jurisdictions see alimony it is possible to analyze the institution of marriage using economic theory see david friedman price theory chapter two one the economics of love and marriage romantic marriage and pragmatic marriage pragmatic marriage a pragmatic or arranged marriage that is facilitated by formal procedures of family or group politics a responsible authority sets up or encourages the marriage the authority could be parents family a religious figure or a consensus the former two often start the process with informal pressure social pressure whilst the latter two often start the process with a formal system or statement in both cases the authority has a compelling veto over the marriage and this system is socially supported by the rest of community so that to deny it is extreme and drastic once declared an engagement is implicit which follows through with a formal marriage ceremony pragmatic marriage contrasted to romantic marriage cultures that aspire to create relationships after couples marry are those with institutionalized practices of pragmatic marriage cultures that come to think that marriages should only be tried once a short term compatibility already exists adopt romantic marriages those who believe in romantic marriage will often criticize pragmatic marriage considering it is oppressive inhuman or immoral defenders of pragmatic marriage disagree often pointing to cultures where the success rate of pragmatic marriages is seen to be high and holding that nearly all couples learn to love and care for each other very deeply those who uphold pragmatic marriage frequently state that it is traditional that it upholds social morals that it is good for the families involved they also have some traditional criticisms of romantic marriage saying that it is short term overly based on sexual lust or immoral defenders of romantic marriage would hold that it is preferable to achieve an emotional bond before entering into a lifelong commitment it is debatable whether either understanding of marriage is more correct the underlying assumptions are different much criticism of the other form of marriage from one point of view or the other is based on misunderstanding assumptions about the nature of marriage made from different cultural starting points same sex marriage main article same sex marriage introduction same sex unions have been recorded in the history of a number of cultures but marriages or socially accepted unions between same sex partners were rare or nonexistent in other cultures same sex marriage remains infrequent worldwide especially as it is not offered in most countries as tolerance of homosexuality has become more widespread in western cultures some governments allow and or sanction marriage between same sex couples jurisdictions accepting same sex marriage some countries recognize same sex marriage including the netherlands belgium canada and spain in the united states same sex marriage is legal in the commonwealth of massachusetts registered partnership civil union or domestic partnership is operative in denmark including greenland but excluding the faeroe islands norway sweden finland iceland germany france luxembourg andorra portugal new zealand the united kingdom switzerland and the american states of vermont connecticut maine new jersey and california the state of hawaii has reciprocal beneficiaries relationship which is a limited interpersonal status for same sex couples vermont also has reciprocal beneficiaries relationship but this is a very different interpersonal status from the hawaiian form the district of columbia also has a form of domestic partnership for same sex couples legal challenges to marriage restrictions may soon expand the recognition of same sex marriages to washington new york and other states controversy these developments have created a political backlash most notably in great britain where the church of england has officially banned gay marriage and in the united states where several states have specifically outlawed gay marriage often by popular referenda most opinion polls indicate around seven zero being in favour of legal recognition of homosexual partnerships for the purpose of granting rights and immunities equivalent to those of heterosexual marriages at the united states federal level the defense of marriage act has created a federal definition of marriage as between a man and a woman as well as allowing one state not to recognize a same sex marriage recognized by another state arguments have been made that the doma conflicts with the united states constitution and could conceivably be overturned on this basis to ensure this does not happen some including president george w bush support amending the federal constitution to prohibit same sex marriages criticisms of the institution of marriage overview some commentators have been critical of marriage sometimes condemning individual local practices and sometimes even the entire institution a good many of the criticisms are developed from a feminist viewpoint that claims marriage can be particularly disadvantageous to women however there are other viewpoints from which marriage in its usual forms is problematic feminist concerns in many areas of the world when a woman was in her early teens her father arranged a marriage for her in return for a bride price sometimes to a man twice her age who was a stranger to her her older husband then became her guardian and she could be cut off almost completely from her family the woman had little or no say in the marriage negotiations which might even have occurred without her knowledge some traditions allowed a woman who failed to bear a son to be given back to her father this reflected the importance of bearing children and extending the family to succeeding generations often both parties are expected to be virgins before their marriage but in many cultures women were more strictly held to this standard one old tradition in europe which survived into the twentieth century in rural greece was for this to be proven by hanging the bloody bed sheet from the wedding night from the side of the house similarly sexual fidelity is very often expected in marriage but sometimes the expectations and penalties for women have been harsher than those for men in some traditions marriage could be a traumatic unpleasant turn of events for a girl the lot of women written in athens in the mid five th century bc laments this situation young women in my opinion have the sweetest existence known to mortals in their father s homes for their innocence always keeps children safe and happy but when we reach puberty and can understand we are thrust out and sold away from our ancestral gods and from our parents some go to strange men s homes others to foreigner s some to joyless houses some to hostile and all this once the first night has yoked us to our husband we are forced to praise and say that all is well on the other hand marriage has often served to assure the woman of her husband s continued support and enabled her to focus more attention on the raising of her children this security has typically been greater when and where divorce has been more difficult to obtain antiquated traditions the remnants of older arguably antiquated ideas can be found in today s ceremonies and traditional practices for example women may still be symbolically given away by their fathers some brides still vow to love and obey their husbands and some bridegrooms vow to care for their wives a groom might remove his bride s garter a symbol of her virginity as a public representation of his claim on her sexuality brides toss their bouquets towards a group of single women who compete to catch the bouquet the woman who catches the bouquet is believed to have the good fortune to be the next woman to get married one very common tradition is that of the groom carrying the bride over the threshold of their house investigating the origin of this tradition around one zero zero ad plutarch postulated three different possibilities the first was that the act of picking up the bride was a symbolic re enactment of the rape of the sabines another was that it symbolized the bride s reluctance to surrender her virginity which she did only under duress and the last suggested marital faithfulness having been carried into the house by her husband she would only leave it the same way this of course was in the context of a patriarchal culture in which it was said that a woman should only leave her house when she was so old that people would not ask whose wife she was but whose mother it has also been said to originate from a roman belief that it was bad luck for a bride to stumble while entering her new home these traditions though often attacked by critics and scholars nevertheless remain a treasured part of many ceremonies cherished by both bride and groom masculinist concerns some commentators argue that marriage and divorce now operate in western societies in a way that is unfair to men the divorce rate is very high now half that of the marriage rate but only one five per cent of men are awarded custody this is unchanged since one nine nine four cf p one and annual support payments increasing one eight to four zero billion paid by seven eight million separated parents six six million are fathers with cash incentives of up to four one billion available to states that create support and arrearage orders and then collect cf six b six c continuing decline of the marriage rate accompanied by an increase in the number of cohabiting couples a small increase in the percentage of children living in fragile families and born out of wedlock and a sharp increase among teenage boys in their acceptance of unwed childbearing and a slight decrease in agreement among teenagers especially girls that living together before getting married is a good idea says two zero zero four social health of marriage in america marriage strike behavior although not explicit further during a litigated divorce child custody paternity alimony child support fathers rights and allegations of domestic violence create additional concerns especially with divorce attorneys rates up to three zero zero zero zero per hour eight five of orders of protections are awarded to females seven of petitions denied since the enactment of the violence against women act of one nine nine five more than one billion spent to police and prosecutors since one nine nine five when a wife feels fearful it is domestic violence divorce attorneys practice leveraging this assault charge into an order of protection to get a spouse usually the man out of the home physically separating him from children and his property libertarian viewpoint some libertarians criticize the government regulation of and the state s involvement in marriage because many now consider marriage a religious institution state involvement is criticised as a breach of the principle of church state separation on this view government must not recognize marriage at all instead marriage like partnerships should be treated as a contracts like any others between freely consenting parties this would essentially reduce family law to a subset of contract law any religious aspects of marriage should remain the province of one s church and that church s ecclesiastical courts if it has them relatively new legal developments like palimony have already tilted certain governments slightly in this direction see also adultery consensual sexual intercourse by a married person with someone other than their lawful spouse alimony obligation of support annulment legal procedure for declaring a marriage null and void arranged marriage marital partners are chosen by others betrothal formal state of engagement to be married bond a connection chinese marriage arrangement between families common law marriage class of interpersonal status consummate bring marriage to its completion usually by making love covenant marriage in some u s states a form of marriage where divorce is made more difficult digital marriage two people who have no connection outside their gaming lives come together within a virtual community divorce ending of a marriage engagement and engagement ring fathers rights fleet marriage gender neutral marriage group marriage handfasting history of civil marriage in the u s honeymoon jewish view of marriage levirate marriage legal aspects of transsexualism legal consequences of marriage in the united kingdom list of people with multiple marriages separation ending of a marriage marriage conflict marriage by correspondence marriage in the united kingdom marriage of convenience marriage strike increasing ambivalence toward marriage in american men marriageable age mail order bride misyar marriage monogamy morganatic marriage mut a marriage open marriage polyamory polyandry polygamy proxy marriage same sex marriage sororate marriage temporary marriage urfi marriage us rights and responsibilities of marriage wedding wedding band or ring white wedding wife swap a reality tv series external links the national marriage project at rutgers university marriage at about com wedding encyclopedia at applebride marriage for other things of this name see midgard disambiguation midgard the common english transliteration of old norse mi gar r midjungards gothic middangeard old english middell rd middle english midg rd common danish and swedish and mittilagart old high german from proto germanic medja garda meddila medjan projected pie medhyo gharto is an old germanic name for our world the places inhabited men with the literal meaning middle enclosure in middle english the name was transformed to middell rd middel erde middle earth old norse midgard is the realm of the humans in norse mythology pictured as placed somewhere in the middle of yggdrasil midgard is surrounded by a world of water or ocean which is impassable the ocean is inhabited by the great sea serpent jormungand who is so huge that he encircles the world entirely grasping his own tail in norse mythology mi gar r became applied to the wall around the world that the gods constructed from the eyebrows of the giant ymir as a defence against the jotuns who lived in jotunheim east of mannheim the home of men a word used to refer to the entire world there is no direct relation to the german city of mannheim which is attested from the eight th century named after an early settler called manno it is depicted as an intermediate world between heaven asgard and hell nifelheim or hel thus it is part of a triad of upper heaven middle earth and lower underworld it was said to have been formed from the flesh and blood of ymir his flesh constituting the land and his blood the oceans and was connected to asgard by the bifrost bridge guarded by heimdall according to legend midgard will be destroyed in ragnarok the battle at the end of the world jormungand will arise from the ocean poisoning the land and sea with his venom and causing the sea to rear up and lash against the land the final battle will take place on the plain of vigrond following which midgard and almost all life on it will be destroyed with the earth sinking into the sea old and middle english the name middangeard occurs half a dozen times in the anglo saxon epic poem beowulf and is the same word as midgard in old norse the term is equivalent in meaning to the greek term oikoumene as referring to the known and inhabited world the concept of midgard occurs many times in middle english the association with earth oe eor e in middle english middell rd middelerde is by popular etymology the continuation of geard enclosure is yard an early example of this transformation is from the ormulum att ure drihhtin wollde ben borenn i iss middell rd that our lord wanted be born in this middle earth the name was popularized in the form middle earth by j r r tolkien a noted old english scholar who was originally inspired by the reference to middangeard and arendel in the old english poem crist see there for details old high german mittilagart is mentioned in the nine th century old high german muspilli v five four meaning the world as opposed to the seas and the heavens muor varsuuilhit sih suilizot lougiu der himil mano uallit prinnit mittilagart sea is swallowed flaming burn the heavens moon falls midgard burns popular culture in the tv series stargate sg one midgard is how natives of the protected planets refer to earth supposedly the metropolis midgar in the video game final fantasy vii was to be named midgard but the final d was dropped this is fitting as the city is almost destroyed by meteor at the end of the game just as midgard is supposedly destroyed in ragnarok in the campaign of the pc game age of mythology midgard appears as a place the heroes try to reach midgard with the help of the dwarves stephen king also used a mutation of midgard in his works naming the parallel universe in his dark tower series mid world although that may be only the name of an ancient kingdom there is a song entitled midg rd released by therion originally on secret of the runes they also used this term for album title live in midg rd the lord of the rings written by j r r tolkien takes place in middle earth this may be a free translation of midgard locations in norse mythology mage the ascension is a role playing game based in the world of darkness and was published by white wolf game studio the characters portrayed in the game are referred to as mages and are capable of feats of magic however the idea of magic in mage is broadly inclusive of diverse ideas about mystical practices as well as other belief systems such as science and religion so that some mages do not resemble typical fantasy wizards in one nine nine six mage the ascension won the origins award for best roleplaying rules one nine nine five in two zero zero five white wolf released a new game marketed under the same name mage for the new world of darkness series mage the awakening with some of the same game mechanics but with substantially different premises and setting metaphysics the basic premise of mage the ascension is that reality is the way people believe it is thus everyone has the capacity at some level to shape reality in most people known as sleepers this capacity is dormant the capacity itself is personified as a mysterious alter ego called the avatar which is said to be sleeping in a mage the avatar is said to be awakened many mages have had encounters with their avatars with an awakened avatar a mage can consciously seek to change reality via willpower beliefs and specific magical techniques the beliefs and techniques of mages vary enormously and the ability to alter reality can only exist in the context of a coherent system of belief and technique called a paradigm such a paradigm organizes the way a mage understands reality how the universe works and what things mean it also provides the mage with an understanding of how to change reality through specific magical techniques for example an alchemical paradigm might describe the act of wood burning as the wood releasing its essence of elemental fire while modern science would describe fire as combustion resulting from a complex chemical reaction paradigms tend to be nuanced per the individual mage but the vast majority belong to broad categories of paradigm e g shamanism medieval sorcery religious miracle working and superscience in the mage setting everyday reality is governed by commonsense rules derived from the collective beliefs of sleepers this is called the consensus the majority of mages paradigms differ substantially from the consensus when a mage performs an act of magic that does not seriously violate this commonsense version of reality in game terms this is called coincidental magic magic that deviates wildly from consensus is called vulgar magic when it is performed ineptly or is vulgar and especially if it is vulgar and witnessed by sleepers magic can cause paradox a phenomenon in which reality tries to resolve the apparent contradiction paradox is difficult to predict and almost always bad for the mage the most common consequences of paradox include physical damage directly to the mage s body and paradox flaws magic like effects which can for example turn the mage s hair green make him mute make him incapable of leaving a certain location and so on in more extreme cases paradox can cause quiet forms of madness that afflicts mages and may leak into reality paradox spirits nebulous often powerful beings which purposively set about resolving the contradiction usually by direclty punishing the mage or even the removal of the mage to a paradox realm a pocket dimension from which it may be difficult to escape in mage there is an underlying framework to reality called the tapestry the tapestry is naturally divided into various sections including the physical realm and various levels of the spirit world or umbra at the most basic level the tapestry is composed of something called quintessence the essence of magic and what is real in game terms quintessence can have distinctive character called resonance including but not limited to dynamic static entropic and other kinds of resonance in order to understand the metaphysics of the mage setting it is important to remember that many of the terms used to describe magic and mages e g avatar quintessence the umbra and paradox resonance as well as the award winning game mechanics a player uses to describe the areas of magic in which his character is proficient the spheres look mean and are understood very differently depending on the paradigm of the mage in question even though they are often described from particular paradigmatic points of view in character only a mage s paradigm can explain what each of these things is what it means and why it s the way it is and mages especially where paradigms differ are more likely to disagree than to agree game setting history in the game mages have always existed though there are legends of the pure ones who were shards of the original divine one early mages cultivated their magical beliefs alone or in small groups generally conforming to and influencing the belief systems of their societies obscure myths suggest that the precursors of the modern organizations of mages originally gathered in ancient egypt this period of historical uncertainty also saw the rise of the nephandi in the near east this set the stage for what the game s history calls the mythic ages until the late middle ages mages fortunes waxed and waned along with their native societies eventually though mages belonging to the order of hermes and the messianic voices attained great influence over european society however absorbed by their pursuit of occult power and esoteric knowledge they often neglected and even abused humanity frequently they were at odds with mainstream religions envied by noble authorities and cursed by common folk seeing their chance mages who believed in proto scientific theories banded together under the banner of the order of reason declaring their aim was to create a safe world with man as its ruler they won the support of sleepers by developing the useful arts of manufacturing economy wayfaring and medicine they also championed many the values that we now associate with the renaissance masses of sleepers embraced the gifts of early technology and the science that accompanied them thus masses beliefs shifted the consensus was redefined and wizards began to lose their position as their powers and influence waned this was intentional the order of reason perceived a safe world as the one devoid of heretical beliefs ungodly practices and supernatural creatures preying upon humanity as defenders of common folk they intended to replace the dominant magical groups with a society of philosopher scientists as shepherds protecting and guiding humanity in response non scientific mages banded together to form the council of nine traditions where mages of all the major magical paths gathered they fought on battlefield and in universities trying to undermine as many discoveries as they could but to no avail technology made the march of science unstoppable the traditions power bases were crippled their believers mainly converted their beliefs ridiculed all around the world their final counteroffensives against the order of reason were foiled by internal dissent and treachery in their midst however from the turn of one seven th century on the goals of the order of reason began to change as their scientific paradigm unfolded they decided that the mystical beliefs of the common people were not only backward but dangerous and that they should be replaced by cold measurable and predictable laws of nature and respect for human genius they replaced long held theologies pantheons and mystical traditions with ideas like rational thought and the scientific method as more and more sleepers began to use the order s discoveries in their everyday lives reason and rationality came to govern their beliefs and the old ways came to be regarded as misguided superstition however the order of reason became less and less focused on improving the daily lives of sleepers and more concerned with eliminating any resistance to their chokehold on the minds of humanity ever since a reorganization performed under queen victoria in the late one eight zero zero s they call themselves the technocracy contemporary setting the order of reason renamed itself the technocracy and espoused an authoritarian rule over sleepers beliefs while suppressing the council of nine s attempts to reintroduce magic the traditions replenished their numbers which had been diminished by the withdrawal of two traditions the secretive ahl i batin and the solificati alchemists plagued by scandal with former technocrats from the sons of ether and virtual adepts factions vying for the beliefs of sleepers and with the technocracy and perpetually wary of the nephandi mages who consciously embrace evil and service to a demonic or alien master and the marauders mages who resist paradox with a magical form of madness while the technocracy s propaganda campaigns were effective in turning the consensus against mystic and heterodox science the traditions maintained various resources including magical nodes hidden schools and fortresses called chantries and various realms outside of the consensus in the umbra finally from one nine nine seven two zero zero zero a series of events described in the game s metaplot shortly before the release of its third or revised edition destroyed the council of nine s umbral steadings killing many of their most powerful members this also cut the technocracy off from their leadership both sides called a truce in their struggle to assess their new situation especially since these events implied that armageddon was soon at hand chief among these signs was creation of barrier called the avatar storm which was a result of a battle in india on the so called week of nightmares the storm restricted travel between the umbra and real world the summation of these changes were introduced in the final supplements for the second edition of the game under the editorial attention of the intended developer for the revised third edition of the game and became core material in that edition later plot and finale aside from common changes introduced by the world of darkness metaplot mages dealt with renewed conflict when the hidden rogue council and the technocracy s panopticon encouraged the traditions and technocracy to struggle once again the rogue council only made itself known through coded missives while panopticon was apparently created by the leaders of the technocracy to counter it this struggle eventually led to the point on the timeline occupied by the book called ascension while the entire metaplot has always been meant to be altered as each play group sees fit ascension provided multiple possible endings with none of them being definitive though one was meant to resolve the metaplot thus there is no definitive canonical ending since the game is meant to be adapted to a group s tastes the importance of this and the preceding storyline is largely a matter of personal preference factions the metaplot of the game involves a four way struggle between the technological and authoritarian technocracy the insane marauders the cosmically evil nephandi and the nine mystical traditions that tread the middle path to which the player characters are assumed to belong this struggle has in every edition of the game been characterized both as primarily a covert violent war directly between factions and primarily as an effort to sway the imaginations and beliefs of sleepers council of nine mystic traditions mages divide themselves according to their cultures beliefs and even historical accidents or arbitrary alliances the primary groups include traditions akashic brotherhood celestial chorus cult of ecstacy dreamspeakers euthanatos order of hermes sons of ether verbena virtual adepts the technocratic union technocracy iteration x progenitors the new world order the syndicate the void engineers others crafts marauders nephandi out of game details the core rules of the game are the same as those in other world of darkness games see storyteller system for an explanation like other storytelling games mage emphasizes that players have more freedom in comparison with many other role playing games in that the game s powers and traits should be used to tell a satisfying story one of mage s highlights is its award winning system for describing magic based on spheres a relatively open ended toolkit approach to using game mechanics to define the bounds of a given character s magical ability the open endedness of this system is discomforting to some players and gamemasters accustomed to relying on game systems that seem to have workable hard and fast rules mage s freeform rule system esoteric subject and potentially complex message sometimes makes it a daunting game for novice roleplayers the third revision of the rules mage the ascension revised made significant changes to the rules and setting most of these were made to bring the game in line with continuity that had been added in supplements to the game s prior edition some fans preferred the second edition without the changes that had been made by subsequent supplements like other world of darkness games mage uses a continuing storyline across all of its books external links official sites official page gurps edition fansites wake up to reality drifting paradigms ander s mage page scott s mage the ascension index dj babb s mage page bj zanzibar s mage mage the ascension origins award winners this article is about the former prime minister of australia for the western australian public servant see malcolm fraser surveyor john malcolm fraser ac ch born two one may one nine three zero is an australian politician and two two nd prime minister of australia who came to power in the circumstances of the dismissal of the whitlam government after two huge election victories and many legislative achievements he was defeated by bob hawke in one nine eight three and ended his career alienated from his own party rise to leadership born in melbourne but growing up on a property near deniliquin in western new south wales fraser was the son of neville fraser a wealthy grazier his mother una fraser nee woolf was of a jewish father a fact which influenced his attitudes towards multiculturalism the frasers had had a long history in politics his grandfather simon fraser had served in the victorian parliament and later in the australian senate fraser was educated at glamorgan now part of geelong grammar school melbourne grammar school and completed a degree in politics and economics at oxford university in one nine five two fraser contested the seat of wannon in victoria s western district in one nine five four for the liberal party losing by one seven votes the following year however he won the seat with a majority of more than five thousand becoming the youngest member of the house of representatives and continued to represent wannon until his retirement in one nine five six he married tamara tamie beggs a grazier s daughter the couple had four children tamie fraser professed to have no interest in politics but was influential behind the scenes fraser developed an early reputation as an extreme right winger and he had a long wait for ministerial preferment he was finally appointed minister for the army by harold holt in one nine six six under john gorton he became minister for education and science and in one nine six nine he was made minister for defence a challenging post at the height of australia s involvement in the vietnam war and the protests against it in march one nine seven one fraser resigned abruptly in protest at what he said was gorton s interference in his ministerial responsibilities this led to the downfall of gorton and his replacement by william mcmahon under mcmahon fraser once again became minister for education and science when the liberals were defeated at the one nine seven two elections by the labor party under gough whitlam he became a member of the opposition front bench under billy snedden s leadership fraser soon became convinced that snedden was a weak leader and snedden s defeat at the one nine seven four elections hardened his view in march one nine seven five he staged a leadership coup and became leader of the opposition on a policy of using the conservative parties control of the senate to force the whitlam government to an early election as soon as possible a tall patrician figure with a hectoring speaking style fraser was detested by labor voters but seen as a hero by conservatives in one nine seven five amidst a series of ministerial scandals that were rocking the whitlam government fraser decided to use his senate numbers to block supply preventing the government s budget bills from passing the senate where the coalition had a majority and thus force labor out of office see australian constitutional crisis of one nine seven five several months of deadlock followed until the governor general sir john kerr intervened and dismissed whitlam on november one one one nine seven five fraser was immediately sworn in as caretaker prime minister despite not having a majority in the house of representatives and immediately advised kerr to call elections for both houses prime minister the liberals won a landslide victory greatly assisted by the strong support of the media notably the murdoch press which had previously supported the alp the coalition won a second term nearly as easily in one nine seven seven fraser used this period to dismantle some of the programs of the labor government notably the universal health insurance system medibank he embarked on a round of sharp cuts to public spending as part of the coalition s policy to rein in inflation which had soared under whitlam as a result of the cuts which affected many areas of the federal public service but fraser did not carry out the radically conservative program that his enemies had predicted and that some of his followers wanted he in fact proved surprisingly moderate in office to the frustration of his treasurer finance minister john howard and other thatcherite ministers who were strong adherents of monetarism fraser s economic record was marred by rising unemployment fraser was active in foreign policy he supported the commonwealth in campaigning to abolish apartheid in south africa and white minority rule in rhodesia in one nine seven nine fraser played a leading role in the settlement which created an independent zimbabwe and installed robert mugabe in power which was applauded at the time under his government australia also recognised indonesia s annexation of east timor although many east timorese refugees were granted asylum in australia fraser was a strong supporter of the united states and supported the boycott of the one nine eight zero olympic games in moscow but although he persuaded some sporting bodies not to compete fraser did not try to the prevent the australian olympic committee sending a team to the moscow games in immigration policy fraser also surprised his critics he expanded immigration from asian countries and allowed more refugees to enter australia he supported multiculturalism and established a government funded multilingual radio and television network the special broadcasting service sbs a whitlam initiative he legislated to give indigenous australians control of their traditional lands in the northern territory but would not impose land rights laws on the conservative governments in the states decline and fall at the one nine eight zero elections fraser saw his majority sharply reduced and the liberals lost control of the senate fraser was convinced however that he had the measure of the labor leader bill hayden but in one nine eight two a protracted scandal over tax avoidance schemes run by prominent liberals plagued the government and the economy experienced a sharp recession a popular minister andrew peacock resigned from cabinet and challenged fraser s leadership although fraser won these events left him politically weakened by the end of one nine eight two it was obvious that the popular former trade union leader bob hawke was going to replace hayden as labor leader fraser wanted to call a snap election to defeat hayden before hawke could replace him but he was prevented by the tax evasion scandal and by an attack of ill health when fraser acted he had left his run too late on the day fraser called the election for five march hawke replaced hayden as leader of the alp and leader of the opposition fraser was heavily defeated by hawke in the election fraser immediately resigned from parliament over the one three years that the liberals then spent in opposition until one nine nine six they tended to blame the wasted opportunities of the fraser years for their problems and fraser grew resentful of this and distanced himself from his old party the hawke government supported his unsuccessful bid to become secretary general of the commonwealth of nations retirement in retirement fraser served as chairman of the united nations panel of eminent persons on the role of transnational corporations in south africa one nine eight five as co chairman of the commonwealth group of eminent persons on south africa in one nine eight five eight six and as chairman of the un secretary general s expert group on african commodity issues in one nine eight nine nine zero fraser became president of the foreign aid group care international in one nine nine one and worked with a number of other charitable organisations in one nine eight six while fraser was visiting memphis tennessee his hotel room was burgled of his luggage money passport and clothes the mysterious loss of his trousers resulted in national amusement and the incident passed into australian folklore a prostitute was reputed to be involved after one nine nine six fraser was critical of the howard liberal government over foreign policy issues particularly support for the foreign policy of the bush administration which fraser saw as damaging australian relationships in asia he campaigned in support of an australian republic in one nine nine nine and in the two zero zero one election campaign he opposed howard s policy on asylum seekers as he grew increasingly left wing in his political views the two zero zero one election completed fraser s estrangement from the liberal party indeed he and whitlam say they are now good friends many liberals became unrestrained in their attacks on the fraser years as a decade of lost opportunity on deregulation of the australian economy and other issues this was highlighted when in early two zero zero four a young liberal convention in hobart called for fraser s life membership of the liberal party to be ended as fraser passed seven zero he had lost none of his combativeness and generally gave as good as he got in these exchanges honours fraser was made a privy councillor in one nine seven six a companion of honour in one nine seven seven and a companion of the order of australia in one nine eight eight he has been awarded honorary doctorates from deakin university and the university of south carolina see also first fraser ministry second fraser ministry third fraser ministry fourth fraser ministry external links malcolm fraser australia s prime ministers national archives of australia fraser demands global ban on execution one nine three zero births living people prime ministers of australia liberal party of australia politicians members of the privy council companions of honour federal politicians from victoria companions of the order of australia macquarie university australia s innovative university is an australian university located in sydney it is ranked in the top one zero universities in australia and six eight th in the world s top two zero zero universities by the uk s two zero zero four the times higher education supplement more than a third of macquarie university s students are enrolled in postgraduate programs and just under a third of macqaurie s students are international students the grounds of the university are spacious and feature creeks grasslands a lake trees a renowned sculpture park and even a marsupial research facility macquarie university is a member of innovative research universities australia location university publications and material indicate that its campus is located in the suburb of north ryde although the geographical names board of nsw indicates it is located in the suburb of macquarie park the grounds of macquarie university contain the macquarie university research park the research park is a joint venture between macquarie university and baulderstone hornibrook and is designed to attract high technology organisations to the area north ryde and macquarie park are often referred to as australia s silicon valley and are home to more than five zero zero technology companies which means macquarie university is well placed for collaborative research in the technology field the university is also located adjacent to macquarie centre a large shopping centre for the district history with the rapid expansion of sydney s size and population in the one nine six zero s there arose a need for a third tertiary institution in the sydney metropolitan area in addition to the more centrally located university of new south wales and the university of sydney a future campus location was selected in what was then a semi rural part of north ryde and after much debate it was decided that the future university be named after lachlan macquarie an important early governor of the colony of new south wales the macquarie university was formally established in one nine six four with the passage of the macquarie university act one nine six four by the new south wales government the university first opening to students in one nine six seven the macquarie graduate school of management was subsequently established in one nine six nine in one nine nine zero the university absorbed the institute of early childhood studies of the sydney college of advanced education under the terms of the higher education amalgamation act one nine eight nine academic structure the central courtyard at the heart of the campus with the sam building visible through the trees college of commerce division of economics and financial studies covers the fields of accounting economics business statistics actuarial studies and finance macquarie graduate school of management is a business school run by the university college of humanities and social sciences australian centre for educational studies includes the school of education and the institute of early childhood division of humanities includes the departments of ancient history modern history languages and politics division of law includes the departments of law and business law division of society culture media and philosophy covers the areas of anthropology indigenous studies international communications media sociology philosophy women s studies and cultural studies college of science and technology division of environmental and life sciences covers the fields of chemistry biology geography environmental science and chiropractic medicine division of linguistics and psychology includes the departments of linguistics and psychology division of information and communication sciences which covers mathematics physics electronics and computer science library student life the university grounds showing the lake and fountain the university offers many types of programmes from bachelor s degrees through to doctorate level qualifications courses may be offered as full time part time or through correspondence the students union students at macquarie sam provides many student services and benefits such as food outlets entertainment banking facilities etc the macquarie university students council inc musc inc officially represents students and has legal aid services accounting services and academic services along with other student services postgraduate students are represented by the macquarie university postgraduate representative association mupra a member of the council of australian postgraduate associations conception day the biggest event at the university is conception day an annual festival put on by sam traditionally held on the last day of classes before the september mid semester break the day is supposedly named after the day the university s namesake lachlan macquarie was conceived although this is in fact impossible since lachlan macquarie s birthday was on january three one it features many big name bands and a lot of sun and alcohol previously open to all entry to conception day two zero zero five was for the first time restricted to macquarie university students and staff transport access to the university is primarily by means of bus and car although students who live on or near campus will often walk or ride the nearest railway station is at epping however the university will gain its own station with the completion of the epping to chatswood line set for two zero zero eight parking is readily available but is expensive for the average student s budget costing from four for one hour to one two five for a full year permit accommodation while the majority of students reside off campus there are several options on campus for accommodation dunmore lang college and robert menzies college are both traditional residential colleges providing students with individual rooms and fully catered meals macquarie university village provides townhouse style accommodation sport the university has a large number of sporting clubs and extensive facilities which are co ordinated by macquarie university sport and recreation inc musr clubs participate in local competitions and also send teams to the annual australian university games one of the most famous clubs is the rugby club commonly reffered to as the beacons the club recently won a bronze medal at the prestigious australian university games in perth and are known australia wide for their tenacious thirsty thirds trivia the emblem of the university depicts macquarie lighthouse the first and longest operating lighthouse in australia macquarie university is nicknamed club mac an allusion to club med because macquarie students supposedly have more holidays than their counterparts from the other universities in sydney this is only half true for while macquarie students have longer holidays they do not have pre exam breaks stuvac or studying vacation as students from the other universities do typically full time undergraduate students attend classes for two six weeks a year this excludes exam time which can add one four weeks to each semester depending on timetabling and individual circumstances macquarie university does not have a swimming pool however construction has been scheduled to begin in two zero zero five it has its own golf driving range which is open to the public it also has a real tennis court one of only four in australia and the only one in sydney macquarie university is home to joy the only public statue of a prostitute in the world a one day alternative music festival was held on the macquarie university campus in one nine nine seven called equinox as it was held on the southern hemisphere autumn equinox which included major international acts including tool skunk anansie and a then relatively unknown blink one eight two unfortunately noise complaints were received from neighbouring suburbs including epping and beecroft the cause was apparently the just constructed m two motorway as it had channeled the sound from university into the neighbouring suburbs and subsequently no major rock concerts have been held at macquarie since there are rumours that radioactive waste was dumped near the present site of the macquarie graduate school of management during the early one nine six zero s although this has never been substantiated macquarie university is also home to the macquarie dictionary macquarie university has australia s largest student life a christian movement with groups on universities across australia macquarie university was the only university to offer an actuarial studies program in new south wales for many years until rival university of nsw began their program in one nine nine eight notes international student offer acceptance guide see also list of macquarie university staff and alumni list of universities in australia macquarie university news external links general macquarie university students at macquarie macquarie university students council incorporated history four zero years a visual history of macquarie university one nine six four two zero zero four macquarie university alumni office universities in sydney new south wales government statutory bodies muspelheim flameland also called muspel old norse m spellsheimr and m spell respectively is the realm of fire in norse mythology it is home to the fire giants and their master surtur it is fire and the land to the north niflheim is ice the two mixed and created water from the melting ice in ginnungagap sparks from muspelheim created the planets comets and stars see also muspilli locations in norse mythology maxwell s equations sometimes called the maxwell equations are the set of four equations attributed to james clerk maxwell that describe the behavior of both the electric and magnetic fields as well as their interactions with matter maxwell s four equations express respectively how electric charges produce electric fields gauss law the experimental absence of magnetic charges how currents produce magnetic fields ampere s law and how changing magnetic fields produce electric fields faraday s law of induction historical development of maxwell s equations maxwell in one eight six four was the first to put all four equations together and to notice that a correction was required to ampere s law changing electric fields act like currents likewise producing magnetic fields this additional term is called the displacement current the most common modern notation for these equations was developed by oliver heaviside furthermore maxwell showed that waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments using the data available at the time maxwell obtained a velocity of three one zero seven four zero zero zero zero m s maxwell one eight six five wrote this velocity is so nearly that of light that it seems we have strong reason to conclude that light itself including radiant heat and other radiations if any is an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of waves propagated through the electromagnetic field according to electromagnetic laws maxwell was correct in this conjecture though he did not live to see the first experimental confirmation by heinrich hertz in one eight eight eight maxwell s quantitative explanation of light as an electromagnetic wave is considered one of the great triumphs of one nine th century physics actually michael faraday had postulated a similar picture of light in one eight four six but had not been able to give a quantitative description or predict the velocity moreover it laid the foundation for many future developments in physics such as special relativity and its unification of electric and magnetic fields as a single tensor quantity and kaluza and klein s unification of electromagnetism with gravity and general relativity maxwell s one eight six five formulation was in terms of two zero equations in two zero variables which included several equations now considered to be auxiliary to what are now called maxwell s equations the corrected ampere s law three component equations gauss law for charge one equation the relationship between total and displacement current densities three component equations the relationship between magnetic field and the vector potential three component equations which imply the absence of magnetic charge the relationship between electric field and the scalar and vector potentials three component equations which imply faraday s law the relationship between the electric and displacement fields three component equations ohm s law relating current density and electric field three component equations and the continuity equation relating current density and charge density one equation the modern mathematical formulation of maxwell s equations is due to oliver heaviside and willard gibbs who in one eight eight four reformulated maxwell s original system of equations to a far simpler representation using vector calculus in one eight seven three maxwell also published a quaternion based notation that ultimately proved unpopular the change to the vector notation produced a symmetric mathematical representation that reinforced the perception of physical symmetries between the various fields this highly symmetrical formulation would directly inspire later developments in fundamental physics links to relativity in the late one nine th century because of the appearance of a velocity c frac in the equations maxwell s equations were only thought to express electromagnetism in the rest frame of the luminiferous aether the postulated medium for light whose interpretation was considerably debated the symbols represent the permittivity and permeability of free space when the michelson morley experiment conducted by edward morley and albert abraham michelson produced a null result for the change of the velocity of light due to the earth s motion through the hypothesized aether however alternative explanations were sought by george fitzgerald joseph larmor and hendrik lorentz both larmor one eight nine seven and lorentz one eight nine nine one nine zero four derived the lorentz transformation so named by henri poincar as one under which maxwell s equations were invariant poincar one nine zero zero analysed the coordination of moving clocks by exchanging light signals he also established the group property of the lorentz transformation poincar one nine zero five this culminated in einstein s theory of special relativity which postulated the absence of any absolute rest frame dismissed the aether as unnecessary and established the invariance of maxwell s equations in all inertial frames of reference the electromagnetic field equations have an intimate link with special relativity the magnetic field equations can be derived from consideration of the transformation of the electric field equations under relativistic transformations at low velocities in relativity the equations are written in an even more compact manifestly covariant form in terms of the rank two antisymmetric field strength four tensor that unifies the electric and magnetic fields into a single object kaluza and klein showed in the one nine two zero s that maxwell s equations can be derived by extending general relativity into five dimensions this strategy of using higher dimensions to unify different forces is an active area of research in particle physics summary of the equations symbols in bold represent vector quantities whereas symbols in italics represent scalar quantities general case rho oint s mathbf cdot d mathbf int v rho cdot dv gauss law for magnetism absence of magnetic monopoles nabla cdot mathbf zero oint s mathbf cdot d mathbf zero faraday s law of induction nabla times mathbf frac oint c mathbf cdot d mathbf int s mathbf cdot d mathbf amp re s law with maxwell s extension nabla times mathbf mathbf frac oint c mathbf cdot d mathbf int s mathbf cdot d mathbf int s mathbf cdot d mathbf where the following table provides the meaning of each symbol and the si unit of measure electric field volt per meter mathbf magnetic field also called the auxiliary field ampere per meter mathbf electric displacement field also called the electric flux density coulomb per square meter mathbf magnetic flux density also called the magnetic induction also called the magnetic field tesla or equivalently weber per square meter rho free electric charge density not including dipole charges bound in a material coulomb per cubic meter mathbf free current density not including polarization or magnetization currents bound in a material ampere per square meter d mathbf differential vector element of surface area a with infinitesimally small magnitude and direction normal to surface s square meters dv differential element of volume v enclosed by surface s cubic meters d mathbf differential vector element of path length tangential to contour c enclosing surface s meters nabla cdot the divergence operator per meter nabla times the curl operator per meter although si units are given here for the various symbols maxwell s equations will hold unchanged in many different unit systems and with only minor modifications in all others the most commonly used systems of units are si units used for engineering electronics and most practical physics experiments and planck units also known as natural units used in theoretical physics quantum physics and cosmology an older system of units the cgs system is sometimes also used the second equation is equivalent to the statement that magnetic monopoles do not exist the force exerted upon a charged particle by the electric field and magnetic field is given by the lorentz force equation mathbf q mathbf mathbf times mathbf where q is the charge on the particle and mathbf is the particle velocity this is slightly different when expressed in the cgs system of units below maxwell s equations are generally applied to macroscopic averages of the fields which vary wildly on a microscopic scale in the vicinity of individual atoms where they undergo quantum mechanical effects as well it is only in this averaged sense that one can define quantities such as the permittivity and permeability of a material below the microscopic maxwell s equations ignoring quantum effects are simply those of a vacuum but one must include all atomic charges and so on which is normally an intractable problem in linear materials in linear materials the polarization density p in coulombs per square meter and magnetization density m in amperes per meter are given by mathbf chi e varepsilon zero mathbf mathbf chi m mathbf and the d and b fields are related to e and h by mathbf varepsilon zero mathbf mathbf one chi e varepsilon zero mathbf varepsilon mathbf mathbf mu zero mathbf mathbf one chi m mu zero mathbf mu mathbf where chi e is the electrical susceptibility of the material chi m is the magnetic susceptibility of the material is the electrical permittivity of the material and is the magnetic permeability of the material this can actually be extended to handle nonlinear materials as well by making and depend upon the field strength see e g the kerr and pockels effects in non dispersive isotropic media and are time independent scalars and maxwell s equations reduce to nabla cdot varepsilon mathbf rho nabla cdot mu mathbf zero nabla times mathbf mu frac nabla times mathbf mathbf varepsilon frac in a uniform homogeneous medium and are constants independent of position and can thus be furthermore interchanged with the spatial derivatives more generally and can be rank two tensors three three matrices describing birefringent anisotropic materials also although for many purposes the time frequency dependence of these constants can be neglected every real material exhibits some material dispersion by which and or depend upon frequency and causality constrains this dependence to obey the kramers kronig relations in vacuum without charges or currents the vacuum is a linear homogeneous isotropic dispersionless medium and the proportionality constants in the vacuum are denoted by zero and zero neglecting very slight nonlinearities due to quantum effects mathbf varepsilon zero mathbf mathbf mu zero mathbf since there is no current or electric charge present in the vacuum we obtain the maxwell s equations in free space nabla cdot mathbf zero nabla cdot mathbf zero nabla times mathbf mu zero frac nabla times mathbf varepsilon zero frac these equations have a simple solution in terms of travelling sinusoidal plane waves with the electric and magnetic field directions orthogonal to one another and the direction of travel and with the two fields in phase travelling at the speed c frac maxwell discovered that this quantity c is simply the speed of light in vacuum and thus that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation the currently accepted values for the speed of light the permittivity and the permeability are summarized in the following table meters per second defined varepsilon zero permittivity eight eight five four times one zero farads per meter derived mu zero permeability four pi times one zero henries per meter defined detail charge density and the electric field nabla cdot mathbf rho where is the free electric charge density in units of c m three not including dipole charges bound in a material and mathbf is the electric displacement field in units of c m two this equation corresponds to coulomb s law for stationary charges in vacuum the equivalent integral form by the divergence theorem also known as gauss law is oint a mathbf cdot d mathbf q mbox where d mathbf is the area of a differential square on the closed surface a with an outward facing surface normal defining its direction and q mbox is the free charge enclosed by the surface in a linear material mathbf is directly related to the electric field mathbf via a material dependent constant called the permittivity epsilon mathbf varepsilon mathbf any material can be treated as linear as long as the electric field is not extremely strong the permittivity of free space is referred to as epsilon zero and appears in nabla cdot mathbf frac where again mathbf is the electric field in units of v m rho t is the total charge density including bound charges and epsilon zero approximately eight eight five four pf m is the permittivity of free space epsilon can also be written as varepsilon zero cdot varepsilon r where epsilon r is the material s relative permittivity or its dielectric constant compare poisson s equation the structure of the magnetic field nabla cdot mathbf zero mathbf is the magnetic flux density in units of teslas t also called the magnetic induction equivalent integral form oint a mathbf cdot d mathbf zero d mathbf is the area of a differential square on the surface a with an outward facing surface normal defining its direction like the electric field s integral form this equation only works if the integral is done over a closed surface this equation is related to the magnetic field s structure because it states that given any volume element the net magnitude of the vector components that point outward from the surface must be equal to the net magnitude of the vector components that point inward structurally this means that the magnetic field lines must be closed loops another way of putting it is that the field lines cannot originate from somewhere attempting to follow the lines backwards to their source or forward to their terminus ultimately leads back to the starting position hence this is the mathematical formulation of the assumption that there are no magnetic monopoles a changing magnetic flux and the electric field nabla times mathbf frac equivalent integral form oint mathbf cdot d mathbf frac where phi int mathbf cdot d mathbf where b is the magnetic flux through the area a described by the second equation e is the electric field generated by the magnetic flux s is a closed path in which current is induced such as a wire the electromotive force sometimes denoted mathcal not to be confused with the permittivity above is equal to the value of this integral this law corresponds to the faraday s law of electromagnetic induction some textbooks show the right hand sign of the integral form with an n representing the number of coils of wire that are around the edge of a in front of the flux derivative the n can be taken care of in calculating a multiple wire coils means multiple surfaces for the flux to go through and it is an engineering detail so it has been omitted here the negative sign is necessary to maintain conservation of energy it is so important that it even has its own name lenz s law this equation relates the electric and magnetic fields but it also has a lot of practical applications too this equation describes how electric motors and electric generators work specifically it demonstrates that a voltage can be generated by varying the magnetic flux passing through a given area over time such as by uniformly rotating a loop of wire through a fixed magnetic field in a motor or generator the fixed excitation is provided by the field circuit and the varying voltage is measured across the armature circuit in some types of motors generators the field circuit is mounted on the rotor and the armature circuit is mounted on the stator but other types of motors generators employ the reverse configuration maxwell s equations apply to a right handed coordinate system to apply them unmodified to a left handed system would mean a reversal of polarity of magnetic fields not inconsistent but confusingly against convention the source of the magnetic field nabla times mathbf mathbf frac where h is the magnetic field strength in units of a m related to the magnetic flux b by a constant called the permeability b h and j is the current density defined by j qvdv where v is a vector field called the drift velocity that describes the velocities of the charge carriers which have a density described by the scalar function q in free space the permeability is the permeability of free space zero which is defined to be exactly four one zero seven w a m also the permittivity becomes the permittivity of free space zero thus in free space the equation becomes nabla times mathbf mu zero mathbf mu zero varepsilon zero frac equivalent integral form oint s mathbf cdot d mathbf mu zero i mbox mu zero varepsilon zero int a frac cdot d mathbf s is the edge of the open surface a any surface with the curve s as its edge will do and i encircled is the current encircled by the curve s the current through any surface is defined by the equation i through a aj da in some situations this integral form of ampere maxwell law appears in oint s mathbf cdot d mathbf mu zero i mbox i mbox for varepsilon zero int a frac cdot d mathbf is sometimes called displacement current if the electric flux density does not vary rapidly the second term on the right hand side the displacement flux is negligible and the equation reduces to ampere s law maxwell s equations in cgs units the above equations are given in the international system of units or si for short in a related unit system called cgs short for centimeter gram second the equations take the following form nabla cdot mathbf four pi rho nabla cdot mathbf zero nabla times mathbf frac frac nabla times mathbf frac frac frac mathbf where c is the speed of light in a vacuum for the electromagnetic field in a vacuum the equations become nabla cdot mathbf zero nabla cdot mathbf zero nabla times mathbf frac frac nabla times mathbf frac frac the force exerted upon a charged particle by the electric field and magnetic field is given by the lorentz force equation mathbf q mathbf frac times mathbf where q is the charge on the particle and mathbf is the particle velocity this is slightly different from the si unit expression above for example here the magnetic field mathbf has the same units as the electric field mathbf formulation of maxwell s equations in special relativity mathematical note in this section the abstract index notation will be used in special relativity in order to more clearly express the fact that maxwell s equations in vacuum take the same form in any inertial coordinate system the vacuum maxwell s equations are written in terms of four vectors and tensors in the manifestly covariant form j b partial a f and zero partial c f partial b f partial a f the latter of which is equivalent to zero epsilon partial a f where j a is the four current f is the field strength tensor written as a four four matrix epsilon is the levi civita symbol and partial a partial partial ct nabla is the four gradient so that partial a partial a is the d alembertian operator the a in the first equation is implicitly summed over according to einstein notation the first tensor equation expresses the two inhomogeneous maxwell s equations gauss law and ampere s law with maxwell s correction the second equation expresses the other two homogenous equations faraday s law of induction and the absence of magnetic monopoles more explicitly j a c rho vec j as a contravariant vector in terms of the charge density and the current density vec j the four current satisfies the continuity equation j a zero in terms of the four potential as a contravariant vector a left phi vec a c right where is the electric potential and vec a is the magnetic vector potential in the lorenz gauge left partial a a a zero right f can be expressed as f partial b a a partial a a b which leads to the four four matrix rank two tensor f left begin zero by changing frames of reference what seemed to be an electric field in one frame can appear as a magnetic field in another frame and vice versa using the tensor form of maxwell s equations the first equation implies box f zero see electromagnetic four potential for the relationship between the d alembertian of the four potential and the four current expressed in terms of the older vector operator notation different authors sometimes employ different sign conventions for the above tensors and four vectors which does not affect the physical interpretation f and f are not the same they are related by the minkowski metric tensor eta f eta eta f this introduces sign changes in the mixed spacetime components of f more complex metric dualities are encountered in general relativity maxwell s equations in terms of differential forms in a vacuum where and are constant everywhere maxwell s equations simplify considerably once the language of differential geometry and differential forms is used the electric and magnetic fields are now jointly described by a two form f in a four dimensional spacetime manifold maxwell s equations then reduce to the bianchi identity d bold zero where d denotes the exterior derivative a differential operator acting on forms and the source equation delta bold where delta d is the codifferential in minkowski space defined using the hodge star dual operator here the fields are represented in natural units where one four pi epsilon zero one here j is a one form called the electric current or current form satisfying the continuity equation delta zero in a linear macroscopic theory the influence of matter on the electromagnetic field is described through a linear transformation in the space of two forms lambda two mathbb we call this the constitutive transformation c lambda two ni bold mapsto bold in lambda two the role of this transformation is comparable to the hodge duality transformation and we write the maxwell equations in the presence of matter as d bold zero delta bold bold when the fields are expressed as linear combinations of exterior products of basis forms bold p bold f bold p wedge bold q the constitutive relation takes the form g c f where the field coefficient functions are antisymmetric in the indices and the constitutive coefficients are antisymmetric in the corresponding pairs thus the expression of maxwell s equations in terms of differential forms leads to a further notational simplification whereas maxwell s equations could be written as two tensor equations instead of eight scalar equations from which the propagation of electromagnetic disturbances and the continuity equation could be derived with a little effort using differential forms leads to an even simpler derivation of these results the price one pays for this simplification however is a need for knowledge of more technical mathematics classical electrodynamics as a line bundle an elegant and intuitive way to formulate maxwell s equations is to use line bundles or principal bundles with fibre u one the connection on the line bundle is d a with a the four vector comprised of the electric potential and the magnetic vector potential the curvature of the connection f da is the field strength some feel that this formulation allows a more natural description of the aharonov bohm effect namely in terms of the holonomy of a curve on a line bundle see micheal murray line bundles two zero zero two pdf web link for a simple mathematical review of this formulation see also r bott on some recent interactions between mathematics and physics canadian mathematical bulliten two eight one nine eight five no two pp one two nine one six four see also proca s equations gauge theory for more details vector calculus natural units lorentz heaviside units michael faraday heinrich hertz electromagnetic wave equation fdtd finite difference time domain fem finite elements references journal articles james clerk maxwell a dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field philosophical transactions of the royal society of london one five five four five nine five one two one eight six five this article accompanied a december eight one eight six four presentation by maxwell to the royal society the developments before relativity larmor j one eight nine seven on a dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium phil trans roy soc one nine zero two zero five three zero zero third and last in a series of papers with the same name lorentz h a one eight nine nine simplified theory of electrical and optical phenomena in moving systems proc acad science amsterdam i four two seven four three lorentz h a one nine zero four electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity less than that of light proc acad science amsterdam iv six six nine seven eight poincare h one nine zero zero la theorie de lorentz et la principe de reaction archives neerlandaies v two five three seven eight poincar h one nine zero one science and hypothesis poincare h one nine zero five sur la dynamique de l electron comptes rendues one four zero one five zero four eight see macrossan m n one nine eight six note on relativity before einstein brit j phil sci three seven two three two two three four university level textbooks undergraduate banesh hoffman relativity and its roots freeman new york one nine eight three charles f stevens the six core theories of modern physics mit press one nine nine five isbn zero two six two six nine one eight eight four graduate landau l d the classical theory of fields course of theoretical physics volume two butterworth heinemann oxford one nine eight seven charles w misner kip s thorne john archibald wheeler gravitation one nine seven zero w h freeman new york isbn zero seven one six seven zero three four four zero provides a treatment of maxwell s equations in terms of differential forms external links fitzpatrick richard lecture series relativity and electromagnetism advanced classical electromagnetism phy three eight seven k university of texas at austin fall one nine nine six misn zero five one three maxwell s equations electricity and magnetism pdf file by r young for project physnet feynman s derivation of maxwell equations and extra dimensions electromagnetism electrodynamics partial differential equations equations in topology and related areas of mathematics a metrizable space is a topological space that is homeomorphic to a metric space that is a topological space x tau is said to be metrizable if there is a metric d colon x to zero infty such that the topology induced by d is tau metrization theorems are theorems that give sufficient conditions for a topological space to be metrizable metrizable spaces inherit all topological properties from metric spaces for example they are hausdorff paracompact spaces and hence normal and tychonoff and first countable the first really useful metrization theorem was urysohn s metrization theorem this states that every second countable regular hausdorff space is metrizable so for example every second countable manifold is metrizable historical note the form of the theorem shown here was in fact proved by tychonoff in one nine two six what urysohn had shown in a paper published posthumously in one nine two five was the slightly weaker result that every second countable normal hausdorff space is metrizable several other metrization theorems follow as simple corollaries to urysohn s theorem for example a compact hausdorff space is metrizable if and only if it is second countable urysohn s theorem can be restated as a topological space is separable and metrizable if and only if it is second countable regular and hausdorff the nagata smirnov metrization theorem extends this to the non separable case it states that a topological space is metrizable if and only if it is regular and hausdorff and has a locally finite base a locally finite base is a base which is a union of countably many locally finite collections of open sets a space is said to be locally metrizable if every point has a metrizable neighbourhood smirnov proved that a locally metrizable hausdorff space is metrizable if and only if it is paracompact in particular a manifold is metrizable if and only if it is paracompact see also uniformizability a topological space homeomorphic to a uniform space gauge space a topological space where the topology can be defined by a family of pseudometrics general topology mathematical theorems see agricola for several other composers of the same name martin agricola january six one four eight six june one zero one five five six was a german composer of renaissance music and a music theorist he was born in schwiebus in lower silesia his german name was sohr or sore from one five two four till his death he lived at magdeburg where he occupied the post of teacher or cantor in the protestant school the senator and music printer rhau of wittenberg was a close friend of agricola whose theoretical works providing valuable material concerning the change from the old to the new system of notation he published among agricola s other theoretical works is musica instrumentalis deudsch one five two nine a study of musical instruments and one of the most important works in early organology agricola was also the first to harmonize in four parts martin luther s chorale ein feste burg one four eight six births one five five six deaths renaissance composers german composers music theorists max august zorn june six one nine zero six in krefeld germany march nine one nine nine three in bloomington indiana usa was a german born american mathematician he was an algebraist group theorist and numerical analyst he is famous for zorn s lemma a powerful tool in set theory that is applicable to a wide range of mathematical constructs such as vector spaces ordered sets etc he was a professor at indiana university from one nine four six until his death according to indiana university math professor kent orr a traffic light was installed near the math building on account of zorn nearly being killed by a car as an elderly professor emeritus zorn was also an avid guitar player there is a picture of him playing guitar hanging in rawles hall where bloomington s math faculty resides max zorn married alice schlottau and they had one son jens and one daughter liz zorn was the grandfather of chicago tribune columnist eric zorn external links one nine zero six births one nine nine three deaths two zero th century mathematicians american mathematicians german mathematicians lutherans for other uses see main disambiguation for the wikipedia main page see main page map showing the position of the main in germany the main pronounced in german like the english word mine is a river in germany five two four km long including white main five seven four km and one of the more significant tributaries of the rhine river it flows through the german states of bavaria baden w rttemberg forming the border to bavaria for some miles and hessen its catchment basin competes with the danube for water as a result much of its boundaries are identical with those of the european watershed the main is formed near kulmbach by the joining of its two headstreams the red main and the white main the former rises from the frankish alb five zero km in length and runs through creussen and bayreuth the latter s source is located in the mountains of the fichtelgebirge it is four one km long major tributaries of the main are the regnitz the fr nkische saale the tauber and the nidda river the largest city along the main is frankfurt am main ford of the franks after the junction of its headstreams the main passes the following towns and cities burgkunstadt lichtenfels staffelstein schweinfurt volkach kitzingen marktbreit ochsenfurt w rzburg karlstadt gem nden lohr marktheidenfeld wertheim miltenberg obernburg aschaffenburg seligenstadt hanau offenbach frankfurt hattersheim fl rsheim r sselsheim by the time it flows into the rhine opposite mainz it is a formidable river navigation shipping on the main frankfurt extensive works have made the main navigable for river shipping from its mouth at the rhine via the rhine main danube canal and the highly regulated altm hl river all the way to the danube the river has been canalized with three four large locks three zero zero m x one two m to allow vessels of so called cemt class v one one zero m x one one four five m to navigate the total length of the river the one six locks in the adjacent rhine main danube canal are of the same dimensions as are the locks on the danube the river s mouth is three eight four kilometers away from the junction with the rhine main danube canal the winding course is the main reason for this considerable length if the river were straight it would be probably less than half its current length because the river is rather narrow for much of the upstream stretches navigation with the larger vessels and push convoys that navigate it requires great skills the river has gained enormous importance as a vital part of european corridor vii the inland waterway link from the north sea to the black sea references noordersoft waterways database hesse bavaria frankfurt rivers of germany marcus agrippa agrippa redirects here for more other uses of the name see agrippa disambiguation marcus vipsanius agrippa six three bc one two bc was a roman statesman and general he was close friend son in law and minister to octavian the future emperor caesar augustus he was responsible for most of octavian s military triumphs most notably winning the naval battle of actium against the forces of mark antony and cleopatra early life agrippa was of humble birth being born in the countryside outside of rome he was of the same age as octavian and the two were close childhood friends octavian and agrippa served as cavalry officers under julius caesar in the battle of munda in four five bc where agrippa had gone after fighting with cato and the republicans in africa after the battle and return to rome caesar adopted octavian as his legal heir as caesar consolidated his power in rome he sent agrippa and octavian to study in apollonia with the macedonian legions caesar also sent the son of one of his friends gaius maecenas to study with them the three octavian agrippa and maecenas developed a close friendship while away from rome under caesar s orders agrippa quickly rose in favor within the macedonian legions the commanders taking note of his amazing leadership abilities he also learned of architecture learning the skills he would use later in his life it was while studying at apollonia when the news of julius caesar s assassination in four four bc reached them by his and maecenas s advice octavian at once set out for rome rise in power after octavian s return to rome the three realized they needed the support of legions agrippa returned to greece where he assumed command of the macedonian legions most notably the legio iv macedonica and marched them to rome once octavian had his legions he made a pact with mark antony and lepidus as the second triumvirate to handle the murders of caesar agrippa fought alongside octavian and antony as octavian s most senior general in the battle of philippi after their return to rome octavian sent agrippa in four one bc to handle the war against lucius antonius and fulvia antonia respectively the brother and wife of mark antony which ended in the capture of perusia in four zero bc two years later he put down a rising of the aquitanians in gaul and crossed the rhine becoming the second roman to do so after julius caesar to punish the aggressions of the germanic tribes on his return he refused a triumph offered to him but accepted his first consulship in three seven bc at this time sextus pompeius with whom war was imminent had command of the sea on the coasts of italy agrippa s first care was to provide a safe harbor for his ships which he accomplished by cutting through the strips of land which separated the lacus lucrinus from the sea thus forming an outer harbor and an inner one was also made by joining the lake avernus to the lucrinus about this time agrippa married caecilia attica daughter of cicero s friend titus pomponius atticus octavian himself tried to conquer sicily from sextus but was defeated in the naval battle of messina in three seven bc and again in august of three six bc then octavian sent agrippa against sextus pompeius having been appointed naval commander in chief he put his crews through a course of training until he felt in a position to meet the fleet of pompeius then in three six bc he was victorious at mylae and naucholus and within a month completely defeated sextus s naval force agrippa received the honor of a naval crown for his services in sicily life in public service hadrian s pantheon was built on agrippa design it bears the legend m agrippa l f cos tertivm fecit which means marcus agrippa son of lucius built during his third consulate in three three bc he was elected aedile where he used his knowledge of architecture to his advantage he signalized his tenure of office by effecting great improvements in the city of rome restoring and building aqueducts enlarging and cleansing the cloaca maxima constructing baths and porticos and laying out gardens he also gave a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art as emperor augustus would later boast that he had found the city of brick but left it of marble thanks to the great services provided by agrippa under his reign agrippa was again called away to take command of the fleet when the war with antony and cleopatra broke out octavian s victory at actium in three one bc which gave the mastery of rome and the empire of the world to octavian was mainly due to agrippa as a token of signal regard octavian bestowed upon him the hand of his niece claudia marcella major in two eight bc he also served a second consulship with octavian the same year in two seven bc agrippa held a third consulship with octavian and in that year the senate also bestowed upon octavian the imperial title of augustus in commemoration of the battle of actium agrippa built and dedicated the building that served as the roman pantheon before its destruction in eight zero ad emperor hadrian used agrippa s design to build his own pantheon which survives in rome the inscription of the later building which was built around one two five preserves the text of the inscription from agrippa s building during his third consulship the years following his third consulship agrippa spent in gaul reforming the provincial administration and taxation system along with building an effective road system and aqueducts late life his friendship with augustus seems to have been clouded by the jealousy of his brother in law marcellus which was probably fomented by the intrigues of livia the second wife of augustus who feared his influence over her husband the result was that agrippa left rome ostensibly to take over the governorship of syria a sort of honorable exile but he only sent his legate to syria while he himself remained at lesbos and governed by proxy on the death of marcellus which took place within a year of his exile he was recalled to rome by augustus who found he could not dispense with his services it is said that maecenas advised augustus to attach agrippa still more closely to him by making him his son in law he accordingly induced him to divorce marcella and marry his daughter julia caesaris by two one bc the widow of the late marcellus equally celebrated for her beauty abilities and her shameless profligacy in one nine bc agrippa was employed in putting down a rising of the cantabrians in hispania cantabrian wars he was appointed governor of syria a second time in one seven bc where his just and prudent administration won him the respect and good will of the provincials especially from the hebrew population agrippa also restored effective roman control over the cimmerian chersonnese modern day crimea during his governorship agrippa s last public service was his beginning of the conquest of the upper danube river region which would become the roman province of pannonia in one three bc he died at campania in march of one two bc at the age of five one his posthumous son marcus vipsanius agrippa postumus was named in his honor augustus honored his memory by a magnificent funeral augustus himself spent over a month in mourning augustus personally oversaw all of his children s educations and even adopted gaius caesar and lucius caesar it is believed that he did not adopt his youngest son agrippa postumus so that his old friend would have a son to carry on the family name legacy agrippa was also known as a writer especially on the subject of geography under his supervision julius caesar s dream of having a complete survey of the empire made was carried out he constructed a circular chart which was later engraved on marble by augustus and afterwards placed in the colonnade built by his sister polla amongst his writings an autobiography now lost is referred to agrippa left several children by caecilia attica a daughter vipsania agrippina who became the first wife of the emperor tiberius by claudia marcella major vipsania marcella by julia caesaris three sons gaius caesar lucius caesar and postumus agrippa and two daughters agrippina the elder future wife of germanicus and vipsania julia who married lucius aemilius paullus marcus vipsanius agrippa along with gaius maecenas and octavian was a central person in the establishing of the principate system of emperors which would govern the roman empire up until the crisis of the third century and the birth of dominate system see also julio claudian family tree six three bc births one two bc deaths ancient romans roman generals julio claudian dynasty the visitation painted for the congregazione di san martino one five zero three mariotto alberti s masterpiece galleria degli uffizi florence mariotto di bigio di bindo albertinelli october one three one four seven four november five one five one five was a florentine painter of the high renaissance closely involved with fra bartolommeo and influenced by raphael he was born in florence already as a one two year old he became a pupil of cosimo rosselli and a fellow pupil with baccio della porta fra bartolommeo with whom he formed such an intimate brotherly rapport that in one four nine four the two started their own studio in florence vasari s opinion was that mariotto was not so well grounded in drawing as bartolommeo and he tells that to improve his hand he had taken to drawing the antiquities in the medici garden where he was encouraged by madonna alfonsina the mother of duke lorenzo ii de medici when the medici were temporarily banished in one four nine four he returned to his friend whose manner he copied so assiduously according to vasari that his works were taken for baccio s when in the wake of savonarola s morality campaign baccio joined the dominican order as fra bartolommeo in one five zero zero and gave up painting albertinelli beside himself with the loss would have joined him but spurred by his success in completing an unfinished last judgment of bartolommeo s he resolved to carry on alone among his many students was jacopo da pontormo mariotto was a most restless person and carnal in the affairs of love and apt to the art of living and taking a dislike to the studies and brain wracking necessary to painting being also often stung by the tongues of other painters as is their way he resolved to give himself to a less laborious and more jovial profession and so opened the most lovely hostelry outside the porta san gallo and at the sign of the dragon at the ponte vecchio a tavern and inn this life he led for many months saying that he had taken up an art that was without muscles foreshortening or perspective and better still without faultfinding and that the art that he had given up imitated flesh and blood but this one created flesh and blood in this if you had good wine you heard yourself praised but in that every day you were blamed but at last the low life became an annoyance to him and filled with remorse he returned to painting giorgio vasari le vite de pi eccelenti architetti pittori vol iv albertinelli s paintings bear the imprint of perugino s sense of volumes in space and perspective fra bartolommeo s coloring the landscape portrayal of flemish masters like memling and leonardo s sfumato technique his chief paintings are in florence notably his masterpiece the visitation one five zero three at the uffizi illustrated right see also list of painters list of italian painters list of famous italians references one four seven four births one five one five deaths italian painters renaissance painters mandarin cuisine or beijing cuisine is a cooking style in beijing china since beijing has been the chinese capital city for centuries its cuisine was influenced by people from all over china the emperor s kitchen y sh nf ng was a term referring to the cooking places inside of the forbidden city beijing where thousands of cooks from the different parts of china showed their best cooking skills to please royal families and officials therefore it is at times rather difficult to determine the actual origin of a dish as the term mandarin is generalized and refers not only to beijing but other provinces as well mandarin food is heavily influenced by other provinces food some well known mandarin dishes peking duck hot and sour soup four seasons stringbean mutton hotpot sweetened vinegar spareribs glazed candied chinese yam chinese fajitas not to be confused with spring rolls which are fried stir fried tomatoes with scrambled eggs laobing chinese cuisine manichean priests writing at their desk with panel inscription in sogdian manuscript from khocho tarim basin manichaeism in persian aeeneh mani was one of the major ancient religions of iranian origin though its organized form is mostly extinct today a revival has been attempted under the name of neo manichaeism however most of the writings of the founding prophet mani have been lost some scholars and anti catholic polemicists argue that its influence subtly continues in western christian thought via saint augustine of hippo who converted to christianity from manichaeism which he passionately denounced in his writings and whose writing continues to be enormously influential among catholic protestant and orthodox theologians because manichaeism is a faith that teaches dualism in modern english the word manichean has come to mean dualistic presenting or viewing things in a black and white fashion origins the religion was founded in the third century ad by mani who reportedly was born in western persia and lived approximately two one zero two seven six ad the name mani is mainly a title and term of respect rather than a personal name this title was assumed by the founder himself and so completely replaced his personal name that the precise form of the latter is not known mani s holy book was called arzhang and was beautified with paintings this gave him the title the painter mani was likely influenced by mandaeanism and began preaching at an early age according to biographical accounts preserved by ibn al nadim and al biruni mani received a revelation as a youth from a spirit whom he would later call his twin his syzygos his double his protective angel or divine self this spirit allegedly taught him divine truths which developed into the manichaean religion his divine twin or true self brought mani to self realization and as such he becomes a gnosticus someone with divine knowledge and a liberating insight into things he claimed to be the paraclete of the truth as promised in the new testament the last prophet and seal of the prophets that finalized a succession of men guided by god and included figures such as zoroaster hermes plato buddha and jesus early three rd four th century christian writers such as hippolytus and epiphanius write about a scythianus who visited india around five zero ad from where he brought the doctrine of the two principles according to these writers scythianus pupil terebinthus presented himself as a buddha he called himself a buddas isaiah terebinthus went to palestine and judaea where he met the apostles becoming known and condemned isaia and ultimately settled in babylon where he transmitted his teachings to mani thereby creating the foundation of manicheism while manichaeism was spreading the large existing religious groups such as christianity and zoroastrianism were competing for greater political and social power although having fewer adherents than either group manichaeism won the support of many high ranking political figures with the aid of the persian empire mani initiated missionary excursions after failing to win the favor of the next generation and having the disapproval of the zoroastrian clergy mani is reported to have died in prison awaiting execution by the persian emperor bahram i the date of his death is fixed at two seven six two seven seven ad in egypt a minuscule codex was found and became known via antique dealers in cairo it was purchased by the university of cologne in one nine six nine and two of its scientists henrichs and koenen produced the first edition of this ancient manuscript known since as the cologne mani codex which they published in four articles in the zeitschrift f r papyrologie und epigraphik the content of the small papyrus manuscript contained a greek text describing the life of mani from this recent discovery we know much more about the man who founded one of the most influential world religions of the past theology the most striking principle of manichee theology is its dualism a theme gleaned from the persian religion of zoroastrianism mani postulated two natures that existed from the beginning light and darkness the realm of light lived in peace while the realm of darkness was in constant fight with itself the universe is the temporary result of an attack of the realm of darkness on the realm of light and was created by the living spirit an emanation of the light realm out of the mixture of light and darkness the manichees made every effort to include all known religious traditions in their faith as a result they preserved many apocryphal christian works such as the acts of thomas that otherwise would have been lost mani was eager to describe himself as a disciple of jesus christ but the early christian church rejected him as a heretic mani declared himself and was also referred to as the paraclete a biblical title meaning comforter or helper which the catholic tradition understood as referring to god in the person of the holy spirit certain muslim writers claimed it is a prophecy of jesus regarding muhammad a key belief in manichaeanism is that there is no omnipotent good power this claim addresses a theoretical part of the problem of evil by denying the infinite perfection of god and postulating the two equal and opposite powers mentioned previously the human person is seen as a battleground for these powers the good part is the soul which is composed of light and the bad part is the body composed of dark earth the soul defines the person and is incorruptible but it is under the domination of a foreign power which addressed the practical part of the problem of evil a human is said to be able to be saved from this power matter if they come to know who they are and identify themselves with their soul following mani s travels to the kushan empire several religious paintings in bamiyan are attributed to him at the beginning of his proselytizing career various buddhist influences seem to have permeated manichaeism buddhist influences were significant in the formation of mani s religious thought the transmigration of souls became a manichaean belief and the quadripartite structure of the manichaean community divided between male and female monks the elect and lay followers the hearers who supported them appears to be based on that of the buddhist sangha richard foltz religions of the silk road in the four th century ephraim criticized mani for adopting the lie from india promoting two powers which were against each other in china manicheanism theology featured structural repetitions of images of woken light liberated from darkness the son of god was woken from demonic imprisonment by the holy spirit and escaped its darkness conversion to manicheanism was depicted both as an awakening and an illumination and in death the converted spirit would escape the darkness of the body converts were only guaranteed salvation if they could continue this repetition and convert another in turn expansion the spread of manichaeism three zero zero five zero zero ce map reference world history atlas dorling kindersly manichaeism spread with extraordinary rapidity throughout both the east and west it reached rome through the apostle psattiq by two eight zero ce who was also in egypt in two four four and two five one the faith was flourishing in the fayum area of egypt in two nine zero manichaean monasteries existed in rome in three one two during the time of the christian pope miltiades by three five four hilary of poitiers wrote that the manichaean faith was a significant force in southern france the manichaean faith was also widely persecuted mani was martyred by the perisan religious establishment in two seven seven which ironically helped to spread the sect widely in two nine one persecution arose in the persian empire with the murder of the apostle sisin by bahram ii and the slaughtering of many manichaeans in two nine six diocletian decreed against the manichaeans we order that their organizers and leaders be subject to the final penalties and condemned to the fire with their abominable scriptures resulting in numerous martyrs in egypt and north africa in three eight one christians requested theodosius i to strip manichaeans of their civil rights he issued a decree of death for manichaean monks in three eight two the faith maintained a sporadic and intermittent existence in the west mesopotamia africa spain france north italy the balkans for a thousand years and flourished for a time in the land of its birth persia and even further east in northern india western china and tibet where c one zero zero zero ce the bulk of the population professed its tenets and where it died out towards the one three th century the religion was adopted by the uighur ruler bugug khan seven five nine seven eight zero and it remained state religion for about five zero zero years before the invasion of the mongols in the east it spread along trade routes as far as chang an the capital of the tang dynasty in china in the nine th century it is reported that the muslim caliph ma mun tolerated a community of manichee manichaeism and orthodox christianity st augustine was originally a manichaean when christians first encountered manichaeism it seemed to them to be a heresy as it had originated in a heavily gnostic area of persia cross initially augustine of hippo had been a manichean according to his confessions of st augustine after eight or nine years abiding to the manichaean faith he became catholic and a potent adversary of manichaeism how much long term influence the manichees actually had on christianity is still being debated it has been suggested that the bogomils paulicians and the cathars were deeply influenced by manichaeism however the bogomils and cathars in particular left few records of their rituals or doctrines and the link between them and manichaens is tenuous regardless of its historical accuracy the charge of manichaeism was levelled at them by contemporary orthodox opponents who often tried to fit contemporary heresies with those combatted by the church fathers the paulicians bogomils and cathars were certainly dualists and felt that the world was the work of a demiurge of satanic origin cross but whether this was due to influence from manichaeism or another strand of gnosticism is impossible to determine only a minority of cathars held that the evil god or principle was as powerful as the good god also called a principle as mani did a belief also known as absolute dualism in the case of the cathars it seems they adopted the manichee principles of church organization but none of its cosmology priscillian and his followers apparently tried to absorb what they thought was the valuable part of manichaeaism into christianity criticisms augustine who was a hearer of manichaeanism for nine years eventually criticised their beliefs that knowledge was the key to salvation and being too passive and not being able to affect any change in one s life i still thought that it is not we who sin but some other nature that sins within us it flattered my pride to think that i incurred no guilt and when i did wrong not to confess it i preferred to excuse myself and blame this unknown thing which was in me but was not part of me the truth of course was that it was all my own self and my own impiety had divided me against myself my sin was all the more incurable because i did not think myself a sinner ironically the the terms manichean and dualist are often used to disparage christians and others who have no sympathy with manicheanism and who in the past persecuted manicheans as heretics references religions of the silk road by richard c foltz st martin s griffin new york isbn zero three one two two three three three eight eight the manichaean body in discipline and ritual by jason david beduhn isbn zero eight zero one eight seven one zero seven seven mani the angel and the column of glory by andrew welburn isbn zero eight six three one five two seven four zero manichaean texts from the roman empire by iain gardner and samuel n c lieu isbn zero five two one five six eight two two six mani two one six two seven six seven and his biography the codex manichaicus coloniensis cmc albert heinrichs ludwig koenen ein griechischer mani kodex one nine seven zero ed der k lner mani codex p colon inv nr four seven eight zero one nine seven five one nine eight two sir alfred chester beatty charles allberry ed a manichean psalm book part ii stuttgart one nine three eight isaac de beausobre histoire critique de manich e et du manich isme amsterdam one seven three four one seven three nine f l cross and e a livingstone the oxford dictionary of the christian church london oxford up one nine seven four zsuszanna gul csi manichaen art in berlin collections turnhout two zero zero one original manichean manuscripts found since one nine zero two in china egypt turkestan china to be seen in the museum of indan art in berlin francois favre mani the gift of light five may two zero zero five renova symposium bilthoven the netherlands francis legge forerunners and rivals of christianity from three three zero b c to three three zero a d one nine one four reprinted in two volumes bound as one university books new york one nine six four lc catalog six four two four one two five external links cais at soas catholic encyclopedia manich ism international association of manichaean studies dualism and the relationship between manichaeism bogomilism and catharism manichaean orthodox church manichaean chronology the manichaean christian revolution manichaean writings a summary of the manichaean creation myth books on religious dualism recommendations and reviews rosicrucians who are the manichees by charles weber two zero zero three ancient roman christianity gnosticism late antiquity iranian peoples religion in iran mystery religions patristics moroccan cuisine has long been considered as one of the most diversified cuisines in the world the reason is because of the interaction of morocco with the outside world since centuries the cuisine of morocco is a mix of berber moorish middle eastern mediterranean and african cuisines the cooks in the royal kitchens of fez meknes marrakech and rabat refined moroccan cuisine over the centuries and created the basis for what we know as moroccan cuisine today according to paula wolfert the great specialist of moroccan cuisine and author of a renowned abook on the subject see recipe books section to my mind four things are necessary before a nation can develop a great cuisine the first is an abundance of fine ingredients a rich land the second is a variety of cultural influences the history of the nation including its domination by foreign powers and the culinary secrets it has brought back from its own imperialist adventures third a great civilization if a country has not had its day in the sun its cuisine will probably not be great great food and a great civilization go together last the existence of a refined palace life without royal kitchens without a versailles or a forbidden city in peking without in short the demands of a cultivated court the imaginations of a nation s cooks will not be challenged morocco fortunately is blessed with all four influence and history being at the crossroads of many civilisations the cuisine of morocco has been influenced by the native berber cuisine the arabic andalusian cuisine brought by the moriscos when they left spain the turkish cuisine from the turkish occupied algeria and the middle eastern cuisines brought by the arabs as well as the jewish cuisine the history of morocco is reflected in its cuisine political refugees left baghdad in the middle ages and settled in morocco bringing with them traditional recipes that are now common in morocco but forgotten in the middle east we know this because there are striking similarities between a one two th century common era collection of recipes by al baghdadi and contemporary moroccan dishes a signature characteristic is cooking fruit with meat for example quince with lamb or apricots with chicken further influences upon moroccan cuisine came from the morisco muslim refugees who were expelled from spain during the spanish inquisition ingredients morocco produces a large range of mediterranean fruits and vegetables and even some tropical ones the country produces large quantities of sheep poultry cattle seafood and fish which serve as a base for the cuisine use of spices spices at central market in agadir spices are used extensively in moroccan food while spices have been imported to morocco for thousands of years many ingredients like mint and olives from meknes and oranges and lemons from fez are home grown common spices include cinnamon kamoun cumin karkoum tumeric skingbir ginger el bsar pepper paprika aniseed sesame seed kasbour coriander zaafrane beldi saffron and mint structure of meals the midday meal is the main meal with the exception of the holy month of ramadan the typical formal meal begins with a series of hot and cold salads followed by a tagine bread is eaten with every meal often a lamb or chicken dish is next followed by couscous topped with meats and vegetables a cup of sweet mint tea is commonly used to end the meal it is common for moroccans to eat using the fingers of their hand and use bread as a ustensil main dishes see also list of moroccan dishes couscous the main moroccan dish most people are familiar with is couscous which is very old and is probably of berber origin the most commonly eaten red meat in morocco is lamb the breed of sheep in north africa has much of its fat concentrated in its tail this means that moroccan lamb does not have the pungent reasty flavor that western lamb and mutton can have among the most famous moroccan dishes are couscous pastilla tajine tangia although harira is a soup it is considered as a dish in itself and is mainly served with dates especially during the month of ramadan a berber pit oven for baking bread desserts sweets are not necessarily served at the end of a moroccan meal a common dessert is kaab el ghzal gazelle s horns which is a pastry stuffed with almond paste and topped with sugar another dessert is honey cakes which is essentially pretzel shaped pieces of dough deep fried and dipped into a hot pot of honey and sprinkled with sesame seeds halwa shebakia are cookies eaten during the month of ramadan zucre coco are coconut fudge cakes drinks woman pouring mint tea into tea glasses in a moroccan village the most popular drink is green tea with mint traditionally making good mint tea in morocco is considered an art form and the drinking of it with friends and family members is one of the important rituals of the day the technique of pouring the tea is as crucial as the quality of the tea the tea is accompanied with hard sugar cones or lumps moroccan tea pots have long curved pouring spouts and this allow the tea to be poured even into tiny glasses from a height to acquire the optimum taste glasses are filled in two stages many fruit sharbats are also popular snacks and fastfood street fastfood selling fast food in the street has long been general tradition and the best example is djemaa el fna square in marrakech starting the one nine eight zero s new snack restaurants started serving bocadillo which is a spanish word for a sandwich and has been widely used in morocco the bocadillo is a baguette filled by salad and a choice between meats or simply a tortilla which is also a widely used term during the one nine nine zero s a new trend started to emerge new dairy products shops mahlaba in moroccan arabic begun to open through all cities in morocco those mahlabas offer generally all types of dairy products juices breakfasts as well as bocadillos competing though the former established snack restaurants the late one nine nine zero s also experienced the opening in high scale of franchisees of multinational fastfood chains especialy in main cities berber omlette moroccan food abroad couscous is one of the most popular north african dishes globally markets stores and restaurants in europe especially in france and lately the uk feature tajines couscous preserved lemons and moroccan spices see also list of moroccan dishes middle eastern cuisine mediterranean cuisine african cuisine jewish cuisine culture of morocco external links moroccan cuisine by paula wolfert a synthetic presentation of moroccan cuisine three zero recipes chosen from the moroccan cuisine a must open directory project moroccan cuisine african studies some recipes books moroccan recipes moroccan recipes on cookbookwiki com moroccan recipes at the magic morocco moroccan desserts recipe books cooking at the kasbah recipes from my moroccan kitchen by kitty morse laurie smith isbn zero eight one one eight one five zero three x scent of orange blossoms sephardic cuisine from morocco by kitty morse owen morse isbn one five eight zero zero eight two six nine six couscous and other good food from morocco by paula wolfert gael greene isbn zero zero six zero nine one three nine six seven food of morocco authentic recipes from the north african coast by fatema hal isbn nine six two five nine three nine nine two x mediterranean cuisine moroccan cuisine moroccan culture martin van buren december five one seven eight two july two four one eight six two nicknamed old kinderhook was the eighth president of the united states he was the first organizer of the democratic party a dominant figure in the second party system the first president of non anglo descent dutch and the only president whose first language was not english but dutch he was also the first president born in the united states rather than the english colonies biography van buren was born in the village of kinderhook new york twenty miles south of albany the state capital his great great great grandfather cornelis had come to the new world in one six three one from the netherlands martin s father was abraham van buren february one seven one seven three seven april eight one eight one seven a farmer and popular tavern keeper his mother was maria hoes february two seven one seven four three february one six one eight one seven who also had children from a previous marriage van buren was educated at the common schools and at kinderhook academy in one seven nine six he began the study of law completing his preparation in one eight zero two in new york city where he studied under william peter van ness one seven seven eight one eight two six in one eight zero three he was admitted to the bar and continued an active and successful practice for two five years his practice made him financially independent and paved the way for his entrance into politics new york politics after one eight zero zero the year of the election of thomas jefferson and the downfall of the federalists were particularly bitter and personal the republicans were divided into three factions followers of george clinton and later of his nephew de witt clinton robert r livingston and aaron burr federalist control after one seven nine nine depended upon coalition with one or other of these groups van buren who allied himself early with the clintonians was surrogate of columbia county from one eight zero eight until one eight one three when he was removed in one eight one two he entered the state senate and he also became a member of the court for the correction of errors the highest court in new york until one eight four seven early political career his career in the new york senate covered two terms one eight one two one eight two zero in one eight one five he became the state attorney general an office which he held still as a member of the senate until one eight one nine when he was displaced to make room for a federalist he had already in one eight zero eight moved from kinderhook to hudson and in one eight one six he took up his residence in albany where he continued to reside until he entered jackson s cabinet in one eight two nine as a member of the state senate he supported the war of one eight one two and drew up a classification act for the enrollment of volunteers he broke with dewitt clinton in one eight one three but nevertheless favored in one eight one seven clinton s plan for the erie canal his attitude towards slavery at the moment was shown by his vote in january one eight two zero for a resolution opposing the admission of missouri as a slave state in the same year he was chosen a presidential elector it is at this point that van buren s connection began with so called machine politics he was a leading member of the albany regency a group of politicians who for more than a generation controlled the politics of new york and powerfully influenced those of the nation and which did more than any other agency to make the spoils system a recognized procedure in national state and local affairs van buren did not originate the system but won the nickname of little magician for the skill with which he exploited it image martin van buren stamp jpg he served also as a member of the state constitutional convention where he opposed the grant of universal suffrage in february one eight two one van buren was elected to the united states senate van buren at first favored internal improvements and in one eight two four proposed a constitutional amendment to authorize such undertakings but the next year he took ground against them he voted for the tariff of one eight two four then gradually abandoned the protectionist position in the presidential election of one eight two four he appeared as a strong supporter of william h crawford and received the electoral vote of georgia for vice president but he shrewdly kept out of the acrimonious controversy which followed the choice of john quincy adams as president he recognized early the potential of andrew jackson as a presidential candidate after the election van buren sought to bring the crawford and jackson followers together and strengthened his control as a leader in the senate always notably courteous in his treatment of opponents he showed no bitterness either towards john quincy adams or henry clay and voted for clay s confirmation as secretary of state notwithstanding the corrupt bargain charge at the same time he opposed the adams clay plans for internal improvements and declined to support the proposal for a panama congress as chairman of the judiciary committee he brought forward a number of measures for the improvement of judicial procedure and in may one eight two six joined with benton in presenting a report on executive patronage in the debate on the tariff of abominations in one eight two eight he took no part but voted for the measure in obedience to instructions from the new york legislature an action which was cited against him as late as the presidential campaign of one eight four four van buren was not an orator but his more important speeches show careful preparation and his opinions carried weight the oft repeated charge that he refrained from declaring himself on crucial questions is hardly borne out by an examination of his senatorial career in february one eight two seven he was re elected to the senate by a large majority he was now one of the recognized managers of the jackson campaign and a tour of virginia the carolinas and georgia in the spring of one eight two seven won support for jackson from crawford in one eight two eight van buren was elected governor of new york for the term beginning on january one one eight two nine and resigned his seat in the senate on march five he was appointed by president jackson as secretary of state an office which probably had been assured to him before the election and he resigned the governorship as secretary of state van buren took care to keep on good terms with the kitchen cabinet the group of politicians who acted as jackson s advisers and won the lasting regard of jackson by his courtesies to mrs john h eaton peggy eaton wife of the secretary of war with whom the wives of the cabinet officers had refused to associate he did not oppose jackson in the matter of removals from office but was not himself an active spoilsman he skillfully avoided entanglement in the jackson calhoun imbroglio in may one eight two nine van buren discharged philip richard fendall from his post as clerk at the state department an early example of patronage termination no diplomatic questions of the first magnitude arose during van buren s service as secretary of state but the settlement of long standing claims against france was prepared for and trade with the british west indies colonies was opened in the controversy with the bank of the united states he sided with jackson after the breach between jackson and calhoun van buren was clearly the most prominent candidate for the vice presidency jackson in december one eight two nine had already made known his own wish that van buren should receive the nomination in april one eight three one van buren resigned though he did not leave office until june in august he was appointed minister to england and arrived in london in september he was cordially received but in february learned that his nomination had been rejected by the senate on january two five the rejection ostensibly attributed in large part to van buren s instructions to louis mclane the american minister to england regarding the opening of the west indies trade in which reference had been made to the results of the election of one eight two eight was in fact the work of calhoun the vice president and when the vote was taken enough of the majority refrained from voting to produce a tie and give calhoun his longed for vengeance no greater impetus than this could have been given to van buren s candidacy for the vice presidency after a brief tour on through europe van buren reached new york on july five in may the democratic convention the first held by that party had nominated him for vice president on the jackson ticket despite the strong opposition to him which existed in many states no platform was adopted the widespread popularity of jackson being relied upon to win success at the polls his declarations during the campaign were vague regarding the tariff and unfavorable to the united states bank and to nullification but he had already somewhat placated the south by denying the right of congress to abolish slavery in the district of columbia without the consent of the slave states during van buren s presidential campaign the democratic party popularized his nickname old kinderhook which was abbreviated as ok supporters groups known as ok clubs were set up this is one possible origin of the expression ok although there are many other possible origins and the topic is much disputed in the election of one eight three two he received one eight nine electoral votes while jackson received two one nine for president jackson was now determined to make van buren president in one eight three six and bent all his energies to that end in may one eight three five van buren was unanimously nominated by the democratic convention at baltimore he expressed himself plainly on the questions of slavery and the bank at the same time voting perhaps with a touch of bravado for a bill offered in one eight three six to subject abolition literature in the mails to the laws of the several states van buren s presidential victory represented more of a victory for jackson and the party presidency one eight three seven one eight four one policies van buren announced his intention to follow in the footsteps of his illustrious predecessor and took over all but one of jackson s cabinet van buren had few economic tools to deal with the economic crisis of one eight three seven he succeeeded in setting up a system of bonds for the national debt his party was so split that his one eight three seven proposal for an independent treasury system did not pass until one eight four zero it gave the treasury control of all federal funds and had a legal tender clause that required by one eight four three all payments to be made in legal tender rather than in state bank notes but the act was repealed in one eight four one and never had much impact foreign affairs were complicated when several states defaulted on their state bonds london complained and washington explained it had no responsiibility for those bonds british authors such as charles dickens then denounced the american failure to pay royalties leading to a negative press in britain regarding the financial honesty of america the caroline affair involved canadian rebels using new york bases to attack the government in canada on dec two nine one eight three seven canadian government forces crossed the frontier into the us and burned the caroline which the rebels had been using one american was killed and an outburst of anti british sentiment swept the us van buren sent the army to the frontier and it closed down the rebel bases van buren tried to vigorously enforce the neutrality laws but american public opinion favored the rebels boundary disputes in may brought canadian and american lumberjacks into conflict there was no bloodshed in this aroostock war but it further inflamed public opinion on both sides van buren took the blame for hard times as whigs ridiculed him as martin van ruin state elections of one eight three seven and one eight three eight were disastrous for the democrats and the partial economic recovery in one eight three nine was offset by a second commercial crisis in that year nevertheless van buren controlled his party and was unanimously renominated by the democrats in one eight four zero the revolt against democratic rule led to the election of harrison the whig candidate administration and cabinet supreme court appointments van buren appointed the following justices to the supreme court of the united states john catron one eight three seven john mckinley one eight three eight peter vivian daniel one eight four two states admitted to the union none post presidency on the expiration of his term van buren retired to his estate lindenwald in the town of kinderhook where he planned out his return to the white house he seemed to have the advantage for the nomination in one eight four four his famous letter of april two seven one eight four four in which he frankly opposed the immediate annexation of texas though doubtless contributing greatly to his defeat was not made public until he felt practically sure of the nomination in the democratic convention though he had a majority of the votes he did not have the two thirds which the convention required and after eight ballots his name was withdrawn dark horse james k polk received the nomination instead in one eight four eight he was nominated by two minor parties first by the barnburner faction of the democrats then by the free soilers with whom the barnburners coalesced he won no electoral votes in the election of one eight six zero he voted for the fusion ticket in new york which was opposed to abraham lincoln but he could not approve of president buchanan s course in dealing with secession and eventually supported lincoln after being bedridden with a case of pneumonia since the fall of one eight six one martin van buren died of bronchial asthma and heart failure at his lindenwald estate in kinderhook at two zero zero a m on july two four one eight six two he is buried in the kinderhook cemetery trivia van buren had several different nicknames during his lifetime including martin van ruin log cabin democrat and the little magician one of his most well known nicknames was old kinderhook claimed to be a possible origin for ok the popular expression in the english language and other languages around the world he was also known as the red fox of kinderhook because of his bright red hair masonic lodge six van buren ar is named for him van buren masonic cemetery is located in van buren indiana at the south end of town although martin van buren is thought to have been earliest president of whom of a photograph exists though it was taken years after his presidency between one eight four zero and one eight six two john quincy adams the six th president of the united states was actually the earliest president of whom a photograph exists though it was not taken until one eight four three during van buren s presidency he had a pet tiger pop culture references on episode one four eight of the popular t v sitcom seinfeld george encounters local street gang known as the van buren boys named after president martin van buren whom they idolized the fictional gang plays a crucial role in the plot of the episode george tries to avoid trouble with the thugs by flashing their secret sign but fails to learn the sign from kramer who learned it accidently in a previous encounter the secret sign of the van buren boys was composed of crossing the hands with one hand with all the fingers up and spread out the other hand has all but the thumb and pointer finger up this made a total of eight fingers extended symbolic of van buren being the eighth president of the united states see also u s presidential election one eight three two u s presidential election one eight three six u s presidential election one eight four zero references secondary sources cole donald b martin van buren and the american political system one nine eight four curtis james c the fox at bay martin van buren and the presidency one eight three seven one eight four one one nine seven zero gammon samuel rhea gammon the presidential campaign of one eight three two one nine two two niven john martin van buren the romantic age of american politics two zero zero zero remini robert v martin van buren and the making of the democratic party one nine five nine silbey joel martin van buren and the emergence of american popular politics two zero zero two wilson major l the presidency of martin van buren one nine eight four primary sources van buren martin autobiography one nine one eight footnotes external links american political history online white house biography van buren biography from kinderhook connection inaugural address rootsweb com the van buren family since the one seven th century first state of the union address of martin van buren second state of the union address of martin van buren third state of the union address of martin van buren fourth state of the union address of martin van buren martin van buren national historic site lindenwald medical and health history of martin van buren one seven eight two births one eight six two deaths autodidacts democratic party united states presidential nominees dutch americans governors of new york people from new york presidents of the united states u s democratic party vice presidential nominees u s state attorneys general united states secretaries of state united states senators from new york vice presidents of the united states millard fillmore january seven one eight zero zero march eight one eight seven four was the thirteenth president of the united states serving from one eight five zero until one eight five three and the last member of the whig party to hold the nation s highest office he succeeded from the vice presidency on the death of president zachary taylor who died of acute indigestion becoming the second u s president to gain the office in this manner fillmore was never elected president in his own right after serving out taylor s term he was not nominated for the presidency by the whigs in the one eight five two presidential election and in one eight five six he failed to win election as president as the know nothing party candidate early life fillmore was born in extreme poverty to nathaniel fillmore and phoebe millard fillmore in summerhill new york as the second of eight children and eldest son he was first apprenticed to a fuller to learn the clothmaking trade he struggled to obtain an education under frontier conditions several years later fillmore moved to buffalo new york to continue his studies he was admitted to the bar in one eight two three and began his practice of law in aurora in one eight two eight he was elected to the new york legislature and served one eight two nine to one eight three one early political career fillmore was elected as a whig to the two three rd congress one eight three three one eight three five elected to the two five th two six th and two seven th congresses one eight three seven one eight four three he declined to be a candidate for renomination in one eight four two he was an unsuccessful candidate for governor of new york in one eight four four he was state comptroller of new york from one eight four seven one eight four nine the vice presidency whig party banner from one eight four eight with candidates zachary taylor and millard fillmore having worked his way up through the whig party in new york fillmore eventually was selected as zachary taylor s running mate it was thought that the obscure self made candidate from new york would complement taylor a slave holding military man from the south nevertheless the two men came to a head on the slavery issue in the new western territories taken from mexico in the mexican american war taylor wanted the new states to be free states while fillmore supported slavery in those states in order to appease the south in his own words god knows that i detest slavery but it is an existing evil and we must endure it and give it such protection as is guaranteed by the constitution fillmore presided over the senate during the months of nerve wracking debates over the compromise of one eight five zero he made no public comment on the merits of the compromise proposals but a few days before president taylor s death fillmore suggested to him that if there should be a tie vote on henry clay s bill he would vote in favor of it presidency one eight five zero one eight five three policies the sudden ascension of fillmore to the presidency in july one eight five zero brought an abrupt political shift in the administration taylor s cabinet resigned and president fillmore at once appointed daniel webster to be secretary of state thus proclaiming his alliance with the moderate whigs who favored the compromise a bill to admit california to the union still aroused all the violent arguments for and against the extension of slavery without any progress toward settling the major issues clay exhausted left washington to recuperate throwing leadership upon senator stephen a douglas of illinois at this critical juncture president fillmore announced in favor of the compromise of one eight five zero on august six one eight five zero he sent a message to congress recommending that texas be paid to abandon her claims to part of new mexico this helped influence a critical number of northern whigs in congress away from their insistence upon the wilmot proviso the stipulation that all land gained by the mexican war must be closed to slavery douglas s effective strategy in congress combined with fillmore s pressure to give impetus to the compromise movement breaking up clay s single legislative package douglas presented five separate bills to the senate admit california as a free state settle the texas boundary and compensate the state grant territorial status to new mexico place federal officers at the disposal of slaveholders seeking fugitives fugitive slave act abolish the slave trade in the district of columbia each measure obtained a majority and by september two zero president fillmore had signed them into law webster wrote i can now sleep of nights another important legacy of fillmore s administration was the opening of japan to american trade under commodore matthew perry administration and cabinet fillmore postage stamp supreme court appointments fillmore appointed the following justices to the supreme court of the united states benjamin robbins curtis one eight five one states admitted to the union california one eight five zero legacy some of the more militant northern whigs remained irreconcilable refusing to forgive fillmore for having signed the fugitive slave act they helped deprive him of the presidential nomination in one eight five two within a few years it was apparent that although the compromise had been intended to settle the slavery controversy it served rather as an uneasy sectional truce later life statue of fillmore outside city hall in downtown buffalo new york upon completing his presidency fillmore returned to buffalo where he served as chancellor of the university of buffalo as the whig party disintegrated in the one eight five zero s fillmore refused to join the republican party but instead in one eight five six accepted the nomination for president of the know nothing or national american party on february one zero one eight five eight he married a widow mrs caroline carmichael mcintosh october two one one eight one three august one one one eight eight one throughout the civil war he opposed president lincoln and during reconstruction supported president johnson he commanded a corps of home guards during the civil war he died at one one one zero p m on march eight one eight seven four of the after effects of a stroke with his last words alleged to be upon being fed some soup the nourishment is palatable on january seven each year a ceremony is held at his gravesite in the forest lawn cemetery in buffalo trivia the myth that millard fillmore installed the white house s first bathtub was started by h l mencken in a joke column published on december two eight one nine one seven in the new york evening mail see bathtub hoax more factual is having found the white house devoid of books millard fillmore initiated the white house library as of two zero zero six millard fillmore remains the last u s president who was neither a democrat nor a republican see also mallard fillmore u s presidential election one eight four eight u s presidential election one eight five six list of places named for millard fillmore external links first state of the union address second state of the union address third state of the union address white house biography millard fillmore internet obituary one eight zero zero births one eight seven four deaths members of the united states house of representatives from new york people from new york presidents of the united states university at buffalo vice presidents of the united states the melbourne cricket ground mcg is an iconic australian sporting venue located in yarra park in inner melbourne home to the melbourne cricket club it holds the world record for the highest light towers the mcg is an easy walk from the city centre and is serviced by richmond and jolimont train stations internationally the mcg is remembered as the centrepiece stadium of the one nine five six summer olympics the open air stadium is also one of the world s most famous cricket venues with a well attended test match known as the boxing day test held there every year starting on boxing day throughout the winter it serves as the home of australian rules football with at least one game held there every week usually more and in late september the grand final fills the stadium to capacity until the one nine seven zero s more than one two zero zero zero zero people were occasionally crammed into the venue the record crowd standing at around one three zero zero zero zero for a billy graham religious event in one nine five nine closely followed by one two one six nine six for the one nine seven zero vfl grand final contemporary regulations now limit the maximum capacity to approximately nine nine zero zero zero the mcg often referred to as the g has also hosted other events from international rules between the australian football league and gaelic athletic association to international rugby football soccer world cup qualifiers and even rock concerts when madonna visited with her girlie show tour in one nine nine three she called it the g spot during the lunch break at the two zero zero five boxing day cricket test it was announced by australian federal treasurer peter costello that the mcg would be added to the australian heritage register in march two zero zero six the mcg will host most of the commonwealth games including the opening and closing ceremony early history the mcg in one eight six four on the september two three one eight five three occupancy of the present site which was part of a police paddock was given to the melbourne cricket club by lieutenant governor la trobe this followed the forced resumption of land from the then fifteen year old club to build australia s first steam train railway the first members pavilion was erected the following year and the first cricket match was played on three zero september one eight five four the first intercolonial cricket match to be played at the mcg was between the colonies of new south wales and victoria and took place on march two six and two seven one eight five six that match was also notable for a dispute which arose after the umpires had tossed and which victoria had won the new south wales players insisted that as the visiting team they had the choice of batting or bowling victoria eventually relented and were sent in new south wales won the match by three wickets the first football match was played on the mcg on july one two one eight five nine between melbourne football club and south yarra a visiting surrey xi captained by hh stephenson played a world xi there in one eight six two beginning on new year s day on boxing day one eight six six an indigenous australian team played at the mcg with one one zero zero zero spectators against an mcc team that team went on to tour england in one eight six eight and played at the ground three more times before one eight six nine the mcg was one of the venues for the first bicycle race in victoria in july one eight six nine the mcg in one eight seven eight the birth of test cricket and the ashes the first cricket match deemed to be a test was played at the mcg between australia and england commencing on march one five one eight seven seven and was won by australia by four five runs by one eight eight two the tradition of england australia cricket tours was well established with a total of eight tests having been played five of them at the mcg two at the sydney cricket ground and one at the oval in london then in one eight eight two england lost to a visiting australian team in england for the first time the match was played at the oval in august in what was said to be a difficult pitch australian bowler fred spofforth decimated the english batting after a shocking start by the australians and the result was a nailbiting finish in which australia won by seven runs still one of the closest finishes in test cricket history the defeat was widely recorded in the english press and a mock obituary was published in the sporting times lamenting the death of english cricket and noted that the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to australia later that year the honourable ivo bligh led a team of eight amateurs and four professionals to australia to recover them with the first two matches of the tour played at the mcg the first being a timeless match as was the custom in those days that commenced on december three zero on new year s day the attendance was two three zero zero zero and australia had won the match by nine wickets in three days the second match commenced on january one nine one eight eight three and was won comfortably by england by an innings and two seven runs two further matches were played by the tourists in sydney with the first being won by england and the second by australia the second sydney match was subsequently deemed to not be of test status so england had won with the series and had recovered the ashes as bligh had set out to do a group of melbourne women presented bligh with a small urn and the ashes tradition was then firmly established cricket donald bradman s record at the mcg is an average of one two eight runs in one seven innings in the eleven tests that he played there he got at least one century in nine of them an incident in the second test of the one nine six zero six one series involved the west indies player joe solomon being given out after his hat fell on the stumps after bowled at by richie benaud the crowd sided with the west indies over the australians not only was the first test match played at the mcg the first one day international match was also played there on january five one nine seven one between australia and england australia won the four zero over match by five wickets the next odi wasn t played until august one nine seven two some one nine months later in one nine seven seven australia and england played in a centenary test match at the mcg to commemorate one zero zero years of tests played between the two countries remarkably the four five run win to australia was exactly the same result as the match one zero zero years earlier on february one one nine eight one the infamous underarm incident occurred at the mcg at the third final of the world series cup with new zealand needing six runs from the final delivery the australian captain greg chappell ordered the bowler his brother trevor chappell to bowl underarm to avoid the possibility that the no one zero new zealand batsman brian mckechnie would score a six from the last ball to tie the match australia won the game but the new zealand batsmen marched off in disgust and since that day the underarm bowling incident has been a source of discussion both heated and jocular between australians and new zealanders during the one nine nine five boxing day test at the mcg australian umpire darrell hair called sri lankan spin bowler muttiah muralitharan for throwing the ball rather than bowling it seven times during the match the other umpires did not call him once and this caused a controversy although he was later called for throwing by other umpires seven other times in different matches the mcg is known for its great atmosphere much of which is generated in the infamous bay one three in a one day international cricket match in the late one nine nine zero s the behaviour of bay one three was so bad that shane warne had to enter the ground from his dressing rooms and tell the crowd to settle down at the request of opposing england captain alec stewart ground announcer tony schibecci has also become an important part of the g s proceedings also in the one nine nine zero s the warm up stretches performed by merv hughes would often be mimicked by the crowd australian rules football image richmond afl logo png image collingwood football club logo gif image hawthorn football club logo jpg image melbourne football club png several australian football league afl clubs use the mcg as their home ground currently melbourne richmond collingwood and hawthorn most finals games held in melbourne in the current era are played at the mcg before two zero zero four some interstate clubs like the brisbane lions were forced to play home finals at the mcg due to a contract between the afl and the mcc which stipulated that at least five finals matches must be played there per year this rule has been relaxed in order to allow interstate sides to have true home matches however melbourne clubs based out of telstra dome as well as geelong may still be required to play their home finals at the mcg carlton played their first home matches on the mcg back in one eight eight five in one nine six five the richmond tigers played st kilda in their first home match at the mcg in one nine eight five north melbourne played their first home game against collingwood at the mcg collingwood played their first home match at the mcg in one nine nine four hawthorn played their first home match at the mcg in two zero zero zero the first of nearly two two zero zero vfl afl games to be played at the mcg was on one five may one eight nine seven with melbourne beating geelong six four to one nine kevin bartlett holds the records for having scored the most goals and played the most matches at the mcg two players have scored one four goals for an afl or vfl game in one match at the mcg gary ablett in one nine eight nine and one nine nine three and john longmire in one nine nine zero a state of origin football match was held on july one one nine eight nine between victoria and south australia attended by nine one nine six zero people soccer football on february nine two zero zero six victorian premier steve bracks and football federation australia chairman frank lowy announced that the mcg would host a world class soccer event each year from two zero zero six until two zero zero nine inclusive it comes as soccer as it is more commonly known in australia is gaining popularity in the country following the qualification for the two zero zero six fifa world cup in germany the agreement sees an annual fixture at the mcg beginning with a clash between australia and european champions greece on may two five before the socceroos leave to contest in the world cup finals the socceroos will also host a match in two zero zero seven against a world class nation a fifa world cup qualifier in two zero zero eight and another in two zero zero nine which could possibly decide australia s participation in the two zero one zero fifa world cup in south africa other soccer matches played at the mcg include the following a one nine nine eight fifa world cup qualifier between the socceroos and iran on saturday two nine november one nine nine seven the match was drawn two all with iran progressing on the away goal rule an exhibition match between manchester united and the socceroos on one five july one nine nine nine other events the first baseball match recorded being played at the mcg was in october one eight eight five by a team from the uss enterprise against an mcc chosen team and the mcg also recorded the largest crowd ever at a baseball match over one zero zero zero zero zero for an exhibition match during the one nine five six olympics rugby league was first played at the grounds in one nine one four with a new south wales team playing england during world war ii the stand was used by the australian and american army it was used by the us army air forces who moved into the mcg and gave the name of their base camp murphy it was also used by the first division of the us marine corps an raaf technical training unit and as the raaf personnel depot the raaf stayed at the mcg until two seven october one nine four five queen elizabeth visited the mcg in one nine five four twice for an assembly and display and again in one nine five eight for another display she also attended a richmond versus fitzroy match on five april one nine seven zero the stadium held one zero seven seven zero zero people for the opening ceremony of the one nine five six summer olympics a record for attendance at the grounds was set by religious leader billy graham whose event in one nine five nine was attended by at least one three zero zero zero zero people the first rock concert to be held at the ground was one by david cassidy in one nine seven four in one nine seven eight david bowie held a concert there in one nine nine three paul mccartney u two and madonna held concerts drawing huge crowds the rolling stones held concerts in one nine nine five michael jackson in one nine nine six the three tenors in one nine nine seven elton john and billy joel in one nine nine eight pope john paul ii held a service at the mcg on two seven november one nine eight six and a celebration there of the polish community the next day the first rugby league state of origin match at the mcg was played on june eight one nine nine four the olympic flame went to the mcg on three zero july two zero zero zero before its way to the two zero zero zero summer olympics it also went to the mcg on five june two zero zero four before the two zero zero four summer olympics the opening and closing ceremonies of the two zero zero six commonwealth games will be held at the mcg as well as athletics events during the games the games begin on one five march a renovated mcg for commonwealth games grounds the mcg was redesigned and drained by rc bagot in one eight six one in one eight seven six the reversible stand was built located at the northern end of the ground but in one eight eight four a grandstand replaced the old reversible stand which had burnt down in one eight eight one beside the mcc pavilion was constructed a new members pavilion with the foundation stone being put in place by prince george of wales and prince albert victor on july four it was opened in december that year it was also the year that a telephone was installed at the grounds and the wickets and goal posts were changed from running east west to run north south in one eight eight two a scorecard was put in place showing details of the batsman s name and how he was dismissed possibly the first one of this kind in the world the grandstand was extended with a double deck in one eight nine seven in one nine zero zero it was lit up with electric lights an open wooden stand was built on the south side of the ground in one nine zero four and the grey smith stand then known as the new stand before one nine one two was erected in one nine zero six cricket at the mcg scene at the boxing day test match in one nine nine eight in one nine three six the southern stand was opened the duke of edinburgh on march three one nine six seven laid a foundation stone for a new western stand which was completed in one nine six eight known as the ponsford stand after one nine eight six the one nine two eight members stand as well as the one nine five six northern and olympic stands were demolished in late two zero zero two they are being replaced with a massive new structure in time for melbourne to host the two zero zero six commonwealth games the new stand will again push its capacity over the one zero five zero zero zero mark see also list of test cricket grounds history of test cricket to one eight eight three history of test cricket one eight eight four to one eight eight nine history of test cricket one eight nine zero to one nine zero zero cricket portal for more coverage on cricket footnotes the mcg the people s ground two zero zero three mcg official site victoria v new south wales in one eight five five five six two zero zero five cricket archive one st test australia v england at melbourne cricket ground one five one nine march one eight seven seven two zero zero four march one eight seven seven html www baggygreen com au australia v england in one eight eight two eight three two zero zero three cricket archive australia v england in one eight eight two eight three ifw bligh s xi in australia one eight eight two eight three two nd test two zero zero three cricket archive centenary test australia v england at melbourne cricket ground one two one seven march one nine seven seven two zero zero four march one nine seven seven html cricinfo com list of odi matches cricinfo com external links mcg official site description at sportsvenue technology com flickr photos tagged with mcg athletics track and field venues australian rules football grounds cricket grounds in australia melbourne attractions music venues in australia olympic stadiums sports venues in melbourne map of europe showing the countries that received marshall plan aid the red columns show the relative amount of total aid per nation the marshall plan known officially following its enactment as the european recovery program erp was the primary plan of the united states for the reconstruction of europe following world war ii the initiative was named for united states secretary of state george marshall and was largely the creation of state department officials especially william l clayton and george f kennan the reconstruction plan was developed at a meeting of the participating european states in july one nine four seven the soviet union and the states of eastern europe were invited but stalin saw the plan as a threat and did not allow the participation of any countries under soviet control the plan was in operation for four fiscal years beginning in july one nine four seven during that period some one three billion of economic and technical assistance equivalent to around one three zero billion in two zero zero six when adjusted for inflation was given to help the recovery of the european countries which had joined in the organization for european economic cooperation by the time the plan had come to completion the economy of every participant state with the exception of germany had grown well past prewar levels over the next two decades western europe as a whole would enjoy unprecedented growth and prosperity the marshall plan has also long been seen as one of the first elements of european integration as it erased tariff trade barriers and set up institutions to coordinate the economy on a continental level an intended consequence was the systematic adoption of american managerial techniques in recent years historians have questioned both the underlying motivation and the overall effectiveness of the marshall plan most however still see it as a positive and highly successful scheme background after six long years of war much of europe was devastated with millions having been killed or injured fighting had been prosecuted throughout much of the continent encompassing an area far larger than that in the first world war sustained aerial bombardment meant that most major cities had been badly damaged with industrial production especially hard hit many of the continent s greatest cities including warsaw and berlin lay in ruins others such as london and rotterdam had been severely damaged the region s economic structure was ruined and millions had been made homeless although the dutch famine of one nine four four had abated with an influx of aid the general devastation of agriculture had led to conditions of starvation in several parts of the continent which was to be exacerbated by the particularly harsh winter of one nine four six one nine four seven in north western europe especially damaged was transportation infrastructure as railways bridges and roads had all been heavily targeted by air strikes while much merchant shipping had been sunk by and large the small towns and villages in western europe had suffered little damage but the destruction of transportation left them economically isolated none of these problems could be easily be remedied as most nations engaged in the war had exhausted their treasuries in its prosecution after the first world war the european economy had also been greatly damaged and a deep recession lasted well into the one nine two zero s leading to instability and a general global downturn the united states despite a resurgence of isolationism had attempted to promote european growth mainly through partnerships with the major american banks when germany was unable to pay its reparations the americans also intervened by extending a large loan to germany a debt the americans were left with when war was declared in one nine four one dresden in ruins one four february one nine four five in washington there was a consensus that the events after the first world war should not be repeated the state department under harry s truman was dedicated to pursuing an activist foreign policy but the congress was somewhat less interested originally it was hoped that little would need to be done to rebuild europe and that the united kingdom and france with the help of their colonies would quickly rebuild their economies by one nine four seven there was still little progress however a series of cold winters aggravated an already poor situation the european economies did not seem to be growing as high unemployment and food shortages led to strikes and unrest in several nations in one nine four seven the european economies were still well below their prewar levels and were showing few signs of growth agricultural production was eight three of one nine three eight levels industrial production was eight eight and exports only five nine the shortage of food was one of the most acute problems before the war western europe had depended on the large food surpluses of eastern europe but these routes were largely cut off by the iron curtain the situation was especially bad in germany where in one nine four six four seven the average calorie intake per day was only one eight zero zero an amount insufficient for long term health william clayton reported to washington that millions of people are slowly starving as important for the overall economy was the shortage of coal aggravated by the cold winter of one nine four six four seven in germany homes went unheated and hundreds froze to death in britain the situation was not as severe but domestic demand meant that industrial production came to a halt the humanitarian desire to end these problems was one motivation for the plan the only major power whose infrastructure had not been significantly harmed was the united states it had entered the war later than most european countries and had only suffered limited damage to its own territory american gold reserves were still intact as was its massive agricultural and manufacturing base the country enjoying a robust economy the war years had seen the fastest period of economic growth in the nation s history as american factories supported both its own war effort and that of its allies after the war these plants quickly retooled to produce consumer goods and the scarcity of the war years was replaced by a boom in consumer spending the long term health of the economy was dependent on trade however as continued prosperity would require markets to export these goods marshall plan aid would largely be used by the europeans to buy manufactured goods and raw materials from the united states another strong motivating factor for the united states and an important difference from the post world war i era was the beginning of the cold war some in the american government had grown deeply suspicious of soviet actions george kennan one of the leaders in developing the plan was already predicting a bipolar division of the world to him the marshall plan was the centerpiece of the new doctrine of containment it should be noted that when marshall plan was initiated the wartime alliances were still somewhat intact and the cold war had not yet truly begun and for most of those who developed the marshall plan fear of the soviet union was not the overriding concern it would be in later years the power and popularity of indigenous communist parties in several western european states was still worrisome in both france and italy the poverty of the postwar era had provided fuel for the communist parties which had also played central roles in the resistance movements of the war these parties had seen significant electoral success in the postwar elections with the communists becoming the largest single party in france though today most historians feel the threat of france and italy falling to the communists was remote it was regarded as a very real possibility by american policy makers at the time the american government of harry truman began to be aware of these problems in one nine four six the emerging doctrine of containment argued that the united states needed to substantially aid noncommunist countries to stop the spread of soviet influence there was also some hope that the eastern european nations would join the plan and thus be pulled out of the emerging soviet bloc even before the marshall plan the united states was spending a great deal to help europe recover an estimated nine billion was spent during the period from one nine four five to one nine four seven much of this aid was indirect coming in the form of continued lend lease agreements and through the many efforts of american troops to restore infrastructure and help refugees a number of bilateral aid agreements had been signed perhaps the most important of which was the truman doctrine s pledge to provide military assistance to greece and turkey the infant united nations also launched a series of humanitarian and relief efforts almost wholly funded by the united states these efforts had important effects but they lacked any central organization and planning and failed to meet many of europe s more fundamental needs early ideas long before marshall s speech a number of figures had raised the notion of a reconstruction plan for europe u s secretary of state james f byrnes presented an early version of the plan during a speech held at the stuttgart opera house on september six one nine four six in addition general lucius d clay asked industrialist lewis h brown to inspect postwar germany and draft a report on germany in one nine four seven containing basic facts relating to the problems in germany with recommendations for reconstruction undersecretary of state dean acheson had made a major speech on the issue which had mostly been ignored and vice president alben w barkley had also raised the idea the main alternative to large quantities of american aid was to take it from germany this notion became in one nine four four known as the morgenthau plan named after u s treasury secretary henry morgenthau jr it advocated extracting massive war reparations from germany to help rebuild those countries it had attacked and also to prevent germany from ever being rebuilt closely related was the monnet plan of french bureaucrat jean monnet that proposed giving france control over the german coal areas of the ruhr and saar and using these resources to bring france to one five zero of prewar industrial production in one nine four six the occupying powers agreed to put strict limits on how quickly germany could reindustrialize the problems inherent in this plan soon became apparent germany had long been the industrial giant of europe and its poverty held back the general european recovery the continued scarcity in germany also led to considerable expenses for the occupying powers which were obligated to try and make up the most important shortfalls these factors combined with widespread public condemnation of the plans after their leaking to the press led to the ostensible rejection of the monnet and morgenthau plans some of their ideas however did partly live on in joint chiefs of staff directive one zero six seven a plan which was effectively the basis for us occupation policy until july one nine four seven the mineral rich industrial centers saar and silesia were removed from germany a number of civilian industries were destroyed in order to limit production and the ruhr area was as late as one nine four seven still in danger of being removed however by april one nine four seven truman marshall and undersecretary of state dean acheson were convinced of the need for substantial quantities of aid from the united states the idea of a reconstruction plan was also an outgrowth of the ideological shift that had occurred in the united states in the great depression the economic calamity of the one nine three zero s had convinced many that the unfettered free market could not guarantee economic well being many who had worked on designing the new deal programs to revive the american economy now sought to apply these lessons to europe at the same time the great depression had shown the dangers of tariffs and protectionism creating a strong belief in the need for free trade and european economic integration the speech u s secretary of state george marshall the earlier public discussions of the need for reconstruction had largely been ignored as it was not clear that it was establishing official administration policy it was decided that all doubt must be removed by a major address by secretary of state george marshall marshall gave the address to the graduating class of harvard university on june five one nine four seven standing on the steps of memorial church in harvard yard he outlined the u s government s preparedness to contribute to european recovery the speech written by charles bohlen contained virtually no details and no numbers the most important element of the speech was the call for the europeans to meet and create their own plan for rebuilding europe and that the united states would then fund this plan the administration felt that the plan would likely be unpopular among many americans and the speech was mainly directed at a european audience in an attempt to keep the speech out of american papers journalists were not contacted and on the same day truman called a press conference to take away headlines by contrast acheson was dispatched to contact the european media especially the british media and the speech was read in its entirety on the bbc rejection by the soviets british foreign secretary ernest bevin heard marshall s radio broadcast speech and immediately contacted french foreign minister georges bidault to begin preparing a european response to the offer the two agreed that it would be necessary to invite the soviets as the other major allied power marshall s speech had explicitly included an invitation to the soviets feeling that excluding them would have been too clear a sign of distrust state department officials however knew that stalin would almost certainly not participate and that any plan that did send large amounts of aid to the soviets was unlikely to be approved by congress stalin was at first cautiously interested in the plan leninist doctrine states that as the capitalist economies began their final collapse they would in desperation seek to trade with the communist foes stalin felt that under these circumstances the soviets would be able to dictate the terms of the aid and he thus dispatched foreign minister vyacheslav molotov to paris to meet with bevin and bidault the british and french leadership shared the american lack of real interest in soviet participation and they presented molotov with conditions that the soviets could never accept the most important of these was that every nation to join the plan would need to have its economic situation independently assessed scrutiny the soviets could not agree to bevin and bidault also insisted that any aid be accompanied by the creation of a unified european economy something incompatible with the strict soviet command economy molotov thus left paris rejecting the plan on july one two a larger meeting was convened in paris every nation of europe was invited with the exceptions of spain which remained out of world war ii but sympathized with the axis and the small nations of andorra san marino monaco and liechtenstein the soviet union was invited but it was known it would refuse the states of the future eastern bloc were invited and czechoslovakia and poland agreed to attend in one of the clearest signs of the soviet control over the region the czechoslovak foreign minister jan masaryk was summoned to moscow and berated by stalin for thinking of joining the marshall plan stalin felt the plan was a severe danger to the soviet control of eastern europe that economic integration with the west would allow them to escape soviet domination the americans believed the same and did hope american economic aid could counter the growing soviet influence they were thus not greatly surprised when czechoslovakian and polish delegations were prevented from attending the meeting in paris the other eastern european states immediately rejected the offer finland also did so fearing the creation of any animosity with the soviets the soviet alternative to the marshall plan which was supposed to involve soviet subsidies and trade with eastern europe became known as the molotov plan and later the comecon negotiations turning the plan into reality required negotiations both among the participating nations and also to get the plan through the united states congress thus sixteen nations met in paris to determine what form the american aid would take and how it would be divided the negotiations were long and complex with each nation having its own interests france s major concern was that germany not be rebuilt to its previous threatening power the benelux countries despite also suffering under the nazis had long been closely linked to the german economy and felt their prosperity depended on its revival the scandinavian nations especially sweden insisted that their long standing trading relationships with the eastern bloc nations not be disrupted and that their neutrality not be infringed britain insisted on special status concerned that if it was treated equally with the devastated continental powers it would receive virtually no aid the americans were pushing the importance of free trade and european unity to form a bulwark against communism the truman administration represented by william clayton promised the europeans that they would be free to structure the plan themselves but they also reminded them that for the plan to be implemented it would have to pass congress the majority of congress was committed to free trade and european integration and also were hesitant to spend too much of the money on germany agreement was eventually reached and the europeans sent a reconstruction plan to washington in this document the europeans asked for two two billion in aid truman cut this to one seven billion in the bill he put to congress the plan met sharp opposition in congress mostly from the portion of the republican party that advocated a more isolationist policy and was weary of massive government spending this group s most prominent representative was robert a taft the plan also had opponents on the left with henry a wallace a strong opponent wallace saw the plan as a subsidy for american exporters and sure to polarize the world between east and west this opposition was greatly reduced by the shock of the overthrow of the democratic government of czechoslovakia in february one nine four eight soon after a bill granting an initial five billion passed congress with strong bipartisan support the congress would eventually donate one two four billion in aid over the four years of the plan truman signed the marshall plan into law on april three one nine four eight establishing the economic cooperation administration eca to administer the program eca was headed by economic cooperation administrator paul g hoffman in the same year the participating countries austria belgium denmark france west germany great britain greece iceland italy luxembourg the netherlands norway sweden switzerland turkey and the united states signed an accord establishing the organization for european economic cooperation later called the organization for economic cooperation and development oecd as the master coordinating agency implementation the first substantial aid went to greece and turkey in january one nine four seven which were seen as being on the front lines of the battle against communist expansion and were already being aided under the truman doctrine initially the uk had supported the anticommunist factions in those countries but due to its dire economic condition it requested the u s to continue its efforts the eca formally began operation in july one nine four eight first page of the marshall plan the official mission statement of eca was to give a boost to the europe economy to promote european production to bolster european currency and to facilitate international trade especially with the united states whose economic interest required europe to become wealthy enough to import u s goods another unofficial goal of eca and of the marshall plan was the containment of growing soviet influence in europe evident especially in the growing strength of communist parties in czechoslovakia france and italy the marshall plan money was transferred to the governments of the european nations the funds were jointly administered by the local governments and the eca each european capital had an eca envoy generally a prominent american businessman who would advise on the process the cooperative allocation of funds was encouraged and panels of government business and labor leaders were convened to examine the economy and see where aid was needed the marshall plan aid was mostly used for the purchase of goods from the united states the european nations had all but exhausted their foreign reserves during the war and the marshall plan aid represented almost their sole means of importing goods from abroad at the start of the plan these imports were mainly much needed staples such as food and fuel but later the purchases turned towards reconstruction needs as was originally intended in the latter years under pressure from the united states congress and with the outbreak of the korean war an increasing amount of the aid was spent on rebuilding the militaries of western europe of the some one three billion allotted by mid one nine five one three four billion had been spent on imports of raw materials and semi manufactured products three two billion on food feed and fertilizer one nine billion on machines vehicles and equipment and one six billion on fuel also established were counterpart funds which used marshall plan aid to establish funds in the local currency according to eca rules six zero of these funds had to be invested in industry this was prominent in germany where these government administered funds played a crucial role loaning money to private enterprises which would spend the money rebuilding these funds played a central role in the reindustrialization of germany in one nine four nine five zero for instance four zero of the investment in the german coal industry was by these funds the companies were obligated to repay the loans to the government and the money would then be lent out to another group of businesses this process has continued to this day the special fund then supervised by the federal economics ministry was worth over dm one zero billion in one nine seven one in one nine nine seven it was worth dm two three billion through the revolving loan system the fund had by the end of one nine nine five made low interest loans to german citizens amounting to around dm one four zero billion the other four zero of the counterpart funds were used to pay down the debt stabilize the currency or invest in non industrial projects france made the most extensive use of counterpart funds using them to reduce the budget deficit in france and most other countries the counterpart fund money was absorbed into general government revenues and not recycled as in germany a far less expensive but also quite effective eca initiative was the technical assistance program this program funded groups of european engineers and industrialists to visit the united states and tour mines factories and smelters so that they could then copy the american advances at home at the same time several hundred american technical advisors were sent to europe expenditures the marshall plan aid was divided among the participant states on a roughly per capita basis a larger amount was given to the major industrial powers as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general european revival somewhat more aid per capita was also directed towards the allied nations with less for those that had been part of the axis or remained neutral the below table shows marshall plan aid by country and year in millions of dollars from the marshall plan fifty years later there is no clear consensus on exact amounts as different scholars differ on exactly what elements of american aid during this period was part of the marshall plan effects one of a number of posters created to promote the marshall plan in europe the marshall plan ended in one nine five one as originally scheduled any effort to extend it was halted by the growing cost of the korean war and rearmament republicans hostile to the plan had also gained seats in the one nine five zero congressional elections and conservative opposition to the plan was revived thus the plan ended in one nine five one though various other forms of american aid to europe continued afterwards the years one nine four eight to one nine five two saw the fastest period of growth in european history industrial production increased by three five agricultural production substantially surpassed prewar levels the poverty and starvation of the immediate postwar years disappeared and western europe embarked upon an unprecedented two decades of growth that saw standards of living increase dramatically there is some debate among historians over how much this should be credited to the marshall plan most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived europe as evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway most believe that the marshall plan sped this recovery but did not initiate it the political effects of the marshall plan may have been just as important as the economic ones marshall plan aid allowed the nations of western europe to relax austerity measures and rationing reducing discontent and bringing political stability the communist influence on western europe was greatly reduced and throughout the region communist parties faded in popularity in the years after the marshall plan the trade relations fostered by the marshall plan help forge the north atlantic alliance that would persist throughout the cold war at the same time the nonparticipation of the states of eastern europe was one of the first clear signs that the continent was now divided the marshall plan also played an important role in european integration both the americans and many of the european leaders felt that european integration was necessary to secure the peace and prosperity of europe and thus used marshall plan guidelines to foster integration in some ways this effort failed as the oeec never grew to be more than an agent of economic cooperation rather it was the separate european coal and steel community which notably excluded britain that would eventually grow into the european union however the oeec served as both a testing and training ground for the structures and bureaucrats that would later be used by the european economic community the marshall plan linked into the bretton woods system also mandated free trade throughout the region while modern historians today feel some of the praise for the marshall plan is exaggerated it is still viewed favorably and many thus feel that a similar project would help other areas of the world after the fall of communism several proposed a marshall plan for eastern europe that would help revive that region others have proposed a marshall plan for africa to help that continent and u s vice president al gore suggested a global marshall plan repayment the organisation for european economic cooperation had taken the leading role in allocating funds and the eca arranged for the transfer of the goods the american supplier was paid in dollars which were credited against the appropriated european recovery program funds the european recipient however was not given the goods as a gift but had to pay for them though not necessarily at once on credit etc in local currency which was then deposited by the government in a counterpart fund this money in turn could be used by the erp countries for further investment projects most of the participating erp governments were aware from the beginning that they would never have to return the counterpart fund money to the u s and it was eventually absorbed into their national budgets and disappeared originally the total american aid to germany in contrast to grants given to other countries in europe had to be repaid but under the london debts agreement of one nine five three the repayable amount was reduced to about one billion aid granted after one july one nine five one amounted to around two seven zero million of which germany had to repay one six nine million to the washington export import bank in reality germany did not know until one nine five three exactly how much money it would have to pay back to the u s and insisted that money was given out only in the form of interest bearing loans a revolving system ensuring the funds would grow rather than shrink a lending bank was charged with overseeing the program european recovery program loans were mostly used to support small and medium sized businesses germany paid the u s back in installments the last check was handed over in june one nine seven one however the money was not paid from the erp fund but from the central government budget areas without the marshall plan large parts of the world devastated by the second world war did not benefit from the marshall plan the only major western european nation excluded was francisco franco s spain after the war it pursued a policy of self sufficiency currency controls and quotas with little success with the escalation of the cold war the united states reconsidered its position and in one nine five one embraced spain as an ally over the next decade a considerable amount of american aid would go to spain but less than its neighbors had received under the marshall plan while the western portion of the soviet union had been as badly affected as any part of the world by the war the eastern portion of the empire was largely untouched and had seen a rapid industrialization during the war the soviets also imposed large reparations payments on the axis allies that were in its sphere of influence finland hungary romania and especially east germany were forced to pay vast sums and ship large amounts of supplies to the ussr these reparation payments meant that the soviet union received almost as much as any of the countries receiving marshall plan aid eastern europe saw no marshall plan money and little help from the soviets the soviets did establish comecon as a rebuttal to the marshall plan but it was far less generous with many economists arguing it was mostly a one way transfer of resources from soviet satellites to the soviet union economic recovery in the east was much slower than in the west and some feel the economies never fully recovered in the communist period resulting in the formation of the shortage economies and a gap in wealth between east and west the police states that emerged in much of eastern europe could enforce rationing and austerity measures that would have been impossible in the west allowing some resources to be moved towards reconstruction one eastern european state yugoslavia did receive some aid from the united states during this period but this is generally not considered marshall plan aid japan was also badly damaged by the war the american people and congress were far less sympathetic towards the japanese than they were to the europeans japan was also not considered to have as great a strategic or economic importance to the united states thus no grand reconstruction plan was ever created and the japanese economic recovery before one nine five zero was slow however in one nine five zero the korean war broke out and japan became the main staging ground for the united nations war effort and a crucial supplier of material one well known example is that of the toyota company in june one nine five zero the company produced only some three zero zero trucks and was on the verge of going out of business the first months of the war saw the military order over five zero zero zero vehicles and the company was revived during the four years of the korean war the japanese economy saw a substantially larger infusion of cash than any of the marshall plan nations had canada like the united states was little damaged by the war and in one nine four five was one of the world s largest economies however the canadian economy had long been more dependent than the american one on trade with europe and after the war there were signs that the canadian economy was struggling in april one nine four eight the us congress passed the provision in the plan that allowed the aid to be used in purchasing goods from canada the new provision ensured the health of that nation s economy as canada made over a billion dollars in the first two years of operation historiography the early students of the marshall plan saw it as an unmitigated success of american generosity criticism of the marshall plan became prominent among historians of the revisionist school during the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s however they argued that the plan was american economic imperialism and that it was an attempt to gain control over western europe just as the soviets controlled eastern europe far from generosity the plan was the result of the united states geopolitical goals other historians emphasize the benefits of the plan to u s industry one result of the destruction in europe as a result of two world wars was that the u s farming and industry had world superiority american private enterprise thus could only gain financially from opening new markets and free trade policies yet while european reconstruction required products from the u s the europeans in the immediate aftermath of the second world war did not have the dollars to buy these supplies that was it is argued the basic economic problem essentially european capitalism suffered from a dollar shortage the u s had large balance of trade surpluses and u s reserves were large and increasing the credit facilities of the imf and the international bank for reconstruction and development could not cope with western europe s large trade deficits and anyway the imf was only supposed to grant loans for current account deficits and not for capital finance and reconstruction purposes therefore the u s began to create dollar credits in europe by various routes of which the marshall plan was one in the one nine eight zero s a new school developed with some historians arguing that the marshall plan might not have played as decisive a role in europe s recovery as was previously believed the first person to make this argument was the economic historian alan s milward and the analysis was developed by the german historian gerd hardach in der marshall plan one nine nine four such critics have pointed out that economic growth in many european countries revived before the large scale arrival of u s aid and was fastest among some of the lesser recipients while aid from the marshall plan eased immediate difficulties and contributed to the recovery of some key sectors growth from the postwar nadir was largely an independent process european socialists argue that a similar amount of reconstruction money could have been obtained by nationalizing the holdings of wealthy europeans who deposited their money in u s banks during world war ii today the general consensus has reverted to the earliest argument it is acknowledged that the united states was acting in its own self interest by aiding western europe but most believe the plan had an important and beneficial effect on both western europe and the united states notes alan s milward the reconstruction of western europe michael j hogan the marshall plan pg three zero john lewis gaddis we now know gregory a fossedal our finest hour gaddis pg three seven tony judt the marshall plan fifty years after pg four see hogan s the marshall plan which is a detailed argument for how the marshall plan was an outgrowth of the new deal charles l mee the marshall plan pg nine nine gaddis pg four one michelle cini from the marshall plan to the eec in the marshall plan fifty years after pg two four hogan pg nine three robert c grogin natural enemies pg one one eight hogan pg four one five economic growth in europe since one nine four five pg four six four only refers to the anglo american and french occupation zones which later became the federal republic of germany in one nine four nine the plan itself technically included all of germany but it was not implemented in the soviet zone of control grogin pg one one eight marshall plan style proposals for other parts of the world have been a perrenial idea for instance tony blair and gordon brown have referred to their african aid goals as a marshall plan after the end of the cold war many felt eastern europe needed a rebuilding plan e g see economic growth in europe since one nine four five pg three six three william whitney stueck korean war in world history pg one four six bothwell robert the big chill canada and the cold war pg five eight references arkes hadley bureaucracy the marshall plan and the national interest princeton n j princeton university press one nine seven two economic growth in europe since one nine four five edited by nicholas crafts and gianni toniolo cambridge cambridge university press one nine nine six hogan michael j the marshall plan america britain and the reconstruction of western europe one nine four seven one nine five two cambridge cambridge university press one nine eight seven the marshall plan fifty years after edited by martin schain new york palgrave two zero zero one mee charles l the marshall plan the launching of the pax americana new york simon and schuster one nine eight four milward alan s the reconstruction of western europe one nine four five five one london methuen one nine eight four external links marshall foundation economist tyler cowen questions the conventional wisdom surrounding the plan article on the marshall plan from eh net s encyclopedia failed expectations or what is behind the marshall plan for post socialist reconstruction by tanya narozhna truman presidential library online collection of original marshal plan documents from the year one nine four six onwards economic history post world war ii world war ii politics mariculture is the cultivation of marine organisms for food either in their natural environment or in seawater in ponds or raceways an example of the latter is the farming of marine fish prawns or oysters in saltwater ponds by definition mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture the japanese have developed a clever process for free ranching marine fish the principle is based on behavioral conditioning and the migratory nature of certain species of marine fish the fishermen first raise fish hatchlings in a closely knitted net in a harbor they sound an underwater horn before each feeding when the young fish are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea during spawning season about eight zero of these fish return to their birthplace the fishermen harvest the fish by sounding the horn and then raising the net mariculture is not limited to food production only products such as cultured pearls are considered mariculture as well off the coast of california the top few feet of natural kelp beds are harvested by boats with mowers kelp provides alginin an edible material used in ice cream and cosmetics see also aquaculture agriculture food fish farming fisheries science agriculture memetics is an approach to evolutionary models of information transfer based on the concept of the meme history of the term the notion of a unit of social evolution and the term in a transliteration of the greek word was introduced in one nine zero four by the german evolutionary biologist richard semon in his work die mnemische empfindungen in ihren beziehungen zu den originalenempfindungen translated in english in one nine two one as the mneme in his book the selfish gene one nine seven six the ethologist richard dawkins coined the slightly different term meme to describe a unit of human cultural evolution analogous to the gene arguing that replication also happens in culture albeit in a different sense in his book dawkins contended that the meme is a unit of information residing in the brain and is the mutating replicator in human cultural evolution it is a pattern that can influence its surroundings and can propagate this created great debate among sociologists biologists and scientists of other disciplines because dawkins himself did not provide a sufficient explanation of how the replication of units of information in the brain controls human behavior and ultimately culture because the aformentioned book in which he presented the idea was principally concerned with genetics dawkins apparently did not intend to present a comprehensive theory of memetics in the selfish gene rather he coined the term meme in a speculative spirit accordingly the term unit of information came to be defined in different ways by many scientists the modern memetics movement dates from the mid one nine eight zero s a january one nine eight three metamagical themas column by douglas hofstadter in scientific american was influential the study differs from mainstream cultural evolutionary theory in that its practitioners frequently come from outside of the fields of anthropology and sociology and are often not academics the massive popular impact of dawkins the selfish gene has undoubtedly been an important factor in drawing in people of disparate intellectual backgrounds another crucial stimulus was the publication in one nine nine two of consciousness explained by tufts university philosopher daniel dennett which incorporated the meme concept into an influential theory of the mind in his one nine nine three essay viruses of the mind richard dawkins used memetics to explain the phenomenon of religious belief and the various characteristics of organised religions however the foundation of memetics in full modern incarnation originates in the publication in one nine nine six of two books by authors outside of the academic mainstream virus of the mind the new science of the meme by former microsoft executive turned motivational speaker and professional poker player richard brodie and thought contagion how belief spreads through society by aaron lynch a mathematician and philosopher who worked for many years as an engineer at fermilab lynch conceived his theory totally independently of any contact with academics in the cultural evolutionary sphere and apparently was not even aware of dawkins the selfish gene until his book was very close to publication around the same time as the publication of the books by lynch and brodie a new e journal appeared on the web hosted by the centre for policy modelling at manchester metropolitan university journal of memetics evolutionary models of information transmission there had been a short lived paper memetics publication starting in one nine nine zero the journal of ideas edited by elan moritz the e journal soon became the central point for publication and debate within the nascent memetics community in one nine nine nine susan blackmore a psychologist at the university of the west of england published the meme machine which more fully worked out the ideas of dennett lynch and brodie and attempted to compare and contrast them with various approaches from the cultural evolutionary mainstream as well as providing novel and controversial memetic based theories for the evolution of language and the human sense of individual selfhood the memetics movement split almost immediately into those who wanted to stick to dawkins definition of a meme as a unit of information in the brain and those who wanted to redefine it as observable cultural artefacts and behaviours these two schools became known as the internalists and the externalists prominent internalists included both lynch and brodie the most vocal externalists included derek gatherer a geneticist from liverpool john moores university and william benzon a writer on cultural evolution and music the main rationale for externalism was that internal brain entities are not observable and memetics cannot advance as a science especially a quantitative science unless it moves its emphasis onto the directly quantifiable aspects of culture internalists countered with various arguments that brain states will eventually be directly observable with advanced technology that most cultural anthropologists agree that culture is about beliefs and not artefacts or that artefacts cannot be replicators in the same sense as mental entities or dna are replicators the debate became so heated that a one nine nine eight symposium on memetics organised as part of the one five th international conference on cybernetics passed a motion calling for an end to definitional debates the most advanced statement of the internalist school came in two zero zero two with the publication of the electric meme by robert aunger an anthropologist from the university of cambridge aunger also organised a conference in cambridge in one nine nine nine at which prominent sociologists and anthropologists were able to give their assessment of the progress made in memetics to that date this resulted in the publication of darwinizing culture the status of memetics as a science edited by aunger and with a foreward by dennett in two zero zero zero in two zero zero five journal of memetics evolutionary models of information transmission ceased publication and published a set of obituaries for memetics this was not intended to suggest that there can be no further work on memetics but that the exciting childhood of memetics which began in one nine nine six is finally drawing to a close and that memetics will have to survive or become extinct in terms of the results it can generate for the field of cultural evolution memetics as a social internet fueled popular scientific movement is now probably over many of the original proponents have moved away from it richard dawkins and daniel dennett have both expressed some reservations as to its applicability susan blackmore has left the university of the west of england to become a freelance science writer and now concentrates more on the field of consciousness and cognitive science derek gatherer found the academic world of the north of england to be unsympathetic to his ideas and gave up to work as a computer programmer in the pharmaceutical industry although he still publishes the odd memetics article from time to time richard brodie is now climbing the world professional poker rankings aaron lynch disowned the memetics community and the words meme and memetics without disowning the ideas in his book susan blackmore two zero zero two re stated the meme definition as whatever is copied from one person to another person whether habits skills songs stories or any other kind of information further she said that memes like genes are replicators that is they are information that is copied with variation and selection because only some of the variants survive memes and hence human cultures evolve memes are copied by imitation teaching and other methods and they compete for space in our memories and for the chance to be copied again large groups of memes that are copied and passed on together are called co adapted meme complexes or memeplexes in her definition thus the way that a meme replicates is through imitation this requires brain capacity to generally imitate a model or selectively imitate the model since the process of social learning varies from one person to another the imitation process cannot be said to be completely imitated the sameness of an idea may be expressed with different memes supporting it this is to say that the mutation rate in memetic evolution is extremely high and mutations are even possible within each and every interaction of the imitation process it becomes very interesting when we see that a social system composed of a complex network of microinteractions exists but at the macro level an order emerges to create culture dawkins responds in a devil s chaplain that there are actually two different types of memetic processes the first is a type of cultural idea action or expression which does have high variance for instance a student of his who had inherited some of the mannerisms of wittgenstein however he also describes a self correcting meme highly resistent to mutation as an example of this he gives origami patterns in elementary schools except in rare cases the meme is either passed on in the exact sequence of instructions or in the case of a forgetful child terminates this type of meme tends not to evolve and to experience profound mutations in the rare event that it does another definition given by hokky situngkir tried to offer a more rigorous formalism for the meme memeplexes and the deme seeing the meme as a cultural unit in a cultural complex system it is based on the darwinian genetic algorithm with some modifications to account for the different patterns of evolution seen in genes and memes in the method of memetics as the way to see culture as a complex adaptive system he describes a way to see memetics as an alternative methodology of cultural evolution however there are as many possible definitions that are credited to the word meme for example in the sense of computer simulation the term memetic programming is used to define a particular computational viewpoint memetics can be simply understood as a method for scientific analysis of cultural evolution however proponents of memetics as described in the journal of memetics evolutionary models of information transmission believe that memetics has the potential to be an important and promising analysis of culture using the framework of evolutionary concepts keith henson who wrote memetics and the modular mind analog aug one nine eight seven makes the case that memetics needs to incorporate evolutionary psychology to understand the psychological traits of a meme s host this is especially true of time varying host traits such as those leading to wars open questions how can we measure meme as a cultural unit in cultural evolution measurement implies some sort of notational description able to usefully label a meme s content measurement implies a notation of meme propagation both historically a memeology so to speak and in the present measurement implies a way to provide tools for describing likely futures for a meme how different are biological and cultural evolution what is the interplay between the memetic approach and the recent advancements of computer science including computational sociology as memetics is concerned with cultural evolution and much of culture is transmitted through language why are the fields of historical and evolutionary linguistics ignored in discussions of memetics is memetics supposed to be real science anyway this is unclear from the content of this entry and also unclear from the content of various articles one can find on the net the process undertaken by memes remind one of a very similar one in l ron hubbard s theory of body thetans which spawned a religion of sorts nice try though we all live our lives as a lie the memes have made us do it susan blackmore terminology memeoid memeoid is a neologism for people who have been taken over by a meme to the extent that that their own survival becomes inconsequential examples include kamikazes suicide bombers and cult members who commit mass suicide the term was apparently coined by h keith henson in memes l five and the religion of the space colonies l five news one nine eight five pp five eight and referenced in richard dawkins book the selfish gene two nd ed page three three zero isbn zero one nine two eight six zero nine two five memotype memotype is the actual information content of a meme meme complex a meme complex sometimes abbreviated memeplex is a collection or grouping of memes that have evolved into a mutually supportive or symbiotic relationship simply put a meme complex is a set of ideas that reinforce each other meme complexes are roughly analogous to the symbiotic collection of individual genes that make up the genetic codes of biological organisms see also computational sociology copycat dual inheritance theory evolution evolutionary epistemology general semantics list of publications on evolution and human behavior meme pool memebot social constructionism self replication viral marketing references the selfish gene by richard dawkins oxford university press one nine seven six two nd edition december one nine eight nine hardcover three five two pages isbn zero one nine two one seven seven seven three seven april one nine nine two isbn zero one nine eight five seven five one nine x trade paperback september one nine nine zero three five two pages isbn zero one nine two eight six zero nine two five the electric meme by robert aunger the meme machine by susan blackmore oxford university press one nine nine nine hardcover isbn zero one nine eight five zero three six five two trade paperback isbn zero nine six five eight eight one seven eight four may two zero zero zero isbn zero one nine two eight six two one two x the ideology of cybernetic totalist intellectuals an essay by jaron lanier which is very strongly critical of meme totalists who assert memes over bodies culture as complex adaptive system by hokky situngkir formal interplays between memetics and cultural analysis journal of memetics evolutionary models of information transmission virus of the mind by richard brodie an introduction to the field of memetics external links memetics publications on the web viral meme journal of memetics alt memetics memetics principia cybernetica web memetics protoscience cultural anthropology evolution psychology sociology march two five is the eight four th day of the year in the gregorian calendar eight five th in leap years there are two eight one days remaining events seven zero eight constantine is consecrated pope one three zero zero dante descends to the inferno in the divine comedy one three zero six robert the bruce becomes king of scotland one four zero nine the council of pisa opens one six three four the first settlers arrive in maryland led by lord baltimore one six five five saturn s largest moon titan is discovered by christian huygens one six five five protestants take control of maryland at the battle of the severn one eight zero two the treaty of amiens is signed as a definitive treaty of peace between france and united kingdom one eight zero seven the slave trade act becomes law abolishing slavery in the kingdom of great britain and ireland one eight two one greece declares its independence from the ottoman empire beginning the greek war of independence one eight five seven phonautograph patented one eight six five the claywater meteorite explodes just before reaching ground level in vernon county wisconsin fragments having a combined mass of one five kg are recovered one eight six five american civil war in virginia confederate forces capture fort stedman from the union in a bloody battle one eight nine four coxey s army the first significant american protest march departs massillon ohio for washington d c one nine zero one at the five day week of nice race in nice france mercedes wins its first racing victory one nine zero eight clube atletico mineiro founded in belo horizonte brazil one nine one one in new york city the triangle shirtwaist factory fire kills one four six garment workers one nine one eight the belarusian people s republic was established one nine two four greece proclaims itself a republic one nine three one the scottsboro boys are arrested in alabama and charged with rape one nine three nine cardinal eugenio pacelli becomes pope pius xii one nine four one kingdom of yugoslavia joins the axis powers one nine four seven a explosion in a coalmine in centralia illinois kills one one one one nine four nine the extensive deportation campaign was conducted in estonia latvia and lithuania the soviet authorities deported more than nine two zero zero zero people from baltics to remote areas of the soviet union one nine five five united states customs seizes copies of allen ginsberg s poem howl as obscene one nine five seven the european economic community is established west germany france italy belgium netherlands luxembourg one nine five eight canada s avro arrow makes it debute flight one nine six zero in london united kingdom jacqueline boyer wins the fifth eurovision song contest for france singing tom pillibi one nine six five civil rights activists led by martin luther king jr successfully complete their four day five zero mile march from selma to the capitol in montgomery one nine six nine during their honeymoon john lennon and yoko ono hold their first bed in for peace in the amsterdam hilton hotel until march three one one nine seven one bangladesh liberation war beginning of operation searchlight of pakistan army against east pakistani civilians one nine seven two in edinburgh scotland united kingdom vicky leandros wins the seventeenth eurovision song contest for luxembourg singing apr s toi after you one nine seven five faisal of saudi arabia is shot and killed by a mentally ill nephew one nine seven nine the first fully functional space shuttle orbiter columbia is delivered to the john f kennedy space center to be prepared for its first launch one nine nine zero in the bronx new york city a fire at an illegal social club called happy land kills eight seven people one nine nine two cosmonaut sergei krikalev returns to earth after a one zero month stay aboard the mir space station one nine nine five ward cunningham opens the first wiki the wikiwikiweb one nine nine six an eight one day long standoff between the antigovernment group montana freemen and law enforcement near jordan montana begins one nine nine six the labour party is founded in turkey one nine nine six the eu s veterinarian committee bans the export of british beef and its by products as a result of mad cow disease bse two zero zero four air holland files for bankruptcy in response to unproven allegations of marijuana abuse by their pilots births one two five two conradin duke of swabia d one two six eight one two nine seven arnost of pardubice archbishop of prague d one three six four one three four five blanche of lancaster wife of john of gaunt d one three six nine one three four seven catherine of siena italian saint d one three eight zero one four zero four baptism john beaufort one st duke of somerset english military leader d one four four four one four seven nine vasili iii grand prince of moscow d one five three three one five three nine christopher clavius german mathematician and astronomer d one six one two one five four one francesco i de medici grand duke of tuscany d one five eight seven one five nine three jean de br beuf french jesuit missionary d one six four nine one six four three louis mor ri french encylopedist d one six eight zero one six six one paul de rapin french historian d one seven two five one six nine nine johann adolph hasse german composer d one seven eight three one seven six seven joachim murat french marshal and king of naples d one eight one five one eight six three simon flexner pathologist d one nine four six one eight six seven arturo toscanini italian conductor d one nine five seven one eight six eight william lockwood english cricketer d one nine three two one eight seven three rudolf rocker german anarchist d one nine five eight one eight eight one b la bart k hungarian composer d one nine four five one eight eight one mary gladys webb english writer d one nine two seven one eight eight four georges imbert alsatian chemist d one nine five zero one eight eight six athenagoras patriarch of constantinople d one nine seven two one nine zero one ed begley american actor d one nine seven zero one nine zero six a j p taylor british historian d one nine nine zero one nine zero eight helmut k utner german actor and film director d one nine eight zero one nine zero eight david lean english film director d one nine nine one one nine one one jack ruby american killer of lee harvey oswald d one nine six seven one nine one four norman borlaug american agricultural scientist recipient of the nobel peace prize one nine one eight howard cosell american attorney lecturer and sports journalist d one nine nine five one nine two zero patrick troughton british actor d one nine eight seven one nine two zero arthur wint jamaican runner one nine two one simone signoret french actress d one nine eight five one nine two five flannery o connor american author d one nine six four one nine two six l szl papp hungarian boxer d two zero zero three one nine two six jaime sabines mexican poet d one nine nine nine one nine two six gene shalit american film critic one nine two eight jim lovell astronaut one nine two nine wim van est dutch cyclist d two zero zero three one nine three four gloria steinem american author one nine three five flash elorde filipino boxer one nine three eight hoyt axton american musician and actor d one nine nine nine one nine three nine toni cade bambara american author d one nine nine five one nine four zero anita bryant american entertainer and activist one nine four two aretha franklin american singer one nine four two richard o brien english actor and writer one nine four three paul michael glaser american actor one nine four six bonnie bedelia american actress one nine four six maurice krafft french vulcanologist d one nine nine one one nine four seven sir elton john english musician one nine five two antanas mockus colombian mathematician and politician one nine five six matthew garber british actor d one nine seven seven one nine six zero idy chan yuk lin hong kong actress one nine six two marcia cross american actress one nine six four lisa gay hamilton american actress one nine six four ken wregget canadian ice hockey goaltender one nine six five sarah jessica parker american actress one nine six five stefka kostadinova bulgarian high jumper and president of the bulgarian olympic committee one nine six six tom glavine baseball player one nine six six anton rogan northern irish footballer one nine six seven matthew barney american media artist one nine six seven debi thomas american figure skater one nine six nine dale davis american basketball player one nine seven one cammi granato american hockey player one nine seven four lark voorhies american actress one nine seven six juvenile american rapper one nine seven six wladimir klitschko ukrainian boxer one nine seven six gigi leung hong kong singer actress one nine eight two danica patrick american race car driver one nine eight seven nobunari oda japanese figure skater one nine eight nine alyson michalka american actress deaths seven five two stephen three days after he was elected pope one zero zero five king kenneth iii of scotland in battle one two two three king afonso ii of portugal b one one eight five one three four five henry three rd earl of lancaster english politician b one two eight one one four five eight marqu s de santillana spanish poet b one three nine eight one five five eight marcos de niza french franciscan explorer one six zero three ikoma chikamasa japanese warlord b one five two six one six zero nine olaus martini swedish archbishop of uppsala b one five five seven one six two zero johannes nucius german composer one six two five giambattista marini italian poet b one five six nine one seven one two nehemiah grew english naturalist b one six four one one seven three six nicholas hawksmoor british architect one seven three eight turlough o carolan irish harper and composer b one six seven zero one seven five one king frederick i of sweden b one six seven six one eight zero one novalis german poet b one seven seven two one eight six zero james braid scottish surgeon b one seven nine five one nine one four fr d ric mistral french poet nobel prize laureate b one eight three zero one nine one eight claude debussy french composer b one eight six two one nine five one eddie collins baseball player b one eight eight seven one nine five seven max oph ls german born director and writer b one nine zero two one nine five eight tom brown american musician b one eight eight eight one nine six nine max eastman american writer b one eight eight three one nine seven five king faisal of saudi arabia b one nine zero six one nine eight zero roland barthes french literary critic and writer b one nine one five one nine eight zero milton h erickson american psychiatrist b one nine zero one one nine eight zero walter susskind czech conductor b one nine one three one nine eight eight robert joffrey dancer teacher and choreographer b one nine three zero one nine nine one marcel lefebvre french catholic leader b one nine zero five one nine nine two nancy walker american actress b one nine two two one nine nine five james coleman american sociologist b one nine two six one nine nine five kre imir osi croatian basketball player b one nine four eight one nine nine nine cal ripken sr baseball manager b one nine three six two zero zero zero helen martin american actress b one nine zero nine two zero zero two kenneth wolstenholme british football commentator b one nine two zero holidays and observances the annunciation this date is nine months before christmas day one of the four irish quarter days in the irish calendar traditional date of the start of the new year in england and wales until the calendar act of one seven five two called lady day see above maryland day greek independence day good friday in two zero zero five two zero one six waffle day in sweden jailyn s birthday external links bbc on this day today in history march two five march two four march two six february two five april two five listing of all days list of islands of michigan amygdaloid island part of isle royale national park beaver island inhabited island in lake michigan beaver island small island in lake superior belle isle city park in detroit in the detroit river bois blanc island inhabited island in lake huron calf island part of detroit river international wildlife refuge charity island in saginaw bay lake huron cherry island potagannissing bay at the south end of the st marys river copper island tip of keweenaw peninsula crooked island lake huron crow island in saginaw river site of crow island state game area diamond island in diamond lake michigan dickinson island drummond island inhabited island in lake huron frying pan island st marys river had lighthouse garden island lake michigan gard island lake erie owned by university of toledo gull island any of a dozen small islands grand island location of grand island national recreation area granite island site of lighthouse in lake superior grassy island part of detroit river international wildlife refuge grosse ile inhabited island in detroit river harbor island national wildlife reserve harsens island inhabited island in lake st clair hickory island southern end of grosse ile higgins island high island lake michigan hog island michigan lake michigan huron islands lake superior has lighthouse indian island lake erie ile aux galets lake michigan location of skillagalee lighthouse isle royale location of isle royale national park in lake superior katechay island in saginaw bay lake huron les cheneaux islands group of three six inhabited islands in lake huron lime island in st marys river little charity island in saginaw bay lake huron little summer island lake michigan long island loud island in van etten lake near oscoda mackinac island inhabited island in lake huron manitou island lake superior site of lighthouse marquette island lake huron one of the le cheneaux group michigan islands national wildlife reserve middle island lake huron mud island part of detroit river international wildlife refuge nauibinaway island lake michigan site of lighthouse neebish island inhabited island in st marys river north island saginaw bay lake huron north cape in lake erie north fox island state owned island in lake michigan north manitou island part of sleeping bear dunes national lakeshore ojibway island in saginaw river passage island isle royale national park has lighthouse peach isle in detroit river site of peach isle range lighthouse pipe island st marys river had lighthouse poverty island lake michigan power island also called ford island and marion island a grand traverse county park round island chippewa county in lake superior has lighthouse round island chippewa county in st marys river has lighthouse round island alpena county in lake huron site of lighthouse round island delta county in green bay in lake michigan round island delta county in big bay de noc in lake michigan round island keweenaw county off isle royale in lake superior round island mackinac county off mackinac island in lake huron has lighthouse round island presque isle county in grand lake round island wayne county at southern tip of grosse ile in lake erie russell island st helena island lake michigan site of lighthouse st martin island lake michigan has lighthouse south island saginaw bay lake huron south fox island inhabited island in lake michigan south manitou island part of sleeping bear dunes national lakeshore stoney point island lake erie squaw island lake michigan sugar island inhabited includes part of bay mills indian reservation summer island lake michigan thunder bay island lake huron site of lighthouse trout island lake michigan turtle island lake erie whiskey island lake michigan washington island part of isle royale national park waugoshance island lake michigan zug island part of ford motor company s river rouge plant islands of michigan lists of islands the following are governors of the territory of michigan and the u s state of michigan territorial governors state governors from statehood until the election of one nine six six governors were elected to two year terms elections are held in november and the governor assumes office the following january except in the case of death or resignation from statehood until one eight five one elections were held in odd numbered years a new state constitution was drafted in one eight five zero and took effect in one eight five one as part of the process bringing the constitution into effect there was a single one year term of governor in one eight five one thereafter elections were held on even years the constitution adopted in one nine six three changed the governor s term to four years starting in one nine six seven since then gubernatorial elections have been offset by two years from u s presidential elections e g presidential elections were in two zero zero zero and two zero zero four gubernatorial elections were in one nine nine eight and two zero zero two the winner of the gubernatorial election takes office at noon on january one of the year following the election in one nine nine two an amendment to the michigan constitution imposed a lifetime term limit of two four year terms for the office of governor prior to this they were not limited as to how many terms they could serve notes george bryan porter died in office on july six one eight three four territorial secretary stevens t mason was authorized to become acting governor though there was no formal succession and he was never officially named as territorial governor on august two nine one eight three five in order to appease ohio over the toledo war border dispute president andrew jackson appointed charles shuler a judge in pennsylvania to replace stevens t mason as secretary and acting governor shuler declined the appointment on september one five jackson appointed john s horner as secretary and acting governor to replace mason though horner did not commence his duties until september two one one eight three five in october one eight three five michigan authorized a state constitution and elected mason as governor of the new state although the u s congress did not recognize the state until one eight three seven horner was mostly ignored by the people of michigan and he became secretary of wisconsin territory in july one eight three six woodbridge resigned as governor on february two three one eight four one to take a seat in the united states senate and was succeeded by his lieutenant governor j wright gordon felch resigned as governor on march three one eight four seven to take a seat in the united states senate and was succeeded by his lieutenant governor william l greenly after a new state constitution was drafted in one eight five zero mcclelland was elected to a single one year term in one eight five one he was then re elected to a full two year term in one eight five two mcclelland resigned in march one eight five three to become the secretary of the interior under franklin pierce and was succeeded by his lieutenant governor andrew parsons fitzgerald died march one six one nine three nine and was succeeded by his lieutenant governor luren dickenson romney resigned january two two one nine six nine to become secretary of housing and urban development under richard nixon and was succeeded by his lieutenant governor william milliken lists of united states governors governors of michigan moses amyraut one five nine six one six six four also known as amyraldus was a french protestant theologian and metaphysician he is perhaps most noted for his modifications to calvinist theology regarding the nature of christ s atonement which is referred to as amyraldism or amyraldianism born at bourgueil in the valley of anjou his father was a lawyer and designing moses for his own profession sent him on the completion of his study of the humanities at orl ans to the university of poitiers at the university he took the degree of licentiate ba of laws on his way home from the university he passed through saumur and having visited the pastor of the protestant church there was introduced by him to philippe de mornay governor of the city struck with young amyraut s ability and culture they both urged him to change from law to theology his father advised him to revise his philological and philosophical studies and read over calvin s institutions before finally determining a course he did so and decided for theology he thereupon removed to saumur destined to be for ever associated with his name and studied under john cameron who ultimately regarded him as his greatest scholar he had a brilliant course and was in due time licensed as a minister of the french protestant church the contemporary civil wars and excitements hindered his advancement his first church was in saint aignan in the province of maine there he remained two years the eminent theologian jean daill being then removed to paris advised the church at saumur to secure amyraut as his successor praising him as above himself the university of saumur at the same time had fixed its eyes on him as professor of theology the great churches of paris and rouen also contended for him and to win him sent their deputies to the provincial synod of anjou amyraut had left the choice to the synod he was appointed to saumur in one six three three and to the professor s chair along with the pastorate on the occasion of his inauguration he maintained for thesis de sacerdotio christi his co professors were louis cappel and josu de la place who also were cameron s pupils very beautiful was the lifelong friendship of these three remarkable men who collaborated in the theses salmurienses a collection of theses propounded by candidates in theology prefaced by the inaugural addresses of the three professors full of energy amyraut very speedily gave to french protestantism a new force in one six three one he published his trait des religions and from this year onward he was a foremost man in the church chosen to represent the provincial synod of anjou touraine and maine at the national synod held in one six three one at charenton he was appointed as orator to present to the king the copy of their complaints and grievances for the infractions and violations of the edict of nantes previous deputies had addressed the king on their bent knees whereas the representatives of the catholics had been permitted to stand amyraut consented to be orator only if the assembly authorized him to stand there was intense resistance cardinal richelieu himself preceded by lesser dignitaries condescended to visit amyraut privately to persuade him to kneel but amyraut held resolutely to his point and carried it his oration on this occasion which was immediately published in the french mercure remains a striking landmark in the history of french protestantism during his absence on this matter the assembly debated whether the lutherans who desired it might be admitted into communion with the reformed churches of france at the lord s table it was decided in the affirmative previous to his return but he approved with astonishing eloquence and thereafter was ever in the front rank in maintaining intercommunion between all churches holding the main doctrines of the reformation pierre bayle recounts the title pages of no fewer than thirty two books of which amyraut was the author these show that he took part in all the great controversies on predestination and arminianism which then so agitated and harassed all europe substantially he held fast the calvinism of his preceptor cameron but like richard baxter in england by his breadth and charity he exposed himself to all manner of misconstruction in one six three four he published his trait de la predestination in which he tried to mitigate the harsh features of predestination by his universalismus hypotheticus god he taught predestines all men to happiness on condition of their having faith this gave rise to a charge of heresy of which he was acquitted at the national synod held at alen on in one six three seven and presided over by benjamin basnage one five eight zero one six five two the charge was brought up again at the national synod of charenton in one six four four when he was again acquitted a third attack at the synod of loudun in one six five nine met with no better success the university of saumur became the university of french protestantism amyraut had as many as a hundred students in attendance upon his lectures another historic part filled by amyraut was in the negotiations originated by pierre le gouz de la berch re one six zero zero one six five three first president of the parlement of grenoble when exiled to saumur for a reconciliation and reunion of the catholics of france with the french protestants very large were the concessions made by richelieu in his personal interviews with amyraut but as with the worcester house negotiations in england between the church of england and nonconformists they inevitably fell through on all sides the statesmanship and eloquence of amyraut were conceded his de l elevation de la foy et de l abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion one six four one gave him early a high place as a metaphysician exclusive of his controversial writings he left behind him a very voluminous series of practical evangelical books which have long remained the fireside favourites of the peasantry of french protestantism amongst these are estat des fideles apres la mort sur l oraison dominicale du merite des oeuvres trait de la justification and paraphrases of books of the old and new testament his closing years were weakened by a severe fall he met with in one six five seven he died on one eight january one six six four seventeenth century opponents there were a number of theologians who defended calvinistic orthodoxy against amyraut and saumur including friedrich spanheim one six zero zero one six four nine and francis turretin one six two three one six eight seven ultimately the helvetic consensus was drafted to counteract the theology of saumur and amyraldism see edm saigey moses amyraut sa vie et ses crits one eight four nine alex schweizer in t b theol jahrbb one eight five two pp four one ff one five five ff protestant central dogmen one eight five four ff ii two two five ff and in herzog hauck realencyklop die bayle s v biog univ s v john quick s synod in gall reform pp three five two three five seven ibid ms icones sacrae gallicanae life of cameron see also amyraldism richard baxter references one five nine six births one six six four deaths french theologians reformed theologians the murray river or river murray is australia s second longest river in its own right the longest being its tributary the darling at two five seven five kilometres one six zero zero miles in length the murray rises in the australian alps draining the western side of australia s highest mountains and for most of its length meanders across australia s inland plains forming the border between new south wales and victoria as it flows to the northwest before turning south for its final five zero zero kilometres or so into south australia the waters of the murray flow through several terminal lakes that fluctuate in salinity including lake alexandrina and the coorong before emptying through the murray mouth into the indian ocean southern ocean according to australian maps near goolwa despite discharging considerable volumes of water at times particularly before the advent of large scale river regulation the murray mouth has always been comparatively small and shallow geography the murray river the murray river forms part of the three seven five zero kilometre two three zero zero miles long combined murray darling river system which drains most of inland victoria new south wales and southern queensland overall the catchment area is one seventh of australia s land mass the murray carries only a small fraction of the water of comparably sized rivers in other parts of the world and with a great annual variability of its flow in its natural state it was even been known to dry up completely in extreme drought though that was extremely rare the murray makes up much of the border of the australian states of victoria and new south wales the border is generally agreed upon to be the southern high water mark of the river this boundary definition can be ambiguous as the river has changed its course slightly since the boundary was defined in one eight five one west of the one four one e line of longitude the river continues as the victoria south australia border for three six km this was due to a miscalculation in the one eight four zero s when the border was originally surveyed past this point the murray river is entirely within the state of south australia murray mouth the murray mouth near goolwa south australia the murray mouth is the point at which the murray river meets the indian ocean southern ocean according to australian maps since the early two zero zero zero s dredging machines have operated at the murray mouth moving sand from the channel to maintain a minimal flow from the sea and into the coorong s lagoon system without the two four hour dredging the mouth would silt up and close cutting the supply of fresh sea water into the coorong which would then warm up stagnate and die mythology being one of the major river systems in one of the driest continents of earth the murray has significant cultural relevance to indigenous australians according to the peoples of lake alexandrina the murray was created by the tracks of the great ancestor ngurunderi as he pursued ponde the murray cod the chase originated in the interior of new south wales ngurunderi pursued the fish who like many totem animals in aboriginal myths is often portrayed as a man on rafts or lala made from red gums and continually launched spears at his target but ponde was a wily prey and carved a weaving path carving out the river s various tributaries ngurundi was forced to beach his rafts and often create new ones as he changed from reach to reach of the river at kobathatang ngurunderi finally got lucky and struck ponde in the tail with a spear however the shock to the fish was so great it launched him forward in a straight line to a place called peindjalang near tailem bend eager to rectify his failure to catch his prey the hunter and his two wives sometimes the escaped sibling wives of waku and kanu hurried on and took positions high on the cliff on which tailem bend now stands they sprung an ambush on ponde only to fail again ngurunderi set off in pursuit again but lost his prey as ponde dived into lake alexandrina ngurunderi and his women settled on the shore only to suffer bad luck with fishing being plagued by a water fiend known as muldjewangk they later moved to a more suitable spot at the site of present day ashville the twin summits of mount misery are supposed to be the remnants of his rafts they are known as lalangengall or the two watercraft remarkably this story of a hunter pursuing a fish that carved out the murray persists in numerous forms in various language groups that inhabit the enormous area spanned by the murray system the wotojobaluk people of victoria tell of totyerguil from the area now known as swan hill who ran out of spears while chasing otchtout the cod exploration the first europeans to explore the river were hamilton hume and william hovell who crossed the river where albury now stands in one eight two four hume named it the hume river after his father in one eight three zero captain charles sturt reached the river after travelling down its tributary the murrumbidgee river and named it the murray river in honour of the then british secretary of state for war and the colonies sir george murray not realising it was the same river that hume and hovell had encountered further upstream sturt continued down the remaining length of the murray to finally reach lake alexandrina and the river s mouth the area of the murray mouth was explored more thoroughly by captain collet barker in one eight three one in one eight five two francis cadell built a canoe and set off to become the first european to travel the whole length of the river in one eight five eight the government zoologist william blandowski along with gerard krefft explored the lower reaches of the murray and darling rivers compiling a list of birds and mammals during the expedition they accumulated one seven four zero zero specimens and classified a number of newly discovered species river transport the ps murray princess is the largest paddlewheeler operating on the murray river the lack of an estuary means that shipping cannot enter the murray from the sea however in the one nine th century the river used to support a substantial commercial trade using shallow draft steamboats the first trips being made by two boats from south australia on the spring flood of one eight five three one vessel lady augusta reached swan hill while another mary ann made it as far as moama near echuca in one eight five five a steamer carrying gold mining supplies reached albury but echuca was the usual turn around point though small boats continued to link with up river ports such as tocumwal wahgunyah and albury the arrival of steamboat transport was welcomed by pastoralists who had been suffering from a shortage of transport due to the demands of the gold fields by one eight six zero a dozen steamers were operating in the high water season along the murray and its tributaries once the railway reached echuca in one eight six four the bulk of the woolclip from the riverina was transported via river to echuca and then south to melbourne the murray was plagued by snags fallen trees submerged in the water and considerable efforts were made to clear the river of these threats to shipping by using barges equipped with steam driven winches drawing of a paddle steamer travelling the murray at night c one eight eight zero the volume and value of river trade made echuca victoria s second port and in the decade from one eight seven four it underwent considerable expansion by this time up to thirty steamers and a similar number of barges were working the river in season river transport began to decline once the railways touched the murray at numerous points the unreliable levels made it impossible for boats to compete with the rail and later road transport however the river still carries pleasure boats along its entire length today most traffic on the river is recreational small private boats are used for water skiing and fishing houseboats are common both commercial for hire and privately owned there are a number of both historic paddle steamers and newer boats offering cruises ranging from one two an hour to five days river crossings the murray river has been a significant barrier to land based travel and trade many of the ports for transport of goods along the murray have also developed as places to cross the river either by bridge or ferry water storage and irrigation a branch of the murray in its middle reaches near howlong new south wales small scale pumping plants began drawing water from the murray in the one eight five zero s and the first large volume plant was constructed at mildura in one eight eight seven the introduction of pumping stations along the river promoted an expansion of farming and led ultimately to the development of irrigation areas including the murrumbidgee irrigation area in one nine one five the three murray states new south wales victoria and south australia signed the river murray agreement which proposed the construction of storage reservoirs in the river s headwaters as well as at lake victoria near the south australian border along the intervening stretch of the river a series of locks and weirs were built these were originally proposed to support navigation even in times of low water but river borne transport was already declining due to improved road and rail systems locks lock one was completed near blanchetown in one nine two two torrumbarry weir downstream of echuca began operating in december one nine two three of the numerous locks that were proposed only thirteen were completed locks one to one one on the stretch downstream of mildura lock one five at euston and lock two six at torrumbarry construction of the remaining weirs purely for navigation purposes was abandoned in one nine three four the last lock to be completed was lock one five in one nine three seven lock one one just downstream of mildura creates a one zero zero kilometre long lock pool which aided irrigation pumping from mildura and red cliffs each lock has a navigable passage next to it through the weir which is opened during periods of high river flow when there is too much water for the lock the weirs can be completely removed and the locks completely covered by water during flood conditions lock one one is unique in that the lock was built inside a bend of the river with the weir in the bend itself a channel was dug to the lock creating an island between it and the weir the weir is also of a different design being dragged out of the river during high flow rather than lifted out four large reservoirs were built along the murray in addition to lake victoria completed late one nine two zero s is lake hume near albury wodonga completed one nine three six lake mulwala at yarrawonga completed one nine three nine and lake dartmouth which is actually on the mitta mitta river upstream of lake hume completed one nine seven nine the murray also receives water from the complex dam and pipeline system of the snowy mountains scheme dead and dying river red gums on the lower murray near berri south australia these dams inverted the patterns of the river s natural flow from the original winter spring flood and summer autumn dry to the present low level through winter and higher during summer these changes ensured the availability of water for irrigation and made the murray valley australia s most productive agricultural region but have seriously disrupted the life cycles of many ecosystems both inside and outside the river and the irrigation has led to dryland salinity that now threatens the agricultural industries the disruption of the river s natural flow run off from agriculture and the introduction of pest species like the european carp has led to serious environmental damage along the river s length and to concerns that the river will be unusably salty in the medium to long term a serious problem given that the murray supplies four zero of adelaide s domestic water efforts to alleviate the problems proceed but political infighting between various interest groups stalls progress see also major tributaries mitta mitta river kiewa river murrumbidgee river goulburn river darling river population centres corryong albury wodonga echuca moama swan hill mildura tailem bend renmark murray bridge goolwa external links river pilot maps one eight eight zero one nine one eight echuca historical society down the river murray an abc five part series on the river and its people murray darling basin commission the river murray and lower darling the murray river everything you wanted to know about the murray river in australia references isaacs j one nine eight zero australian dreaming four zero zero zero zero years of aboriginal history lansdowne press sydney new south wales isbn zero seven zero one eight one three three zero x rivers of victoria rivers of new south wales rivers of south australia mercury program monument project mercury was the united states first successful manned spaceflight program it ran from one nine five nine through one nine six three with the goal of putting a man in orbit around the earth early planning and research was carried out by naca while the program was officially carried out by the newly created nasa the name mercury comes from the roman god it is also the name of the innermost planet of the solar system the mercury program cost one five billion in one nine nine four dollars see nasa budget spacecraft notoc mercury spacecraft also called a capsule or space capsule were very small one man vehicles it was said that the mercury spacecraft were not ridden they were worn only one seven cubic meters in volume the mercury capsule was barely big enough to include its pilot inside were one two zero controls five five electrical switches three zero fuses and three five mechanical levers the spacecraft was designed by max faget and nasa s space task group during the launch phase of the mission the mercury spacecraft and astronaut were protected from launch vehicle failures by the launch escape system the les consisted of a solid fuel five two zero zero zero lbf two three one kn thrust rocket mounted on a tower above the spacecraft in the event of a launch abort the les fired for one second pulling the mercury spacecraft away from a defective launch vehicle the spacecraft would then descend on its parachute recovery system after booster engine cutoff beco the les was no longer needed and was separated from the spacecraft by a solid fuel eight zero zero lbf three six kn thrust jettison rocket that fired for one five seconds to separate the mercury spacecraft from the launch vehicle the spacecraft fired three small solid fuel four zero zero lbf one eight kn thrust rockets for one second these rockets are called the posigrade rockets the spacecraft had only attitude control thrusters after orbit insertion and before retrofire they could not change their orbit the spacecraft had three sets of control jets for each axis yaw pitch and roll supplied from two separate fuel tanks an automatic set of high and low powered jets and a set of manual jets fueled from either the automatic tank or the manual tank the pilot could use any one of the three thruster systems and fuel them from either of the two fuel tanks to provide spacecraft attitude control the mercury spacecraft were designed to be totally controllable from the ground in the event that the space environment impaired the pilot s ability to function the spacecraft had three solid fuel one zero zero zero lbf four five kn thrust retrorockets that fired for one zero seconds each one was sufficient to return the spacecraft to earth if the other two failed the first retro was fired five seconds later the second was fired while the first was still firing five seconds after that the third retro fires while the second retro is still firing this is called ripple firing there was a small metal flap at the nose of the spacecraft called the spoiler if the spacecraft started to reenter nose first another stable reentry attitude for the capsule airflow over the spoiler would flip the spacecraft around to the proper heatshield first reentry attitude suborbital mercury capsules encountered lower reentry temperatures and used beryllium heat sink heat shields orbital missions encountered much higher temperatures during reentry and used ablative shields nasa ordered two zero production spacecraft numbered one through two zero from mcdonnell aircraft company st louis missouri five of the twenty spacecraft were not flown they were spacecraft one zero one two one five one seven and one nine two unmanned spacecraft were destroyed during flights they were spacecraft three and four spacecraft one one sank and was recovered from the bottom of the atlantic ocean after three eight years some spacecraft were modified after initial production refurbished after launch abort modified for longer missions etc and received a letter designation after their number examples two b one five b some spacecraft were modified twice example spacecraft one five became one five a and then one five b a number of boilerplate spacecraft mockup prototype replica spacecraft made from non flight materials or lacking production spacecraft systems and or hardware were also made by nasa and mcdonnell aircraft and used in numerous tests including launches boosters image mercury atlas nine jpg the mercury program used three boosters little joe redstone and atlas little joe was used to test the escape tower and abort procedures redstone was used for suborbital flights and atlas for orbital ones starting in october one nine five eight jupiter missiles were also considered as suborbital launch vehicles for the mercury program but were cut from the program in july one nine five nine due to budget constraints the atlas boosters required extra strengthening in order to handle the increased weight of the mercury capsules beyond that of the nuclear warheads they were designed to carry little joe was a solid propellant booster designed specially for the mercury program the titan missile was also considered for use for later mercury missions however the mercury program was terminated before these missions were flown the titan was used for the gemini program which followed mercury astronauts the mercury seven astronauts pose with an atlas model july one two one nine six two the first americans to venture into space were drawn from a group of one one zero military pilots chosen for their flight test experience and because they met certain physical requirements seven of those one one zero became astronauts in april one nine five nine six of the seven flew mercury missions deke slayton was removed from flight status due to a heart condition beginning with alan shepard s freedom seven flight the astronauts named their own spacecraft and all added seven to the name to acknowledge the teamwork of their fellow astronauts mercury had seven prime astronauts all former military test pilots known as the mercury seven nasa announced the selection of these astronauts on april nine one nine five nine m scott carpenter one nine two five l gordon cooper jr one nine two seven two zero zero four john h glenn jr one nine two one first american to orbit the earth virgil i gus grissom one nine two six one nine six seven walter m schirra jr one nine two three alan b shepard jr one nine two three one nine nine eight first american in space donald k deke slayton one nine two four one nine nine three grounded in one nine six two due to irregular heartbeat reinstated in one nine seven two and later flew on apollo soyuz test project in one nine seven five flights the program included two zero robotic launches not all of these were intended to reach space and not all were successful in completing their objectives the fifth flight in one nine five nine launched a monkey named sam a rhesus monkey named after the air force school of aviation medicine into space other non human space farers were miss sam a rhesus monkey ham and enos both chimpanzees the mercury program used the following launch vehicles little joe suborbital robotic and primate flights launch escape system tests redstone suborbital robotic primate and piloted orbital flights atlas suborbital robotic robotic primate and piloted orbital flights robotic mercury jupiter cancelled in july one nine five nine proposed suborbital launch vehicle for mercury not flown little joe one august two one one nine five nine test of launch escape system during flight big joe one september nine one nine five nine test of heat shield and atlas spacecraft interface little joe six october four one nine five nine test of capsule aerodynamics and integrity little joe one a november four one nine five nine test of launch escape system during flight little joe two december four one nine five nine carried sam the monkey to eight five kilometres in altitude little joe one b january two one one nine six zero carried miss sam the monkey to nine three statute miles one five kilometres in altitude beach abort may nine one nine six zero test of the off the pad abort system mercury atlas one july two nine one nine six zero first flight of mercury spacecraft and atlas booster little joe five november eight one nine six zero first flight of a production mercury spacecraft mercury redstone one november two one one nine six zero launched four inches one zero zero mm settled back on pad due to electrical malfunction mercury redstone one a december one nine one nine six zero first flight of mercury spacecraft and redstone booster mercury redstone two january three one one nine six one carried ham the chimpanzee on suborbital flight mercury atlas two february two one one nine six one test of mercury spacecraft and atlas booster little joe five a march one eight one nine six one test of the launch escape system during the most severe conditions of a launch mercury redstone bd march two four one nine six one redstone booster development test flight mercury atlas three april two five one nine six one test of mercury spacecraft and atlas booster little joe five b april two eight one nine six one test of the launch escape system during the most severe conditions of a launch mercury atlas four september one three one nine six one test of mercury spacecraft and atlas booster mercury scout one november one one nine six one test of mercury tracking network mercury atlas five november two nine one nine six one carried enos the chimpanzee on a two orbit flight primate flights little joe two december four one nine five nine carried sam the monkey to eight five kilometres in altitude little joe one b january two one one nine six zero carried miss sam the monkey to nine three statute miles one five kilometres in altitude mercury redstone two january three one one nine six one carried ham the chimpanzee on suborbital flight mercury atlas five november two nine one nine six one carried enos the chimpanzee on a two orbit flight piloted suborbital mercury redstone three freedom seven five may one nine six one alan shepard mercury redstone four liberty bell seven two one july one nine six one gus grissom orbital mercury atlas six friendship seven two zero february one nine six two john glenn mercury atlas seven aurora seven two four may one nine six two scott carpenter replaced deke slayton mercury atlas eight sigma seven three october one nine six two wally schirra mercury atlas nine faith seven one five may one nine six three gordon cooper mercury atlas one zero freedom seven ii october one nine six three cancelled june one three one nine six three wernher von braun and astronaut gordon cooper in the blockhouse during mr three recovery operations may five one nine six one mercury control cape canaveral florida nasa piloted mercury launches piloted mercury launches mercury flight insignias flight patches are available to the public that purport to be patches from various mercury missions in reality these patches were designed long after the mercury program ended by private entrepreneurs when genuine flight patches were created by crews in the gemini program this caused a public demand for mercury flight patches which was filled by these private entrepreneurs the only patches the mercury astronauts wore were the nasa logo and a name tag each manned mercury spacecraft however was decorated with a flight insignia these are the genuine mercury flight insignias follow on programs miscellaneous the mercury astronauts trained in part at langley air force base in hampton virginia under flight surgeon william k douglas and keith g lindell col usaf several bridges throughout the city bear the name of the mercury astronauts and the main route in the city is named mercury boulevard honoring the mercury program the names of five of the mercury astronauts are also commemorated in the popular one nine six zero s tv show thunderbirds in the series jeff tracy the founder of the fictional international rescue organisation is a millionaire ex astronaut who has named his five sons scott virgil alan john and gordon after the real life mercury astronauts further reading gene kranz failure is not an option factual from the standpoint of a chief flight controller during the mercury gemini and apollo space programs isbn zero seven four three two zero zero seven nine nine tom wolfe the right stuff sentimental from the astronaut viewpoint not meant to be taken as a strict history but fascinating anyway schirra grissom glenn slayton shepherd carpenter cooper we seven isbn b zero zero zero zero five x five four g simon a collection of articles written by the seven mercury astronauts describing events from their points of view james m grimwood this new ocean a history of project mercury james m grimwood project mercury a chronology mae mills link space medicine in project mercury results of the first us manned orbital space flight feb two zero one nine six two friendship seven nasa report pdf format results of the second u s manned orbital space flight may two four one nine six two aurora seven nasa report pdf format this new ocean a history of project mercury nasa report pdf format chronology of project mercury nasa report pdf format see also man in space soonest vostok programme splashdown external links the mercury project kennedy space center project mercury a chronology prepared by james m grimwood space medicine in project mercury by mae mills link project mercury drawings and technical diagrams technical diagrams and drawings mercury atlas diagrams project mercury simulator for the pc orbiter project mercury simulator for the mac the mercury redstone project pdf december one nine six four project mercury familiarization manual pdf november one nine six one various pdfs of historical mercury documents including familiarization manuals manned spacecraft human spaceflight programmes mercury program villa of maecenas in tivoli italy jacob philipp hackert one seven eight three gaius maecenas also called cilnius maecenas seven zero eight bc was a confidant and political advisor to octavian who was later become known as caesar augustus as well as an important sponsor of young poets his name became a byword for a well connected and wealthy patron tacitus ann six one one refers to him as cilnius maecenas it is possible that cilnius was his mother s nomen as a close friend and advisor he acted even as deputy for augustus when he was abroad in later years their relationship grew colder probably in part because augustus had an affair with his wife terentia when he died he appointed augustus as his sole heir maecenas is probably most famous for his support of young poets hence his name has become a synonym to patron of arts in many languages he is reputed to have discovered horace and he supported virgil as well who wrote the georgics in his honor horace was given an estate in the sabine mountains by maecenas propertius and the minor poets varius rufus plotius tucca valgius rufus and domitius marsus also were his prot g s maecenas also wrote literature himself of his work some twenty fragments survive his works are said to have included dialogs like symposium and a poem in octaviam against octavia of which the content is unclear seven zero bc births eight bc deaths ancient romans roman era poets philanthropists a meander is a bend in a river meander may also mean meander tasmania australia meander river tasmania australia meander valley tasmania australia maeander river turkey meander architecture a decorative border constructed from a continuous line shaped into a repeated motif meander mathematics a self avoiding closed curve which intersects a line a number of times meander surveying a type of surveying in which boundary lines attempt to follow some non linear natural feature such as a river or lake edge rather than a strict linear or rectangular pattern this article is about the mountain in greece for other uses see olympus disambiguation see olympus mons for the martian volcano mytikas summit mt olympus mount olympus also transliterated as mount lympos and on modern maps ros limbos is the highest mountain in greece at two nine one nine according to new measurements meters high and one of the highest in real absolute altitude from base to top of europe since its base is located at sea level it is situated at in mainland greece mount olympus is noted for its very rich flora with several endemic species the highest peak on mount olympus is mitikas which in greek means nose an alternative transliterated spelling of this name is mytikas there are two refuges on a plain about forty five minutes away from mitikas mitikas is the highest peak in greece the second highest being stefani any climb to mount olympus starts from the town of litochoro which took the name city of gods because of its location in the roots of the mountain in greek mythology mount olympus is the home of the twelve olympians the principal gods in the greek pantheon the greeks thought of it as built up with crystal mansions wherein the gods such as zeus dwelt it is also known in greek mythology that when gaia mother earth gave birth to the titans the ancestors of the gods they used the mountains in greece as their thrones since they were so huge and cronus the youngest and most powerful of the titans sat on mount olympus itself the etymology and meaning of the name olympus olympos is unknown and it may be of pre indo european origin greek mythology mountains of greece national parks of greece march one six is the seven five th day of the year in the gregorian calendar seven six th in leap years there are two nine zero days remaining events five nine seven bc babylonians capture jerusalem replace jehoiachin with zedekiah as king one one nine zero crusaders start to massacre the jews of york one five two one ferdinand magellan reaches the philippines one six two one samoset a mohegan visits the settlers of plymouth colony and greets them welcome englishmen my name is samoset one six six zero the long parliament disbands one six eight nine the two three rd regiment of foot or royal welch fusiliers is founded one seven nine two king gustav iii of sweden is shot he dies on march two nine one eight zero two the united states military academy west point is established one eight one two battle of badajoz march one six april six british and portuguese forces besiege and defeat french garrison during peninsular war one eight one five prince willem of the house of orange nassau proclaimed himself king of the united kingdom of the netherlands the first constitutional monarch in the netherlands one eight one eight battle of cancha rayada spanish forces defeat chileans under jos de san mart n one eight five zero nathaniel hawthorne s novel the scarlet letter is first published one eight five five bates college in lewiston maine is founded one eight six one edward clark became governor of texas replacing sam houston who was evicted from the office for refusing to take an oath of loyalty to the confederacy one eight six seven first publication of an article by joseph lister outlining the discovery of antiseptic surgery in the lancet one eight seven two the wanderers f c won the first fa cup the oldest football competition in the world beating royal engineers a f c one zero at the oval in kennington london one nine zero zero sir arthur evans purchases the land around the ruins of knossos the largest bronze age archaeological site on crete one nine one two lawrence oates ill member of scott s south pole expedition leaves the tent saying i am just going outside and may be some time one nine one four henriette caillaux wife of french minister joseph caillaux shoots gaston calmet the editor of le figaro one nine one six seven th and one zero th us cavalry regiments under john j pershing cross the border to join the hunt of pancho villa one nine two four the free port of fiume formally annexed by mussolini s fascist regime one nine two six robert goddard launches the first liquid fueled rocket at auburn massachusetts one nine three five adolf hitler orders germany to rearm herself in violation of the versailles treaty conscription was reintroduced to form the wehrmacht one nine three nine from prague castle hitler proclaimed bohemia and moravia a german protectorate one nine three nine marriage of princess fawzia of egypt to shah mohammad reza pahlavi of iran one nine four two first v two rocket test launch exploded at liftoff one nine four five world war ii the battle of iwo jima ends but small pockets of japanese resistance persist one nine four five w rzburg germany is nine zero destroyed with five zero zero zero dead in only two zero minutes by british bombers one nine five two in cilaos r union seven three inches one eight seven zero mm of rain falls in one day setting a new world record one nine five six st urho s day is first celebrated one nine six two a flying tiger line super constellation disappears in the western pacific ocean with one zero seven people missing one nine six three mount agung erupts on bali one one zero zero zero dead one nine six six launch of gemini eight the one two th manned american space flight and first space docking with the agena target vehicle one nine six eight vietnam war in the my lai massacre between three five zero and five zero zero vietnamese villagers men women and children are killed by american troops one nine six nine a venezuelan airlines dc nine crashes shortly after takeoff in maracaibo venezuela killing one five five one nine seven zero publication of complete new english bible one nine seven one government of trygve bratteli in norway one nine seven two the first building of the pruitt igoe housing complex is demolished one nine seven six uk prime minister harold wilson resigns one nine seven eight aldo moro is kidnapped by left wing urban guerrillas in italy and is later killed by his captors one nine seven eight supertanker the amoco cadiz split in two after running aground on portsall rocks three miles off the coast of brittany resulting in the five th largest oil spill in history one nine eight three demolition of the radio tower ismaning the last radio tower in germany built of wood one nine eight four william buckley the cia station chief in beirut lebanon is kidnapped by islamic fundamentalists and later dies in captivity one nine eight five associated press newsman terry anderson is taken hostage in beirut he would be released on december four one nine nine one one nine eight eight iran contra affair lieutenant colonel oliver north and vice admiral john poindexter are indicted on charges of conspiracy to defraud the united states one nine eight eight halabja poison gas attack the kurdish town of halabjah in iraq was attacked with a mix of poison gas and nerve agents killing thousands of people one nine nine three a blizzard on the east coast of the united states kills one eight four see great blizzard of one nine nine three one nine nine four tonya harding pleads guilty to conspiracy to hinder prosecution for trying to cover up an attack on figure skating rival nancy kerrigan one nine nine seven sandline affair on bougainville soldiers of commander jerry singirok arrest tim spicer and his mercenaries of the sandline international one nine nine seven stuart appleby wins the honda golf classic one nine nine eight pope john paul ii apologises for inactivity and silence of some roman catholics during the holocaust two zero zero one the only day between one nine nine three and two zero zero two when nobody in the united kingdom killed themselves according to a health survey two zero zero two closing ceremonies of the winter paralympics in salt lake city utah usa two zero zero three largest coordinated worldwide vigil as part of the global protests against iraq war two zero zero five israel officially hands over jericho to palestinian control two zero zero five ripudaman singh malik and ajaib singh bagri accused of the bombing of the air india flight one eight two in one nine eight five are found not guilty on all counts two zero zero six new kitakyushu airport in japan will be in operation from this day on two zero zero six planned release date of the computer role playing game final fantasy xii in japan two eight eight zero date of potential earth impact for asteroid two nine zero seven five one nine five zero da births one three three eight thomas de beauchamp one two th earl of warwick d one four zero one one four four five johann geiler von kaisersberg swiss born preacher d one five one zero one five eight one pieter corneliszoon hooft dutch historian and writer d one six four seven one five eight five gerbrand adriaensz bredero dutch writer d one six one eight one six three one ren le bossu french critic d one six eight zero one six five four andreas acoluthus german orientalist d one seven zero four one seven five zero caroline herschel german born english astronomer d one eight four eight one seven five one james madison four th president of the united states d one eight three six one seven six six jean frederic waldeck french antiquarian cartographer artist and explorer d one eight seven five one seven seven three juan ram n balcarce argentine military leader and politician d one eight three six one seven seven four captain matthew flinders english explorer of the coasts of australia d one eight one four one seven eight nine georg simon ohm german physicist d one eight five four one seven nine four ami bou austrian geologist d one eight eight one one eight zero zero emperor ninko of japan d one eight four six one eight zero five peter ernst von lasaulx german philosopher and writer d one eight six one one eight two two rosa bonheur french realist painter and sculptor d one eight nine nine one eight two nine ren fran ois armand sully prudhomme french writer nobel prize laureate d one nine zero seven one eight three four james hector scottish geologist d one nine zero seven one eight three nine john butler yeats northern irish artist d one nine two two one eight four zero shibusawa eiichi japanese industrialist d one nine three one one eight five one martinus beijerinck dutch microbiologist and botanist d one nine three one one eight five six napol on eug ne louis john joseph called napoleon iv the only child of emperor napoleon iii of france d one eight seven nine one eight five seven charles harding firth british historian d one nine three six one eight seven seven reza pahlavi shah of iran d one nine four one one eight seven eight clemens august graf von galen german archbishop and cardinal d one nine four six one eight eight nine reggie walker south african athlete d one nine five one one eight nine zero solomon mikhoels soviet actor and chairman of the jewish anti fascist committee d one nine four eight one eight nine two c sar vallejo peruvian poet d one nine three eight one eight nine two james petrillo leader of the u s musicians union d one nine eight four one eight nine seven conrad nagel american actor d one nine seven zero one nine zero one edward pawley american actor d one nine eight eight one nine zero two leon roppolo american jazz clarinetist d one nine four three one nine zero three mike mansfield american politician and diplomat d two zero zero one one nine zero five elisabeth flickenschildt german actress d one nine seven seven one nine zero five marlin perkins american naturalist d one nine eight six one nine zero six henny youngman american comedian d one nine nine eight one nine zero eight ren daumal french surrealist writer d one nine four four one nine one one josef mengele nazi war criminal d one nine seven nine one nine one one pierre harmel belgian politician one nine one two pat nixon first lady of the united states d one nine nine three one nine one six mercedes mccambridge american actress d two zero zero four one nine one seven samael aun weor columbian writer d one nine seven seven one nine one eight frederick reines american physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine eight one nine two zero traudl junge hitler s secretary d two zero zero two one nine two zero leo mckern british actor d two zero zero two one nine two two harding lemay television scriptwriter and playwright one nine two five luis e miramontes mexican chemist co inventor of the contraceptive pill d two zero zero four one nine two six charles goodell american politician d one nine eight seven one nine two six jerry lewis american comedian one nine two eight christa ludwig german mezzo soprano one nine two seven vladimir komarov cosmonaut d one nine six seven one nine two seven daniel patrick moynihan u s senator from new york d two zero zero three one nine two seven olga san juan american comedienne one nine three two don blasingame major league baseball and japanese baseball manager d two zero zero five one nine three two walter cunningham astronaut one nine three three sandy weill american financier and philanthropist one nine three four ray hnatyshyn governor general of canada d two zero zero two one nine three six fred neil american singer songwriter d two zero zero one one nine three seven amos tversky israeli psychologist d one nine nine six one nine three nine carlos bilardo argetinian football coach and player one nine four zero bernardo bertolucci italian film director one nine four zero chuck woolery american game show host one nine four one robert gu military ruler of c te d ivoire d two zero zero two one nine four two james soong taiwanese politician one nine four two jerry jeff walker american musician one nine four three david cronenberg canadian film director one nine four eight margaret weis american author one nine four nine erik estrada puerto rican actor one nine four nine victor garber canadian actor one nine five zero kate nelligan canadian actress one nine five two philippe kahn french american entrepreneur one nine five three isabelle huppert french actress one nine five three richard stallman american free software activist one nine five four jimmy nail british actor and singer one nine five four nancy wilson american guitarist singer and actress heart one nine five five jiro watanabe japanese boxer one nine five five bruno barreto brazilian film director one nine five eight jorge ramos mexican tv anchor one nine five nine flavor flav american rapper one nine five nine jens stoltenberg prime minister of norway one nine six one todd mcfarlane canadian cartoonist comic book writer artist and media entrepreneur one nine six three kevin smith new zealand actor d two zero zero two one nine six four patty griffin american singer and songwriter one nine six seven lauren graham american actress one nine seven one alan tudyk american actor one nine eight zero todd heap american football player one nine eight one andrew bree irish swimmer one nine eight nine theo walcott english football player deaths three seven tiberius claudius nero caesar roman emperor b four six bc four five five valentinian iii roman emperor b four one nine one zero three seven robert i archbishop of rouen one zero seven two adalbert of hamburg german archbishop one three two two humphrey de bohun four th earl of hereford english soldier b one two seven six one four one zero john beaufort one st earl of somerset b one three seven three one four five seven l szl hunyadi hungarian statesman and warrior b one four three three one four eight five anne neville queen of richard iii of england b one four five six one five five nine anthony st leger lord deputy of ireland b one four nine six one six four nine jean de br beuf french jesuit missionary b one five nine three one six seven nine john leverett governor of the massachusetts bay colony b one six one six one seven two one james craggs the elder english politician b one six five seven one seven three six giovanni battista pergolesi italian composer b one seven one zero one seven three seven benjamin wadsworth american president of harvard university b one six seven zero one seven three eight george b hr german architect b one six six six one seven four seven christian augustus of anhalt zerbst father of catherine ii of russia b one six nine zero one eight eight eight hippolyte carnot french statesman b one eight zero one one eight nine eight aubrey beardsley british artist b one eight seven two one eight nine nine joseph medill business manager and managing editor of the chicago tribune mayor of chicago illinois b one eight two three one nine zero three judge roy bean american jurist and pioneer one nine one four charles albert gobat swiss politician recipient of the nobel peace prize b one eight four three one nine three zero miguel primo de rivera spanish dictator b one eight seven zero one nine three five john james richard macleod scottish born physician and physiologist nobel prize laureate b one eight seven six one nine three five aron nimzowitsch latvian born chess player b one eight eight six one nine three six marguerite durand french journalist and feminist leader b one eight six four one nine four zero selma lagerl f swedish writer nobel prize laureate b one eight five eight one nine four one robert gu military ruler of c te d ivoire d two zero zero two one nine four five b rries von m nchhausen german poet b one eight seven four one nine five seven constantin brancusi romanian sculptor b one eight seven six one nine six eight mario castelnuovo tedesco italian composer b one eight nine five one nine seven zero tammi terrell american singer b one nine four six one nine seven one thomas dewey american presidential candidate b one nine zero two one nine seven five richard w dekorte american politician b one nine three six one nine seven five t bone walker american musician b one nine one zero one nine seven seven kamal jumblatt leader of the lebanese druze b one nine one seven one nine seven nine jean monnet french politician b one eight eight eight one nine eight zero tamara de lempicka polish born painter b one eight nine eight one nine eight three arthur godfrey american actor and television host b one nine zero three one nine eight four john hoagland american photographer b one nine four seven one nine nine two yves rocard french physicist b one nine zero three one nine nine six charlie barnett american actor b one nine five four one nine nine eight derek harold richard barton british chemist nobel prize laureate b one nine one eight two zero zero one norma macmillan american voice actress b one nine two one two zero zero three rachel corrie american political activist b one nine seven nine two zero zero three major ronald ferguson father of sarah duchess of york b one nine three one two zero zero four vil m tausk czech conductor and composer b one nine one zero two zero zero five todd bell american football player b one nine five eight two zero zero five ralph erskine british architect byker wall b one nine one four two zero zero five anthony george american tv actor b one nine two one two zero zero five allan hendrickse south african politician b one nine two seven two zero zero five dick radatz american baseball player b one nine three seven holidays and observances latvia the controversial latvia legions is celebrated in latvia where about one four zero zero zero zero men joined the waffen ss national legions during world war ii trying to defend latvia since february two three two zero zero zero this day is no longer an official celebration day st urho s day the fictional patron saint of finnish immigrants to the us created by richard mattson in one nine five six the first day of the bacchanalia in ancient rome external links bbc on this day today in history march one six march one five march one seven february one six april one six listing of all days magick is an alternative term for magic that was coined by aleister crowley to differentiate the true science of the magi from all its counterfeits in the broadest sense magick is any act performed in order to cause intentional change for example changing the channel on your television set this term is spelled with a terminal k to differentiate it from other practices such as stage magic according to crowley it should also be pronounced differently mage ick though this pronunciation is now uncommon the letter k is the one one th letter of the latin alphabet in numerology the number one one represents hidden energies and thereby magick therefore it is thought that to add a k to magic makes the word itself more magickal it should be noted that aleister crowley merely coined the spelling in modern times as the spelling with a final k has been around since ancient times and was the normal spelling at that time crowley simply resurrected the word to distinguish it from stage magic illusions and slight of hand magick is not capable of producing miracles or violating the physical laws of the universe e g it cannot cause a solar eclipse although it is theoretically possible to cause in any object any change of which that object is capable by nature according to crowley crowley got the inspiration for the spelling from its usage by the famous english magician john dee his definition treats magic in the context of the paranormal and magic in the context of religion as special cases despite these distinctions specifically the assertion that magick cannot violate the laws of the universe people often expect practitioners of magick e g witches to be able to literally speaking pull rabbits out of hats as they see illusionists do because the words are nearly identical and the spelling of magick has not yet been widely accepted some people are not aware of the differences in the usage of each term and indeed tend to think they are one and the same as a result when a witch fails to impress with a feat similar to the sleight of hand trick of pulling a rabbit out of a hat magick is dismissed as fictitious however if one is to make comparisons it would be more accurate to compare magick to prayer as found in other religions rather than sleight of hand just as a christian wouldn t expect to offer a prayer and open his eyes to see his wish immediately fulfilled by god neither does a witch cast a spell and expect to see some sort of immediate and miraculous result crowley defined magick as the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with the will by this he included mundane acts of will as well as ritual magic in magick in theory and practice chapter xiv crowley says what is a magical operation it may be defined as any event in nature which is brought to pass by will we must not exclude potato growing or banking from our definition let us take a very simple example of a magical act that of a man blowing his nose some in the neopagan and occult communities have amended this definition using the word magick exclusively in a paranormal sense however crowley still wields significant influence in these circles concentration or meditation plays an important role in crowley s system a certain amount of restricting the mind to some imagined object according to this theory produces mystical attainment or an occurrence in the brain characterized essentially by the uniting of subject and object book four part one mysticism magick as defined previously seeks to aid concentration by constantly recalling the attention to the chosen object or will thereby producing said attainment for example if one wishes to concentrate on a god one might memorize a system of correspondences perhaps chosen arbitrarily as this would not affect its usefulness for mystical purposes and then make every object that one sees correspond to said god aleister crowley wrote now what is all this but to do in a partial and if i may say so romantic way what the yogi does in his more scientifically complete yet more austerely difficult methods and here the advantage of magick is that the process of initiation is spontaneous and so to speak automatic you may begin in the most modest way with the evocation of some simple elemental spirit but in the course of the operation you are compelled in order to attain success to deal with higher entities your ambition grows like every other organism by what it feeds on you are very soon led to the great work itself you are led to aspire to the knowledge and conversation of the holy guardian angel and this ambition in turn arouses automatically further difficulties the conquest of which confers new powers in the book of the thirty aethyrs commonly called the vision and the voice it becomes progressively difficult to penetrate each aethyr in fact the penetration was only attained by the initiations which were conferred by the angel of each aethyr in its turn there was this further identification with yoga practices recorded in this book at times the concentration necessary to dwell in the aethyr became so intense that definitely samadhic results were obtained we see then that the exaltation of the mind by means of magical practices leads as one may say in spite of itself to the same results as occur in straightforward yoga crowley yoga for yellowbellies crowley also made claims for the paranormal effects of magick however he defined any attempt to use this power for a purpose other than aiding attainment as black magic see magick of aleister crowley by lon milo duquette see also wicca occult magic paranormal sex magic external links disciplina org ceremonial and goetic magick resources sacred magick com the esoteric library premiere library of the occult magick and spirituality the free encyclopedia of thelema a free encyclopedia of magick the occult thelemapedia the encyclopedia of thelema magick a large reference site with many topics related to magick union of radical magi magick in the service of humankind magick within discover magick free love spells magic occult emperor tacitus on a coin the reverse celebrates his victory over the alans victoria gotthi marcus claudius tacitus c two zero zero two seven six roman emperor from september two five two seven five to april two seven six was a native of interamna terni in umbria in the course of his long life he discharged the duties of various civil offices including that of consul in two seven three with universal respect six months after the assassination of aurelian he was chosen by the senate to succeed him and the choice was cordially ratified by the army during his brief reign he set on foot some domestic reforms and sought to revive the authority of the senate but after a victory over the alans near the palus maeotis he was assassinated at tyana in cappadocia tacitus besides being a man of immense wealth which he bequeathed to the state had considerable literary culture and was proud to claim descent from the historian gaius cornelius tacitus whose works he caused to be transcribed at the public expense and placed in the public libraries however modern research has cast considerable suspicion on this traditional image of tacitus as a venerable old senator quite the contrary evidence from coins for example indicates that tacitus was just another military emperor whose only distiction from other short lived emperors of the time was his attempt to cultivate the image of a learned man references historia augusta vita taciti english version of historia augusta eutropius breviarium ab urbe condita ix one six after him tacitus succeeded to the throne a man of excellent morals and well qualified to govern the empire he was unable however to show the world anything remarkable being cut off by death in the sixth mouth of his reign english version of breviarium ab urbe condita tacitus in de imperatoribus romanis giving the modern view see also roman empire external links two zero zero s births two seven six deaths roman emperors murdered roman emperors crisis of the third century natives of terni the mv tampa is a norwegian cargo ship that was at the centre of a diplomatic dispute between australia norway and indonesia off the coast of christmas island during the year two zero zero one australia had an increasing incidence of people arriving on boats to apply for asylum in australia many of these came from indonesia to christmas island an australian territory in the indian ocean some two zero zero zero km off the north west coast of australia and south of indonesia hundreds of people arrived on tightly packed leaky boats many believed to have paid thousands of dollars to people smugglers to be taken to australia overview at dawn on august two four two zero zero one a two zero metre wooden fishing boat the palapa with four six zero mainly afghan asylum seekers became stranded about one four zero km north of christmas island on the august two six rescue coordination centre rcc australia had become aware of the vessel s distress for some time and finally had asked all ships in the area to respond of the ships that responded the tampa was closest to the site and rescued the asylum seekers according to international law surviviors of a shipwreck are to be taken to the closest port for medical treatment in this case christmas island when interviewed by norway today captain of the tampa arne rinnan reveals they sent a plane to direct us to the sinking boat when we arrived it was obvious to us that it was coming apart several of the refugees were obviously in a bad state and collapsed when they came on deck to us one zero to one two of them were unconscious several had dysenteria and a pregnant woman suffered abdominal pains first we were told to bring them to christmas island then they changed their minds and said that the refugees were not allowed to disembark at any account i got mad rinnan has been a sailor since one nine five eight and a captain for two three years i have seen most of what there is to see in this profession but what i experienced on this trip is the worst when we asked for food and medicine for the refugees the australians sent commando troops onboard this created a very high tension among the refugees after an hour of checking the refugees the troops agreed to give medical assistance to some of them the soldiers obviously didn t like their mission the ship approached the boundary of australia s territorial waters one two nautical miles from the island and requested the australian government s permission to unload the asylum seekers at christmas island the australian government however refused permission for the ship to enter australia s territorial waters arguing that christmas island did not have facilities for the ship to dock and that the rescue occurred in part of the high seas for which indonesia had search and rescue responsibilties and that hence they should go to indonesia instead captain rinnan pleaded for permission for the ship to dock at christmas island he reported that several of the asylum seekers were unconscious and others were suffering from dysentery statements that were later disputed according to later australian government claims the asylum seekers were in relatively good health however a few were quite ill by the time they arrived in new zealand so this matter is still unclear the captain said that the ship could not sail to indonesia because it was unseaworthy the ship was not designed for four three eight people only its two seven crew and there were no lifeboats or other safety equipment available for the asylum seekers in the case of an emergency he was also concerned that if the ship did try to sail to indonesia the asylum seekers could try jumping overboard or rioting and harm the crew the australian government promised the provision of medical assistance and food but still refused permission for the ship to enter australian territorial waters the australian government sent military personnel to christmas island ostensibly to be ready to provide this assistance to the ship on august two nine captain rinnan having lost patience with the australian authorities and increasingly concerned for the safety of the asylum seekers and the ship s crew declared a state of emergency and proceeded to enter australian territorial waters without permission the legality of this action has been the subject of debate with the australian government maintaining that it was illegal the australian government then responded by dispatching australian troops three five sas commandos to board the ship and prevent it from approaching any further to christmas island the australian government was seeking to stop any of the asylum seekers from applying for asylum which they could legally do as soon as they stepped foot on australian territory the soldiers boarded the ship and captain rinnan then anchored it approximately four nautical miles off christmas island shortly afterwards the prime minister of australia john howard reported the boarding of the ship to the australian parliament the australian troops instructed captain rinnan to move the ship back into international waters he refused claiming the ship was unsafe to sail until the asylum seekers had been offloaded the shipowners said they agreed with his decision and the norwegian government warned the australian government not to seek to force the ship to return to international waters against the captain s will the australian government tried to persuade indonesia to accept the asylum seekers indonesia refused norway refused to accept them either because of the distance between the ship and norway and reported australia to the united nations the united nations high commissioner for refugees and the international maritime organisation for alleged failure to obey its duties under international law though it did not ask for the assistance of these organizations captain arne rinnan received the highest civil honour in norway as a result of his handling of this difficult incident all the companies who had cargo on tampa congratulated captain rinnan despite the various cargos having been delayed by one zero days australia threatened to prosecute captain rinnan as a people smuggler border protection bill two zero zero one late on the night of august two nine the prime minister introduced an emergency bill entitled the border protection bill two zero zero one this bill provides the government with the power to remove any ship in the territorial waters of australia s four to use reasonable force to do so s five to provide that any person who was on the ship may be forcibly returned to the ship s six that no civil or criminal proceedings may be taken against the australian government or any of its officer for removing the ship or returning people to it s seven that no court proceedings are available to prevent the ship from being removed and from people being returned to it s eight and that no asylum applications may be made by people on board the ship s nine the bill provides for it to enter into force on at nine am australian eastern standard time two nine august two zero zero one s two thus the bill is retroactive it also provides that any action taken prior to the legislation being passed to remove any ship and return people to it are legal the opposition labor party announced they would not support the bill nor would the greens democrats or independent senator brian harradine the bill quickly passed the lower house of representatives but was rejected by the senate at two zero five am act time on august three zero after which the senate adjourned the government attacked the opposition for refusing to pass the legislation but indicated it would not reintroduce it at this stage the government has since acted to excise christmas island and a large number of other coastal islands from australia s migration zone effectively meaning that any asylum seekers who do not reach the australian mainland will not be able to apply for refugee status the labor party supported the excision of some islands that it viewed as acting as a magnet for people smugglers but not others such as melville island which it viewed as being too close to the mainland to justify excision the other parties opposed excision of any islands political effects the tampa crisis had an enormous effect on australia both at home and abroad internationally australia was criticised by many countries particularly norway who accused it of evading its human rights responsibilities australia s stance did attract some support from countries such as the united kingdom that faced similar immigration problems domestically the government s line attracted strong support especially in the aftermath of the september one one two zero zero one attacks the australian government s popularity rating rose accordingly throughout the crisis in the federal election narrowly following the arrival of the tampa the liberal party campaigned vigorously on the issue with john howard s statement we decide who comes into this country and the circumstances in which they come acting as the party s de facto election slogan meanwhile the australian electorate largely supported its government though there was a comparatively smaller element of dissidents television news polls in australia showed up to nine zero percent support for the australian government s actions many viewed the asylum seekers as queue jumpers falsely claiming to be refugees in order to gain illegal entry into the country there were concerns of a security risk involving a floodgates situation where people smugglers would deliberately target australia as a perceived soft target some including the then minister for defense peter reith went so far to claim that the group could be harbouring terrorists on the other hand human rights organisations religious groups and other organisations deeply concerned at what they saw as an appalling lack of compassion on the part of the government vocally campaigned for the acceptance of the asylum seekers as legitimate refugees rallies in support of the tampa asylum seekers as well as others interned in detention centres in woomera and elsewhere occurred around the country the issue also wedged the labor party internally with the socialist left faction of the party arguing strongly in favour of a softer approach including the abolition of mandatory detention the party leadership s compromise stance was pilloried by the liberals as being wishy washy and uncertain labor s vote in the election suffered heavily middle class intellectuals disgusted by what they saw as complicity in the government s refugee bashing deserted the party for the greens while working class support ebbed away in favour of the liberals hard line the issue persists as a divisive and electorally dangerous one for the labor party fate of the refugees the refugees from the tampa were loaded onto a royal australian navy vessel hmas manoora most were transported to the small island country of nauru as part of what was known as australia s pacific solution and held in two detention camps stateside and topside camp where they were eventually joined by hundreds of other asylum seekers the rest approximately one five zero people were diverted to new zealand where they were subsequently granted asylum and progress to citizenship in two zero zero four following the war in afghanistan and invasion of iraq the new zealand government began to reunite their families when those refugees not claimed by new zealand arrived on nauru many of them refused to leave the boat after several additional weeks on board waiting for temporary shelters to be constructed recognizing they were to be held in detention camps pending the adjudication of their cases those eventually found to be genuine refugees were granted three year temporary protection visas by which they could be returned to their places of origin in afghanistan and iraq at a time of the government s choosing the holders of the temporary protection visa are not allowed to return home without losing their visa status and do not have access to the same services as normally recognized refugees e g free english language lessons and help with job search another small group was later accepted by new zealand as of august two zero zero five three two people still remained in camps on nauru from the tampa and other ships australia made direct cash payments to new zealand for accepting those refugees it did accept due to its isolation new zealand rarely has enough refugees arriving on its borders to meet its unhcr quota and so accepts refugees from other countries nansen refugee award the crew of the tampa received the nansen refugee award for two zero zero two from the united nations high commissioner for refugees unhcr for their efforts to follow international principles of saving people in distress at sea despite repeated threats of imprisonment and confiscation of the ship from the australian government legal cases decision of justice north federal court of australia one one september two zero zero one decision of full court overturning decision of justice north one eight september two zero zero one further reading david marr marian wilkinson dark victory isbn one seven four one one four four four seven seven external links nauruwire an australia based site update on status of detainees accessed two five june two zero zero five australian immigration australian political controversies freighters international maritime incidents two zero zero one in australia mayan numerals the pre columbian maya civilization used a vigesimal base twenty numeral system the numerals are made up of three symbols zero shell shape one a dot and five a bar for example nineteen one nine is written as four dots in a horizontal row above three horizontal lines stacked upon each other digits are stacked with the higher significant digits at the top thus two dots one above the other would be read as one two zero one two one other than the bar and dot notation maya numerals can be illustrated by face type glyphs the face glyph for a number represents the deity associated with the number these face number glyphs were rarely used and are mostly seen only on some of the most elaborate monumental carving in the calendar in the long count portion of the maya calendar a variation on the strictly vigesimal numbering is used the long count changes in the second place value it is not two zero two zero four zero zero as would otherwise be expected but one eight two zero so that one dot over two zeros signifies three six zero this is supposed to be because three six zero is roughly the number of days in a year some hypothesize that this was an early approximation to the number of days in the solar year although the maya had a quite accurate calculation of three six five two four two two days for the solar year at least since the early classic era subsequent place values return to base twenty maya civilization numeration the rt hon michael foot for other people of this name see michael foot disambiguation michael mackintosh foot born two three july one nine one three british politician was leader of the labour party from one nine eight zero to one nine eight three early life michael foot was born in plymouth devon and educated at leighton park school in plymouth and wadham college oxford his father isaac foot was a solicitor and founder of the plymouth law firm foot and bowden isaac foot was an active member of the liberal party and was liberal mp for bodmin in cornwall one nine two two one nine two four and one nine two nine one nine three five and a lord mayor of plymouth michael foot is the younger brother of the late sir dingle foot mp the liberal politician lord foot previously john foot and of the late lord caradon previously hugh foot a governor of cyprus whose late son was the campaigning journalist paul foot like his father foot was president of the oxford union a liberal at university he joined the labour party soon after graduating in one nine three four he first stood for parliament at the age of two two in the one nine three five election when he contested monmouth he became a journalist working briefly on the new statesman before joining the left wing weekly tribune when it was set up in early one nine three seven to support the unity campaign an attempt to secure an anti fascist united front between labour and the parties to its left the campaign s members were sir stafford cripps s labour affiliated socialist league the independent labour party and the communist party of great britain foot resigned in one nine three eight after the paper s first editor william mellor was fired for refusing to adopt a new cp policy of backing a popular front including non socialist parties against fascism and appeasement star polemicist on the recommendation of aneurin bevan foot was soon hired by lord beaverbrook to work as a writer on his evening standard bevan is supposed to have told beaverbrook on the phone i ve got a young bloody knight errant here they sacked his boss so he resigned have a look at him in one nine four zero under the pen name cato he and two other beaverbrook journalists frank owen editor of the standard and peter howard of the daily express published guilty men a left book club book attacking the appeasement policy of the chamberlain government that became a run away best seller beaverbrook made foot editor of the evening standard in one nine four two at the age of two eight foot left in one nine four five to join the daily herald then jointly owned by the tuc and odhams press and effectively an official labour party paper as a columnist and to fight plymouth devonport in the one nine four five general election he won the seat for labour for the first time holding it until his surprise defeat by dame joan vickers in one nine five five he rejoined tribune as editor from one nine four eight to one nine five two and was again the paper s editor from one nine five five to one nine six zero until one nine five seven he was the most prominent ally of aneurin bevan who had taken cripps s place as leader of the labour left though foot and bevan fell out after bevan renounced unilateral nuclear disarmament at the one nine five seven labour party conference before the cold war began in the one nine four zero s foot favoured a third way foreign policy for europe he was joint author with richard crossman and ian mikardo of the pamphlet keep left in one nine four seven but in the wake of the communist seizure of power in hungary and czechoslovakia he and tribune took a strongly anti communist position eventually embracing nato foot was however a critic of the west s handling of the korean war an opponent of west german rearmament in the early one nine five zero s and a founder member of the campaign for nuclear disarmament under his editorship tribune opposed both the british government s suez adventure and the soviet crushing of the hungarian revolution in one nine five six foot returned to parliament in one nine six zero at a by election for ebbw vale in monmouthshire left vacant by bevan s death leader of the left harold wilson the subject of an enthusiastic campaign biography by foot published by robert maxwell s pergamon press in one nine six four offered foot a place in his first government but foot turned it down instead he became the leader of labour s left opposition from the back benches dazzling the commons with his command of rhetoric he opposed the government s moves to restrict immigration join the common market and reform the trade unions was against the vietnam war and rhodesia s unilateral declaration of independence and denounced the soviet suppression of socialism with a human face in czechoslovakia in one nine six eight he also famously allied with the tory right winger enoch powell to scupper the government s plan to abolish the voting rights of hereditary peers and create a house of lords comprising only life peers a seraglio of eunuchs as foot put it in government after one nine seven zero labour moved to the left and wilson came to an accommodation with foot when labour returned to office in one nine seven four under wilson foot became secretary of state for employment in which role he played the major part in the government s efforts to keep the trade unions on side foot was one of the mainstays of the no campaign in the one nine seven five referendum on british membership of the eec when wilson retired in one nine seven six foot contested the party leadership but was defeated by james callaghan later that year he was elected deputy leader and served as leader of the house of commons which gave him the unenviable task of trying to maintain the survivial of the callaghan government as its majority evaporated labour leader following labour s one nine seven nine general election defeat by margaret thatcher foot was elected labour leader in one nine eight zero beating the right s candidate denis healey in the second round of the leadership election the last leadership contest to involve only labour mps foot presented himself as a compromise candidate capable unlike healey of uniting the party which at the time was riven by the grassroots left wing insurgency centred on tony benn the bennites demanded revenge for the betrayals as they saw them of the callaghan government and pushed the case for replacement of mps who had acquiesced in them by left wingers who would support the causes of unilateral nuclear disarmament withdrawal from the common market and widespread nationalisation benn did not stand for the leadership apart from foot and healey the other candidates both eliminated in the first round were john silkin like foot a tribunite and peter shore an anti european right winger when he became leader foot was already six six and frail and almost immediately after his election as leader was faced with a massive crisis the creation in early one nine eight one of a breakaway party by four senior labour right wingers roy jenkins shirley williams david owen and william rodgers the so called gang of four the social democratic party the sdp won the support of large sections of the media and for more than a year its opinion poll ratings suggested that it could at least overtake labour and possibly win a general election with the labour left still strong in one nine eight one benn decided to challenge healey for the deputy leadership of the party a contest healey won by the narrowest of margins foot struggled to make an impact and was widely criticised for it though his performances in the commons most notably on the falklands crisis of one nine eight two won him widespread respect from other parliamentarians he was however criticised by some on the left who felt that he should not have supported the thatcher government s immediate resort to military action in defence of two zero zero zero falkland islanders wish to remain british subjects the right wing newspapers nevertheless lambasted him consistently for his bohemian eccentricity attacking him for wearing what they described as a donkey jacket at the wreath laying ceremony at the cenotaph on remembrance day foot said later that it was a perfectly good jacket a dark green coat which he wore over his black suit bought from herbie frogg in jermyn street to keep himself warm on a cold november morning and that the queen mother had praised him for his choice of garment through late one nine eight two and early one nine eight three there was constant speculation that labour mps would replace foot with healey as leader speculation that increased after labour lost the one nine eight three bermondsey by election in which the gay rights activist peter tatchell was its candidate but labour won a subsequent by election in darlington and foot remained leader for the one nine eight three general election the one nine eight three labour manifesto strongly socialist in tone advocated unilateral nuclear disarmament higher personal taxation and a return to a more interventionist industrial policy the manifesto also pledged that a labour government would abolish the house of lords and leave the eec among the labour mps newly elected in one nine eight three in support of this manifesto was tony blair foot s labour party lost to the conservatives in a landslide foot resigned and was succeeded by neil kinnock as leader gerald kaufman once harold wilson s press officer and during the one nine eight zero s a key player on the labour right described the one nine eight three labour manifesto as the longest suicide note in history after one nine eight three foot took a back seat in labour politics after one nine eight three and retired from the house of commons in one nine nine two but remained politically active he defended salman rushdie the novelist who was subject to a fatwah by ayatollah khomeini and took a strongly pro interventionist position against slobodan milo evi over croatia and bosnia in one nine nine five an article in the sunday times under the headline kgb michael foot was our agent alleged that the soviet intelligence services regarded foot as an agent of influence foot denied he had been any such thing successfully sued the sunday times and handed over a large part of his damages to tribune the article was based on the paper s serialisation of kgb defector oleg gordievsky s memoirs foot has remained a high profile member of the campaign for nuclear disarmament to this day he is the author of several books including highly regarded biographies of aneurin bevan and h g wells many of his friends have said publicly that they regret that he ever gave up literature for politics though foot is considered by many a failure as labour leader his biographer mervyn jones makes the case that no one else could have held labour together at the time foot is remembered with affection in westminster as a great parliamentarian in two zero zero three foot turned nine zero he remains a director of plymouth argyle f c the football club he has supported since childhood for his nine zero th birthday present the club registered him as a player and gave him the shirt number nine zero foot was married to the film maker author and feminist historian jill craigie from one nine four nine until her death in one nine nine nine bibliography cato guilty men left book club one nine four zero foot michael the pen and the sword macgibbon and kee one nine five seven isbn zero two six one six one nine eight nine six foot michael aneurin bevan macgibbon and kee one nine six two vol one one nine seven three vol two isbn zero two six one six one five zero eight four foot michael debts of honour harper and row one nine eight one isbn zero zero six zero three nine zero zero one eight foot michael another heart and other pulses collins one nine eight four foot michael loyalists and loners collins one nine eight six foot michael politics of paradise harpercollins one nine eight nine isbn zero zero six zero three nine zero nine one three foot michael introduction in swift jonathan gulliver s travels penguin penguin classics one nine six seven leigh david michael foot a portrait hodder one nine eight one isbn zero three four zero two seven zero four zero three jones mervyn michael foot gollancz one nine nine three isbn zero five seven five zero five nine three three eight in depth biographical interview marking foot s nine zero th birthday one nine one three births atheists british mps british secretaries of state former students of wadham college oxford humanists leaders of the british labour party living people lord presidents of the council members of the privy council natives of devon plymothians plymouth argyle f c presidents of the oxford union socialists max and moritz max and moritz a story of seven boyish pranks was a german language illustrated story in verse this highly inventive blackly humorous tale told entirely in rhymed couplets was written and illustrated by wilhelm busch and published in one eight six five many familiar with comic strip history consider it to have been the direct inspiration for the katzenjammer kids cultural significance busch s classic tale of the terrible two now in the public domain has since become a proud part of the culture in german speaking countries in spite of or maybe owing to its relative obscurity in english speaking cultures to this day in germany and especially austria a certain familiarity with the story is still presumed as it is often referenced in mass communication the two leering cretinous faces are synonymous with mischief and appear almost logo like in advertising and even graffiti it s interesting to compare max the tailor is swept away and nearly drowns but for two geese which act as life preservers fourth trick the teacher while their devout teacher is busy at church the boys invade his home and fill his favorite pipe with gunpowder when he lights the pipe the blast knocks him unconscious blackens his skin and burns away all his hair fifth trick the uncle the boys collect bags full of may beetles which they promptly deposit in their uncle s bed uncle is nearly asleep when he feels the bugs walking on his nose horrified he goes into a bug killing frenzy with a shoe sixth trick the baker the boys invade a bakery which they believe is closed attempting to steal pretzels they fall into a vat of dough the baker returns catches the breaded pair and bakes them but they survive and escape by gnawing through their crusts final trick the farmer hiding out in a farmer s grain storage area the boys slit some grain sacks a farmer arrives and immediately notices the problem he puts the boys in the sack instead then takes it to the mill the boys are ground to bits and devoured by ducks later no one expresses regret the mill really exists in eberg tzen germany and can be visited comic strips for the distress signal see mayday for the james bond villain see may day james bond may day is a name for various holidays celebrated on may one or in the beginning of may the most famous one being labour day may day is exactly a half year from november one all saints day marking the end of the uncomfortable winter half of the year in the northern hemisphere it has always been an occasion for popular and often raucous celebrations regardless of the political or religious establishment may day was also originally the celtic holiday beltaine the return of the sun it is the third and last of the spring festivals we can see traces of beltaine when dancing around the maypole or sending a basket of flowers to your neighbor s door labour association may day rallies such as this one in mumbai are common pflp may day poster workers dressed nice for the may day demonstration in stockholm sweden one eight nine nine one st may poster of the people s republic of poland the holiday is now often associated with the commemoration of the social and economic achievements of the labor movement the one may date is used because in one eight eight four the federation of organized trades and labor unions inspired by labor s one eight seven two success in canada demanded an eight hour workday in the united states to come in effect as of may one one eight eight six this resulted in the general strike and the u s haymarket riot of one eight eight six but eventually also in the official sanction of the eight hour workday may day is designated international workers day it is indeed an international holiday in many countries but not english speaking countries such as the united states and the united kingdom in most of the world except in the us labor day is celebrated on the one st of may in remembrance of the one eight eight six haymarket riot the adoption of may day by socialists and later also the communists as their primary holiday cements official resistance to this holiday in the us the us government has also attempted to create other holidays for the day of one may in order to further discourage the celebration of may day canada australia and new zealand also celebrate labour day on different dates that has to do with how the holiday originated in those countries nevertheless may day has long been a focal point for demonstrations by various socialist communist and anarchist groups in the two zero th century the holiday received the official endorsement of the soviet union celebrations in communist countries during the cold war era often consisted of large military parades and shows of common people in support of the government in a separate attempt to co opt may day the roman catholic church added another saint joseph s day in one nine five five that christianized one may as the day of saint joseph the worker it is perhaps surprising that the church did not take this step earlier to distract attention from the traditionally virile pagan celebrations of may day germany may day graffiti in berlin the text reads one may cars burning cops dying berlin germany particularly in the districts of kreuzberg and prenzlauer berg traditionally has yearly demonstrations on may day in one nine two nine the social democratic spd government prohibited the annual may day workers demonstrations in berlin the communist party kpd which was the strongest party in berlin called demonstrations nonetheless by the end of the day three two demonstrators workers and bystanders had been killed by the police at least eight zero were seriously injured the berlin police under control of the supposedly pro labor social democratic government had fired a total of one one zero zero zero rounds of live ammunition this incident remembered as blood may deepened the split between the workers parties kpd and spd this gave an advantage to the nazis who became germany s governing party in one nine three three partly due to the fact that the kpd and spd had been unable to form an anti nazi coalition the nazis adapted may day to their purposes calling it the day of work which is still the official name for this public holiday ironically just after may day to be more precise on may two one nine three three the nazis outlawed and all free labor unions and other independent workers organizations in germany the reichsarbeitsdienst or rad reich labour service was formed in july one nine three four as an amalgamation of the outlawed unions in today s germany may day is still of political importance with labor unions and parties using this day for political campaigns and activities but since one nine eight seven it has also become known for heavy rioting by radical leftists including the punk rock scene autonome and others but also regular youths not fond of the police however violence from the political left has been on the decline in recent years with may day two zero zero five in berlin being the most peaceful in nearly two three years in recent years neo nazis and other groups on the far right like the npd have also used the day to schedule public demonstrations often leading to clashes with left wing protesters which turned especially violent in the historical city of leipzig in one nine nine eight and two zero zero five in rural regions of germany walpurgisnacht celebrations of pagan origin are traditionally held on the night before may day including bonfires and the wrapping of may poles and young people use this opportunity to party while the day itself is used by many families to get some fresh air wurst and beer motto tanz in den mai dance in may traditions in the united kingdom morris dancing on may day oxford two zero zero four traditional english may day rites and celebrations include morris dancing crowning a may queen celebrating green man day and dancing around a maypole much of this tradition derives from the pagan festival of beltane in oxford on may morning many pubs are open from sunrise and some of the college bars are open all night madrigals are still sung from the roof of the tower of magdalen college with thousands gathering on magdalen bridge to listen traditionally revellers have jumped from the bridge into the river cherwell below as part of the celebrations about one hundred people did this in two zero zero five the river however was then only three feet deep in places and more than half of those who jumped needed medical treatment st andrews has a similar student tradition the majority of the students gather on the beach late on april three zero th and run into the north sea at sunrise on the one st often naked this is accompanied by torchlit processions and much celebration in recent years the political events have split into two camps the mainstream workers movement celebrates may day on the first monday after may the first which may or may not actually occur on one may this day is the national spring bank holiday and on it small scale rallies are held by political parties generally including but not limited to the labour party the socialist workers party the scottish socialist party the communist party of britain and other left wing groups these occasions are typified by the selling of propaganda materials and beer tents in parks the actual date of one may generally features rallies and marches organised by anarchist groups although in recent years these have also involved communist groups particularly those of the trotskyist branch elsewhere in australia a similar split has existed to that in the uk an official may day march associated with the unions is held on the first weekend after may one st smaller events associated with anarchists and sometimes trotskyists have often been held on the actual date may day also marks springtime celebrations such as walpurgis night in northern europe including the finnish vappu celebrations beltane in ireland and scotland roodmas calendimaggio in northern and central italy related to the return of the sun and spring may morning in oxford hamilton college hosts an annual music outdoor music festival known as may day however the name has no political connotations or association with other may day holidays rather the name simply refers to the fact that the festival is staged in late april or early may these holidays were also respected by some early european settlers of the american continent in hawaii may day is also known as lei day and is normally set aside as a day to celebrate island culture in general and native hawaiian culture in particular external links may day and related topics on the marxists internet archive may day in the west and the east by trotsky the idea of may day on the march by rosa luxemburg may day celebration committee new haven connecticut magdalen college description of may morning in oxford may day two zero zero five new york city celebrations and protests pictures may day festival for the workers keith flett socialist review may two zero zero two the mayday film contest by psychic bunny holidays communism socialism frac cdf textrm left frac a right sqrt frac mean mu two a sqrt median mode sqrt a variance sigma two frac skewness gamma one frac five pi one six kurtosis gamma two four frac entropy mgf char the maxwell boltzmann distribution is a probability distribution with applications in physics and chemistry the distribution can be thought of as the magnitude of a three dimensional vector if its components are distributed as a normal distribution with standard deviation a if x i are distributed as x sim n zero a two then z sqrt is distributed as a maxwell boltzmann distribution with parameter a properties the maxwell boltzmann distribution with a one is equivalent to the chi distribution with three degrees of freedom additionally if z is distributed as a maxwell boltzmann distribution with parameter a then w frac will be distributed as a chi distribution with three degrees of freedom the root mean square of a maxwell boltzmann distribution is sqrta since sqrt it follows that the mode is less than the mean which is always less than the root mean square physical applications of the maxwell boltzmann distribution the maxwell boltzmann distribution forms the basis of the kinetic theory of gases which explains many fundamental gas properties including pressure and diffusion the maxwell boltzmann distribution is usually thought of as the distribution of molecular speeds in a gas but it can also refer to the distribution of velocities momenta and magnitude of the momenta of the molecules each of which will have a different probability distribution function all of which are related the maxwell boltzmann distribution can be derived using statistical mechanics see the derivation of the partition function it corresponds to the most probable speed distribution in a collisionally dominated system consisting of a large number of non interacting particles in which quantum effects are negligible since interactions between the molecules in a gas are generally quite small the maxwell boltzmann distribution provides a very good approximation of the conditions in a gas in many other cases however the condition of elastic collisions dominating all other processes is not even approximately fulfilled that is true for instance for the physics of the ionosphere and space plasmas where recombination and collisional excitation i e radiative processes are of far greater importance in particular for the electrons not only would the assumption of a maxwell distribution yield quantitatively wrong results but even prevent a correct qualitative understanding of the physics involved also in cases where the quantum thermal wavelength of the gas is not small compared to the distance between particles there will be deviations from the maxwell distribution due to quantum effects originally suggested by maxwell using an invariance argument and later derived by boltzmann using kinetic theory the maxwell boltzmann distribution can now most readily be derived from the boltzmann distribution for energies frac frac g j qquad qquad one where n i is the number of molecules at equilibrium temperature t in a state i which has energy e i and degeneracy gi n is the total number of molecules in the system and k is the boltzmann constant note that sometimes the above equation is written without the degeneracy factor g i in this case the index i will specify an individual state rather than a set of g i states having the same energy e i because velocity and speed are related to energy equation one can be used to derive relationships between temperature and the speeds of molecules in a gas the denominator in this equation is known as the canonical partition function the distribution of the momentum vector what follows is a derivation wildly different from the derivation described by james clerk maxwell and later described with fewer assumptions by ludwig boltzmann instead it is close to boltzmann s later approach of one eight seven seven for the case of an ideal gas consisting of non interacting atoms in the ground state all energy is in the form of kinetic energy the relationship between kinetic energy and momentum for massive particles is e frac where p two is the square of the momentum vector p p x p y p z we may therefore rewrite equation one as frac frac exp left frac right qquad qquad three where z is the partition function corresponding to the denominator in equation one here m is the molecular mass of the gas t is the thermodynamic temperature and k is the boltzmann constant this distribution of n i n is proportional to the probability density function f p for finding a molecule with these values of momentum components so f mathbf p x p y p z frac exp left frac right qquad qquad four the normalizing constant c can be determined by recognizing that the probability of a molecule having any momentum must be one therefore the integral of equation four over all p x p y and p z must be one it can be shown that c frac three qquad qquad five substituting equation five into equation four and using p i mv i for each component of momentum gives f mathbf p x p y p z sqrt right three exp left frac right qquad qquad six the distribution is seen to be the product of three independent normally distributed variables p x p y and p z with variance mkt additionally it can be seen that the magnitude of momentum will be distributed as a maxwell boltzmann distribution with a sqrt distribution of the energy using p two two me we get the energy distribution f e de f p left frac right de two sqrt exp left frac right de since the energy is proportional to the sum of the squares of the three normally distributed momentum components this distribution is a chi square distribution with three degrees of freedom f e e de chi two x three dx where x frac the maxwell boltzmann distribution can also be obtained by considering the gas to be a quantum gas distribution of the velocity vector recognizing that the velocity probability density f v is proportional to the momentum probability density function by f mathbf d three v f mathbf left frac right three d three v and using p m v we get f mathbf v x v y v z sqrt right three exp left frac right qquad qquad eight which is the maxwell boltzmann velocity distribution the probability of finding a particle with velocity in the infinitesimal element dv x dv y dv z about velocity v v x v y v z is f mathbf left v x v y v z right dv x dv y dv z like the momentum this distribution is seen to be the product of three independent normally distributed variables v x v y and v z but with variance kt m it can also be seen that the maxwell boltzmann velocity distribution for the vector velocity v x v y v z is the product of the distributions for each of the three directions f v left v x v y v z right f v v x f v v y f v v z where the distribution for a single direction is f v v i sqrt exp left frac right qquad qquad nine this distribution has the form of a normal distribution with variance frac as expected for a gas at rest the average velocity in any particular direction is zero distribution of speeds a chart displaying the speed probability density functions for a few noble gases at a temperature of two nine eight one five k two five c usually we are more interested in the speed of molecules rather than the component velocities where the speed v is defined as v sqrt one zero since the speed is the square root of the sum of squares of the three independent normally distributed velocity components this distribution is a maxwell boltzmann distribution with a sqrt we are often more interested in quantities such as the average speed of the particles rather than the actual distribution the mean speed most probable speed mode and root mean square can be obtained from properties of the maxwell boltzmann distribution see also rayleigh distribution external links maxwell distribution at mathworld gases particle statistics statistical mechanics margaret hilda thatcher baroness thatcher lg om pc frs born one three october one nine two five is a british politician and a former barrister and chemist she was the leader of the conservative party from one nine seven five to one nine nine zero prime minister of the united kingdom throughout the one nine eight zero s and has been the only woman to hold either post her premiership was the longest since lord liverpool s tenure between one eight one two and one eight two seven undoubtedly one of the most significant british politicians in recent political history she is also simultaneously one of the most idolised and loathed she was also secretary of state for education and science from one nine seven zero to one nine seven four and leader of the opposition from one nine seven five to one nine seven nine the only woman to hold the latter post permanently she won three successive general elections as party leader the only british politician to do so in the two zero th century however although she had strong support from the largest minority of voters for most of her tenure she eventually resigned after failing to win outright a leadership election triggered by opponents within her own party and was replaced by john major in one nine nine zero she is an elder stateswoman of the conservative party and the figurehead of a political philosophy that became known as thatcherism which involves reduced public spending lower direct taxation de regulation a monetarist policy and a programme of privatisation of government owned industries even before coming to power she was nicknamed the iron lady in soviet media because of her vocal opposition to communism an appellation that stuck thatcher served as secretary of state for education and science in the government of edward heath from one nine seven zero to one nine seven four and successfully challenged heath for the conservative leadership in one nine seven five as party leader she was undefeated at the polls winning the one nine seven nine one nine eight three and one nine eight seven general elections in foreign relations she maintained the special relationship with the united states and formed a close bond with ronald reagan in one nine eight two her government dispatched a royal navy task force to retake the falkland islands from argentina in the falklands war the profound changes thatcher set in motion as prime minister altered much of the economic and cultural landscape of the united kingdom she curtailed the power of the trade unions cut back the role of the state in business and dramatically expanded home ownership all of which were intended to create a more entrepreneurial culture she also aimed to cut back the welfare state and foster a more flexible labour market which she believed would create jobs and could adapt to market conditions exacerbated by the global recession of the early one nine eight zero s her policies initially caused large scale unemployment especially in the industrial heartlands of northern england and the coalfields of south wales and contributed to the continued de industrialisation of the uk margaret thatcher and her policies known as thatcherism were and remain highly controversial and polarising her supporters contend that she was responsible for rejuvenating the british economy while her opponents argue that she was responsible for mass unemployment and a vast increase in inequality between rich and poor some have since argued that the hardships and disruption of the period were a regrettable but necessary phase in the modernisation of the british economy but the perception that her conservative party was unconcerned or blind to these effects has contributed to the subsequent dominance of the labour party in government both conservative and labour governments since one nine nine zero have maintained most of the economic reforms of the thatcher period outside observers argue over the degree to which these reforms or the increased public spending of the blair governments are responsible for the recent continued and stable growth of the economy her popularity declined when she replaced the unpopular local government rates tax with the even less popular community charge which was more commonly known as the poll tax at the same time the conservative party began to split over her sceptical approach to economic and monetary union of the european union the resignation in november one nine nine zero of her deputy prime minister geoffrey howe seriously damaged her authority and undermined confidence in her shortly afterwards her leadership was challenged from within the party and having failed to gain the confidence of a clear majority of conservative mps she chose to resign and return to the back benches her defeat attributable at least in part to inadequate advice and campaigning in one nine nine two she was created baroness thatcher and since then her direct political work has been as head of the thatcher foundation early life and education thatcher was born margaret hilda roberts in the town of grantham in lincolnshire in eastern england her father was alfred roberts who ran a grocer s shop in the town and was active in local politics serving as an alderman and was also a lay preacher she was brought up a devout methodist and has remained a christian throughout her life while officially described as liberal independent in practice he supported the local conservatives he lost his post as alderman after the labour party won control of grantham council in one nine four six her mother was beatrice roberts n e stephenson and she had a sister muriel she did well at school going to a girls grammar school and then to somerville college oxford from one nine four four where she studied chemistry she became president of the oxford university conservative association in one nine four six the third woman to hold the post she graduated with a two two degree classification and worked as a research chemist for british xylonite and then j lyons and co where she helped develop methods for preserving ice cream she was a member of the team that developed the first soft frozen ice cream political career between one nine five zero and one nine seven zero margaret thatcher in the one nine four nine and one nine five zero election she was the youngest woman conservative candidate and fought the safe labour seat of dartford she fought the seat again in the one nine five one election her activity in the conservative party in kent brought her into contact with denis thatcher they fell in love and were married later in one nine five one denis was a wealthy businessman and he funded his wife to read for the bar she qualified as a barrister in one nine five three the same year that her twin children carol and mark were born on returning to work she specialised in tax issues thatcher had begun to look for a safe conservative seat and was narrowly rejected as candidate for orpington in one nine five four she had several other rejections before being selected for finchley in april one nine five eight she won the seat easily in the one nine five nine election and took her seat in the house of commons unusually her maiden speech was in support of her private member s bill to force local councils to hold meetings in public which was successful in the same year the only occasion she was ever to resist her party s line was to vote for the restoration of birching she was given early promotion to the front bench as parliamentary secretary at the ministry of pensions and national insurance in september one nine six one keeping the post until the conservatives lost power in the one nine six four election when sir alec douglas home stepped down thatcher voted for edward heath in the leadership election over reginald maudling and was rewarded with the job of conservative spokesman on housing and land she moved to the shadow treasury team after one nine six six thatcher was one of few conservative mps to support leo abse s bill to decriminalise male homosexuality and she voted in favour of david steel s bill to legalise abortion however she was opposed to the abolition of capital punishment and voted against making divorce more easily attainable she made her mark as a conference speaker in one nine six six with a strong attack on the taxation policy of the labour government as being steps not only towards socialism but towards communism she won promotion to the shadow cabinet as shadow fuel spokesman in one nine six seven and was then promoted to shadow transport and finally education before the one nine seven zero election in heath s cabinet when the conservatives won the one nine seven zero general election thatcher became secretary of state for education and science in her first months in office forced to administer a cut in the education budget she decided to abolish free milk in schools this provoked a storm of public protest earning her the nickname maggie thatcher milk snatcher coined by the sun her term was marked by many proposals for more local education authorities to abolish grammar schools and adopt comprehensive secondary education of which she approved even though this was widely perceived as a left wing policy thatcher also defended the budget of the open university from attempted cuts after the conservative defeat in february one nine seven four she was promoted again to shadow environment secretary in this job she promoted a policy of abolishing the rating system that paid for local government services which proved a popular policy within the conservative party however she agreed with sir keith joseph that the heath government had lost control of monetary policy after heath lost the second election that year joseph decided to challenge his leadership but later dropped out thatcher then decided that she would enter the race unexpectedly she outpolled heath on the first ballot and won the job on the second in february one nine seven five she appointed heath s preferred successor william whitelaw as her deputy as leader of the opposition on january one nine one nine seven six she made a speech in kensington town hall in which she made a scathing attack on the soviet union the most famous part of her speech ran the russians are bent on world dominance and they are rapidly acquiring the means to become the most powerful imperial nation the world has seen the men in the soviet politburo do not have to worry about the ebb and flow of public opinion they put guns before butter while we put just about everything before guns in response the soviet defence ministry newspaper red star gave her the nickname the iron lady which was soon publicised by radio moscow world service she took delight in the name and it soon became associated with her image as an unwavering and steadfast character she acquired many other nicknames such as tina from an acronym for there is no alternative the great she elephant attila the hen and the grocer s daughter the last nickname was derived from her father s profession but coined at a time when she was considered as edward heath s ally he had been nicknamed the grocer by private eye at first she appointed many heath supporters in the shadow cabinet and throughout her administrations sought to have a cabinet that reflected the broad range of opinions in the conservative party thatcher had to act cautiously to convert the conservative party to her monetarist beliefs she reversed heath s support for devolved government for scotland in an interview she gave to granada television s world in action programme in one nine seven eight she spoke of her concerns about immigrants swamping the uk arousing particular controversy at the time and it has been viewed as having drawn supporters of the extreme right wing british national front back to the conservative fold during the one nine seven nine general election most opinion polls showed that voters preferred james callaghan as prime minister even as the conservative party maintained a lead in the polls the labour government ran into difficulties with industrial disputes during the winter of one nine seven eight nine dubbed the winter of discontent the conservatives used catchy campaign posters with slogans such as labour isn t working to attack the government s record over unemployment and what they perceived to be an over regulated labour market the callaghan government fell after a successful motion of no confidence in spring one nine seven nine and following the general election the conservatives won a working majority in the house of commons and thatcher became the united kingdom s first female prime minister as prime minister one nine seven nine one nine eight three she formed a government on may four one nine seven nine with a mandate to reverse the uk s economic decline and to reduce the role of the state in the economy thatcher was incensed by one contemporary view within the civil service that its job was to manage the uk s decline from the days of empire and wanted the country to assert a higher level of influence and leadership in international affairs she was a philosophic soulmate of ronald reagan elected in one nine eight zero in the united states and to a lesser extent brian mulroney who was elected in one nine eight four in canada it seemed for a time that conservatism might be the dominant political philosophy in the major english speaking nations for the era in may one nine eight zero one day before she was due to meet the irish taoiseach charles haughey to discuss northern ireland she announced in the house of commons that the future of the constitutional affairs of northern ireland is a matter for the people of northern ireland this government this parliament and no one else in one nine eight one a number of provisional ira and inla prisoners in northern ireland s maze prison known in ireland as long kesh its previous name went on hunger strike to regain the status of political prisoners which had been revoked five years earlier bobby sands the first of the strikers was elected as an mp for the constituency of fermanagh and south tyrone a few weeks before he died thatcher refused at first to countenance a return to political status for republican prisoners famously declaring crime is crime is crime it is not political however after nine more men had starved themselves to death and the strike had ended and in the face of growing anger on both sides of the border and widespread civil unrest some rights offered to paramilitary prisoners under political status were restored this was a major propaganda coup for the ira and is seen as the beginning of sinn f in s electoral rise as they capitalised on the gains made during the hunger strikes thatcher also continued the policy of ulsterisation of the previous labour government and its secretary of state for northern ireland roy mason believing that the unionists of northern ireland should be at the forefront in combating irish republicanism this meant relieving the burden on the mainstream british army and elevating the role of the ulster defence regiment and the royal ulster constabulary another noticeable foible of thatcher s was her refusal to call cardinal tomas o fiach the head of the catholic church in ireland by his chosen name insisting on calling him cardinal fee in economic policy thatcher started out by increasing interest rates to drive down the money supply she had a preference for indirect taxation over taxes on income and value added tax vat was raised sharply to one five with a resultant rise in inflation these moves hit businesses especially in the manufacturing sector and unemployment quickly passed two million interestingly her early tax policy reforms were based on the monetarist theories of friedman rather than the supply side economics of arthur laffer and jude wanniski which the government of ronald reagan espoused there was a severe recession in the early one nine eight zero s and the government s economic policy was widely blamed political commentators harked back to the heath government s u turn and speculated that mrs thatcher would follow suit but she repudiated this approach at the one nine eight zero conservative party conference famously telling the party to those waiting with bated breath for that favourite media catch phrase the u turn i have only one thing to say you turn if you want to the lady s not for turning that she meant what she said was confirmed in the one nine eight one budget when despite concerns expressed in an open letter from three six four leading economists taxes were increased in the middle of a recession in january one nine eight two the inflation rate dropped to single figures and interest rates were then allowed to fall unemployment continued to rise reaching an official figure of three six million although the criteria for defining who was unemployed were amended allowing some to estimate that unemployment in fact hit five million however lord tebbit has suggested that due to the high number of people claiming unemployment benefit whilst working he doubts whether unemployment ever reached three million at all british defence budget cuts applying in the south atlantic coupled with thatcher s disregard of the falkland islands and the removal of the ice patrol ship endurance as well as immigration reform detrimental to the british citizenship rights of people in the british empire s few remnants which some have argued was motivated by a desire to pre empt a likely influx of people from hong kong after the approaching return of the colony to china provoked the arguably most difficult foreign policy decision of thatcher s tenure in argentina an unstable military junta was in power and keen on reversing its widespread unpopularity caused by the country s poor economic performance on april two one nine eight two it invaded the falkland islands known to the argentinians as islas malvinas the only invasion of a british territory since world war ii argentina has claimed the islands since an one eight three zero s dispute on their settlement within days thatcher sent a naval task force to recapture the islands the ensuing military campaign was successful resulting in a wave of patriotic enthusiasm for her personally at a time when her popularity had been at an all time low for a serving prime minister this falklands factor as it came to be known is regarded as crucial to the scale of the conservative majority in the june one nine eight three general election which represented a high point for the conservative government of one nine seven nine nine seven however the economy was still in a deep recession associated with encouraging traditional heavy industries to come to an end continuing mass unemployment was explained as a consequence of this transition implying it to be transitory and alongside it new laws had given trade union members democratic powers to restrain militant union leaderships additionally thatcher s right to buy scheme to buy policy whereby council housing residents were permitted to buy their homes at a discount did much to increase her government s popularity in working class areas ronald reagan and margaret thatcher at camp david the one nine eight three election was also influenced by events in the opposition parties since their one nine seven nine defeat labour was increasingly dominated by its hard left that had emerged from the one nine seven zero s union militancy and in opposition its policies had swung very sharply to the left this drove a significant number of right wing labour members and mps to form a breakaway party in one nine eight one the social democratic party sdp labour fought the election on unilateral nuclear disarmament which proposed to abandon the british nuclear deterrent despite the threat from a nuclear armed soviet union withdrawal from the european community and total reversal of thatcher s economic and trade union changes indeed one labour mp gerald kaufman has called the party s one nine eight three manifesto the longest suicide note in history aiming to take advantage of the labour split there was a new challenge to the political centre the sdp liberal alliance formed by an electoral pact between the sdp and the liberal party aiming to break the major parties dominance and win proportional representation however this grouping of uncertain cohesion failed to make its intended breakthrough the conservatives won four two four of the vote a slightly smaller share of the vote than in the one nine seven nine general election however the split opposition combined with britain s first past the post electoral system in which marginal changes in vote numbers and distribution often have disproportionate effects on the number of seats won translated this vote share into a conservative landslide one nine eight three one nine eight seven thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trade unions but unlike the heath government adopted a strategy of incremental change rather than a single act several unions launched strikes that were wholly or partly aimed at damaging her politically the most significant of these was carried out by the national union of mineworkers num however thatcher had made preparations long in advance for an num strike by building up coal stocks and there were no cuts in electricity supply unlike one nine seven two police tactics during the strike concerned civil libertarians preventing suspected strike sympathisers travelling towards coalfields when they were still long distances from them and a violent battle with mass pickets at orgreave yorkshire but images of crowds of militant miners using violence to prevent other miners from working along with the fact that illegally under a recent act the num had not held a ballot to approve strike action swung public opinion against the strike especially in the south and the moderate nottinghamshire coalfields the miners strike lasted a full year one nine eight four eight five before the drift of half the miners back to work forced the num leadership to give in without a deal this aborted political strike marked a turning point in uk politics no longer could militant unions remove a democratically elected government in june one nine eight four thatcher controversially invited apartheid south africa s president p w botha and foreign minister pik botha to chequers in an effort to stave off growing international pressure for the imposition of economic sanctions against south africa where britain had invested heavily the visit came just three months after four south african arms smugglers had been arrested in coventry and charged with offences against the united nations mandatory arms embargo which outlawed the export of arms to south africa the coventry four as they were known were eventually granted two zero zero zero zero zero bail in may one nine eight four and were allowed by a judge sitting in chambers to get their passports back and return to south africa on condition that they undertook to return to britain for their trial however pik botha later ruled that the coventry four could not attend the trial in august one nine eight four and thus forfeited the bail money the coventry four affair re surfaced on december seven one nine eight eight when the guardian published a letter scathingly critical of mrs thatcher from british diplomat patrick haseldine which was entitled the double standards on terrorism on the early morning of october one two one nine eight four the day before her five nine th birthday thatcher escaped death from the bomb planted by the provisional irish republican army in brighton s grand hotel during the conservative party conference five people died in the attack including roberta wakeham wife of the government s chief whip john wakeham and the conservative mp sir anthony berry a prominent member of the cabinet norman tebbit was injured along with his wife margaret who was left paralysed thatcher insisted that the conference open on time the next day and made her speech as planned in defiance of the bombers a gesture which won widespread approval across the political spectrum on november one five one nine eight five thatcher signed the hillsborough anglo irish agreement the first acknowledgement by a british government that the republic of ireland had an important role to play in northern ireland the agreement was greeted with fury by irish unionists the ulster unionists and democratic unionists made an electoral pact and on january two three one nine eight six staged an ad hoc referendum by resigning their seats and contesting the subsequent by elections losing only one to the nationalist sdlp however unlike the sunningdale agreement of one nine seven four they found they could not bring the agreement down by a general strike this was another effect of the changed balance of power in industrial relations the agreement stood and thatcher punished the unionists for their non cooperation by abolishing a devolved assembly she had created only four years before although unionists have traditionally been in two minds about political devolution see the home rule crisis that led to the anglo irish war and the politicians most affected by the abolition of the assembly were the constitutional nationalists not it must be noted sinn f in which was not interested in a devolved assembly at that time and would not be for many years to come the anglo irish agreement therefore enraged the unionists and alienated moderate nationalists while doing little to reduce ira violence the british government s intention may have been to solidify support from dublin although the irish government had had reservations about some aspects of the peace process and continued to do so thatcher s political and economic philosophy emphasised free markets and entrepreneurialism since gaining power she had experimented in selling off a small nationalised company the national freight company to its workers with a surprisingly positive response after the one nine eight three election the government became bolder and sold off most of the large utilities which had been in public ownership since the late one nine four zero s many in the public took advantage of share offers although many sold their shares immediately for a quick profit the policy of privatisation while anathema to many on the left has become synonymous with thatcherism in the cold war mrs thatcher supported ronald reagan s policies of deterrence against the soviets this contrasted with the policy of d tente which the west had pursued during the one nine seven zero s and caused friction with allies still wedded to the idea of d tente us forces were permitted by mrs thatcher to station nuclear cruise missiles at british bases arousing mass protests by the campaign for nuclear disarmament however she later was the first western leader to respond warmly to the rise of reformist soviet leader mikhail gorbachev declaring that she liked him and describing him as a man we can do business with after a meeting in one nine eight five three months before he came to power this was a start of a move by the west back to a new d tente with the ussr under gorbachev s leadership which coincided with the final erosion of soviet power prior to the turbulence of one nine nine one and the collapse of the union thatcher outlasted the cold war which ended in one nine eight nine and voices who share her views on it credit her with a part in the west s victory by both the deterrence and d tente postures also in one nine eight five as a deliberate snub the university of oxford voted to refuse her an honorary degree in protest against her cuts in funding for education this award had always previously been given to prime ministers that had been educated at oxford she supported the us bombing raid on libya from bases in the uk in one nine eight six in defiance of other nato allies her liking for defence ties with the united states was demonstrated in the westland affair when she acted with colleagues to prevent the helicopter manufacturer westland a vital defence contractor from linking with the italian firm agusta in favour of a link with sikorsky aircraft corporation of the united states defence secretary michael heseltine who had pushed the agusta deal resigned in protest at her style of leadership and remained an influential critic and potential leadership challenger he would eventually prove instrumental in thatcher s fall in one nine nine zero in one nine eight six her government controversially abolished the greater london council glc then led by left winger ken livingstone and six metropolitan county councils mccs the government claimed this was an efficiency measure however thatcher s opponents held that the move was politically motivated as all of the abolished councils were controlled by labour had become powerful centres of opposition to her government and were in favour of higher public spending by local government thatcher had two noted foreign policy successes in her second term in one nine eight four she visited china and signed the sino british joint declaration with deng xiaoping on one nine december which committed the people s republic of china to award hong kong the status of a special autonomous region without economic change after the handover in one nine nine seven at the fontainebleau summit of one nine eight four thatcher argued that the united kingdom paid far more to the european economic community than it received in spending she famously declared at the summit we are not asking the community or anyone else for money we are simply asking to have our own money back her arguments were successful and the eec agreed on an annual rebate for the united kingdom which still remains in effect and occasionally causes some political controversy among the members of the european union one nine eight seven one nine nine zero by winning the one nine eight seven general election on the economic boom and against a stubbornly anti nuclear labour opposition she became the longest continuously serving prime minister of the united kingdom since lord liverpool one eight one two to one eight two seven and the first to win three successive elections since lord palmerston in one eight six five most united kingdom newspapers supported her with the exception of the daily mirror and the guardian and were rewarded with regular press briefings by her press secretary bernard ingham she was known as maggie in the tabloids which inspired the well known maggie out protest song sung throughout that period by some of her opponents her unpopularity on the left is evident from the lyrics of several contemporary popular songs stand down margaret the beat tramp the dirt down elvis costello margaret on the guillotine morrissey and mother knows best richard thompson at the one nine eight six conservative party conference thatcher issued the infamous statement that children who need to be taught to respect traditional moral values are being taught that they have an inalienable right to be gay backbench conservative mps and peers had already begun a backlash against the removal of discrimination against homosexuality and in december one nine eight seven the controversial section two eight was added as an amendment to what became the local government act one nine eight eight many opponents believed that she and her policies had created a significant north south divide from the bristol channel to the wash between the haves in the economically dynamic south and the have nots in the industrial north hard welfare reforms in her third term created an adult employment training system that included full time work done for the dole plus a one zero top up on the workfare model from the us the social fund system that placed one off welfare payments for emergency needs under a local budgetary limit and where possible changed them into loans and rules for assessing jobseeking effort by the week were breaches of social consensus unprecedented since the one nine two zero s in the late one nine eight zero s thatcher a former chemist became briefly concerned with environmental issues which she had previously dismissed in one nine eight eight she made a major speech accepting the problems of global warming ozone depletion and acid rain in one nine nine zero she opened the hadley centre for climate prediction and research in her book statecraft two zero zero two she described her later regret in supporting the concept of human induced global warming outlining the negative effects she perceived it had upon the policy making process whatever international action we agree upon to deal with environmental problems we must enable our economies to grow and develop because without growth you cannot generate the wealth required to pay for the protection of the environment four five two at bruges belgium in one nine eight eight thatcher made a speech in which she outlined her opposition to proposals from the european community for a federal structure and increasing centralisation of decision making although she had supported british membership thatcher believed that the role of the ec should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition and feared that new ec regulations would reverse the changes she was making in the uk we have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in britain only to see them re imposed at a european level with a european super state exercising a new dominance from brussels she was specifically against economic and monetary union through which a single currency would replace national currencies and for which the ec was making preparations the speech caused an outcry from other european leaders and exposed for the first time the deep split that was emerging over european policy inside her conservative party the december two one one nine eight eight pan am flight one zero three aircrash known as the lockerbie bombing caused two seven zero fatalities the largest peacetime loss of life in britain from the start thatcher s government treated the bombing as a criminal matter requiring a judicial response rather than the setting up of a public inquiry into who carried out the bombing and why early speculation was that the lockerbie bombing was in retaliation for the shooting down in july one nine eight eight of an iran air airbus by the american aircraft carrier uss vincennes later the finger of suspicion was pointed at libya whose leader colonel gaddafi was known to have borne a grievance against the u s and britain for the one nine eight six usaf bombing raid on tripoli and benghazi in which gaddafi s adopted daughter was killed in her otherwise comprehensive memoirs published after she left office thatcher was to make not even a mention of the lockerbie bombing for the trial of the two accused libyans see pan am flight one zero three bombing trial thatcher s popularity once again declined in one nine eight nine as the economy suffered from high interest rates imposed to stop an unsustainable boom she blamed her chancellor nigel lawson who had been following an economic policy which was a preparation for monetary union thatcher claimed not to have been told of this and did not approve at the madrid european summit lawson and foreign secretary geoffrey howe forced thatcher to agree the circumstances under which she would join the exchange rate mechanism a preparation for monetary union thatcher took revenge on both by demoting howe and by listening more to her adviser sir alan walters on economic matters lawson resigned that october feeling that thatcher had undermined him that november thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the conservative party by sir anthony meyer as meyer was a virtually unknown backbench mp he was viewed as a stalking horse candidate for more prominent members of the party thatcher easily defeated meyer s challenge but there were sixty ballot papers either cast for meyer or abstaining a surprisingly large number for a sitting prime minister thatcher s new system to replace local government rates was introduced in scotland in one nine eight nine and in england and wales in one nine nine zero rates were replaced by the community charge more widely known as the poll tax which applied the same amount to every individual resident with only limited discounts for low earners this was to be the most universally unpopular policy of her premiership the charge was introduced early in scotland as the rateable values would in any case have been reassessed in one nine eight nine however it led to accusations that scotland was a testing ground for the tax thatcher apparently believed that the new tax would be popular and had been persuaded by scottish conservatives to bring it in early and in one go despite her hopes the early introduction was followed by a sharp decline in the already low support for the conservative party in scotland additional problems emerged when many of the tax rates set by local councils proved to be much higher than earlier predictions some have argued that local councils saw the introduction of the new system of taxation as the opportunity to make significant increases in the amount taken assuming correctly that it would be the originators of the new tax system and not its local operators who would be blamed a large london demonstration against the community charge on march three one one nine nine zero the day before it was introduced in england and wales turned into a riot millions of people resisted paying the tax opponents of the poll tax banded together to resist bailiffs and disrupt court hearings of poll tax debtors mrs thatcher refused to compromise on the tax and its unpopularity was a major factor in her downfall one of her final acts in office was to pressure us president george h w bush to deploy troops to the middle east to drive saddam hussein s army out of kuwait bush was somewhat apprehensive about the plan but thatcher famously told him that this was no time to go wobbly on the friday before the conservative party conference in october one nine nine zero thatcher persuaded her new chancellor of the exchequer john major to reduce interest rates by one major persuaded her that the only way to maintain monetary stability was to join the exchange rate mechanism at the same time despite not meeting the madrid conditions the conservative party conference that year saw an unusual degree of unity few who attended could have imagined that mrs thatcher had only a matter of weeks left in office fall from power by one nine nine zero opposition to thatcher s policies on local government taxation her government s perceived mishandling of the economy especially high interest rates of one five which were undermining her core voting base within the home owning entrepreneurial and business sectors and the divisions opening within her party over the appropriate handling of european integration made her and her party seem increasingly politically vulnerable a challenge was precipitated by the resignation of sir geoffrey howe with whom thatcher had for a long time had very bad personal relations on one november one nine nine zero the immediate pretext was a particularly combative answer she had given to a parliamentary question in the commons on the three zero october one nine nine zero in which she denounced the president of the european commission jacques delors yes the commission does want to increase its powers yes it is a non elected body and i do not want the commission to increase its powers against this house so of course we are differing the president of the commission mr delors said at a press conference the other day that he wanted the european parliament to be the democratic body of the community he wanted the commission to be the executive and he wanted the council of ministers to be the senate no no no in his resignation speech howe condemned thatcher s policy on the european community as being devastating for british interests and openly invited others to consider their own response which led michael heseltine to announce his challenge for the party leadership and by extension the premiership in the first ballot thatcher was two votes short of winning automatic re election a small but critical margin the margin was one four six and the necessary margin required to avoid a second ballot was one five the results were this was probably at least in part due to mismanagement she had fatally decided to be out of the country for the csce summit conference on security and co operation in europe in paris and her advisors appear to have underestimated the seriousness of the matter and the need to campaign and the need to cajole potentially wavering supporters and reassure them in order to achieve the necessary first round win and put paid to talk of doubts ultimately however the ballot reflected the fact that a very large number of conservative mp s had no confidence in her leadership ability or style of government and desired a change in leadership upon returning to london thatcher consulted her cabinet colleagues a large majority believed that the first round not being a clear win she would lose the second run off ballot on two two november at just after nine three zero am mrs thatcher announced to her cabinet that she would not be a candidate in the second ballot thereby bringing her term of office to an end having consulted widely among colleagues i have concluded that the unity of the party and the prospects of victory in a general election would be better served if i stood down to enable cabinet colleagues to enter the ballot for the leadership i should like to thank all those in cabinet and outside who have given me such dedicated support in defeat margaret thatcher seized the opportunity of the debate on confidence in her government to deliver one of her most memorable performances a single currency is about the politics of europe it is about a federal europe by the back door so i shall consider the proposal of the honourable member for bolsover mr skinner now where were we i am enjoying this she supported john major as her successor and retired from parliament at the one nine nine two election post political career margaret thatcher visits the former chilean dictator augusto pinochet during his house arrest in london in one nine nine eight in one nine nine two she was raised to the peerage by the conferment of the life barony of thatcher of kesteven in the county of lincolnshire upon her it is interesting that she did not take an hereditary title as she recommended for harold macmillan later earl of stockton on his ninetieth birthday in one nine eight four and become the countess thatcher or something similar she has explained that she thought she hadn t sufficient means to support an hereditary title by virtue of the life barony she entered the house of lords although she did not become an active member of the house she had already been honoured by the queen in one nine nine zero shortly after her resignation as prime minister when she was appointed to the order of merit one of the uk s highest distinctions in addition her husband denis thatcher had been given a baronetcy in one nine nine one ensuring that their son mark would inherit a title this was the first creation of a baronetcy since one nine six five in one nine nine five thatcher would also join the majority of former prime ministers as a member of the order of the garter the united kingdom s highest order of chivalry in july one nine nine two she was hired by tobacco giant philip morris companies now the altria group as a geopolitical consultant for us two five zero zero zero zero per year and an annual contribution of us two five zero zero zero zero to her foundation in practice she helped them break into markets in central europe the former soviet union china and vietnam as well as fight against a proposed ec ban on tobacco advertising from one nine nine three to two zero zero zero she served as chancellor of the college of william and mary one of the oldest universities in north america which was established by royal charter in one six nine three she wrote her memoirs in two volumes the path to power and the downing street years in later years she wrote several more books on politics and foreign affairs although she remained supportive in public in private she made her displeasure with many of john major s policies plain and her views were conveyed to the press and widely reported major later said he found her behaviour in retrospect to have been intolerable she publicly endorsed william hague for the conservative leadership in one nine nine seven in one nine nine eight she made a highly publicised and controversial visit to the former chilean dictator augusto pinochet during the time he was under house arrest in surrey facing charges of torture conspiracy to torture and conspiracy to murder she expressed her support for and friendship with him see margaret thatcher and augusto pinochet are both members of the rotary club pinochet had been a key ally in the falklands war during the same year she made a two zero zero zero zero zero zero donation to cambridge university for the endowment of a margaret thatcher chair in entrepreneurial studies she also donated the archive of her personal papers to churchill college cambridge she made many speaking engagements around the world and she actively supported the conservative election campaign in two zero zero one however on two two march two zero zero two she was told by her doctors to make no more public speeches on health grounds having suffered several small strokes which left her in a very frail state margaret thatcher at ronald reagan s funeral in two zero zero four at the funeral of ronald reagan in two zero zero four at the service in washington s national cathedral lady thatcher is greeted warmly by former canadian prime minister brian mulroney and former soviet president mikhail gorbachev in two zero zero three she visited michael bloomberg mayor of new york city and compared his offices to those of sir winston churchill s war room although she was able to attend the funeral of former us president ronald reagan in june two zero zero four her eulogy for him was pre taped to prevent undue stress she remains involved with various thatcherite groups including being president of the conservative way forward group which held a dinner at the savoy hotel in honour of the two five th anniversary of her election she is honorary president of the bruges group which takes its name from her one nine eight eight speech at bruges where she was first openly hostile to developments in the european union she is also patron of the eurosceptic european foundation founded by the conservative mp bill cash she was widowed on two six june two zero zero three on one three october two zero zero five thatcher celebrated her eight zero th birthday with a drinks party at the mandarin oriental hotel in hyde park where the guests included the queen at the celebration lord howe of aberavon commented on her political career her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two so that when labour did eventually return the great bulk of thatcherism was accepted as irreversible on seven december two zero zero five thatcher was hospitalized in london after feeling faint she stayed overnight at the chelsea and westminster hospital she began to feel faint on a visit to the hairdressers and was taken to hospital by her bodyguards see her daughter carol has reported that her short term memory is now poor she doesn t read much because of her memory loss it s pointless she can t remember the beginning of the sentence by the time she reaches the end see legacy many british citizens remember where they were and what they were doing when they heard that margaret thatcher had resigned and what their reaction was she was a polarising figure who brought out strong reactions from people likewise her legacy is highly disputed some people credit her microeconomic reforms with rescuing the british economy from the stagnation of the one nine seven zero s and admire her committed radicalism on social issues others see her as authoritarian and egotistical she is accused of dismantling the welfare state and of destroying much of the uk s manufacturing base the first charge reflects her government s rhetoric more than its actions as it actually did little to reduce welfare expenditure despite its desire to do so the second charge may be credible in that there was a major fall in manufacturing employment and some industries almost disappeared though manufacturing does take a smaller share of employment and gdp as an economy modernises and the service sector expands the uk was widely seen as the sick man of europe in the one nine seven zero s and some argued that it would be the first developed nation to return to the status of a developing country instead the uk emerged as one of the most successful economies in modern europe her supporters claim that this was due to margaret thatcher s policies critics of this view believe that the economic problems of the one nine seven zero s were exaggerated and were caused largely by factors outside any uk government s control such as high oil prices caused by the oil crisis which led to high inflation which damaged the economies of nearly all major industrial countries accordingly they also argue that the economic downturn was not the result of socialism and trade unions as thatcherite supporters claim critics also argue that the thatcher period in government coincided with a general improvement in the world economy and the buoyant tax revenues from north sea oil although this is sometimes a double edged sword see dutch disease and that these were the real cause of the improved economic environment of the one nine eight zero s rather than margaret thatcher s policies perceptions of margaret thatcher are mixed in the view of the british public a clear illustration of the divisions of opinion over thatcher s leadership can be found in recent television polls thatcher appears at number one six in the two zero zero two list of one zero zero greatest britons which was the highest placing for a living person she also appears at number three in the two zero zero three list of one zero zero worst britons which was confined to those living narrowly missing out on the top spot which went to labour prime minister tony blair in the end however few could argue that there was any woman who played a more important role on the world stage in the two zero th century in perhaps the sincerest form of flattery labour prime minister tony blair himself a thrice elected prime minister has implicitly and explicitly acknowledged her importance by continuing many of her economic policies another view divides her economic legacy into two parts market efficiency and long term growth the first part due to her reforms is quite controversial while the unemployment rate did eventually come down it came after initial job losses and radical labour market reforms these included laws that weakened trade unions and the deregulation of financial markets which certainly succeeded in returning the city to a leadership position as a european financial centre and her push for increased competition in telecommunications and other public utilities long term growth according to available data is considered low due to lack of civil research and development spending lowered education standards and ineffective job training policies many of her policies have proved to be divisive in much of scotland wales and the urban and former mining areas of northern england she is still reviled many people remember the hardships of the miners strike which destroyed many mining communities and the decline of industry as service industries boomed this was reflected in the one nine eight seven election which she won by a landslide through winning large numbers of seats in southern england and the rural farming areas of northern england while winning few seats in the remaining areas of the country through the common agricultural policy british agriculture was and remains heavily subsidised while other failing parts of the economy did not receive similar support perceptions abroad broadly follow the same political divisions on the left margaret thatcher is generally regarded as somebody who used force to quash social movements who imposed social reforms that disregarded the interests of the working class and instead favoured the wealthier elements of the middle class and business satirists have often caricatured her for instance french singer renaud wrote a song miss maggie which lauded women as refraining from many of the silly behaviours of males and every time making an exception for mrs thatcher she may be remembered most of all for declaring there is no such thing as society to reporter douglas keay for womans own magazine two three september one nine eight seven this quote is often taken out of context and truncated the original quote goes on to emphasise the importance of families and individuals in the fabric of british life on the economic and political liberal right thatcher is often remembered with some fondness as a conservative who dared to confront powerful unions and removed harmful constraints on the economy though many do not openly claim to be following her example given the strong feelings that highly ideological lady thatcher and thatcherism elicits in many among irish nationalists she is generally remembered as an intransigent figure who eschewed negotiations with the provisional ira who had targeted her her critics believe this contributed to the length and ferocity of the troubles in northern ireland despite the efforts her government made to increase irish involvement in the north through the anglo irish agreement in one nine nine six the scott inquiry into the arms to iraq affair exposed the thatcher government s record in dealing with saddam hussein it revealed how one bn of whitehall money was spent in propping up saddam s regime and pulling strings for arms firms the judge found that during baghdad s protracted invasion of iran in the one nine eight zero s officials destroyed documents after smuggling chieftain tank hulls to iraq ministers clandestinely relaxed official guidelines to help private companies sell machine tools to build munitions factories some of the many shipments were from racal who exported sophisticated jaguar v radios to the former iraqi dictator s army on credit the judge also discovered they had abused lines of credit meant to include military sales members of the conservative cabinet refused to stop lending guaranteed funds to saddam even after he executed a british journalist farzad bazoft thatcher s cabinet minuting that they did not want to damage british industry many on both the right and left agree that thatcher had a transformative effect on the british political spectrum in britain and that her tenure had the effect of moving the major political parties rightward new labour and blairism have incorporated much of the economic social and political tenets of thatcherism in the same manner as in a previous era the conservative party from the one nine five zero s until the days of edward heath accepted many of the basic assumptions of the welfare state instituted by labour governments the curtailing and large scale dismantling of elements of the welfare state under thatcher have largely remained as well thatcher s programe of privatising state owned enterprises has not been reversed indeed successive tory and labour governments have further curtailed the involvement of the state in the economy and have further dismantled public ownership for good or ill thatcher s impact on the trade union movement in britain has been lasting with the breaking of the miner s strike of one nine eight four one nine eight five seen as a watershed moment or even a breaking point for a union movement which has been unable to regain the degree of power it exercised up to the one nine seven zero s unionisation rates in britain declined under thatcher and have not recovered and the legislative instruments introduced to curtail the impact of strikes has not been reversed instead the labour party has worked to loosen its ties to the trade union movement thatcher s legacy has continued strongly to influence the conservative party itself successive leaders starting with john major and continuing in opposition with william hague ian duncan smith and michael howard have struggled with real or imagined factions in the parliamentary and national party to determine what parts of her heritage should be retained or jettisoned the leadership of david cameron in two zero zero six may mark an end to this fixation which has riven the party since thatcher left office family life lady thatcher s husband sir denis thatcher died in june two zero zero three the couple had been married for fifty two years and had two children twins on one five august one nine five three her son sir mark thatcher has been dogged by a series of controversies from one nine eight two when he went missing in the sahara desert to january two zero zero five when he was fined three million rand and received a four year suspended jail sentence in south africa over funding an aircraft intended for use in a planned coup d etat in equatorial guinea her daughter the journalist and commentator hon carol thatcher won the fifth series of the british reality tv show i m a celebrity get me out of here titles and honours the arms of margaret thatcher the admiral represents the falklands war the image of sir isaac newton her background as a chemist and her birth town grantham titles from birth titles lady thatcher has held from birth in chronological order miss margaret roberts one three october one nine two five one three december one nine five one mrs denis thatcher one three december one nine five one eight october one nine five nine mrs denis thatcher mp eight october one nine five nine two two june one nine seven zero the right honourable margaret thatcher mp two two june one nine seven zero three zero june one nine eight three the right honourable margaret thatcher frs mp three zero june one nine eight three seven december one nine nine zero the right honourable margaret thatcher om frs mp seven december one nine nine zero four february one nine nine one the right honourable lady thatcher om frs mp four february one nine nine one nine april one nine nine two the right honourable lady thatcher om frs nine april one nine nine two two six june one nine nine two the right honourable the baroness thatcher om pc frs two six june one nine nine two two two april one nine nine five the right honourable the baroness thatcher lg om pc frs two two april one nine nine five honours lady of the most noble order of the garter member of the order of merit member of her majesty s most honourable privy council fellow of the royal society honorary member of the gentlemen s club the carlton club and the only female full member see also republican senatorial medal of freedom thatcherism euroscepticism thatcher effect thatcher ministry sermon on the mound uk miners strike one nine eight four one nine eight five references books statecraft strategies for changing world by margaret thatcher harpercollins two zero zero two isbn zero zero six zero one nine nine seven three three the collected speeches of margaret thatcher by margaret thatcher harpercollins one nine nine nine isbn zero zero six zero one eight seven three four four the collected speeches of margaret thatcher by margaret thatcher robin harris editor harpercollins one nine nine seven isbn zero zero zero two five five seven zero three seven the path to power by margaret thatcher harpercollins one nine nine five isbn zero zero zero two five five zero five zero four the downing street years by margaret thatcher harpercollins one nine nine three isbn zero zero zero two five five three five four six biographies the anatomy of thatcherism by shirley robin letwin flamingo one nine nine two isbn zero zero zero six eight six two four three eight margaret thatcher volume one the grocer s daughter by john campbell pimlico two zero zero zero isbn zero seven one two six seven four one eight seven margaret thatcher volume two the iron lady by john campbell pimlico two zero zero three isbn zero seven one two six six seven eight one four memories of maggie edited by iain dale politicos two zero zero zero isbn one nine zero two three zero one five one x britain under thatcher by anthony seldon daniel collings longman one nine nine nine isbn zero five eight two three one seven one four two thatcher for beginners by peter pugh and paul flint icon books one nine nine seven isbn one eight seven four one six six five three six one of us life of margaret thatcher by hugo young macmillan one nine eight nine isbn zero three three three three four four three nine one the iron lady a biography of margaret thatcher by hugo young farrar straus giroux one nine eight nine isbn zero three seven four two two six five one two margaret daughter of beatrice by leo abse jonathan cape one nine eight nine isbn zero two two four zero two seven two six three mrs thatcher s revolution ending of the socialist era by peter jenkins jonathan cape one nine eight seven isbn zero two two four zero two five one six three the thatcher phenomenon by hugo young bbc one nine eight six isbn zero five six three two zero four seven two nine my style of government the thatcher years by nicholas ridley hutchinson one nine nine one isbn zero zero nine one seven five zero five one two external links margaret thatcher chronology world history database margaret thatcher foundation margaret thatcher in procapitalism op eds two zero zero six the thatcher era written on the tenth anniversary of her resignation two two november two zero zero zero the george h w bush library two two november one nine nine zero president george h w bush talks about thatcher resignation on this day two two november new york times marks thatcher s resignation harold hill a people s history buying into the iron lady s dream one nine two five births british chemists british mps british secretaries of state british women debaters falklands war people fellows of the royal society female heads of government former students of somerville college oxford knights of the garter leaders of the british conservative party life peers rotary club members living people members of the order of merit members of the privy council natives of lincolnshire pan am flight one zero three presidential medal of freedom recipients prime ministers of the united kingdom mary shelley mary shelley three zero august one seven nine seven one february one eight five one was an english novelist who is perhaps equally famous as the wife of romantic poet percy bysshe shelley and as the author of frankenstein or the modern prometheus biography mary shelley was born mary wollstonecraft godwin in london england the second daughter of famed feminist educator and writer mary wollstonecraft and the equally famous liberal philosopher anarchic journalist and atheist dissenter william godwin her mother died eleven days after her birth and her father left to care for mary and her older half sister fanny imlay quickly married again under his tutelage mary received an excellent education unusual for girls at the time she met percy bysshe shelley a political radical and free thinker like her father when percy and his first wife harriet visited godwin s home and bookshop in london percy unhappy in his marriage began to visit godwin more frequently and alone in the summer of one eight one four he and mary then only one six fell in love they eloped to france on two seven july with mary s stepsister jane clairmont in tow this was the poet s second elopement as he had also eloped with harriet three years before upon their return several weeks later the young couple were dismayed to find that godwin whose views on free love apparently did not apply to his daughter refused to see them mary consoled herself with her studies and with percy who would always be despite disillusionment and tragedy the love of her life percy too was more than satisfied with his new partner in these first years he exulted that mary was one who can feel poetry and understand philosophy although she like harriet before her refused his attempts to share her with his friend thomas hogg mary thus learned that percy s loyalty to godwin s free love ideals would always conflict with his deep desire for true love as expressed in so much of his poetry mary and percy shared a love of languages and literature they enjoyed reading and discussing books together such as the classics that percy took to reading upon their return to london towards the end of the year during this time percy shelley wrote alastor or the spirit of solitude in which he counsels against the loss of sweet human love in exchange for the activism that he himself was to promote and indulge in for much of his life during may of one eight one six the couple again with jane now claire clairmont traveled to lake geneva to summer near the famous and scandalous poet lord byron whose recent affair with claire had left her both pregnant and somewhat obsessed with him in terms of english literature it was to be a productive summer percy began work on hymn to intellectual beauty and mont blanc mary in the meantime was inspired to write an enduring masterpiece of her own forced to stay indoors by the climatic events of the year without a summer on one particular evening the group of young writers and intellectuals enthralled by the ghost stories from the book fantasmagoriana decided to have a ghost story writing contest another guest dr john polidori came up with the vampyre later to become a strong influence on bram stoker s dracula other guests wove tales of equal horror but mary found herself unable to invent one that night however she had a waking dream where she saw the pale student of unhallowed arts kneeling beside the thing he had put together then she set herself to put the story on paper in time it would be published as frankenstein its success would endure long after the other writings produced that summer had faded mary had incorporated a number of different sources into her work not the least of which was the promethean myth from ovid the influence of john milton s paradise lost the book the creature finds in the cabin is also clearly evident within the novel also both shelleys had read william beckford s vathek a gothic novel that has been likened to an arabesque can one miss the darkling reflection of the beckford character s insolent desire to penetrate the secrets of heaven in both alastor i have made my bed in charnels and on coffins and mary s acclaimed piece who shall perceive the horrors as i dabbled among the unhallowed damp of the grave or tortured the living animal to animate the lifeless clay indeed many if not most commentators take this desire to be a major theme of frankenstein mary and percy were both ethical vegetarians and strong advocates for animals one can see references to vegetarianism in her writing for example in her novel frankenstein the creature was a vegetarian returning to england in september of one eight one six mary and percy were stunned by two family suicides in quick succession in november mary s older half sister fanny imlay left the godwin home and took her own life at a distant inn only weeks later percy s first wife drowned herself in london s hyde park discarded and pregnant she had not welcomed percy s invitation to join mary and himself in their new household on three zero december one eight one six shortly after harriet s death percy and mary were married now with godwin s blessing their attempts to gain custody of percy s two children by harriet failed but their writing careers enjoyed more success when in the spring of one eight one seven mary finished frankenstein over the following years mary s household grew to include her own children by percy occasional friends and claire s daughter by byron shelley moved his menage from place to place first in england and then in italy mary suffered the death of her infant daughter clara outside venice after which her young son will died too in rome as percy moved the household yet again by now mary had resigned herself to her husband s self centered restlessness and his romantic enthusiasms for other women the birth of her only surviving child percy florence shelley consoled her somewhat for her losses eventually the group settled in lerici a town close to la spezia in italy but it was an ill fated choice it was here that claire learned of her daughter s death at the italian convent to which byron had sent her and that mary almost died of a miscarriage and it was from here in july one eight two two that percy sailed away up the coast to livorno to plan the founding of a journal with a group of friends caught in a storm on his return he drowned at sea on eight july one eight two two aged three zero along with his friend edward williams and a young boat attendant percy left his last poem a shadowy work called the triumph of life unfinished mary was tireless in promoting her late husband s work including editing and annotating unpublished material despite their troubled later life together she revered her late husband s memory and helped build his reputation as one of the major poets of the english romantic period but she also found occasions to write a few more novels including valperga the fortunes of perkin warbeck and falkner critics say these works do not begin to approach the power and fame of frankenstein the last man a pioneering science fiction novel of the human apocalypse in the distant future is however sometimes considered her best work as is maria a novel published posthumously mary shelley died of brain cancer on one february one eight five one aged five three in london and was interred at st peter s churchyard in bournemouth in the english county of dorset at the time of her death she was a recognized novelist mary shelley on film the genesis of the frankenstein story in one eight one six has been a popular subject for filmmakers and appears in at least four films gothic ken russell one nine eight six natasha richardson plays mary shelley haunted summer ivan passer one nine eight eight alice krige plays mary shelley rowing with the wind gonzalo su rez one nine eight eight lizzy mcinnery plays mary shelley bride of frankenstein james whale one nine three five elsa lanchester plays mary shelley the arthur cartoon series had one episode depicting a renactment of the night the novel was created titled ferkenstein s monster in frankenstein unbound a two one st century time traveler encounters both frankenstein and the shelleys external links brandeis university article on mary s life and work free audiobook of frankenstein or the modern prometheus from librivox without prefaces and edition information frankenstein a new reality comroe julius h jr one nine seven five frankenstein pickwick and ondine retrospectroscope article analyzes errors in the re telling of mary shelley s original plot literary encyclopedia biography biography the first full english translation of fantasmagoriana tales of the dead one seven nine seven births one eight five one deaths cancer deaths english novelists english science fiction writers english travel writers english horror writers londoners romanticism vegetarians women writers metastability is the ability of a non equilibrium state to persist for a some period of time see metastability in molecules see metastability in physics metastable phases see metastability in electronics see metastability in nuclear decay see metastability in the brain see metastasis xenakis composition dynamical systems chemical properties mary wollstonecraft stipple engraving by james heath ca one seven nine seven after a painting by john opie mary wollstonecraft was born on april two seven one seven five nine in spitalfields london and died on september one zero one seven nine seven from complications following childbirth wollstonecraft had a momentous but tragically brief career of nine years she wrote a vindication of the rights of woman as well as a full range of work across disciplinary boundaries separating philosophy letters education advice politics history religion sexuality and feminism itself johnson preface once viewed solely in relation to the history of feminism mary wollstonecraft is now recognized as a great writer across a range of genres including journalism letters and travel writing johnson preface her personal struggles as a woman and an author contributed to her articulation of the dynamic connection between political writing and political rights both of which she argued had been confined to the male line since adam downward gunther one seven one her writing challenges the male birthright bringing to life a new form of political analysis gunther one seven one today she is celebrated for her early advocacy of women s equality and rationality and for arguing against the degradation and subjugation of women justified by the arbitrary power of beauty leitch five eight five biography mary wollstonecraft was the second child of seven and the eldest daughter of edward and elizabeth wollstonecraft mary s parents shared preference for her older brother johnson xv which contributed to her loss of economic and class status as a young woman franklin one her grandfather was a wealthy silk merchant who left one zero zero zero zero pounds to her father but mary s father tried to distance himself from the trade and set up as a gentleman farmer first in essex and then near beverley in yorkshire franklin one mary s grandfather wanted his family to rise in the world and desired a country retreat for his privileged son more than for himself along with the city house in primrose street he provided edward s first farm in essex where mary lived at age four and five and where her other sister everina was born todd six in less than four years edward s farm in essex failed the failure drove edward s career across england and wales to poorer and more remote farms eventually squandering his inheritance and ultimately making his children rootless todd eight he developed a drinking problem and began to verbally and perhaps even physically abuse mary s mother mary tried to shield her mother from edward s aggression by sleeping nights on the landing near her mother s bedroom door todd eight as a result of the neglect to which her parents subjected her mary assumed a mother s role for the children that followed especially the girls todd one one in one seven six eight the wollstonecrafts moved to a farm outside of beverley where mary attended a local day school for girls the school attended to housewifery and morals and the curriculum aimed at making a girl marriageable and ladylike rudimentary french language needlework music dancing writing and possibly some botany and accounts todd one two at home or with friends she read general books magazines and newspapers and learned to consider social issues troubling kingdom of great britain in general and beverley in particular todd one two beyond schooling and access to print beverley gave mary cultured society todd one four the wollstonecrafts left beverley for hoxton london when mary was fifteen franklin five disinherited both economically and emotionally mary became an autodidact who learned through reading and by participating in the public sphere the city and provinces held informal and formal discussion groups public lectures and clubs libraries made books affordable and coffee shops offered the latest periodicals and newspapers franklin five when in beverley she attended the lectures of john arden on experimental science he also taught her along with his daughter jane arden todd one five how to use globes and on how to argue philosophical problems franklin six in hoxton mary also found mentors in her next door neighbors the reverend mr clare and his wife who recommended and encouraged her to read proper books franklin eight it is through mrs clare that mary met fanny blood a woman two years her senior who became the emotional centre of wollstonecraft s life for the following ten years franklin nine fanny was a role model to mary who inspired her to think of leaving her unhappy family life and of obtaining employment franklin nine mary was prepared to leave but was begged to stay by her mother in exchange for staying she was given a place to live near fanny lodging with an unusual couple thomas taylor the platonist and his wife franklin nine mary became friends with them and began to read plato which helped to influence her ardent religiosity franklin one zero mary eventually moved in with fanny and her family after elizabeth wollstonecraft s death in one seven eight two prompting mary to throw all her energy into supporting the bloods as well as her own younger sisters franklin one one early in one seven eight four wollstonecraft her two sisters and fanny blood set up a school on newington green then a village just to the north of london and now part of islington the following year fanny blood left the school and sailed to lisbon to marry later mary followed her friend to assist her in childbirth but fanny died a precursor to mary s own fate johnson xvi in one seven eight six mary closed her school because of financial problems that had mounted during her absence to raise money and improve her spirits mary began to write thoughts on the education of daughters the work was published in one seven eight seven by joseph johnson and earned her ten guineas which she gave to the blood family johnson xvi she also composed mary a fiction and cave of fancy and worked as a reader and translator with joseph johnson beginning her career as a published writer johnson xvii in one seven eight eight joseph johnson also published wollstonecraft s mary a fiction original stories from real life and of the importance of religious opinions and she began to work as a reviewer for the analytical review a monthly periodical started by joseph johnson and thomas christie johnson xvii in one seven nine zero mary published young grandison a translation of maria van de werken de cambon s adaptation of the novel by samuel richardson followed by a translation of elements of morality by christian gotthilf salzmann johnson xvii in november of that year she published a vindication of the rights of men anonymously then one month later she published the second edition bearing her name establishing her reputation as a partisan of reform johnson xvii one year later in one seven nine one she published a second edition of original stories and started to write a vindication of the rights of woman she also met her future husband the philosopher william godwin through joseph johnson in november of that year johnson xvii in january one seven nine two mary published a vindication of the rights of woman which received several favorable reviews she published a second edition later that year and had planned to write a second part but never did though godwin published her hints of it in posthumous works one seven nine eight johnson xvii in one seven nine three mary met gilbert imlay had an affair with him and although not married she registered as his wife at the american embassy to claim protection of united states citizenship johnson xviii in one seven nine four fanny imlay was born and in one seven nine five mary learned of gilbert s infidelity and attempted suicide twice she saw imlay for the last time in one seven nine six and met godwin again in april johnson xviii she also published letters written during a short residence in sweden norway and denmark started to write wrongs of woman and began her relationship with godwin by mid summer johnson xviii finally in one seven nine seven mary married godwin and their daughter later known as mary shelley was born in august wollstonecraft died in september of complications resulting from childbirth johnson xix probably puerpal fever in one seven nine eight godwin published mary s posthumous works including the wrongs of women or maria the cave of fancy her letters to imlay and other miscellaneous pieces he also includes his own memoirs of the author of a vindication of the rights of woman mary s first biography johnson xix arguably mary wollstonecraft s greatest posthumous work was her daughter known to history as mary shelley her husband brought up the younger mary in a loving but rigorously rational manner and the only way she could rebel as a teenager was to elope with the romantic poet percy bysshe shelley and write frankenstein works thoughts on the education of daughters one seven eight seven this was the first book to establish mary wollstonecraft as an author the title echoes john locke s some thoughts on education and maintains familiar ideas from the lockean tradition the ideal of a domestic education supervised by parents the bourgeois distrust of servants the banishment of improbable tales and superstitious accounts from the child s library and the importance of an inflexible adherence to rules richardson two six wollstonecraft summarizes the main articles of early education as a strict adherence to truth a proper submission to superiors and condescension to inferiors she also argues for the development of sound moral understanding over the mindless cultivation of exterior accomplishments like drawing and music richardson two seven she passionately criticizes the scarceness of careers for women saying that the school teacher is a kind of upper servant and a governess is a humble companion richardson two seven she also says that artificial manners obscure natural sincerity and fine clothes and made up faces should not take the place of unaffected manners and natural play of thought and emotion richardson two seven mary a fiction one seven eight eight this story was wollstonecraft s first novel she began writing with rousseau s idea that a genius will educate itself and used this idea as a summary for her book by presenting emile a female who educates herself through sensations nature and solitary thinking todd one one one original stories from real life one seven eight eight described as a series of harsh tales original stories was wollstonecraft s first commercial success johnson two nine the book is a sort of governess fantasy in which children are rescued from sophisticated aristocrats by a discerning surrogate mrs mason who acts out of high minded compassion not greed todd one two seven throughout original stories the tie between higher and lower remains charity and story after story which cries out for resolution in social reform is answered by personal goodwill todd one two eight of the importance of religious opinions one seven eight eight mary was not fluent in french but at the time she had the rudiments and so could tackle the more ambitious translating project of the importance of religious opinions by the french politician jacques necker mary liked his emphasis on constant self improvement and his praise of reason as a divine gift in agreement with religion todd one three five later when she disapproved of necker s political activities before the french revolution she came to despise his book describing it as various metaphysical shreds of arguments in a style as inflated and confused as the thoughts were far fetched and unconnected todd one three five the female reader one seven eight nine a collection of short pieces and extracts edited by wollstonecraft but published by johnson under a popular writer s name mr creswick richardson two eight she advocates simplicity and sincerity in style as well as behaviour recommends works addressed to the imagination over cold arguments and mere declamation and characterizes children formed by rote learning as miseducated monsters richardson two eight young grandison one seven nine zero by the time wollstonecraft published this translation of de cambon s de kleine grandisson de gehoorzaame zoon or young grandison she had grown impatient with doctrines that cramped the child s understanding in making a child submit to any other authority than that of reason richardson three seven in a vindication of the rights of woman she rejects the arbitrary principle of parental authority and the blind obedience that renders children slavish in character wollstonecraft urges that parent child relations be predicated instead on a principle of reciprocal duty richardson three seven she insists that parents should earn their children s respect through carefully attending to their education and basic needs and that children will return the obligation through caring for their parents in their old age richardson three seven elements of morality one seven nine zero this was an adaptation more than a translation of christian salzmann s moralisches elementarbuch or elements of morality for the use of children with an introductory address to parents because mary had limited knowledge of the german language and had begun the translation to help herself learn the language todd one three five she found his work very rational and the book s arguments agreed with her view that pain whatever its physical cause was in god s plan and led to good character todd one three five she approved of salzmann s opinion that happiness was not the measure of virtue and its aim was to insinuate a taste for domestic pleasures into the hearts of both parents and children todd one three five she kept salzmann s moral stories and added one herself to persuade children to consider indians their brothers a more relevant tale for british than german youth she also toned down the sentimental effusions and the ingratiating remarks about the upper orders todd one three five a vindication of the rights of men one seven nine zero this work begins with edmund burke s reflections of the revolution in france a melodramatic evocation of louis xvi of france and his family plagued by a murderous mob and his predictions of anarchy and slaughter franklin eight seven the french revolution provided burke with raw material to create a cautionary tale to frighten the british away from following suit franklin eight seven mary wrote this passionate rebuttal which turned into her first political polemic franklin eight eight wollstonecraft affirms her support for the french declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen by addressing a reply to burke in the second person in the form of a letter franklin nine two she wrote anonymously satirizing burke s sensibility and imagination as mere literary fictions franklin nine five she also puts her ideals of justice and human rights on a moral basis fighting against a corrupt state which impedes the freedom of the individual to make moral choices and to participate in improving society franklin nine six in her response she demands a more equal society responding to burke s cynical contempt for the poor franklin nine six the book publicly established wollstonecraft spurring some criticism that doubted whether such a good pamphlet could really have been written by a fair lady franklin nine eight her confidence growing mary was already at work on rights of woman by the time rights of men was under review a vindication of the rights of woman one seven nine two godwin asserted that mary wrote rights of woman in six weeks franklin one zero one she says had i allowed myself more time i could have written a better book jacobs one one zero mary promised greater care on a second volume but there is no sign that she ever began it jacobs one one zero she was not interested in conforming to scholarly conventions but her vehemence and personal tone are a conscious attempt to reproduce in literary style a persuasive political speech franklin one zero one wollstonecraft put the rights of women in the context of social optimism jacobs one zero one she argues that the minds of women are no different from the minds of men but that only men and women differ in their bodies jacobs one zero two as a result she affirms universal human rights females are in all the most important aspects the same as males possessing the same souls the same mental capacities and thus the same human rights mellor one four one therefore she argues that a system based on one s sex s dependence is demeaning to everyone jacobs one zero two the book also contends that women like men are born free gunther three nine it raises a serious discussion of women s citizenship linking the objectification of women to the subjection of her sex gunther six the point of vindication is that women become silly creatures because the goal of their education is to lure a man jacobs one zero two she feels that sexually differentiated instruction only disguises female ignorance as innocence and so wollstonecraft offers her own system of female education for independence that aims at creating a citizen woman capable of governing herself gunther six she also calls for coeducational government sponsored schools jacobs one zero five and on her philosophical assumption of sexual equality wollstonecraft mounts this campaign for the reform of female education arguing that girls should be educated in the same subjects and by the same methods as boys mellor one four two she exclaims let an enlightened nation then allow women to share the advantages of education and government with man see whether they will become better as they grow wiser and become free jacobs one zero five according to her scheme between the ages of five and nine rich and poor children of both sexes would attend national day schools but she cautions that not every child has an intellectual future and so after the age of nine only boys and girls of wealth or ability would pursue academic courses while the others have the option of trade schools jacobs one zero five coeducation is crucial for she says men and women were made for each other though not to become one being and if men will not improve women they will deprave them jacobs one zero six she further advocated a radical revision of british law to enable a new egalitarian marriage in which women would share equally in the management and possession of all household resources and demands women be paid equally for their labour gain civil and legal rights to possess and distribute property be admitted to all professions and be given the vote mellor one four two she insisted that a revolution in female manners would dramatically change both genders as it would produce women who acted with reason providence and generosity it would produce men who would treat women with respect and act toward all with benevolence justice and sound reason and it would also produce egalitarian marriages based on compatibility mutual affection and respect mellor one four two she proclaims that women must articulate the story of their own lives and act for themselves she says to become democratic citizens and to participate in the public world women must challenge social custom and change personal habits gunther three six the revolution in female manners incites other women to claim the feminist authority of representing themselves and their own interests in word and deed gunther three six lastly she insists that the female reader can become a revolutionary agent of change by taking part in the historical dramas of their nation gunther three seven mary wollstonecraft wanted to bring about change considering herself as standing forth in defense of one half of the human species who have been degraded from the station of rational beings franklin one zero one thus she calls for a revolution in female manners and proposes a model of what we would now call equality or liberal feminism mellor one four one a vindication of the rights of woman has proven to be one of the most important works in the history of western feminism and has been a touchstone for generations of women committed to sexual equality gunther nine nine an historical and moral view of the french revolution one seven nine four in this work mary concedes that the effeminacy of the french was responsible for anarchy but maintains that this subverted a revolution that had been motivated by nobler motives jones five two she wrote only one volume despite promising two or three more in the advertisement for it wollstonecraft found it necessary to analyze what had gone so horrifyingly wrong in france however she confined herself to commenting on the less contentious events up to one seven nine zero making her book a retrospective analysis that contributed to the revolution debate franklin one three zero adopting the stance of a modern philosophically opinionated historian she intersperses her narrative of events with passages of critical commentary on the dialectic between constitutional change and the stage france had reached in civilization franklin one three one letters written during a short residence in sweden norway and denmark one seven nine six this was the last book published before wollstonecraft s death she takes the restlessness and dislocation that marked her own life as well as the society she observed in northern europe and tries to shape them into a style an argument and a political stance favret two zero nine her travelogue tells the reader more about the mind of the traveler subject charting her path through a heterogeneous modernity than about the three countries she visits favret two zero nine the narrator adopts several modes of travel but never settles however as the story unfolds the mobility of the subject which had initially presented itself as both liberating and creative changes into something compromised inescapable favret two zero nine the desire to escape is a recurring motif but in the course of these lengthy twenty five letters the narrator loses her faith in the freedom of movement favret two one zero posthumous works the cave of fancy one seven nine eight published by william godwin after her death wollstonecraft s the cave of fancy is a work where she allows the expression of passion to be romanticized todd one eight two she began the novel by writing about a fantasized rescue of a young girl by a fatherly sage who teaches her the recognition and value of true sensibility the sage is used to express a cautionary tale of sensibility in passionate women todd one two five she may have stopped writing because she was tired of worrying over what sensibility was and how it could be channeled away from pain and illicit desire or perhaps she was persuaded by joseph johnson to turn to a genre more suited to her talents todd one two five the wrongs of women one seven nine eight this novel was designed to show the injustice and immorality built in to marriage franklin one seven seven and more daring than most feminists to show the wrongs of different classes of women linking their fates together as equals franklin one seven eight her novel hosts a man and two women who tell stories that also incorporate miserable accounts of other oppressed women todd four two seven the story s setting is an asylum and the twist is that the heroine maria who narrates a tale of domestic betrayals is only disappointed in love and not actually mad even though she sometimes sounds like it todd four two seven wollstonecraft most likely started this novel in the summer of one seven nine six but her lack of confidence and unwillingness to conform to literary convention stopped her from completing the novel franklin one eight six wollstonecraft s death is why she was unable to complete maria or the wrongs of women letters to imlay one seven nine eight when godwin decided to publish her letters to imlay he did so as a part of his honest presentation of a beloved partner and because he admired them as literary constructions they are the proper self expression of a sensitive woman todd three six three the letters are extraordinary because they are as godwin professed the finest examples of the language of sentiment and passion ever presented to the world todd three six three letters on the management of infants one seven nine eight only part of the first letters survived for publishing the letters were meant to illustrate a program of infant care based on simplicity and the author s own successful practice for women ready to depart from the conventional errors that contributed to the high infant mortality rate of the time her healthy daughter was a living argument for rational motherhood and for giving children as much freedom and stimulation as possible richardson three seven three eight lessons one seven nine eight the fragmentary lessons ten in all address a little girl whose life narrative develops as the lessons progress the lessons were designed for use in learning to read richardson three eight wollstonecraft tries to provide new readers with age appropriate concrete engaging material in a simple style and parental voice had wollstonecraft lived to complete lessons it would have made a pronounced contrast to the steely didacticism of original stories and would have provided an innovative and compelling model for children s writers to come richardson three nine influence mary wollstonecraft proves to be a prophetic visionary for one nine th century two zero th century and two one st century feminist politics bahar one seven seven as a feminist author she has been reinvented and her work read again and again by women yearning to understand their history and eager to create their future gunther one five four wollstonecraft s scholarship has played a leading role in a shift from the study of the experience or writings of women as a separate category of literary or historical analysis and toward the complex involvement of women and of gender difference in all areas of eighteenth century life and thought kaplan two four seven at the end of the nineteenth century wollstonecraft s ideas were explored by victorian era feminists who put sexual freedom on their agenda franklin two one zero yet it was not until the twentieth century that wollstonecraft s broader philosophical critique of the cultural and economic constraints on women would come into its own franklin two one zero in fact late twentieth century feminism adopted wollstonecraft as an icon for her success in placing women s rights and sexual difference at the center of social and political debates and in so doing made the genealogy of feminist ideas in modernity of interest to a wider public kaplan two four seven both in the first and second waves of feminism in the one nine two zero s one nine three zero s and one nine six zero s one nine seven zero s feminists turned to wollstonecraft as a vital still relevant thinker franklin two one zero virginia woolf in one nine two nine described mary wollstonecraft saying that she is alive and active she argues and experiments we hear her voice and trace her influence even now among the living kaplan two four six the story of wollstonecraft s life was seized upon by feminist intellectuals and became re told as a tale of principle instead of illicit passion franklin two one zero her attack on conventional femininity helped inspire a one nine seven zero s feminism based on consciousness raising and women s scrutiny of their life experiences franklin two one zero the combination of an outpouring of feminist scholarship and the movement towards historicism in romantic studies since the one nine eight zero s has produced a new portrait of wollstonecraft franklin two one zero she laid down a tradition of feminism saturated in the word in literacy and literature in her participation in print culture and in concern with representation whose effects are felt to this day franklin two one one further reading falco maria j ed feminist interpretations of mary wollstonecraft university park penn state press one nine nine six gordon lyndall mary wollstonecraft little brown two zero zero five gubar susan critical condition feminism at the turn of the century new york columbia university press two zero zero zero jump harriet mary wollstonecraft writer new york harvester wheatsheaf one nine nine four kelly gary revolutionary feminism the mind and career of mary wollstonecraft new york st martin s one nine nine two poovey mary the proper lady and the woman writer ideology as style in the works of mary wollstonecraft mary shelley and jane austen chicago and maria at the history guide references alderson brian mister gobwin and his interesting little books adorned with beautiful copper plates zero three nov two zero zero five bahar saba mary wollstonecraft s social and aesthetic philosophy an eve to please me new york palgrave macmillan two zero zero two de kleine grandisson of de gehoorzaame zoon maria geertruid de cambon van der werken digitale bibliotheek voor de nederlandse letternen zero three nov two zero zero five franklin caroline mary wollstonecraft a literary life new york palgrave macmillan two zero zero four favret mary letters written during a short residence in sweden norway and denmark traveling with mary wollstonecraft the cambridge companion to mary wollstonecraft ed claudia l johnson cambridge cambridge university press two zero zero two two zero nine two two seven gunther wendy rebel writer mary wollstonecraft and enlightenment politics dekalb northern illinois university press two zero zero one jacobs diane her own woman the life of mary wollstonecraft new york simon mary wollstonecraft s vindications and their political tradition the cambridge companion to mary wollstonecraft ed claudia l johnson cambridge cambridge university press two zero zero two four two five eight kaplan cora mary wollstonecraft s reception and legacies the cambridge companion to mary wollstonecraft ed claudia l johnson cambridge cambridge university press two zero zero two two four six two six nine mellor anne k mary wollstonecraft s a vindication of the rights of women and the women writers of her day the cambridge companion to mary wollstonecraft ed claudia l johnson cambridge cambridge university press two zero zero two one four one one five nine richardson alan mary wollstonecraft on education the cambridge companion to mary wollstonecraft ed claudia l johnson cambridge cambridge university press two zero zero two two four three nine todd janet mary wollstonecraft a revolutionary life new york columbia university press two zero zero zero wollstonecraft mary the norton anthology theory and criticism ed vincent b leitch william e cain laurie fink barbara johnson john mcgowan and jeffery j williams new york w w norton company inc two zero zero one five eight two five nine three one seven five nine births one seven nine seven deaths one eight th century philosophers english travel writers enlightenment philosophers feminists londoners women writers the molecular mass abbreviated mm of a substance called molecular weight and abbreviated as mw is the mass of one molecule of that substance relative to the unified atomic mass unit u equal to one one two the mass of one atom of carbon one two due to this relativity the molecular mass of a substance is commonly referred to as the relative molecular mass and abbreviated to mr the molecular mass can be calculated as the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms of any one molecule the molecular mass can also be measured directly using mass spectrometry in mass spectrometry the molecular mass of a small molecule is usually reported as the monoisotopic mass that is the sum of the masses of most common isotopes of each element the masses used to compute the monoisotopic molecular mass are found on a table of isotopic masses and are not the same as found on a typical periodic table the average molecular mass is often measured for larger molecules since the isotopes may not be resolved depending on the mass spectrometer this average mass can be calculated using the elemental mass numbers on a typical periodic table since there is likely to be a statistical distribution of atoms representing the isotopes throughout the molecule the molar mass of a substance is numerically equal to the molecular mass but expressed in mass units per mole usually as g mol grams per mole example the atomic mass of hydrogen is one zero zero seven eight four u and that of oxygen is one five nine nine nine four u therefore the molecular mass of water with formula h two o is two one zero zero seven eight four u one five nine nine nine four u one eight zero one five zero eight u therefore one mole of water weighs one eight zero one five zero eight grams however the exact mass of hydrogen one the most common isotope is one zero zero seven eight three and the exact mass of oxygen one six the most common isotope is one five nine nine four nine so the mass of the most common single molecule of water is one eight zero one zero five u molecular mass or molar mass are used in stoichiometry calculations since molecules are created by chemical reactions not nuclear reactions a molecule s molecular mass exactly equals the sum of the atomic masses of its constituent atoms the gram molecular weight is the molecular weight of a chemical compound expressed in grams thus the molecular weight of calcium carbonate is one zero zero therefore the gram molecular weight is one zero zero g the gram molecular weight is frequently used particularly for calculating the concentration of solutions thus a molar solution will contain the gram molecular weight of a chemical dissolved to produce one litre of solution molecular mass in polymer chemistry in polymer chemistry due to the varying chain lengths between the polymer macromolecules various types of molecular mass are used to quantify the molar mass distribution see also avogadro s number atomic mass unit dalton unit external links learning by simulations calculation of molecular formulas from molecular masses mass chemical properties metallic bonding is the bonding within metals it involves the delocalized sharing of free electrons among a lattice of metal atoms thus metallic bonds may be compared to molten salts metal atoms typically contain a high amount of electrons in their valence shell compared to their period or energy level these become delocalised and form a sea of electrons surrounding a giant lattice of positive ions metals seem to have higher boiling and melting points which might suggest stronger bonds between the atoms metallic bonding as with covalent bonding is non polar in that there is no for pure elemental metals or very little for alloys electronegativity difference among the atoms participating in the bonding interaction and the electrons involved in that interaction are delocalized across the crystalline structure of the metal the metallic bond accounts for many physical characteristics of metals such as strength malleability ductility conduction of heat and electricity and luster see also chemical bond metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between the metal atoms or ions and the delocalised electrons this is why atoms or layers are allowed to slide past each other resulting in the characteristic properties of malleability and ductility chemical bonding in chemistry a methyl group is a hydrophobic alkyl functional group derived from methane four it has the formula three and is very often abbreviated me this hydrocarbon unit can be found in many organic compounds such as biodiesel which is a mixture of fatty acid methyl esters when a methyl group is substituted as the r group in an amino acid it forms alanine see methanol history for its etymology see also methylation functional groups a top down view of skeletal muscle muscle is the contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells its function is to produce force and cause motion either locomotion or movement within internal organs much of muscle contraction occurs without conscious thought and is necessary for survival like the contraction of the heart or peristalsis which pushes food through the digestive system voluntary muscle contraction is used to move the body and can be finely controlled such as movements of the finger or gross movements like the quadriceps muscle of the thigh types there are three general types of muscle smooth muscle or involuntary muscle is found within structures such as the intestines throat and blood vessels it does not get tired high endurance cardiac muscle is also an involuntary muscle but it s a specialized kind of muscle found only within the heart it does not get tired high endurance skeletal muscle or voluntary muscle is anchored by tendons to bone and is used to affect skeletal movement such as locomotion it gets tired low endurance cardiac and skeletal muscle are striated in that they contain sarcomeres and are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles smooth muscle has neither striated muscle is often used in short intense bursts whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near permanent contractions skeletal muscle is further divided into several subtypes type i slow oxidative slow twitch or red muscle is dense with capillaries and is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin giving the muscle tissue its characteristic red color it can carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic activity type ii fast twitch muscle has three major kinds larsson et al one nine nine one am j physiol two six one c nine three one zero one that are in order of increasing contractile speed a type iia which like slow muscle is aerobic rich in mitochondria and capillaries and appears red b type iix also known as type iid which is less dense in mitochondria and myoglobin this is the fastest muscle type in humans it can contract more quickly and with a greater amount of force than oxidative muscle but can sustain only short anaerobic bursts of activity before a build up of lactic acid in tissue begins to interfere with muscular contraction and causes pain n b in some books and articles this muscle in humans was confusingly called type iib smerdu et al one nine nine four am j physiol two six seven c one seven two three eight c type iib which is anaerobic glycolytic white muscle that is even less dense in mitochondria and myoglobin in small animals like rodents or rabbits this is the major fast muscle type explaining the pale color of their meat anatomy muscle is composed of muscle cells sometimes known as muscle fibers within the cells are myofibrils myofibrils contain sarcomeres which are composed of actin and myosin individual muscle cells are lined with endomysium muscle cells are bound together by perimysium into bundles called fascicles the bundles are then grouped together to form muscle which is lined by epimysium muscle spindles are distributed throughout the muscles and provide sensory feedback information to the central nervous system skeletal muscle is arranged in discrete groups examples of which include the biceps brachii it is connected by tendons to processes of the skeleton in contrast smooth muscle occurs at various scales in almost every organ from the skin in which it controls erection of body hair to the blood vessels and digestive tract in which it controls the caliber of a lumen and peristalsis there are approximately six five zero skeletal muscles in the human body see list of muscles of the human body contrary to popular belief the number of muscles cannot be increased through exercise instead the muscle cells simply get bigger physiology the three types of muscle have significant differences but all use the movement of actin against myosin to produce contraction and relaxation in skeletal muscle contraction is stimulated by electrical impulses transmitted by the nerves the motor nerves and motoneurons in particular all skeletal muscle and many smooth muscle contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine muscles and muscular activity account for most of the body s energy consumption muscles store energy for their own use in the form of glycogen which represents about one of their mass this can be rapidly converted to glucose when more energy is necessary muscle can produce three three five kw four one two horsepower at full rate nervous control efferent leg vertebrates move muscles in response to voluntary and autonomic signals from the brain deep muscles superficial muscles muscles of the face and internal muscles all correspond with dedicated regions in the brain in addition muscles react to reflexive nerve stimuli that do not always send signals all the way to the brain but most muscle activity is the result of complex interactions between various areas of the brain nerves that control skeletal muscles in mammals correspond with neuron groups along the primary motor cortex of the brain s cerebral cortex commands are routed though the basal ganglia and are modified by input from the cerebellum before being relayed through the pyramidal tract to the spinal cord and from there to the motor end plate at the muscles along the way feedback loops such as that of the extrapyramidal system contribute signals to influence muscle tone and response deeper muscles such as those involved in posture often are controlled from nuclei in the brain stem and basal ganglia afferent leg sometimes known as muscle memory the sense of where our bodies are in space is called proprioception the perception of body awareness more easily demonstrated than explained proprioception is the unconscious awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time this can be demonstrated by anyone closing their eyes and waving their hand around assuming proper proprioceptive function at no time will the person lose awareness of where the hand actually is even though it is not being detected by any of the other senses several areas in the brain coordinate movement and position with the feedback information gained from proprioception the cerebellum and nucleus ruber in particular continuously sample position against movement and make minor corrections to assure a smooth projection role in health and disease exercise exercise is often recommended as a means of improving motor skills fitness and muscle strength exercise has several effects upon muscles connective tissue and bone and the nerves that stimulate the muscles disease symptoms of muscle disease may include weakness or spasticity rigidity myoclonus twitching and myalgia muscle pain diagnostic procedures that may reveal muscular disorders include testing creatine kinase levels in the blood and electromyography measuring electrical activity in muscles neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the muscles and or their nervous control in general problems with nervous control can cause spasticity or paralysis depending on the location and nature of the problem a large proportion of neurological disorders leads to problems with movement ranging from cerebrovascular accident stroke and parkinson s disease to creutzfeldt jakob disease diseases of the motor end plate include myasthenia gravis a form of muscle weakness due to antibodies to the acetylcholine receptor and its related condition lambert eaton myasthenic syndrome lems tetanus and botulism are bacterial infections in which bacterial toxins cause increased or decreased muscle tone respectively the myopathies are all diseases affecting the muscle itself rather than its nervous control muscular dystrophy is a large group of diseases many of them hereditary where the muscle integrity is disrupted it leads to progressive loss of strength high dependence and decreased life span inflammatory muscle disorders polymyalgia rheumatica or muscle rheumatism is an inflammatory condition that mainly occurs in the elderly it is associated with giant cell arteritis it often responds dramatically to glucocorticoids e g prednisolone polymyositis dermatomyositis and inclusion body myositis are autoimmune conditions in which the muscle is affected rhabdomyolysis is the breakdown of muscular tissue due to any cause while it may not lead to any muscular symptoms at all the myoglobin thus released may cause acute renal failure tumors of muscle include smooth muscle leiomyoma benign very common in the uterus leiomyosarcoma malignant very rare striated muscle rhabdomyoma benign and rhabdomyosarcoma malignant both very rare metastasis from elsewhere e g lung cancer smooth muscle has been implicated to play a role in a large number of diseases affecting blood vessels the respiratory tract e g asthma the digestive system e g irritable bowel syndrome and the urinary tract e g urinary incontinence these disease processes are not usually confined to the muscular tissue injuries of muscles include wounds and strains the strongest human muscle depending on what definition of strongest is used many different muscles in the human body can be characterized as being the strongest in ordinary parlance muscular strength usually refers to the ability to exert a force on an external object for example lifting a weight by this definition the masseter or jaw muscle is the strongest the one nine nine two guinness book of records records the achievement of a bite strength of nine seven five lbf four three three seven n for two seconds what distinguishes the masseter is not anything special about the muscle itself but its advantage in working against a much shorter lever arm than other muscles if strength refers to the force exerted by the muscle itself e g on the place where it inserts into a bone then the strongest muscles are those with the largest cross sectional area at their belly this is because the tension exerted by an individual skeletal striated muscle fiber does not vary much either from muscle to muscle or with length each fiber can exert a force on the order of zero three micronewtons by this definition the strongest muscle of the body is usually said to be the quadriceps femoris or the gluteus maximus again taking strength to mean only force in the physicist s sense and as contrasted with energy or power then a shorter muscle will be stronger pound for pound i e by weight than a longer muscle the uterus may be the strongest muscle by weight in the human body at the time when an infant is delivered the human uterus weighs about four zero oz one one kg during childbirth the uterus exerts two five to one zero zero lbf one zero zero to four zero zero n of downward force with each contraction the external muscles of the eye are conspicuously large and strong in relation to the small size and weight of the eyeball it is frequently said that they are the strongest muscles for the job they have to do and are sometimes claimed to be one zero zero times stronger than they need to be eye movements however probably do need to be exceptionally fast the unexplained statement that the tongue is the strongest muscle in the body appears frequently in lists of surprising facts but it is difficult to find any definition of strength that would make this statement true note that the tongue consists of sixteen muscles not one the tongue may possibly be the strongest muscle at birth the heart has a claim to being the muscle that performs the largest quantity of physical work in the course of a lifetime estimates of the power output of the human heart range from one to five watts this is much less than the maximum power output of other muscles for example the quadriceps can produce over one zero zero watts but only for a few minutes the heart does its work continuously over an entire lifetime without pause and thus can outwork other muscles an output of one watt continuously for seventy years yields a total work output of two to three one zero nine joules efficiency the efficiency of human muscle has been measured in the context of rowing and cycling at one four to two seven the efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work done to the total energy output heat plus work muscle evolution according to a recent study published in one nine nine nine specialized forms of skeletal and cardiac muscles predated the divergence of the vertebrate arthropod evolutionary line this indicates that these types of muscle developed in a common ancestor sometime before seven zero zero million years ago mya vertebrate smooth muscle smooth muscle found in humans was found to have evolved independently from the skeletal and cardiac muscles references costill jack h and wilmore david l two zero zero four physiology of sport and exercise champaign illinois human kinetics isbn zero seven three six zero four four eight nine two phylogenetic relationship of muscle tissues deduced from superimposition of gene trees satoshi oota and naruya saitou mol biol evol one six six eight five six seven one nine nine nine external links the straight dope masseter strongest nine seven five pounds for two seconds gluteus maximus and quadriceps strongest if leverage not included physics factbook heart output one three to five watts lifetime output two to three one zero nine joules alaska optometric association external eye muscles one zero zero times as strong as they need to be muscle building techniques to build or not to build muscles course notes for a virginia commonwealth dance course quadriceps strongest a body building equipment website quadriceps strongest university of dundee article on performing neurological examinations quadriceps strongest course notes from a hartnell college course uterus strongest pound for pound the pregnancy today website uterus strongest muscle efficiency in rowing gatorade sports science institute on muscle efficiency in cyclists pdf collection of books on muscle training and weightlifting human muscle tutorial clear pictures of main human muscles and their latin names good for orientation see also list of muscles in the human body myotomy sphincter rapid plant movement atrophy muscle tone residual muscle tension muscular system tissues exercise physiology mild ale is one of the oldest styles of beer from england and originally meant a young or immature ale the word mild at the time meant new or fresh due to expanding population and demand for beer in the one eight th century some brewers began to sell beer before it was ready at a lower cost than fully matured ales which could require cellaring in the bottle for up to a year this young beer was called mild the harsh sour beer was sometimes mixed with fully aged or stale beer to make the product drinkable the standard nine to one ratio became known as porter s ale because it was popular and affordable by the working class during the one nine th century porter grew into its own style while brewers developed recipes for mild ales that didn t require mixing with aged beer to taste good chocolate malt oatmeal torrified wheat and unmalted barley became standard ingredients for the style new less bitter hop varieties and new yeasts made the flavors less sour today mild is less bitter lighter bodied but darker in color than brown ale some traditionalists such as camra consider mild to be only a draft version of brown ale traditional mild had a higher alcohol content than today which has dropped over the years to avoid higher excise taxes milds are still popular in the west midlands wales and northwest england but are less popular than bitter in the rest of the world common mild ales banks s original brain s dark very popular in south wales greene king xx mild sarah hughes dark ruby mild theakston s mild timothy taylor s golden best a light mild timothy taylor s dark mild tolly mild external links camra s special campagning group for mild homebrewing a mild ale beer styles english beer mars society logo the mars society is an international space advocacy non profit organization dedicated to encouraging the exploration and settlement of mars founded by robert zubrin and others in mid one nine nine eight and attracting the support of notable science fiction writers and filmmakers including kim stanley robinson and james cameron the organisation is dedicated to convincing the public and governments of the benefits of mars exploration as well as exploring the possibilities of private mars missions the society formally came into existence at its founding conference in august one nine nine eight when over seven zero zero delegates astronomers scientists engineers astronauts entrepreneurs educators students and space enthusiasts attended a weekend of talks and presentations from leading mars exploration advocates since that time the society guided by its international steering committee has grown to over four zero zero zero members and some six zero zero zero associate supporters across more than five zero countries around the world members of the society are from all walks of life and all actively work to promote the ideals of space exploration and the opportunities for exploring mars but the society isn t purely theoretical its aim is to show mars is an achievable goal through a practical series of technical and other projects including these further development of the mars direct mission plan to send humans to mars the mars analogue research station programme mars analogues of possible future mars habitation units located in mars like environments the mars society analogue pressurised rover a competition to design a pressurised rover vehicle that could be used on mars in addition the society gives talks and presentations on mars direct to schools colleges universities professional bodies and the general public promotes the teaching of science astronomy and spaceflight related subjects in schools campaigns for greater investment on the part of individual countries in space research and development hosts the largest annual conferences on mars exploration in the united states europe and australia actively supports nasa esa and other space agencies in their on going exploration of mars see also colonization of mars external links mars society web site mars society uk website mars society forum new mars non profit organizations scientific organizations space colonization space advocacy minerva and the muses by hans rottenhammer one six zero three minerva was a roman goddess of crafts and wisdom this article focuses on minerva in early rome and in cultic practice for information on mythological accounts of minerva which were heavily influenced by greek mythology see athena titles and roles the name minerva may come from the indo european root men from which mental and mind are also derived however the non indo european speaking etruscans had a goddess menrva so the name may be of entirely unknown derivation minerva was the daughter of jupiter and metis she was considered to be the virgin goddess of warriors poetry medicine wisdom commerce crafts and the inventor of music as minerva medica she was the goddess of medicine and doctors adapting greek myths about athena romans said that minerva was not born in the usual way but rather sprang fully armed from the brain of her father this image has captivated western writers and artists through the ages worship ovid called her the goddess of a thousand works minerva was worshipped throughout italy though only in rome did she take on a warlike character minerva is usually depicted wearing a coat of mail and a helmet and carrying a spear the romans celebrated her festival from march one nine to two three during the day which is called in the feminine plural quinquatria the fifth after the ides of march the nineteenth the artisans holiday a lesser version the minusculae quinquatria was held on the ides of june june one three by the flute players who were particularly useful to religion minerva was worshipped on the capitoline hill as one of the capitoline triad along with jupiter and juno in two zero seven bc a guild of poets and actors was formed to meet and make votive offerings at the temple of minerva on the aventine hill among others its members included livius andronicus the aventine sanctuary of minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middle roman republic minerva in the modern world minerva is the logo of the world famous german max planck society for the advancement of science max planck gesellschaft minerva is featured on the seal of california because the state entered the union fully formed in the early two zero th century manuel jos estrada cabrera president of guatemala tried to promote a cult of minerva in his country this left little legacy other than a few interesting hellenic style temples in parks around guatemala according to john robison s proofs of a conspiracy one seven nine eight the third degree of the bavarian illuminati was called minerval or brother of minerva in honor of the goddess of learning later this title was adopted for the first degree of aleister crowley s oto rituals according to legend the queen of spades playing card depicts minerva minerva is also the name of a song by the band deftones and also by the artist ani difranco minerva mcgonagall is the name of a character in j k rowling s harry potter series minerva mink is a character in the steven speilberg cartoon animaniacs once considered too sexy for the show there is an international relations blog named the duck of minerva there is a battleship named minerva in the japanese two zero zero four animation gundam seed destiny robert zubrin s novel the holy land features aliens who worship minerva roman goddesses wisdom goddesses wisdom gods mars direct is a proposal for a relatively low cost manned mission to mars with current rocket technology the plan was originally detailed in a research paper by robert zubrin and david baker in one nine nine zero the mission was expanded upon in zubrin s book one nine nine six the case for mars the plan is now a staple of zubrin s speaking engagements and general advocacy as head of the mars society and has been released in video format the proposal the plan involves launching an unmanned earth return vehicle erv directly from earth s surface to mars using a heavy lift booster no bigger than the saturn v used for the apollo missions containing a supply of hydrogen a chemical plant and a small nuclear reactor the erv return vehicle would take some eight months to reach mars once there a relatively simple set of chemical reactions the sabatier reaction coupled with electrolysis would combine a small amount of hydrogen carried by the erv with the carbon dioxide of the martian atmosphere to create up to one one two tonnes of methane and oxygen propellants nine six tonnes of which would be needed to return the erv to earth at the end of the mission this process would take approximately one zero months to complete some two six months after the erv was originally launched from earth a second vehicle the mars habitat unit would be launched on a high energy transfer to mars carrying a crew of four this vehicle would take some six months to reach mars during the trip artificial gravity would be generated by tying the spent upper stage of the booster to the habitat unit and setting them both rotating about a common axis on reaching mars the useless spent upper stage would be jettisoned with the habitat unit aerobraking into mars orbit before soft landing in close proximity to the erv once on mars the crew would spend one eight months on the surface carrying out a range of scientific research aided by a small rover vehicle carried aboard their habitat unit and powered by excess methane produced by the erv to return they use the erv leaving the habitat for the possible use of subsequent explorers the propulsion stage of the erv would be used as a counterbalance to generate artificial gravity for the trip back the initial cost estimate for mars direct was put at two zero billion including development costs in today s terms this equates to some three zero three five billion in two zero zero four nasa and esa undertook cost modelling exercises to review the cost of human space missions while the exercise was not an endorsement of mars direct both cost models found zubrin and baker s cost estimate to be remarkably accurate revisions since mars direct was initially conceived it has undergone considerable review by the mars society nasa and stanford university the nasa model referred to as the design reference mission currently on version three calls for a significant upgrade in hardware up to three launches per mission not two and sends the erv to mars fully fuelled parking it in orbit above the planet where it is reached by a small ascent craft the mars society and stanford studies retain the original two vehicle mission profile of mars direct but increase the crew size to six the mars society has demonstrated the viability of the mars habitat unit concept through their mars analogue research station programme mars direct was featured on a discovery channel tm program mars the next frontier in which discussed in part issues surrounding nasa funding of the project in fiction mars direct is the mission mode used in gregory benford s novel the martian race the mars direct plan is the basis for the two zero zero zero disney film mission to mars see also zubrin baker one nine nine zero mars direct humans to the red planet by one nine nine nine four one st congress of the international astronautical federation the case for mars the mars direct video mars missions max planck this article is about planck the german physicist for the proposed european space agency artificial satellite see planck satellite max karl ernst ludwig planck two three april one eight five eight four october one nine four seven was one of the most important german physicists of the late one nine th and early two zero th century he is considered to be the inventor of quantum theory childhood and youth planck came from a traditional intellectual family his paternal great grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors in g ttingen his father was a law professor in kiel and munich and his paternal uncle was a judge max planck was born in kiel to johann julius wilhelm planck and his second wife emma patzig he was the sixth child in the family though two of his siblings were from his father s first marriage in one eight six seven the family moved to munich where planck attended high school graduating early at age sixteen education planck was musically gifted he took voice lessons in addition to playing the piano organ and cello and composing songs and operas however instead of music he chose to study physics the munich physics professor philipp von jolly advised him against going into physics saying in this field almost everything is already discovered and all that remains is to fill a few holes planck replied that he didn t wish to discover new things only to understand the known fundamentals of the field and began his studies in one eight seven four in munich with jolly planck performed the only experiment of his entire intellectual career studying the diffusion of hydrogen through heated platinum but soon transferred to theoretical physics in one eight seven seven he went to berlin for a year of study with the famous physicists hermann von helmholtz and gustav kirchhoff and also the mathematician karl weierstrass he wrote that helmholtz was never quite prepared spoke slowly miscalculated endlessly and bored his listeners while kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were however dry and monotonous despite this he soon became close friends with helmholtz while there he mostly undertook a program of self study of clausius s writings which led him to choose heat theory as his field in october one eight seven eight planck passed his qualifying exams and in february of one eight seven nine defended his dissertation ber den zweiten hauptsatz der mechanischen w rmetheorie on the second fundamental theorem of the mechanical heat theory in june one eight eight zero he presented his habilitation thesis gleichgewichtszust nde isotroper k rper in verschiedenen temperaturen equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures academic career with the completion of his habilitation thesis planck became an unpaid private lecturer in munich waiting until he would be offered an academic position although he was initially ignored by the academic community he furthered his work on the field of heat theory and discovered one after the other the same thermodynamical formalism as gibbs without realizing it clausius s ideas on entropy occupied a central role in his work in april one eight eight five the university of kiel appointed planck an associate professor of theoretical physics further work on entropy and its treatment especially as applied in physical chemistry followed he proposed a thermodynamic basis for arrhenius s theory of electrolytic dissociation within four years he was named the successor to kirchhoff s position in berlin presumably thanks to helmholtz s intercession and by one eight nine two became a full professor in one nine zero seven planck was appointed to boltzmann s position in vienna but turned it down to stay in berlin he retired on one zero january one nine two six and the successor to his position was erwin schr dinger family in march one eight eight seven planck married marie merck one eight six one one nine zero nine sister of a school fellow and moved with her into a sublet apartment in kiel four children were born to the couple karl one eight eight eight one nine one six the twins emma one eight eight nine one nine one nine and grete one eight eight nine one nine one seven and erwin planck one eight nine three one nine four five after the appointment to berlin the planck family lived in a villa in berlin grunewald wangenheimstra e two one in the vicinity of this address several other professors of berlin university were living among them the famous theologian adolf von harnack who became a close friend of planck soon the planck home became a social and cultural centre numerous well known scientists were frequent visitors such as albert einstein otto hahn and lise meitner the tradition of jointly playing music had already been established in the home of helmholtz after several happy years the planck family was struck by a series of disasters in october one nine zero nine marie planck died possibly from tuberculosis in march one nine one one max planck married his second wife marga von hoesslin one eight eight two one nine four eight in december his third son herrmann was born during the first world war planck s oldest son karl was killed in action in verdun and erwin had already in one nine one four been taken prisoner by the french grete died in one nine one seven while giving birth to her first child her sister lost her life two years later under the same circumstances after marrying grete s widower both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers planck endured all these losses with stoic submission to fate finally in january one nine four five erwin to whom max planck had been particularly close was executed by the nazis because of his participation in the failed attempt to assassinate hitler in july one nine four four professor at berlin university in berlin planck joined the local physical society later he wrote about this time in those days i was essentially the only theoretical physicist there whence things were not so easy for me because i started mentioning entropy but this was not quite fashionable since it was regarded as a mathematical spook thanks to his initiative the society merged in one eight nine eight to form the german physical society deutsche physikalische gesellschaft dpg from one nine zero five to one nine zero nine planck was the president of the dpg planck started a six semester course of lectures on theoretical physics dry somewhat impersonal according to lise meitner using no notes never making mistakes never faltering the best lecturer i ever heard according to an english participant james r partington who continues there were always many standing around the room as the lecture room was well heated and rather close some of the listeners would from time to time drop to the floor but this did not disturb the lecture planck did not establish an actual school the number of his graduate students was only about twenty all together among them the following max abraham one eight nine seven one eight seven five one nine two two moritz schlick one nine zero four one eight eight two one nine three six walther mei ner one nine zero six one eight eight two one nine seven four max von laue one nine zero six one eight seven nine one nine six zero fritz reiche one nine zero seven one eight eight three one nine six zero walter schottky one nine one two one eight eight six one nine seven six walther bothe one nine one four one eight nine one one nine five seven black body radiation in one eight nine four planck turned his attention to the problem of black body radiation he had been commissioned by electric companies to discover how to create the most light from lightbulbs with the minimum energy the problem had already been stated by kirchhoff in one eight five nine how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body a perfect absorber also known as a cavity radiator depend on the frequency of the radiation e g the colour of the light and the temperature of the body the question had been explored experimentally but the rayleigh jeans law derived from classical physics failed to explain the observed behaviour at high frequencies wilhelm wien proposed wien s law which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies but failed at low frequencies planck interpolated between the laws of wien and rayleigh jeans but found that he could only derive a satisfactory equation using what he thought was merely a mathematical trick namely that light is only emitted in packets he did not for many years believe that these packets known as quanta corresponded with reality his famous planck black body radiation law described the experimentally observed black body spectrum very well it was first proposed in a meeting of the dpg on october one nine one nine zero zero and published in one nine zero one a commemoration plaque for max planck on his discovery of planck s constant in front of humboldt university berlin by one four december one nine zero zero he was already able to present a theoretical derivation of the law but this required him to use ideas from statistical mechanics as introduced by boltzmann so far he had been holding a strong aversion against any statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics which he regarded as of an axiomatic nature an act of despair i was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics the central assumption behind his derivation was the supposition that the electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form in other words the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit e h nu where h is planck s constant also known as planck s action quantum introduced already in one eight nine nine and nu is the frequency of the radiation at first planck considered that the quantisation was only as a purely formal assumption actually i did not think much about it nowadays this assumption incompatible with classical physics is regarded as the birth of quantum physics and the greatest intellectual accomplishment of planck s career however ludwig boltzmann had already in one eight seven seven in a theoretical paper been discussing the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete it was in recognition of this accomplishement that planck was awarded the nobel prize for physics in one nine one eight the discovery of planck s constant enabled him to define a new universal set of physical units such as the planck length and the planck mass all based on fundamental physical constants subsequently planck tried to grasp the meaning of the energy quanta but to no avail my unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble even several years later other physicists like rayleigh jeans and lorentz set planck s constant to zero in order to align with classical physics but planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value i am unable to understand jeans stubbornness he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing the same as hegel was for philosophy so much the worse for the facts if they are wrong max born wrote about planck he was by nature and by the tradition of his family conservative averse to revolutionary novelties and sceptical towards speculations but his belief in the imperative power of logical thinking based on facts was so strong that he did not hesitate to express a claim contradicting to all tradition because he had convinced himself that no other resort was possible einstein and the theory of relativity max planck and albert einstein in one nine zero five the three epochal papers of the hitherto completely unknown albert einstein were published in the journal annalen der physik planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of the special theory of relativity thanks to his influence this theory was soon widely accepted in germany planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity however einstein s hypothesis of light quanta photons harbingered by philipp lenard s one nine zero two discovery of the photoelectric effect was initially rejected by planck he was unwilling to sacrifice also maxwell s theory of electrodynamics the theory of light would be thrown back not by decades but by centuries into the age when christian huygens dared to fight against the mighty emission theory of newton in one nine one zero einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior of specific heat at low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics planck and nernst in order to clarify the increasing number of contradictions organised the first solvay conference brussels one nine one one at this meeting einstein was finally able to convince planck meanwhile planck had been appointed dean of berlin university whereby it was possible for him to call einstein to berlin and establish a new professorship for him one nine one four soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently for jointly playing music world war and weimar republic at the onset of the first world war planck was not immune to the general excitement of the public besides of much horrible also much unexpectedly great and beautiful the swift solution of the most difficult issues of domestic policy through arrangement of all parties the higher esteem for all that is brave and truthful admittedly he refrained from the extremes of nationalism e g he voted successfully for a scientific paper from italy receiving a prize from the prussian academy of sciences in one nine one five planck was one of its four permanent presidents although at that time italy was about to join the allies nevertheless the infamous manifesto of the nine three intellectuals a polemic pamphlet of war propaganda was also signed by planck while einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment from which he was only saved by his swiss citizenship but already in one nine one five planck revoked after several meetings with dutch physicist lorentz parts of the manifesto and in one nine one six he signed a declaration against german annexionism in the turbulent post war years planck by now the highest authority of german physics issued the slogan persevere and continue working to his colleagues in october one nine two zero he and fritz haber established the notgemeinschaft der deutschen wissenschaft emergency organisation of german science which aimed at providing support for the destitute scientific research the funds they could distribute were raised to a considerable part abroad in this time planck held leading positions also at berlin university the prussian academy of sciences the german physical society and the kaiser wilhelm institute which in one nine four eight became the max planck gesellschaft under such conditions he was hardly able to conduct any more research himself he became a member of the deutsche volks partei german people s party the party of peace nobel prize laureate gustav stresemann which aspired to liberal aims for domestic policy and rather revisionistic aims for international politics he disagreed with the introduction of universal suffrage and expressed later the view that the nazi dictatorship was the result of the ascent of the rule of the crowds quantum mechanics at the end of the one nine two zero s bohr heisenberg and pauli had worked out the copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics but it was rejected by planck as also by schr dinger and laue even einstein had turned into a conservative heisenberg s matrix mechanics he called disgusting the schr dinger equation he welcomed like salvation he expected that wave mechanics would soon render quantum theory his own child unnecessary scientific progress ignored his concerns he experienced the truth of his own earlier observation from his struggle with the older views in his younger years a new scientific truth does not establish itself by its enemies being convinced and expressing their change of opinion but rather by its enemies gradually dying out and the younger generation being taught the truth from the beginning nazi dictatorship and second world war when the nazis seized power in one nine three three planck had already reached the age of seventy four he had to witness how many jewish friends and colleagues were expelled from their positions and humiliated and how hundreds of scientists emigrated from germany again he tried the persevere and continue working mantra and asked scientists who were considering emigration to stay in germany in some cases he was successful with this request such as in the case of heisenberg hahn asked planck whether they should gather a number of well known german professors in order to issue a public proclamation against the treatment of jewish professors but planck replied if you are able to gather today three zero such gentlemen then tomorrow one five zero others will come and speak against it because they are eager to take over the positions of the others in the case of fritz haber who was the father of german chemical warfare in world war i but jewish however planck went so far as to try to discuss the issue with adolf hitler himself naturally without any success in the following year of one nine three four haber died in exile one year later planck being the president of the kwg since one nine three zero organised in a somewhat provocative style an official commemorative meeting for haber he also succeeded in enabling a number of jewish scientists to continue working in institutes of the kwg for several years in one nine three six his term as president of the kwg ended and the nazi government put pressure on him to refrain from running for another term as the political climate in germany gradually became more hostile johannes stark prominent exponent of deutsche physik german physics also called aryan physics attacked planck sommerfeld and heisenberg for continuing to teach the theories of einstein calling them white jews the hauptamt wissenschaft nazi government office for science started an investigation of planck s ancestry but all they could find out was that he was one one six jewish in one nine three eight planck celebrated his eightieth birthday the dpg held an official celebration during which the max planck medal founded as the highest medal by the dpg in one nine two eight was awarded to french physicist louis de broglie one year before the outbreak of a new war between france and germany at the end of the same year the prussian academy lost its remaining independence and was taken over by loyal nazis gleichschaltung planck protested by resigning his presidency he continued to travel frequently giving numerous public talks such as his famous talk on religion and science and five years later he was sufficiently fit to climb to three zero zero zero meter peaks in the alps during the second world war the increasing number of allied bombing campaigns at berlin forced planck and his wife to leave the city temporarily and live in the countryside in one nine four two he wrote in me an ardent desire has grown to persevere this crisis and live long enough to be able to witness the turning point the beginning of a new rise in february one nine four four his home in berlin was completely destroyed by an air raid annihilating his entire scientific records and correspondence finally he got into a dangerous situation in his rural retreat due to the rapid advance of the allied armies from both sides after the end of the war he was brought to a relative in g ttingen final years after the war a number of german physicists assembled in g ttingen in order to reestablish the kaiser wilhelm gesellschaft in july of one nine four five planck agreed to act formally as its president again the british occupation authorities insisted on changing the name and therefore in february one nine four eight the max planck gesellschaft was established despite his deteriorating health planck resumed travelling in order to give public talks in one nine four six he travelled to london on the occasion of the three zero zero th birthday of isaac newton he was the only german invited on one april one nine four six planck was succeded as president of the kwg by otto hahn on four october one nine four seven he died aged eight nine from the consequences of a fall and several strokes honours and medals pour le m rite for science and arts one nine one five in one nine three zero planck became chancellor of this order nobel prize for physics one nine one eight awarded one nine one nine adlerschild des deutschen reiches one nine two eight max planck medal one nine two eight together with einstein planck received honorary doctorates from the universities of frankfurt m nchen th rostock berlin th graz athens cambridge london and glasgow the asteroid one zero six nine was given the name stella planckia one nine three eight external links and references timeline of nobel prize winners max planck planck max on the law of distribution of energy in the normal spectrum annalen der physik vol four p five five three ff one nine zero one max planck winner of the one nine one eight nobel prize in physics life work personality exhibition on the five zero th anniversary of max planck s death kragh helge max planck the reluctant revolutionary physics world december two zero zero zero one eight five eight births one nine four seven deaths german physicists nobel prize in physics winners physics professors members of the pontifical academy of sciences march three zero is the eight nine th day of the year in the gregorian calendar nine zero th in leap years there are two seven six days remaining events one two eight two the people of sicily rebel against the angevin king charles i in what becomes known as the sicilian vespers one two nine six edward i storms berwick upon tweed sacking the then scottish border town slaughtering almost everyone even those fleeing to the churches one four nine two ferdinand and isabella sign the alhambra decree aimed at expelling all jews from spain unless they convert to roman catholicism one five three three thomas cranmer becomes archbishop of canterbury one eight one four napoleonic wars sixth coalition forces march into paris one eight two two florida territory created in the united states one eight four two anesthesia is used for the first time in an operation by dr crawford long one eight four four one of the most important battles of the dominican war of independence from haiti takes place near the city of santiago de los caballeros one eight five five origins of the american civil war bleeding kansas border ruffians from missouri invade kansas and force election of a pro slavery legislature one eight five six the treaty of paris one eight five six is signed ending the crimean war one eight five eight hyman lipman patents a pencil with an attached eraser one eight six three prince wilhelm georg of sleesw k holstein sonderburg gl cksburg is chosen as king george i of greece one eight six seven alaska is purchased for seven two million about two cent acre four one nine km by united states secretary of state william h seward the news media call this seward s folly one eight seven zero texas is readmitted to the union following reconstruction one eight nine two the great public schools of new south wales gps is formed in sydney one nine one two sultan abdelhafid signs the treaty of fez making morocco a french protectorate one nine four zero sino japanese war japan declares nanking to be the capital of a new chinese puppet government nominally controlled by wang ching wei one nine four five world war ii soviet union forces invade austria and take vienna alger hiss congratulated in moscow for his part in bringing about the western betrayal at the yalta conference one nine five one remington rand delivers the first univac i computer to the united states census bureau one nine five four the first subway in canada opens after five years of construction in toronto one nine six one the single convention on narcotic drugs is signed at new york one nine six two jack paar hosts his last episode of the tonight show one nine six four the game show jeopardy debuts on television one nine six five vietnam war a car bomb explodes in front of the u s embassy in saigon killing two two and wounding one eight three others one nine seven two vietnam war the eastertide offensive begins after north vietnamese forces cross into the demilitarized zone dmz of south vietnam one nine seven four the ramones play their first ever gig as a trio at the performance studio in new york city one nine eight one president ronald reagan is shot in the chest outside a washington d c hotel by john hinckley jr family friend of the vice president one nine eight seven one of vincent van gogh s sunflowers paintings is bought by japanese insurance magnate yasuo goto for three nine eight five million one nine nine three in the comic strip peanuts charlie brown hits his first ever game winning home run one nine nine nine fashion model fabio is hit by a goose in the face while riding a roller coaster two zero zero three under cover of darkness mayor richard m daley destroys meigs field a general aviation airport in downtown chicago illinois without giving the required notice to the faa births one one three five maimonides spanish rabbi and philosopher d one two zero four one three two six ivan ii of russia grand duke of muscovy d one three five nine one four three two mehmed ii ottoman sultan d one four eight one one six four zero john trenchard english politican d one six nine five one seven four six francisco goya spanish painter and engraver d one eight two eight one eight two zero anna sewell british author d one eight seven eight one eight four four paul verlaine french poet d one eight nine six one eight five three vincent van gogh dutch painter d one eight nine zero one eight five seven leon charles thevenin french telegraph engineer d one nine two six one eight six four franz oppenheimer german sociologist d one nine four three one eight seven five jonathan campbell film pioneer d one nine four two one eight seven nine coen de koning dutch speed skater d one nine five four one eight eight zero sean o casey irish dramatist d one nine six four one eight nine two fortunato depero italian artist d one nine six zero one eight nine five nikolai bulganin premier of the soviet union d one nine seven five one nine zero zero ted heath british musician and band leader d one nine six nine one nine zero two brooke astor american philanthropist one nine zero three countee cullen american poet d one nine four six one nine one zero j zef marcinkiewicz mathematician d one nine four zero one nine one three marc davis american animator d two zero zero zero one nine one three richard helms american central intelligence agency director d two zero zero two one nine one three frankie laine american singer one nine one three censu tabone president of malta one nine one four sonny boy williamson i american musician d one nine four eight one nine one nine mcgeorge bundy american national security advisor d one nine nine six one nine two two turhan bey turkish czechoslovakian actor one nine two three milton acorn canadian poet d one nine eight six one nine two six ingvar kamprad swedish entrepreneur one nine two eight robert badinter french politician one nine two nine richard dysart american actor one nine three zero john astin american actor one nine three zero rolf harris australian artist and entertainer one nine three zero peter marshall american game show host one nine three two ted morgan swiss born writer one nine three seven warren beatty american actor and director one nine four zero astrud gilberto brazilian singer one nine four zero jerry lucas american basketball player one nine four one wasim sajjad president of pakistan one nine four five eric clapton british guitarist one nine four nine lene lovich american singer one nine five zero robbie coltrane scottish actor and comedian one nine five two peter knights australian footballer and coach one nine five six bill butler scottish politician one nine five seven paul reiser american actor one nine five eight maurice lamarche canadian voice actor one nine six two mc hammer american rapper one nine six three eli eri moura brazilian composer conductor and music theorist one nine six four tracy chapman american singer one nine six four ian ziering american actor one nine six six joey castillo american drummer queens of the stone age one nine six seven megumi hayashibara japanese seiy one nine six eight donna d errico american actress and model one nine six eight c line dion canadian singer one nine seven zero mark consuelos american actor one nine seven zero secretariat american racehorse d one nine eight nine one nine seven six obadele thompson barbadan athlete one nine seven eight chris paterson scottish rugby player one nine seven nine norah jones american pianist one nine eight zero paul wall american rapper one nine eight four anna nalick american singer and songwriter deaths one four eight six thomas bourchier archbishop of canterbury one five two six konrad mutian german humanist b one four seven one one five four zero matth us lang von wellenburg german statesman and archbishop of salzburg b one four six nine one five five nine adam ries german mathematician b one four nine two one five eight seven ralph sadler english statesman b one five zero seven one six six two fran ois le m tel de boisrobert french poet b one five nine two one seven six four pietro locatelli italian composer b one six nine five one seven eight three william hunter scottish anatomist b one seven one eight one eight zero four victor fran ois two nd duc de broglie marshal of france b one seven one eight one eight four zero beau brummell english celebrity and dandy b one seven seven eight one eight four two elisabeth vigee lebrun french painter b one seven five five one eight seven nine thomas couture french painter and teacher b one eight one five one nine one two karl may german author b one eight four two one nine four nine friedrich bergius german chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight eight four one nine five zero l on blum french prime minister b one eight seven two one nine five nine daniil andreev russian writer and mystic b one nine zero six one nine six five philip showalter hench american physician recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one eight nine six one nine six six maxfield parrish american artist b one eight seven zero one nine six eight bobby driscoll american actor b one nine three seven one nine seven two gabriel heatter american radio commentator b one eight nine zero one nine seven seven sergey ilyushin russian aerospace engineer b one eight nine four one nine eight one dewitt wallace american publisher b one eight eight nine one nine eight four karl rahner german theologian b one nine zero four one nine eight five harold peary american actor and singer heart attack b one nine zero eight one nine eight six james cagney american actor b one eight nine nine one nine nine nine gary morton american film and television producer b one nine two four two zero zero two elizabeth bowes lyon queen mother of the united kingdom b one nine zero zero two zero zero three michael jeter american actor b one nine five two two zero zero three valentin pavlov prime minister of the soviet union b one nine three seven two zero zero four alistair cooke english born journalist b one nine zero eight two zero zero four hubert gregg british broadcaster b one nine one four two zero zero four michael king new zealand historian b one nine four five two zero zero four timi yuro american singer b one nine four zero two zero zero five robert creeley american poet b one nine two six two zero zero five milton green american athlete b one nine one three two zero zero five fred korematsu american civil rights activist b one nine one nine two zero zero five o v vijayan indian author and cartoonist b one nine three zero two zero zero five derrick plourde american punk drummer b one nine seven one holidays and observances roman empire festival devoted to salus land day easter one nine seven five easter one nine eight six easter one nine nine seven external links bbc on this day february two eight february two nine february three zero march two nine march three one april three zero listing of all days madhuri dixit madhuri dixit born may one five one nine six seven is a famous indian bollywood actress she is a native of mumbai india throughout the late one nine eight zero s and the one nine nine zero s she dominated hindi cinema appearing in many hit films she is a five time filmfare award winner film career she is trained as a kathak dancer in the indian classical tradition her first major role was in tezaab one nine eight eight she starred in the popular films dil one nine nine zero beta one nine nine two khalnayak one nine nine three and anjaam one nine nine four her best known role may be as nisha in the super hit hum aapke hain kaun one nine nine four she also appeared in the successful dil to pagal hai one nine nine seven for several years she was the most popular and powerful actress in bollywood known for her beauty and acting abilities as well as her accomplished sensuous dancing in two zero zero two she starred in devdas with actor shahrukh khan and miss world one nine nine four aishwarya rai madhuri dixit was applauded for her superb acting in the film the film attracted worldwide attention and was featured at the cannes film festival on february two five two zero zero six she performed on stage for the first time in six years at the filmfare awards her performance was choreographed by saroj khan and was very well received madhuri dixit has been the muse for the famous indian painter m f hussain who considers her the epitome of the indian woman she also appeared in his film gaja gamini two zero zero zero gaja gamini was intended as a tribute to dixit s talent and beauty family life madhuri married an indian american physician from denver dr sriram nene in one nine nine nine she has two children a boy named areen born in two zero zero three and a baby boy named rayan born in march two zero zero five madhuri now splits her time between mumbai and denver colorado filmography engineer two zero zero five shelved hum tumhare hain sanam two zero zero two radha devdas two zero zero two chandramukhi lajja two zero zero one aka shame the two zero zero one india english title literal title janki yeh raaste hain pyaar ke two zero zero one neha gaja gamini two zero zero zero gaja gamini sangita shakuntala monika mona lisa pukar two zero zero zero anjali aarzoo one nine nine nine pooja wajood one nine nine eight apoorva death sentence mrityu dand the one nine nine seven aka death sentence one nine nine seven international english title aka mrityudand one nine nine seven india hindi title ketki mohabbat one nine nine seven aka love one nine nine seven international english title shweta sharma dil to pagal hai one nine nine seven aka heart is crazy the one nine nine seven usa informal english title pooja mahaanta one nine nine seven jenny pinto koyla one nine nine seven gauri premgranth one nine nine six aka prem granth one nine nine six india hindi title video box title kajri rajkumar one nine nine six rajkumari vishaka raja one nine nine five madhu zameen shelved yaarana one nine nine five lalita shikha hum aapke hain koun one nine nine four aka hahk one nine nine four india hindi title informal short title aka premalayam one nine nine four india telugu title dubbed version aka what am i to you one nine nine four international english title nisha choudhury anjaam one nine nine four shivani chopra aansoo bane angaray one nine nine three khalnayak one nine nine three aka khal nayak one nine nine three ganga gangotri devi phool one nine nine three sahibaan one nine nine three sahibaan dil tera aashiq one nine nine three beta one nine nine two saraswati dharavi one nine nine two aka city of dreams one nine nine two aka dharavi quicksand one nine nine two india hindi title aka island one nine nine two international english title aka marshes one nine nine two international english title dreamgirl prem deewane one nine nine two shivangi mehra sangeet one nine nine two zindagi ek juaa one nine nine two juhi one zero zero days one nine nine one devi jamai raja one nine nine one rekha khel one nine nine one seema jhari bhuti prahaar one nine nine one aka blow the one nine nine one international english title shirley saajan one nine nine one pooja pratikaar one nine nine one madhu deewana mujh sa nahin one nine nine zero aka diwana mujhsa nahin one nine nine zero india hindi title alternative transliteration anita izzatdaar one nine nine zero aka honourable one nine nine zero khilaaf one nine nine zero sweta kishen kanhaiya one nine nine zero pyaar ka devata one nine nine zero vardi one nine nine zero jaya thanedaar one nine nine zero chanda sailaab one nine nine zero dr sushma jeevan ek sangharsh one nine nine zero madhu sen dil one nine nine zero madhu maha sangram one nine nine zero aka big battle the one nine nine zero aka maha sangram one nine nine zero uk kanoon apna apna one nine eight nine bharathi mujrim one nine eight nine aka criminal one nine eight nine international english title sonia parinda one nine eight nine aka pigeon the one nine eight nine india english title paro ram lakhan one nine eight nine radha tridev one nine eight nine divya mathur paap ka anth one nine eight nine prem pratigyaa one nine eight nine aka oath of love the one nine eight nine laxmi ilaaka one nine eight nine vidya khatron ke khiladi one nine eight eight kavita tezaab one nine eight eight aka acid one nine eight eight mohini dayavan one nine eight eight awara baap one nine eight seven mohre one nine eight seven uttar dakshin one nine eight seven hifazat one nine eight seven abodh one nine eight six swati one nine eight six awards madhuri dixit has won five filmfare awards so far one nine nine zero filmfare best actress award dil one nine nine two filmfare best actress award beta one nine nine four filmfare best actress award hum aapke hain kaun one nine nine seven filmfare best actress award dil to pagal hai two zero zero two filmfare best supporting actress award devdas she has been nominated seven times in the best actress category and twice in the best supporting actress category at the filmfare her other achievements include four screen awards two zee cine awards a zee cine award best actor female for dil to pagal hai one nine nine seven and a zee cine award best actor in a supporting role female for lajaa two zero zero one one sansui award and many more trivia bollywood industry insiders have nicknamed madhuri queen bee and la dixit external links madhuri dixit galleria one nine six seven births living people indian actors maharastrian people mars attacks without an exclamation mark is a highly popular science fiction trading card series mars attacks with an exclamation mark is a one nine nine six film by tim burton based on the cards trading cards the mars attacks trading card series was created by topps and painted by norman saunders over pencil roughs by wally wood and finished pencil art by bob powell originally released in one nine six two the cards written by len brown and woody gelman told an outrageous story of the invasion of earth by cruel hideous martians the five five card series developed a cult following and has been reprinted occasionally film adaptation in one nine nine six tim burton s movie mars attacks based on the cards was released by warner bros the film combines the storyline and tone of a b movie spoof with the budget of a blockbuster movie it features an ensemble cast of major stars including jack nicholson glenn close pierce brosnan annette bening natalie portman lukas haas michael j fox sarah jessica parker danny devito jim brown pam grier tom jones and jack black the film is highly dependent upon special effects the soundtrack by danny elfman makes extensive use of the theremin the film was panned by critics when it was first released and received terrible reviews but it has since acquired a small cult following and can often be seen on cable tv in north america style and movie references as with other burton movies the subject under scrutiny is not only the present but the mass culture of his own suburban childhood although nominally set in the present day the film contains numerous anachronistic references to the style of the one nine five zero s science fiction films of which it is a parody the film s tone is similar to that of the trading card series depicting exaggerated comic violence with an intense and often garish color scheme the plot is fairly simple but contains unusual variations on the normal martian invasion movie the premise is that martians have arrived at earth and the president of the united states played by jack nicholson seeks to gain maximum public relations points by establishing a friendly relationship with them the martians however reject these overtures and proceed to wreak havoc with their spectacular red and green death ray guns the martians toy with the human assumption that advanced civilizations are peace loving they repeatedly set up meetings for peace treaties and then massacre the humans involved as in the film the war of the worlds a simple weapon is ultimately found to counter the alien invaders in this instance it is the playing of a piece of yodeling music indian love call by slim whitman some have criticized this as being far too similar to another parody of b movies attack of the killer tomatoes where the killer tomatoes were also caused to explode when subjected to a particularly bad song the film has an interesting relationship with independence day an alien invasion movie released a few months earlier by rival studio two zero th century fox mars attacks plays for comedy everything that independence day plays with relative seriousness for example where independence day has an extended sequence of epic and impressive destruction across the world mars attacks has the aliens using easter island as a bowling alley carving their own faces in mount rushmore toppling the washington monument onto boy scouts in washington d c and melting the eiffel tower the taj mahal and the london parliament in addition both films contain scenes of frantic escapes from the white house and failed use of a nuclear weapon against the invaders mothership ultimately mars attacks parodies the american spirit of gung ho independence that independence day celebrates since mars attacks was released shortly after independence day it appeared as a direct parody of that film however since burton s film was almost completed at the time independence day was released the similarities are purely coincidental or derived from mutual use of science fiction clich s in a manner similar to that of peter sellers in dr strangelove nicholson plays more than one role he plays both the president and a las vegas real estate speculator for the latter role he sports sunglasses cowboy hat and buck teeth that make him almost unrecognizable legacy mars attacks is viewed through the eyes of history as the quintessential martian movie of the two zero th century its successful marriage between humor and hostility cause it to be continuously taught in film classes across the country some say it was the greatest movie of all time recently a debate has roared among blockbuster executives concerning a possible movement of mars attacks from the comedy to the drama isle some are opposed to this but executives say they have received to many complaints that the movie is too serious for the comedy isle the robots seen in this movie were the model for robo four seven an old renegade war robot from the video game war of the monsters see also alien language mars in fiction science fiction external links mars attacks cards fan sites zelda s mars attacks fan page the norm saunders artwork archive norm saunders official site topps card checklist one nine nine six films disaster movies cult science fiction films comedy science fiction films mars in fiction films directed by tim burton the montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion the treaty was opened for signature on september one six one nine eight seven and entered into force on january one one nine eight nine since then it has undergone five revisions in one nine nine zero london one nine nine two copenhagen one nine nine five vienna one nine nine seven montreal and one nine nine nine beijing due to its widespread adoption and adherence it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international cooperation with kofi annan quoted as saying it is perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date the montreal protocol should not be confused with the montreal convention governing compensation for air disasters the largest antarctic ozone hole ever recorded september two zero zero zero terms and purpose the treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been shown to play a role in ozone depletion for each group the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must be phased out and eventually eliminated the stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states recognizing that world wide emissions of certain substances can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific knowledge acknowledging that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries shall accept a series of stepped limits on cfc use and production including from one nine nine one to one nine nine two its levels of consumption and production of the controlled substances in group i of annex a do not exceed one five zero per cent of its calculated levels of production and consumption of those substances in one nine eight six from one nine nine four its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in group i of annex a does not exceed annually twenty five per cent of its calculated level of consumption and production in one nine eight six from one nine nine six its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in group i of annex a does not exceed zero there is a slower phase out to zero by two zero one zero of other substances halon one two one one one three zero one two four zero two cfc s one three one one one one one two etc and some chemicals get individual attention carbon tetrachloride one one one trichloroethane there are a few exceptions for essential uses where no acceptable substitutes have been found for example in the metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and other respiratory problems the full terms are available from the substances in group i of annex a are cfcl three cfc one one cf two cl two cfc one two c two f three cl three cfc one one three c two f four cl two cfc one one four c two f five cl cfc one one five scientific background in one nine seven three chemists frank sherwood rowland and mario molina at the university of california irvine began studying the impacts of cfcs in the earth s atmosphere they discovered that cfc molecules were stable enough to remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally after an average of five zero one zero zero years for two common cfcs be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing a chlorine atom rowland and molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone o three in the stratosphere their argument was based upon an analogy to recent work by paul j crutzen and harold johnston which had shown that nitric oxide no could catalyze the destruction of ozone several other scientists including ralph cicerone richard stolarski michael mcelroy and steven wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss but none had realized that cfcs were a potentially large source of chlorine crutzen molina and rowland were awarded the one nine nine five nobel prize for chemistry for their work on this problem the environmental consequence of this discovery was that since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the ultraviolet b uv b radiation reaching the surface of the planet depletion of the ozone layer by cfcs would lead to an in increase in uv b radiation at the surface resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as damage to crops and to marine phytoplankton after publishing their privotal paper in june one nine seven four rowland and molina testified at a hearing before the u s house of representatives in december one nine seven four as a result significant funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial findings in one nine seven six the u s national academy of sciences nas released a report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis nas continued to publish assessments of related science for the next decade the provisions of the protocol include the requirement that the parties to the protocol base their future decisions on the current scientific environmental technical and economic information that is assessed through panels drawn from the worldwide expert communities to provide that input to the decision making process advances in understanding on these topics were assessed in one nine eight nine one nine nine one one nine nine four one nine nine eight and two zero zero two in a series of reports entitled scientific assessment of ozone depletion developing countries the multilateral fund for the implementation of the montreal protocol provides funds to help developing countries to phase out the use of ozone depleting substances ods ods are used in refrigeration foam extrusion industrial cleaning fire safety and fumigation the multilateral fund was the first financial mechanism to be created under an international treaty it embodies the principle agreed at the united nations conference on environment and development in one nine nine two that countries have a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons the fund is managed by an executive committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and seven article five countries which are elected annually by a meeting of the parties the committee reports annually to the meeting of the parties on its operations up to two zero percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies in the form of eligible projects and activities the fund is replenished on a three year basis by the donors pledges amount to us two one billion over the period one nine nine one to two zero zero five funds are used for example to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes train personnel pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies and establish national ozone offices australia is active in the multilateral fund seeking to ensure it continues to result in the maximum benefit in terms of ozone layer protection australia contributes funding through ausaid and is a member of the fourteen member executive committee which manages the fund as part of its contribution to the multilateral fund australia also undertakes a number of bilateral projects in developing countries these projects use australian skills and technology and help to raise the profile of australian know how and expertise regarding ozone protection initiatives parties at present one eight nine nations have become party to the montreal protocol see external link below those six that are not as of march two zero zero five are andorra equatorial guinea iraq san marino timor leste and vatican city impact ozone depleting gas trends since the montreal protocol came into effect the atmospheric concentrations of the most important chloroflurocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either levelled off or decreased halon concentrations have continued to increase as the halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are released but their rate of increase has slowed and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about two zero two zero while there have been reports of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban e g by smuggling cfcs from undeveloped to developed nations the overall level of compliance has been high in consequence the montreal protocol is often characterized as the most successful international environmental agreement to date references referred to as ozone layer protection benedick richard e one nine nine one ozone diplomacy harvard university press isbn zero six seven four six five zero zero one eight ambassador benedick was the chief u s negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the protocol litfin karen t one nine nine four ozone discourse columbia university press isbn zero two three one zero eight one three seven five external links the parties involved the montreal protocol the cfc ozone puzzle environmental science in the global arena by f sherwood rowland and mario j molina the indispensible element in the montreal ozone protocol by richard benedick the evolution of policy responses to stratospheric ozone depletion by p m morrisette natural resources journal two nine seven nine three eight two zero one nine eight nine has the montreal protocol been successful in reducing ozone depleting gases in the atmosphere noaa aeronomy lab doomsday d j vu ozone depletion s lessons for global warming by ben lieberman see also ozone depletion kyoto protocol refrigerant r one three four a treaties on the environment one nine eight nine in law for the parish please see moncton new brunswick parish header format motto resurgo i rise again location image type custom location image nb moncton png latitude longitude elevation time zone ast postal code population description city two zero zero one metro two zero zero one population six one zero four six one one seven seven two seven population density four two nine nine scarea one four two city mayor lorne mitton governing body moncton city council mps brian murphy mlas john betts bernard lord joan mcalpine mike murphy website moncton s website census year two zero zero one footnotes moncton four six six n six four four six w is the second largest city in the canadian province of new brunswick and is at the heart of the fastest growing urban area in the province its metropolitan area includes the neighbouring city of dieppe and the town of riverview as well as adjacent areas of westmorland and albert counties the municipal coat of arms illustrates moncton s agricultural industrial and railway heritages along with the petitcodiac river s tidal bore geography moncton is located in southeastern new brunswick in the petitcodiac river valley along the north bank of the river at a point where it bends from a west east flow to a north south direction as such the early acadian settlers in the region named the area le coude french for the elbow moncton was originally at the head of navigation up the petitcodiac river but a causeway to riverview was built in the one nine six zero s causing extensive infilling by sedimentation of the river downstream the river is now no longer navigable by large craft moncton is located at the geographic centre of the maritime provinces moncton is nicknamed the hub city partly for this reason and also because it historically was the railway hub for the maritime provinces climate despite being located less than five zero km from the bay of fundy and less than two zero km from the northumberland strait the climate is mostly continental as opposed to maritime this is most pronounced during the summer and winter seasons as maritime influences tend to temper the transitional seasons of spring and autumn winter days are cold but usually sunny with solar radiation generating some warmth there are several cold snaps throughout the winter with temperatures falling to the range of one five to two five degrees celsius major snowfalls often result from nor easter ocean storms moving up the east coast of north america from the southern united states large amounts of precipition can result from the counterclockwise rotation of these storms picking up moisture from the atlantic ocean and dumping it on southeastern new brunswick as storms pass by to the south and east in february one nine nine two a nor easter lasted for two days and dropped one six two cm six five inches of snow on the moncton area paralyzing the city for nearly a week snowfalls typically average two zero three zero cm and are sometimes mixed with rain or freezing rain spring is delayed since the sea ice in the nearby gulf of st lawrence requires time to melt affecting the local micro climate snowfalls in late april and early may are not unheard of and trees are not in full leaf until the end of may summers are usually hot and humid with daytime highs usually reaching the mid to high two zero s temperatures in the low to mid three zero s occur six one zero times per year rainfall is modest and periods of drought are not uncommon the heaviest rainfalls tend to occur during thunderstorms autumn is influenced by the retention of heat in the nearby gulf of st lawrence and daytime temperatures remain warm until mid october first snowfalls usually occur by mid november although consistent snow cover does not take place until mid december both october and november tend to have heavier precipitation and the fundy coast of new brunswick occasionally experiences the effects of hurricanes and tropical storms history the original aboriginal inhabitants of the petitcodiac river valley were the mi kmaq french acadians first settled the area in one seven three three and established a farming community called le coude the elbow the petitcodiac river valley fell under british control after the capture of fort beausejour in one seven five five the acadian population was subsequently deported and the settlement remained empty until a group of eight immigrant families arrived from pennsylvania in june one seven six six they were armed with a land grant issued by the philadelphia land company one of the principal investors of which was benjamin franklin a township gradually grew on the site with the new community initially being named the bend of the petitcodiac the community would ultimately receive its present name to honour lt colonel robert monckton the british military officer who had led the capture of fort beausejour in one seven five five and then subsequently oversaw the deportation of the acadians from the petitcodiac and beaubassin regions due to a clerical error at the time that the community was named the k from monckton was omitted creating the spelling that is used today the bend initially was a farming community but later flourished as a centre for ship building and was incorporated as the town of moncton in one eight five five two years later on august two zero one eight five seven the european and north american railway opened its line from moncton to the nearby northumberland strait port of shediac this was followed by the e resurgo i rise again one year later the icr line to quebec was opened the railway boom that emanated from this and the associated employment growth allowed moncton to achieve city status on april two three one eight nine zero a major fire at the icr s riverfront railyard and shops in one nine zero six was very nearly disastrous for the local railway industry fearing that the shops might be relocated to halifax or riviere du loup henry robert emmerson a moncton native and federal minister of railways and canals quickly petitioned prime minister wilfrid laurier to have the shop facilities rebuilt and expanded his lobbying was successful and a larger locomotive shop facility was subsequently built northwest of the downtown and the future of the community was preserved moncton grew rapidly during the early part of the two zero th century particularly after provincial lobbying saw the city become the eastern terminus of the massive national transcontinental railway project in one nine one two this line would link moncton with edmundston quebec city and on to winnipeg where the grand trunk pacific railway continued to saskatoon edmonton and prince rupert the first world war brought a halt to the era of railway expansion but the city would become an important trans shipment point for war material funnelling onwards to the port of halifax in one nine one eight the icr and ntr then autonomous companies grouped under the canadian government railways were merged by the federal government into the newly formed canadian national railways cnr system the icr shops would become cnr s major locomotive repair facility for the maritimes and moncton became the headquarters for cnr s maritime division reflecting the city s importance as a railway and logistics shipping hub the t eaton company s catalogue warehouse located to the city in the early one nine two zero s employing over five hundred people meat packing plants and light manufacturing also contributed to the local economy as the city grew it began to draw upon its hinterland for population growth much of the surrounding countryside to the east and the north of the city was and is inhabited primarily by french acadians for the one five zero years between its founding by the pennsylvania dutch in one seven six six and the one nine two zero s moncton had been an english speaking community but the influx of francophone acadians seeking employment beginning in the early one nine zero zero s would result in a major demographic and cultural shift for the community moncton continued to develop as a regional distribution and transportation hub during the second world war the royal canadian air force constructed two air bases in the area for training and for operational squadrons rcaf station moncton in dieppe and rcaf station scoudouc in scoudouc the canadian army also built a large military supply base along the railway mainline near the cnr shops facilities northwest of downtown this facility was used to sort much of the war materiel heading on to the ports of halifax saint john and sydney as well as supply army facilities throughout the maritimes following the war rcaf station moncton would become the moncton airport while rcaf station scoudouc was transferred to the provincial government for use as an industrial park the army continued to use the supply base cfb moncton to service its large military establishment in atlantic canada railway employment in moncton at the height of the steam locomotive era peaked at several thousand workers before starting a long decline following the second world war as the new diesel locomotives and longer trains required fewer employees to maintain and operate them a regional road network expanded from the city through the one nine five zero s the latter part of that decade also saw cnr begin development of a major railway hump yard in the city s west end further changes saw the downtown railyard modified and the historic passenger station demolished in favour of a small modern structure this was followed by development of the highfield square shopping centre and several office buildings cn terminal plaza in the early one nine six zero s moncton was placed on the trans canada highway network in the early one nine six zero s after route two was built along the northern perimeter of the city subsequent development saw route one five built between the city and nearby parlee beach at shediac and on to port elgin at the same time the infamous petitcodiac river causeway was constructed the universit de moncton was founded in one nine six three this began an acadian renaissance which was in large measure encouraged and supported by university faculty who had been trained in quebec during the founding years of the quiet revolution u de m the renaissance and the election of premier louis robichaud and his program of equal opportunity all led to increasing demands by the francophone populace for municipal services in french and led to tension between the acadian minority and the anglophone majority during the latter part of the one nine six zero s and early one nine seven zero s the acadian population began to become more prosperous and influential during the one nine eight zero s as linguistic tensions began to relax although not disappearing entirely the anglophone population of the city generally began to accept the principal of bilingualism and enrollment in french immersion classes in public schools became popular bilingualism would ultimately become one of the strengths of the community the late one nine seven zero s and the one nine eight zero s again saw a period of economic hardship hit the city as several major employers closed or restructured the eatons catalogue division closed in one nine seven six and cn closed its locomotive shops facility in one nine eight eight throwing thousands out of work and forcing the federal and provincial governments to step in with economic restructuring packages to diversify the moncton economy cfb moncton was also closed at about this time due to defence cutbacks resulting from the end of the cold war moncton became so despondent in the late one nine eight zero s prior to economic restructuring having a positive impact that the city s official motto became simply moncton we re ok diversification in the early one nine nine zero s saw the rise of information technology led by call centres which made use of the city s bilingual workforce bilingualism was heavily promoted by premier frank mckenna s government to attract the call centre industry in order to provide a temporary employment bridge for the city as it transitioned from the old economy to a more modern one by the late one nine nine zero s retail manufacturing and service expansion began to occur in all sectors and within a decade of the closure of the cn locomotive shops moncton had more than made up for its employment losses the city s recent growth has been impressive being second only to halifax in the atlantic region moncton is expected to become new brunswick s most populous city within the next five one zero years and its census agglomeration is also expected to become the province s most populous urban area language and demographics moncton s linguistic majority is english however the city has an active french speaking acadian minority population three five many of whom speak the chiac variant of acadian french the adjacent city of dieppe is approximately the reverse being majority french and has benefitted from an ongoing rural depopulation of the acadian peninsula and areas in northern and eastern new brunswick the town of riverview meanwhile is heavily nine five anglophone the different linguistic characteristics of the three communities have defeated several attempts at metropolitan amalgamation in one nine nine eight prime minister jean chretien used the city s growing french community to political advantage when he was forced to select a canadian site to host the francophonie summit in one nine nine nine it rotates among member nations following the near disaster of the one nine nine five referendum on quebec sovereignty chretien felt it safer to host the summit someplace other than quebec and he decided that it was time to honour canada s acadian population moncton became the choice partly because francophone acadians consider the city to be their capital and also because chretien had briefly represented the neighbouring federal district of beausejour and wanted to return the favour the summit was held in late august one nine nine nine and was the largest conference ever held in the city with heads of state and delegations attending from five four nations around the world the growth rate of the city of moncton is zero seven annually which is greater than the provincial average the census agglomeration had a population of one one seven seven two seven as of two zero zero one national census but the current population is estimated to be approximately one two five zero zero zero historically the population of the city has been racially very homogenous with almost all residents originating from northwest europe great britain france and ireland this is slowly changing but it still remains a challenge to attract visible minorities as new immigrants to the city racial composition white nine seven three all others two seven religious composition roman catholic five five zero protestant three three three other christian one three non religious nine three linguistic composition anglophone six five francophone three five about four zero of the metropolitan population of moncton is bilingual the remainder being mostly unilingual anglophone the only other cities in canada that approach this level of linguistic duality are ottawa and montreal culture and recreation the capitol theatre is an eight zero zero seat meticulously restored one nine two zero s era vaudeville house on main street that serves as the centre for cultural entertainment for the city the theatre routinely hosts live stage productions theatre new brunswick as well as symphony orchestra and dance performances the smaller empress theatre located immediately behind the capitol provides a more intimate venue for smaller productions and performances a school for the performing arts is currently being organized by the capitol theatre the atlantic ballet theatre is based in moncton and has recently been garnering national attention theatre l escaouette is a francophone live theatre company that has its own auditorium and performance space on botsford street the aberdeen cultural centre an acadian cultural cooperative containing multiple studios and galleries is also located on botsford street close to theatre l escaouette there are two main museums in the city the moncton museum on mountain road and le mus e acadien at universit de moncton moncton is home to the northrop frye literary festival a bilingual literary celebration in honour of world renowned literary critic and favorite son northrop frye this celebration attracts authors from around the world and takes place in the month of april the world wine and food exposition is the largest event of its kind in eastern canada and takes place every november the annual atlantic nationals automotive extravaganza held each july is also one of the largest events of its kind in canada other notable events include the atlantic seafood festival every august the hubcap comedy festival in the spring and le one five aout des fous celebrating acadia s national holiday the moncton coliseum a seven zero zero zero seat arena serves as a venue for major concerts and trade shows and is the home of the moncton wildcats of the quebec major junior hockey league the cn sportsplex is a major recreational facility built on the former cn shops property it includes nine ballfields six soccer fields and an indoor rink complex with four ice surfaces the tim horton s four ice centre an indoor air supported multi use building the dundee sports dome has also been constructed at the sportsplex this building is large enough to allow for year round football soccer and golf activities a newly constructed ymca near the cn sportsplex has extensive cardio and weight training facilities as well as three indoor pools the ceps at universit de moncton contains an indoor track and a three seven five metre swimming pool with diving towers the only velodrome in atlantic canada is located in dieppe there are a total of one two indoor hockey rinks and three curling clubs in the metro area moncton has hosted major sporting events in the past such as the brier the canadian national mens curling championship and skate canada s national figure skating championship moncton will host the memorial cup the canadian national major junior a hockey championship in two zero zero six ted nolan a former nhl hockey player and head coach of the buffalo sabres of the nhl signed on to coach the wildcats for their memorial cup run moncton is one of only two cities in the world left in the running to host the iaaf two zero zero eight world junior track including corsair france air st pierre france condor germany air transat canada and skyservice canada also fly into the gmia with direct connections to st pierre and miquelon dominican republic cuba germany and france the gmia also is a major air cargo trans shipment centre rivalling the halifax international airport in terms of tonnage shipped both federal express and purolator have their atlantic canada air courier bases located at the airport the moncton air traffic control centre located in riverview and operated by nav canada is responsible for high altitude air traffic control over the maritime provinces all flights between eastern north america and europe pass through moncton centre airspace moncton is serviced by railway companies via rail canada canadian national railway and the new brunswick east coast railway via rail provides daily rail passenger service with the ocean to halifax and montreal moncton is a hub for the acadian lines interprovincial bus service the greater moncton area is also serviced by codiac transit which operates on two five routes in moncton dieppe and riverview moncton is located on the trans canada highway at the junction of several major road routes in the maritime provinces none of the other major maritime cities is more than a two and a half hour drive from moncton because of all these attributes moncton has developed as a major transportation distribution commercial and retailing center attractions the moncton area has several major attractions champlain place the largest single story shopping mall in atlantic canada with over one five zero stores and services located in dieppe major tenants include sears wal mart sobeys future shop sport chek toys r us gap eddie bauer and the disney store crystal palace an indoor amusement park adjacent to champlain place that also includes a hotel restaurant eight cinema multiplex and a chapters bookstore tidal bore a phenomenon created by the extreme tides of the bay of fundy which actually reverses the downstream flow of the petitcodiac river a causeway built across the river to riverview in the one nine six zero s has significantly diminished the effects of the bore efforts are underway to have the causeway replaced by a bridge in order to restore the river flow however there is a great amount of opposition from land owners on the lake or western side of the causeway magnetic hill an optical illusion created by local topography is also the site of a major tourism development including the nationally recognized magnetic hill zoo and a water theme park called magic mountain magnetic hill also features a major outdoor concert site pope john paul ii held a papal mass there in one nine eight four the rolling stones held a concert there on the three rd of september two zero zero five before eight five zero zero zero fans the city lost over six zero zero zero zero zero dollars to hold the concert the cost was mainly in part to the one time infrastructure costs the concert is hoped to attract other acts however city councillors hope avoid further expenses for the city moncton is well situated as a tourism destination there are two national parks fundy national park and kouchibouguac national park within a one hour drive of the city the warm water beaches of the northumberland strait are only one five minutes away in nearby shediac and the hopewell rocksare only a half hour s drive down the petitcodiac river valley the confederation bridge to prince edward island is only a one hour s drive east of the city other nearby attractions include the cape jourimain national wildlife preserve at the base of the confederation bridge la dune de bouctouche ecotourism site longest remaining unspoiled barrier dune system on the eastern seaboard cape enrage historic lighthouse fossils and adventure tourism and la pays de la sagouine acadian cultural theme park education moncton is home to two universities universit de moncton the largest french language university in canada outside of quebec and atlantic baptist university a small christian liberal arts and science institution in addition the university of new brunswick moncton campus offers health sciences degree courses in nursing and medical x ray technology based out of the moncton hospital mount allison university one of canada s top ranked undergraduate university is located only three zero minutes away in the nearby town of sackville there are two campuses of the new brunswick community college located in the region nbcc moncton campus is anglophone while ccnb dieppe is francophone these institutions specialize in training for trades and technology there are also a number of private colleges in the city including the moncton flight college one of canada s oldest and most prestigious flight schools there are three four public schools in greater moncton which are administered by separate anglophone and francophone school boards district one is francophone and administers nine schools district two is anglophone and administers two five schools high schools in the greater moncton area include moncton high school moncton anglophone harrison trimble high school moncton anglophone dr l bernice macnaughton high school moncton anglophone riverview high school riverview anglophone ecole secondaire mathieu martin dieppe francophone ecole secondaire l odyss e moncton francophone health facilities there are two major regional referral and teaching hospitals in moncton the moncton hospital principally anglophone four zero zero beds affiliated with dalhousie university medical school tertiary services in neurosurgery vascular surgery orthopedics trauma burn unit medical oncology neonatal intensive care and the hopital georges l dumont principally francophone three five zero beds affiliated with universit de sherbrooke medical school tertiary services in oncology including radiation oncology and nephrology between these two institutions moncton serves as the main medical referral centre for the central maritime region media television channel two ckcw ctv channel seven cbat two cbc channel one one cbaft src channel two seven cihf three global radio there are a total of one four broadcast radio stations ten english and four french in the city these stations include am one zero seven zero cba cbc radio one fm eight eight five cbaf la premi re cha ne fm nine one nine ckni news talk sports fm nine three five ckum universit de moncton campus radio fm nine four five ckcw hot adult contemporary fm nine five five cba fm cbc radio two fm nine six nine cjxl country fm nine eight three cbal espace musique fm nine nine nine choy french chr fm one zero one nine cirm moncton information radio fm one zero three one cjmo classic rock fm one zero three nine cfqm adult contemporary fm one zero five nine cita christian music fm one zero seven three ckoe contemporary christian music print moncton has two daily newspapers the times the moncton hospital alone employing over two thousand people despite this the underpinnings of the local economy remain based on moncton s commercial distribution transportation and retailing heritage moncton s central location in the maritimes is the reason for this within a three hour drive of moncton live one four million people this is a much larger catchment area than any other city in atlantic canada despite the rivalry between moncton and halifax the two cities have recently joined together to promote the concept of a moncton halifax growth corridor building on the strengths of the two cities and the intervening communities including truro amherst and sackville a number of regionally prominent corporations have their head offices in moncton including atlantic lottery corporation assumption mutual life insurance medavie blue cross insurance pizza delight corporation major drilling international rogers communications and co op atlantic there are a number of major call centres in the city including asurion exxon mobil royal bank of canada ups courier fairmont hotels rogers communications america online and oao technologies a burgeoning high tech sector includes companies such as whitehill technologies nanoptix and spielo manufacturing ulc spielo is a leading provider of video lottery machines and related products software and services to the global gaming industry several arms of the irving corporate empire have their head offices in greater moncton these include midland transport majesta royale tissues irving personal care master packaging and cavendish farms a number of transportation companies are located in moncton the largest and most important of which is armour transportation group molson coors breweries has recently begun construction of a new brewery in the caledonia industrial park a new four lane gunningsville bridge has just been opened connecting downtown riverview directly with downtown moncton on the moncton side the bridge will connect with an extension of vaughan harvey boulevard as well as to assumption boulevard and will serve as a catalyst for growth along the riverfront major planned developments include a convention centre two new hotels one a marriott a new regional courthouse an expansion to the blue cross centre and new retail including an expansion of highfield square the main downtown mall the retail sector in moncton is increasingly becoming one of the most important aspects of the local economy major retail projects such as the wheeler park power center on trinity drive have quickly become major destinations for locals and tourists alike major tenants of this development include atlantic superstore costco winners homesense wal mart kent sears staples old navy pier one imports empire theatres and the home depot government municipal government consists of a mayor and ten city councillors elected to four year terms of office the council is non partisan with the mayor serving as the chairman casting a ballot only in cases of a tie vote there are four wards electing two councillors each with an additional two councillors selected at large by the general electorate day to day operation of the city is under the control of a city manager the current mayor of moncton is lorne mitton elected may two zero zero four councillors kathryn m barnes at large norman crossman ward one merrill a henderson ward two brian a q hicks ward three chris collins ward four pierre boudreau at large steven boyce ward one doug robertson ward two steve mitton ward three ren pepsi landry ward four provincially six ridings out of five five in the legislative assembly are located in the greater moncton area elected mla s and party affiliations include bernard lord progressive conservative moncton east provincial premier joan macalpine progressive conservative moncton south cabinet minister mike murphy liberal moncton north john betts progressive conservative moncton crescent r bruce fitch progressive conservative riverview cabinet minister richard leblanc progressive conservative dieppe memramcook redistribution will give metropolitan moncton a seventh riding in the yet to be called upcoming provincial election moncton is located in the federal riding of moncton riverview dieppe the current representative of which is brian murphy liberal mr murphy had previously been a highly regarded mayor of moncton it should be noted that portions of dieppe are located in the federal riding of beausejour and portions of riverview are located in the riding of fundy royal the representatives for these two ridings respectively are dominic leblanc liberal and rob moore conservative famous monctonians although not everyone in this list was born in moncton they all live or have lived in moncton and have had significant connections to the community musicians eric s trip and julie doiron indie rock musicians marie jo th rio acadian singer and actress lina boudreau acadian songstress george hebert guitar player and member of anne murray s band since the one nine seven zero s theresa malenfant jazz and blues singer jasper wood internationally renowned concert violinist roger lord internationally renowned concert pianist brother of premier bernard lord an acoustic sin internationally known for their heart touching genuine music bernard houlahan internationally renowned folk signer mike cormier acadian playright and hip hop artist actors lucien sandy gillis comedian better known as jimmy the janitor robb wells actor plays ricky on tv s trailer park boys viola l ger actress prix goncourt the highest honour in francophone literature athletes ren goguen wwe wrestler better known as ren dupree gordie drillon one nine one three one nine eight six one nine three eight nhl scoring champion and hall of fame ice hockey player russ howard two time world champion and olympic gold medallist men s curler hugh yik canadian junior mens figure skating champion rheal cormier major league baseball relief pitcher academics northrop frye one nine one two one nine nine one scholar and literary critic james e lockyer law professor and former new brunswick minister of justice donald savoie political scientist lawyers politicians ivan cleveland rand one eight eight four one nine six nine justice of the supreme court of canada creator of the rand formula which sees union dues automatically subtracted from workers salaries member of the un special committee on palestine which oversaw the partition of palestine in one nine four seven michel bastarache justice of the supreme court of canada henry robert emmerson one eight five three one nine one four premier of new brunswick one eight nine seven one nine zero zero federal minister of railways and canals one nine zero four one nine zero seven clifford william robinson one eight six six one nine four four premier of new brunswick one nine zero seven one nine zero eight canadian senator frank mckenna premier of new brunswick one nine eight seven one nine nine seven former canadian ambassador to the united states of america raymond frenette premier of new brunswick one nine nine seven one nine nine eight bernard lord current premier of new brunswick herm n gilde chiasson artist academic current lieutenant governor of new brunswick rom o leblanc former federal cabinet minister senator and speaker of the canadian senate governor general of canada one nine nine five one nine nine nine claudette bradshaw former federal minister of labour one nine nine eight two zero zero four photographers dolores breau renowned and award winning acadian photographer external links the nb lighthouses website l universit de moncton portal for the city of moncton new brunswick covered bridges moncton s top community portal google map monctonlocals monctonbuzz gomoncton com cities in new brunswick this article discusses model theory as a mathematical discipline and not the informally used term mathematical model as used in other parts of mathematics and science in mathematics model theory is the study of the representation of mathematical concepts in terms of set theory or the study of the models which underlie mathematical systems it assumes that there are some pre existing mathematical objects out there and asks questions regarding how or what can be proven given the objects some operations or relations amongst the objects and a set of axioms the independence of the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis from the other axioms of set theory proved by paul cohen and kurt g del are the two most famous results arising from model theory it was proven that both the axiom of choice and its negation are consistent with the zermelo fraenkel axioms of set theory the same result holds for the continuum hypothesis these results are applications of model theoretic methods to axiomatic set theory an example of the concepts of model theory is provided by the theory of the real numbers we start with a set of individuals where each individual is a real number and a set of relations and or functions such as if we ask a question such as y y y one one in this language then it is clear that the sentence is true for the reals there is such a real number y namely the square root of two for the rational numbers however the sentence is false a similar proposition y y y zero one is false in the reals but is true in the complex numbers where i i zero one model theory is then concerned with what is provable within given mathematical systems and how these systems relate to each other it is particularly concerned with what happens when we try to extend some system by the addition of new axioms or new language constructs definition a model or structure is formally defined in the context of some language l which consists of a set of constant symbols a set of relation symbols each of valence some positive integer and a set of function symbols each of valence some positive integer a model of the language l consists of several things a universe set a which contains all the objects of interest the domain of discourse and an element of a for each constant symbol of l a function from a n to a for each function symbol of l of valence n an n ary relation on a in other words a subset of a n for each predicate or relation of l of valence n the valence of functions or relations is sometimes also referred to as the arity a back formation from the terms unary binary ternary or n ary a theory is defined as a set of sentences in the language l and is called a closed theory if the set of sentences is closed under the usual rules of inference for example the set of all sentences true in some particular model e g the reals is a closed theory a model of the theory t consists of a model over the language l in which all sentences of the theory t are true normally defined by means of a t schema for example the language of partial orders has just one binary relation so a model of the language of partial orders is just a set with a binary relation denoted by and it is a model of the theory of partial orders if in addition it satisfies the axioms of a partial order theorems of model theory g del s completeness theorem not to be confused with his incompleteness theorems says that a theory has a model if and only if it is consistent i e no contradiction is proved by the theory this is the heart of model theory as it lets us answer questions about theories by looking at models and vice versa one should not confuse the completeness theorem with the notion of a complete theory a complete theory is a theory which contains every sentence or its negation importantly one can find a complete consistent theory extending any consistent theory however as shown by g del s incompleteness theorems only in relatively simple cases will it be possible to have a complete consistent theory that is also recursive i e that can be described by a recursively enumerable set of axioms in particular the theory of natural numbers has no recursive complete and consistent theory non recursive theories are of little practical use since it is undecidable if a proposed axiom is indeed an axiom making proof checking practically impossible the compactness theorem states that a set of sentences s is satisfiable i e has a model if every finite subset of s is satisfiable in the context of proof theory the analogous statement is trivial since every proof can have only a finite number of antecedents used in the proof in the context of model theory however this proof is somewhat more difficult there are two well known proofs one by g del which goes via proofs and one by malcev which is more direct and allows us to restrict the cardinality of the resulting model model theory is usually concerned with first order logic and many important results such as the completeness and compactness theorems fail in second order logic or other alternatives in first order logic all infinite cardinals look the same to a language which is countable this is expressed in the l wenheim skolem theorems which state that any theory with an infinite model mathfrak has models of all infinite cardinalities at least that of the language which agree with mathfrak on all sentences i e they are elementarily equivalent so in particular set theory which is expressed in a countable language has a countable model this is known as skolem s paradox since there are sentences in set theory which postulate the existence of uncountable sets and yet these sentences are true in our countable model particularly the proof of the independence of the continuum hypothesis requires considering sets in models which appear to be uncountable when viewed from within the model but are countable to someone outside the model see also axiomatizable class proof theory hyperreals compactness theorem elementary embedding saturated model forcing mathematics finite model theory descriptive complexity kripke semantics list of first order theories references wilfrid hodges a shorter model theory one nine nine seven cambridge university press isbn zero five two one five eight seven one three one wilfrid hodges model theory one nine nine three cambridge university press c c chang h j keisler model theory one nine seven seven isbn zero seven two zero four zero six nine two seven david marker model theory an introduction two zero zero two springer verlag isbn zero three eight seven nine eight seven six zero six model theory moby dick book cover moby dick the hyphen in the title is present in the original edition is a novel by herman melville it was first published by richard bentley in expurgated form in three volumes as the whale in london on one eight october one eight five one and then in full by harper and brothers as moby dick or the whale in new york on one four november one eight five one in a single volume moby dick s style was revolutionary for its time descriptions in intricate imaginative and varied prose of the methods of whale hunting the adventure and the narrator s reflections interweave the story s themes with a huge swath of western literature history religion mythology philosophy and science although its initial reception was unfavorable moby dick is now considered to be one of the canonical novels in the english language and has secured melville s reputation in the first rank of american writers the novel is dedicated to nathaniel hawthorne uniquely the titles of many of the chapters listed in the table of contents differ slightly from the corresponding chapter titles as they appear in the text an overwhelming feature of this novel is that huge chunks probably over half the text do not advance the plot at all but rather are non fiction digressions on among other things whales whaling the color white and the crotch forked support holding harpoon in whale boat this is one of the reasons high school students shudder when assigned to read this whale of a book background the plot was inspired in part by the november two zero one eight two zero sinking of the whaleship essex a whaling ship from nantucket massachusetts the ship went down two zero zero zero miles three seven zero zero km from the western coast of south america after it was attacked by an eight zero ton sperm whale the story was recounted by several of the eight survivors including first mate owen chase in his narrative of the most extraordinary and distressing shipwreck of the whale ship essex moby dick also undoubtedly draws on melville s experiences as a sailor and in particular on his voyage on the whaler acushnet in one eight four one one eight four two melville left no other account of his career as a whaler so we can only guess as to the extent to which moby dick is a roman clef like his previous novels typee omoo redburn and white jacket and how much is wholly invented however it is known that there was a real life albino sperm whale known as mocha dick that lived near the island of mocha off chile s southern coast several decades before melville wrote his book mocha dick like moby dick in melville s story had escaped countless times from the attacks of whalers whom he would often attack with premeditated ferocity and consequently had dozens of harpoons in his back mocha dick was eventually killed in the one eight three zero s no one knows what prompted melville to change the name mocha to moby but given that mocha dick was an albino sperm whale it highly possible that melville used him as a basis for his book characters the crew members of the pequod are carefully drawn stylizations of human types and habits critics have often described them as a self enclosed universe ishmael ishmael is the name the narrator takes for himself it is unclear whether or not this is his actual name call me ishmael is one of the best known opening sentences in english language literature a newcomer to whaling ishmael serves as our eyes and ears aboard the pequod he is at the end the only witness alive to tell the tale ishmael was the name of the first son of abraham in the old testament the biblical ishmael was born to a slave woman because abraham believed his wife sarah to be infertile when god granted her a son isaac ishmael and his mother were turned out of abraham s household the name has come to symbolize orphans and social outcasts from the beginning ishmael tells us that he turns to the sea out of a sense of alienation from human society ishmael like melville has a rich literary background that he brings to bear on his shipmates and their adventure ishmael resembles melville himself in many ways as well as the narrator of melville s white jacket the world in a man of war all are literary reflective types who see their shipmates as exemplars of human nature and the universe and tell their stories with a wealth of philosophical reflection ishmael himself sometimes completely vanishes into moby dick toward the end of the novel it can be easy to forget that it is being told by a first person narrator and not simply an omniscient narrator in many ways the pequod is a ship of outcasts that manage to form a complete society among themselves ishmael is perhaps its voice or its self consciousness ahab ahab is the captain of the whaling ship pequod having lost a leg to moby dick on their last meeting captain ahab is consumed with the desire for revenge he has a peg leg made of whalebone and a livid white scar that runs from head to toe and looks like the mark which a bolt of lightning leaves in the bark of a tree contrary to what many readers believe the scar down ahab s side was not given to him by moby dick it was actually caused by a lightning strike clear spirit of clear fire see chapter one one nine there are two ahabs named in the bible one a king of israel the other a blasphemous prophet delivered by god to be killed by nebuchadnezzar king of babylon the captain is named after the king who is described in the novel as bloodthirsty moby dick moby dick is a livid white sperm whale who has been attacked by multiple whaling ships but has been able to destroy his attackers melville spelled the whale s name without a hyphen but used a hyphen in the title of the book the color white seems to have specific allegorical meanings mates starbuck the young first mate of the pequod is a thoughtful and intellectual quaker uncommonly conscientious for a seaman and endued with a deep natural reverence the wild watery loneliness of his life did therefore strongly incline him to superstition but to that sort of superstition which in some organization seems rather to spring somehow from intelligence than from ignorance his far away domestic memories of his young cape wife and child tended to bend him from the original ruggedness of his nature and open him still further to those latent influences which in some honest hearted men restrain the gush of dare devil daring so often evinced by others in the more perilous vicissitudes of the fishery i will have no man in my boat said starbuck who is not afraid of a whale by this he seemed to mean not only that the most reliable and useful courage was that which arises from the fair estimation of the encountered peril but that an utterly fearless man is a far more dangerous comrade than a coward moby dick ch two six starbuck is alone among the crew in objecting to ahab s quest declaring it madness to want revenge on an animal that lacks the capacity to understand such human concepts starbuck advocates continuing the more mundane pursuit of whales for their oil he lacks the support of the crew in his opposition to ahab and is unable to persuade them to turn back despite his misgivings he feels himself bound by his obligations to obey the captain starbucks coffee is partly named after him see stubb is the second mate of the pequod who always seems to have a pipe in his mouth and a smile on his face good humored easy and careless he presided over his whaleboat as if the most deadly encounter were but a dinner and his crew all invited guests moby dick ch two seven flask is the third mate of the pequod a short stout ruddy young fellow very pugnacious concerning whales who somehow seemed to think that the great leviathans had personally and hereditarily affronted him and therefore it was a sort of point of honor with him to destroy them whenever encountered moby dick ch two seven harpooners queequeg the harpooner is a savage cannibal from a fictional island in the south seas the son of the chief of his tribe he befriends ishmael in nantucket before they leave port queequeg is a skilled harpooner on starbuck s boat his behaviour is both civilized and savage tashtego is described as a savage a native american harpooner the personification of the hunter he has turned from hunting land animals to hunting whales tashtego is the harpooner on stubb s harpoon boat daggoo is a gigantic savage african harpooner with a noble bearing and grace daggoo is the harpooner on flask s harpoon boat fedallah is the sinister leader of ahab s secret harpoon boat crew he is of persian descent parsee tall and swart with one white tooth evilly protruding from its steel like lips a rumpled chinese jacket of black cotton funereally invested him with wide black trowsers of the same dark stuff but strangely crowning this ebonness was a glistening white plaited turban the living hair braided and coiled round and round upon his head moby dick ch four eight symbolism all of the members of the pequod s crew have biblical sounding improbable or descriptive names and the narrator deliberately avoids specifying the exact time of the events and some other similar details these together suggest that perhaps we should understand the narrator and not just melville to be deliberately casting his tale in an epic and allegory mode ahab s desire to pursue moby dick is contrasted with starbuck s desire to run a normal commercial whaling ship it can be seen as the clash of idealism and pragmatism the white whale itself for example has been read as symbolically representative of good and evil as has ahab the white whale has also been seen as a metaphor for the elements of life that are out of our control the pequod s quest to hunt down moby dick itself is also widely viewed as allegorical to ahab killing the whale becomes the ultimate goal in his life and this observation can also be expanded allegorically so that the whale represents everyone s goals the only escape from ahab s vision is seen through the pequod s occasional encounters with other ships called gams readers could consider what exactly ahab will do if he in fact succeeds in his quest having accomplished his ultimate goal what else is there left for him to do thus the outcome of the quest is irrelevant and actually completing the journey is not the goal it s the thrill of the chase that s important similarly melville may be implying that people in general need something to reach for in life or contrariwise that such a goal can destroy one if allowed to overtake all other concerns the novel is also well known for what some view as the homoeroticism of chapters like a squeeze of the hand and for the quasi romantic friendship between ishmael and queequeg leading some satirists to label him queenqueg and the like ahab s pipe is widely looked upon as the riddance of happiness in ahab s life by throwing the pipe overboard ahab signifies that he no longer can enjoy simple pleasures in life instead he dedicates his entire life to the pursuit of his obsession the killing of the white whale moby dick page from a comics adaptation cover of a radio version selected adaptations and references jules verne s one eight seven zero twenty thousand leagues under the sea references a hunt for a dangerous ship sinking moby dick which turns out to be the nautilus a one nine two six silent movie the sea beast starring john barrymore as a heroic ahab with a fiancee and an evil brother loosely based on the novel imdb link remade as moby dick in one nine three zero imdb link moby dick rehearsed a one nine five five television play within a play directed by orson welles imdb link moby duck is a character created for disney s line of comic books a relative of donald and the other ducks in the disney mythos a one nine five six film directed by john huston and starring gregory peck with screenplay by ray bradbury imdb link tom and jerry meet dicky moe in a one nine six one mgm cartoon of the same name rocky and bullwinkle once encountered a white whale named maybe dick sam peckinpah s one nine six five film major dundee with charlton heston and richard harris recycles many of the story s plotlines and characters into a western setting imdb link mad magazine s obligatory satire began with the line call me fish smell the doomsday machine is a star trek episode written by norman spinrad that is loosely based on the moby dick story obsession star trek is another star trek episode where captain kirk tries to destroy a vampire like cloud creature that attacked and killed his captain and his crew on his old ship the farragut kirk was like ahab and the creature resembled moby dick however the story ends with the crew learning about the creature its menace to known space and deciding that kirk was fundamentally correct in hunting it nova a one nine six eight science fiction novel by samuel r delany features a starship voyage with a misfit crew and an obsessive and facially scarred captain strongly resembling ahab the wind whales of ishmael a one nine seven one in literature science fiction sequel by philip jos farmer transports ishmael to the far future moby dick was an instrumental recording by led zeppelin featuring a drum solo by john bonham national lampoon produced a poster in which moby dick is rendered as a gigantic condom nantucket sleighride was a recording by mountain describing a ship s crew in search of the mighty sperm whale and referring to starbuck sharpening his harpoon jaws was a one nine seven five film directed by steven spielberg based on the novel by peter benchley actor robert shaw played quint a crusty old ahab like sea captain who was obsessed with hunting down a white shark in the novel version quint dies in much the same way as ahab pulled into the depths by the creature due to a snagged harpoon line bruce sterling s one nine seven seven novel involution ocean is a science fictional pastiche of moby dick moby dick featuring jack aranson as captain ahab was filmed in one nine seven eight and released in november two zero zero five on dvd the director was paul stanley and the producer john robert imdb link rick veitch s abraxas and the earthman serialized in marvel s epic magazine was practically influenced by moby dick star trek ii the wrath of khan one nine eight two borrows liberally from moby dick khan and his first officer joachim are based on ahab and starbuck and many of khan s lines involve the character s near verbatim quotes of the novel a paperback copy of which is seen on a shelf in khan s exile quarters at the film s beginning imdb link in star trek first contact one nine nine six captain jean luc picard s fight against the borg is compared to that of captain ahab against moby dick imdb link moby dick the musical a one nine nine zero s west end musical about a girls boarding school production of the classic tale moby dick a one nine nine eight television movie starring patrick stewart as ahab imdb link capitaine achab a two zero zero four french movie directed by philippe ramos with val rie crunchant and fr d ric bonpart imdb link in the late one nine nine zero s performance artist laurie anderson produced the multimedia stage presentation songs and stories from moby dick several songs from this project were included on her two zero zero one in music cd life on a string rakhnam a purple arcwhale which threatens the party at various points in the two zero zero one video game skies of arcadia is an homage to moby dick his name in the japanese version of the game is mobys francis macbeth composed a five movement suite for wind band named of sailors and whales which is based on scenes from the book moby dick the bombastic suite begins with the quiet ishmael which builds to a heavy climax queequeg follows with a flitting melody and ends with bleak chords and finally a quick note at the end the middle movement father mapple is supposed to be a hymn that an imaginary man sings during the voyage this movement is actually sung by the band and begins very wearily but has a rather strong ending next is ahab and this movement readily depicts the captain the same is true of the white whale the final movement of the suite and by far one of the most fearsome pieces composed for a wind band each movement is preceded by some text supposed to be read to give an indication of the movement the musician moby is a descendant of herman melville cover of heavy metal band mastodon s album leviathan the american heavy metal band mastodon released a two zero zero four album named leviathan which contained lyrics based on moby dick some song titles include i am ahab and seabeast in the comic book series bone by jeff smith the protagonist named fone bone is a great admirer of moby dick and refers to it frequently when he tries to read passages from the book to his friends they immediately fall asleep his dreams contain a great deal of moby dick imagery and when he and his companions pass through a region in which their thoughts become reality his cousin phoney suddenly gains a peg leg a facial scar and a costume like ahab s the word moby appears to be an invention of melville s it has passed into colloquial english as a rough synonym for very large in marvel comics livewires the ultimate goal of project livewire is to seek out and destroy the most secret of all black ops projects the one they refer to as the white whale because they don t actually know its real codename the new england whaling museum in new bedford massachusetts hosts a moby dick marathon reading of the novel every january three rd to january four th the next marathon two zero zero six will be the one zero th anniversary of this event volunteer readers are alloted one zero minute time slots over the approximately two five hours it takes to read this novel aloud among the hundreds of moby dick fans who flock to this event descendants of melville attend every year moby lick was a fictitious character in mattel s action figure line known as the street sharks that later appeared in the animated series based on the toyline while its name is an obvious pun on melville s work the character itself was a humanoid orca or killer whale with a huge tongue roger zelazny s short story the doors of his face the lamps of his mouth is inspired by moby dick it tells the story of a whaling crew on the seas of venus hunting a giant icthyosaur the novel ahab s wife or the star gazer by sena jeter naslund is a novel about ahab s wife who is briefly mentioned in moby dick in the novel the heroine meets dozens of famous people including frederick douglass margaret fuller nathaniel hawthorne ralph waldo emerson maria mitchell and even henry james as a precocious five year old captain ahab makes a short appearance in the one nine nine four animated film the pagemaster as one of a long list of cameo appearances by many famous literary characters and novels captain ahab along with macaulay culkin s character is attacked by moby dick while in a rowboat imdb link a japanese animated sequel to moby dick called legend of moby dick was produced in one nine nine seven in the two zero zero three film the league of extraordinary gentlemen the league is greeted by one of captain nemo s men his first line call me ishmael imdb link in the one nine seven eight tv series battlestar galactica remade in two zero zero three captain adama who has a scar that runs down the length of his chest has a man named lieutenant starbuck changed to a female for the remake as his top fighter pilot other vague parallels such as the use of epic names also exist external links searchable full text of moby dick available here quotations from moby dick moby dick or the whale at moby dick mocha dick article chapter titles in moby dick that have misleadingly racy titles reading questions on moby dick one nine three zero john barrymore captain ahab one nine five six gregory peck captain ahab one nine seven eight jack aranson one three characters one nine nine eight patrick stewart captain ahab one eight five one books cetaceans fictional cetaceans moby dick whaling one nine three zero films one nine seven eight films one nine five six films one nine nine eight films films based on fiction books maria agnesi redirects here this article is about the mathematician for her sister the composer see maria teresa agnesi maria gaetana agnesi may one six one seven one eight january nine one seven nine nine was an italian linguist mathematician and philosopher agnesi is credited with writing the first book discussing both differential and integral calculus she was an honorary member of the faculty at the university of bologna her father pietro was a wealthy mathematics professor maria gaetana agnesi maria was recognized as a child prodigy very early she could speak both french and italian at five years of age by her thirteenth birthday she had acquired greek hebrew spanish german latin and probably a few more languages as she was referred to as the walking polyglot she even educated her younger brothers when she was nine years old she composed and delivered an hour long speech in latin to an academic gathering the subject was women s right to be educated when she was fifteen her father began to regularly gather in his house a circle of the most learned men in bologna before whom she read and maintained a series of theses on the most abstruse philosophical questions records of these meetings are given in de brosse s lettres sur l italie and in the propositiones philosophicae which her father had published in one seven three eight these displays being probably not altogether congenial to maria who was of a retiring disposition ceased by her twentieth year and it is even said that she had a strong desire to enter a convent at that time although her wish was not granted she lived from that time on in an almost conventual semi retirement avoiding all interactions with society and devoting herself entirely to the study of mathematics the most valuable result of her labours was the instituzioni analitiche ad uso della gioventu italiana a work of great merit which was published milan in one seven four eight and was regarded as the best introduction extant to the works of euler the first volume treats of the analysis of finite quantities and the second of the analysis of infinitesimals a french translation of the second volume by p t d antelmy with additions by charles bossut one seven three zero one eight one four appeared at paris in one seven seven five and an english translation of the whole work by john colson one six eight zero one seven six zero the lucasian professor of mathematics at cambridge was published in one eight zero one at the expense of baron maseres madame agnesi also wrote a commentary on the traite analytique des sections coniques of the marquis de l h pital which though highly praised by those who saw it in manuscript was never published she discussed the curve known as the witch of agnesi or versiera as she named it in one seven four eight italian for the rope that turns a sail taken from the latin versoria which was the term used by luigi grandi before her john colson who translated agnesi s text to english perhaps confused la versiera with l avversiera and so mistranslated it as she devil or the witch with the result that english speakers and for some reason spanish speakers from mexico cuba and spain know the curve as the witch of agnesi la bruja de agnesi the curve is defined as y or in general y the curve was already studied before by fermat and by grandi in one seven zero three in one seven five zero on the illness of her father she was appointed by pope benedict xiv to the chair of mathematics and natural philosophy at bologna she was the second woman to be appointed professor at a university after the death of her father in one seven five two she carried out a long cherished purpose by giving herself to the study of theology and especially of the fathers and devoted herself to the poor homeless and sick after holding for some years the office of directress of the hospice trivulzio for blue nuns at milan she herself joined the sisterhood and in this austere order ended her days references larson ron hostetler robert p and edwards bruce h two zero zero three calculus of a single variable early transcendental functions three rd edition houghton mifflin company isbn zero six one eight two two three zero seven x mathematics history archive entry for maria gaetana agnesi at the university of andrews scotland one seven one eight births one seven nine nine deaths one eight th century mathematicians autodidacts christians in science italian mathematicians polyglots polymaths roman catholic nuns women mathematicians underground as an adjective commonly refers to something that is either below the ground or outside of public consciousness as a proper noun the underground may refer to a subculture a concert venue or the metro mass transit system the underground can also refer to karst topography a landscape of distinctive dissolution patterns often marked by underground drainages organized crime crime carried out systematically by formal criminal organizations underground culture a term to describe various alternative cultures underground economy commerce that is not taxed united kingdom underground a one nine six zero s countercultural movement in the united kingdom underground resistance nickname used for some resistance movements underground living living below the ground s surface underground hip hop a style of hip hop music distinguished by beats samples and lyrics that differ from the general template of popular commercial hip hop london underground a metro system that covers the greater london area underground newspaper a reference to the alternative print media independently published and distributed underground a one nine six seven jazz recording by thelonious monk underground a two zero zero one album by analog pussy underground a one nine six seven album by the electric prunes underground song a one nine eight six single by david bowie featured in the film labyrinth underground stories a collection of biographical short stories of victims of the aum shinrikyo sarin attack on the tokyo subway by murakami haruki underground film a film concerning yugoslavia directed by emir kusturica need for speed underground game and its sequel need for speed underground two racing video games developed and published by electronic arts underground role playing game a satirical role playing game released by mayfair games in one nine nine three the underground concert venue underground the madeira river is a major waterway in south america approximately three three eight zero km two one zero zero miles long it joins the amazon river one four zero zero km eight seven zero miles by river above par brazil and almost rivals it in the volume of its waters according to the treaty of san ildefonso one eight zero zero the madeira begins at the confluence of the guapore with the mamor in bolivia both of these streams have their headwaters almost in contact with those of the river paraguay the junction of the great river beni with the madeira is at the madeira falls a vast and grand display of reefs whirlpools and boiling torrents located near villa bella bolivia between guajar mirim and the falls the madeira receives the drainage of the northeastern slopes of the andes from santa cruz de la sierra to cuzco the whole of the south western slope of brazilian mato grosso and the northern slope of the chiquitos sierras in total the catchment is almost equal in area to france and spain combined the waters flow into the madeira by many great rivers the principal of which if we enumerate them from east to west are the guapore or itenez the baures and blanco the itonama or san miguel the mamor beni and mayutata or madre de dios all of which are reinforced by numerous secondary but powerful affluents all of the upper branches of the river madeira find their way to the falls across the open almost level mojos and beni plains nine zero zero zero zero km two three five zero zero zero square miles of which are yearly flooded to an average depth of about three feet for a period of from three to four months from the falls the madeira flows northward forming the border between bolivia and brazil for approximately one zero zero km six zero miles below the confluence of the rio abun the madeira meanders northeastward through the rond nia and amazonas states of north west brazil to its junction with the amazon at its mouth is ilha tupinambaranas an extensive marshy region formed by the madeira s distributaries it rises more than one five m five zero feet during the rainy season and ocean vessels may ascend it to the falls of san antonio near p rto velho brazil one zero seven zero km six six three miles above its mouth but in the dry months from june to november it is only navigable for the same distance for craft drawing about two m from five to six feet of water the madeira mamor railroad runs in a three six five km two two seven mile loop around the unnavigable section to guajar mirim on the mamor river a subspecies of boto amazon river dolphin is known to inhabit the madeira river system rivers of brazil rivers of bolivia amazon river tributaries the river mara n rises about one zero zero miles to the north east of lima peru it flows through a deeply eroded andean valley in a north west direction along the eastern base of the cordillera of the andes as far as five degrees three six southern latitude then it makes a great bend to the north east and cuts through the inland andes until at the pongo de manseriche it flows through the plains and after its confluence with r o ucayali it is given the name of the amazon river valley of the mara n between chachapoyas leymebamba and celend n barred by reefs and full of rapids and impetuous currents it cannot become a commercial avenue at the point where it makes its great bend the river chinchipe pours into it from southern ecuador just below this the mountains close in on either side of the marapon forming narrows or pongos for a length of three five miles where besides numerous whirlpools there are no less than thirty five formidable rapids the series concluding with three cataracts just before reaching the river imasa or chunchunga near the mouth of which la condamine embarked in the one eight th century to descend the amazon here the general level of the country begins to decrease in elevation with only a few mountain spurs which from time to time push as far as the river and form pongos of minor importance and less dangerous to descend finally after passing the narrows of guaracayo the cerros gradually disappear and for a distance of about two zero miles the river is full of islands and there is nothing visible from its low banks but an immense forest covered plain but the last barrier has yet to be passed the pongo de manseriche three miles long just below the mouth of the rio santiago and between it and the old abandoned missionary station of borja in three eight degrees three zero southern latitude and seven seven degrees three zero four zero western longitude according to captain carbajal who descended it in the little steamer napo in one eight six eight it is a vast rent in the andes about two zero zero zero ft deep narrowing in places to a width of only one zero zero ft the precipices seeming to close in at the top through this dark canyon the mara n leaps along at times at the rate of one two miles an hour the pongo de manseriche was first discovered by the adelantado joan de salinas he fitted out an expedition at loxa in ecuador descended the rio santiago to the mara n passed through the perilous pongo in one five five seven and invaded the country of the maynas indians later the missionaries of cuenca and quito established many missions in the pais de los maynas and made extensive use of the pongo de manseriche as an avenue of communication with their several convents on the andean plateau according to their accounts the huge rent in the andes the pongo is about five or six miles long and in places not more than eight zero feet wide and is a frightful series of torrents and whirlpools interspersed with rocks there is an ancient tradition of the savages of the vicinity that one of their gods descending the mara n and another ascending the amazon to communicate with him they opened the pass called the pongo de manseriche from the northern slope of its basin the amazon receives many tributaries but their combined volume of water is not nearly so great as that contributed to the parent stream by its affluents from the south that part of brazil lying between the amazon and french dutch and british guiana and bounded on the west by the rio negro is known as brazilian guiana it is the southern watershed of a tortuous low chain of mountains running roughly east and west their northern slope which is occupied by the three guianas first named is saturated and river torn but their southern one brazilian guiana is in general thirsty and semi barren and the driest region of the amazon valley it is an area which has been left almost in the undisturbed possession of nomadic indian tribes whose scanty numbers find it difficult to solve the food problem from the divortium aquarum between french guiana and brazil known as the tumuc humac range of highlands two minor streams the yary and the parou reach the amazon across the intervening broken and barren tableland they are full of rapids and reefs the river serves also as a frame for one of the most important novels of the peruvian writer c ro alegr a la serpiente de oro rivers of peru amazon river tributaries march six is the six five th day of the year in the gregorian calendar six six th in leap years there are three zero zero days remaining events one four four seven nicholas v becomes pope one four five four thirteen years war delegates of the prussian confederation pledged allegiance to casimir iv of poland and the polish king agreed to help in their struggle for independence from the teutonic knights one four six zero treaty of alca ovas portugal gives the canary islands to castile in exchange for claims in west africa one five two one ferdinand magellan discovers guam one eight two zero the missouri compromise is signed into law by president james monroe the compromise allows missouri to enter the union as a slave state but makes the rest of the northern part of the louisiana purchase territory slavery free one eight three four york upper canada is incorporated as toronto one eight three six texas revolution battle of the alamo after a one three day siege by an army of three zero zero zero mexican troops the one eight nine texas volunteers defending the alamo are defeated and the fort taken one eight five three the giuseppe verdi opera la traviata premieres in venice one eight five six the university of maryland college park is chartered as the maryland agricultural college one eight five seven the supreme court of the united states rules in the dred scott v sandford case one eight six nine dmitri mendeleev presents the first periodic table to the russian chemical society one eight nine nine bayer registers aspirin as a trademark one nine zero zero a coal mine explosion in west virginia traps five zero coal miners one nine zero one in bremen an assassin attempts to kill wilhelm ii of germany one nine two five pionerskaya pravda one of the oldest children s newspapers in europe is founded one nine four zero winter war an armistice is signed by finland and the soviet union one nine four five a communist dominated government under petru groza assumes power in romania one nine four six vietnam war ho chi minh signs an agreement with france which recognizes vietnam as an autonomous state in the indochinese federation and the french union one nine four seven uss newport news the first air conditioned naval ship is launched from newport news virginia one nine five one the trial of ethel and julius rosenberg begins one nine five three georgy maksimilianovich malenkov succeeds josef stalin as premier and first secretary of the communist party of the soviet union one nine five seven united kingdom colonies gold coast and british togoland become the independent republic of ghana one nine five seven israel withdraws its troops from the sinai peninsula one nine six four prophet elijah muhammad officially gives cassius clay the name muhammad ali meaning beloved of allah one nine six four constantine ii becomes king of greece one nine six four tom o hara sets a new world record for the indoor mile run by completing it in three minutes five six four seconds one nine seven zero cult leader and suspected murderer charles manson releases an album titled lies to help finance his defense one nine seven five algiers accord iran and iraq announce a settlement over their border dispute one nine eight one after one nine years presenting the cbs evening news walter cronkite signs off for the last time one nine eight three the united states football league begins its first year of competition one nine eight four twelve month long strike in british coal industry begins one nine eight seven the british ferry m s herald of free enterprise capsizes in about nine zero seconds after leaving the harbour of zeebrugge belgium en route to dover england across the english channel killing one nine three one nine nine two the michelangelo computer virus begins to affect computers one nine nine four referendum in moldova results in the electorate voting against possible reunification with romania one nine nine seven picasso s painting t te de femme is stolen from a london gallery and is recovered a week later births one four zero five king john ii of castile d one four five four one four five nine jacob fugger german banker d one five two five one four seven five michelangelo buonarroti italian painter d one five six four one four eight three francesco guicciardini italian statesman and historian d one five four zero one four nine five luigi alamanni italian poet d one five five six one six one nine cyrano de bergerac french soldier poet d one six five five one six six three francis atterbury english man of letters d one seven three two one seven zero six george pocock british admiral d one seven nine two one seven one six pehr kalm finnish explorer and naturalist d one seven seven nine one seven seven nine antoine henri jomini french general d one eight six nine one seven eight seven joseph von fraunhofer german physicist d one eight two six one eight zero six elizabeth barrett browning english poet d one eight six one one eight one two aaron lufkin dennison american watch manufacturer d one eight nine five one eight four one charles augustin de coulomb french physicist d one nine zero two one eight eight five ring lardner american writer d one nine three three one nine zero three empress nagako of japan d two zero zero zero one nine zero four joseph schmidt austrian tenor d one nine four two one nine zero five bob wills american singer d one nine seven five one nine zero six lou costello american actor comedian d one nine five nine one nine one four kiril kondrashin russian conductor d one nine eight one one nine one five pete gray american baseball player d two zero zero two one nine one seven will eisner american illustrator and cartoonist d two zero zero five one nine two three ed mcmahon american television personality one nine two three wes montgomery american musician d one nine six eight one nine two six alan greenspan american economist one nine two six andrzej wajda polish film director one nine two seven gordon cooper astronaut d two zero zero four one nine two eight gabriel garc a m rquez colombian writer nobel prize laureate one nine three zero lorin maazel french born american conductor one nine three one hal needham american stunt man one nine three three ted abernathy baseball player d two zero zero four one nine three four john noakes british television presenter one nine three five ron delany irish athlete one nine three six marion barry jr mayor of washington dc one nine three seven ivan boesky american stock trader one nine three seven valentina tereshkova cosmonaut one nine three nine adam osborne british author and computer designer d two zero zero three one nine four zero willie stargell baseball player one nine four two ben murphy american actor one nine four four kiri te kanawa new zealand soprano one nine four four mary wilson american singer supremes one nine four six david gilmour english musician pink floyd one nine four seven kiki dee english singer one nine four seven dick fosbury american athlete one nine four seven martin kove american actor one nine four seven rob reiner american actor comedian and film producer one nine four nine shaukat aziz prime minister of pakistan one nine four nine martin buchan scottish footballer one nine five one gerrie knetemann dutch cyclist d two zero zero four one nine five three jan kj rstad norwegian author one nine five three jacklyn zeman american actress one nine five five alberta watson canadian actress one nine five nine tom arnold american actor and comedian one nine six nine tari phillips american basketball player one nine seven two terry murphy northern irish snooker player one nine seven two shaquille o neal american basketball player one nine seven six ken anderson american professional wrestler one nine seven nine tim howard american soccer player deaths one two five two saint rose of viterbo italian saint b one two three five one four nine zero ivan the young ruler of tver b one four five eight one five three one pedrarias d vila spanish conquistador one six two seven krzysztof zbaraski polish statesman b one five eight zero one seven five four henry pelham prime minister of great britain b one six nine four one seven five eight henry vane one st earl of darlington english politician one seven six four philip yorke one st earl of hardwicke lord chancellor of england b one six nine zero one seven nine six guillaume thomas fran ois raynal french writer b one seven one three one eight three six davy crockett american frontiersman b one seven eight six one eight five four charles william vane three rd marquess of londonderry british soldier and politician b one seven seven eight one eight eight eight louisa may alcott american novelist b one eight three two one eight nine five camilla collett norwegian writer and feminist b one eight one three one eight nine nine victoria kaiulani hawaiian princess b one eight seven five one nine zero five john henninger reagan american confederate politician b one eight one eight one nine three two john philip sousa american band leader conductor and composer b one eight five four one nine three three anton cermak mayor of chicago b one eight seven three one nine four one gutzon borglum danish sculptor b one eight six seven one nine four eight ross lockridge jr american novelist b one nine one four one nine five zero albert lebrun president of france b one eight seven one one nine five one ivor novello welsh actor musician and composer b one eight nine three one nine five two j rgen stroop nazi ss leader executed one nine six one george formby british comedian and singer b one nine zero four one nine six four king paul of greece b one nine zero one one nine six five margaret dumont american actress b one eight eight nine one nine six seven john haden badley author and educator b one eight six five one nine six seven nelson eddy american singer and actor b one nine zero one one nine six seven zolt n kod ly hungarian composer b one eight eight two one nine six nine nadya rusheva russian painter b one nine five two one nine seven zero william hopper american actor b one nine one five one nine seven one thurston dart english harpsichordist and conductor b one nine two one one nine seven three pearl s buck american writer nobel prize laureate b one eight nine two one nine seven six max slapsie maxie rosenbloom american boxer and actor b one nine zero three one nine eight one george geary english cricketer b one eight nine three one nine eight two ayn rand russian american author b one nine zero five one nine eight five henry wilcoxon dominican actor b one nine zero five one nine eight six georgia o keeffe american artist b one eight eight seven one nine nine three douglas marland american writer b one nine three five one nine nine four melina mercouri greek actress political activist and politician b one nine two zero one nine nine seven cheddi jagan president of guyana b one nine one eight one nine nine seven michael manley prime minister of jamaica b one nine two four two zero zero zero john colicos canadian actor b one nine two eight two zero zero one kim walker american actress b one nine six eight two zero zero three john sanford american author b one nine zero four two zero zero four frances dee american actress b one nine zero nine two zero zero five hans bethe german born physicist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero six two zero zero five tommy vance british radio disc jockey b one nine four three holidays and observances in two zero zero four the jewish holiday of purim begins in ghana march six is the national independence day mothering sunday in the united kingdom two zero zero five laetare sunday the fourth sunday of the season of lent in the christian liturgical calendar two zero zero five casimir pulaski day in illinois two zero zero six first monday of march external links bbc on this day march five march seven february six april six listing of all days the morona is a tributary to the amazon river and flows parallel to the pastaza and immediately to the west of it and is the last stream of any importance on the northern side of the amazon before reaching the pongo de manseriche it is formed from a multitude of water courses which descend the slopes of the ecuadorian andes south of the gigantic volcano of sangay but it soon reaches the plain which commences where it receives its cusulima branch the morona is navigable for small craft for about three zero zero miles above its mouth but it is extremely tortuous canoes may ascend many of its branches especially the cusuhma and the miazal the latter almost to the base of sangay the morona has been the scene of many rude explorations with the hope of finding it serviceable as a commercial route between the inter andean tableland of ecuador and the amazon river amazon river tributaries rivers of ecuador maxwell herman alexander newman february seven one eight nine seven february two two one nine eight four was a british mathematician and codebreaker newman was born in chelsea london england from one nine two seven to one nine four five he was a lecturer in mathematics at the university of cambridge where his one nine three five lectures on foundations of mathematics inspired alan turing to embark on his pioneering work on computing machines at the end of august one nine four two newman joined the codebreakers at bletchley park by one nine four three newman was head of the section tasked with helping break the german lorenz cipher using machine methods his section was termed the newmanry which eventually housed several colossus computers designed by tommy flowers newman was appointed head of the mathematics department at the university of manchester england in one nine four five and transformed it into a center of international renown retiring in one nine six four newman wrote elements of the topology of plane sets of points a definitive work on general topology he also made major contributions to combinatorial topology he died in comberton near cambridge honours fellow of the royal society elected one nine three nine royal society sylvester medal awarded one nine five eight london mathematical society president one nine four nine one nine five one lms de morgan medal awarded one nine six two the newman building a mathematics building at the university of manchester is named after him external links a biography of newman one eight nine seven births one nine eight four deaths computer pioneers pre computer cryptographers fellows of the royal society measure can mean to perform a measurement in mathematics a measure is a way to assign non negative real numbers to subsets of a given set in order to measure their sizes or probabilities see measure mathematics for a treatment of the concept in music a measure is a unit of time in western music usually equalling the metric unit length it represents a regular grouping of beats a meter as indicated in musical notation by the time signature measures are also called bars since measures are separated by vertical bars called bar lines in musical notation in civics a measure is a legislative bill a ballot measure or enactment in war a measure is some tactic used by a friend or a foe an opposing tactic is called a countermeasure an opposing tactic to a countermeasure can be called a counter countermeasure etc in politics especially of a dictatorial nature a measure is usually an euphemism for suppressing a particular perceived enemy in functional programming a measure is a method of proving that a function will terminate in geology and mining a coal measure is a stratum or seam of coal image mbta logo jpg the massachusetts bay transportation authority mbta is a a body politic and corporate and a political subdivision of the commonwealth of massachusetts formed in one nine six four to finance and operate most bus subway commuter rail and ferry systems in the greater boston massachusetts usa area it replaced an earlier agency called the metropolitan transit authority or the mta as immortalized in the popular folk protest lament the mta song it is known by the locals as simply the t because of the logo it adopted in the one nine six zero s that of the letter t in a circle in two zero zero four the entire system averaged seven nine two six zero zero one way passenger trips each weekday subway undistorted map of the boston subway system the subway system has three rapid transit lines the red orange and blue lines and two streetcar light rail lines the green line and the ashmont mattapan high speed line considered part of the red line all four colored lines meet downtown at a square configuration and the orange and green lines which run parallel meet directly at several stations the red line has two branches in the south ashmont and braintree named after their terminal stations and the green line has four branches in the west b boston college c cleveland circle d riverside and e heath street the a branch formerly went to watertown filling in the pattern which increases from north to south and the e branch formerly continued beyond heath street to arborway the colors were assigned on august two six one nine six five and now serve as the primary identifier for the lines the orange line is so named because it used to run down orange street the green line is named because it runs in an area known as the green emerald row the blue line is named because it runs under boston harbor and the red line is named because it runs through cambridge where harvard university the crimson is located the three rapid transit lines are incompatible in dimensions trains of one line would have to be modified to run on another except between the red line and ashmont mattapan high speed line there are no track connections between lines but all lines but the blue line have existing but unused connections to the national rail network which have been used for deliveries history park street on the green line soon after opening boston s subway was the first in the united states and is often called america s first subway by the mbta and others the original sections of subway forming the tremont street subway opened in one eight nine seven and one eight nine eight and were built by the boston elevated railway to take streetcars from many points off downtown streets and would not be classified as a rapid transit system like most systems called subways in one nine zero one the main line elevated opened a rapid transit line running as an elevated railway through outlying areas and using the tremont street subway downtown with the outer tracks and platforms reconfigured for elevated trains the atlantic avenue elevated opened soon after providing a second route downtown this was the first elevated railway and the first rapid transit line in boston still coming three years before the first underground line of the new york city subway but long after the first elevated railway in new york a boston college bound b line type eight breda green line car at boston university the red triangle reflected in the window of the car is the electric citgo sign a boston landmark the washington street tunnel opened in one nine zero eight giving the elevated a shorter route through downtown and returning the tremont street subway to full streetcar service various extensions and branches were built to the tremont street subway in both directions bypassing more surface tracks in addition when the main line el opened in one nine zero one many surface routes were cut back to its terminals dudley and sullivan to provide a transfer for a faster route downtown elevated extensions were soon built on each end and more streetcar lines were cut back blue line train at airport the next line to open was the east boston tunnel a streetcar tunnel under boston harbor to east boston in one nine zero four this replaced a transfer between streetcars and ferries and provided access to the other subways downtown the tunnel was converted to rapid transit specifications in one nine two four with an easy cross platform transfer at the east boston end the cambridge tunnel opened in one nine one two connecting the downtown lines to harvard square in cambridge and was soon extended south from downtown to dorchester as the dorchester tunnel the dorchester extension opening in stages from one nine two seven took the line further along a former new york new haven and hartford railroad branch through dorchester with the ashmont mattapan high speed line continuing along the old right of way to mattapan this too resulted in cutbacks in streetcar service to its terminals red line train at harvard over the years starting in one nine two two and possibly as the result of the alleged general motors streetcar conspiracy streetcar lines have been bustituted with trackless trolleys coming along in one nine three six by the beginning of one nine five three the only remaining streetcar lines fed two tunnels the main tremont street subway network downtown and the short tunnel now the harvard bus tunnel in harvard square the harvard routes were replaced with trackless trolleys in one nine five eight and are the only surviving mbta trackless trolley routes not counting the new phaze two silver line a new branch to the downtown subway opened in one nine five nine the highland branch using a former boston and albany railroad right of way and requiring many more cars than expected due to heavy ridership the last cars to the pleasant street portal ran in one nine six two and it has since been covered over the watertown branch hung on until one nine six nine two years after it was labeled as the a branch before it too was replaced by buses the last cars to arborway on the e branch ran in one nine eight five and many area residents are still trying to get service extended back past heath street a low floor breda tram at the boston college station on the b line the old elevated railways proved to be an eyesore and required several sharp curves in boston s twisty streets the atlantic avenue elevated was closed in one nine three eight the charlestown elevated part of the orange line was replaced by the haymarket north extension in one nine seven five and the washington street elevated lasted until one nine eight seven when the southwest corridor was opened to replace it both of these were built next to existing rail corridors with the two zero zero four closure of the causeway street elevated part of the green line the only remaining elevated railway is a short portion of the red line at charles mgh the revere extension now part of the blue line to wonderland opened from one nine five two to one nine five four mostly along the former narrow gauge boston revere beach and lynn railroad right of way the braintree extension a branch of the red line to braintree opened in stages from one nine seven one to one nine eight zero again next to an existing rail corridor the red line northwest extension to alewife opened in one nine eight five with an intermediate opening in one nine eight four partly along a railroad corridor and partly through a deep bore tunnel these recent extensions provided not only additional subway system coverage but also major parking structures at several of the terminal and intermediate stations the best known of which is alewife where the route two freeway ends at the red line terminal on january one two two zero zero five the cities of medford and somerville announced their intent to sue the commonwealth of massachusetts the central artery tunnel project rerouted a lot of traffic through the area causing high levels of pollution and congestion though the mbta had agreed to extend the green line through the two cities there had been no progress on the extension since the deal was made in one nine nine zero soon after the mbta announced that it would build the extension commuter rail mbta subway charlie ticket the mbta commuter rail system is a suburban rail network that shares its tracks with freight trains though unlike most systems the majority of track is owned by the mbta as of two zero zero five there are one one lines three of which have branches and a one five th branch provides access to gillette stadium for events seven of the lines converge at south station with four also passing through back bay station the other four converge at north station amtrak uses two of the south side lines and one of the north side lines for long distance intercity service there is no passenger connection between the two sides although there have been proposals to fix this with the north south rail link currently passengers must take the orange line between back bay and north station the red and orange lines between south and north stations or take a bus or taxicab an additional south side line the greenbush line is currently under construction a south side branch to fall river and new bedford is in the planning stages the commuter rail system has used the color purple on train cars and system maps since october eight one nine seven four and consequently it is sometimes called the purple line the mbta was formed partly to subsidize existing commuter rail operations provided at the time by three private railroad companies the boston and maine railroad the new york central railroad via the boston and albany railroad and the new york new haven and hartford railroad with the b yellow line the silver line is the mbta s first bus rapid transit service the first segment replacing the bus which in turn replaced the washington street elevated section of the orange line began operations in two zero zero two with free transfers to the subways downtown it runs along the street partly in special bus lanes the next section opened at the end of two zero zero four and connects south station to south boston partly via a tunnel and partly on the surface these buses run dual mode trackless trolley in the tunnel and diesel outside service to logan airport began in june two zero zero five a third fully tunneled section is planned to connect the two but is controversial due to its high cost and the fact that many do not consider phase i to be adequate replacement service for the old elevated current plans include more bus rapid transit routes including the urban ring intended to replace the crosstown buses seven one trackless trolley four routes to harvard still run as trackless trolleys there was once a much larger trackless trolley system the main part of the bus system came from the boston elevated railway originally providing streetcar service throughout the inner suburbs the outer routes to the north and south were bought from the eastern massachusetts street railway in one nine six eight and the west suburban routes in one nine seven two from the middlesex and boston street railway note both of these companies had long since ceased running any streetcar service a few routes to the north were taken over from service bus lines in one nine seven five and one in the south in one nine eight zero from the brush hill transportation company as with the commuter rail system many of the outlying routes were dropped soon before or after the takeover due to low ridership and high operating costs the mbta boat system operates several ferry routes around boston harbor including service to logan international airport fare collection new easy way mbta fare gates at aquarium station subway and bus fares are expected to increase in january two zero zero seven until then most subway fares are one two five collected on entry double fare is collected inbound at the end of the red line braintree branch with an additional exit fare at two of those three stations one five zero and then three zero zero is charged for inbound rides on the outer part of the green line d branch the ashmont mattapan high speed line is free as are outbound trips originating on the surface part of the green line to mitigate for the extra fares at outlying stations coupons are provided for local travelers as they exit to reduce the return trip cost basic bus fare is currently nine zero this includes the silver line on washington street but not the phase ii service from south station to the airport and south boston which charges subway fares since december one two zero zero zero free transfers have been available between buses with a maximum of one transfer per trip as well as between the silver line and the subway lines downtown transfers are not valid on some express buses some long distance buses charge multiple fares for full trips free transfers are only valid for one zone additionally free transfers are available from subway to bus and with an extra three five from bus to subway at all crossings of the crosstown buses and the subway as well as between the and the orange line at massachusetts avenue washington street elevated replacement service as well as between the and the green line at copley as well as the orange line at back bay arborway replacement service subway fares have long been paid with tokens and bus fares with exact coin change however an automated fare collection is being installed throughout the system during two zero zero six the new stored value farecard is called the charlie card in honor of the unfortunate hero of the mta song there is also a charlie ticket for short term use that will be used initially the system will be completely automated with new ticket machines and new fare gates fare collectors will leave their bulletproof collection shelters and become roving customer service agents new easy way mbta ticket machines at aquarium stationas built many of the key transfer stations were prepayment stations in which free transfers could be made between surface streetcar lines and grade separated subway or elevated lines this was made possible by the operation of all services under one umbrella suburban services that operated over the same tracks used different areas outside fare control some of the streetcar levels were later converted for bus or trackless trolley operation others have been closed free transfers were outright eliminated in october one nine six one except between subway routes returning in a limited capacity in two zero zero zero prepayment stations included andrew still in place arborway ashmont still in place broadway dudley egleston everett fields corner forest hills harvard still in place hynes convention center ica kenmore still in place lechmere still in place maverick ruggles built for buses still in place savin hill sullivan square watertown only served surface and surface subway streetcars and wood island built for buses parking the mbta operates park and ride facilities at many of its outlying stations with a total capacity of almost four six zero zero zero automobiles the number of spaces at stations with parking varies from a few dozen to over two five zero zero the larger lots and garages are usually sited near a major highway exit the parking fee for a day ranges from two zero zero to five zero zero substantially less than the cost of an hour s parking in downtown boston lots often fill up during the morning rush hour there are some two two zero zero zero spaces on the southern portion of the commuter rail system nine four zero zero on the northern portion and one four six zero zero at subway stations most stations also have parking racks for bicycles organizational history the mbta district with commuter rail lines in purple the metropolitan transit authority mta took over operations from the boston elevated railway in one nine four seven on august three one nine six four the mbta succeeded the mta with an enlarged service area the original mta district consisted of one four cities and towns arlington belmont boston brookline cambridge chelsea everett malden medford milton newton revere somerville and watertown the mbta covered an expanded area of seven eight cities and towns with a seven nine th maynard joining in or before one nine seven two and leaving in or after one nine seven six the district was expanded further to one seven five cities and towns in one nine nine nine adding most that were served by or adajcent to commuter rail lines again including maynard the mbta did not assume responsibility for local service in those communities some of which run their own buses prior to july one two zero zero zero the mbta was reimbursed by the commonwealth of massachusetts for all costs above revenue collected net cost of service beginning on that date t was granted a dedicated revenue stream consisting of amounts assessed on served cities and towns along with a dedicated two zero portion of the state sales tax i e one dollar out of each five dollars collected under the massachusetts five sales tax the mbta now must live within this forward funding budget future plans as of two zero zero five there are a number of plans for mbta system expansion and improvement some are in progress some are in the planning stages others have been advocated by citizens groups all new and rebuilt stations will be handicap accessible as required by state and federal law in two zero zero five the mitt romney administration announced a long range transportation plan that emphasized repair and maintenance over expansion projects underway construction is underway on a commuter rail line to greenbush the third branch of the old colony service several stations on the blue line are being rebuilt to allow six car trains new cars are on order the charles street red line station is being rebuilt a new station at t f green airport in rhode island that will allow expansion of mbta commuter rail to that airport and beyond funded in two zero zero five federal highway bill work is expected to begin in spring two zero zero six big dig remediation projects massachusetts agreed to build several transit projects as remediation for the environmental impacts of the big dig some have been completed but three have not been started and many believe the commonwealth is trying to renege on these commitments extending the green line north beyond lechmere partially along commuter rail rights of way to tufts university and union square somerville connecting the blue line and the red line at charles street restoration of arborway streetcar service in jamaica plain the last two projects are controversial owners of historic building near charles street have expressed concerns that the excavation required might damage their foundations and many jamaica plain residents object to the restoration of streetcar service which would create traffic snares on busy main thoroughfares and be accompanied by the probable elimination of on street parking in an area with no garages or large parking lots in late two zero zero five the mbta proposed moving forward on the green line northward extension but replacing the other two projects with increased service and new stations on the fairmount line originally a community originated proposal called the indigo line and building an additional one zero zero zero commuter rail parking spaces planning and work on some fairmount modifications has begun the massachusetts department of environmental protection agreed to this plan and public comment was taken from november two zero zero five to january two zero zero six other projects in active planning a new commuter rail line to fall river and new bedford extension of the blue line to lynn capacity improvements on the framingham worcester line projects whose future is uncertain silver line phase three a tunnel connecting south station with the silver line phase i brt service to dudley square roxbury project on hold as of august two zero zero five connecting north station and south station the north south rail link extension of commuter rail from providence to wickford junction rhode island extension of commuter rail to new hampshire urban ring see also list of rapid transit systems boston transportation mbta accessibility external links mbta official site mbta riders network arborway committee streetcar advocates badtransit an mbta transit watchdog site the transport avenger the lowdown on the t and the myriad of problems with operations and staff netransit history nycsubway org boston transit the mbta station by station history and photographs mbta vehicle inventory interactive subway map the future mbta maps and ideas of what the mbta could look like in the future references changes to transit service in the mbta district pdf boston area public transportation intermodal transportation authorities massachusetts railroads bus transit in particle physics a meson is a strongly interacting boson that is it is a hadron with integral spin in the standard model mesons are composite non elementary particles composed of an even number of quarks and antiquarks until the discovery of the tetraquark all known mesons were believed to consist of a quark antiquark pair the so called valence quarks plus a sea of virtual quark antiquark pairs and virtual gluons the valence quarks may exist in a superposition of flavor states for example the neutral pion is neither an up antiup pair nor a down antidown pair but an equal superposition of both pseudoscalar mesons spin zero have the lowest rest energy where the quark and antiquark have opposite spin and then the vector mesons spin one where the quark and antiquark have parallel spin both come in higher energy versions where the spin is augmented by orbital angular momentum most of a meson s mass comes from binding energy rather than the sum of the mass of its components all mesons are unstable mesons were originally predicted as carriers of the force that bind protons and neutrons together when first discovered the muon was identified with this family from its similar mass and was named mu meson however it did not show a strong attraction to nuclear matter and is actually a lepton the pion was the first true meson to be discovered the current picture of intranuclear forces is quite complicated see quantum hadrodynamics for a discussion of modern theories in which nucleon nucleon interactions are mediated by meson exchange yukawa was awarded nobel prize in physics for this he originally named it mesotron but was famously corrected by werner heisenberg whose father was a professor in greek at university of munich that there is no tr in the greek word mesos naming of the mesons the name of a meson is devised so that its main properties can be inferred conversely given a meson s properties its name is clearly determined the naming conventions fall in two categories depending on whether the meson has a flavor or not flavorless mesons flavorless mesons are mesons whose flavor quantum numbers are all equal to zero this means that these quarks are quarkonium states quark antiquark pairs of the same flavor or a linear superposition of such states the name of a flavorless meson is determined by its total spin s and total orbital angular momentum l as a meson is composed of two quarks with s one two the total spin can only be s one parallel spins or s zero anti parallel spins the orbital quantum number l is due to the revolution of one quark around the other usually higher orbital angular momenta translate into a higher mass for the meson these two quantum numbers determine the parity p and the charge conjugation parity c of the meson p one l one c one l s also l and s add together to form a total angular momentum quantum number j whose values range from l s to l s in one unit steps the different possibilities are summarized with the use of the term symbol two s one l j a letter code is used instead of the actual value of l see the spectroscopic notation and the symbol j pc here only the sign is used for p and c the different possibilities and the corresponding meson symbol are given in the following table jpc zero two one three one two zero one quark composition two s one l j one s d j one p f j three s d j three p f j u bar d mboxu bar u d bar d mboxd bar u i one b a u bar u d bar d mboxs bar s i zero h h phi f f c bar c i zero c h c c b bar b i zero b hb b notes note that some combinations are forbidden zero zero one two three first row form isospin triplets zero etc second row contains pairs of elements is supposed to be a s bar s state and a u bar u d bar d state on the other cases it is not known the exact composition so a prime is used to distinguish the two forms for historical reasons one three s one form of is called j the bottomonium state symbol is a capital upsilon may be rendered as a capital y depending of the font browser the normal spin parity series is formed by those mesons were p one j in the normal series s one so pc one i e p c this corresponds to some of the triplet states triplet states appear on the last two columns since some of these symbols can refer to more than one particle some extra rules are added in this scheme particles with j p zero are known as pseudoscalars and mesons with j p one are called vectors for particles other than those the number j is added as a subindex a zero a one c one etc for most of and states is common to include the spectroscopic information one s two s the first number is the principal quantum number and the letter is the spectroscopic notation for l multiplicity is omitted since is implied by the symbol and j appears as a subindex when needed b two one p if the spectroscopic information is not available the mass is used instead nine four six zero the naming scheme does not differentiate between pure quark states and gluonium states so gluonium states follow the same naming scheme however exotic mesons with forbidden quantum numbers j pc zero zero one two three would use the same convention as the meson with identical j p numbers but adding a j subindex a meson with isospin zero and j pc one would be denoted one when the quantum numbers of a particle are unknown it is designated with an x followed by its mass in parentheses flavored mesons for flavored mesons the naming scheme is a little simpler one the meson name is given by the heaviest of the two quarks from more to less massive the order is t b c s d u however u and d do not carry any flavor so they do not influence the naming scheme quark t never forms hadrons but a symbol for t containing mesons is reserved anyway note the fact that for s and b quarks we get an antiparticle symbol this is because it is adopted the convention that flavor charge and electric charge must agree in sign this is also true for the third component of isospin quark up has positive i three and charge quark down has negative charge and i three the effect of that is any flavor of a charged meson has the same sign than the meson s electric charge two if the second quark has also flavor it is not u or d then the identity of that second quark is given by a subindex s c or b and in theory t three add a superindex if the meson is in the normal spin parity series i e j p zero one two four for mesons other than pseudoscalars zero and vectors one the total angular momentum quantum number j is added as a subindex to sum it up we have align center d align center bar bu bar bd align center style border right two px solid windowtext one two align center b j align center b j align center bar bs align center style border right two px solid windowtext zero align center b align center b align center style border bottom two px solid windowtext bar bc align center style border bottom two px solid windowtext border right two px solid windowtext zero align center style border bottom two px solid windowtext b align center style border bottom two px solid windowtext b j is omitted for zero and one in some cases particles can mix between them for example the neutral kaon k zero bar sd and its antiparticle bar k zero s bar d can combine in a symmetric or antisymmetric manner originating two new particles the short lived and the long lived neutral kaons k zero s begin end k zero bar k zero k zero l begin end k zero bar k zero neglecting a small cp violating term see also list of mesons list of particles quark model external links a table of some mesons and their properties authoritative information on particle properties is compiled by the particle data group http pdg lbl gov hep ph zero two one one four one one the light scalar mesons within quark models naming scheme for hadrons a pdf file mesons the marvel super heroes msh rpg is a role playing game set in the marvel universe first published by tsr under license from marvel comics in one nine eight four in one nine eight six tsr published an expanded edition entitled the marvel super heroes advanced game both editions were written by jeff grubb and both use essentially the same game system the basic game was designed to let players assume the roles of superheroes from marvel comics such as spider man the hulk captain america the fantastic four the x men and many others the simplest version found in the one six page battle book of the basic set contains a bare bones combat system sufficient to resolve comic book style superheroic fights system almost all game mechanics are resolved by rolling percentile dice and comparing the results against a single table the colorful universal results table different tasks are resolved by reference to different attributes all characters have seven basic attributes fighting agility strength endurance reason intuition and psyche fighting naturally is the attribute used to resolve hand to hand combat whereas reason is used to resolve say building a gadget or figuring out a puzzle attribute scores for the vast majority of characters range from one to one zero zero where normal human ability is six and peak non superheroic human ability is three zero however the designers minimize use of the numerical figures instead preferring colorful adjectives in the marvel comics tradition such as incredible scores from three six four five and amazing four six six two a typical five seven attribute has a five zero base chance for success at most tasks relating to that attribute so e g a character with typical fighting skill has a base five zero of connecting with a punch as an attribute increases the chance of success increases roughly by five per one zero points thus a character with an amazing five zero attribute has a seven five chance of success at tasks relating to that attribute many situational factors can affect these base chances e g the target of a punch might attempt to dodge in which case if the dodger makes a successful roll against his or her agility the attacker s chance of hitting is decreased by one zero three zero additionally the higher the roll the greater the success a roll three zero higher than the minimum needed for success usually yields a special beneficial result for example a roll of eight one for our typical puncher results in not merely a punch but a slam which can knock down the opponent such special successes were referred to as yellow or red results reflecting the colors used on the game s universal results table additional rules in the campaign book of the basic set and the subsequent advanced set used the same game mechanic to resolve non violent tasks for example if a superhero needs to figure out how to operate a piece of alien technology the hero would have to succeed at a reason roll where the chance of success is modified by the complexity of the device the basic system also allowed players to increase their chances of success at most tasks by expending points of karma a pool of points initially determined as the sum of a character s three mental attributes reason intuition and psyche for example a player who wanted to make sure he would hit a villain in a critical situation could spend however many karma points were necessary to raise the dice roll to the desired result additional karma points were distributed by the referee at the end of game sessions typically as rewards for accomplishing heroic goals such as defeating villains saving innocents and foiling crimes likewise karma could be lost for unheroic actions such as fleeing from a villain or failing to stop a crime in fact in a notable departure from many rpgs but strongly in keeping with the genre all karma was lost if a hero killed someone or allowed someone to die in the advanced game karma points could also be spent to permanently increase character attributes and powers albeit at a steep cost typically one zero zero karma points to increase an attribute by one point the karma system thus united two rpg mechanics action or hero points which allow players to control random outcomes and character advancement e g experience points in one system though this system could frustrate both referees and players the former because a player willing and able to spend karma could effectively overcome any challenge at least once the latter because advancement was glacially slow compared with most other rpgs it had the virtue of emulating two central features of super hero comics namely that heroes almost always win even in highly improbable circumstances and that heroes power levels remain mostly static beyond the seven attributes characters possessed superpowers such as spider man s wall crawling or mister fantastic s elasticity the powers function on a mostly ad hoc basis and thus each character s description gives considerable space to a description of how his or her powers work in the game each character had an origin which put ceilings on a character s abilities and superpowers the origins included altered humans normal people who acquired powers such as spider man or the fantastic four high tech wonders normal people whose powers come from devices e g iron man mutants persons born with superpowers such as the x men robots created beings such as the vision and ultron and aliens a blanket term used to cover non humans including extra dimensional beings such as thor and hercules the game also featured a simple skill system referred to as talents talents had to be learned and covered a wide range of knowledges from archery to zoology a talent raised a character s ability by one rank when attempting actions related to that talent for example a character uses his agility score when attempting ranged attacks a character with an agility of excellent would normally roll on that column when attacking with a rifle however if he had the guns talent he would treat his agility as the next higher power rank remarkable the referee was free to determine if a character would be unable to attempt an action without the appropriate talent such as a character with no medical background attempting to make a pill that can cure a rare disease characters also had two variable attributes resources and popularity these attributes were described using the same terms as the character s seven attributes poor amazing unearthly etc but unlike the seven physical and mental attributes which changed very slowly if at all resources and popularity could change very quickly the first of the variables resources represented the character s wealth and ability to obtain goods or services rather than have the player keep track of how much money the character had in the bank or with him the game assumed the character had enough money coming in to cover his basic living expenses the resources ability was used when the character wished to purchase something out of the ordinary like a new car or house for example the referee might decide a character with typical resources would probably be unable to purchase a brand new sports car but with a yellow resources roll might be able to afford a used car in good condition the game books note that a character s resources score can change for a variety of reasons such as winning the lottery or having a major business transaction go bad the second variable popularity reflected how much the character was liked or disliked in the marvel universe popularity could be used to influence non player characters a superhero with a high rating like captain america might be able to use his popularity to gain entrance to a club because the general poplation of the marvel universe admires him if he were to try the same thing as his secret identity steve rogers whose popularity is only typical he would probably be unable to do it villains also had a popularity score which was usually negative a bouncer might let doctor doom or magneto into the aforementioned club simply out of fear there were several ways popularity could change for example if doctor doom defeated spider man in front of the general public spidey s popularity would go down for a short time but if everyone s favorite web slinger managed to foil one of doctor doom s plans and the word got out he would enjoy a temporary popularity boost since mutants were generally feared and distrusted in the marvel universe these characters start with a popularity of zero and have a hard time improving this attribute the game was intended to be played using existing marvel characters as the heroes the basic and advanced sets both contained fairly simple systems for creating original superheroes based on random ability rolls a la dungeons storyteller type mechanics since the initial publication a few additional supplements have been published by marvel comics however the new game fared poorly in the market and marvel stopped supporting the game a little over a year after its initial release unofficial fan supplements of the older marvel super heroes rpg from tsr may be found online external links marvel rpg net the marvel phile marvel rpg source tsr superhero role playing games marvel comics games in mathematics a measure is a function that assigns a number e g a size volume or probability to subsets of a given set the concept has developed in connection with a desire to carry out integration over arbitrary sets rather than on an interval as traditionally done and is important in mathematical analysis and probability theory measure theory is that branch of real analysis which investigates algebras measures measurable functions and integrals it is of importance in probability and statistics formal definition formally a measure is a function defined on a algebra over a set x with values in the extended interval zero such that the following properties are satisfied the empty set has measure zero mu varnothing zero countable additivity or additivity if e one e two e three is a countable sequence of pairwise disjoint sets in mu left bigcup infty e i right sum infty mu e i the triple x is then called a measure space and the members of are called measurable sets properties several further properties can be derived from the definition of a countably additive measure monotonicity is monotonic if e one and e two are measurable sets with e one e two then e one e two measures of infinite unions of measurable sets if e one e two e three is a countable sequence of sets in then mu left bigcup infty e i right le sum infty mu e i if e one e two e three are measurable sets and e n is a subset of e n one for all n then the union of the sets e n is measurable and mu left bigcup infty e i right lim mu e i measures of infinite intersections of measurable sets if e one e two e three are measurable sets and e n one is a subset of e n for all n then the intersection of the sets e n is measurable furthermore if at least one of the e n has finite measure then mu left bigcap infty e i right lim mu e i this property is false without the assumption that at least one of the e n has finite measure for instance for each n n let e n n infty subseteq mathbb which all have infinite measure but the intersection is empty sigma finite measures a measure space x is called finite if x is a finite real number rather than it is called finite if x is the countable union of measurable sets of finite measure a set in a measure space has finite measure if it is a union of sets with finite measure for example the real numbers with the standard lebesgue measure are finite but not finite consider the closed intervals k k one for all integers k there are countably many such intervals each has measure one and their union is the entire real line alternatively consider the real numbers with the counting measure which assigns to each finite set of reals the number of points in the set this measure space is not finite because every set with finite measure contains only finitely many points and it would take uncountably many such sets to cover the entire real line the finite measure spaces have some very convenient properties finiteness can be compared in this respect to separability of topological spaces completeness a measurable set x is called a null set if x zero a subset of a null set is called a negligible set a negligible need not be measurable but every measurable negligible set is automatically a null set a measure is called complete if every negligible set is measurable a measure can be extended to a complete one by considering the algebra of subsets y which differ by a negligible set from a measurable set x that is such that the symmetric difference of x and y is contained in a null set one defines y to equal x examples some important measures are listed here the counting measure is defined by x number of elements in x the lebesgue measure is the unique complete translation invariant measure on a algebra containing the intervals in r such that zero one one circular angle measure is invariant under rotation the haar measure for a locally compact topological group is a generalization of the lebesgue measure and has a similar uniqueness property the zero measure is defined by x zero for all x every probability space gives rise to a measure which takes the value one on the whole space and therefore takes all its values in the unit interval zero one such a measure is called a probability measure see probability axioms other measures include borel measure jordan measure ergodic measure euler measure gauss measure baire measure radon measure counterexamples not all sets are measurable examples of sets that do not have a measure or that result in paradoxes include the vitali set the hausdorff paradox and the banach tarski paradox the concept of non measurability is developed further in the article on non measurable sets generalizations for certain purposes it is useful to have a measure whose values are not restricted to the non negative reals or infinity for instance a countably additive set function with values in the signed real numbers is called a signed measure while such a function with values in the complex numbers is called a complex measure a measure that takes values in a banach space is called a spectral measure these are used mainly in functional analysis for the spectral theorem when it is necessary to distinguish the usual measures which take non negative values from generalizations the term positive measure is used another generalization is the finitely additive measure this is the same as a measure except that instead of requiring countable additivity we require only finite additivity historically this definition was used first but proved to be not so useful it turns out that in general finitely additive measures are connected with notions such as banach limits the dual of l and the stone ech compactification all these are linked in one way or another to the axiom of choice the remarkable result in integral geometry known as hadwiger s theorem states that the space of translation invariant finitely additive not necessarily nonnegative set functions defined on finite unions of compact convex sets in r n consists up to scalar multiples of one measure that is homogeneous of degree k for each k zero one two n and linear combinations of those measures homogeneous of degree k means that rescaling any set by any factor c zero multiplies the set s measure by ck the one that is homogeneous of degree n is the ordinary n dimensional volume the one that is homogeneous of degree n one is the surface volume the one that is homogeneous of degree one is a mysterious function called the mean width a misnomer the one that is homogeneous of degree zero is the euler characteristic see also outer measure hausdorff measure product measure almost everywhere lebesgue integration lebesgue measure caratheodory extension theorem references p halmos measure theory d van nostrand and co one nine five zero m e munroe introduction to measure and integration addison wesley one nine five three r m dudley real analysis and probability cambridge university press two zero zero two d h fremlin measure theory torres fremlin two zero zero zero available online at http www essex ac uk maths staff fremlin mt htm measure theory imme r one zero zero germany one nine four eight one nine four nine a one two five cc motorcycle the italian manufactured cagiva planet motocross racing bikes a motorcycle is a two wheeled vehicle powered by an engine the wheels are in line and at higher speed the motorcycle remains upright and stable by virtue of gyroscopic forces at lower speeds continual readjustment of the steering by the rider gives stability the rider sits the vehicle on a seat with hands on a set of handlebars which are used to steer the motorcycle in conjunction with the rider shifting his weight through his feet which are supported on a set of footpegs which stick out from the frame history replica of daimler maybach reitwagen the inspiration for the earliest motorcycles and arguably the first motorcycle was designed and built by the german inventors gottlieb daimler and wilhelm maybach in cannstatt since one nine zero five a city district of stuttgart in one eight eight five it was the first petroleum powered vehicle ever but for the provision of a pair of stabilizing wheels a motorized bicycle although they called their invention the reitwagen riding car they had not set out to create a vehicle form but to build a simple carriage for the engine which was the focus of their endeavours however if one counts two wheels with steam propulsion as being a motorcycle then the first one may have been american one such machine was demonstrated at fairs and circuses in the eastern us in one eight six seven built by one sylvester howard roper of roxbury massachusetts there is an existing example of a roper machine dated one eight six nine it s powered by a charcoal fired two cylinder engine whose connecting rods directly drive a crank on the rear wheel this machine predates the invention of the safety bicycle by many years so its chassis is also based on the bone crusher bike in one eight nine four the hildebrand hack there are other three wheeled variations commonly referred to as a trike or motortricycle motorcycle manufacturers often also produce all terrain vehicles or atvs these have two or more back wheels usually two front wheels an open driver s seat and a motorcycle type handlebar early models had a single front wheel but these were prone to rollovers atvs are used off road for utility and recreation however a proper motorcycle has fewer than four wheels in contact with the ground riding position modern motorcycle riding positions are evolutions of horse riding saddles the riding position of american style cruisers and choppers evolved from the saddle and riding position used by western cowboys see western saddle this position allows greater long distance comfort with some compromise of control in contrast sportbikes standards and dirtbikes derive their seating position from the more sporting oriented english saddle chassis a british motorcycle from one nine six six the two five zero cc ariel leader the chassis or frame of a motorcycle is typically made from welded aluminium or steel or an alloy struts with the rear suspension being an integral component in the design carbon fiber is used in a few very expensive custom frames some motorcycles include the engine as a load bearing or stressed member this has been used all through bike history but is now becoming more common the fuel tank is usually mounted above the engine this tank is generally made of stamped brazed or welded sheet metal or blow molded high density polyethylene at least one motorcycle manufacturer buell offer models that use a hollow frame as the fuel tank and various manufacturers offer designs which use part of the frame as an oil reservoir the wheel rims are usually steel generally with steel spokes and an aluminium hub or mag type cast or machined aluminum performance racing motorcycles often use carbon fiber wheels but the expense of these wheels is prohibitively high for general usage a plastic or fiberglass shell known as a fairing is placed over the frame in some models to shield the rider from the wind drag is the major factor that limits motorcycle speed as it increases at the square of the velocity with the resultant required horsepower increasing with the cube of velocity as can be seen from the streamlined appearance of new performance motorcycles there is much aerodynamic technology included in the design but unfortunately no one has been able to overcome the effect from the turbulence caused by the spinning front wheel which disallows the motorcycle from cutting a clean path through the air another problem is the fact that no designs have been discovered that can improve aerodynamic performance without unacceptably compromising the rider s ability to control the machine in the absence of a fairing or windshield a phenomenon known as the windsock effect occurs at speeds above one zero zero km h where the rider becomes a major source of drag and is pushed back from the handlebars tiring the rider however these motorcycles still effectively push their way through the atmosphere with brute force cabin cycle solved the problem of aerodynamics by isolating driver from outside air chassis stability sportbike ducati nine one six there could be three kinds of stability problems with motorbikes capsizing is well known in low speeds and easy to overcome by the rider using their feet to support themselves wobbling avi movie is a high frequency seven nine hz oscillation of the front wheel it is often relatively harmless but annoying and quite frightening if previously inexperienced it can appear at moderate speeds weaving avi movie is a low frequency two three hz oscillation of the whole vehicle it can become unstable at higher speeds with fatal results based on the control and stability analysis of two wheeled road vehicles the weave oscillations damp out once the rider reduced the roll angle tire characteristics and inflation pressures are important variables in the behaviour of the motorcycle at high speeds from a stability point of view it is desirable to make the lateral stiffness as large as possible with the possibility of an optimum value for the torsional stiffness of the rear frame common levels of lateral stiffness at the wheel spindle deteriorates the wobble mode damping substantially with significant changes in the wobble frequency as well and slight reduction in the weave mode damping at high speeds lateral distortion should be opposed as much as possible by locating the front fork torsional axis as low as possible the largest contribution to the weave damping came from the cornering and camber stiffnesses and relaxation length of the rear tyre and not so much from the same parameters of the front tyre amongst others stiff frames a long wheelbase a long trail and a flat steering head angle were found to increase weave mode damping degraded damping of the rear suspension rear loading and increased speed amplifies cornering weave tendencies rear load assemblies with appropriate stiffness and damping were successful in damping out weave and wobble oscillations motorcyclists on a honda cb six zero zero f hornet suspension modern designs have the two wheels of a motorcycle connected to the chassis by a suspension arrangement however chopper style motorcycles often elect to forego rear suspension rigid frame the front suspension generally consists of sliding steel tubes with long springs inside called forks which use hydraulic fluid for damping shock absorbers the front fork is the most critical part of a motorcycle the angle of rake determines how controllable the steering is the rake should be chosen so that precessive force from countersteer and body steering slightly overbalance the leaning forces from the weight of the bike at a speed near the running speed of a person this is the speed at which the rider s feet can no longer be safely used to balance the bike the rear suspension supports the swingarm which is attached via the swingarm pivot bolt to the frame and holds the axle of the rear wheel the rear suspension can consist of several shock arrangements dual shocks which are placed at the far ends of the swingarm traditional monoshock which is placed at the front of the swingarm above the swingarm pivot bolt softail style monoshock which is mounted horizontally in front of the swingarm below the swingarm pivot bolt brakes there are generally two independent brakes on a motorcycle one set on the front wheel controlled by the right hand lever and one on the rear controlled by the right foot in older motorcycles the rear may be on the left foot however several models have linked brakes which apply both at the same time although one more than the other the front brake is generally much more powerful than the rear as roughly two three rds of stopping power can come from the front brake when properly applied and in some cases one zero zero depending on the model of motorcycle and operator rear wheels can generally lock and skid much more easily than the front due to weight distribution dynamics brakes can either be drum or disc based with disc brakes being more common on large modern or expensive motorcycles for their far superior stopping power particularly in wet conditions there are many brake performance enhancing aftermarket parts available for most motorcycles including brake pads of varying compounds and steel braided brake lines some manufacturers have created antilock braking systems abs in virtually all cases seven zero to nine zero of total braking force should be applied by the front brake when operated on a hard surface such as tarmac with the remainder being simultaneously applied to the rear brake riders fear that aggressive use of the front brake will stop rotation of the tire and cause loss of control or a skid and therefore often fail to use the front brake to its full potential another common misconception is that application of the rear brake will cause motorcycle instability the phenomenon known as a stoppie may only be achieved if the front brake is used aggressively with no application of the rear brake if sufficient force is applied to the front brake the rear of the motorcycle chassis will lift off the roadway while the bike continues to move forward on the still rotating front wheel this is a highly skilled and generally illegal maneuver which requires practice to perfect trailbraking is a term used to describe carrying the braking action of a vehicle past the turn entry allowing the rider to adjust speed all the way through a turn to the apex another variation of brake use can be seen at top level motorcycle roadracing and motorcross events the technique of steering the motorcycle in a high speed turn or lower speeds on a dirt course using the rear brake is called backing it in or turning on dirt racers while hard on the front brake will feather the rear brake just enough to start a controlled rear slide thus rendering a sharper turn angle note this technique is not recommended for public road use engine motorcycles have over time been powered by an extraordinary array of engines from very early models powered by steam to the ubiquitous gasoline engines of today transmission the transmission is controlled by a clutch lever under the left hand in standard configurations a twistgrip throttle on the right handlebar and a gear lever at the left foot the gear lever operates by shifting gears when it is pressed or lifted a normal street motorcycle is put in first gear by pressing the gear lever while second and all further gears are reached by lifting it downshifting is done by pressing the gear lever neutral sits between first gear and second so a small lift out of first causes the gearbox to change into neutral but a large movement causes the gearbox to change into second gear in contrast racing motorcycles have all gears arranged below the first gear thus pressing the gear lever always shifts up while lifting it shifts down modern motorcycles normally have five or six forward gears only the largest touring motorcycles most prominently the honda goldwing and a few models that are routinely used with a sidecar are fitted with a reverse gear the clutch is typically an arrangement of plates stacked in alternating fashion one geared on the inside to the engine and next geared on the outside to the transmission input shaft whether wet rotating in engine oil or dry the plates are squeezed together by a spring causing friction buildup between the plates until they rotate as a single unit driving the transmission directly a lever on the handlebar through a cable or hydraulic arrangement uses mechanical advantage to release the clutch spring allowing the engine to freewheel with respect to the transmission the most commonly used transmission is a sequential gearbox from neutral you may select either first or second gear but higher gears may only be accessed in order you may not shift from second gear to fourth gear without shifting through third gear internally a rotating cam on the shift lever operates cogs on two counter rotating shafts carrying a variety of gears one shaft is geared to the final drive mechanism and the other to the clutch operating the shift lever slides individual gears on one shaft to intersect with a matching gear on the other the small mass of the whole arrangement allows for extremely quick gear changes also gear synchronizers typically found in passenger cars with manual transmissions are not necessary the two shafts are always geared together except in neutral always spinning at a speed nearly approximating the next higher or lower gear ratio aided by beveled edges on the gears shifting gears is simple for novices no double clutching or grinding of gears advanced drivers can perform full throttle upshifts on racing mounts but this risks both the warranty and mechanical integrity final drive from the gearbox to the rear wheel is typically accomplished with a chain which requires both lubrication and adjustment for elongation stretch through wear the lubricant is subject to being thrown off the fast moving chain and results in grime and dirt buildup chains do deteriorate and excessive wear on the front and rear sprockets can be dangerous many motorcyclists replace the chain and both sprockets as a set to maintain efficiency and safety many manufacturers offer cruiser models with final drive options of a belt or a shaft a belt drive is still subject to stretch but operates very quietly cleanly and efficiently however belt drives are limited in the amount of power they can transmit the belt is frequently toothed a shaft drive is completely enclosed the visual cue is a tube extending from the rear of the transmission to a bell housing on the rear wheel inside the bell housing a bevelled gear on the shaft mates with another on the wheel mount this arrangement is superior in terms of noise cleanliness and is virtually maintenance free however the additional gearsets are a source of power loss and add to bike weight tires motorcycles use pneumatic tires tyres in the uk which come in many configurations the most important part of any being the contact patch that is the small area that is in contact with the road surface while riding there are tires designed for dirtbikes touring sport and cruiser bikes dirtbike tires have knobby deep treads for maximum grip on loose dirt mud or gravel such tires tend to be less stable on paved surfaces touring tires are usually harder rubber and last longer but provide less grip significantly less grip while cold and the heavier rubber takes longer to warm up while sport performance tires provide amazing grip but may only last one zero zero zero miles one six zero zero km or less cruisers and sport touring tires try to find the best compromise between grip and durability some cruiser tires have raised white lettering on the sidewalls as a retro detail tires should be maintained at the proper air pressure at all times tire pressure is critical the difference of a few psi can have a dramatic impact on the handling and longevity of the tire tires usually have an average life expectancy of about four to five years from date of manufacture as mentioned above mileage is also a factor with many street tires having a service life between three zero zero zero and one zero zero zero zero miles small cracks on the sidewall or bald spots on the tread are an indicators of the need to replace the tire motorcycle tires can also be found in race compounds however race compound tires should not be used in street applications race compounds are designed specifically for the short life and few heat cycles of a race environment where street tires are designed for multiple heat cycles and use in a street environment in most cases street riders will actually achieve higher levels of performance using street tires than race compounds if a tire loses grip or goes flat the rider may crash and make contact in a rather forceful and very possibly a painful manner with the road or other obstacles the motorcyclist must therefore consider proper motorcycle attire such as helmet full face providing the most protection gloves boots and leather or synthetic protective clothing wearing a t shirt shorts and sandals on a motorcycle is not advised the use of an approved helmet is required by law in many countries or individual localities therein performance motocross racing bike the most efficient way to improve the handling and speed of a motorcycle is via increased operator skill by attending riding schools and increasing rider education levels a motorcyclist will be able to ride more skillfully and thus more safely even experienced riders can benefit from top level instructors helping to fine tune their skills as well as the opportunity to practice crash avoidance techniques in a more controlled environment and without risking one s own motorcycle the next most common cause of loss of speed is one of the easiest to remedy rolling resistance the right tires kept at the proper pressure will contribute to both speed and safety on the engine keep the air filter and drive chain or drive belt clean use high quality lubricants and fuel with precisely tuned spark plugs air fuel mixture and timing this is obvious but often neglected engine modifications can yield appreciable performance improvements but this is often costly and very time consuming improper attempts at tuning can yield benefits in one particular part of an engine s power band while impairing performance everywhere else provoking a net loss of power or handling blueprinting or meticulous restoration of an engine to or beyond factory tolerances can help to improve an engine s efficiency and restore power that would otherwise be lost enlarging cylinder head ports while common practice amongst many tuners is often unnecessary unless a big bore kit has been fitted to the extent that many engines benefit from decreasing the volume in the cylinder head done correctly this increases the velocity of the fuel air mixture entering the cylinder packing more mixture in per revolution more usable improvements can be had by improving and upgrading suspension components suspension is typically the one element of the motorcycle that will receive the least amount of engineering attention from the factory replacing stock shocks and fork springs as well as changing damping and valving rates will result in dramatic improvements in motorcycle stability and increased speed and rider confidence as a result another way to increase performance is to install a tuned exhaust system this helps evacuate the exhaust from the engine more rapidly and permits a longer power stroke however many modern production bikes already have tuned exhausts a custom tuned exhaust will often operate only at a narrower range of engine rpm and therefore more suited to more specialised applications usually racing road or drag aftermarket exhaust systems are usually louder by varying degrees than stock systems most countries have limits on how much noise can legally be produced by vehicles however this usually does not deter motorcyclists from fitting louder exhaust systems there is even a school of thought that louder systems are safer as they attract the attention of car drivers who might otherwise have failed to notice the motorcyclist one of the most effective ways of increasing power is forced induction turbochargers are generally more effective than superchargers because turbos spin using the exhaust gases while a supercharger uses engine power to spin it directly usually via a belt system robbing power since more air is being forced into the engine the air fuel ratio must be changed to prevent the engine from running lean and potentially destroying itself on low boost settings the turbocharger can increase power and fuel range engine internals such as pistons and connecting rods must be replaced with stronger ones for all but the smallest boost in addition the compression ratio must be considered and adjusted accordingly as an overboosted engine will destroy itself as well however due to the special motorcycle dynamics turbochargers are rarely used on production bikes with great care an engine can be helped to sprint by injecting small amounts of nitrous oxide n two o the main benefits of nitrous oxide are three fold more oxygen is introduced into an engine s combustion chamber as nitrous oxide is stored in liquid form it is still very cold when it evaporates and is mixed with fuel this chilling effect raises the density of the mixture packing more fuel and oxygen into the combustion chamber this colder mixture helps to keep the engine running cooler which is very useful as nitrous oxide is almost exclusively used in stressful high rpm situations primarily drag racing engines using large amounts of nitrous oxide need precise mixtures and or configurable timing and carburation it s very easy to blow the head gaskets or burn the valves of the engine with careless nitrous oxide injection using methods like nitrous oxide are fine on dragstrips but while not illegal can be very dangerous on the street in any case a canister of nitrous oxide is rapidly expended and impractical for sustained use on a road going bike instruments almost all motorcycles have a speedometer an odometer and a tachometer fuel gauges are becoming more common however traditionally a reserve tank arrangement has been used with a petcock on the side of the motorcycle allowing the rider to switch to a reserve fuel supply when the main fuel supply is exhausted this is typically done while the vehicle is in motion there is not actually a separate reserve tank the intake for the petcock has two pipes one extending higher into the fuel tank than the other when fuel no longer covers the long pipe the rider switches to the shorter pipe riders without a fuel gauge usually learn how many miles km they can go with a full tank of fuel and then use a trip meter if available to judge when they must refill the tank motorcycle types motorcycles have been built in myriad different models for innumerable different purposes for a complete discussion of contemporary motorcycle types see the main article types of motorcycle safety motorcycles have a far higher rate of crippling and fatal accidents per unit distance than automobiles according to the us highway safety authority in two zero zero two two zero nine cars out of one zero zero zero zero zero ended up in fatal crashes the rate for motorcycles is six six seven per one zero zero zero zero zero given that motorcycles cover less distance than cars per year on average the figure per unit distance is likely to be much worse most of these accident are caused by car drivers though who tend to underestimate the speed and acceleration of motorcycles or simply overlook them for a complete discussion see the main article motorcycle safety culture gangs and counter culture movements across the world and both past and present motorcycles have been associated with subcultures of society some of these subcultures have been loose knit social groups such as the cafe racers of one nine five zero s britain and the mods and rockers of the one nine six zero s others are purportedly fraternal organizations the most well known of these being the hells angels most motorcycle organizations have law abiding and peaceful members and many raise money for charities through organized events and rides risk taking motorcycles are typically more agile can accelerate more quickly and are generally perceived to be more fun to ride than an average car because of this they sometimes attract people typically but not exclusively young men with a propensity to take great risks or behave dangerously and anti socially these people contribute significantly to the fatality and injury rates of motorcyclists see also squid motorcycle hooligan the u s u k and europe are also seeing a surge in motorcycle ownership thanks in large part to an older demographic people in their four zero s and five zero s many of these riders are either new to the sport or have not been on a motorcycle for many years they would benefit from rider training as much or more so than any new rider a substantial increase in the number of riders regardless of age indicates a greater number of inexperienced riders who are more likely to be involved in accidents see born again biker it has been theorized based on data that humans have some innate need for risk the upsurge in extreme sports and hobbies coincides with the upsurge in workplace and home safety public perception in less developed nations motorcycles are often the only motorized transportation affordable to the majority of the population in much of the developed world motorcycles are thought of as a cheap and efficient means of transportation but they are tainted by a stereotype of riders as anti social and reckless even though the majority are safe and law abiding this is because the very small number of events where a non motorcyclist is offended by a motorcyclist perhaps by excess exhaust noise reckless behaviour or news reporting of a motorcycle gang incident are amplified in popular thought this phenomenon is known by sociologists as availability error and all minority groups in society tend to fall afoul of it in american speech the term biker has come to be associated with members of the gangs described above many of those who ride motorcycles prefer the more neutral terms rider or motorcyclist in australia and new zealand the word bikie is used instead of biker often motorcyclists just love the thrill of traveling the world on the back of a bike in an article called arizona road trip fulfills lifelong dream a massachusetts man travels all over arizona on a harley davidson dyna low rider and explains the joy of his trip he encourages more people to engage in such an experience clannishness and brand loyalty like most minority cultures motorcyclists in developed countries stick together most cities have several bars and hangouts where riders congregate when riders pass each other in the opposite direction riders often wave or nod riders will sometimes stop and help if another rider has broken down within motorcycle culture people congregate around brand names type of bike and individual models brands there are many brands of motorcycles currently produced as well as vintage brands which can be found here list of motorcycle manufacturers clubs most manufacuturers subsidize a club to foster a sense of community between provide services to and make money from the owners of their bikes such clubs include boss hoss riders association yamaha owners club harley owners group hog riders of kawasaki rok honda owners club los angeles bike nights sportbike event suzuki intruder boulevard owners club groups also organise themselves to offer support and advice v four hondabbs katriders fjrforum southern california sport bike pictures east coast bikers forum wild pelicans long distance club the single overhead cam owners club dedicated to sohc four hondas the ducati monster list italian motorcycles and cars wheels of italy bmw motorrad has no national owners clubs but uniquely has many independent clubs in different countries such as bmw motorcycle owners of america bmwmoa and bmw riders association bmwra types many interest groups form around a particular type of riding or style of bike track racing sport bikes classic racing racing bikes from an earlier era street racing sport bikes cruising cruisers or motorcycles that resemble harley davidson models touring and motorcycle camping touring and dual sport bikes extreme distance events competitive long distance riding including iron butt events adventure touring dual sport bikes ontario dual sport club minibikes or pocket bikes as used in pocketbike racing rallies daytona bike week laconia motorcycle week port dover friday the one three th sturgis motorcycle rally parry sound sportbike rally see also american motorcyclist association list of motorcycle manufacturers list of honda motorcycles motorcycle racing motorcycle leathers helmet law defense league motorcycle helmet feet forwards motorcycle countersteering trailbraking chicken strips pillion rockers cafe racers supermoto motorcycles a map is a simplified depiction of a space a navigational aid which highlights relations between objects within that space most usually a map is a two dimensional geometrically accurate representation of a three dimensional space the science and art of map making is cartography see that page for further discussion of the history of maps and map making map making dates back to the stone age and appears to predate written language by several millennia one of the oldest surviving maps is painted on a wall of the catal huyuk settlement in south central anatolia now turkey it dates from about six two zero zero bc harvey two zero zero zero p one four two while we tend to think of maps today as products of a rationalistic scientific world view maps also have a mythic quality pre modern maps and mapping traditions outside the western tradition often merge geography with non scientific cosmography showing the relationship of the viewer to the universe medieval t o maps for example show jerusalem at the centre of the world and in some cases related the body of the earth to the body of christ by contrast navigational or portolan charts of the mediterranean from the same period are remarkably accurate even today maps can be powerful rhetorical tools beyond their purely practical value and this has been the source of much fruitful map criticism over the last twenty years notably in the works of j b harley mark monmonier and denis wood because maps are abstract representations of the world they are not neutral documents and must be carefully interpreted it is of course this abstraction that makes them useful lewis carroll made this point humorously in sylvie and bruno with his mention of a fictional map that had the scale of a mile to the mile a character notes some practical difficulties with this map and states that we now use the country itself as its own map and i assure you it does nearly as well this conceit is elaborated in a one paragraph story by jorge luis borges and adolfo bioy casares generally known in english as on exactitude in science road maps are perhaps the most widely used maps today and form a subset of navigational maps which also include aeronautical and nautical charts railroad network maps and hiking and bicycling maps in terms of quantity the largest number of drawn map sheets is probably made up by local surveys carried out by municipalities utilities tax assessors emergency services providers and other local agencies many national surveying projects have been carried out by the military such as the british ordnance survey now a civilian government agency internationally renowned for its comprehensively detailed work orientation of maps the hereford mappa mundi about one three zero zero hereford cathedral england a classic t o map with jerusalem at centre east toward the top europe the bottom left and africa on the right conventionally on most geometrically accurate maps text is upright when the map is oriented with the north up hence north is identified with the top of a sheet maps that don t put north at the top polar maps dymaxion maps some rectangular maps produced in australia show the south pole at the top to someone used to seeing the map the other way around this map may appear to be upside down these are primarily intended as novelty and tourist maps other modern maps put south on top generally either out of a sense of playful confusion or to make a political statement about the north south divide old maps of edo show the japanese imperial palace as the top but also at the centre of the map labels on the map are oriented in such a way that you cannot read them properly unless you put the imperial palace above your head medieval european t and o maps such as the hereford mappa mundi were centred on jerusalem with east at the top if a person is located at an identifiable point within the area of such a map then the map can be oriented in such a way that every point on the map lies in the same direction as the corresponding point in reality the practice of navigating in this way is orienteering for a vertically positioned map representing a horizontal area true orientation is not possible of course but it is sometimes approximated by putting the forward direction up occasionally a map is on a ceiling correctly showing directions in that case looking up we have in clockwise direction backward right forward and left if the map is prepared on a table to be attached to the ceiling then on the table it is a mirror image of a normal map if the map would be transparent one could prepare a normal map move it up without rotating it and thus look at the backside scale and accuracy many but not all maps are drawn to a scale allowing the reader to infer the actual sizes of and distances between depicted objects a larger scale shows more detail thus requiring a larger map to show the same area for example maps designed for the hiker are often scaled at the ratio one two four zero zero zero meaning that one of any unit of measurement on the map corresponds to two four zero zero zero of that same unit in reality while maps designed for the motorist are often scaled at one two five zero zero zero zero maps which use some quality other than physical area to determine relative size are called cartograms a famous example of a map without scale is the london underground map which best fulfils its purpose by being less physically accurate and more visually communicative to the hurried glance of the commuter this is not a cartogram since there is no consistent measure of distance but a topological map that also depicts approximate bearings the simple maps shown on some directional road signs are further examples of this kind in fact most commercial navigational maps such as road maps and town plans sacrifice an amount of accuracy in scale to deliver a greater visual usefulness to its user for example by exaggerating the width of roads with the end user similarly in mind cartographers will censor the content of the space depicted by a map in order provide a useful tool to that user for example a road map may or may not show railroads and if it does it may show them less clearly than highways world maps and projections map of large underwater features one nine nine five noaa maps of the world or large areas are often either political or physical the most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial borders the purpose of the physical is to show features of geography such as mountains soil type or land use geological maps show not only the physical surface but characteristics of the underlying rock fault lines and subsurface structures maps that depict the surface of the earth also use a projection a way of translating the three dimensional real surface of the geoid to a two dimensional picture perhaps the best known world map projection is the mercator projection originally designed as a form of nautical chart airplane pilots use aeronautical charts based on a lambert conformal conic projection in which a cone is laid over the section of the earth to be mapped the cone intersects the sphere the earth at one or two parallels which are chosen as standard lines this allows the pilots to plot a great circle route approximation on a flat two dimensional chart electronic maps a usgs digital raster graphic from the last quarter of the two zero th century the indispensable tool of the cartographer has been the computer much of cartography especially at the data gathering survey level has been subsumed by geographic information systems gis even when gis is not involved most cartographers now use a variety of computer graphics programs to generate new maps interactive computerised maps are commercially available allowing users to zoom in or zoom out respectively meaning to increase or decrease the scale sometimes by replacing one map with another of different scale centred where possible on the same point in car satellite navigation systems are computerised maps with route planning and advice facilities which monitor by satellite the position of the user from the computer scientist s standpoint zooming in entails one or a combination of replacing the map by a more detailed one enlarging the same map without enlarging the pixels hence show more detail enlarging the same map with the pixels enlarged replaced by rectangles of pixels no additional detail is shown but depending on the quality of one s vision possibly more detail can be seen if a computer display does not show adjacent pixels really separate but overlapping instead this does not apply for an lcd but may apply for a cathode ray tube then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail a variation of this method is that interpolation is performed for example typically two applies to a portable document format pdf file the increase in detail is of course limited to the information contained in the file enlargement of a curve may eventually result in a series of standard geometric figures such as straight lines or arcs of circles two may apply to text and three to the outline of a map feature such as a forest or building one may apply to the text displaying labels for more features while two applies to the rest of the image text is not necessarily enlarged when zooming in similarly a road represented by a double line may or may not become wider when one zooms in the map may also have layers which are partly raster graphics and partly vector graphics for a single raster graphics image two applies until the pixels in the image file correspond to the pixels of the display thereafter three applies the word map has also been used to describe places within video games such as socom ii u s navy seals and counter strike that players choose to compete on as a synonym for level see also webpage graphics pdf layers mapquest google maps google earth or yahoo maps references david buisseret ed monarchs ministers and maps the emergence of cartography as a tool of government in early modern europe chicago university of chicago press one nine nine two isbn zero two two six zero seven nine eight seven two miles harvey the island of lost maps a true story of cartographic crime new york random house two zero zero zero isbn zero seven six seven nine zero eight two six zero cited above also isbn zero three seven five five zero one five one seven mark monmonier how to lie with maps isbn zero two two six five three four two one nine o connor j j and e f robertson the history of cartography scotland st andrews university two zero zero two http www gap dcs st and ac uk history histtopics cartography html see also general cartography geography atlas map design and types map design world map topographic map geologic map dymaxion map roadmap navigation map cartogram plat floor plan planform modern maps maps of the uk and ireland maps of the united states google maps japanese map symbols map history george bradshaw including maps of the british railway network first published in one eight three nine sanborn maps detailed american fire insurance maps ordnance survey other template talk mapquest linking mapquest maps to articles external links map discussion and history geography and maps an illustrated guide by the staff of the us library of congress antique maps by carl moreland and david bannister complete text of the book map room a weblog about maps with a links directory the upsidedown map page pictures and info about maps which are oriented without north at the top example of map legends cito plan city maps wikipedia maps use of maps on wikipedia map link sites perry casta eda library maps on other web sites british library links for historic maps and interactive mapping both their own collections and other sites odden s bookmarks the fascinating world of maps and mapping a huge database of maps and articles searchable or use the categories list modern and historical maps and information university of iowa links many map related links online map catalogs in north america and europe geographical data resources online primary sources for the research scholar links to websites for archives of research material modern maps and atlases online world the world factbook and reference maps also see wikipedia article the world factbook the maps but with a faster cleaner directory at the university of texas also has prior years maps united nations cartographic section mostly in pdf mapmachine national geographic esri maps also the maps page more emphasis on the physical world google earth interactive map of the world holt rinehart and winston maps and basic statistics infoplease maps almanac and encyclopedia perry casta eda library map collection at the university of texas at austin a large collection of maps online frequently updated some also at and thumbnails national national atlas of the united states national map united states geological survey terraserver usa and topozone host usgs topographic maps and aerial photos on terraserver usa maptech hosts historical usgs topos in the northeast united states atlas of canada antique and historical maps online historical map web sites list perry casta eda library university of texas map history and collections introductory page and list of maps on the web organized by geographical region david rumsey map collection one two six zero zero maps online online map collections at the library of congress historical maps from the hargrett library collection university of georgia browse over one zero zero zero maps from as early as one five four four djvu format requires free plugin or java historical maps from the portal to texas history online map creation tools online map creation webinterface to gmt mapping package new version at planiglobe beta online mapping engines and route planners google maps google maps us google maps uk yahoo maps yahoo maps on us canada germany france spain italy yahoo uk yahoo germany on france uk germany italy spain portugal austria switzerland benelux mapquest on us canada and western europe more detailed than the rest of the world the list of scales to select from is not location dependent for part of the world several zoom level links lead to an image with just the message no data available maps at msn world atlas the whole world on the same scale four km four nine pixels eight two m pixel north america canada us mexico us to street level mexico only some parts to street level for the other parts street level scale is available but it shows blank maps with e g only one dot to represent a village western europe to street level see map of area covered australia brazil multimap world atlas on uk us canada australia and western europe more detailed than the rest of the world the list of scales to select from is location dependent also provides geographic coordinates of a location selected from a map us map abmap interactive world map and detailed united states street map routenplaner two four street maps and route planner in germany street maps in switzerland austria and germany freeroute germany free maps and route planner on europe germany krak dk interactive map of denmark hong kong maps centamap cartography maps manager redirects to here for use in sports see coach sport or manager baseball enterprise management redirects to here for use in computer networks see network management or systems management management from old french m nagement the art of conducting directing from latin manu agere to lead by the hand characterises the process of leading and directing all or part of an organization often a business through the deployment and manipulation of resources human financial material intellectual or intangible early twentieth century management writer mary parker follett defined management as the art of getting things done through people one can also think of management functionally as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan and as the actions taken to reach one s intended goal this applies even in situations where planning does not take place from this perspective there are five management functions planning organizing leading co ordinating and controlling management is also called business administration and schools that teach management are usually called business schools the term management may also be used to describe the slate of managers of an organization for example of a corporation a governing body is a term used to describe a group formed to manage an organization such as a sports league historical development some writers trace the development of management thought back to sumerian traders and ancient egyptian pyramid builders slave owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting motivating a dependent but sometimes recalcitrant workforce but many pre industrial enterprises given their small scale did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically but innovations such as the spread of hindu arabic numerals five th to one five th centuries and the codification of double entry book keeping one four nine four provided tools for management assessment planning and control one nine th century modern management as a discipline began as an off shoot of economics in the one nine th century classical economists such as adam smith and john stuart mill provided a theoretical background to resource allocation production and pricing issues about the same time innovators like eli whitney james watt and matthew boulton developed technical production elements such as standardization quality control procedures cost accounting interchangeability of parts and work planning by the middle of the one nine th century robert owen henry poor and m laughlin and others introduced the human element with theories of worker training motivation organizational structure and span of control compare the analyses of karl marx and of friedrich engels by the late one nine th century marginal economists alfred marshall and leon walras and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical underpinings of management joseph wharton offered the first tertiary level course in management in one eight eight one two zero th century by about one nine zero zero we find managers trying to place their theories on a thoroughly scientific basis examples include henry towne s science of management in the one eight nine zero s frederick winslow taylor s scientific management one nine one one frank and lillian gilbreth s applied motion study one nine one seven and henry l gantt s charts one nine one zero s j duncan wrote the first college management textbook in one nine one one the first comprehensive theories of management appeared around one nine two zero people like henri fayol and alexander church described the various branches of management and their inter relationships in the early two zero th century people like ordwat tead walter scott and j mooney applied the principles of psychology to management while other writers such as elton mayo mary parker follett chester barnard max weber rensis likert and chris argyris approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective peter drucker wrote one of the earliest books on applied management concept of the corporation published in one nine four six it resulted from alfred sloan chairman of general motors until one nine five six commissioning a study of the organisation drucker has gone on to write three two books many in the same vein h dodge ronald fisher and thorton c fry introduced statistical techniques into management in the one nine four zero s patrick blackett combined these statistical theories with microeconomic theory and gave birth to the science of operations research operations research sometimes known as management science attempts to take a scientific approach to solving management problems particularly in the areas of logistics and operations some of the more recent developments include the theory of constraints management by objectives reengineering and various information technology driven theories such as agile software development as well as group management theories such as cog s ladder as the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the two zero th century and gave perceived practitioners of management a certain amount of prestige so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares in this context many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific management theory towards the end of the two zero th century business management came to consist of six separate branches namely human resource management operations management or production management strategic management marketing management financial management information technology management two one st century in the two one st century we find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way more and more processes simultaneously involve several categories instead we tend to think in terms of the various processes tasks and objects subject to management the unicist approach to management promotes a natural way to manage business a list of some of the areas of management can be found later in this article it is also the case that many of the assumptions made by management have been under attack from business ethics critical management studies and anti corporate activism one consequence is that workplace democracy has become both more common and more advocated in some places distributing all management functions among the workers each of whom takes on a portion of the work however these models predate any current political issue and may be more natural than command hierarchy all management is to some degree democratic in that there must be majority support of workers for the management in the long term or they leave to find other work or go on strike hence management is becoming less about command and control and more about facilitation and support of collaborative activity utilizing principles such as those of human interaction management to deal with the complexities of human interaction nature of the work in for profit work the primary function of management is to satisfy a range of stakeholders this typically involves making a profit for the shareholders creating valued products at a reasonable cost for customers and providing rewarding employment opportunities for employees in nonprofit work it is also important to keep the faith of donors in most models of management shareholders vote for the board of directors and that board then hires senior management some organizations are experimenting with other methods such as employee voting models of selecting or reviewing managers senior managers but this is very rare in the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies politicians are elected to public office they hire many managers and administrators and in some countries like the united states a great many people lose jobs when a new president comes into office two five zero zero people serve at the pleasure of the president including all the top us government executives public private and voluntary sectors place different demands on managers but all must retain the faith of those who select them if they wish to retain their jobs retain the faith of those people that fund the organization and retain the faith of those who work for the organization if they fail to convince employees that they are better off staying than leaving the organization will be forced into a downward spiral of hiring training firing and recruiting management also has a responsibility to innovate and improve the functioning of the organization in all but the smallest organizations achieving these objectives involves a division of management labour people specialize in a limited range of functions so as to more quickly gain competence and expertise even in employee managed workplaces such as a wobbly shop where managers are elected or where latitude of action is sharply restricted by collective bargaining or unions managers still take on roughly the same functions and job descriptions as in a more traditional command hierarchy chief executive officer ceo the ceo is ultimately responsible for the success or failure of the business he or she provides overall strategic direction for the firm often with the assistance of a team of vice presidents strategic management decisions like what products to market what market segments to target what functions to outsource what business model to employ and what geographical areas to operate in are the responsibility of the ceo the ceo is accountable to the board of directors typically a ceo will delegate many responsibilities to one or more executive vice presidents in small firms the owner president or chief executive officer typically assume many roles and responsibilities vice president marketing an executive vice president of marketing might direct overall marketing strategies advertising promotions sales product management pricing and public relations policies the direct reports of the evp oversee advertising and promotion in a small firm they may serve as a liaison between the firm and the advertising or promotion agency to which many advertising or promotional functions are contracted out in larger firms advertising managers oversee in house account creative and media services departments marketing managers marketing managers develop the firm s detailed marketing plans and procedures with the help of subordinates including product development managers and market research managers they determine the demand for products and services offered by the firm and its competitors in addition they identify potential markets for example business firms wholesalers retailers government or the general public marketing managers develop pricing strategy with an eye towards maximizing the firm s share of the market and its profits while ensuring that the customers are satisfied in collaboration with sales product development and other managers they monitor trends that indicate the need for new products and services and oversee product development marketing managers work with advertising and promotion managers to promote the firm s products and services and to attract potential users promotions managers promotions managers supervise sales promotion specialists they direct promotion programs that combine advertising with purchase incentives to increase sales in an effort to establish closer contact with purchasers dealers distributors or consumers promotion programs may involve direct mail telemarketing television or radio advertising catalogs exhibits inserts in newspapers internet advertisements or websites in store displays or product endorsements and special events purchase incentives may include discounts samples gifts rebates coupons sweepstakes and contests public relations managers public relations managers supervise public relations specialists these managers direct publicity programs to a targeted public they often specialize in a specific area such as crisis management or in a specific industry such as healthcare they use every available communication medium in their effort to maintain the support of the specific group upon whom their organization s success depends such as consumers stockholders or the general public for example public relations managers may clarify or justify the firms point of view on health or environmental issues to community or special interest groups they also evaluate advertising and promotion programs for compatibility with public relations efforts and serve as the eyes and ears of top management they observe social economic and political trends that might ultimately affect the firm and make recommendations to enhance the firm s image based on those trends they may also confer with labor relations managers to produce internal company communications such as newsletters about employee management relations and with financial managers to produce company reports they assist company executives in drafting speeches arranging interviews and maintaining other forms of public contact oversee company archives and respond to information requests in addition some handle special events such as sponsorship of races parties introducing new products or other activities the firm supports in order to gain public attention through the press without advertising directly sales managers sales managers direct the firm s sales program they assign sales territories set goals and establish training programs for the sales representatives managers advise the sales representatives on ways to improve their sales performance in large multiproduct firms they oversee regional and local sales managers and their subordinates sales managers maintain contact with dealers and distributors they analyze sales statistics gathered by their staffs to determine sales potential and inventory requirements and monitor the preferences of customers such information is vital to develop products and maximize profits account executive the account executive manages the account services department assesses the need for advertising and in advertising agencies maintains the accounts of clients creative director the creative services department develops the subject matter and presentation of advertising the creative director oversees the copy chief art director and associated staff media director the media director oversees planning groups that select the communication media for example radio television newspapers magazines internet or outdoor signs to disseminate the advertising references management courses at mit sloan opencourseware research on organizations bibliography database and maps areas of management administrative management human resources management accounting management strategic management association management change management communication management constraint management cost management crisis management customer relationship management earned value management enterprise management facility management financial management human interaction management integration management interim management knowledge management land management logistics management marketing management operations management pain management perception management procurement management program management project management process management personal management product management quality management resource management risk management skills management spend management stress management supply chain management systems management talent management time management see also adhocracy administration design management engineering management management consulting management development management styles management technology managing upwards micromanagement middle management knowledge visualization music management poor management senior management virtual management peter drucker s management by objectives eliyahu m goldratt s theory of constraints pointy haired boss negative stereotypes of managers lists list of management topics list of marketing topics list of human resource management topics list of economics topics list of finance topics list of accounting topics list of information technology management topics list of production topics list of business law topics list of business ethics political economy and philosophy of business topics list of business theorists list of economists list of corporate leaders list of companies timelines timeline of management techniques management occupations management organizations mineralogy is an earth science focussed around the chemistry crystal structure and physical including optical properties of minerals studies also include the processes of mineral creation and destruction historically mineralogy was heavily concerned with taxonomy of the rock forming minerals to this end the international mineralogical association is an organization whose members are organizations representing mineralogists in individual countries its activities include managing naming of minerals via the commission of new minerals and mineral names location of known minerals etc as of two zero zero four there are over four zero zero zero species of mineral recognized by the ima of these perhaps one five zero can be called common another five zero are occasional and the rest are rare to extremely rare more recently driven by advances in experimental technique such as neutron diffraction and available computational power the latter of which has enabled extremely accurate atomic scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals the science has branched out to consider more general problems in the fields of inorganic chemistry and solid state physics it however retains a focus on the crystal structures commonly encountered in rock forming minerals such as the perovskites clays and framework silicates in particular the field has made great advances in the understanding of the relationship between the atomic scale structure of minerals and their function in nature prominent examples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic properties of minerals which has led to new insight into seismological behaviour of rocks and depth related discontinuities in seismograms of the earth s mantle to this end in their focus on the connection between atomic scale phenomena and macroscopic properties the mineral sciences as they are now commonly known display perhaps more of an overlap with materials science than any other discipline see also georg agricola the father of mineralogy list of minerals a simple list concentrating on minerals with wikipedia articles list of minerals complete a more complete list of ima approved minerals regularly updated list of mineralogists list of publications in mineralogy external links international mineralogical association mindat org mineralogical database mineralogical society of america mineralogical association of canada mineralogy a sugarshack where sap is boiled down to maple syrup maple syrup is a sweetener made from the sap of maple trees it is most often eaten with pancakes or waffles but can also be used as an ingredient in baking or in preparing desserts production real maple syrup comes from canada particularly quebec and the northern united states especially new england and northern new york state most maple trees can be used as a source of sap but the sugar maple acer saccharum and black maple a nigrum are the most favored with professional syrup eaters preferring the black over the sugar a maple syrup production farm is called a sugarbush or the sugarwoods sap is boiled in a sugar shanty sugar shack sugarhouse or cabane sucre which only has partial side walls being louvered at the top to vent moisture laden air traditionally maple syrup was harvested by tapping a maple tree and then letting the sap run into a bucket more advanced methods have however since superseded this the province of quebec in canada is by far the world s largest producer of maple syrup producing one five six zero zero zero zero zero litres in two zero zero one about four times as much as all u s production combined the provinces of ontario and new brunswick produce much smaller amounts about one zero four zero zero zero zero litres and six seven zero zero zero zero litres respectively in two zero zero two in quebec the process has become part of the culture and city people often go to cabanes sucre in early spring where lavish meals are served with maple syrup accompaniments tire sur la neige is a seasonal treat of thick hot syrup poured onto fresh snow then eaten off sticks as it quickly cools owing to its economic importance the maple tree is an emblem of canada and its leaf is depicted on its flag in the u s in two zero zero one vermont produced one zero four zero zero zero zero litres of real maple syrup about a quarter of the u s production maine and new york state with about one nine each were next in line production is concentrated in february or march depending on local weather conditions to make the syrup holes are bored into the maple trees and hollow tubes termed spiles or spouts are inserted these drip the sap into buckets or into plastic pipes modern use of plastic tubing with a partial vacuum has enabled increased production a new hole must be drilled each year as the old hole will produce sap for only one season due to the natural healing process of the tree termed walling off initially the sap has a very low concentration of sugars typically below two the sap may or may not be first concentrated using reverse osmosis in this process up to seven five of the water is removed the concentrate still has only about eight sugar the sap is fed automatically from the storage tank through a valve to a flat stainless steel pan to boil it down until it forms a sweet syrup the sap syrup flows among the baffles of the pan gradually thickening as it flows and is automatically drawn off when it is sufficiently thick the process is slow because most of the water has to boil out of the sap before it is the right consistency it takes approximately four zero litres of sap to make one litre of maple syrup and a mature sugar maple produces about four zero liters one zero gallons of sap during the four six week sugaring season although this varies greatly with trees and weather in general trees are not tapped until they have a diameter of two five centimeters one zero inches at chest height in new england that usually means the tree is at least four zero years old a wood fired maple sugaring evaporator a very small amount of defoamer is added during the reduction process to reduce the tendency of the boiling sap to froth up the traditional fuel for boiling was firewood but fuel oil or natural or bottled gas is generally used today for more control of the fire overheating can scorch the syrup and a pan boiled dry can burn almost explosively the earliest runs are typically the best quality the best sugaring weather is clear with days above freezing and nights below freezing also with snow on the ground syrup made late in the season when there are no longer night time freezes is dark mostly due to microbial action eventually an objectional flavor develops called buddy which is due to metabolic processes within the tree the whole process of sap collection and processing must be done as quickly as possible too much time in storage can induce fermentation in the sap and too much time boiling can also reduce quality usually the whole process from any batch of sap finishes in syrup within just a few hours maple syrup is sometimes boiled down further to make maple sugar a hard candy usually sold in pressed blocks and translucent candy similar to taffy which may be poured on snow to harden it for eating intermediate levels of boiling can also be used to create various intermediate products including maple cream less hard and granular than maple sugar but harder than fudge and maple butter creamy with a consistency slightly less thick than peanut butter grades in the united states maple syrup is divided into two major grades named grade a and grade b grade a is further broken down into three subgrades grade a light amber sometimes known as fancy grade a medium amber and grade a dark amber grade b is darker than grade a dark amber the grades roughly correspond to what point in the season the syrup was made grade a light amber is early season syrup while grade b is late season syrup typically grade a especially grade a light amber has a milder sweeter flavor than grade b which is primarily used for cooking and baking in canada there are three grades containing several colour classes ranging from canada one including extra light light and medium through two amber and finally three dark a typical year s yield will include about two five three zero of each of the one colours one zero amber and two dark a non table grade of syrup called commercial is also produced this is very dark with a very strong flavor sometimes also with off flavors metabolism buddy ferment commercial maple syrup is generally used as a flavoring agent in other products use two taps in a maple tree using plastic tubing for sap collection maple syrup and its artificial imitations are the preferred toppings for cr pes pancakes waffles and french toast in north america maple syrup can also be used for a variety of uses including biscuits fresh donuts fried dough fritters ice cream hot cereal and fresh fruit especially grapefruit it is also used as sweetener for apple sauce baked beans candied sweet potatoes winter squash cakes pies breads fudge and other candy milkshakes tea coffee and hot toddys imitation maple syrup most maple flavored syrups on the market today in the united states are imitation maple syrups table syrups usually with little for advertising purposes or no real maple content they are usually thickened far beyond the viscosity of real maple syrup as well they are less expensive than real maple syrup us labeling laws prohibit these products from being labeled maple syrup quebecers often refer to these cheap imitations as sirop de poteau pole syrup implying the syrup has been made by tapping telephone poles see also birch syrup external links pure pennsylvania maple syrup a photo essay a sugarbush tale short documentary about small scale maple syrup production in vermont north american maple syrup producers manual making maple syrup cooking for engineers kitchen notes maple syrup grades american cuisine canadian cuisine quebecois cuisine sweeteners the name matthew comes from hebrew mattay matthias in greek a short form of hebrew mattany h mattayy h which is itself a variation of hebrew which means gift of the lord matthew name as a given name surname and place name matthews the related surname gospel of matthew book of the bible matthew the evangelist traditional author of the gospel matthew ship in which john cabot became the first modern european to sail to what is now canada matthew fire emblem character in a game matthew algie british company selling coffee tea etc matthew island a disputed territory located in the south pacific ocean matthew g czy an american actor the word male has the following meanings in biology the male sex is the half of a heterogamous reproduction system that produces sperm cells in the social sciences male may refer to the gender role to which men in most human cultures are expected to conform see man for more information in hardware and electronics a male connector is a component such as a plug which is designed to be inserted into a corresponding female component see gender of connectors and fasteners in many languages nouns and pronouns have gender male is sometimes used to refer to the masculine gender the city of mal is the capital of maldives on mal island in the mal atoll male belgium a village with a castle in flanders a macron from gr makros large is a diacritic placed over a vowel originally to indicate that the vowel is long the opposite is a breve used to indicate a short vowel these distinctions are usually phonemic in modern old english transliterations the macron has been used in this way in latvian a macron e macron i macron and u macron are considered separate letters that sort in alphabetical order immediately after a e i u respectively for instance bazn ca comes before b rda in a latvian dictionary in pinyin macrons are used over a e i o u to indicate the first tone of mandarin chinese it does not indicate vowel length in any way in the international phonetic alphabet macron over a vowel indicates a mid level tone and not length in hawaiian where it is known as the kahak it is again used to indicate long vowels which in turn influence the placement of accent stress in words in m ori it indicates vowel length which changes meaning and the placement of stress early writing in m ori did not distinguish vowel length some notably the late professor bruce biggs have advocated that double vowels be written to mark long vowel sounds e g maaori but even he was more concerned that they be marked at all than with the method however the m ori language commission te taura whiri o te reo m ori advocate macrons be used to designate long vowels the use of the macron is now widespread in modern m ori writing though some people fall back on a diaeresis mark instead e g m ori instead of m ori when a macron is not available and this confuses people who are unfamiliar with either the m ori for macron is p tae hat it is also used in many dictionaries and textbooks to mark vowel length in languages that do not feature this diacritic in everyday use for example it is used in the hepburn transcription of japanese to indicate a long vowel as in k ts traffic as opposed to kotsu bone or knack fig the indigenous japanese kana transcription of however is which character for character transliterates as koutsuu although not standard this latter system is arguably the most commonly seen on the internet next to not marking vowel length at all the macron is often used in modern latin dictionaries to mark vowel length in conjunction with the breve in some german handwriting styles a macron is used to distinguish u from n in the french comic books which are hand lettered all in capitals the macron replaces the circumflex in russian handwriting a macron is often used over a lowercase to distinguish it from a handwritten lowercase russian which is a lowercase for not in russian thus looks like an english lowercase m with a macron some utilize a macron underneath the letter as well in unicode combining macron is one of the combining diacritical marks its code is u zero three zero four in html x three zero four or seven seven two there are also several precomposed characters their html unicode numbers are as in the table to the right in latex a macron is created with the command for example m aori if the last two rows of the table do not display properly the row before the last is the letter uu with diaeresis and macron used in pinyin the final row is the letter yy with macron used sometimes in teaching latin in older handwriting styles such as the german schrift the macron over an m or an n meant that the letter was doubled this continued into print in english in the sixteenth century over a u at the end of a word the macron indicated um as a form of scribal abbreviation external links diacritics project all you need to design a font with correct accents diacritics an example of money more specifically brazilian real bills and coins money is any marketable good or token used by a society as a medium of exchange store of value and unit of account since the needs arise naturally societies organically create one or several money objects when none exists in other cases a central authority creates a single money object and compels its use this is more frequently the case in modern societies with paper money the value of money emerges in no small part from its utility as a medium of exchange however its utility as a medium of exchange depends on it having recognised market value hence these two aspects of money are interdependent commodity money was the first form of money to emerge under a commodity money system the object used as money has inherent value it is usually adopted to simplify transactions in a barter economy thus it functions first as a medium of exchange it quickly begins functioning as a store of value since holders of perishable goods can easily convert them into durable money in modern economies commodity money has also been used as a unit of account gold backed currency notes are a common form of commodity money fiat money is a relatively modern invention a central authority government creates a new money object that has negligible inherent value the widespread acceptance of fiat money is most frequently enhanced by the central authority mandating the money s acceptance under penalty of law and demanding this money in payment of taxes or tribute at various times in history government issued promisory notes have later become fiat currencies us dollar and fiat currencies have gone on to become a form of commodity currency swiss dinar history of money money has developed over the years from conch shells to sophisticated international banking systems from five five zero bc accepting salt from a person was synonymous with drawing a salary taking pay or being in that person s service the history of money has generally seen commodity money replaced by more formal systems as money has been progressively brought under the control of governments essential characteristics of money money has all of the following three characteristics one it must be a medium of exchange when an object is consistently used as an intermediate object of trade as opposed to direct barter then it is regarded as a medium of exchange the utility of such an object in simplifying the process of trade leads to direct demand for the object in order for a single object to become or to remain dominant in this function requires either coercion or faith when people are coerced to use or alternatively they trust an object and demand it in order to do their exchanges and trades then this object is considered to be money this characteristic allows money to be a standard of deferred payment i e a tool for the payment of debt two it must be a unit of account when the value of a good is frequently used to measure or compare the value of other goods or where its value is used to denominate debts then it is functioning as a unit of account a debt or an iou can not serve as a unit of account because its value is specified by comparison to some external reference value some actual unit of account that may be used for settlement for example if in some culture people are inclined to measure the worth of things with reference to goats then we would regard goats as the dominant unit of account in that culture for instance we may say that today a horse is worth one zero goats and a good hut is worth four five goats we would also say that an iou denominated in goats would change value at much the same rate as real goats three it must be a store of value when an object is purchased primarily to store value for future trade then it is being used as a store of value for example a sawmill might maintain an inventory of lumber that has market value likewise it might keep a cash box that has some currency that holds market value both would represent a store of value because through trade they can be reliably converted to other goods at some future date most non perishable goods have this quality many goods or tokens have some of the characteristics outlined above however no good or token is money unless it can satisfy all three criteria credit as money credit is often loosely referred to as money however credit only satisfies items one and three of the above essential characteristics of money criteria credit completely fails criterion number two hence to be strictly accurate credit is a money substitute and not money proper this distinction between money and credit causes much confusion in discussions of monetary theory in lay terms and when convenient in academic discussion credit and money are frequently used interchangeably for example bank deposits are generally included in summations of the national broad money supply however any detailed study of monetary theory needs to recognize the proper distinction between money and credit the rest of this article frequently uses the term money in the looser sense of the word desirable features of money to function as money the monetary item should possess a number of features to be a medium of exchange it should be liquid easily tradable with a low spread between the prices to buy and sell a low spread typically occurs when an item is fungible it should be easily transportable precious metals have a high value to weight ratio this is why oil copper or water are not suitable as money paper notes have proved highly convenient in this regard to be a unit of account it should be divisible into small units without destroying its value precious metals can be coined from bars or melted down into bars again this is why leather or animals are not suitable as money it should be fungible that is one unit or piece must be equivalent to another which is why diamonds works of art or real estate are not suitable as money it must be a certain weight or measure to be verifiably countable to be a store of value it should be long lasting durable it must not be perishable or subject to decay this is why food items expensive spices or even fine silks or oriental rugs are not generally suitable as money it should have a stable value a value intrinsic in itself such as a luxury item scarce or rare it should be difficult to counterfeit and the genuine must be easily recognizable these reasons are why paper or electronic credits are often not desirable as money for these reasons gold and silver have been chosen again and again throughout history as money in more societies and in more cultures and over longer time periods than any other items and when embraced as money those societies inevitibly prosper under what is often called a golden age one key benefit of these features of money is that it facilitates and encourages trade because barter is inefficient modern forms of money when using money anonymously the most common methods are cash either coin or banknotes stored value cards or gold when using money substitutes in such a way as to leave a financial record of the transaction the most common methods are checks debit cards credit cards and electronic money money and economics money is one of the most central topics studied in economics and forms its most cogent link to finance the amount of money in an economy affects inflation and interest rates and hence has profound effects the monetary policy of government aims to manage money inflation and interest to affect output and employment a monetary crisis can have very significant economic effects particularly if it leads to monetary failure and the adoption of a much less efficient barter economy this happened in russia for instance during the one nine nine zero s modern economics also faces a difficulty in deciding what exactly is money see money supply there have been many historical arguments regarding the combination of money s functions some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all these arguments are covered in financial capital which is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments whether or not they are a uniformly recognized tender private currencies in many countries the issue of private paper currencies has been severely restricted by law a private one dollar note issued by the delaware bridge company of new jersey one eight three six one eight four one in the united states the free banking era lasted between one eight three seven and one eight six six during which almost anyone could issue their own paper money states municipalities private banks railroad and construction companies stores restaurants churches and individuals printed an estimated eight zero zero zero different monies by one eight six zero if the issuer went bankrupt closed left town or otherwise went out of business the note would be worthless such organizations earned the nickname of wildcat banks for a reputation of unreliability and that they were often situated in far off unpopulated locales that were said to be more apt to wildcats than people on the other hand according to lawrence h white s article in it turns out that wildcat banking is largely a myth although stories about crooked banking practices are entertaining and for that reason have been repeated endlessly by textbooks modern economic historians have found that there were in fact very few banks that fit any reasonable definition of wildcat bank the national bank act of one eight six three ended the wildcat bank period in australia the bank notes tax act of one nine one zero basically shut down the circulation of private currencies by imposing a prohibitive tax on the practice many other nations have similar such policies that eliminate private sector competition in scotland and northern ireland private sector banks are licensed to print their own paper money by the government today privately issued electronic money is in circulation some of these private currencies are backed by historic forms of money such as gold as in the case of digital gold currency transactions in these currencies represent an annual turnover value in billions of us dollars it is possible for privately issued money to be backed by any other material although some people argue about perishable materials after all gold or platinum or silver have in some regards less utility than previously their electrical properties notwithstanding while currency backed by energy measured in joules or by transport measured in kilogramme kilometre hour or by food is also possible and may be accepted by the people if legalised it is important to understand though that as long as money is above all an agreement to use something as a medium of exchange it is up to a community or to whoever holds the power within a community to decide whether money should be backed by whatever material or should be totally virtual though these private especially digital monies has had some modest success governments have established a coercive monopoly on what currency may be used in lending by enacting legal tender laws one may borrow a private currency but repay the loan with a legal tender that has subsequently devalued against the private alternative with the lender being required by law to accept it this large and apparently insurmountable risk to lenders severely limits the proliferation of private money as the interest rate would have to be exhorbitant to compensate for this tremendous risk premium money supply the money supply is the amount of money available within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services the supply is usually considered as four escalating categories m zero m one m two and m three the categories grow in size with m three representing all forms of money including credit and m zero being just base money coins bills and central bank deposits m zero is also money that can satisfy private banks reserve requirements in the united states the federal reserve is responsible for controlling the money supply monetary policy growing the money supply historically money was a metal gold silver etc or other object that was difficult to duplicate but easy to transport and divide later it consisted of paper notes now issued by all modern governments with the rise of modern industrial capitalism it has gone through several phases including but not limited to bank notes paper issued by banks as an interest bearing loan these were common in the one nine th century but not seen anymore paper notes coins with varying amounts of precious metal usually called legal tender issued by various governments there is also a near money in the form of interest bearing bonds issued by governments with solid credit ratings bank credit through the creation of chequable deposits in the granting of various loans to business government and individuals it is critical that we understand that when a bank makes a loan that is new money and when a loan is paid off that money is destroyed only the interest paid on it remains thus all debt denominated in dollars mortgages money markets credit card debt travelers cheques is money however the creation of dollar denominated debt or any generic obligation only creates money when a bank as opposed to a credit card company is granting the debt high powered money m zero is created when the elected government spends money into the economy the money created in the bank loan process is bank money and these two forms of money trade at par one with the other banks are limited in the amount of loans they can grant and thus in the amount of bank money credit they can create by both the net assets of the bank and by reserve requirements m zero for most intents and purposes the aggregate of m zero multiplied by the reserve requirement will be an indicator of but this is somewhat greater than the aggregate of loans if additional money is needed in the banking system to allow more loans the federal reserve will create money by purchasing bonds or t bills with money created from the other no matter who sells the bonds the money will end up in the banking system as m zero the fed could purchase lolly pops if that would accomplish the purpose of expansion better than a purchase of bonds shrinking the money supply m three perhaps the most obvious way money can be destroyed is if paper bills are burned or taken out of circulation by the central bank but it should be remembered that legal tender usually constitutes less than four of the broad money supply another way money can be destroyed is when any bank loan is paid off or any government bond or t bill is purchased by the private sector the money value of the contract or bond is destroyed taken out of circulation if a bank loan is defaulted upon then the interest paid by other borrowers will be employed to cover the default a very large part of the interest paid on bank loans is actually a finance charge employed to cover bad loans the group of good borrowers pay the loan instead of the original borrower in cases where the default is huge such as loans to foreign governments fed intervention has in the past rescued the banks in this instance it would seem that the taxpayers and or money holders savers will pay the debt the effects on the money supply will be controlled again by the level of bond purchase or redemption or the level of t bill sales or purchases by the treasury money can be destroyed if savers withdraw funds from a bank in which case that money can no longer be used for lending bank savings are actually a kind of loans savers loan their money to a bank at a low interest rate or merely in exchange for the benefit of convenience or its security accepting that they lose a small amount of value to inflation the bank may use this loan to manage its liabilities its deposit liabilities created by loans it must be recalled that the federal reserve banking system is mostly a closed system a check written on bank a gets deposited in bank b and a check written on bank b gets deposited in bank c and a check on bank c gets deposited in bank a at the end of the day the bankers go have a beer and see who needs to borrow from whom on a good day very little borrowing needs to be done because a bank gets as much in new deposits as it does in paid out funds even if a bank is short of reserves it can borrow the reserves from another bank at the discount rate in extreme forms a bank run or panic may drive a bank into insolvency and if uninsured the savings of all its depositors are lost such bank failures were a major cause of the tremendous contraction in the money supply that occurred during the great depression particularly in the united states in that country many banking reforms were subsequently enacted during the new deal including the creation of the federal deposit insurance corporation to guarantee private bank deposits major world currencies argentina peso ars australia australian dollar aud brazil real brl canada canadian dollar cad china renminbi rmb cny eurozone euro eur india indian rupee inr japan japanese yen jpy south korea south korean won krw switzerland swiss franc chf united kingdom british pound gbp united states us dollar usd see also concept of money currency the dominant coins and bills used within a particular country or trade region standard of deferred payment token coins numismatics collection and study of money currency market local exchange trading systems electronic money fractional reserve banking full reserve banking plain money list of finance topics coin of account federal reserve seignorage social construction euro free market external links philosophy of money by alla sheptun the heraion standard article recording for the sensory impaired money demand in the oecd money yeni camii the new mosque one of the landmarks of stanbul a mosque is a place of worship for followers of the islamic faith muslims all over the world often refer to the mosque by its name in arabic masjid pl masajid arabic pronounced or it is important to note that mosque in english encompasses both masjid and j mi the latter referring to bigger mosques minarets usually being used as a distinguisher etymology mosque aswan egypt mosques were known to the english speaking world well before the word to describe them was established the mezquita of cordoba was one of the first mosques to attract western attention it s name is simply one of many possible european transliterations for the arabic masjid or place of kneeling in ritual prayer however in the fifteenth sixteenth and seventeenth centuries variations of the word began to be used moseak muskey moschy and mos keh were just some of the variations that came into use until it was decided that mosquee imitating middle french italian and old spanish would become the standard in the early eighteenth century the modern spelling became the most popular and standard spelling of the word the arabic word for mosque masjid means temple in the language this comes from the arabic root sajad which means to prostrate from the prostrations performed during islamic prayers chinese muslims refer to mosques in chinese as roughly pure conversion islamic temples the first mosques the first mosque in the world was the masjid al haram around the ka bah in makkah saudi arabia the first mosque in medina a city north of makkah was the house of the prophet muhammad masjid al nabawi to which the followers of muhammad had withdrawn from persecution in six two two the reconstructions of muhammad s house show a large courtyard containing a relatively small house after many worshippers complained about the heat of the midday sun muhammad had a row of palm trunks erected on one side of the courtyard and a roof of palm fronds laid between the columns and the outer wall creating a shaded prayer space he himself stood at one end of this simple arcade to preach functions prayers muslims are commanded to offer prayer salah five times a day before sunrise fajr at midday dhuhr in the afternoon asr at sunset maghrib and in the evening isha a although muslims are not required to offer prayer inside a mosque it is considered more virtuous to offer prayer in congregation at a mosque than to offer it alone muslims performing salah prayer in addition to holding the five ordinary daily prayers mosques hold friday prayers arabic transliteration jumu ah while the ordinary daily prayers can be performed at any location it is required that all teenage and adult men attend friday prayers at the mosque during the month of ramadan tarawih prayers are usually offered in major sunni mosques these prayers which can last for up to two hours each night result in the entire qur an being recited within the holy month however these prayers are only recommended in sunni islam and are non existent in shi a islam other special prayers offered at the mosque include the funeral prayers arabic transliteration janazah and eid prayers offered in commemoration of the two islamic festivals eid ul fitr and eid al adha both the funeral and eid prayers are traditionally held outdoors in a large courtyard some mosques especially those in less favorable climates will offer eid prayers indoors in the same location as the five daily prayers however funeral prayers may not be held in the same location as the daily prayers and thus they are held outside or in another area regardless of the climate before the five required daily prayers a muezzin calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret arabic transliteration manara although the call to prayer adhan is not required nearly every mosque practices it as it is a recommended practice or sunnah of the prophet muhammad nevertheless because of the lack of minarets in western countries many mosques will have the adhan called inside the mosque other functions mosques are not meant solely for the purpose of prayer mosques are also community centers places where muslims are able to gather for social activities during ramadan mosques will host dinners called iftars where muslims can break their fasts large mosques will often host dinners and other events where politicians and important islamic scholars are invited to speak many mosques will offer classes for those interested in learning more about islam arabic and qur anic recitation classes are commonplace at mosques outside arabic speaking countries full time schools for students in elementary school and sometimes in high school can be found at some mosques in countries where muslims are not the majority and students are unable to get an islamic education in state funded schools some mosques will even have recreational facilities such as basketball courts or playgrounds and medical facilities to help promote the mosque as a place where the community can come together people washing before prayer at the badshahi mosque in lahore pakistan appearance of mosques because prayer must be preceded by ritual purification mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards however worshippers at very small mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions in traditional mosques this function is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard because cleanliness is very important inside the mosque and in muslim life nearly all mosques prohibit worshippers from entering the carpeted prayer hall with shoes on thus foyers with shelves to put shoes and racks to hold coats are commonplace among mosques to add to this cleanliness and purity of the mosques many mosques do not admit non muslims into the buildings however western mosques in countries where muslims are not the majority are more likely to allow non muslims to enter mosques and attend mosque functions in an attempt to show openness the actual mosque the prayer hall has no furniture unlike in most other places of worship images of spiritual figures or other animals cannot be found in mosques as islam prohibits the association of other figures with god instead mosques will often have arabic calligraphy and verses from the qur an on the walls mosques generally have at least one large dome over the center of the prayer area very large mosques will also have a forest of columns arranged in a grid pattern throughout the prayer area most mosques will have at least one minaret or tall spire from which the muezzin issues the call to prayer larger mosques will have two or more minarets simply for appearance mihrab at a mosque in cairo the qibla wall usually opposite the entrance the qibla wall is the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall the qibla wall should in a properly oriented mosque be set perpendicular to a line leading to mecca the location of the ka bah the faithful kneel in rows parallel to the qibla wall and thus arrange themselves so they face mecca in the qibla wall usually at its center is the mihrab a niche or depression indicating the qibla wall usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either unlike with the altars of christian churches sometimes especially during friday prayers a raised minbar or pulpit is located to the side of the mihrab for the sermon khutbah the mihrab serves as the location where the imam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis types of mosques many forms of mosque have evolved in different regions of the islamic world notable mosque types include the early abbasid mosques t type mosques and the central dome mosques of anatolia the oil wealth of the twentieth century drove a great deal of mosque construction using designs from leading non muslim modern architects and promoting the careers of important contemporary muslim architects interior of the mezquita in cordoba spain with columns arranged in a grid pattern traditional mosques the idea of having a dome centered over the prayer hall was pioneered by the mosques of the ottoman empire the hagia sophia in istanbul although originally built as a church exemplifies the design with a dome in the center and minarets around the outside since then mosques have incorporated the dome as a marker of the center part of the prayer hall the thick large columns seen in the mezquita in cordoba were hallmarks of the abbasid caliphate another popular style was the t type mosque which called from a slightly longer hall leading up to the mihrab at the front center of the mosque sometimes t type mosques would also be accompanied with more than one dome with the largest being at the intersection of the two segments of the t over the centuries however the abbasid mosques and especially the ottoman central dome mosques remained the basis of islamic places of worship modern day mosques mosques do not have to be elaborate with minarets courtyards columns and domes to be considered mosques mosques simply have to hold the five prayers daily as a result many present day mosques especially in the western world are converted buildings without those features usually associated with islamic places of worship muslims in prayer will face in the direction of mecca even if there is no qibla wall denoting it the imam will offer his friday sermons khutbas and lead prayers about a meter in front of the first line in prayer at mosques without minarets and even at some mosques with minarets the muezzin will issue the call to prayer from inside the mosque modern mosques with public address systems will often broadcast the call to prayer over a loudspeaker so muslims in and around the mosque can hear it notable mosques the jama mosque in delhi india notable mosques for size and islamic significance include masjid al haram mecca saudi arabia holiest site in islam masjid al nabawi medina saudi arabia second holiest site in islam al aqsa mosque jerusalem israel third holiest site in islam imam ali mosque najaf iraq holy site in shi a islam faisal mosque islamabad pakistan largest mosque in the world sq footage wise mezquita cordoba spain tenth century moorish place of worship now a roman catholic cathedral hagia sophia istanbul turkey originally a very large church converted by the ottomans to a mosque and now a museum shah mosque isfahan iran major mosque in iran jama masjid delhi india largest mosque in india sultan ahmed mosque blue mosque istanbul turkey badshahi masjid lahore pakistan large mughul empire mosque men and women in the mosque mosques around the world deal with gender separation within the mosque in different ways mosques in muslim majority countries tend to adhere to stricter gender separation rules meanwhile mosques with smaller congregations and mosques in countries where muslims are a small minority will tend to allow greater mixing of the sexes however at nearly every mosque around the world gender separation is visibly present women as imams the most notable restriction common among nearly every mosque is that against women leading prayer although some hadith state that women allowed to lead prayer in front of all female congregations mosques almost always have more men than women present during prayer recently in china women have been allowed to lead prayer in front of all female congregations when it comes to leading prayer in front of mixed gender congregations islam clearly states that only men are allowed to lead prayer however there have been a few women most notably dr amina wadud who have defied the ruling and have opted to lead mixed gender prayers and friday prayers separation in the mosque a common hadith citing the separation between the genders during prayer states the best rows of men are the front rows and the worst rows of men are the back rows and the best rows of women are the back rows and the worst rows of women are the front rows in many mosques today men and women will be separated along the guidelines outlined in the hadith smaller mosques in particular will separate the front male rows and the back female rows with an empty row however it is more common among mosques to take the separation in gender a step farther by separating the two genders with a partition so that both men and women are unable to see the opposite gender during prayer in those instances men will almost always have the larger section as men attend mosques more often than women other mosques will have completely different rooms and entrances for male and female worshippers outside of prayer social events are often segregated along gender depending on the mosque segregation can range from having men and women sit in separate areas of the mosque or the social hall to reserving events for only one gender some mosques especially in china will have male only and female only mosques for both prayer and social events non muslims in mosques although most mosques prohibit non muslims from entering many mosques in muslim minority countries allow outsiders in as a show of openness the masjid al haram in makkah has the strictest prohibition against non muslims entering since the entire city of makkah is off limits to non muslims the ban on non muslims being allowed into the masjid al haram is mentioned in the qur an o ye who believe truly the pagans are unclean so let them not after this year of theirs approach the sacred mosque and if ye fear poverty soon will allah enrich you if he wills out of his bounty for allah is all knowing all wise nine two eight yusuf ali many mosques have extended that prohibition to other mosques in saudi arabia and the arab world particularly to the masjid al nabawi in medina the hassan ii mosque remains the only mosque in morocco open to non muslims see also timeline of islamic history islamic architecture islamic art list of mosques salah mosques and graves references online etymology dictionary accessed december two four two zero zero five encyclopedia of the orient mosque accessed january two two zero zero six university of southern california usc msa compendium of muslim texts prayer in congregation accessed january seven two zero zero six british broadcasting corporation chinese muslims forge isolated path accessed january two two zero zero six last updated september one five two zero zero four the reign of islamic da wah accessed january two two zero zero six islam online chinese islam with its own unique characteristics accessed january two two zero zero six updated february two six two zero zero five about com faq why are only muslims allowed to visit mecca accessed january two two zero zero six africa faq can a non muslim visit mosques in morocco accessed january two two zero zero six external links a gallery of pictures of masjids from around the world from asia through to america directory of muslim centers and mosques in the united states and north america directory of muslim businesses and mosques in the united kingdom ma sajid around the world islamicfinder org the mosque review masjid blue mosque video istanbul islam mosques arabic language a molecular cloud is a type of interstellar cloud whose density and size permits the formation of molecular hydrogen h two this molecule is difficult to detect and the molecule most used to trace the h two is co carbon monoxide the ratio between co luminosity and h two mass is roughly constant although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other galaxies within a few million years the light from bright stars will have boiled away this molecular cloud of gas and dust the cloud has broken off from the carina nebula newly formed stars are visible nearby their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust this image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting hubble space telescope in one nine nine nine occurance in the milky way molecular clouds account for roughly one half of the total gas mass within the sun s orbit making them a significant component of the galactic disk catalogues of clouds exhibit that most of the molecular mass is concentrated in the most massive object which comprise several million solar masses they inhabit a plane of roughly five zero seven five parsec scale height much thinner than the other gaseous components like atomic and ionized hydrogen they are thought to lie primarily within the spiral arms but the degree to which this is true is uncertain in our galaxy because of the difficulty of estimating distances and in other galaxies because high resolution observations which may show clearly delineated spiral arms are not sensitive to a uniform background of co emission giant molecular clouds main article giant molecular cloud molcular clouds come in a distribution of sizes but perhaps most important are giant molecular clouds gmcs which are some of the most crucial and active areas of galaxies they are home to large amounts of star formation and may contain humerous h ii regions that make them visible from intergalactic distances processes star formation main article star formation to our knowledge the creation of newborn stars in the current universe occurs exclusively within molecular clouds this is a natural consequence of their low temperatures and high densities and of the observed evidence that the large star forming clouds are confined to a large degree by their own gravity like stars planets and galaxies rather than external pressure like clouds in the sky the evidence comes from the fact that the turbulent velocities inferred from co linewidth scale in the same manner as the orbital velocity a virial relation physics the physics of molecular clouds are poorly understood and much debated their internal motions are governed by turbulence in a cold magnetized gas for which the turbulent motions are highly supersonic but comparable to the speeds of magnetic disturbances this state is thought to lose energy rapidly requiring either an overall collapse or a steady reinjection of energy at the same time the clouds are known to be disrupted by some process most likely the effects of massive stars before a significant fraction of their mass has become stars molecular clouds and especially giant molecular clouds gmcs are often the home of astronomical masers references nebulae astronomy minoru yamasaki december one one nine one two february six one nine eight six was an american architect born in seattle washington a second generation japanese american a prolific architect he is best known for his design of the world trade center which was destroyed in the september one one two zero zero one attacks biography the conservatory of music at oberlin college designed by yamasaki in one nine six three the distinctive style is similar to yamasaki s design of the world trade center despite a poor background minoru yamasaki earned a bachelor s degree from the university of washington he earned money to pay for his tuition by working at an alaskan salmon cannery when not attending classes after moving to new york city in the one nine three zero s he enrolled at new york university for a master s degree in architecture and got a job with the architecture firm shreve lamb and harmon designers of the empire state building in one nine six four yamasaki received a d f a from bates college his first significant project was the pruitt igoe housing project in st louis missouri one nine five five despite his love of japanese traditional design this was a stark modernist concrete structure it was so unpopular that it was demolished in one nine seven two its destruction is considered by some to be the beginning of postmodern architecture he also designed several sleek international airport buildings and was responsible for the innovative design of the one three six zero foot four one five metre towers of the world trade center for which design began in one nine six five and construction in one nine seven two it is often reported that his signature use of extremely narrow vertical windows arose from his own personal fear of heights he was first married in one nine four one and had two other wives before marrying his first wife again in one nine six nine yamasaki died of cancer in one nine eight six fifteen years before al qaeda members destroyed the towers on september one one two zero zero one works pruitt igoe housing project st louis missouri one nine five five demolished one nine seven two u s consulate general kobe japan one nine five five lambert saint louis international airport main terminal st louis missouri one nine five six mcgregor center at wayne state university detroit michigan one nine five eight reynolds metals regional sales office southfield michigan one nine five nine king fahd dhahran air terminal dhahran saudi arabia one nine six one u s science pavilion for the seattle world exposition since renovated to house the pacific science center one nine six two one woodward building detroit michigan one nine six two american natural resources building detroit michigan one nine six two irwin library at butler university indianapolis indiana one nine six three william james hall harvard university cambridge massachusetts one nine six three northwestern national life insurance headquarters minneapolis minnesota one nine six four reliastar ii minneapolis one nine six four queen emma gardens honolulu hawaii one nine six four north shore congregation israel glencoe illinois one nine six four conservatory of music warner concert hall and king building at oberlin college oberlin ohio one nine six six cowling gymnasium one nine six five west gymnasium one nine six four olin hall one nine six one goodhue dormitory one nine six two and watson hall one nine six six carleton college northfield minnesota world trade center new york new york one nine six six seven three destroyed two zero zero one plan for university of regina saskatchewan canada one nine six seven congregation beth el temple bloomfield hills michigan one nine six eight colorado national bank denver colorado one nine seven four one wiliams center tulsa oklahoma one nine seven five century plaza towers los angeles california one nine seven five steinman college center franklin and marshall college lancaster pennsylvania one nine seven six rainier tower seattle washington one nine seven seven fifth federal reserve bank richmond virginia one nine seven eight saudi arabian monetary agency head office riyadh saudi arabia one nine eight one founder s hall shinji shumeikai shiga prefecture japan one nine eight two picasso tower madrid spain one nine eight nine cevahir mall i li stanbul turkey two zero zero five external links greatbuildings com listing seattle architect created trade center as peace symbol seattle p i september one three two zero zero one one nine one two births one nine eight six deaths american architects japanese americans seattleites for other uses of the word see madeira disambiguation align center colspan two style border bottom three px solid gray location align center colspan two style border bottom three px solid gray motto of the autonomous region das ilhas as mais belas e livres portuguese of the islands the most beautiful and free align center colspan two official language portuguese capital funchal other towns porto santo machico santa cruz c mara de lobos santana ribeira brava cani o area seven nine seven km population total one nine nine one density c two five zero zero zero zero hab three one three hab km number of town councils one one highest point pico ruivo madeira island one eight six two m president alberto jo o jardim autonomy one nine seven six currency euro time zone utc zero anthems a portuguesa national hino da regi o aut noma da madeira local colspan two align center before two zero zero two portuguese escudo the madeira islands pron ipa is a portuguese autonomous archipelago in the north atlantic ocean that lies between and the madeira islands known originally to the romans as the purple islands were rediscovered accidentally by portuguese sailors and settled by portugal in one four one eight it is currently an autonomous region positioned in the atlantic ocean about three six zero miles five eight zero km directly west of morocco africa and five four zero miles eight seven zero km southwest of lisbon portugal madeira and porto santo are the only inhabited islands these islands are a popular year round resort famed worldwide for their madeira wine embroidery artisans new years eve celebrations with a spectacular fireworks show a perfect climate striking scenery and beautiful flowers funchal madeira s almost five century old capital is said to have been named funchal because of the abundance of fennel funcho that was growing there funchal is located in a unique area the amphitheatre of funchal city begins at the harbour and rises almost one two zero zero metres high on gentle slopes this provides a natural shelter and was what once attracted the first settlers the harbour and climate combined with an excellent geographical position allowed funchal to have a rapid population growth today funchal is a very modern city with over one zero four zero zero zero inhabitants this does however mean that traffic congestion in the centre can become sometimes quite stressful the city can easily be explored by foot and no matter where your hotel is located as long as it is in the funchal tourist area you will find no difficulty in walking into the city centre to delight at its sights and sounds probably the most central point is the s cathedral built between one four nine three and one five one four by gil eanes it represents one of madeira s numerous treasures geography and climate funchal the capital of madeira island is on the south coast of the principal island in among madeira s main cities are funchal porto santo also known as vila baleira ribeira brava machico c mara de lobos santa cruz and calheta the archipelago lies about three six zero miles from the coast of africa five three five miles from lisbon two four zero from tenerife and four eight zero from santa maria the nearest of the azores madeira island is the largest island of the group with seven four one km has a length of three zero geographical miles five seven km an extreme breadth of one three miles two two km and a coastline of eight zero or nine zero miles its longer axis lies east and west in which direction it is traversed by a mountain chain the backbone of the island having a mean altitude of four zero zero zero feet one two two zero metres up to which many deep ravines penetrate from both coasts on the south there is very little left of the indigenous laurisilva forest which once clothed the whole island until the original settlers decided to clear the land for farming by setting most of the island on fire and gave it the name it bears madeira means wood in portuguese but on the north some of the valleys still contain native trees of fine growth these laurisilva forests notably the forests on the northern slopes of madeira island are designated a world heritage site by unesco a map of madeira island and porto santo a long narrow and comparatively low rocky promontory forms the eastern extremity of the island and here there is to be seen a tract of calcareous sand known as the fossil bed containing land shells and numerous bodies resembling the roots of trees probably produced by infiltration its geographical position and mountainous landscape permit a very pleasing climate temperatures are about two two degrees celsius in the summer and circa one six degrees celsius during the winter with its mild humidity the weather of the island is classified as subtropical influenced by the gulf stream sea water temperature is two two degrees celsius during the summer and one six in the winter the islands are of volcanic origin municipalities just like the districts of the mainland portugal madeira is also further subdivided into one one municipalities calheta c mara de lobos funchal machico ponta do sol porto moniz porto santo ribeira brava santa cruz santana s o vicente culture and people the islands are noted as the source of madeira wine the islands are also known by the flowers and sub tropical fruits the traditional cake of madeira is called bolo de mel which translates as honey cake and according to custom is never cut with a knife but broken into pieces by hand it is a rich and heavy cake visitors to the island will see plentiful examples of handicraft on sale in shops there are circa two five zero zero zero zero inhabitants one nine nine one in the two main islands while only four eight zero zero live on porto santo island the population density is three three seven inhabitants per square kilometre in madeira and one one two in porto santo most of the early settlers were from the portuguese regions of the algarve and minho the islands have historical monuments streets and plazas pra as with many gardens and typical small towns biodiversity madeira has three endemic birds zino s petrel long toed pigeon and madeira firecrest it is also of importance for other breeding seabirds including madeiran storm petrel and little shearwater history it has been conjectured but on insufficient evidence that the phoenicians discovered madeira at a very early period pliny mentions certain purple or mauretanian islands the position of which with reference to the fortunate islands or canaries might seem to indicate madeira islands plutarch sertorius seven five ad referring to the military commander quintus sertorius d seven two bc relates that after his return to cadiz following a military reverse in mauretania he met seamen recently arrived from atlantic islands two in number divided from one another only by a narrow channel and distant from the coast of africa one zero zero zero zero furlongs they are called isles of the blest the estimated distance from africa and the closeness of the two islands seem to indicate madeira and porto santo there is a romantic story of doubtful truth to the effect that two lovers robert machim and anna d arfet fleeing from england to france in one three four six were driven off their course by a violent storm and cast on the coast of madeira at the place subsequently named machico in memory of one of them on the evidence of a portolan dated one three five one preserved at florence italy it would appear that madeira had been discovered long previous to that date by portuguese vessels under genoese captains the northern coast of madeira in santana in one four one nine two of the captains of prince henry the navigator jo o gon alves zarco and trist o vaz teixeira were driven by a storm to the island called by them porto santo or holy port in gratitude for their rescue from shipwreck the next year an expedition was sent to populate the island and madeira being described they made for it and took possession on behalf of the portuguese crown the islands started to be settled circa one four three two or one four three three in september two three one four three three the name ilha da madeira madeira island or island of the wood appears in a map by the first time in a document in one nine two one the austro hungarian emperor charles i was deported to madeira after an unsuccessful coup d tat he died there one year later in one nine seven six following the democratic revolution of one nine seven four portugal granted autonomy to madeira levadas the island of madeira is wet in the northwest but dry in the southeast in the one six th century the portuguese started building levadas aqueducts to carry water to the agricultural regions there are over one three five zero miles of levadas including two five miles of tunnels and they provide a remarkable network of walking paths two of the best most popular levadas to hike are the levada do caldeiro verde and the levada caldeir o do inferno which should not be attempted by hikers prone to vertigo or without torches and helmets the levada do cani al is a much easier walk running seven one miles from maro os to the cani al tunnel it is known as the mimosa levada because mimosa trees are found all along the route postage stamps in one eight six eight portugal issued postage stamps for madeira consisting of the current stamps of portugal overprinted madeira this continued until one nine two eight when a series for madeira was issued but this was the last to be produced until one nine eight zero stamps of portugal having been valid in madeira since one eight nine eight when portugal began issuing stamps inscribed portugal madeira that were valid in both madeira and continental portugal similar to those issued for the azores transportation the islands have two airports one in santa cruz known as funchal airport fnc on the island of madeira and the other in the city of vila baleira on porto santo island flights to the islands are mostly made from lisbon but there are also direct flights from other major european cities funchal airport was infamous for its short runway built on a high embankment falling away abruptly to the sea the largest airliners which used the airport were the airbus a three two zero and boeing seven three seven recently the runway has been realigned and extended to two seven km allowing almost any modern airliner to visit the island european union citizens of the schengen treaty area can enter the islands freely while those from other regions need identification transportation between the two main islands is done by plane or by ferries which allow for the transportation of vehicles visiting the interior of these islands is now very easy due to large developments on the islands during portugal s economic boom there are modern roads reaching all points of interest on the islands there s also a good transportation network famous people the following people were either born or have lived part of their lives in madeira cristiano ronaldo manchester united and portugal midfielder nadia almada transexual two zero zero four winner of big brother show uk edition karl of austria islands and main islets madeira island porto santo island deserta grande island selvagem grande island savage islands bugio island selvagem pequena island savage islands selvagens fora islet desertas ch o islet external links photos of madeira archipelago madeira s official tourism website information genealogy history of madeira portugal natural park of madeira open directory project madeira directory category photos from madeira madeira trip report photos information madeira islands nuts two statistical regions of europe special territories of the european union volcanoes of portugal volcanoes of the atlantic ocean m one six is the u s military designation for a family of rifles derived from the armalite ar one five it is an assault rifle which fires nato standard five five six mm ammunition it has been the primary infantry rifle of the united states military since one nine six seven is in use by one five nato countries and has been the most produced firearm in its caliber the m one six is a lightweight five five six mm caliber air cooled gas operated magazine fed rifle with a rotating bolt actuated by direct impingement gas operation it is constructed of steel aluminum and composite plastics there have been three main iterations of the m one six the first was m one six and m one six a one models fielded in the one nine six zero s that fired a u s m one nine three m one nine six round that could fire either semi or fully automatically the second was the m one six a two which entered service in the one nine eight zero s and is intended to fire the belgian m eight five five m eight five six rounds five five six mm nato the m one six a two can fire either semi automatic or bursts of up to three rounds mode of fire is determined by using a selector switch on the side of the weapon finally the m one six a four became standard issue for the united states marine corps during operation iraqi freedom increasingly replacing the earlier m one six a two in the u s army a combination of the m one six a four and m four carbine continue to replace existing m one six a two s the m one six a four features a handguard with four picatinny rails for mounting optical sights laser pointers night vision forward handgrips and flashlights despite some early problems the m one six has matured into a reasonably reliable weapon system it is primarily manufactured by colt and fabrique nationale with variants produced by numerous countries around the world the semi automatic version the ar one five is a popular recreational firearm in the united states being made by a handful of larger manufacturers and over a dozen smaller concerns the development was guided by the army during the one nine five zero s which culminated in a field trial in vietnam in the early one nine six zero s this lead to its official adoption in one nine six four by the usaf as the m one six various modified versions of the m one six design were subsequently fielded under experimental designations culminating in the m one six a one the m one six a one was simply the m one six with a forward assist as requested by the army this weapon remained the primary infantry rifle of the united states military from one nine six seven until the one nine eight zero s when it was supplemented by the m one six a two the m one six a two in turn is currently being supplemented by the m one six a four which incorporates the modular flattop receiver unit developed for the m four carbine previous versions of the weapon are still in stock and used primarily by reserve and national guard units in the united states as well as by the u s air force the m one six a three is a fully automatic variant of the m one six a two issued primarily within the u s navy history early springfield armory spiw prototype circa one nine six four final springfield armory spiw prototype circa one nine six six the m one six was adopted over spiw program entrants project salvo in one nine four eight the army organized the civilian operations research office oro mirroring similar operations research organizations in britain one of their first efforts project alclad studied body armor and quickly concluded that they would need to know considerably more about battlefield injuries in order to make reasonable suggestions over three million battlefield reports from wwii were analyzed and over the next few years they released a series of reports on their findings their basic conclusion was that the vast majority of combat takes place at short ranges in a highly mobile war combat teams ran into each other largely by surprise and the team with the higher firepower tended to win they also found that the chance of being hit in combat was essentially random that is accurate aiming made little difference because the targets no longer sat still the number one predictor of casualties was the total number of bullets fired these conclusions suggested that infantry should be equipped with a fully automatic rifle of some sort in order to increase the rate of fire however it was also clear that such weapons dramatically increased ammunition use in order for a rifleman to be able to carry enough ammunition for a firefight they would have to carry something much lighter for both of these reasons existing rifles were poorly suited to real world combat although it appeared the new t four four precursor to the m one four would increase the rate of fire its heavy ammunition made carrying enough of it a real problem moreover the length and weight of the gun meant it was not really suitable for short range combat where a smaller and lighter weapon could be brought to bear much more quickly these efforts had not gone unnoticed by ren studler u s army ordnance s chief of small arms research and development he was upset about the civilian agency that was treading on his turf and started an effort to support the full power round developed for the t two five which springfield armory developed prior to the t four four in the end he asked the aberdeen proving ground to submit a report on the smaller caliber weapons this plan backfired when his assigned research lead donald hall found that a two two in five five nine mm round would have equal performance to larger rounds in most combat situations with the higher rate of fire possible due to lower recoil it was likely such a weapon would inflict more casualties on the enemy his team members notably william c davis jr and g a gustafson started development of a series of experimental two two four in five six nine mm rounds in one nine five five their request for further funding was denied a new study project salvo was set up to try to find a weapon design suited to real world combat running between one nine five three and one nine five seven in two phases salvo eventually suggested that a weapon firing four rounds into a two zero in zero five m area would have double the hit probability of existing semi automatic weapons in the second phase salvo ii several experimental weapons concepts were tested irwin barr of aai introduced a series of flechette weapons starting with a shotgun shell containing three two darts and ending with single round flechette rifles winchester and springfield offer multi barrel weapons while oro s own design used two two two two five or two seven bullets loaded into a single three zero eight or three zero zero six cartridge eugene stoner an army soldier with m one six a two at schofield barracks hawaii the army did not place a large order for the a two model until one nine eight six meanwhile testing of the t four four continued and fabrique nationale also submitted their new fn fal via the american firm of harrington the t four four was selected as the new battle rifle for the u s army despite a strong showing by the t four eight acceptance of the m one four did not occur before a newcomer entered the contest in one nine five four eugene stoner of the newly formed armalite helped develop the ar one zero springfield s t four four and similar entries were conventional rifles using wood for the furniture and otherwise built entirely of steel using mostly forged and machined parts armalite was founded specifically to bring the latest in designs and alloys to firearms design and stoner felt he could easily beat the other offerings stoner s design was radical for its day the barrel was composite consisting of a stainless steel liner carrying the rifling inside an aluminum alloy tube for stiffness and heat dissipation the receiver was made of forged and milled aluminum instead of steel the barrel was mated to the receiver by a separate hardened steel adapter to which the bolt locked this allowed a lightweight aluminum receiver to be used while still maintaining a steel on steel lockup the bolt was operated by gases vented from the front of the barrel directly into a cylinder created in the bolt carrier with the bolt itself acting as a piston traditional rifles located this cylinder and piston close to the gas vent the stock and grips were made of a plastic reinforced fiberglass shell over a rigid foam plastic core even the flash suppressor was fabricated from titanium meanwhile the layout of the gun itself was also somewhat different typical designs placed the sights directly on the barrel using a bend in the stock to transfer the recoil to the shoulder to keep the sights at eye level however this meant that the gun tended to rise when fired making it very difficult to control especially under fully automatic fire the armalite team used a solution borrowed from the german fg four two and johnson light machinegun placing the barrel in line with the stock well below eye level and then raise the sights up the rear sight was built into a convenient carrying handle the carrying handle also enclosed the charging handle which was on top of the receiver the ar one zero was a very advanced design for its time at over two pounds nine zero zero g lighter than the competition it also offered significantly greater recoil control however it was entered late and somewhat rushed and the unconventional layout found few followers among the traditionalist big round players when a stainless steel lined aluminum barrel burst in one nine five seven the ar one zero was no longer considered viable it did however provide enough of a showing to warrant further development for the new small caliber high velocity concept then being developed conarc in one nine five seven a copy of gustafson s funding request from one nine five five found its way into the hands of general willard wyman commander of the u s continental army command conarc he immediately put together a team to develop a two two caliber five six mm weapon for testing their finalized request called for a select fire weapon of six pounds two seven kg when loaded with two zero rounds of ammunition the bullet had to penetrate a standard u s steel helmet body armor or a zero one three five inch three four mm steel plate at five zero zero yards four six zero m while equaling or exceeding the wounding ability of the three zero carbine having seen the ar one zero earlier wyman personally suggested that armalite enter a weapon for testing stoner was working on a newer version of the ar one zero the ar one six but others at the company took up the challenge their first design using conventional layout and wooden furniture proved to be too light when combined with a conventional stock recoil was again a problem even with the light rounds their second design was simply a scaled down ar one zero and immediately proved to be much more successful winchester entered a design based on their m one carbine and earle harvey of springfield attempted to enter a design but was overruled by his superiors at springfield who refused to divert resources from the t four four in the end armalite s ar one five really had no competition the lighter round allowed it to be scaled down even smaller than the ar one zero and even after replacing the barrel with a simpler all steel one it was still well over a pound four five zero g lighter than the winchester at two eight nine kilograms empty and about three five kg loaded its only major problem was that it wasn t fully developed before army testing began nine months later on march three one one nine five eight rainwater caused the barrels of both the armalite and winchester rifles to burst causing the army to once again press for a larger round this time at two five eight in six five five mm nevertheless they suggested continued testing for cold weather suitability in alaska stoner was later asked to fly in to replace several parts and when he arrived he found the rifles had been improperly reassembled when he returned he was surprised to learn that they too had rejected the design even before he had arrived their report also surprisingly suggested the two five eight in six five five mm round after reading these reports general maxwell taylor became dead set against the design and pressed for continued production of the m one four not all the reports were negative in a series of mock combat situations testing the ar one five m one four and ak four seven the army found that the ar one five s small size and light weight allowed it to be brought to bear much more quickly just as conarc had suggested their final conclusion was that an eight man team equipped with the ar one five would have the same firepower as a current one one man team armed with the m one four they also found that the ar one five was more reliable than the m one four suffering fewer stoppages and jams in tests where thousands of rounds were fired at this point fairchild had spent one four five million in development expenses and there was no end in sight fairchild sold production rights for the ar one five to colt firearms in december one nine five nine for only seven five zero zero zero cash and a four five royalty on subsequent sales in one nine six zero armalite was reorganized and stoner left the company m one six adoption marines practice with their m one six rifles in two zero zero three a demonstration of the ar one five was made to curtis lemay in june one nine six zero he immediately ordered eight five zero zero for defense at strategic air command airbases colt industries also approached the advanced research projects agency arpa who bought one zero zero zero rifles for use by south vietnamese troops in the early summer of one nine six two american special operations units working with the south vietnamese troops filed remarkable battlefield reports pressing for its immediate adoption u s secretary of defense robert mcnamara now had two conflicting views the arpa report favoring the ar one five and the pentagon s position on the m one four even president john f kennedy expressed concern so mcnamara ordered secretary of the army cyrus vance to test the m one four the ar one five and the ak four seven the army s test report stated only the m one four was suitable for army use but vance wondered about the impartiality of those conducting the tests he ordered the army inspector general to investigate the testing methods used who reported that the testers showed undue favor to the m one four mcnamara ordered a halt to m one four production in january one nine six four in november the army ordered eight five zero zero zero xm one six e one s for experimental use and the air force ordered another one nine zero zero zero meanwhile the army carried out another project the small arms weapons systems saws on general infantry firearm needs in the immediate future they highly recommended the immediate adoption of the weapon so much so that they started referring to it as the m one six later that year the air force officially accepted their first batch as the united states rifle caliber five five six mm m one six the air force m one six s were different from the army xm one six e one s which had a forward assist as described below the air force m one six s were slightly modified ar one five s when the m one four reached vietnam with u s troops in one nine six five certain flaws became apparent for certain types of use it was somewhat cumbersome to be highly effective in a close quarters urban or jungle environment although it was lighter than many dedicated cqb firearms the ammunition was lighter than three zero zero six which meant more quantities were carried on patrol though it was heavier than the three zero carbine the fully automatic fire is often criticized as useless and the rifles were eventually delivered locked in semi automatic in the end the army had spent a considerable amount of time and money switching from one semi automatic firearm to another improved one one that would have long but small service life it would soon be replaced even though this appeared to happen largely due to internal politics in defense of the m one four design it was lighter and more reliable than the m one garand from which it evolved while the m one six had the tcc and numerous changes to enhance its reliability the m one four received less attention the army chose to field the m one four s design after a lengthy development building on nearly two zero years experience on experiments with the garand while the m one four may have been a good replacement for the garand it was not very good at replacing the m one m two m three carbine meanwhile the troops desperately tried to increase their own firepower in the face of the vietcong s soviet designed ak four seven s they improvised with any weapon they could find such as the pre wwii thompson submachine gun the xm one six e one was being introduced in increasing numbers but quickly gained a bad reputation with the xm one six e one the pentagon ordered a change in the cartridge s propellant from the coarse grained improved military rifle imr to the finer grained ball powder this increased the cyclic rate of fire increasing wear on parts and causing increased fouling several problems were blamed on this simple change stoppages were generally due to a corroded chamber poor maintenance worn parts or a combination of these although dirtier the ball powder only added to the increased wear the solution was to redesign the buffer to slow down the cyclic rate of fire at which point parts breakage returned to normal as a testament ball powder is still used today in issue ammunition a forward assist plunger device was designed to close the bolt in case of a misfeed colt the air force the marine corps and eugene stoner all agreed this device needlessly complicated the rifle and added about four five zero to its procurement cost with no real benefit but after another three years the army ordered eight four zero zero zero zero of this version on february two eight one nine six seven the version became known as the m one six a one colt had oversold the m one six s reliability during testing to the point where they claimed it never had to be cleaned while this may have been true with the original imr powder the rifle was developed with it was not the case with the more finely grained faster burning ball powder that was considerably dirtier the direct impingement gas operating system used a tube along the top of the barrel that vented gas back into a piston formed behind the bolt and the recess in the bolt carrier when combustion gases reached this area they drove the bolt carrier to the rear and then vented the excess gas out the ejection port and out between the gas key at the top of the bolt carrier and the gas tube from the port in the barrel conventional designs keep the piston above or below the barrel and vent excess gas at that point the advantage of the stoner system was that the piston formed by the bolt and bolt carrier operated in a direct line and on the same axis as the bore of the rifle this resulted in no adverse movement of the bore axis due to the movement of the bolt carrier assembly the adverse result of this design is that when the propellant gas is traveling down the tube it cools and condenses becoming solid carbon this carbon builds up in the action of the gun quickly therefore the m one six requires frequent cleaning to remain reliable making matters worse troops were told the weapon required no cleaning because of its space age construction and had not been supplied with cleaning kits as a result the weapons frequently jammed in the field soldiers often derisively referred to them as toy guns and used the catch phrase you can tell it s mattel when one malfunctioned this later blossomed into an urban legend that the first m one six s were partially or completely manufactured by the toy giant the m one six debate once again took off both in the army and in washington dc stoner s latest design a family of weapons known as the stoner six three were sent to vietnam for testing while the spiw flechette test weapon program was reactivated luckily cooler heads prevailed cleaning kits were quickly produced and a comic book was circulated among the troops to demonstrate proper maintenance the reliability problems diminished quickly although the reputation did not this did not appear to be true for the north vietnamese troops however who started to use the rifle whenever one could be found perhaps the most important change to the m one six a one was the introduction of chrome plating in the chamber and some time later the barrel as well this improvement had been suggested in the original salvo tests but was dismissed as not cost effective or practical at the time no reliable way had been devised to chrome plate a two two four inch diameter barrel the true value of chrome plating is preventing corrosion in the chamber being a nearly straight walled chamber the slightest quantity of rust corroded brass sand fouling rust pitting or even machining marks increase friction exponentially soldiers in the field found that the first round nearly always fired but would stick in the chamber this was due to a combination of the rough chamber lack of primary extraction inherint to the johnson stoner bolt and the relatively slight taper of the five five six cartridge chrome lining not only prevents rust but it also decreases friction fouling that does get into the chamber is pressed into the side of the fired case and ejected along with it after its rocky start the m one six has proven itself to be one of the more reliable combat rifles by the end of one nine six seven the troops when asked would only trade in their m one six s for the xm one seven seven a carbine version of the same weapon the lightweight round was likewise a matter of much debate in the rifle community the big round concept refused to die for many years and calls for an increase in caliber continued into the one nine eight zero s much of the debate centered on the soviet union s use of a larger stg four four style cartridge the seven six two x three nine mm cut down from their wartime seven six two x five four mmr full power design those in the smaller caliber camp believed the debate to be laid to rest when in the one nine seven zero s the soviet union adopted a similiar albeit smaller round in the five four five x three nine mm the new soviet round had a more advanced design which accentuated yaw in soft tissue other reasons for adoption were lighter weight lower recoil impulse greater accuracy in automatic fire greater range flatter trajectory and finally the percieved desire to keep pace with american developments in small arms design many of these advantages were also used to justify the m one six nato standardization in march one nine seven zero the pentagon shocked other nato nations by stating all u s forces assigned to nato would be equipped with the m one six a one the british military was highly vocal in voicing its anger after being thrashed by american ordnance personnel into adopting the seven six two mm nato round because their two eight zero caliber seven one mm round wasn t effective enough nearly two zero years earlier now they were being told the u s recognized the need for such a caliber of firearm after all and was willing to start the nato standardization of a lighter round but by the middle of the one nine seven zero s other armies were also looking at an m one six style weapon a nato standardization effort soon started and tests of various rounds were carried out starting in one nine seven seven the u s offered their original design the m one nine three with no modifications but there were serious concerns about its penetration in the face of the wider introduction of body armor the british introduced a modified five five six mm round using a longer and thinner bullet of four eight five mm mounted in the existing u s cartridges the round had somewhat better ballistics and considerably better penetration able to reach six zero zero m and meet their requirements for a squad automatic weapon small machine gun the germans introduced a new four seven mm caseless round which was considerably lighter while offering similar ballistics to the original u s design however there was considerable distrust of the system due to the possibility of cook off a final design was offered by the belgians the ss one zero nine a new round also based on the u s cartridge and a new bullet with the same five five six mm caliber but with a small tip of steel to improve penetration testing soon showed that the british and belgian designs were roughly equal both outperforming the original u s design in order to get full performance from the ss one zero nine however the barrels would have to use a one in seven twist in the rifling and in the existing one in one two it offered almost no advantage over the m one nine three in the end it appears that the belgian round was an easier sell to the u s army even though either round would require all new rifles the resulting m one six a two introduced in one nine eight two has been the standard u s military rifle since then total worldwide production is about eight million future replacement a working xm two five prototype is tested in two zero zero five overview in the one nine eight zero s many soldiers who had been equipped with m one six a one s were given a m two four nine in addition to the m six zero s it replaced in the one nine nine zero s the adoption of the m four carbine meant many more m one six a two s would be replaced by it the air force currently plans to replace all its m one six s with m four s according to a two zero zero four presentation the m one six a two still remains the main u s service rifle in the army though in the two zero zero zero s the marine corps moved to m one six a four rifles also the m one six never entirely replaced the m one four in all roles which continues to be used in a number of niche applications throughout the armed forces replacement of the m one six family has been proposed at various points and its longevity is in part due to a series of delays and failures in projects meant to replace it it was going to be replaced by the winner of the advanced combat rifle program but none scored high enough to be worth the cost of changing over it was also potentially going to be replaced by the sabr from the oicw project the weapon system originally planned by the oicw project was put on hold around the turn of century in favor of a simpler new five five six mm rifle project that offered less far reaching improvements the resulting xm eight rifle was also intended as a potential replacement for the m one six family however this program too ran into problems around two zero zero four five and was put on hold in favor of a competition for what became known as the oicw increment one the oicw one competition was put on hold in the summer of two zero zero five to take into account input from other services and several months later was cancelled outright history colt acr m one six a two e two above imi uzi with foldable metal stock below imi uzi with fixed wooden stock and two revolvers throughout the one nine seven zero s the army experimented with various materials to replace the brass casings brass has a number of features that make it almost ideal for a cartridge including low friction against steel which made it easier to extract and its ability to carry away a considerable amount of heat from the weapon and thereby keep it cooler however brass is also heavy and expensive replacing it would lower both the cost and weight of the ammunition aluminum and steel were popular materials for complete rounds and aai successfully developed a plastic blank however none of these materials ever entered production for one reason or another completely caseless ammunition was also studied on several occasions notably the german four seven mm designs but issues with reliability and cook off were never completely solved later in the one nine eight zero s the advanced combat rifle program was run to find a replacement for the m one six the army was pressing for a one zero zero increase in the ability for infantry to hit their targets in the same way that salvo had aimed to increase effectiveness by one zero zero through increased rate of fire colt entered a modified m one six a two known as the colt acr which used duplex rounds used a system that lowered recoil by four zero to allow better repeating shots and added a three five x scope this weapon designated m one six a two e two also featured a guide of sorts as part of a special handguard developed by the u s army human engineering laboratory hel designed to assist in snap shooting and a carbine style stock very similar to the recent stock developed by the naval surface warfare center crane division the steyr acr used new flechette ammunition that was nominally called five five six mm with a very high four seven five zero ft s one four five zero m s muzzle velocity other variants experimented with caseless ammunition technologies as well although they all offered some improvement none came close to the benchmark set for the testing more recently the army started the xm eight system project for a radically improved weapon however the program was shelved in favor of an open competition for what became known as oicw increment one increment two is the stand alone airbursting grenade launcher known as the xm two five and increment three will be the xm two nine a weapon which combines the earlier two increments the oicw one competition was cancelled on october three one two zero zero five design top drawing is of an a two style rifle bottom drawing is of an a two style rifle with a one rear sights as with the diemaco c seven the m one six s receivers are made of aluminum alloy its barrel bolt and bolt carrier of steel and its forestock pistol grip and buttstock of plastics early models were especially lightweight at two nine kg six four lb this was significantly less than older seven six two mm battle rifles of the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s it also compares very favorably with the five kg loaded ak four seven new models weigh more eight five lb or three nine kg because of the heavy barrel profile in front of the front site this was to prevent bending the profile under the handguards remained the same for compatibility with clamp on grenade launchers the rifle is four zero inches one zero two m long with standard two zero inch five zero eight mm barrel stoner experimented with titanium barrels in the prototype ar one zero for weight savings but one barrel burst in the test stoner contended that the test had been rigged one distinctive ergonomic feature is a plastic or metal stock directly behind the action which contains a recoil spring this serves the dual function of operating spring and recoil buffer the stock being in line with the bore reduces muzzle rise especially during automatic fire because recoil does not significantly shift the point of aim user fatigue is reduced another distinctive ergonomic feature is that the main sight is on the top of a carry handle on top of the receiver newer models have a flattop upper receiver with a picatinny mounting rail to which the user can attach either a conventional carry handle sighting system or numerous optical devices such as night vision scopes the m one six utilizes direct impingement gas operation energy from high pressure gas tapped from a port halfway down the barrel actuates the moving parts in the weapon combustion gases travel directly into a chamber in the bolt carrier behind the bolt itself pushing the carrier away from the bolt this reduces the number of moving parts by eliminating the need for a separate piston and cylinder the primary fault of direct impingement is that fouling and debris from expended gunpowder is blown directly into the breach as the superheated combustion gas travels down the tube it expands and cools not unlike an aerosol can cools when depressurized this cooling causes vaporized matter to condense as it cools depositing a much greater volume of solids and doing so right on the operating parts in the action conversely gas piston operation uses high pressure gasses for very short periods of time and keeps those gasses away from the breech because of this the m one six requires more frequent cleaning and lubrication for reliable operation compared to gas piston operation the magazine release is on the right side of the rifle ahead of the trigger guard current military magazines have a capacity of three zero rounds as opposed to the two zero round magazines issued in vietnam three zero round magazines were not developed and issued until late in the war aftermarket double magazine clips are available this practice is discouraged by military authorities because it is said to increase the chance that the top of a magazine will be damaged or pick up dirt nevertheless recent pictures from iraq two zero zero four show that special forces and mainstream military forces are quick to make use of double magazine clips the m one nine three bullet routinely fragments when it strikes soft tissue when fired from less than one zero zero meters the bullet will penetrate one zero zero mm four in into body tissue before yawing nine zero to one eight zero degrees fragmentation occurs latteral forces on the bullet cause it to break in half this occurs at the weak cannelure which is a groove allowing the bullet casing to be sealed to the copper jacket the rear section of the five five six mm bullet will then fragment into numerous tiny pieces causing increased damage to surrounding tissue the u s does not generally issue fully automatic m one six style rifles most m four variants trade three round burst for automatic fire that is more effective in close quarters weapon doctrinally automatic fire is reserved for heavier machine guns that are designed to manage the recoil and deliver accurate fire even on fully automatic fully automatic fire would also expend ammunition faster requiring soldiers to carry more to compensate also the m one six barrel is too light to support sustained automatic fire and would overheat most m one six and m four style weapons issued are capable of semi automatic fire the burst fire mechanism utilizes a three part automatic sear that fires up to a three round burst for each pull of the trigger it is non resetting meaning that if a soldier fires a two round burst and releases the trigger he will encounter a single round fired the next burst burst mechanisms provide a tradeoff between firepower accuracy and ammunition conservation they do however limit the effectiveness of the m one six when used in suppression ambush situations and close quarters combat colt developed a variant with a heavier barrel belt feed and fast barrel replacement this was intended to provide a squad with the firepower of a machinegun with the portability of the m one six this was canceled in favor of the m two four nine squad automatic weapon in the one nine seven zero s squads are now issued the m two four nine one per fire team to provide automatic fire fully automatic versions the m one six a three and m four a one are issued by the u s military to certain specialized units operation gas masked navy member in an exercise with an m one six miles and a blank firing attachment are attached safety precaution no magazine fitted safety precautions should be performed when taking possession of the weapon from another user or any time the state of the weapon is unknown or in doubt always assume for safety purposes that such a weapon has a round in the chamber ready to fire point the weapon in a safe direction pull the cocking handle to the rear a round may 